Guide to 

Expanding Mitigation

MAKING THE CONNECTION TO CEMETERIES
Cemeteries are important cultural resources. They are tangible 

connections to collective histories and physical memories of longlost loved ones. Emotional ties make it even more difficult when 

cemeteries are damaged in disasters. When cemeteries are not 

regularly maintained, the impacts from hazards like floods, tornadoes 

and wildfires can compound years of deterioration. 

Cemetery experts include historians, archaeologists, stone 

conservators, planners, preservationists and more. Their wealth 

of knowledge can assist emergency managers with approaching 

mitigation in a way that is rooted in community history. 

This Guide to Expanding Mitigation provides recommendations 

for working with the public and private actors in the cemeteries 

sector to support hazard mitigation, especially 

in the planning process and project 

development. This guide is designed to 

help community officials initiate a 

conversation about mitigation investments 

that can help make cemeteries more resilient.

This Guide to Expanding 

Mitigation is part of 

a series highlighting 

innovative and emerging 

partnerships for mitigation.
HOW NATURAL DISASTERS AFFECT CEMETERIES

Loss of life and property from disasters are certainly tragedies. While the 

inhabitants of cemeteries are not affected by those personal losses, the 

loss of heritage and history when cemeteries are affected by disasters are 

cultural tragedies. Cemeteries are important physical records of statistical 

and sociological community histories. Losing a cemetery can be like losing a 

community identity, even more so for communities that have declined or no 

longer have a physical presence beyond what remains of their cemeteries. 

Cemeteries are just as vulnerable to disasters as other community infrastructure.

The effects of disasters include redeposition of soil and flood borne debris; 

gravestone displacement or damage; and disinterment of caskets, sometimes 

far from their original location. The force of water can displace 1,500 pounds 

of soil for each foot of floodwater. This can dislocate caskets and open vaults. 

Tornadoes can topple trees and carry debris as large as vehicles and structures, 

which may topple stones and damage or destroy mausoleums. Erosion from 

storm surge and rising seas can cause entire coastal cemeteries to crumble. 

From earthquakes to mudslides to wildfires, any hazard your community faces 

has the potential to devastate your cemeteries.

In most of the United States, cemetery owners are not required to produce 

disaster preparedness or hazard mitigation plans. This lack of preparation leaves 

them vulnerable when disasters strike. When communities think through their 

mitigation initiatives, cemeteries are often overlooked. How can communities 

justify investing in cemetery projects when they could use those funds for more 

widely beneficial improvements to critical facilities or infrastructure?

CEMETERIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE 

Cemeteries are not immune to the way climate change is magnifying 

disasters. Wildfires are disintegrating gravestones in California, and 

melting permafrost is turning cemeteries to swamps in Alaska. Stronger 

storms and rising seas are making flooding and erosion more persistent 

problems for coastal cemeteries. In Hoopersville, Maryland, the Anchor 

of Hope Cemetery is eroding into the Chesapeake Bay. The Great Flood 

of 2016 damaged 35 graveyards in Louisiana, dislodging caskets from 

water-clogged vaults. Hurricane Sandy damaged graves on Boston 

Harbor’s Gallops Island, exposing the burial sites of 19th century 

smallpox patients. Without mitigation, these climate impacts threaten 

the long-term viability of cemeteries.
ACTIVE VS. HISTORIC CEMETERIES

It should be noted that historic and active cemeteries each have unique 

approaches when it comes to mitigation. Active cemeteries are regulated from 

a public health perspective and have stronger ties to funeral home directors, 

coroners, medical examiners and cemetery boards. Their funding streams are 

steadier, and their staff capacity is more consistent so they may be able to take 

on more ambitious mitigation efforts. Their active status means they have more 

frequent interface with the public. This can be good because public interest 

can encourage more innovative practices, but it can also be an obstacle if the 

cemetery’s actions are deemed controversial. Ultimately, active cemeteries are 

businesses and have to meet certain standards to remain in operation, so they 

are more likely to implement mitigation actions if necessary.

Historic cemeteries are much older than active cemeteries and are sometimes 

abandoned or under-maintained. They can also be active but often to a 

lesser degree, and sometimes have unmarked graves or are not featured on 

community maps. Historic cemeteries hold special cultural value and may be 

the final resting place of the community’s notable historic figures. They also 

act as community green space. Oversight of historic cemeteries varies. If they 

are smaller or more obscure, their operations may be managed by historical 

societies or volunteer groups, sometimes on an ad hoc basis. More so than 

contemporary active cemeteries, historic cemeteries have to balance their 

mitigation actions with preservation. Their mitigation efforts should be tailored 

to protect delicate structures and multifaceted histories. Big moves like altering 

the landscape or building protective structures may face greater opposition because 

of the perception that they will disrupt the historic character of the cemetery. 

Because of their complex challenges and need for greater assistance in mitigation, 

the recommendations in this guide apply primarily to historic cemeteries rather than 

active cemeteries.

How can cemeteries in your community get started with mitigation? 

Begin by evaluating their risk:

• Are they in a flood zone?

• Are they on steep slopes or in areas prone to erosion?

• How does their drainage function after a major rainstorm?

• Is the vegetation maintained and are the trees free from loose branches?

• Are the access roads in good condition? Would they be passable in a disaster?

• Have they assessed the gravestones and mausoleums for possible problems?

• Do they have trained staff to aid in recovery or do they rely solely on volunteers?

• Do they have funds set aside for hazard mitigation and disaster recovery? 

• Have there been any impacts from previous hazard events?

• Are maintenance activities contributing to damage (e.g., faulty sprinkler systems 

causing flooding)?
CEMETERY RELOCATION AND “CULTURAL RETREAT”

What happens when cemeteries are at risk to hazards and need to be 

modified or moved to be protected? The idea of relocating cemeteries is 

not new, and although it can be upsetting to think of exhuming graves, it is 

something communities must consider if their cemeteries are threatened. 

The Tennessee Valley Authority relocated about 20,000 graves in the 

1930s to protect them against flooding. Fort McHenry in Baltimore, 

Maryland relocated the cemetery on its grounds due to erosion and now 

has a memorial at Loudon Park National Cemetery in its place. The reality 

is that some cultural resources are in vulnerable areas that are unsafe 

to continue inhabiting, even for the dead. Communities need to balance 

preserving cultural resources with understanding when these important 

places cannot be saved.

CHALLENGES FOR CEMETERIES

Talking about cemeteries can be challenging. Death is a sensitive — often 

taboo — topic that can bring up uncomfortable feelings. For centuries 

cemeteries have served as places to mourn and to honor the dead; they are 

thought of as a “final resting place.” Although cemeteries are a difficult topic, 

it is important for emergency managers and others working in the mitigation 

space to consider how they can help cemeteries build resilience. Cemeteries 

are touchstones to the past and valuable intellectual real estate; they should 

be protected. Cemetery stakeholders could use the most support with 

documentation, funding and regulation challenges.

DOCUMENTATION – Documenting the conditions of cemeteries is an important step in 

mitigation. Keeping records of grave locations can help inventory potential hazards as 

well as navigate the chaos post-disaster. Documentation is conducted on a regular 

basis in active cemeteries but can be a challenge for historic cemeteries, especially 

those with unmarked graves or inconsistent maintenance. Sometimes cemetery 

caretakers do not have the resources or technology to create accurate maps. Smaller 

historic cemeteries often rely on the work of volunteers to document their grave sites. 

While they are well-meaning and eager, their work may not be of high enough quality 

to inform mitigation investments or support grant applications. It is also important to 

document the features of the cemetery landscape: plantings, water features, access 

roads, fencing, and associated structures, such as a gate house. These features 

should also be preserved and protected.

FUNDING – Because many historic cemeteries are supported solely by small 

organizations like friends groups, historical societies or volunteers, they have 

trouble accessing funding for maintenance or mitigation projects. In their day-to-day 

operations cemeteries need to consider landscaping, gravestone maintenance, pest 

management, fencing/security, and more. In addition, cemeteries should be well-kept 

to avoid vandalism or trespassing. If cemeteries are considering larger projects, they 

often turn to donors or government entities. For grant applications they usually need 

a government or non-profit partner to apply with them.

REGULATION – How cemeteries are regulated and what kind of legislation governs 

them varies from state to state. The scope of the regulation also depends on 

whether they are publicly or privately owned and if they are affiliated with a religious 

organization. If cemeteries are listed in the National Register of Historic Places or 

on a state or local register, communities might have to coordinate with their State 

Historic Preservation Office or local government to comply with historic preservation 

regulations. Some state cemetery boards oversee cemeteries and mortuaries but 

have not updated their regulations in several decades or their regulations do not 

function well in a disaster environment. Many states regulate steady-state operations 

but do not require cemeteries to prepare for disasters. Without official guidelines for 

disaster planning, cemeteries are often left without clear direction for mitigation.
Cemeteries at risk to hazards 

may be located near critical 

infrastructure or other structures 

at risk to the same hazard. When 

mitigating the risk to the built 

environment, some cemetery land 

could be used to protect nearby 

infrastructure. Communities 

may be able to mitigate for the 

structures and the cemetery 

as a collaborative project. For 

example, if a coastal cemetery is 

eroding into the sea and there are 

residential properties on the other 

side, the cemetery itself could be 

used in mitigating coastal erosion 

risk. Talk to your local emergency 

manager or local officials about 

additional mitigation actions 

for cemeteries.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR COLLABORATION

Cross-agency communication is important for connecting cemeteries with the 

information and resources they need for mitigation. Cemeteries that rely solely 

on volunteer groups would especially benefit from the expertise of emergency 

managers and hazard mitigation experts. For example, city or county planning 

departments have digital datasets that can be used for mapping hazard 

vulnerability. Sharing that spatial data with cemetery stakeholders can aid in 

their documentation efforts.

When embarking on the mitigation 

planning process, consider 

including the following individuals 

and/or organizations:

• Cemetery volunteers/

friends groups

• Historical/genealogical societies

• State cemetery board

• Historic preservation offices

• Archaeologists

• Stone conservators

• Certified arborists

• Cemetery management companies

• Funeral home directors 

and associations

• Coroners or medical examiners

Outreach is key to building interest and awareness for mitigation in cemeteries. 

Community officials and emergency managers can partner with cemetery organizations 

to educate their volunteer groups about proper mitigation and preservation techniques. 

Anne Arundel County, Maryland has a citizen stewardship program to help identify 

unmarked cemeteries. People can use an online form to track basic location data 

and historic significance and complete a condition assessment to document issues 

like flooding. This information is being used to build a county database of cemeteries, 

documentation that will be helpful for mitigation planning

Just as emergency managers can support cemeteries in their mitigation efforts, 

cemetery experts have skills and knowledge that can strengthen emergency 

management. Volunteer groups who are collecting data could also be tracking risk 

to hazards like erosion. Their historical knowledge makes cemetery experts great 

resources for how the community has fared past disasters and which groups may be 

most vulnerable. Engaging them in the mitigation process will make for a more wellrounded approach to building community resilience that both plans for the future and 

honors the past.

CEMETERIES ARE THE PLACE TO BE

In addition to their cultural value, cemeteries also have potential as economic 

drivers. Their open space, historic charm and interesting landscape can serve as 

event venues and educational experiences. For example, Laurel Hill Cemetery in 

Philadelphia hosts movie nights, walking tours, gardening classes, and an annual 

Gravediggers’ Ball. All its events offset the cost of restoration and preservation 

while promoting the historical significance of Laurel Hill Cemetery.
RESOURCES

Guides to Expanding Mitigation 

https://www.fema.gov/guides-expanding-mitigation

Link to all available Guides to Expanding Mitigation.

FEMA Hazard Mitigation Planning 

https://fema.gov/hazard-mitigation-planning

Review standards and guidance for the planning process.

Chicora Foundation

https://www.chicora.org/cemetery-preservation.html

Access additional guidance for cemetery preservation.

National Center for Preservation Technology and Training

https://www.ncptt.nps.gov/blog/disaster-preparedness-and-response-forhistoric-cemeteries/

Learn about disaster preparedness and response for historic cemeteries.

Association for Gravestone Studies

https://www.gravestonestudies.org/

Access publications, conferences, workshops and more.

Anne Arundel County, Maryland Citizen Stewardship Program

https://www.aacounty.org/departments/planning-and-zoning/culturalresources/Citizen-Stewardship-Program

Learn how volunteers are trained to assist with documenting the county’s 

historic cemeteries.

Find a Grave

https://www.findagrave.com/

Access and contribute to the world’s largest gravesite collection.

REFERENCES CONSULTED 

Aton, A. 2019. “Even the Dead Cannot Escape Climate Change.” Scientific American. 

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/even-the-dead-cannot-escape-climate-change/

Chicora Foundation. 2013. Cemetery Disaster Planning. https://www.chicora.org/

pdfs/Cemetery%20Disaster%20Planning.pdf

Foster, G.S. and Lovekamp, W.E. 2015. “Disasters and Cemeteries: A Clarion 

Call for Matters of Grave Urgency.” AGS Quarterly: Bulletin of the Association for 

Gravestone Studies 39(3): 14-19.

Lovekamp, W., Foster, G., and Di Naso, S. 2016. “Preserving the Dead.” Natural

Hazards Observer 40(6). https://hazards.colorado.edu/article/preserving-the-deadcemetery-preservation-and-disaster-planning#fn:1

Peinhardt, K. 2019. “Multi-Use Cemeteries: A Place for the Living in the Land of 

the Dead.” Project for Public Spaces. https://www.pps.org/article/multi-usecemeteries-a-place-for-the-living-in-the-land-of-the-dead

Shelton, T.V. 2008. “Unmaking Historic Spaces: Urban Progress and the San 

Francisco Cemetery Debate, 1895-1937.” California History 85(3): 26-47, 69-70.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Project Team: Yana Tukvachinski, FEMA Region 2; Jack Heide, FEMA Region 2; 

Jennifer Gutierrez, Resilience Action Partners; Melissa Herlitz, Resilience 

Action Partners

We thank the following individuals who contributed their time toward advancing 

our understanding of mitigation and cemeteries: Nancy Bramucci Sheads, 

Maryland State Archives (retired); Dr. Andrew Falzon, Bryan Hoffman and 

Shanna Latham, New Jersey Office of the Chief State Medical Examiner; 

Nancy Kurtz, Maryland Historic Trust (retired); Anastasia Poulos, Anne Arundel 

County Cultural Resources Division; Jen Sparenberg, Maryland Environmental 

Service; Dr. Michael Trinkley, Chicora Foundation

ENGAGE WITH US

Are you a state, local, tribal or territorial official interested 

in making the connection between cemeteries and hazard 

mitigation? Are you a cemeteries professional interested in 

connecting with local officials to reduce risk from hazards? 

Please contact us at FEMA-ExpandingMitigation@fema.dhs.gov.