Black and Brown Bear Activity at Selected Coastal 

Sites in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska: 

A Preliminary Assessment Using Noninvasive Procedures

Open File Report 2009–1169

Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Black and Brown Bear Activity at Selected Coastal 

Sites in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, 

Alaska: A Preliminary Assessment Using 

Noninvasive Procedures

By Steve Partridge and Tom Smith, U.S. Geological Survey, and Tania Lewis, National Park Service

Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service

Open-File Report 2009-1169

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2009 

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Suggested citation:

Partridge, Steve, Smith, Tom, and Lewis, Tania, 2009, Black and brown bear activity at selected coastal 

sites in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska: A preliminary assessment using noninvasive 

procedures: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2009-1169, 62 p.

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual 

copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report.
iii

Contents

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 2

Research Objectives.................................................................................................................................. 3

Methods......................................................................................................................................................... 4

Study Site Selection................................................................................................................................... 4

Site Visits ................................................................................................................................................... 5

Study Site Vegetation Mapping.................................................................................................................. 5

Bear Sign Assessment............................................................................................................................... 5

Hair Collection and DNA Analysis.............................................................................................................. 6

Remote Cameras and Analysis of Bear Activity Data ................................................................................ 7

Bear Forage Diversity Index....................................................................................................................... 7

Ranking Study Sites by Degree of Use by Bears....................................................................................... 8

Results........................................................................................................................................................... 8

Habitat Mapping and Vegetation Analysis.................................................................................................. 8

Bear Sign Assessment............................................................................................................................... 9

Number and Species of Bears Using the Sites ........................................................................................ 10

Bear Activity Based on Remote Camera Data ......................................................................................... 11

Bear Forage Diversity Index..................................................................................................................... 11

Site Ranking by Bear Activity ................................................................................................................... 11

Bear Movements...................................................................................................................................... 11

Discussion ................................................................................................................................................... 12

Remote Camera Data .............................................................................................................................. 12

Vegetation, Habitat, and Diet Analysis..................................................................................................... 13

Habitat ..................................................................................................................................................... 15

Bear Sign Assessment............................................................................................................................. 16

Hair Collection and DNA Analysis............................................................................................................ 16

Bear Movements...................................................................................................................................... 17

Site Ranking by Bear Activity ................................................................................................................... 17

Closure Areas Evaluations....................................................................................................................... 18

Bear Activity Assessment Techniques Summary..................................................................................... 19

Remote Camera Monitoring ................................................................................................................. 19

Bear Sign Indexes ................................................................................................................................ 20

Site Vegetation Sampling ..................................................................................................................... 20

DNA Analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 21

Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................. 21

Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................................... 22

References Cited......................................................................................................................................... 22

Appendix 1. GLBA Bear Habitat Classification ........................................................................................... 40

Appendix 2. Data Sheets ............................................................................................................................ 59

Appendix 3. Phenological Classifications and Definitions........................................................................... 62
iv

Figures

Figure 1. Location and names of selected study sites within Glacier Bay National Park and 

Preserve, Alaska ......................................................................................................................................... 25

Figure 2. Number of bear-human incidents by year in GLBA, Alaska ........................................................ 26

Figure 3. Daubenmire plot (2 X 5 dm)........................................................................................................ 27

Figure 4. Bear sign mapped in study sites ................................................................................................. 28

Figure 5. Scented hair trap station, Sandy Cove, GLBA............................................................................ 29

Figure 6. Barbed rub tree, Queen Inlet, GLBA........................................................................................... 30

Figure 7. Remote camera unit, Reid Inlet, GLBA....................................................................................... 31

Figure 8. Example of bear sign maps. ....................................................................................................... 32

Figure 9. Seasonal collection patterns for hair and scat samples. ............................................................. 33

Figure 10. Bear activity rates from remote cameras for eight coastal study sites, GLBA............................ 34

Figure 11. Bear activity rate by time of year............................................................................................... 35

Figure 12. Study site rankings ................................................................................................................... 36

Figure 13. Graphic depicting a male grizzly bear’s movements between the Queen Inlet and 

Russell Passage study sites ........................................................................................................................ 37

Figure 14. Graphic depicting a male grizzly bear’s movements between the 

Tarr Inlet and Reid Inlet study sites ............................................................................................................. 38

Figure 15. Bear activity rate by time of day................................................................................................ 39

Tables

Table 1. Seasonal categories for camera, scat, and hair data.................................................................... 40

Table 2. Percent cover of habitat types and potential plant bear forage species by study site................... 41

Table 3. Percent cover of forage species by habitat type........................................................................... 45

Table 4. Results of bear sign mapping....................................................................................................... 49

Table 5. Collection and DNA analysis data for hair samples encountered in 2005 .................................... 50

Table 6. DNA analysis success for hair samples by collection source ....................................................... 51

Table 7. Numbers, species, and sex of individuals identified with genetic testing by study site ................. 52

Table 8. Number of times individual bears were identified by study site .................................................... 53

Table 9. Remote camera data by study site ............................................................................................... 54

Table 10. Bear activity data from remote camera units .............................................................................. 55

Table 11. Combined bear minutes data from remote camera units by study site....................................... 56

Table 12. Study site ranking data............................................................................................................... 57
v 

Conversion Factors, Abbreviations, and Acronyms

SI to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

decimeter (dm) 3.937 inch (in)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

square kilometer (km2) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

liter (L) 0.2642 gallon (gal)

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Abbreviations, Meaning

Acronyms, and

Symbols

BFDI Bear forage diversity index

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

GLBA Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve

GIS Geographic Information System

GPS Global Positioning System

mtDNA Mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid

nDNA Nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid

NPS National Park Service

USGS U. S. Geological Survey
vi

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1 

Black and Brown Bear Activity at Selected Coastal 

Sites in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, 

Alaska: A Preliminary Assessment Using Noninvasive

Procedures 

By Steve Partridge1, Tom Smith2, and Tania Lewis3

Abstract

A number of efforts in recent years have sought to predict bear activity in various habitats 

to minimize human disturbance and bear/human conflicts. Alaskan coastal areas provide 

important foraging areas for bears (Ursus americanus and U. arctos), particularly following den 

emergence when there may be no snow-free foraging alternatives. Additionally, coastal areas 

provide important food items for bears throughout the year. Glacier Bay National Park and 

Preserve (GLBA) in southeastern Alaska has extensive coastal habitats, and the National Park 

Service (NPS) has been long interested in learning more about the use of these coastal habitats 

by bears because these same habitats receive extensive human use by park visitors, especially 

kayaking recreationists. This study provides insight regarding the nature and intensity of bear 

activity at selected coastal sites within GLBA. We achieved a clearer understanding of 

bear/habitat relationships within GLBA by analyzing bear activity data collected with remote 

cameras, bear sign mapping, scat collections, and genetic analysis of bear hair.

Although we could not quantify actual levels of bear activity at study sites, agreement 

among measures of activity (for example, sign counts, DNA analysis, and video record) lends 

support to our qualitative site assessments. This work suggests that habitat evaluation, bear sign 

mapping, and periodic scat counts can provide a useful index of bear activity for sites of interest. 

________________

1

U.S. Geological Survey Alaska Science Center Anchorage, AK 99508 Present Address: 704 Piltz Court, Hood River, OR 97031

2

U.S. Geological Survey Alaska Science Center, Anchorage, AK 99508 Present Address: Brigham Young University, Department of Plant 

and Wildlife Sciences, 451 WIDB-BYU Provo, Utah 84602

3

National Park Service, Glacier Bay National Park & Preserve, Gustavus, AK 99826
2 

Introduction

Alaskan coastal areas provide important foraging areas for bears (Ursus americanus and

U. arctos), particularly following den emergence when there may be no snow-free foraging 

alternatives (Vequist, 1989; Smith and Partridge, 2004). Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve 

(GLBA) in southeastern Alaska (fig. 2) has extensive coastal habitats, and the National Park 

Service (NPS) was interested in learning more about the use of these coastal habitats by bears 

because these same habitats also receive extensive human use by park visitors, especially 

kayakers. Due to the steep ruggedness of surrounding topography, as well as easy water access, 

kayakers favor beaches for kayak haul-out and camping. Consequently, people and bears 

frequently encounter one another. Potentially dangerous bear encounters (involving contact or 

property destruction) seasonally occur (T. Smith, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah. 

unpub. data, 2002YEAR; Lewis and others, 2006; fig. 1). To address its dual mandate of 

protecting the natural environment as well as providing visitor access, park managers need 

information regarding bear habitat use to help advance visitor safety as well as reduce 

disturbance to bears. Here, we present findings of a study conducted from 2004 to 2005 to 

investigate bear activity levels within selected sites along coastal regions within GLBA. 

The nutritional status of bears, particularly females, is related to parameters affecting 

individual and population productivity (Samson and Huot, 1995; Hilderbrand and others, 1999). 

Consequently, seasonal differences in bear use should track the temporal and spatial changes in 

nutrient availability across habitats. There are several ways to address habitat quality as it relates 

to selection of habitats by bears. Qualitative analysis of habitat characteristics has been used by 

several researchers (MacHutcheon and Wellwood, 2003; Smith and others, written commun., 

2002, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah) to address bear use or bear encounter potential.

The assumption underlying these studies is that as habitat quality increases, bear use and the 

probability of bear/human encounters also increases. Although qualitative measures may prove 

appropriate for evaluating bear use patterns, they have yet to be compared to actual bear activity 

data to test their predictive effectiveness. 

Quantitative habitat assessment also has been used to evaluate bear use (Hamilton and 

Bunnell, 1987). Hamilton and Bunnell (1987) found that one of the two females they closely 

monitored appeared to be foraging optimally (maximizing energy intake per unit time), although 

one female? did not follow this pattern. Monitoring the selection and activity of individual 

animals has many advantages, but may not directly reflect activity patterns on a population level. 

Habitat selection, especially among females, will vary among years depending on the 

reproductive status of the bear as well as other factors, such as the presence of other bears and 

the variable quality and quantity of forage across habitats (Weilgus and Bunnell, 1994, 2000). 

Thus, some bears during certain time periods may forgo optimal foraging opportunities in an 

effort to protect offspring by avoiding other bears. For example, during a 2-year study in Kenai 

Fjords National Park, females with dependent offspring were encountered in beach habitats only 

twice in areas with high black bear densities (Smith and others, unpub. data, 2004, Brigham 

Young University, Provo, Utah.). Black bears also may change their activity patterns if 

sympatric with grizzly bears (Holm and others, 1999; Jacoby and others, 1999). Given these 

complications, monitoring productive areas for overall bear use may be preferable to using 

individual animals whose habitat selection may be highly variable between years. This habitatcentric approach also meshes better with current information needs because management 

activities generally are focused on specific sites, not individual animals.
3 

Knowledge of bears’ habitat use patterns is relevant to many management issues and 

helps reduce risks associated with camping in bear habitat. Due to the relatively low densities 

and the cryptic nature of bears, remote photography has proven to be a valuable tool for 

documenting bear activity (Mace and others, 1994; MacHutchon and others, 1998). Time-lapse 

remote photography can provide a measure of overall use and activity rates. Still cameras 

coupled with infrared detectors can be used to monitor use of smaller areas of interest (for 

example, well established bear trails, river corridors, and bear mark-trees). In addition to these 

means of monitoring bear activity, other habitat features affect bear use. For example, the 

presence of productive beach habitats, adjacent foraging areas, and travel corridors influence 

levels of bear activity in any given area. 

The recent use of noninvasive genetic sampling in wildlife research has increased 

substantially (Waits and others, 2001; Waits and Paetkau, 2005). Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 

fragments can be useful in identifying bear species, and specific fragments of nuclear DNA 

(nDNA) can be used to identify the unique genotypes of individual bears (Waits and others, 

2001). Local bear density in an undisturbed unhunted area largely is a result of factors relating to 

habitat quality (Gilbert and Lanner, 1995). Thus, bear numbers likely reflect habitat quality. 

Obtaining a measure of the minimum number of individual bears in selected study sites will 

provide an additional measure of habitat use and quality. Additionally, determining the relative 

distribution of black and brown bears within study sites is important because encounters with 

brown bears generally are much more dangerous than those with black bears (Herrero, 2002). 

Research Objectives

The NPS requested the USGS to undertake this study using methods that did not involve 

the capture and handling of bears to place radio collars on them. Thus, the primary objective was 

to determine the degree to which habitat characteristics at selected study sites are predictive of 

bear activity. We approached this research objective with four subtasks. 

1. Assess bear temporal and spatial use of selected sites within GLBA with remote cameras 

and direct observation. 

a. Use remote cameras to determine bear activity rates and the temporal, spatial, and 

numerical activity patterns of bears within selected sites in GLBA. 

b. Opportunistically record bear activity by direct observation. 

c. Document fresh bear sign over time. 

2. Habitat mapping and evaluation. 

a. Use systematic sampling procedures to map important bear forage resources, including 

species composition and biomass. 

b. Track the phenology of key bear forage species. 

c. Use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to incorporate larger scale habitat features 

into an overall habitat assessment model. 

3. Bear nutritional ecology. 

a. Collect important bear forage items for nutritional analysis. 

b. Directly observe foraging bears to estimate intake rates for selected forages. 

c. Use bear hair collected from snares and mark trees to run stable isotope analyses. 

d. Collect and analyze fresh bear scats to determine relative seasonal importance of bear 

foods. 
4 

4. Bear distribution and minimum numbers

a. Collect a sampling of bear hair and use molecular genetic analysis to determine the 

minimum bear numbers and species using a given site. 

Besides using results from this work to validate bear/habitat relationships estimated by 

Smith and others (written commun., Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 2006), results also 

will provide input to the bear management and backcountry management plans for GLBA. 

Results of this research will aid GLBA managers by providing the following information: 

1. A profile of the spatial and temporal use of selected sites by black and brown bears; 

2. An evaluation of the appropriateness of using site specific and landscape-level 

parameters to estimate seasonal bear activity rates; 

3. A seasonal nutritional profile for bears using selected sites; 

4. A minimum number of bears using selected sites as well as distribution of black and

brown bears within these sites, an evaluation of camping closure areas (for example, Tarr 

Inlet and Sandy Cove) in relation to other selected sites with regard their bear habitat 

potential; and 

5. A profile of seasonally important bear forage items.

Methods

Study Site Selection

Eight sites were selected within GLBA for study in summers 2004–05 (fig. 2). Study site 

selections were based on several criteria. First, we included several areas within Tarr and Johns 

Hopkins Inlets, and Sandy Cove because they have been closed to camping for more than two

decades following a series of bear/human conflicts and were of special interest to management.

Russell Passage, Queen and Reid Inlets, and Tlingit and Wolf Points were selected due to 

historically high levels of bear activity and/or human/bear encounters. As a result, most study 

sites were located in the West Arm of Glacier Bay. Other factors, such as the extent of the viewshed for remote camera monitoring use, also helped guide study site selection in the broader 

context of the previous criteria. Study sites extended from the beach/ocean interface inland to a 

line parallel to the beach and 50 m beyond the edge of dense closed scrub or needle leaf forest. 

We restricted our analysis to this narrow band of coast because (a) the primary overlap of 

bear and human activity was presumed to occur within this narrow band, (b) steep topography in 

many instances is encountered at this point and both bear and human use were presumed to 

decrease substantially at that point, and (c) dense alder and/or needle leaf forests were presumed 

to offer little forage for bears and to be difficult for bears to traverse. 
5 

Site Visits

Each study site was visited seven times annually from early June to late August. On the 

first site visit, all research equipment was installed, including remote video cameras and hair 

snare traps. During each visit, vegetation communities and existing bear sign were mapped. All 

bear scats were analyzed for gross content and scattered to avoid recounting. Hair samples were 

removed from barb-wire snares and rub trees and stored. Sites were visited at 2-week intervals 

and video camera cassette tapes were replaced, new scats analyzed and scattered, and hair 

samples collected. Although we could not visit every site in 1 field day, the visitation dates did 

not differ by more than 3–4 days between and deemed a single round of site visits (table 1). 

A checklist of probable bear forage plants was kept and notes regarding the phenology of 

those plants were recorded. In addition, we followed bear foraging trails and noted which plants 

were fed upon. Foraging trails were evident by trampled vegetation, tracks and sign of recent 

grazing (for example, cut stems, digs, and cropped grasses). Upon completion of an area sweep 

for signs of bear activity, we continued vegetation and habitat mapping. 

Study Site Vegetation Mapping

All study sites were mapped using handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment 

(Trimble GeoExplorer 3®, Trimble Navigation Limited, Sunnyvale, CA, USA), GIS software 

(ESRI ArcGIS 9.x, Redlands, CA, USA), and existing imagery. Vegetation classes were defined 

in the field based on characteristics provided by Viereck (1992; appendix 1). Vegetation 

mapping and analyses followed the methods of Daubenmire (1959). A 2 × 5 dm sampling square 

(fig. 3) was used in all habitats with the exception of closed scrub or forest, where a 1 × 1 m plot 

was used. A target number of 40 plots per habitat type per year across all study sites was set to 

describe species composition. A larger plot size (forty 10 × 10 m plots per type) was used to 

describe scrub vegetation. Our approach to vegetation sampling was a stratified random 

approach. Transects were stratified within habitats and points along those transects were 

randomly selected. However, scrub vegetation plots were established along randomly located 

transects. Whenever the average width of scrub vegetation was ≤ 15 m, one Daubenmire plot per 

transect provided an estimate of foliar coverage. If the average width was > 15 m but < 50 m, 

two plots per transect were used, and if > 50 m, three plots per transect were used. Plot 

placement along transects was determined with a random numbers table. Random numbers 

identified the distance from the beginning of the transect at which the plot would be placed. 

Bear Sign Assessment

We surveyed each site during each visit for bear sign by walking parallel transects that 

provided a thorough view of each study site. Transect spacing varied according to site visibility: 

transects were farther apart in open areas and closer when terrain and/or vegetation were 

limiting. When bear sign was encountered (for example, bear scat, rub trees, chew logs, bear 

beds, mark trails, foraging trails, bear tracks, and areas of bear digging), the type and location 

were recorded on a GPS. As previously described, a gross analysis of scat content was conducted 

(that is, vegetation, bone, hair, etc.) and scats were scattered so as to not be counted on 

subsequent visits. Bear mark trails and mark trees (sometimes called rub trees) were 

photographed and hairs on rub trees collected. All data from bear sign surveys were placed in 

GIS for display and subsequent analysis (fig. 4). 
6 

Hair Collection and DNA Analysis

Bear hairs were collected within study sites by several methods. We installed one baited 

barbed-wire hair trap within each study site (fig. 5). Hair snare placements were situated: (1) 

about 100 m from the beach, (2) in areas that were not easily accessible by kayak/campers, and 

(3) in areas accessible by bears. Hair snares consisted of a single strand of barbed-wire tightly 

wound around three or more tree trunks or wooden fence posts, thus creating a triangular 

enclosure. Wire placement was about 0.5 m above the ground. Each trap was marked with 

fluorescent survey flagging and signs to alert campers of the bait station’s presence. We piled 

loose rocks, branches, moss, or other debris within each enclosure, then doused them with a liter 

of scent-bait. Scent-bait was a mixture of fetid cows’ blood, fish oil, skunk oil, and glycerol. 

Biweekly we carefully checked each enclosure for hairs, and then recharged scent with a liter of 

scent-bait. We used a small butane pocket-torch to clear barbs of hairs once a few had been 

pulled for subsequent analysis. To augment hair collection, we selected one rub tree per study 

site, attached a small piece of barbed wire to its trunk, and checked them for hairs during 

biweekly visits (fig. 6). Additionally, we opportunistically collected bear hair from rub logs and 

vegetation along trails. All hairs with follicles were placed in small paper envelopes and stored in 

desiccant to preserve them for later analysis. Hair samples were categorized as fresh (caught on 

the wire since the last site visit), old (opportunistic hair samples that appeared to have been there 

for several weeks or longer), or unknown (if age was indeterminable). We categorized the 

apparent age of hair samples for prioritization of sample analysis because funds for genetic 

analysis were limited. The relative quality of hair samples also was recorded: >10 individual 

hairs or samples with guard hairs with follicles were rated as high; those with 7–9 individual 

hairs were rated as moderate; those that contained 5–6 individual hairs, or with a high proportion 

of under fur, were rated as low quality; samples with < 5 individual hairs were not collected. 

We analyzed the DNA in a subset of the hair samples collected in 2005 to identify 

individual bears. We used several criteria to determine which hair samples would be analyzed.

Initially, we excluded hair samples categorized as old or of unknown age. We then eliminated 

those samples classified as low quality when they were in conjunction with at least two other 

consecutive samples of high quality on the same source. Next, samples collected 

opportunistically were removed if there were multiple samples collected from a single source.

Due to the fact that multiple, consecutive samples collected at the same time from the same 

source tend to identify the same individual (for example, three tufts of hair taken from the 

barbed-wire on the same day; D. Paetkau, oral commun., Wildlife Genetics International, 2006), 

samples collected from a single source that contained ≥ 3 consecutive samples were removed in 

alternating fashion. The last selection criteria removed low quality samples from a single source 

where multiple (non-consecutive) samples were present. All selected hair samples were 

submitted to Dr. David Paetkau (Wildlife Genetics International, Nelson, BC, Canada) to be 

analyzed for bear species, sex, and individual identity using standard analytical procedures.
7 

Remote Cameras and Analysis of Bear Activity Data

Sony® handheld cameras (DCR-TRV460 Sony Handycam®) were installed in all study 

sites (fig. 7). These cameras were selected because they contain a time-lapse recording option. 

Cameras were set to record a 0.5-second segment of video per minute, 24 hours per day (called a 

sequence during tape analysis). This setting permitted cameras to run continuously for 9.4 days 

before we had to reload a new video cassette. In this way, monitoring with the cameras 

represented instantaneous scan sampling procedures commonly used for recording behavioral 

data (Altmann, 1974). Each camera was connected to a 12-volt, 100-aH gel-cell battery and an 

80-watt solar panel. For protection from curious bears, a portable electric fence was erected 

around each camera unit. Placement of camera units was dependent on the surrounding 

topography; however, high points were selected to maximize the amount of area that was 

monitored. Video cassettes were changed during each field visit.

As video cassettes were played back on a television, we were able to extract bear activity 

data. Each tape was reviewed twice to ensure accuracy. A total of 1,440 sequences (24 hours per 

day × 60 sequences per hour) were recorded daily. While observing these video tapes, each 

sequence was marked as having bears, humans, or both present or absent. After viewing, data 

were grouped by hour. Summed sequences of bears present in these hour groups were used for 

all subsequent analyses.

To calculate a metric for bear activity levels, the number of film sequences with bears 

present was divided by the total number of viewable sequences during a given hour. All 

independent bears (for example, those without dependent offspring) were individually counted, 

whereas females with dependent cubs were scored as a single bear, even though multiple bears 

were present. “Viewable sequences” were those that were not too dark or obscured (for example, 

by fog or sunlight direction on the lens). In this way, bear activity could be thought of as the 

percentage of the defined time period that bears were present. This also could be thought of as a 

surrogate for animal minutes, a metric used in many behavioral studies (Olson and Gilbert, 

1994). 

Bear Forage Diversity Index

During field visits, the presence, abundance, and phenology of key bear foods was 

recorded (data sheet, appendix 2). Phenology was assigned according to a list of phenological 

classifications presented in appendix 3. Potential forage items, based on experience and the 

literature, observed in the field were noted. Direct observation of foraging, or obvious signs of 

use, also were recorded opportunistically. To create a relative index of bear forage species for 

each site, the count of species present at a site was divided by the total number of species 

observed across all sites. This generated an index with a value that ranged from 0 to 1.0. 
8 

Ranking Study Sites by Degree of Use by Bears

Due to the relatively low levels of bear activity at sites we monitored, it was not possible 

to statistically evaluate inter-site differences. However, to rank sites relative to one another, we 

evaluated them by the following criteria: (1) average bear activity recorded on remote cameras, 

(2) areal extent of each site (km2

), (3) percent coverage of potential food species, (4) forage 

phenology, (5) number of scats encountered, (6) number of hair samples collected, and (7) 

number of individual bears identified by molecular genetic analysis. For each of these criteria, 

each site was ranked against all others, receiving a value of 1–8, 8 being the lowest value. For six

variables (excluding area size ranking), rank was averaged, resulting in an overall ranking for 

each site.

Results

Habitat Mapping and Vegetation Analysis 

Eight habitat types were identified in our eight study sites (table 2, appendix 1). Most 

habitat descriptions were consistent with types identified in Viereck and others (1992), but 

deviations were observed. The relatively recent de-glaciation of GLBA (< 200 years; Vequist, 

1989) has resulted in sites dominated by ecotones rather than mature seral stages. 

Generally, the habitat type closest to the waterline was the halophytic wet 

forb/gramminoid herbaceous habitat, typically dominated by species such as goose tongue 

(Plantago maritima), alkali grass (Puccinellia nutkaensis), arrow grass (Triglochin maritimum), 

and various sedges (Carex spp.; table 3a). This habitat type occurred in five of eight sites and 

represented an average percent cover of 21.8 ± 11.4 percent. Total bear forage coverage in this 

habitat was relatively high at 46.2 ± 8.9 percent, although, depending on the site, it represented a 

small percentage of total forage coverage for all sites combined (26.4 ± 28.5 percent). The 

exception to this occurred at the Wolf Point study site, where the halophytic zone occupied 38.2 

percent of the study site and represented 76.2 percent of the total forage coverage (table 2).

The next habitat type frequently encountered in our study sites was dry graminoid 

herbaceous habitat type, dominated by food species such as rye grass (Elymus arenarius), goose 

tongue, and sedge, with small inclusions of forb communities (Conioselium chinense, Fragaria 

chiloensis, table 3b). This habitat was present in all study sites and composed 15.0 ± 6.2 percent 

of total cover. The overall coverage of potential bear forage species in this habitat type was 

relatively low at 21.6 ± 19.4 percent. The total bear forage species coverage for this habitat type 

across all study sites also was low at 7.3 ± 4.6 percent (table 2).
9 

The low open scrub habitat type, located just upland from the dry graminoid herbaceous 

habitat, represented an average of 22.4 ± 18.6 percent of the study site. The coverage of potential 

bear food species in this zone was highly variable, ranging from 105.9 percent in highly 

vegetated study sites to 2.8 percent in early seral stage, sparse areas (average 47.3 ± 37.9

percent). Due to high variability within this habitat type, it is difficult to provide a generic 

description. The number of bear forage species occurring within this habitat type was highly 

variable across study sites. Several graminoid species (Elymus arenarius, Carex spp.), along with 

a large variety of forbs (Oxytropis campestris, Hedysarum alpinum, Angelica spp., Conioselium 

chinense, Equisetum spp.), and berry producing plants (Shepherdia canadensis, Fragaria 

chiloensis, Rubus spectabilis), varied greatly in percent coverage (table 3c). Bear food species 

found in the low open scrub habitat represented 22.3 ± 16.0 percent of the total food coverage in 

our study sites (table 2).

Several small areas representing distinct habitat types were present in a few study sites 

(wet graminoid herbaceous, dry forb herbaceous). Although they occasionally had high food 

coverages, these areas did not represent a significant proportion of habitat types in which they 

were found; they represented less than 3 percent of the study site and less than 2.5 percent of the 

total food coverage in those areas (table 2). Several important bear food species were found in 

these small habitats, including graminoid (Carex spp., Elymus arenarius) and forb species 

Hedysarum alpinum, Fragaria chiloensis, table 3d).

The closed tall scrub habitat type, occupying the final upland habitat in six of our eight 

study sites, represented 43.3 ± 16.9 percent of the study area (all eight sites combined). The 

extent inland that these habitats would be surveyed was pre-defined to end at a line 50 m inland 

from its beach-ward edge, which makes comparing it to other habitat types problematic. In the 

low open scrub habitat, food species and coverages were highly variable (table 2). Potential food 

species found in the tall closed scrub were similar to those that occurred in the low open scrub 

(tables 3c and 3e). Food species coverage ranged from 4.8 to 87.9 percent of this habitat type 

(average 46.2 ± 33.2 percent), and represented 8.5 to 88.5 percent of the total food coverage 

found in our study sites (average 53.9 ± 30.4 percent). 

In two of eight study sites, upland areas were occupied by a closed needle leaf forest type 

(Tlingit Point, Sandy Cove). This habitat occupied an average of 61.4 percent of the total area in 

our study sites, although it is important to remember that the width of these habitats was predefined (50 m in from the edge of the habitat). Food coverage in this type was 29.8 percent, 

although the two study sites were quite different. Needle leaf forest at Tlingit Point was 

minimally represented, with food species coverage of 16.4 percent and containing only a small 

number of potential food species. In contrast, the forest in Sandy Cove was much more diverse, 

with food species coverage of 43.1 percent (table 2). Devils club (Oplopanax horridus) and 

salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) were the most common food species found under the forest 

canopy (table 3f). A total of 52.2 percent of the total food coverage present in Sandy Cove and 

Tlingit Point was attributable to food species found in this habitat. 

Bear Sign Assessment

Although all bear sign encountered was mapped and incorporated into GIS (fig. 8), not all 

bear sign could be easily quantified. For example, the length of bear trails often was 

indeterminate and trail age also was difficult to assess. Bear digs also were difficult to quantify 

as they were often extensive, obscuring individual digs. 
10

The number of scats encountered during each site visit was readily quantified. Sandy 

Cove had the most scats (n = 239), followed by Russell Passage (n = 163), and Queen Inlet (n = 

116; table 4). The remaining five sites had relatively low scat counts (all < 45). The number of 

hair samples collected in the Queen Inlet study site was the highest (n = 225), followed by 

Russell Passage (n = 141), and Reid Inlet (n = 126; table 4). Queen Inlet had the highest number 

of identified rub trees and chew logs, followed by Sandy Cove, Russell Passage, and Reid Inlet. 

Wolf Point had the highest number of bear beds, followed by Reid Inlet and Queen Inlet (table 

4). 

Based on a cursory analysis of the gross contents of scats encountered in our study sites, 

forb and graminoid species were the largest diet item for bears, particularly early in the season.

The flowers, stems, and seeds of field oxytrope were a large component of scats in Queen Inlet 

and Russell Passage. Graminoid species such as rye grass and sedge commonly were found 

throughout the season for brown bears, and alkali grass also was commonly found in black bear 

scats. Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) also was found in scats collected from most study sites 

throughout the season. A thorough examination of scat contents would have yielded more 

information, but evidence from the field suggests that bears used many species of umbels 

(Conioselium chinense, Heracleum lanatum, Angelica spp.), as well as the roots of sweetvetch, 

vetch, groundcone (Boschniakia rossica), and field oxytrope. Berry use, as inferred by gross scat 

analysis, was high in GLBA, starting in June with the maturation of strawberry and salmonberry 

and continuing through July and into late August when devils club, soapberry (Sherperdia 

canadensis), bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), and other species became prevalent. 

Scat and hair collections both showed seasonal peaks (fig. 9). The number of hair 

samples collected was lowest in early June, peaked from late June through late July, and 

decreased again through the end of August. The number of scats observed was high through midJune, decreased towards the end of June, and peaked again from late June through late July 

before decreasing through the end of August. 

Number and Species of Bears Using the Sites

A total of 356 hair samples were collected in eight study sites in 2005 (table 5). Of these, 

264 were selected and submitted for genetic analysis. The overall success rate for individual 

identification from our submitted samples was 54.17 percent. Samples collected at hair traps had

the highest success rate at 63.8 percent, while samples collected opportunistically had the lowest 

at 22.2 percent (table 6).

A total of 47 individual bears were identified across all sites by molecular genetic 

analysis of hairs (table 7). Most bears identified were brown bears (Ursus arctos, 34 of 47), with 

a male to female sex ratio of 1.06:1.0. Thirteen black bears (Ursus americanus) were identified 

with a male to female ratio of 2.25:1.0. Black bears were identified at two sites, and Tlingit Point 

was the only site in which black and brown bears were identified. Queen Inlet had the highest 

number of bears identified with 13 brown bears, while only a single brown bear was identified at 

the Tarr Inlet site (table 7). Most bears were identified multiple times, at multiple sources, and/or 

on multiple collection trips (table 8). 
11

Bear Activity Based on Remote Camera Data

Remote cameras in GLBA filled 76 video cassettes for a total of 682 camera days (table 

9). The overall bear activity rate (a unit-less value representing a ratio of total number of minutes 

observed divided by total number of minutes filmed) for all sites combined was 0.014 ± 0.10 

(table 10). This translates into bear presence from an average of 16 minutes per day up to a 

maximum of 131 minutes per day during visible daylight hours (assumed to be from 3:00 to 

23:00). Queen Inlet had the highest recorded bear activity of 0.041 ± 0.18, and Tlingit Point had 

the lowest at 0.001 ± 0.01 (table 11; fig. 10). Activity peaks occurred early in the season in 2004 

and 2005, while the secondary peak in 2005 occurred about 2 weeks later than in 2004. Average 

activity decreased to low levels towards the end of July through the end of August (fig. 15). 

Bear Forage Diversity Index

By taking the total number of bear forages present at any given site and dividing that by 

the total number of bear forages present across all sites, a bear forage diversity index (BFDI) for 

each site was calculated. The site with the most diverse offering of bear forage was Sandy Cove 

(BFDI = 0.92), followed by the Russell Passage Site (BFDI = 0.81), then Tlinglit Point (BFDI = 

0.76), Reid and Queen Inlets (both with BFDI = 0.68), Tarr Inlet (BFDI = 0.54), Wolf Point 

(BFDI = 0.49), and Johns Hopkins, the least diverse site (BFDI = 0.24). 

Site Ranking by Bear Activity

Based on the site ranking procedure, the following areas are listed from least valuable to 

highest: Johns Hopkins, Tarr Inlet, Tlinglit Point, Wolf Point, Reid Inlet, Sandy Cove, Queen 

Inlet and Russell Passage (table 12; fig. 15). The Queen Inlet, Sandy Cove, and Russell Passage 

study sites consistently ranked highest for all variables of interest (for example, bear activity, 

areal extent, food coverage, bear sign, scat numbers, bear numbers, and forage phenology; table 

12; fig. 15). Sites in Johns Hopkins and Tarr Inlets consistently ranked lowest with the exception 

of camera activity data. 

Bear Movements

Although not a stated objective of this study, several bear movements between our study 

sites were identified through hair DNA analysis. A male brown bear identified from hair 

collected during the mid to late June sampling period in Queen Inlet also was identified in 

Russell Passage during the late June to mid-July time period. The Euclidian distance (that is,

straight line) from the bear’s location in Queen Inlet to its location in Russell Passage is about 

16.6 km (10.4 mi). Modeling likely travel paths between the areas yields distances ranging from 

18.6 to 61.2 km (11.6 and 38.0 mi, respectively; fig. 15). Hence, this bear traveled a minimum of 

37.2 km (23.1 mi) while making a round trip excursion from Queen Inlet to Russell Passage. 

Another male brown bear identified from hair collected in late June to mid-July in Tarr 

Inlet also was identified from hair collected in the mid- to late July period in Reid Inlet. 

Euclidian distance from the Tarr Inlet to Reid Inlet study site is 14.1 km (8.8 mi). The shortest 

coastal travel path between the two sites is 18.6 km (11.56 mi; fig. 14). This bear traveled a 

minimum of 58.0 km (34.8 mi) during the trip from Tarr Inlet to Reid Inlet. 
12

Discussion

Remote Camera Data 

Coastal areas of GLBA contain many important forage resources for bears, both in the 

early spring when other resources are less available, as well as later when berry crops mature and 

salmon enter streams. Flat coastal areas are the easiest way for bears to move around the bay.

Remote camera data show relatively light use of areas monitored, suggesting that bears use other 

habitats extensively year round. It also is possible that bears choose to move around and forage 

in various productive areas, increasing their odds of discovering good food resources or potential 

mates. Bears foraging primarily on vegetation require anywhere from 8 to 12 hours of foraging 

time per day to sustain body weight, depending on the bears’ mass (Rode and others, 2001; 

Smith and Partridge, 2004). Even given the maximum number of hours we documented bears 

using a given study site (the maximum was 4.4 hours), a bear still would have to continue 

foraging for another 4 hours simply to maintain body weight (Rode and others, 2001). 

Bear activity recorded with remote camera units at GLBA was relatively low and highly 

variable within and between study sites. This made comparisons between seasons, time periods, 

and study sites problematic, limiting the evaluation of the camera activity data to the analysis of 

trends in activity. When bear activity is combined from all study sites, the temporal pattern was

crepuscular with activity peaks early in the morning and evening. This observed pattern is typical 

of North American ursids, with the early morning peak lower than that in the evening (Smith, 

2002; fig. 15). However, peaks and intensities of bear activity were not consistent between the 2 

years of study (2004–05). Bear activity intensity over the course of the study, however, was 

fairly consistent between years as well as between study sites. Activity generally was relatively 

high in early to mid-June and then decreased towards the end of June. A secondary activity peak 

occurred from early to late July before decreasing to low levels towards the end of August. 

Activity patterns recorded with remote cameras generally were consistent with data from hair 

and scat collections. This pattern likely is a reflection of bear foraging being focused on early 

stages of plant phenological development. Hence, bears initially forage on newly emergent 

coastal vegetation, then move up in elevation as green-up progresses. When coastal berries 

mature, bears are drawn back to coastal areas. Following the peak of coastal berry availability, 

bear use decreases again as berry crops under the vegetation canopy mature and coastal 

vegetation becomes highly fibrous and poorly digestible. Additionally, salmon become available 

in certain areas, which likely causes bears to target this resource. Activity may have increased 

after we ceased monitoring sites as spawning salmon became available at the end of August. The 

temporal-spatial patterns of spawning salmon are poorly described for the western and eastern 

arms GLBA, but each of our study sites had some degree of spawners present, as observed 

anecdotally. 

We experienced several problems with remote cameras. Mechanical failures aside, there 

were several problems with camera placement and effectiveness of this approach. One problem 

with this method of recording bear activity is that it cannot evaluate nocturnal bear activity.

Several studies have found a primarily diurnal activity pattern for black and brown bears 

(Lariviere and others, 1994; MacHutchon and others, 1998), although there is evidence that 

activity can occur at night, particularly on salmon streams (Reimchen, 1998; Klinka and 

Reimchen, 2002). Cameras could not monitor bear activity within the closed tall scrub and 

closed needle leaf forest habitats, extensive units in most sites that contained relatively high food 
13

coverage. The largest problem with remote camera units was that the coverage area and view 

shed varied from site to site. Although there were a number of camera units that captured most of 

the study site in Queen Inlet, Sandy Cove, Tarr Inlet, and Johns Hopkins Inlet, the others could 

not be positioned as effectively. The Reid Inlet camera could not monitor the entire site, and 

based on evidence from bear scat locations, areas that were hidden may have contained the most 

bear activity. Wolf Point and Tlingit Point cameras, in addition to failing to work during the 

2005 field season, were unable to monitor substantial areas. The Russell Passage camera also had 

several problems. The camera had to be placed on an island at a distance (> 400 m) from the 

study site and zoomed in, which generated a very shallow depth of field in the view. 

Additionally, fog and rain easily obscured the camera’s view shed given its great distance to the 

site. 

Even with some technical problems, remote video cameras units performed relatively 

well and were not visually intrusive to visitors. Although these cameras yielded useful 

information on bear presence in most of the study sites, this type of remote video monitoring 

may be best suited for use in a small area, such as a stretch of salmon stream, rub tree, or trail. 

Vegetation, Habitat, and Diet Analysis

Data from habitat mapping, vegetation analysis, and tracking of phenology provides a 

detailed profile of a subset of potential bear forages across study sites. We originally had 

intended to track seasonal nutrient availability across study sites, but were unable to do so due to 

limitations in time and personnel. Although we did not have enough time and money to perform 

nutritional analyses for plants collected in our study sites, general statements concerning the 

nutritional profile of potential food species can be made. There is relatively little variation in the 

gross energy and crude protein content of most above ground vegetation, but other plant 

components change throughout the year and have a substantial effect on the overall nutritional 

value (Partridge and others, 2001). The overall nutritional value of a plant is a complex measure 

that depends on the size and phenology of the plant, the nutritional components of the species, 

and the specific plant part analyzed. Although most plants increase in size through the growing 

season, which can increase intake rates for animals, their fiber content also increases, which 

reduces digestibility and decreases the plants’ overall nutritional value. Flowers generally are 

low in fiber and are highly digestible, and seeds are high in fiber but also high in digestible 

protein. The stems and stalks of plants generally are more digestible early in the season when 

less fiber is required to support the plant, and roots and tubers can be high in energy early in the 

season before energy stores are mobilized for growing and late in the season when energy is 

being stored for the next growing season. 

Berry producing shrubs and plants can achieve high fruit densities and offer bears high 

intake rates, but due to the low protein level of most fruit species bears must continue to 

consume food items with high levels of digestible protein (Welch and others, 1997; Rode and 

Robbins, 2000). Berries that contain oils, such as devils club and elderberry, have high gross 

energy contents (Partridge and others, 2001). It is suspected that soapberry also may be higher in 

energy levels than most berries (Robbins and others, 2004). 

Meat sources, such as ungulates, can be an important source of nutrition for bears 

(Mattson, 1997; Hilderbrand and others, 1999; Jacoby and others, 1999), and salmon are one of 

the most important factors determining the population density of bears in coastal Alaska 

(Hilderbrand and others, 1999). There is little information on salmon abundance and availability 

in GLBA, particularly in sites we selected for study. Due to the relatively recent deglaciation of 
14

GLBA, many streams within the park have only recently been colonized by salmon. Bear use of 

intertidal resources, such as barnacles, mussels, and clams, also has been found in several coastal 

areas of Alaska (Smith and Partridge, 2004). Although larger bears may not be able to efficiently 

use these resources to gain weight, intertidal resources are available year round (at low tides) and 

can provide certain bear cohorts with a valuable protein source (Smith and Partridge, 2004). 

Other potential animal protein sources include insects such as bees, wasps, and ants. Where large 

insect colonies or nests exist, bears can achieve high intake rates (Noyce and others, 1997; White 

and others, 1998). 

Although information obtained through scat analysis offers insight regarding the diet of 

GLBA bears, there are several serious shortcomings. Scat analysis can only detect partially 

digested diet items; therefore, highly digestible diet items such as meat and fungi are underrepresented and poorly digested items such as graminoid species are over-represented 

(Hilderbrand and others, 1999). Although correction factors have been measured for some diet 

items (Hewitt and Robbins, 1996), the effect that a highly variable diet has on these correction 

factors is unknown, and a correction factor for meat is dependent on the percentage of hair and 

connective tissue ingested, something which could not be determined in the field. 

Based on a cursory analysis of the gross contents of scats encountered in our study sites, 

forb and graminoid species were the largest diet item for bears, particularly early in the season.

The flowers, stems, and seeds of field oxytrope were a large component of scats in Queen Inlet 

and Russell Passage. Graminoid species such as rye grass and sedge commonly were found 

throughout the season for brown bears, while alkali grass was found in black bear scats. 

Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) also was found in scats collected from most study sites throughout 

the season. A thorough examination of scat contents would have yielded more information, but 

evidence from the field suggests that bears used many species of umbels (Conioselium chinense, 

Heracleum lanatum, Angelica spp.), as well as the roots of sweetvetch, vetch, groundcone 

(Boschniakia rossica), and field oxytrope. Berry use, as inferred by gross scat analysis, was high 

in GLBA, starting in June with the maturation of strawberry and salmonberry and continuing 

through July and into late August when devils club, soapberry (Sherperdia canadensis), 

bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), and other species became prevalent. 

There was not much evidence of a dependence on terrestrial meat sources by GLBA 

bears, although scats were occasionally found with hair and connective tissue. One source of 

terrestrial food for bears in many of our study sites was wasps. In Sandy Cove, Wolf Point, and 

Russell Passage, the remains of several nests of paper wasps were found, along with wasp 

exoskeletons and nest material in scats. The use of barnacles (Balanus spp.) and mussels (Mytilus 

edulis) was common across study sites and seasons. Barnacle exoskeletons were more commonly 

observed in bear scats than mussels, although sympatric in intertidal areas. In late August 2005, 

salmon became common in scats from specific areas such as Wolf and Tlingit Points. Evaluation 

of salmon dependence was difficult because field work terminated just as salmon were entering 

streams. 
15

A recent study of the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope signatures of hair samples 

collected in GLBA offers insight regarding the diet of GLBA coastal bears (Mowat and Heard, 

2006). Mowat and Heard (2006) determined through analysis of brown bear guard hairs collected 

in GLBA that the proportion of assimilated carbon and nitrogen coming from marine sources 

was 31 percent. This is low when compared to other coastal bear populations (Hilderbrand and 

others, 1999; Mowat and Heard, 2006), but perhaps higher than expected based on field 

observations made during this study. Marine carbon and nitrogen is assumed to have come from 

salmon, although bears obviously use other marine sources (for example, barnacles, mussels, and 

rock gunnels). There are large enough differences in the isotopic signatures of intertidal animals 

and salmon to discriminate dietary proportions of each based on sulfur isotopes, so it is important 

to evaluate potential intertidal use as it contributes to the overall percentage of marine derived 

nutrients (K. Rode, written commun., US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006). Importantly, the 31 

percent value represents the assimilated carbon and nitrogen coming from marine sources and 

does not indicate the total biomass consumed. Thus, based on the analysis of isotopic analyses, 

marine protein sources are an important part of the yearly diet of bears in GLBA, but vegetation 

likely composes most of the biomass consumed by bears. The Mowat and Heard (2006) study 

was broad in scope and a low number of hair samples were used in the calculation for GLBA 

bears. Due to differences in salmon run strength, species, and timing, additional isotope work 

would help shed light on the dynamics of coastal bear salmon use in GLBA. It also would be 

useful to determine which bear cohorts use salmon and to what extent, as females with dependent 

young may forgo salmon use to avoid intra-specific predation on the young (Ben-David and 

others, 2004). 

Habitat

Low open scrub habitat was the most diverse vegetation community type among study 

sites. Areas of low open scrub had high forage coverage and diversity and also were areas of 

high bear activity. This habitat type had numerous forb and graminoid species as well as berryproducing plants. Heavily foraged species in this habitat type were field oxytrope, sweetvetch 

(Hedysarum alpinum), strawberry, soapberry (Shepherdia canadensis), and several species of 

umbels (Heracleum lanatum, Angelica spp., Conioselium chinense). 

Dry graminoid herbaceous and halophytic wet graminoid herbaceous types had the 

lowest species diversity and bear forage coverage. Other habitat types such as wet graminoid 

herbaceous and dry forb herbaceous, although they had potential forage species, represented a 

small fraction of the overall study site and consequently contributed only slightly to the study 

site’s overall food coverage. 

Upland habitat types, closed tall scrub, and closed needle leaf forest represented a large 

percentage of study sites and contributed substantially to overall food coverages. Bear forages in 

these habitats were chiefly berry producing plants, such as soapberry and strawberry in the 

closed tall scrub habitats, and devils club and salmon berry in the closed needle leaf forest. These 

foods matured later in the season and likely accounted for the corresponding depression of bear 

activity within beach areas. 
16

Bear Sign Assessment

Mapping of bear sign provided a measure of bear use within study sites. It was difficult, 

however, to accurately measure some signs including the beginning and end of indistinct trails, 

indiscrete bear beds, faint tracks, and delineation of individual digs within well excavated areas.

The most useful quantitative measure of bear activity was scats. Hair also was a good 

quantitative measure, although occasionally it was difficult to discriminate individual samples. 

Bear activity, as inferred by scat frequency, follows the same seasonal pattern documented with 

remote cameras: activity was relatively high in May, decreased significantly by the end of June, 

and then peaked again by the end of July, before decreasing into August. 

Bear activity patterns based on hair captures did not follow camera-based activity 

patterns as closely as scat data. Hair-based activity patterns occurred at the same time as those 

seen on camera tape, but hair capture rates were low in the early parts of June. A male bias for 

bear use of rub trees and scented hair traps has been reported (Kendall and McKelvey, 2008). 

Additionally, rubbing behavior is a means of communication and can involve complex bear 

behavioral characteristics that may change over the course of the year (Green and Mattson, 

2003). 

Hair Collection and DNA Analysis

A large number of hair samples were collected in both years of study (2004–05; n = 883). 

Due to budget shortfalls, we were able to analyze only a fraction of hair samples collected (n = 

264). We restricted analysis to samples collected in 2005. Inexplicably, the percentage of 

successful identifications (54 percent) was low when compared to similar studies. It is possible 

that DNA in hair samples degraded before returning from the field, although samples that had 

been unpreserved for 2 weeks have yielded good results (D. Paetkau, written commun., Wildlife 

Genetics International, 2006). We oven-dried hair samples and stored them with silica desiccant 

to remove residual moisture, so it seems unlikely that the storage method damaged hair follicles. 

Forty-seven individual bears were identified from hair collected in 2005. Although they 

generally occupied different ecological niches, areas with black bears were not considered 

separately from brown bear areas, primarily due to the fact that only two sites contained black 

bears. Generally, bears were identified from multiple hair samples, often collected on multiple 

sources, and on separate collection trips. We identified new individuals throughout the season, 

suggesting that we were not able to adequately capture all bears in our study sites. Alternately, 

GLBA bears may have little seasonal range fidelity, traveling widely throughout their home 

range. 

Rub trees, whether enhanced with barbed wire or not, were excellent places to collect hair 

samples, although hair capture success rates were similar to other hair capture methods (for 

example, barbed wire traps). Some tree species, such as spruce (Picea sitchensis), were better at 

holding large samples of hair than others (for example, alder or cottonwood). However, some 

study sites lacked rub trees, resulting in fewer hair samples. Similarly, chew logs proved to be a 

good source for hair collection, particularly if preserved with creosote. Logs that have been 

soaked in creosote for preservation attract bears which rub there and the splintered wood catches 

hairs in the process. Opportunistically collected samples (that is, from tree branches overhanging trails or ground rubbing sites) had the lowest success rates of all hair collection methods, 

likely due to the indeterminate age of the samples. 
17

The performance of scented hair traps was poor, even though they achieved the highest 

hair capture success rate. Several factors contributed to the lower than expected success of 

scented hair traps. First, we were unable to adequately “age” the scent attractant, meaning that 

the scent was not nearly as strong as it could have been. We did, however, age the scent solution 

for 2 weeks prior to each field trip, but it quickly lost its odor when applied in the field. A weak 

scent in conjunction with a prevalent on-shore breeze likely resulted in a greatly reduced ability 

to attract bears. Secondly, it was sometimes difficult to find an appropriate location for the scent 

trap, as sites had to be visually obscured from visitors and at a safe distance from likely camping 

sites to minimize the likelihood of bear/human interactions. Only one bear (black bear) visited a 

trap site twice. This observation is consistent with work by M.L. Gibeau (biologist, Parks 

Canada, oral. commun. 2006) that showed that only 40 percent of brown bears that encountered 

scent traps did not enter them. Therefore, care should be exercised when using hair traps to 

answer specific questions such as the size and trend of bear populations, as well as evaluating 

site fidelity. 

Bear Movements

Two instances of bears visiting multiple study sites were identified through DNA 

analysis. Both bears were males, and males typically have larger home ranges and move more 

than females, particularly during the breeding season as they search for potential mates (Dahle

and others, 2006). Young male bears have been implicated in a substantial proportion of 

bear/human interaction at GLBA (T. Smith, unpub. data, 2006), so in cases where bear

interactions have occurred, it may be ineffective to close a small geographic area surrounding the 

conflict site. A much larger sample size of bear movements is needed to better understand bear 

movements and their impact on area closures. Given the time commitment, cost, and difficulties 

associated with bear hair collection and DNA analysis, other methods for determining bear 

movements (for example, conventional radio-tagging and telemetry) may prove more effective if 

such data are deemed important for management decisions. 

Site Ranking by Bear Activity

Ranking of study site variables provided a useful means of evaluating differences in bear 

use among the study sites. Sites in Queen Inlet, Russell Passage, and Sandy Cove consistently 

ranked at the top in bear use and habitat quality and our field observations support them. These 

also are known locally as high use bear areas. There was a suite of potentially important 

variables we could not address, such as the availability of alternative foraging areas and travel 

corridors, which clearly play a role in bear use of an area. Nonetheless, this ranking should 

provide biologists a benchmark for comparison against which future management decisions can 

be based. 
18

Closure Areas Evaluations

An objective of this project was to evaluate sites in Tarr and Johns Hopkins Inlets and 

Sandy Cove that have been closed to camping for the past decade. The average ranking of these 

sites was 6.2, 6.8, and 2.3, respectively, based on a scale of 1–8, with 8 being the least important 

(table 12). Both Tarr and Johns Hopkins Inlets ranked third and fourth, respectively, in bear 

activity rates based on camera data, but no other measures indicated equivalent high use by 

bears. However, camera-based activity rankings lower than these (Russell Passage, Wolf Point, 

Tlingit Point, and Reid Inlet) had poor study site coverage and/or mechanical problems. Other 

bear activity measures taken at those sites indicate that bear activity was higher than the video 

record indicated. Potential bear habitat at both closure sites was relatively limited and did not 

contain a high diversity or quantity of potential bear food items. Bears were never observed in 

Tarr Inlet or Johns Hopkins Inlet by the field crews, although tracks and camera data did indicate 

use. It is possible that bears move through these areas and spend little time foraging and 

consequently leave little sign. We suspect that the relatively low amount of bear activity in these 

areas likely is due to the marginal habitats present. One salmon was seen in Tarr Inlet in entering 

a stream channel in the study site, but it is unknown if salmon successfully spawn there. The fact 

that a large group of sea birds (for example, gulls, terns, plovers, sandpipers, and oystercatchers) 

nest on beaches in the Johns Hopkins Inlet study site indicates that bears rarely visit the site.

The Sandy Cove study site, in comparison to the other closure areas, ranked highest in all 

measured variables. Only black bears were identified at Sandy Cove, although a salmon run in 

Spokane Cove just south of the study site may attract brown bears from up bay late in the season. 

Berry-producing species, dominant under the forest canopy, mature late in the season due to a 

lack of sunlight. Low open scrub habitat, while very diverse, was sparse and contributed only 

12.2 percent of total food coverage at the site, and the closed needle leaf forest contributed 55.4 

percent. In the two sites that consistently ranked high for brown bear activity, Russell Passage 

and Queen Inlet, low open scrub habitat represented both a larger portion of the study site as well 

as the total food coverage. Field oxytrope, soapberry, and sweet vetch, major constituents of 

brown bear scats we collected at the other study sites, were not found in scats from Sandy Cove. 

Black bears commonly were encountered at Sandy Cove, including sows with cubs of the year, 

and camera data indicated that bears forage extensively in the halophytic zone and the low open 

scrub habitat. The average rank value of this site was 2.33 (table 12), and no bear activity 

variable ranked lower than 4th. Whether bear activity here is high due to high quality habitat, a 

lack of substantial human activity, or some combination, is unknown. We did not monitor many 

sites south of Tlingit Point, and black bear activity in sites such as Geike Inlet or the Beardslee 

Islands may be comparable or greater than that documented in Sandy Cove. Regardless, based on 

all our measured indexes, there was substantial bear activity in Sandy Cove, although activity 

decreased sharply from the end of July through the end of August. 
19

Bear Activity Assessment Techniques Summary

For clarity, we provide this summary of techniques used to assess levels of bear activity 

across study sites in GLBA.

Remote Camera Monitoring

Strengths: Remote cameras eliminate the need for observers to watch areas to record bear 

activity. These systems operate continuously and provide excellent insight regarding the diel 

patterns of bears in a given area. Additionally, precise time of day is recorded. Bear activity 

patterns in response to variables of interest (for example, human activity and weather), can be 

rigorously analyzed. Ultimately, they are cheaper and less invasive to have on site than human 

observers. 

Weaknesses: Some visitors to wilderness areas object to having their presence and activity 

recorded by remote cameras. Additionally, to some persons, the mere presence of video camera 

systems degrades the quality of wilderness. Biologists using these camera systems must report 

data as “total bear minutes/hour” or use a similar index because individual bears cannot be 

identified within the view shed. Camera system placement is logistically difficult: gel-cell 

batteries (35 kg each) are burdensome to haul over rugged terrain; solar panels are large and 

bulky; excellent vantage points are rare or non-existent. Field personnel using and maintaining 

video systems must have a rudimentary understanding of electronics and be able to troubleshoot 

problems in the field. These systems have to be revisited on bi-weekly intervals for video-tape 

exchange. Video camera systems have to be within weather-proof housing and these were 

sometimes prone to moisture penetration resulting in camera failures. Additionally, camera 

systems have to be protected from curious bears with electric fencing, yet more equipment to 

deploy and another system that can fail. Image quality is affected by inclement weather (for 

example, heavy rain and fog) and the sun’s glare on lenses. No data are collected in the nighttime hours. Equipment malfunctions occurred frequently enough to be troubling: insufficient 

power resulting from low solar input, wire connection failures, moisture penetration into the 

camera house and wiring. Video-tape analysis is tedious and time consuming. 

Summary: Video camera systems collect data continuously without the presence of human observers. These 

systems provide an index of bear activity based on direct observation of animals. They can verify 

presence/absence, time of day, activity patterns, and the response of bears to human activity, all 

useful information for park managers. However, in the rugged and remote wilderness of GLBA, 

deployment of these systems is problematic and the costs and benefits must be carefully 

considered in order to determine their applicability. 
20

Bear Sign Indexes 

Strengths: Site surveys resulting in tallies of bear sign (scat, rub trees, mark trails, forage 

utilization) are inexpensive and relatively easy to perform. Count data provides an index of bear 

activity relative to season as well as other sites. 

Weaknesses: Without validation through direct observation, it is difficult to relate bear sign 

to actual levels of bear activity. This approach requires repeated visits to sites of interest on time 

scales appropriate for management questions. Although relatively minor, bear sign surveys can 

displace bears, trample vegetation, and degrade the wilderness quality of the area. It also is 

possible that not all bears leave discernible sign when passing through an area. More research is 

needed to increase our understanding of the correlation between bear sign and actual bear 

activity. 

Summary: Bear sign counts are widely used in North America and are favored, in part, for 

their noninvasive nature. However, field crews conducting repeated surveys in wilderness are not 

noninvasive because bears are displaced and vegetation trampled. The strength of correlation of 

bear sign to bear activity is not well understood and needs to be further investigated before 

ascribing activity levels to areas based solely on sign surveys. 

Site Vegetation Sampling

Strengths: Using the Daubenmire approach, or other vegetation sampling method, 

researchers are able to generate a relatively accurate description of a study site’s vegetation 

community and determine the presence of bear forages. Such approaches have been widely used 

to relatively rank sites’ values to bears based solely on their presumed forage value. These 

methods are time consuming but straightforward in application. 

Weaknesses: Sampling is very time intensive, requires personnel skilled in plant 

identification, and can be difficult in densely vegetated scrub communities (for example, alder 

scrub). Without validation of the dependence of bears on various plant species within the GLBA 

area, the strength of the linkage between site forage and bear activity is questionable. 

Additionally, a site may have abundant forage but its physical proximity to other components of 

bear habitat certainly affects the degree of usage it receives. For example, a site may have 

abundant bear forage species but if bordered on either side by sheer cliffs it is not likely to 

receive much bear activity. The presence of salmon in late summer also can greatly influence a 

site’s usage by bears and this has nothing to do with its bear forage suitability. 

Summary: Vegetation sampling provides a fairly accurate depiction of vegetation 

community composition and is always a part of bear/habitat relationship studies. However, the 

linkages between bears and a given community are the result of a suite of variables including 

proximity to other forage resources, accessibility, and levels of human activity. The use of 

remotely sensed imagery (that is, satellite imagery) may circumvent the tedious nature of site 

sampling but issues of resolution must be addressed. 
21

DNA Analysis

Strengths: This is a relatively noninvasive procedure allowing the identification of specific 

individuals and even genetic lineages. One never has to interact with bears directly to get hair 

samples for analysis and can get an idea of the number of bears present in a given area. 

Weaknesses: DNA analysis requires the use of an attractive bait and hair collection 

substrate (for example, barbed wire and nails in carpet), which is seen by some as degrading to 

the wilderness qualities of GLBA. Additionally, visitors have expressed concerns over being in 

areas that contain bait/scent attractants, worrying that bear/human encounter rates may increase 

as a result. To conduct a scientifically rigorous study using this approach is quite expensive 

($50/sample with hundreds to thousands of samples needed). Even with efficient hair collection 

methodology, DNA extraction rates can run low (as in this study), thereby decreasing the 

cost/benefit ratio. Some bears avoid hair snare apparatuses so this method may never be able to 

accurately depict the actual numbers of bears present in an area. 

Summary: DNA analysis has been successful in areas (for example, Glacier National Park) 

where enough funding was provided to collect and analyze an appropriate number of samples. In 

the case of Glacier National Park, approximately $5 million in congressionally appointed 

funding was needed to use the DNA approach for population estimation. Although often 

described as a ‘noninvasive’ technique, this technique involves the construction of hair snaring 

barbed wire enclosures, deployment of scent-baits, and frequent trips by research personnel to 

the hair snaring site. Within parks and other protected areas, visitors may express frustration after

encountering a hair-snaring station. This methodology is relatively noninvasive, compared to 

bear capture and handling in order to retrieve tissues for DNA extraction and analysis. 

Conclusions

This study provides insight regarding the nature and intensity of bear activity at selected 

coastal sites within GLBA. We were able to construct a better understanding of bear/habitat 

relationships within GLBA by analyzing data collected with remote cameras, vegetation 

mapping and collections, and genetic analysis of bear hair. Although we do not know actual 

levels of bear activity at study sites, agreement among measures of bear activity (for example, 

sign counts, DNA analysis, and video record) lends support to our bear habitat assessments. Our 

work suggests that habitat evaluation, bear sign mapping, and periodic scat counts provide a 

useful index of bear activity for sites of interest. 

GLBA is a dynamic and continually changing ecosystem, and these changes will 

influence bear habitat quality over time. Models predicting the pattern and timing of plant and 

animal succession in GLBA may help predict future patterns of bear use but much more 

information regarding regional bear forage resources is needed. Clearly, the ongoing 

establishment, persistence and health of anadromous fish populations will influence coastal bear 

populations in the future. 

The relationship between bear numbers and likelihood of a negative bear/human 

interaction is complex and at times may have little to do with measurable site variables. Human 

group size, activity, and response to bears all influence the outcome of encounters. The 

disposition of individual bears, as well as their previous experience with humans, similarly can 

affect encounter outcome. Nonetheless, measuring bear numbers and activity in a specific site is 
22

a valid way to assess the risks of negative bear/human interactions because the more bears and 

people interact the more likely it is that a negative interaction will result. 

GLBA resource managers must carefully determine information needs in order to 

prioritize future bear research. Questions regarding the size and structure of bear populations 

within the park are compelling but can be difficult to answer and the methods expensive and 

intrusive to the animals. Nevertheless, while this research project is typical of a noninvasive 

approach, it is important to recognize that researcher activity was present in potential bear habitat 

for several hours every 2 weeks, which in some study sites constituted the most human activity 

recorded at the site (GLBA, unpub. data, 2002). Additionally, an unnatural attractant also was 

used to increase the chance of obtaining bear hair, and camera equipment, barbed-wire, and 

fence posts were used in our study sites. Although sometimes it is unclear what constitutes real 

disturbance to animals, it is important to evaluate the potential costs of each research approach 

and weigh them against the potential benefit to the animals and the park resource personnel who 

manage them.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the following individuals who contributed greatly to this 

project: Drs. Scott Gende and Terry DeBruyn, and Jim Wilder for reviewing previous drafts. 

We’re very grateful to the USGS and NPS for supporting the work. Karen Oakley of the USGS 

Alaska Science Center provided valuable insight regarding this manuscript. Additionally, we 

thank Nat Drumheller, Jessica Speed, Justin Smith, Monica Rectenwald, Phoebe Vanselow,

Allison Banks, Susan Boudreau, and Rusty Yerxa. 

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25

Figure 1. Location and names of selected study sites within Glacier Bay National Park and 

Preserve, Alaska (red stars). 
26

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Year

Number of Incidents

Use of BRFCs becomes 

mandatory for backcountry 

campers

Camper safety message 

changed by Glacier Bay 

National Park

Human killed by 

brown bear at White 

Thunder Ridge

Human killed by black 

bear at South Sandy 

Cove

Figure 2. Number of bear-human incidents by year in GLBA, Alaska. Incidents are defined as 

bear-human encounters in which the bear behaved aggressively, made physical contact, obtained 

human food, and/or caused property damage.
27

Figure 3. Daubenmire plot (2 X 5 dm). 
28

 Rub Tree Chew Log

 Mark Trail Bear Bed

Figure 4. Bear sign mapped in study sites.
29

Figure 5. Scented hair trap station, Sandy Cove, GLBA.
30

 Figure 6. Barbed rub tree, Queen Inlet, GLBA
31

Figure 7. Remote camera unit, Reid Inlet, GLBA.
32

Figure 8. Example of bear sign maps. 
33

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Hair Samples/ Field Day

2004

2005

Combined

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Scat Samples/ Field Day

2004

2005

Combined

Early/Mid 

June

Mid/Late 

June

Late June

Mid July

Mid/Late 

July

Late July

Mid August

Mid/Late

August

Early/Mid 

June

Mid/Late 

June

Late June

Mid July

Mid/Late 

July

Late July

Mid August

Mid/Late

August

Figure 9. Seasonal collection patterns for hair and scat samples. 
34

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

Average Bear Activity

Johns 

Hopkins 

Queen 

Inlet 

Reid

Inlet 

Russell

Passage

Sandy 

Cove

Tarr

Inlet

Tlingit

Point

Wolf

Point

2004 Activity

2005 Activity

 

Figure 10. Bear activity rates from remote cameras for eight coastal study sites, GLBA. 
35

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

Bear Activity

2004

2005

Combined

Early/Mid 

June

Mid/Late 

June

Late June

Mid July

Mid/Late 

July

Late July

Mid August

Mid/Late

August

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

Bear Activity

Early/Mid 

June

Mid/Late 

June

Late June

Mid July

Mid/Late 

July

Late July

Mid August

Mid/Late

August

Figure 11. Bear activity rate by time of year.
36

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Ranking

Bear Activity

Food Coverage

Scat Numbers

Bear Numbers

Hair Numbers

Diversity Index

Average Ranking

Queen

Inlet

Sandy 

Cove

Russell 

Passage

Tarr

Inlet

Johns 

Hopkins

Wolf 

Point

Reid

Inlet

Tlingit 

Point

Figure 12. Study site rankings.

+ Forage Diversity Index 
37

Figure 13. Graphic depicting a male grizzly bear’s movements between the Queen Inlet and Russell Passage study sites. 

The blue represents the straight line distance (16.8 km), the red line represents a likely possible travel path (18.6 km), and 

the green line represents the longest coastal route (61.2 km).

2) Late 

June/Mid 

July

3) Mid/late 

August
38

2) Mid/Late 

July

Figure 14. Graphic depicting a male grizzly bear’s movements between the Tarr Inlet and Reid Inlet study sites. The blue 

represents the straight line distance (14.1 km) and the red line represents a likely possible travel path (18.6 km), and the 

green line represents the longest coastal route (58.0 km).

1) Late 

June/Mid 

July
39

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00

Time

Average Bear Activity

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00

Time

Average Bear Activity

2004 Activty

2005 Activity

Combined Activity

Figure 15. Bear activity rate by time of day. 
40

Table 1. Seasonal categories for camera, scat, and hair data. 

Tape #

1 2 3 4 5 6

Johns Hopkins 6/2 – 6/13 6/15 – 6/25 6/29 – 7/10 7/13 – 7/24 7/27 – 8/6 8/10 – 8/20

Queen Inlet 6/2 – 6/14 6/14 – 6/24 6/28 – 7/8 7/13 – 7/24 7/26 – 8/2 8/9 – 8/20

Reid Inlet 6/4 – 6/14 6/16 – 6/26 6/29 – 7/9 7/13 – 7/25 7/28 – 8/8 8/11 – 8/18

Russell Passage 6/5 – 6/15 N/A 6/30 – 7/11 7/15 – 7/24 7/30 – 8/9 8/11 – 8/23

Sandy Cove 6/6 – 6/16 6/17 – 6/28 7/2 – 7/12 7/17 – 7/27 7/31 – 8/15 8/13 – 8/25

Tarr Inlet 6/2 – 6/12 6/15 – 6/25 6/29 – 7/10 7/12 – 7/24 7/27 – 8/7 8/10 – 8/20

Tlingit Point 6/6 – 6/16 6/17 – 6/27 7/2 – 7/8 7/17 – 7/27 7/31 – 8/5 8/14 – 8/24

Wolf Point 6/3 – 6/12 6/15 – 6/25 6/30 – 7/10 7/14 – 7/24 7/28 – 8/7 8/11 – 8/17

Early/Mid 

June

Mid/Late 

June

Late June/Mid 

July

Mid/Late 

July

Late July/Mid 

August

Mid/Late 

August

Collection Trip #

 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Johns Hopkins 6/2 – 6/15 6/15 – 6/29 6/29 – 7/13 7/13 – 7/27 7/27 – 8/10 8/10 – 8/25

Queen Inlet 6/2 – 6/14 6/14 – 6/28 6/28 – 7/13 7/13 – 7/26 7/26 – 8/9 8/9 – 8/23

Reid Inlet 6/4 – 6/16 6/16 – 6/29 6/29 – 7/14 7/14 – 7/28 7/28 – 8/11 8/11 – 8/25

Russell Passage 6/5 – 6/16 6/16 – 6/30 6/30 – 7/15 7/15 – 7/29 7/29 – 8/12 8/12 – 8/26

Sandy Cove 6/6 – 6/17 6/17 – 7/2 7/2 – 7/17 7/17 – 7/31 7/31 – 8/14 8/14 – 8/27

Tarr Inlet 6/2 – 6/15 6/15 – 6/29 6/29 – 7/13 7/13 – 7/27 7/27 – 8/10 8/10 – 8/26

Tlingit Point 6/6 – 6/17 6/17 – 7/1 7/1 – 7/16 7/16 – 7/30 7/30 – 8/13 8/13 – 8/27

Wolf Point 6/3 – 6/17 6/17 – 7/2 7/2 – 7/16 7/16 – 7/30 7/30 – 8/13 8/13 – 9/1

Early/Mid June Mid/Late June Late June/Mid July

Mid/Late 

July

Late July/Mid 

August

Mid/Late 

August
41

Table 2. Percent cover of habitat types and potential plant bear forage species by study site.

Halophytic Wet Forb/Graminoid Herbaceous Dry Graminoid Herbaceous

Bear Food Data Bear Food Data

Study Site

Area 

(km2) 

% Food 

Coverage

Area 

(km2) 

% of Study 

Site % Coverage

% of Total 

Food Area (km2) 

% of 

Study 

Site % Coverage

% of Total 

Food

Russell 

Passage 0.191 73.1 0.047 24.4 52.8 17.6 0.026 13.8 36.3 6.9

Queen 

Inlet 0.071 73.1 0.015 20.4 31.5 8.8 0.005 6.6 18.7 1.7

Sandy 

Cove 0.091 45.1 0.018 19.6 50.7 22.1 0.007 7.3 61.4 9.9

Reid Inlet 0.068 44.7 0.004 6.4 52.1 7.5 0.016 24.2 18.6 10.1

Wolf Point 0.098 22.1 0.037 38.2 44.1 76.2 0.014 14.8 18.5 12.3

Tarr Inlet 0.041 23.7 0.009 20.8 4.3 3.8

Tlingit 

Point 0.030 21.6 0.006 19.4 14.0 12.5

Johns 

Hopkins 

Inlet 0.024 7.1 0.003 13.1 0.6 1.1

Average 21.8 46.2 26.4 15.0 21.6 7.3

StdDev 11.4 8.9 28.5 6.2 19.4 4.6
42

Table 2. Percent cover of habitat types and bear forage by study site.—Continued

Low Open Scrub Wet Graminoid Herbaceous (a)

Bear Food Data Bear Food Data

Study Site

Area 

(km2)

% Food 

Coverage

Area 

(km2)

% of 

Study 

Site % Coverage

% of 

Total 

Food

Area 

(km2)

% of 

Study 

Site % Coverage

% of 

Total 

Food

Russell 

Passage 0.191 73.1 0.064 33.7 105.9 48.8 0.001 0.5 68.0 0.5

Queen Inlet 0.071 73.1 0.017 23.3 93.5 29.8

Sandy Cove 0.091 45.1 0.008 9.1 60.3 12.2 0.004 4.3 76.4 0.2

Reid Inlet 0.068 44.7 0.013 19.5 31.3 13.7

Wolf Point 0.098 22.1 0.006 6.4 10.2 3.0

Tarr Inlet 0.041 23.7 0.004 8.5 21.3 7.7

Tlingit Point 0.030 21.6 0.005 15.7 52.7 38.4

Johns 

Hopkins Inlet 0.024 7.1 0.015 62.7 2.8 24.8

Average 22.4 47.3 22.3 2.4 72.2 0.3

StdDev 18.6 37.9 16.0
43

Table 2. Percent cover of habitat types and bear foods by study site. —Continued

Wet Graminoid Herbaceous (b) Closed Tall Scrub

Bear Food Data Bear Food Data

Study Site

Area 

(km2)

% Food 

Coverage

Area 

(km2)

% of 

Study 

Site % Coverage

% of 

Total 

Food

Area 

(km2)

% of 

Study 

Site % Coverage

% of 

Total 

Food

Russell 

Passage 0.191 73.1 0.053 27.5 70.1 26.3

Queen Inlet 0.071 73.1 0.035 49.7 87.9 59.7

Sandy Cove 0.091 45.1 0.002 1.7 86.8 0.2

Reid Inlet 0.068 44.7 0.032 47.2 63.1 66.5

Wolf Point 0.098 22.1 0.040 40.6 4.8 8.5

Tarr Inlet 0.041 23.7 0.029 70.7 29.6 88.5

Tlingit Point 0.030 21.6

Johns 

Hopkins Inlet 0.024 7.1 0.006 24.2 21.9 74.2

Average 1.7 86.8 0.2 43.3 46.2 53.9

StdDev 16.9 32.2 30.4
44

Table 2. Percent cover of habitat types and bear foods by study site. —Continued

Dry Forb Herbaceous Closed Needle leaf Forest

Bear Food Data Bear Food Data

Study Site

Area 

(km2)

% Food 

Coverage

Area 

(km2)

% of 

Study 

Site % Coverage

% of 

Total 

Food

Area 

(km2)

% of 

Study 

Site % Coverage

% of 

Total 

Food

Russell 

Passage 0.191 73.1 

Queen Inlet 0.071 73.1 

Sandy Cove 0.091 45.1 0.053 58.0 43.1 55.4

Reid Inlet 0.068 44.7 0.002 2.6 37.6 2.2

Wolf Point 0.098 22.1

Tarr Inlet 0.041 23.7

Tlingit Point 0.030 21.6 0.019 64.9 16.4 49.1

Johns 

Hopkins Inlet 0.024 7.1

Average 2.6 37.6 2.2 61.4 29.8 52.2

StdDev
45

Table 3. Percent cover of forage species by habitat type. 

A) Halophytic Wet Forb/Graminoid Herbaceous

Coverage

Species # of Study Sites Found In Average StdDev

Plantago maritima 5 21.3 8.9

Puccinellia nutkaensis 5 18.9 6.9

Carex spp. 2 8.6 N/A

Elymus arenarius 4 1.6 0.9

Triglochin maritima 4 1.1 1.0

Unknown Graminoid 3 0.7 0.4

Oxytropis campestris 1 0.2 N/A

Astragulus spp. 1 0.0 N/A

Fragaria chiloensis 1 0.0 N/A

B) Dry Graminoid Herbaceous

 Coverage

Species # of Study Sites Found In Average StdDev

Elymus arenarius 7 15.7 16.3

Plantago maritima 7 4.6 4.9

Lathyrus maritima 2 2.3 N/A

Fragaria chiloensis 4 1.9 2.9

Puccinellia nutkaensis 3 1.8 2.4

Carex spp. 1 1.7 N/A

Angelica spp. 1 1.0 N/A

Unknown Graminoid 8 0.8 1.2

Conioselium chinense 1 0.5 N/A

Shepherdia canadensis 1 0.5 N/A

Astagulus spp. 3 0.3 0.2

Barbarea orthoceras 1 0.2 N/A

Oxytropis campestris 1 0.2 N/A

Rubus arctica 1 0.2 N/A

Triglochin maritima 2 0.2 N/A

Equisetum spp. 2 0.1 N/A

Heracleum lanatum 2 0.1 N/A

Ligusticum hultenii 2 0.1 N/A

Rubus spectabilis 1 0.0 N/A

Taraxacum spp. 1 0.0 N/A
46

Table 3. Percent cover of forage species by habitat type.—Continued

C) Low Open Scrub

Coverage

Species # of Study Sites Found In Average StdDev

Fragaria chiloensis 6 17.6 16.2

Shepherdia canadensis 6 10.7 9.3

Astragalus spp. 5 7.3 6.8

Elymus arenarius 7 5.1 5.2

Unknown Graminoid 7 5.0 4.3

Oxytropis campestris 3 4.8 5.9

Lathyrus maritima 3 3.9 6.3

Angelica spp. 2 3.2 N/A

Heracleum lanatum 3 3.1 3.1

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 5 2.2 1.7

Plantago maritima 4 2.2 2.2

Rubus arctica 1 2.2 N/A

Equisetum spp. 5 2.1 2.6

Carex spp. 8 1.8 3.2

Lupinus spp. 1 1.7 N/A

Athyrium felix-femina 1 1.0 N/A

Rubus spectabilis 1 0.9 N/A

Conioselium chinense 5 0.8 0.7

Taraxacum spp. 4 0.8 0.8

Actea rubra 1 0.6 N/A

Hedysarum alpinum 2 0.4 N/A

Ligusticum hultenii 2 0.2 N/A

Triglochin spp. 1 0.2 N/A

Puccinellia nutkaensis 1 0.1 N/A

Barbarea orthoceras 1 0.0 N/A

Boshniakia rossica 1 0.0 N/A
47

Table 3. Percent cover of forage species by habitat type.—Continued

D) Dry Forb/Wet Graminoid Herbaceous

Coverage

Species # of Study Sites Found In Average StdDev

Carex spp. 2 35.8 N/A

Equisetum spp. 1 26.5 N/A

Unknown Graminoid 3 10.9 7.9

Astragalus spp. 2 5.6 N/A

Plantago maritima 3 4.6 3.2

Triglochin maritima 2 3.8 N/A

Elymus arenarius 3 3.7 3.6

Fragaria chiloensis 3 2.5 1.5

Oxytropis campestris 1 1.8 N/A

Rubus arctica 1 1.8 N/A

Hedysarum alpinum 1 1.7 N/A

Taraxacum spp. 2 0.8 N/A

Heracleum lanatum 1 0.6 N/A

Rubus spectabilis 1 0.6 N/A

Ligusticum hultenii 1 0.5 N/A

Conioselium chinense 1 0.4 N/A

Athyrium filix-femina 1 0.3 N/A

Lathyrus maritima 1 0.1 N/A

Actea rubra 1 0.0 N/A

E) Closed Tall Scrub

Coverage

Species # of Study Sites Found In Average StdDev

Shepherdia canadensis 6 27.1 17.7

Fragaria chiloensis 2 14.5 N/A

Unknown Graminoid 5 3.9 4.4

Equisetum spp. 5 3.7 2.9

Astagulus spp. 4 3.6 2.0

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 5 2.7 4.7

Hedysarum alpinum 2 1.7 N/A

Elymus arenarius 5 1.2 1.1

Oxytropis campestris 3 0.9 1.3

Carex spp. 5 0.7 0.4

Angelica spp. 1 0.5 N/A

Conioselium chinense 2 0.5 N/A

Actea rubra 1 0.4 N/A

Heracleum lanatum 2 0.4 N/A

Rubus arctica 1 0.4 N/A

Vaccinium spp. 1 0.4 N/A

Athyrium felix-femina 2 0.1 N/A

Taraxacum spp. 2 0.1 N/A
48 

Table 3. Percent cover of forage species by habitat type.—Continued

F) Closed Needle leaf Forest

Coverage

Species # of Study Sites Found In Average StdDev

Oplopanax horridus 1 16.6 N/A

Rubus spectabilis 1 10.1 N/A

Unknown Graminoid 2 2.7 N/A

Equisetum spp. 2 2.5 N/A

Fragaria chiloensis 2 2.0 N/A

Streptopus amplexifolius 2 1.7 N/A

Lathyrus maritimus 1 1.5 N/A

Angelica spp. 1 1.3 N/A

Elymus arenarius 2 1.2 N/A

Aruncus dioicus 1 1.1 N/A

Conioselium chinense 2 1.0 N/A

Actea rubra 2 0.8 N/A

Athyrium felix-femina 1 0.8 N/A

Carex spp. 2 0.5 N/A

Heracleum lanatum 1 0.5 N/A

Astragalus spp. 1 0.4 N/A

Osmorhiza chilensis 2 0.4 N/A

Rubus pedatus 1 0.4 N/A

Boshniakia rossica 2 0.2 N/A

Rubus arctica 1 0.2 N/A

Taraxacum spp. 1 0.1 N/A

Triglochin maritima 1 0.1 N/A
49

Table 4. Results of bear sign mapping. 

Study Site Scats Hair Samples Rub Trees Chew Logs Bear Beds

Sandy Cove 239 74 6 3 6

Queen Inlet 116 225 9 2 7

Russell Passage 163 141 6 3 6

Tlingit Point 10 56 5 1 2 

Reid Inlet 44 126 8 1 8 

Tarr Inlet 16 26 5 1 2

Wolf Point 33 59 5 0 24

Johns Hopkins 4 20 0 0 0
50

Table 5. Collection and DNA analysis data for hair samples encountered in 2005. 

Study Site

Total Samples 

Collected

Samples 

Submitted

Individual 

Identification Frequency % 

Johns Hopkins 7 5 Successful 3 60.00

Inlet Unsuccessful 2 40.00

Queen Inlet 92 72 Successful 35 48.61

 Unsuccessful 37 51.39

Reid Inlet 43 35 Successful 21 60.00

Unsuccessful 14 40.00

Russell Passage 77 59 Successful 25 42.37

 Unsuccessful 34 57.63

Sandy Cove 45 32 Successful 21 65.63

 Unsuccessful 11 34.37

Tarr Inlet 14 8 Successful 2 25.00

Unsuccessful 6 75.00

Tlingit Point 40 28 Successful 18 62.07

 Unsuccessful 10 37.93

Wolf Point 38 25 Successful 18 72.00

 Unsuccessful 7 28.00

Total 356 264

 
51

Table 6. DNA analysis success for hair samples by collection source.

Source Individual Identification Frequency % of Source

Barb Tree Successful 25 56.82

 Unsuccessful 19 43.18

Chew Log Successful 23 53.49

Unsuccessful 20 46.51

Hair Trap Successful 37 63.79

 Unsuccessful 21 36.21

opportunistic Successful 2 22.22

 Unsuccessful 7 77.78

Rub Tree Successful 56 50.91

Unsuccessful 54 49.09

Total 264
52

Table 7. Numbers, species, and sex of individuals identified with genetic testing by study site.

Ursus arctos Ursus americanus

Study Site Male Female Male Female Total

Russell Passage 6 7 0 0 13

Queen Inlet 2 7 0 0 9

Sandy Cove 0 0 6 2 8

Reid Inlet 6 0 0 0 6

Tlingit Point 1 0 3 2 6 

Johns Hopkins 0 2 0 0 2 

Wolf Point 2 0 0 0 2

Tarr Inlet 1 0 0 0 1

Total 18 16 9 4 47
53

Table 8. Number of times individual bears were identified by study site.

Times Identified # of Sources

# of Trips 

Identified

Study Site Species Sex n Mean StdDev Mean StdDev Mean StdDev

Johns 

Hopkins U. arctos Female 2 1.5 N/A 1 N/A 1 N/A

Queen 

Inlet U. arctos Both 9 3.78 3.38 2.33 1.66 1.56 0.73

U. arctos Male 2 2.5 N/A 2 N/A 1.5 N/A

U. arctos Female 7 4.14 3.80 2.33 1.66 1.56 0.79

Reid Inlet U. arctos Male 6 3.50 3.15 2.00 1.26 1.17 0.41

Russell 

Passage U. arctos Both 13 1.92 1.80 1.54 1.45 1.31 0.63

U. arctos Male 5 2.83 2.40 2.17 2.04 1.67 0.82

U. arctos Female 7 1.14 0.38 1.00 0.00 1.00 0.00

Sandy 

Cove U. americanus Both 8 2.63 1.69 1.38 0.74 1.63 0.74

U. americanus Male 6 1.83 0.75 1.17 0.41 1.20 0.52

U. americanus Female 2 5.00 N/A 2.50 N/A 2.50 N/A

Tarr Inlet U. arctos Male 1 2 N/A 2 N/A 1 N/A

Tlingit 

Point U. arctos Male 1 1 N/A 1 N/A 1 N/A

 U. americanus Both 3 3.40 1.52 1.80 0.84 1.60 0.55

U. americanus Male 3 2.67 0.58 1.33 0.58 1.33 0.58

U. americanus Female 2 4.5 N/A 2.5 N/A 2 N/A

Wolf Point U. arctos Male 2 9.00 N/A 3.00 N/A 1.50 N/A
54

Table 9. Remote camera data by study site.

2004 2005

Study Site Tapes Collected Camera Days Tapes Collected Camera Days

Total 

Camera 

Days

Johns Hopkins 1 – 4 38.50 1 – 6 58.18 96.68

Queen Inlet 1 – 6 57.96 1 – 6 53.68 111.64

Reid Inlet 1 – 6 52.43 3 – 6 30.83 83.25

Russell Passage 1, 3 – 6 45.70 3 – 6 28.92 74.62

Sandy Cove 1 – 3, 5 – 6 41.72 1 – 6 58.26 99.98

Tarr Inlet 1 – 6 53.81 1 – 6 57.83 111.64

Tlingit Point 1 – 6 50.05 None 0.00 50.05

Wolf Point 1 - 6 53.81 None 0.00 53.81

Total 393.98 287.70 681.67
55

Table 10. Bear activity data from remote camera units. Activity reported is a ratio of total number of video 

frames with bears present divided by the total number of video frames recorded. 

Bear Activity Bear Minutes in Site

Year Study Site Average StdDev Average Maximum

2004 Johns Hopkins 0.011 0.08 13.24 103.53

2004 Queen Inlet 0.042 0.18 50.00 268.16

2004 Reid Inlet 0.004 0.05 4.21 59.95

2004 Russell Passage 0.003 0.03 4.07 43.54

2004 Sandy Cove 0.041 0.15 49.09 224.67

2004 Tarr Inlet 0.009 0.08 11.09 109.66

2004 Tlingit Point 0.001 0.01 0.68 10.50

2004 Wolf Point 0.004 0.05 4.83 66.60

2004 Total 0.014 0.10 16.27 131.33

2004 Total w/o TL & WO 0.018 0.11 21.28 152.95

2005 Johns Hopkins 0.002 0.02 2.37 28.62

2005 Queen Inlet 0.040 0.17 48.29 254.93

2005 Reid Inlet 0.004 0.04 4.80 50.55

2005 Russell Passage 0.007 0.04 7.86 61.04

2005 Sandy Cove 0.026 0.11 30.82 160.46

2005 Tarr Inlet 0.002 0.04 2.02 52.22

2005 Total 0.014 0.09 17.38 131.26

Grand Total 0.014 0.10 16.74 131.30
56

Table 11. Combined bear minutes data from remote camera units by study site. 

Bear Activity Bear Minutes

Site Average StdDev Average/day Maximum/day

Queen Inlet 0.041 0.18 49 264

Sandy Cove 0.032 0.12 38 186

Russell Passage 0.005 0.04 6 52

Tarr Inlet 0.005 0.06 6 84

Johns Hopkins 0.006 0.05 7 68

Wolf Point 0.004 0.05 5 66

Reid Inlet 0.004 0.04 5 58

Tlingit Point 0.001 0.01 1 11
57

Table 12. Study site ranking data.

Bear Foods Collections

Site

Average 

Activity Rank

Area 

Size 

(km2) Rank

Food 

Coverage 

(m2) Rank

Forage 

Diversity

Index Rank

Scats/

Field 

Day Rank

Hair/ 

Field 

Day Rank

# 

Bears Rank

Ave 

Ranka

Queen 

Inlet 0.041 1 0.071 4 51942.35 2 0.68 4 0.73 3 1.39 1 9 2 2.2

Sandy 

Cove 0.032 2 0.091 3 45292.53 3 0.92 1 1.47 1 0.45 4 8 3 2.3

Russell 

Passage 0.005 5 0.191 1 139603.90 1 0.81 2 0.99 2 0.85 2 13 1 2.2

Tarr 

Inlet 0.005 4 0.041 6 9774.37 6 0.54 6 0.09 6 0.15 7 1 8 6.2

Johns 

Hopkins 0.006 3 0.024 8 1698.88 8 0.24 8 0.04 8 0.12 8 2 6 6.8

Wolf 

Point 0.004 6 0.098 2 21696.61 5 0.49 7 0.19 5 0.34 5 2 6 5.7

Reid 

Inlet 0.004 7 0.068 5 30269.24 4 0.68 4 0.27 4 0.76 3 6 4 4.3

Tlingit 

Point 0.001 8 0.030 7 6426.32 7 0.76 3 0.06 7 0.34 6 6 4 5.8 a Average rank was calculated by summing all rank values for each site and dividing by 6, area size rank excluded. 

Shaded cells (Tarr Inlet and Johns Hopkins) are camping closure areas. 
58

Appendix 1. GLBA Bear Habitat Classification

Vegetation Classification to Level III (Viereck and others, 1992)

I. Woody 

a) Closed needle leaf forest (I.A.1.)

 Canopy cover of 60-100% with >75% of canopy comprised of coniferous trees

 Dominated by Picea species with Salix, Alnus and herbaceous under story.

b) Closed tall scrub (II.B.1) 

Tall (>1.5 meters) shrub cover of >75% 

Shrubs dominated by Salix, Populus and/or Alnus species.

II. Open Scrub Herb 

Open low scrub (II.C.2)

Low (0.2-1.5 meters) shrub cover of 25-75%

Shrubs dominated by Shepherdia, Salix, or Alnus species

Other plant communities present may include dwarf scrub (Dryas), dry or mesic forb herbaceous

III. Rye

Dry graminoid herbaceous (III.A.1.)

Forbs and graminoid species in well drained soils

Dominated by Elymus arenarius and/or Honckenya peploides 

IV. Halophytic grass-herb 

Wet graminoid herbaceous (III.A.3)/ Wet forb herbaceous (III.B.3)

Graminoids and forbs occupying wet sites, halophytic

Dominated by Plantago maritima and/or Puccinellia nutkaensis, often with Triglochin and/or 

Carex species 

V. Graminoid and Graminoid herb 

Wet graminoid herbaceous (III.A.3)

Graminoids and forbs occupying wet sites, not halophytic

Dominated by Carex, other graminoids and/or Equisetum species

VI. Herb

Dry forb herbaceous (III.B.1)

Forb communities on dry sites

Dominated by a wide variety of seral and/or mesic herbs
59

Appendix 2. Data Sheets

I. Collection Data Sheet

GLBA Bear Research Collection Data Sheet

Trip #: Location: Date: GPS File #: 

Trip Sample # Description DNA? Source Age Quality Comments

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
60

Appendix 2. Bear forage phenology data sheet.—Continued

ID Common Name Scientific Name Present Eaten Comments

Forbs

ACRU Baneberry Actea rubra

ANSP Sea watch/white angelica Angelica spp.

ARUV Bearberry Arctostaphylos uva-ursi

ARDI Goatsbeard Aruncus dioicus

ASSP Vetch Astragulus spp

ATFI Lady Fern Athyrium felix-femina

BAOR American Wintercress Barbarea orthoceras

BORO Groundcone Boschniakia rossica

COCH Pacific Hemlock-Parsley Conioselium chinense

EQSP Horsetail Equisetum spp.

FRCH Strawberry Fragaria chiloensis

HEAL Alpine Sweetvetch Hedysarum alpinum

HELA Cow Parsnip Heracleum lanatum

LAMA Beach Pea Lathyrus maritimus

LIHU Beach Lovage Ligusticum hultenii

LUSP Lupine Lupinus spp.

OPHO Devil’s Club Oplopanax horridus

OSDE Licorice Root Osmorhiza chilensis

OXCA Field Oxytrope Oxytropis campestris

PLMA Goose Tongue Plantago maritima

RISP Currant Ribes spp.

RUAR Nagoonberry Rubus arctica

RUSP Salmonberry Rubus spectabilis

SARA Red-elderberry Sambucus racemosa

SHCA Soapberry Shepherdia canadensis

STAM Twisted Stalk Streptopus amplexifolius

TASP Dandelion Taraxacum spp.

TRMA Sea Arrow-Grass Triglochin maritimum

VASP Blueberry/Huckleberry Vaccinium spp.

VIED High-bush Cranberry Viburnum edule
61

Appendix 2. Bear forage phenology data sheet.—Continued

Grasses

ELAR Rye-grass Elymus arenarius

CASP Sedges Carex spp.

PUNU Pacific Alkaligrass Puccinellia nutkaensis

UNGR Unknown graminoid N/A

Animals

BASP Barnacles Balanus spp.

MYED Blue Mussels Mytilus edulis

ONSP Salmon Onchorynchus spp.

Other Animal (Specify)
62

Appendix 3. Phenological classifications and definitions.

A) Present (PR): Restricted to animal food items to simply denote 

presence/absence.

 

B) Vegetative (VE): Plants are actively growing or phenology is 

difficult to determine.

 

C) Early Flower (EF): Plants are in early stages of flowering.

 

D) Flower (FL): Plants have mature flowers

 

E) Late Flower (LF): Plants still have mature flowers but some seeds (or berries) 

are starting to form.

 

F) Early Seed (ES): Similar to late flower with the addition of more immature 

seeds or berries formed.

 

G) Seed (SE): Plants have fully mature seeds or berries.

 

H) Late Seed (LS): Seeds and berries are starting to drop or die.

 

I) Dead or Dying (DE): Plant is wilting, browning, and start to die.

 

J) No Data (-): Species was not noticed during a particular field visit or data was 

not recorded.
Publishing support provided by the U.S. Geological Survey

Publishing Network, Tacoma Publishing Service Center

For more information concerning the research in this report, contact the

Director, Alaska Science Center,

U.S. Geological Survey, 

4210 University Drive, 

Anchorage, AK, 99508

http://alaska.usgs.gov/
Partridge and others— Black and Brown Bear Activity at Selected Coastal Sites, Alaska: A Preliminary Assessment—Open-File Report 2009–1169