U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2008–5130

Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service

Review of Available Water-Quality Data for the Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network and Characterization of Water 

Quality in Five Selected Park Units in Arizona, Colorado, 

New Mexico, and Utah, 1925 to 2004

Lake Powell Glen Canyon National

Recreation Area

Grand Canyon

National Park

El Malpais

National Monument

Petrified Forest

National Park

Canyon de Chelly

National Monument

Wupatki National 

Monument

Mesa Verde 

National Park

Bandelier National 

Monument

Petroglyph National 

Monument

Walnut Canyon 

National Monument

Sunset Crater Volcano

National Monument

El Morro National 

Monument

Navajo National 

Monument Aztec Ruins 

National Monument

Salinas Pueblo Missions

National Monument

Rainbow Bridge 

National Monument

Hubbell Trading Post

National Historic Site

Yucca House 

National Monument

Rio Puerco

Rio Grande

Animas River

Chaco Wash

Rio Puerco

San Juan River

UTAH

COLORADO

NEW MEXICO

110°

35°

40° 

Salt River

Little Colorado River

Rio Grande

Rio Grande

Chinle Creek

Escalante River

Colorado River

Colorado River

Little Colorado River

Paria River

Dirty Devil River

Chaco River

San Juan River

Colorado River

Verde River

ARIZONA

Chaco Culture 

National Historical Park

Review of Available Water-Quality Data 

for the Southern Colorado Plateau Network 

and Characterization of Water Quality 

in Five Selected Park Units in Arizona, 

Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, 1925 

to 2004

By Juliane B. Brown

Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service

Scientific Investigations Report 2008–5130 

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Mark D. Myers, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2008

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U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Brown, J.B., 2008, Review of available water-quality data for the Southern Colorado Plateau Network and 

characterization of water quality in five selected park units in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, 1925 to 

2004: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008–5130, 118 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................1

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................2

Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................2

Description of the Southern Colorado Plateau Study Area ...................................................................2

Compilation of Data ......................................................................................................................................5

Analysis of Data .............................................................................................................................................6

Computation of Descriptive Statistical Measures ..........................................................................7

Comparison to State Water-Quality Standards................................................................................7

Overview of Water Quality and Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units ..............................7

Available Water-Quality Data for Parks ............................................................................................7

Water-Quality Issues Identified by Parks .......................................................................................10

Impaired Waters .................................................................................................................................15

Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units ........15

Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico ................................................................................16

Geology........................................................................................................................................16

Water Resources .......................................................................................................................18

Available Water-Quality Data ..................................................................................................20

Characterization of Water Quality...........................................................................................21

Surface-Water Quality ....................................................................................................21

Field Properties ........................................................................................................22

Major Ions.................................................................................................................30

Nutrients....................................................................................................................30

Other Constituents...................................................................................................32

Trace Elements.........................................................................................................34

Water Quality of Springs..................................................................................................34

Field Properties ........................................................................................................34

Major Ions.................................................................................................................36

Nutrients....................................................................................................................36

Trace Elements, Radionuclides, and Volatile Organic Compounds ................37

Summary of Surface-Water and Springs Characterization and Considerations 

for Monitoring ...............................................................................................................39

Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona............................................................................39

Geology........................................................................................................................................40

Water Resources .......................................................................................................................40

Available Water-Quality Data ..................................................................................................42

Characterization of Water Quality...........................................................................................44

Field Properties .................................................................................................................44

Major Ions..........................................................................................................................49

Nutrients.............................................................................................................................49

Bacteriological Data ........................................................................................................50

Other Constituents............................................................................................................50

Trace Elements..................................................................................................................51
iv

Summary of Surface-Water Characterization and Considerations for Monitoring........51

Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico .................................................................51

Geology........................................................................................................................................51

Water Resources .......................................................................................................................53

Available Water-Quality Data ..................................................................................................53

Characterization of Water Quality...........................................................................................54

Field Properties .................................................................................................................55

Major Ions..........................................................................................................................61

Nutrients ............................................................................................................................61

Other Constituents............................................................................................................62

Trace Elements..................................................................................................................62

Radiological Constituents................................................................................................63

Summary of Surface-Water Characterization and Considerations for Monitoring........63

Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah.........................................................63

Geology........................................................................................................................................64

Water Resources .......................................................................................................................64

Available Water-Quality Data ..................................................................................................67

Characterization of Water Quality...........................................................................................67

Field Properties .................................................................................................................67

Major Ions..........................................................................................................................81

Nutrients.............................................................................................................................81

Trace Elements..................................................................................................................82

Organic, Pesticide, and Wastewater Compounds ......................................................84

Radiological Constituents................................................................................................84

Summary of Surface-Water Characterization and Considerations for Monitoring........84

Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado..............................................................................................85

Geology........................................................................................................................................85

Water Resources .......................................................................................................................87

Available Water-Quality Data ..................................................................................................87

Characterization of Water Quality...........................................................................................89

Surface-Water Quality .....................................................................................................89

Field Properties ........................................................................................................89

Major Ions.................................................................................................................94

Nutrients....................................................................................................................94

Bacteriological Data ...............................................................................................94

Trace Elements.........................................................................................................94

Water Quality of Springs..................................................................................................96

Field Properties ........................................................................................................96

Major Ions.................................................................................................................96

Nutrients....................................................................................................................96

Bacteriological Data ...............................................................................................98

Trace Elements.........................................................................................................98

Summary of Surface-Water and Springs Characterization and Considerations for 

Monitoring ..................................................................................................................100

Synthesis of Surface-Water Characterization and Implications for Future Water-Quality 

Monitoring Activities ..........................................................................................................100

Summary......................................................................................................................................................104
v

References Cited........................................................................................................................................108

Appendix. Overview of Water-Quality Properties of Interest to Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units ............................................................................................................................113

Field Properties .................................................................................................................................113

Major Ions..........................................................................................................................................114

Nutrients.............................................................................................................................................114

Trace Elements..................................................................................................................................114

Solids (Suspended and Dissolved) ................................................................................................115

Bacteriological Organisms..............................................................................................................116

Organic Compounds.........................................................................................................................116

Radiological Constituents................................................................................................................116

References Cited...............................................................................................................................117

Figures

1. Map showing Southern Colorado Plateau Network showing park boundaries, 

land cover, and principal surface-water bodies .....................................................................3

2. Map showing Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, and locations 

of water-quality sampling sites ................................................................................................17

3. Graph showing water sample counts, number of sites, and period of record 

for Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National 

Monument, New Mexico, 1957 to 2001 ...................................................................................21

4. Graph showing water sample counts and period of record of Apache, 

Basalt, Frijoles, and Turkey Springs in Bandelier National Monument, 

New Mexico, 1951 to 1998.........................................................................................................22

5. Piper diagram showing water types for Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the 

Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1957 to 2001...........31

6. Piper diagram showing water types for Basalt, Turkey, Apache, and Frijoles 

Springs in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1965 to 1978..............................37

7. Map showing Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, and locations of 

water-quality sampling sites.....................................................................................................41

8. Graph showing total number of stream and reservoir samples collected for 

bacteriological data, trace elements, nutrients, and field properties, number 

of sites, and period of record, Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 

1967 to 2003..................................................................................................................................44

9. Piper diagram showing water types for headwater creeks, headwater lakes, and 

Chinle Wash, Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 1967 to 2003....................50

10. Map showing Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, and 

locations of water-quality sampling sites...............................................................................52

11. Graph showing total number of stream samples (and sites) collected for 

field properties, nutrients, trace elements, and radiological constituents, 

Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, 1976 to 1983..................................55

12. Piper diagram showing water types of contributing washes (Escavada, 

Fajada, and Gallo Washes), Chaco Wash and the Chaco River, and 

Kim-me-ni-oli Wash, Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, 

1976 to 1983..................................................................................................................................61

13. Map showing Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, and 

locations of water-quality sampling sites...............................................................................68
vi

14. Graph showing total number of sites and samples for field properties and 

major ions, nutrients, and trace elements collected from selected streams, 

excluding the Colorado and San Juan Rivers, and unnamed waters, flowing 

into and within Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 

1947 to 2003..................................................................................................................................71

15. Graph showing total number of water samples collected from the Dirty Devil, 

Escalante, and Paria Rivers for field properties, major ions, nutrients, and trace 

elements, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 to 2003.......72

16. Piper diagram showing water types of the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and 

Paria Rivers, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 

1947 to 2003..................................................................................................................................82

17. Map showing Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, and locations of 

water-quality sampling sites.....................................................................................................86

18. Piper diagram showing water types for selected upstream from and inpark Mancos River sites, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1975 to 1998.................95

19. Piper diagram showing water types for the four springs with five or more 

major ion samples in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1977 to 1998 ........................98

Tables

1. National Park Service units in the Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 

including acreage, State, and visitation statistics ..................................................................4

2. Selected aquatic-life stream-segment numeric water-quality standards for 

selected field properties and constituents for Southern Colorado Plateau parks ............8

3. Numbers of streams, springs, lakes (includes reservoirs, ponds or pools), 

and ground-water sites and water samples collected within Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network park boundaries and period of record, 1925 to 2003 ............11

4. Number of water samples by site type and constituent class for sites 

within Southern Colorado Park Network park boundaries, 1925 to 2003 ..........................12

5. Summary of water-quality stressors by park identified by Southern Colorado 

Plateau Network park personnel during Phase I and Phase II of the Inventory 

and Monitoring Program activities ..........................................................................................14

6. Stream and spring sites with water-quality data in or upstream from Bandelier 

National Monument, New Mexico, 1951 to 2001 ...................................................................19

7. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality 

standards at selected Alamo Creek sampling sites located in and upstream 

from Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1977 to 2001 .......................................23

8. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality 

standards at selected Capulin Creek sampling sites located in Bandelier 

National Monument, New Mexico, 1977 to 2001 ...................................................................25

9. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality 

standards in selected Rito de los Frijoles (Upper and Lower Frijoles Creek) 

sampling sites located in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1957 

to 2001...........................................................................................................................................27

10. Organic compounds and pesticides detected in bed-sediment and fish tissue 

samples from November 9, 1992, sampling event at site 308, Frijoles Creek 

below Frijoles Falls, in the Lower Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National 

Monument, New Mexico...........................................................................................................33
vii

11. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality

standards in Apache, Basalt, Frijoles, and Turkey Springs in Bandelier 

National Monument, New Mexico, 1951 to 1998 ...................................................................35

12. Summary of trace-element and radionuclide values greater than the 

censoring level for Basalt Spring from August 14, 1997, sample in Bandelier 

National Monument, New Mexico...........................................................................................38

13. Stream and lake sites with water-quality data in, near, or upstream from Canyon 

de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 1967 to 2003...........................................................43

14. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality 

standards in selected surface-water sampling sites located in, near, and 

upstream from Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 1967 to 2003 .................45

15. Stream sites with water-quality data in, upstream from, and downstream 

from Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, 1976 to 1983 ........................54

16. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality 

standards at selected stream sampling sites located in, upstream from, and 

at the downstream boundary of Chaco Culture National Historical Park, 

New Mexico, 1976 to 1983.........................................................................................................56

17. Summary of temperature, precipitation, and snowfall records from six climate 

stations near Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 

1901 to 2006..................................................................................................................................65

18. Summary of real-time streamflow gages of major perennial rivers flowing 

into and out of Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah......................66

19. Selected stream sites with water-quality data in or upstream from Glen Canyon 

National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 to 2003 .................................................69

20. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality 

standards for selected stream sampling sites in the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and 

Paria Rivers located in and upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation 

Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 to 2003 ......................................................................................73

21. Statistical summary of water-quality data and aquatic-life or secondarycontact recreation exceedances for evaluated tributaries that flow into the 

Escalante River or Lake Powell, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, 

Utah, 1979 to 2003 .......................................................................................................................79

22. Pesticide compounds with values above censoring levels from samples 

collected in 1985, 1986, and 2002 in the Escalante and Paria Rivers, Glen Canyon 

National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah.........................................................................85

23. Mancos River and spring sites with water-quality data in, upstream from, 

and downstream from Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1971 to 2002......................88

24. Period of record and sample counts for sites with water-quality data on the 

Mancos River in and near Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1971 to 2002...............90

25. Period of record and sample counts for springs in Mesa Verde National Park, 

Colorado, with water-quality data, 1977 to 1998....................................................................91

26. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality 

standards in selected Mancos River sites located directly upstream from or 

within Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1975 to 1998 ..................................................92

27. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality 

standards for selected springs in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1977 

to 1998...........................................................................................................................................97

28. Summary of water-quality standard exceedances by park for stream sites for 

five Southern Colorado Park Network park units, Arizona, Colorado, New 

Mexico, and Utah, 1988–2003 .................................................................................................101
viii

Conversion Factors, Abbreviations of Units of Measure, and 

Horizonal and Vertical Datum

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch 2.54 centimeter (cm)

inch 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2)

acre 0.004047 square kilometer (km2)

hectare (ha) 2.471 acre

square mile (mi2) 259.0 hectare (ha)

Volume

acre-foot (acre-ft) 1,233 cubic meter (m3)

Concentration Unit

micrograms per kilogram (μg/Kg) 1 parts per billion (ppb)

micrograms per liter (μg/L) 1 parts per billion (ppb)

milligrams per liter (mg/L) 1 parts per million (ppm)

Flow rate

foot per year (ft/yr) 0.3048 meter per year (m/yr)

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 448.83 gallons per minute (gpm)

Radioactivity

picocurie per liter (pCi/L) 200 millirem per year (mrem/yr)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C=(°F–32)/1.8

Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (μS/cm at 25°C).

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are most often given either in milligrams per liter (mg/L) 

or micrograms per liter (μg/L). 

One microequivalent per liter (μeq/L) or one milliequivalent per liter (meq/L) is equal to one thousand 

milligram-equivalents per one thousand milliliters (meq/mL). Chemical analyses of solutes in a sample are 

expressed in unit concentrations that are chemically equivalent in terms of atomic or molecular weight 

and electrical charge. 

Water year is the period from October 1 to September 30 of the following year. 

Horizontal coordinate information, where available, is referenced to the North American Datum of 1927 

(NAD 27) or North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

Vertical coordinate information, where available, is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 

1929 (NGVD 29) or North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88).
ix

Additional Abbreviations and Acronyms

ABS, Alkylbenzene sulfonate

ANC, Acid neutralizing capacity

AZ, Arizona

AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality

BAND, Bandelier National Monument

BOR, Bureau of Reclamation

CACH, Canyon de Chelly National Monument

CDPHE, Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment

CHCU, Chaco Culture National Historical Park

CO, Colorado

DDT, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

DO, Dissolved oxygen

GLCA, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area

GRCA, Grand Canyon National Park

HQCF, High-quality cold-water fishery

I&M, Inventory and Monitoring

LANL, Los Alamos National Laboratory

MCL, Maximum contaminant level

MEVE, Mesa Verde National Park

MPN, Most probable number

NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality

NHS, National Historic Site

NM, New Mexico

NMED, New Mexico Environment Department

NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission

NNEPA, Navajo Nation Environmental Protection Agency

NP, National Park

NPS, National Park Service

NRA, National Recreation Area

NTU, Nephelometric turbidity units

NWIS, National Water Information System

PCB, Polychlorinated biphenyls

SC, Specific conductance

SCPN, Southern Colorado Plateau Network

STORET, Storage and Retrieval System

SU, Standard units

TMDL, Total maximum daily load

TRC, Total residual chlorine

TVS, Table value standard

USCOE, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

USFS, USDA Forest Service

USGS, U.S. Geological Survey

UT, Utah

UTDWQ, Utah Division of Water Quality

VOC, Volatile organic compounds

Abstract

Historical water-quality data in the National Park 

Service Southern Colorado Plateau Network have been 

collected irregularly and with little followup interpretation, 

restricting the value of the data. To help address these issues, 

to inform future water-quality monitoring planning efforts, 

and to address relevant National Park Service Inventory and 

Monitoring Program objectives, the U.S. Geological Survey, 

in cooperation with the National Park Service, compiled, 

reviewed, and summarized available historical water-quality 

data for 19 park units in the Southern Colorado Plateau 

Network. The data are described in terms of availability by 

major water-quality classes, park unit, site type, and selected 

identified water sources. The report also describes the geology, 

water resources, water-quality issues, data gaps, and waterquality standard exceedances identified in five of the park 

units determined to be of high priority. The five park units 

are Bandelier National Monument in New Mexico, Canyon 

de Chelly National Monument in Arizona, Chaco Culture 

National Historical Park in New Mexico, Glen Canyon 

National Recreation Area in Arizona and Utah, and Mesa 

Verde National Park in Colorado. Statistical summaries of 

water-quality characteristics are presented and considerations 

for future water-quality monitoring are provided for these five 

park units. 

Introduction 

Understanding the condition of natural resources is vital 

to the National Park Service’s (NPS) ability to effectively 

manage park resources. Park management decisions must 

be integrated with preservation of the national parks for the 

enjoyment of future generations. Across the Nation, the NPS 

is facing increasingly challenging issues such as encroaching 

development; air- and water-quality concerns; recreational 

effects within and upstream from park units; surrounding 

land-use activities such as grazing, agriculture, and mining; 

Review of Available Water-Quality Data for the Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network and Characterization of Water 

Quality in Five Selected Park Units in Arizona, Colorado, 

New Mexico, and Utah, 1925 to 2004

By Juliane B. Brown

loss of species diversity and invasion by nonnative species; 

fire; and extreme weather-related events. To address management concerns, in 1998 the National Parks Omnibus Management Act (P.L. 105–391) created an inventory and monitoring 

program of park resources to establish baseline information 

and to provide information on the long-term trends in the 

condition of National Park System resources. The purpose of 

this legislation is to “encourage the publication and dissemination of information derived from studies in the NPS” and to 

“ensure appropriate documentation of resource conditions in 

the National Park System.”

In 1999, the NPS initiated the Inventory and Monitoring (I&M) Program in response to the 1998 National Parks 

Omnibus Management Act to establish natural-resource 

inventory and monitoring as standard practices within the NPS 

in order to provide a scientific basis for sound park management. To facilitate collaboration, information sharing, and cost 

sharing for the I&M Program, park units linked by geography 

and shared natural-resource characteristics were grouped into 

32 monitoring networks. The networks have been working to 

develop an ecological monitoring strategy involving a series of 

planning, design, and implementation activities. This strategy 

is intended to ensure that long-term monitoring efforts will 

meet key information needs, produce ecologically relevant 

and scientifically credible data, and make those data available 

to resource managers. This information includes historical 

and current monitoring data, available documentation and 

literature on each park’s natural resources, and an understanding of past and present-day resource-management activities. 

Identifying and monitoring park vital signs (that is, indicators 

of resource health) is one of the I&M Program strategies to 

ensure that all park units with significant natural resources 

have the information relevant to making effective decisions 

regarding resource protection and management. “Park vital 

signs are selected physical, chemical, and biological elements 

and processes of park ecosystems that represent the overall 

health or condition of the park” (National Park Service, 2005b, 

p. 1). Vital signs are intended to characterize and determine 

trends in the condition of park natural resources in order to 

assess the effectiveness of restoration and protection activities 
2 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

and management approaches and to provide early warning of 

potential concerns. As part of the I&M Program, a comprehensive inventory of natural resources is being conducted by each 

network to identify and prioritize vital signs. 

The Southern Colorado Plateau Network (SCPN) is one 

of 32 monitoring networks being evaluated as part of the I&M 

Program. The SCPN is composed of 19 park units in northern 

Arizona, southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, 

and southern Utah. The SCPN staff, park managers and 

scientists, and collaborating scientists are working together to 

identify, evaluate, and rank candidate resource “vital signs” 

through a comprehensive iterative process. Water quality is 

one of 16 core vital signs identified as integral to the development of a comprehensive ecological monitoring strategy for 

selected SCPN parks (Thomas and others, 2006). Historical 

natural-resource monitoring data, including water-quality data, 

have been sporadically collected and inconsistently managed 

and commonly have lacked corresponding interpretation, all of 

which has limited the usefulness of the data. To help address 

these issues, to inform future water-quality-monitoring planning efforts, and to address selected I&M Program objectives, 

the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the 

National Park Service, compiled, reviewed, and summarized 

available historical water-quality data for the SCPN park units 

and surrounding areas. 

Purpose and Scope

This report describes the compilation and synthesis of 

electronically available water-quality data for the 19 SCPN 

parks. The report describes the SCPN area and provides an 

overview of data availability for the 19 SCPN park units. 

Detailed descriptions of historical data and a characterization of water quality are provided for selected surface waters 

in five high priority SCPN park units. Sediment or fish tissue 

data are included in this report because they offer insights into 

water quality for selected waters. These park units are Bandelier National Monument (BAND), Canyon de Chelly National 

Monument (CACH), Chaco Culture National Historical Park 

(CHCU), Glen Canyon National Recreation Area (GLCA), 

and Mesa Verde National Park (MEVE). 

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to express appreciation to employees 

of the National Park Service, in particular to Stephen Monroe 

for his assistance and patience with the focus and content of 

this report. Additionally, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), the New 

Mexico Environment Department (NMED), and the Navajo 

Nation Environmental Protection Agency (NNEPA) contributed data to the water-quality database compilation effort. 

The author also expresses gratitude to USGS employees Katie 

Walton-Day, Doug Druliner, Jean Dupree, David Litke, and 

Kirby Wynn for their technical or administrative assistance 

with selected aspects of this project. Finally, the author thanks 

Stephen Monroe (National Park Service), Margot Truini 

(USGS Arizona Water Science Center), and M. Alisa Mast 

(USGS Colorado Water Science Center) for their thorough 

and helpful technical reviews of this report, and the USGS 

publications staff for their assistance in preparing this report 

for publication. 

Description of the Southern Colorado 

Plateau Study Area 

The SCPN is composed of 19 park units: 3 national 

parks, 13 national monuments, 1 national historic site, 1 

national historical park, and 1 national recreation area, located 

in northern Arizona, southwestern Colorado, northwestern 

New Mexico, and southern Utah (fig. 1). The parks, which 

were established for their unique and significant cultural and 

(or) natural resources, range in size from about 34 acres to 

greater than 1.2 million acres and total almost 2.9 million 

acres (table 1). Increased pressures from surrounding land-use 

activities coupled with substantial increases in the number of 

recreational visitors present the parks with numerous resourcemanagement challenges. 

Most of the 19 SCPN park units are within the southern Colorado Plateau region, except for BAND, Petroglyph 

National Monument (PETR), and Salinas Pueblo Missions 

National Monument (SAPU), which are east of the Colorado 

Plateau in the neighboring physiographic provinces (Southern 

Rocky Mountains and Basin and Range) in New Mexico. This 

wide geographic extent results in ecological gradients ranging 

from lowland, thinly vegetated deserts to transitional woodland mountain zones to subalpine climate and vegetation zones 

at the highest elevations (Thomas and others, 2006). 

Climate in the area can be described as arid to semiarid 

and is characterized by periods of drought, irregular precipitation, high evapotranspiration rates, high ground-level solar 

radiation, relatively warm to hot growing seasons, and long 

winters with sustained periods of freezing temperatures. Generally, precipitation decreases with decreasing elevation and 

summer precipitation decreases from the southeast part of the 

Plateau to the northwest (Thomas and others, 2006). 

The SCPN is characterized by unpredictable and generally sparse seasonal, annual, and decadal precipitation; 

relatively high and low seasonal temperature extremes; high 

evapotranspiration rates; and monsoonal flash-floods (Thomas 

and others, 2006). This aridity, although interrupted by periods 

of flooding, results in water being a critical, limiting factor in 

ecological processes affecting soil moisture, type and distribution of flora and fauna, stream channel geomorphology, and 

surface conditions throughout the Colorado Plateau area. 

Thomas and others (2004) provide a detailed overview 

of the Colorado Plateau landforms and geology. The Colorado 

Plateau is formed by undeformed, slanted, multilayered blocks 

of sedimentary rock that range from Precambrian to Tertiary 
Description of the Southern Colorado Plateau Study Area 3

Lake Powell Glen Canyon National

Recreation Area

Grand Canyon

National Park

El Malpais

National Monument

Petrified Forest

National Park

Canyon de Chelly

National Monument

Wupatki National 

Monument

Mesa Verde 

National Park

Bandelier National 

Monument

Petroglyph National 

Monument

Walnut Canyon 

National Monument

Sunset Crater Volcano

National Monument

El Morro National 

Monument

Navajo National 

Monument Aztec Ruins 

National Monument

Salinas Pueblo Missions

National Monument

Rainbow Bridge 

National Monument

Hubbell Trading Post

National Historic Site

Yucca House 

National Monument

Rio Puerco

Rio Grande

Animas River

Chaco Wash

Rio Puerco

San Juan River

UTAH

COLORADO

NEW MEXICO

110°

35°

40° 

EXPLANATION

Streams

State boundaries

SCPN park unit boundaries

Land cover

Water

Urban

Barren

Forested

Rangeland

Agricultural

Wetlands

0 80 160 MILES

0 125 250 KILOMETERS

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data,

Streams, 1:2,000,000; Land cover, 1992 National Land

Cover Data (30-meter resolution data); State boundaries,

1:2,000,000; SCPN park unit boundaries from the 

National Park Service, scale unspecified.

Salt River

Little Colorado River

Rio Grande

Rio Grande

Chinle Creek

Escalante River

Colorado River

Colorado River

Little Colorado River

Paria River

Dirty Devil River

Chaco River

San Juan River

Colorado River

Verde River

ARIZONA

Chaco Culture 

National Historical Park

Figure 1. Southern Colorado Plateau Network (SCPN) showing park boundaries, land cover, and principal surface-water 

bodies.
4 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 1. National Park Service units in the Southern Colorado Plateau Network, including acreage, State, and visitation 

statistics. 

[AZ, Arizona; CO, Colorado; NM, New Mexico; UT, Utah; --, no data available; park units detailed in this report shown in bold]

SCPN 

park

Park 

abbreviation State Acres1

Number of 

recreational 

visitors in 20052

Percent change in number 

of visitors from first 

recorded year to 2005

(Number of visitors in

first year, first year)2

Aztec Ruins National Monument AZRU NM 257 44,050 607 (6,234, 1923)

Bandelier National Monument BAND NM 32,831 250,161 5,908 (4,164, 1932)

Canyon de Chelly National 

Monument CACH AZ 83,840 830,253 196,177 (423, 1931)

Chaco Culture National 

Historical Park CHCU NM 32,840 45,539 2,177 (2,000, 1925)

El Malpais National Monument ELMA NM 109,612 116,194 393 (23,546, 1988)

El Morro National Monument ELMO NM 1,040 51,825 2,491 (2,000, 1920)

Glen Canyon National 

Recreation Area GLCA AZ/UT 1,239,764 1,908,726 872 (196, 400, 1964)

Grand Canyon National Park GRCA AZ 1,180,863 4,401,522 11,561 (37,745, 1919)

Hubbell Trading Post 

National Historic Site HUTR AZ 160 95,676 91 (50,200, 1968)

Mesa Verde National Park MEVE CO 51,891 498,333 622,816 (80, 1908)

Navajo National Monument NAVA AZ 360 54,688 85,350 (64, 1920)

Petrified Forest National Park PEFO AZ 109,002 598,378 19,846 (3,000, 1919)

Petroglyph National 

Monument

PETR NM 2,929 102,623 51 (68,065, 1992)

Rainbow Bridge National Monument RABR UT 160 81,206 57,087 (142, 1923)

Salinas Pueblo Missions 

National Monument

SAPU NM 985 34,810 3,381 (1,000, 1925)

Sunset Crater Volcano 

National Monument

SUCR AZ 3,040 229,913 9,097 (2,500, 1934)

Walnut Canyon National Monument WACA AZ 3,289 128,275 1,183 (10,000, 1934)

Wupatki National Monument WUPA AZ 35,422 219,480 43,796 (500, 1925)

Yucca House National Monument YUHO CO 34 -- --

1

 From National Park Service, Land Resources Division, 2006. 

2

 From National Park Service, Public Use Statistics Office (2006) for recreation visitors only. 
Compilation of Data 5

in age. The youngest (Tertiary) rocks are found in the northern and eastern boundary, where the Rocky Mountains adjoin 

the Colorado Plateau, and the oldest (Precambrian) rocks are 

found along the southern and western boundary, where the 

Plateau adjoins the Basin and Range Province. Bare rock covers extensive areas of the Colorado Plateau’s surface. Common 

structural features across the Plateau include basins, monoclines (the most common structural feature), fault blocks, salt 

structures, igneous domal uplifts, and upwarps. 

Within the Colorado Plateau, the largest and most 

extensive water resource is the Colorado River, which flows 

through Grand Canyon National Park (GRCA) and Glen 

Canyon National Recreation Area (GLCA). Lake Powell in 

GLCA is the largest surface-water body on the plateau (fig. 1). 

Major tributaries that drain from the east to the Colorado 

River from areas surrounding and including most of the SCPN 

park units include the Little Colorado and San Juan Rivers. 

On the far eastern side of the SCPN, the areas of four park 

units—BAND, El Malpais National Monument (ELMA), 

PETR, and SAPU—drain into the Rio Grande Basin. Rivers 

bound four park units in the network, including Aztec Ruins 

National Monument (AZRU; Animas River), BAND (Rio 

Grande), MEVE (Mancos River), and Wupatki National 

Monument (WUPA; Little Colorado River). Parks supporting 

small perennial drainages include BAND (Capulin Creek, 

Rito de los Frijoles, and Alamo Creek), CACH (Tsaile Creek, 

Wheatfields Creek, Coyote Wash, and Black Rock Canyon), 

Navajo National Monument (NAVA; Keet Seel Canyon), 

and SAPU (Cañon Espinoso and Cañon Sapato). Numerous 

perennial tributaries to the Colorado River flow through 

GLCA and GRCA as well. Parks with significant intermittent 

or ephemeral drainages are CHCU (Chaco Wash), Hubbell 

Trading Post National Historic Site (HUTR; Pueblo Colorado 

Wash), and Petrified Forest (PEFO; Little Colorado River). 

Wildlife and vegetation at El Morro National Monument 

(ELMO) are sustained by tinajas (that is, natural ephemeral 

water holes usually found in rock hollows or unconsolidated 

material and periodically filled by rain or snow), potholes (that 

is, small depressional wetlands), and small pools. ELMO, 

Sunset Crater National Monument (SUCR), and PETR are 

dry most of the time. A vast network of perennial, intermittent 

and ephemeral springs, pools, washes, and streams sustain 

the larger water bodies and their associated riparian corridor; 

these areas collectively support the diverse flora and fauna 

throughout the region. The intermittent and ephemeral features 

typically flow during spring runoff or following rainfall. 

Unique and significant water-dependent features such as 

hanging gardens and cottonwood stands are supported by 

springs. Many of these water bodies, including many of the 

intermittent and ephemeral washes and arroyos, have been 

altered to enhance streambank stability, channel flow, water 

storage, and stormflow drainage (Thomas and others, 2006). 

Ground water is a critical resource in this region and provides the source water for springs that, in turn, provide critical 

support for flora and fauna, contribute to stream baseflow (for 

perennial waters), and provide water supplies for multiple park 

units. Three principal aquifers, the Coconino (C aquifer), Redwall-Muav, and Navajo (N aquifer), are particularly important 

to several SCPN parks. The C aquifer, which is an extensive, 

regional aquifer underlying more than 27,000 mi2 of the Little 

Colorado River Basin (and parts of the Salt and Verde River 

Basins) in north-central Arizona and which is principally 

contained in the water-bearing Coconino Sandstone rock unit, 

provides the water supplies to HUTR, PETR, SUCR, Walnut 

Canyon National Monument (WACA), and WUPA (Thomas 

and others, 2006; Hart and others, 2002). The Redwall-Muav 

aquifer, which underlies the C aquifer, is the principal watersupply source to GRCA (Bills and others, 2007). The N 

aquifer is the main water source in the Black Mesa area in the 

Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations in northeastern Arizona 

and provides the water supply for NAVA (Thomas and others, 

2006; Eychaner, 1983). 

Compilation of Data 

The NPS Southern Colorado Plateau Network and the 

USGS cooperated in acquisition, organization, management, 

and synthesis of available water-quality data associated with 

the waters of the SCPN parks as part of the I&M Program 

activities. Electronically available water-quality data were 

retrieved (as recently collected as January 2004) for sampling 

sites located within, adjacent to, and upstream from the 19 

park areas. A relational water-quality Microsoft© Access 

database houses the compiled historical water-quality data 

(on file at National Park Service office, Southern Colorado 

Plateau I&M Network, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, 

Arizona). 

The sources of data compiled for the SCPN water-quality 

database include Federal (USGS, USEPA, NPS, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service [USFS], Bureau of Reclamation [BOR], U.S. Army Corps of Engineers [USCOE]), 

State (Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment [CDPHE], Utah Division of Water Quality [UTDWQ], 

Arizona Department of Environmental Quality [ADEQ], and 

NMED), Tribal agencies (NNEPA), and volunteer monitoring 

organizations (Colorado Division of Wildlife Colorado River 

Watch). The data consist of water-quality and water-quantity 

information for streams, springs, lakes (including ponds, lakes, 

and reservoirs), diversions and outfalls, and ground water. 

Most of the data were obtained in electronic format from the 

USEPA Modernized Storage and Retrieval System (Modern STORET) and Legacy Data Center (Legacy STORET) 

databases (http://www.epa.gov/storet/dbtop.html, last accessed 

April 13, 2007) and the USGS National Water Information 

System (NWIS) database (http://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/usa/

nwis/rt, last accessed April 13, 2007). 

Within the boundaries of the 19 park areas, water-quality 

data were retrieved for 602 sites: 160 streams or rivers, 160 

springs, 207 ponds, lakes or reservoirs, 70 water wells, 3 

outfalls, and 2 diversions. Where available, additional data 
6 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

were retrieved for sites adjacent to and upstream from the park 

boundaries. Approximately 2,306 different field properties 

or constituents were included in the retrieval. The period of 

record, data collected, and sampling agencies varied among 

water-quality sites, and many sites had data for only one or a 

few samples. Sampling methodology, analytical methods, and 

quality assurance were not available for much of the historical 

data, which limited data comparability and interpretation. 

Several important water-quality datasets were not 

included in the data compilation effort due to the scope of the 

project. These datasets include the GRCA and GLCA data collected as part of the Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research 

Center that are not included in STORET or NWIS, and data 

collected by the Los Alamos National Laboratory in and near 

BAND. Data-collection activities, subsequent to the SCPN 

data compilation efforts, including Level 1 Water-Quality 

Inventory sampling in 13 SCPN parks in 2005 and 2006 

(Macy and Monroe, 2006), also were not incorporated into the 

database or this report. Historical water-quality data available 

for individual parks are documented in the Baseline Water 

Quality Data Inventory and Analysis (“Horizon”) Reports 

(http://www1.nature.nps.gov/water/horizon.cfm, last accessed 

April 9, 2007). However, due to differences in the approach 

and timing of the SCPN data compilation effort, datasets associated with Horizon reports were not used as source data for 

the SCPN database. 

Analysis of Data

To more directly address water-quality vital sign monitoring planning goals of the SCPN, substantially fewer sites and 

field properties or constituents are evaluated for and presented 

in this report; data from wells, diversions, canals, and most 

lakes or reservoirs were not analyzed for this report. Evaluation of data availability (that is, identification of data-rich 

compared to data-poor areas for each park) was conducted 

prior to data analysis. The field properties analyzed for this 

report are acid neutralizing capacity, dissolved oxygen, 

pH, specific conductance, turbidity, and water temperature. 

Constituent classes analyzed include major ions, nutrients, 

trace elements, and bacteriological data. Selected additional 

constituent classes (for example, pesticides) are mentioned 

where relevant to a particular park’s available water-quality 

data. Streamflow data are summarized, where available. 

Data analysis consisted of evaluating a subset of the 

compiled water-quality data, checked against additional 

data-quality criteria, with a focus on data from sites located 

within park boundaries for water bodies of interest identified 

by SCPN personnel as high priority. Data analysis included 

the nondetect (that is, unquantified) data. Prior to analysis, 

unquantified data were reassigned to a numeric censoring level 

based on information available from each analysis of sample 

for a given constituent. The values (hereinafter referred to 

as “censoring levels”) used to recensor these nondetect data 

were based on one of several descriptors historically used 

to explain unquantified data, including analytical detection 

limits, long-term method detection limits, lower quantification 

limits, practical quantitation limits, or minimum, interim, or 

laboratory reporting levels. Data analysis methods included 

computation of summary statistics and comparison of data 

to State water-quality standards and (or) selected Federal 

water-quality criteria. Additional analyses included the use 

of trilinear (Piper) diagrams to characterize the chemical 

composition of selected water bodies and comparison of 

relative concentrations of selected constituents between 

sampling sites. Water-quality data are strongly site-dependent, 

and results are assessed within this context, especially 

when a water body is characterized on the basis of a small 

number of sampling points. Of the more than 180,000 traceelement results in the compiled SCPN water-quality dataset, 

representing 40 trace elements, many had too few samples 

to support statistical analyses when constituent descriptors, 

including sample fraction (for example, filtered or unfiltered) 

and speciation (for example, iron III, chromium VI) and 

geographic factors, including site type, park association, and 

water body, were considered. 

A basic data-quality assessment check of results in the 

SCPN database was performed to identify potential outliers and unreasonable results. This assessment considered 

the typical range of values used by the USEPA since 1983 

to assess data in Legacy STORET (National Park Service, 

1997). The USGS NWIS Water-Quality User Manual also 

was consulted for evaluating properties and constituents that 

can be recensored (that is, assigned the value of “less than the 

censoring level”) if the stored value is zero, and for properties 

and constituents that allow negative values (U.S. Geological 

Survey, 2006). Errantly zero or negative results were identified and recensored or quarantined (that is, removed from the 

database and excluded from subsequent analysis), as appropriate. Obviously errant data were quarantined from the database 

(for example, pH = –12). 

An additional data-quality check included comparison of 

“total” (unfiltered) and “dissolved” (filtered) concentrations of 

selected constituents in water samples collected from spring 

and stream sites within park boundaries as well as from major 

or important water bodies in and near park units. Constituents 

evaluated for quality-control checks of total and dissolved 

concentrations include selected major ions (calcium, magnesium, sodium, and sulfate), nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus), 

and trace elements (aluminum, cadmium, copper, selenium, 

and zinc). Values affected by censoring and results where one 

or both values in a pair were zero were excluded. Generally, 

few of the potential results were paired, which limited the 

usefulness of this analysis as an approach to quality check the 

overall dataset. 

Major-ion balance was computed for each sample with 

adequate data to check the accuracy of major constituent 

analyses. Ion balance (IB) is a charge balance of cations (C), 

including calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium, and 

anions (A), including bicarbonate or carbonate, chloride, 
Overview of Water Quality and Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 7

fluoride, nitrates [nitrate and nitrite], and sulfate in a water 

sample. The ion balance, in milliequivalents per liter 

(meq/L), is calculated by using the following equation: IB 

= 100 × (ΣC – ΣA) / (ΣC + ΣA). Samples with major-ion 

imbalances exceeding 15 percent were excluded from the 

analyses (Katherine Walton-Day, U.S. Geological Survey, oral 

commun., 2006). Historical data collected before March 1983 

did not include adequate information to calculate a charge 

balance on samples. 

A water-quality value identified as suspect by any 

quality-assurance measure was considered individually and 

collectively (relative to other samples collected from or near 

the site), taking into consideration the sampling season, site 

location, and available historical data. Results were flagged 

in the database if they exceeded one or more of these criteria. 

Overall, the data available for these evaluations were few. 

Only a few hundred paired or grouped values were available 

for comparison, but thousands of data results were available 

for one or more constituents with unpaired or nongrouped 

values. Few of the water bodies of interest summarized for this 

report were identified as having poor data quality; many of 

them, however, lacked sufficient data to be evaluated. Generally, the results of the data-quality checks indicate acceptable 

quality with few exceptions. 

Computation of Descriptive Statistical 

Measures

The minimum, median, and maximum values were identified or computed for the selected evaluated waters in BAND, 

CACH, CHCU, GLCA, and MEVE parks. All median values 

were computed using S-Plus 6.1 for Windows Professional 

Edition© (Insightful Corporation, 2007). 

For censored data, medians were computed using a logprobability regression method, which is considered a robust 

technique even if the data are not log-normally distributed 

(Helsel and Cohn, 1988). This method does not compute a 

value when the percentage of censored values exceeds 95 percent, or if there are fewer than three uncensored values, or if 

all of the uncensored values are equal. Constituents that were 

measured below the censoring level for all samples were not 

included in the descriptive statistical summaries. 

Comparison to State Water-Quality Standards

For the purpose of identifying the levels (measurements, 

concentrations, or values) of potential or actual water-quality 

field properties or constituents of concern to individual 

parks and the SCPN network, results of analyses of samples 

collected since 1987 (recent data) were compared to State 

standards or Federal criteria. A summary of selected aquaticlife numeric water-quality standards for Arizona, Colorado, 

New Mexico, and Utah is provided in table 2. 

In most cases, chronic aquatic-life and (or) primaryor secondary-recreation standards were used to evaluate 

water-quality data collected in evaluated waters due to the 

importance of ecological integrity and recreation to the 

NPS. Occasionally, domestic water-supply, drinking-water, 

or livestock watering standards were used for comparing 

water quality of springs or other water-quality data to State 

standards when no aquatic-life or recreation standards applied. 

Exceedances in this report are defined as reported values 

greater than the established water-quality standard, which 

may not conform directly to State-specific approaches for 

evaluating water bodies for standards exceedances. Where 

insightful, exceedances for data collected prior to 1988 are 

identified within the text to indicate historical exceedance 

patterns, but these data are not included in the exceedance 

information on the summary tables. 

Numeric standards for trace elements vary by State, and 

selected trace-element criteria—table value standards (TVS)—

are computed based on the hardness of the water at a given 

site (table 2). Not all trace elements are regulated. Where 

no applicable State standards have been established, select 

Federal criteria were used for comparison purposes to identify field properties and constituents of potential ecological 

concern. These criteria include the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III for total 

nitrogen and total phosphorus (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002), and the National Ambient Water Quality 

criteria (NAWQ) or secondary chronic (Tier II) values for 

selected unregulated trace elements (Suter and Tsao, 1996). 

The concentrations of the selected unregulated trace elements 

are compared to the NAWQ criteria or the Tier II values as two 

toxicological benchmarks useful for screening constituents for 

possible aquatic-ecological effects. In this report, comparisons 

to the chronic NAWQ criteria were completed for all detected 

trace elements without applicable State chronic aquatic-life 

numeric standards or TVS. If State and NAWQ criteria were 

not available for a trace element, the chronic Tier II value was 

evaluated relative to reported values. 

Overview of Water Quality and 

Southern Colorado Plateau Network 

Park Units

Available Water-Quality Data for Parks

Water-quality data available for SCPN parks varies by 

park, site type (for example, stream, spring, or lake), field 

properties measured, analyses of constituents, frequency of 

collection, and period of record. Out of the 19 SCPN park 

units, historical water-quality data were collected in 13 parks 

at one or more stream sites; in 11 parks at one or more springs; 

at 14 parks with one or more ground-water sites; and at 7 

parks with one or more lake, reservoir, pond, or pool sites 

(table 3). Park units were classified as “data rich” or “data 
8 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 2. Selected aquatic-life stream-segment numeric water-quality standards for selected field properties and constituents for 

Southern Colorado Plateau parks. 

[AM 1/3, not to exceed arithmetic mean once in 3 years; dav, day-average; fil, filtered; H, naturally high; Inst, instantaneous; L, naturally low; lk, lake; N, 

nitrogen; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; sp, spawning; st, stream; Temp, temperature; tr, total (unfiltered) recoverable; TVS, table value standard; --, no 

applicable standard; 24 GMM, geometric mean maximum 24 hours apart; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter]

Field property 

or constituent 

(sample fraction, 

units)

Arizona Colorado New Mexico Utah

Standard (qualifier)

Use1 Standard (qualifier)Use1 Standard (qualifier)Use1 Standard (qualifier)Use1

Field properties

Dissolved oxygen 

(mg/L) 7.0

6.0

(Inst)

AWC

AWW

6.0

7.0

5.0

(1 dav)

ALCW1

ALCW1 (sp)

ALWW1

6.0

6.0

5.0

CF, HQCF

MCF

LWF, WF

6.5

5.5

5

(30 dav)

3A

3B

3C

pH 

(standard units)

6.5–9.0

6.5–9.0

6.5–9.0

(Inst)

AWC,AWE

AWEDW, 

AWW

6.5–9.0

6.5–9.0

(Inst)

ALCW1

ALWW1

6.6–8.8

6.6–9.0

6.6–9.0

(Inst)

CF, HQCF

MCF

LWF, WF

6.5–9.0

6.5–9.0

(Inst)

3A,3B,

3C

Specific

conductance 

(μS/cm)

-- -- -- -- 300

1,500

HQCF (L)

HQCF (H)

-- --

Turbidity 

(NTU)

10

50

50

AWC

AWEDW

AWW

-- -- 10

25

HQCF (L)

HQCF (H)

10

15

3A, 3B

3C

Water temperature

(degrees Celsius) -- -- 20

30

(Inst)

ALCW1

ALWW1

20

32.2

25

CF, HQCF

LWF, WF

MCF

20

27

(Inst)

3A

3B,3C

Inorganic constituents (milligrams per liter)

Ammonia 

(unfil as N) TVS

0.179–6.67 AWC, AWW

-- --

TVS

0.077–2.5

0.077–2.5

0.11–2.5

CF, HQCF,

MCF

LWF, WF

TVS

0.08–2.49

0.11–2.49

3A

3B

Ammonia

(un-ionized as N) 0.02

0.06

(Inst)

AWC

AWW

0.02

0.02

0.06

0.06–0.1

(30 dav)

ALCW1

ALCW2

ALWW1

ALWW2

0.02

0.02

0.06

CF, HQCF

MCF

LWF, WF

0.02

0.06

(4 dav)

3A

3B

Nitrate (as N) -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.0

4.0

3A, 3B,

3C

Total phosphorus 

(unfil) -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.050.025

3A, 3B st

3A, 3B lk

Chlorine (tr) 0.011 

0.011 

0.011

(Inst)

AWC,

AWEDW,

AWW

0.011 

0.011

(30 dav)

ALCW1,

ALWW1

0.011

(AM 1/3)

AL 0.011

(4 dav)

3A, 3B
Overview of Water Quality and Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 9

Table 2. Selected aquatic-life stream-segment numeric water-quality standards for selected field properties and constituents for 

Southern Colorado Plateau parks.—Continued 

[AM 1/3, not to exceed arithmetic mean once in 3 years; dav, day-average; fil, filtered; H, naturally high; Inst, instantaneous; L, naturally low; lk, lake; N, 

nitrogen; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; sp, spawning; st, stream; Temp, temperature; tr, total (unfiltered) recoverable; TVS, table value standard; --, no 

applicable standard; 24 GMM, geometric mean maximum 24 hours apart; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter]

Field property 

or constituent 

(sample fraction, 

units)

Arizona Colorado New Mexico Utah

Standard (qualifier)

Use1 Standard (qualifier)Use1 Standard (qualifier)Use1 Standard (qualifier)Use1

Chronic aquatic-life non-TVS metals (micrograms per liter)

Aluminum (fil) -- -- 87

87

(30 dav)

ALCW1,2

ALWW1,2 87

(AM 1/3)

AL

87

87

(4 dav)

3A, 3B,

3C

Arsenic, III (fil) 190

190

230

(24 GMM)

AWW,AWC

AWEDW

AWE

150

150

(30 dav)

ALCW1,2

ALWW1,2 150

(AM 1/3)

AL

190

190

(4 dav)

3A,3B,

3C

Chromium, VI (fil) 11

11

23

(24 GMM)

AWW,AWC

AWEDW

AWE

11

11

(30 dav)

ALCW1,2

ALWW1,2

-- -- 11

11

(4 dav)

3A, 3B,

3C

Iron -- -- 1,000 (tr)

1,000 (tr)

ALCW1,2

ALWW1,2 -- -- 1,000 (fil)

1,000 (fil)

(4 dav)

3A, 3B,

3C

Mercury (fil) 0.01

0.2

2.7

(24 GMM)

AWW,AWC

AWEDW

AWE

0.77

0.77

(30 dav)

ALCW1,2

ALWW1,2

-- -- 0.012

0.012

(4 dav)

3A, 3B,

3C

Mercury (unfil)

0.6

(Inst)

FC

0.01

0.01

(30 dav)

ALCW1,2

ALWW1,2 0.012

(AM 1/3)

AL

-- --

Nickel 4,600 (tr)

(Inst)

FC 4,600 (tr)

(30 dav)

FC 4,600 (fil)

(Inst)

AL -- --

Selenium (fil) -- -- 4.6

4.6

(30 dav)

ALCW1,2

ALWW1,2 11,000

(Inst)

AL

5

5

(4 dav)

3A, 3B,

3C

Selenium (tr) 2

2

2

(24 GMM)

AWW,AWC

AWEDW,

AWE

-- --

5

(AM 1/3)

AL

-- --
10 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 2. Selected aquatic-life stream-segment numeric water-quality standards for selected field properties and constituents for 

Southern Colorado Plateau parks.—Continued 

[AM 1/3, not to exceed arithmetic mean once in 3 years; dav, day-average; fil, filtered; H, naturally high; Inst, instantaneous; L, naturally low; lk, lake; N, 

nitrogen; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; sp, spawning; st, stream; Temp, temperature; tr, total (unfiltered) recoverable; TVS, table value standard; --, no 

applicable standard; 24 GMM, geometric mean maximum 24 hours apart; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter]

Field property

or constituent

(sample fraction,

units

Arizona Colorado New Mexico Utah

Standard 

range2

(μg/L)

Hardness 

range3

(mg/L)

Standard 

range2

(μg/L)

Hardness 

range3

(mg/L)

Standard 

range2

(μg/L)

Hardness 

range3

(mg/L)

Standard 

range2

(μg/L)

Hardness 

range3

(mg/L)

Chronic aquatic-life TVS metals, filtered (micrograms per liter)

Cadmium 0.55–6.22 15–400 1.01–6.22 34–400 0.92–4.99 30–297 0.14–2.87 6.6–400

Chromium 

(unspeciated) 15.7–231 15–400 30.6–231 34–400 27.7–181 30–297 19.2–554 6.6–400

Copper 1.77–29.3 15–400 3.56–29.3 34–400 3.21–22.7 30–297 1.11–37.1 6.6–400

Lead 0.3–10.9 15–400 0.76–10.9 34–400 0.67–8.03 30–297 0.12–10.9 6.6–400

Manganese -- -- 1,152–2,618 34–400 -- -- -- --

Nickel 10.4–168 15–400 20.9–168 34–400 18.8–131 30–297 15.8–508 6.6–400

Silver -- -- 0.05–3.47 34–400 -- -- -- --

Uranium -- -- 457–6,915 34–400 -- -- -- --

Zinc 23.5–379 15–400 47.4–382 34–400 42.8–297 30–297 10.4–338 6.6–400

1

 Designated beneficial use codes for aquatic life used in the table are defined, by State, as follows: 

Arizona – FC, fish consumption; AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water; AWEDW, aquatic and wildlife effluent-dependent water; AWE, aquatic and wildlife 

ephemeral; AWC, aquatic and wildlife cold water (State of Arizona, 2002). Colorado – ALCW1,2, aquatic-life cold-water classes 1 and 2; ALWW1,2, 

aquatic-life warm-water classes 1 and 2; FC, fish consumption (Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, 2005). New Mexico – MCF, marginal cold-water fishery; LWF, limited warm-water fishery; HQCF, high-quality cold-water fishery; AL – aquatic life; WF – warm-water fishery; CF – coldwater fishery (State of New Mexico, 2002). Utah – 3A, aquatic-life cold; 3B, aquatic-life warm; 3C, aquatic-life support (Utah Department of Environmental 

Quality, 2005). 

2

 Ranges provided are for all aquatic-life uses combined for each State. 

3

 Hardness values used to compute site-specific table value standards. Hardness values were capped at 400 mg/L based on State regulations; therefore, where 

15-year mean hardness is computed to be higher than 400 mg/L, the hardness value was set to 400 mg/L. All other hardness values are based on 15-year arithmetic mean of available data for a given site. TVS only computed for sites with actual hardness data available for consideration. 

poor” based on the number and type of samples and the period 

of record. This type of classification provides a general categorization of available water-quality data for individual parks. 

Data-poor parks are those with fewer than 10 samples for any 

given site type (table 3). Data-rich parks included parks with 

greater than 100 water-quality samples for any given site type 

(table 3). The earliest and latest sampling date should not be 

construed to suggest that there are monitoring data available 

during the entire period between these dates; however, it does 

provide an idea of how long the park unit has been conducting 

water-quality monitoring as part of its resource-management 

activities. 

A summary of available water-quality data is presented 

by site type and constituent class in table 4. This summary 

shows that most of the data collected falls within four analytical classes: field properties, major ions, nutrients, and 

trace elements. It also is evident that most data are for stream 

and spring sites. The exception is GLCA, which has a large 

amount of lake data. By this approach, only four parks have a 

data-rich history (that is, greater than 100 samples for a given 

constituent or field property and site type) for one or more 

site types and one or more constituent classes; these parks are 

BAND, CHCU, GLCA, and GRCA (fig. 1). 

Water-Quality Issues Identified by Parks

As part of the Phase I and II activities of the NPS I&M 

Program, park personnel identified water-quality resource concerns in and surrounding each park unit. These concerns are 

summarized in table 5 and are based on information contained 

in the Phase I and II SCPN reports (Thomas and others, 2003; 

Thomas and others, 2004). Water-quality stressors identified 

most frequently include erosion, extreme weather events, 

water withdrawals, trespass grazing, urban development, and 

invasive exotics. 
Overview of Water Quality and Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 11

Table 3. Numbers of streams, springs, lakes (includes reservoirs, ponds, or pools), and ground-water sites and water 

samples collected within Southern Colorado Plateau Network park boundaries, and period of record, 1925 to 2003. 

[No., number; -, no sites or samples; nonbold text indicates data-poor parks for site types with fewer than 10 samples; bold text indicates datarich parks for site types with 100 or more samples]

Park 

(table 1)

Streams Springs Lakes, reservoirs, 

ponds, or pools

Ground 

water Period of

No. of record

sites

No. of 

samples

No. of 

sites

No. of 

samples

No. of 

sites

No. of 

samples

No. of 

sites

No. of 

samples

AZRU - - - - - - 1 1 1990

BAND 28 1,116 6 154 1 9 - - 1951–2001

CACH 4 13 - - 3 19 2 3 1949–2003

CHCU 8 748 - - - - 14 26 1956–1987

ELMA 3 3 10 16 1 1 6 6 1978–1995

ELMO 2 2 - - 10 29 2 2 1962–1996

GLCA 59 4,685 43 73 178 3,330 22 72 1926–2003

GRCA 49 4,009 54 129 - - 1 1 1925–2003

HUTR 3 18 1 5 - - 1 1 1949–2003

MEVE1 2 2 37 103 17 28 - - 1975–1998

NAVA - - 4 10 - - 2 4 1962–2002

PEFO 1 3 - - - - 5 17 1969–2000

PETR 2 6 - - - - 2 3 1957–1993

RABR - - - - - - - - -

SAPU 4 6 5 14 1 1 4 4 1950–2001

SUCR - - - - - - - - -

WACA - - 1 2 - - 3 9 1970–2002

WUPA 1 1 3 6 - - 4 14 1954–2002

YUHO - - 1 4 - - - - 2002–2003

1

 MEVE is only park with samples from diversions (two sites; four samples) and outfalls (three sites, seven samples) located inside the park 

boundary. 
12 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 4. Number of water samples by site type and constituent class for sites within Southern Colorado Park Network park 

boundaries, 1925 to 2003.

[GW, ground water; LK, lake, reservoir, pond or pool; SP, springs and seeps; ST, stream; VOCs, volatile organic compounds; WWCs, wastewater compounds; 

sample counts for park sites with greater than 100 samples in a given class shown in bold; sample counts for park sites with fewer than 10 samples in a given 

class shown in grey text; RABR and SUCR had zero samples for all site types and constituent classes]

Park

(table 1)

Site 

type

Field 

properties

Inorganic 

compounds

Isotope 

and 

radiological

Major 

ions

Microorganisms

Nutrients

Other 

organic 

compounds

Pesticides

Trace

elementsVOCs WWCs Totals

AZRU ST 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

AZRU SP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

AZRU LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

AZRU GW 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2

BAND ST 1,043 10 0 280 37 140 16 4 70 4 9 1,613

BAND SP 116 0 1 59 0 48 7 0 15 1 0 247

BAND LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BAND GW 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

CACH ST 14 4 0 13 8 9 0 0 10 0 0 58

CACH SP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

CACH LK 15 3 2 17 2 5 0 0 5 0 0 49

CACH GW 6 1 0 6 0 3 0 0 5 0 0 21

CHCU ST 660 120 32 112 2 54 0 0 154 0 0 1,134

CHCU SP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

CHCU LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

CHCU GW 35 23 12 35 0 31 0 0 34 0 0 170

ELMA ST 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ELMA SP 16 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20

ELMA LK 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 5

ELMA GW 6 6 5 6 0 6 0 0 6 0 0 35

ELMO ST 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 6

ELMO SP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ELMO LK 15 1 0 20 0 19 1 0 11 0 0 67

ELMO GW 2 1 0 2 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 8

GLCA ST 2,721 853 435 2,181 534 1,759 484 42 1,121 0 49 10,179

GLCA SP 73 17 0 68 18 62 0 0 52 0 0 290

GLCA LK 1,737 44 22 460 2,507 434 46 3 301 50 3 5,607

GLCA GW 46 19 9 50 0 39 2 0 51 1 0 217

GRCA ST 1,860 944 30 2,008 202 1,575 132 33 1,271 0 0 8,055

GRCA SP 125 12 61 98 25 37 0 0 31 0 0 389

GRCA LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

GRCA GW 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2

HUTR ST 14 6 4 15 7 12 1 1 10 1 1 72

HUTR SP 5 1 1 5 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 15

HUTR LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

HUTR GW 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3
Overview of Water Quality and Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 13

Table 4. Number of water samples by site type and constituent class for sites within Southern Colorado Park Network park 

boundaries, 1925 to 2003. —Continued

[GW, ground water; LK, lake, reservoir, pond or pool; SP, springs and seeps; ST, stream; VOCs, volatile organic compounds; WWCs, wastewater compounds; 

sample counts for park sites with greater than 100 samples in a given class shown in bold; sample counts for park sites with fewer than 10 samples in a given 

class shown in grey text; RABR and SUCR had zero samples for all site types and constituent classes]

Park

(table 1)

Site 

type

Field 

properties

Inorganic 

compounds

Isotope 

and 

radiological

Major 

ions

Microorganisms

Nutrients

Other 

organic 

compounds

Pesticides

Trace

elementsVOCs WWCs Totals

MEVE ST 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 4

MEVE SP 71 67 1 71 31 67 0 0 71 0 0 379

MEVE LK 18 18 0 18 15 18 0 0 18 0 0 105

MEVE GW 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

NAVA ST 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

NAVA SP 9 5 0 9 9 9 0 0 9 0 0 50

NAVA LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

NAVA GW 4 2 0 4 3 4 0 0 3 0 0 20

PEFO ST 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 9

PEFO SP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

PEFO LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

PEFO GW 16 14 5 18 0 13 0 0 17 0 0 83

PETR ST 6 5 0 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 28

PETR SP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

PETR LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

PETR GW 3 2 0 3 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 13

SAPU ST 3 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 9

SAPU SP 12 0 0 12 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 36

SAPU LK 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 4

SAPU GW 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 6

WACA ST 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

WACA SP 2 2 0 2 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 10

WACA LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

WACA GW 4 1 1 8 1 6 3 0 7 3 0 34

WUPA ST 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 6

WUPA SP 6 3 0 5 2 4 0 0 3 0 0 23

WUPA LK 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

WUPA GW 10 4 2 14 0 11 2 0 8 2 0 53

YUHO ST 2 1 0 2 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 8

YUHO SP 4 4 0 4 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 18

YUHO LK 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 5

YUHO GW 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 8,692 2,195 626 5,627 3,409 4,403 696 85 3,305 65 64
14 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 5. Summary of water-quality stressors by park identified by Southern Colorado Plateau Network park personnel during 

Phase I and Phase II of the Inventory and Monitoring Program activities. 

[N, not identified as a stressor; Y, yes, identified as a stressor; parks detailed in this report shown in bold]

SCPN 

park 

(table 1)

Erosion

Extreme 

weather 

events and 

climate 

trends/

change

Water 

withdrawals

Permitted 

or trespass 

grazing and 

livestock 

trailing in 

park

Urban 

development 

Invasive 

exotics 

(fauna or 

flora)

Energy 

development or 

resource 

extraction

Fire

Agricultural 

activities

Atmospheric 

deposition

Recreational 

activities

AZRU Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N

BAND Y Y Y Y Y N N Y N N Y

CACH Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y

CHCU Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y

ELMA Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y N Y

ELMO Y Y Y N Y N Y Y N Y N

GLCA Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y

GRCA Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y

HUTR Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y N N

MEVE Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N

NAVA Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y N

PEFO Y N Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y N

PETR Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y N

RABR Y N N Y N Y Y N N N N

SAPU Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N

SUCR Y Y N N Y N N N N N N

WACA Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N N N

WUPA Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y N

YUHO Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N N N
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 15

Impaired Waters

Section 303(d) of the 1972 Clean Water Act requires 

States, territories, and authorized tribes to develop and 

prioritize a list of impaired waters that do not currently meet 

water-quality standards. For listed waters, a TMDL (total 

maximum daily load) must be developed specifying the 

maximum loading of a contaminant a waterbody can receive 

to meet water-quality standards. TMDLs also allocate loads 

among point- and nonpoint-pollutant sources and background 

conditions (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2006a). 

SCPN park unit and

water body Reason for 303(d) listing

Aztec Ruins National Monument

Animas River Sedimentation

Bandelier National Monument

Rito de los Frijoles Elevated dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) concentrations, fecal 

coliform counts, water temperature, and turbidity levels

Capulin Creek Sedimentation, diminished integrity of benthic macroinvertebrates

Sandia Canyon Presence of polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs), nonsupport of wildlife 

habitat

Los Alamos Canyon Elevated selenium concentrations and gross alpha counts, nonsupport 

of livestock watering, and wildlife habitat

Pueblo Canyon Elevated concentrations of selenium and mercury, elevated gross 

alpha counts, nonsupport of livestock watering, and wildlife habitat

Glen Canyon National Recreation Area

Paria River (from Utah border to confluence with 

Colorado River) Elevated concentrations of suspended sediment

Grand Canyon National Park

Colorado River (from Parashant Canyon to 

Diamond Creek) Elevated concentrations of suspended sediment and selenium

Several water bodies in four SCPN park units are considered impaired for one or more causes and currently (2007) are 

included on the 303(d) list, on the basis of assessments made 

in 2004. The listed water bodies include: 

The development of TMDLs for Capulin Creek and the 

Rito de los Frijoles was begun in 2005, but the process has not 

been completed. 

Characterization of Water Quality 

for Five Southern Colorado Plateau 

Network Park Units 

Water-quality conditions and data availability were evaluated for five SCPN park units in which water quality was identified as a high-priority vital sign. The units evaluated for this 

report are Bandelier National Monument (BAND), Canyon de 

Chelly National Monument (CACH), Chaco Culture National 

Historical Park (CHCU), Glen Canyon National Recreation 

Area (GLCA), and Mesa Verde National Park (MEVE). Values 

for selected field properties and concentrations of major ions, 

nutrients, other constituents (bacteria, organic compounds, 

suspended solids, and suspended sediment), trace elements, 

and radionuclides were used to characterize water quality for 

selected sites of interest in each park. 

The field properties evaluated in this report are acid 

neutralizing capacity (ANC), dissolved oxygen (DO), hardness, pH, specific conductance (SC), streamflow, turbidity, and 

water temperature. Of these, DO, pH, SC, and water temperature were commonly measured at most sites and were typically 

collected more frequently and for longer periods of record 

than any other water-quality property. 

The major ions evaluated in this report are bicarbonate, 

calcium, chloride, fluoride, magnesium, potassium, silica, 

sodium, and sulfate; ion concentrations are filtered unless specifically stated otherwise. Where adequate data were available, 

water types are described for selected sites. Major ion data are 

not included in the summary tables as no water-quality criteria 

are associated with these constituents. 

The nutrients evaluated in this report are ammonia 

(total and un-ionized), nitrate, nitrate plus nitrite, nitrite, 

nitrogen (total), orthophosphorus, and total phosphorus. Of 

these, nitrate and total phosphorus were typically the most 

frequently sampled constituents. Sample fraction is specified 

for individual nutrients summarized in this report and can 

vary by constituent, site, and (or) park unit. Selected nutrients 
16 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

(unfiltered and filtered nitrate, nitrite, and orthophosphorus) 

were aggregated to facilitate analysis following the 

methodology in Mueller and others (1995). 

Data for other constituents, including bacteriological 

(that is, Escherichia coli, fecal coliform, and total coliform), 

chlorine, dissolved solids, organic compounds, suspended 

solids, and suspended sediment are summarized, when available, though samples for these constituents were typically 

infrequently and irregularly analyzed. Geometric means are 

reported for bacteriological data. In terms of the SCPN park 

waters, there were very few analyses of synthetic organic compounds in samples (primarily selected pesticides) collected in 

or near park areas; therefore, these data are mentioned only 

within applicable park-specific sections. Additionally, while 

dissolved and total organic carbon and related data such as 

chemical and biological oxygen demand were compiled in the 

SCPN water-quality database, they are not evaluated within 

this report. 

Many trace elements, including aluminum, arsenic, 

barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, 

manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silver, 

strontium, uranium, and zinc were summarized in this report. 

For this report, trace elements were selected for analysis based 

on available data, relative importance of the constituent from 

a regulatory or aquatic toxicological perspective, and relative 

importance of the trace element to understanding water-quality 

conditions at a park or water-source level. When analyzing 

historical unfiltered trace-element data collected by the USGS 

(or agencies using the same or similar methods) it is important 

to consider that sample-collection techniques, including 

method and equipment, changed in the early 1990s to address 

contamination concerns following evaluation by the USGS 

Office of Water Quality (U.S. Geological Survey, 1991). 

Of particular concern from this evaluation were dissolved 

(filtered) trace-element concentrations of arsenic, boron, 

beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, and 

zinc and possibly aluminum, iron and manganese, which may 

well be a result of filtration artifacts rather than contamination. 

Sample fraction is specified for individual trace elements 

summarized in this report and can vary by constituent, site, 

and (or) park unit. 

Radiological constituents summarized herein include 

alpha and beta radioactivity, gross alpha and beta radioactivity, plutonium-238, radium-226, radium-226 plus radium-228, 

strontium-90, tritium, uranium-234, uranium-235, and 

uranium-238. Radionuclide data were generally collected 

infrequently. 

Data are summarized for selected sites and parks based 

on availability of water-quality data collected within the last 

60 years (1947 to 2004), though the same field properties and 

constituents were not always measured or analyzed in samples 

from all sites in or among park units. An overview of the 

various water-quality field properties and constituents evaluated for this report is provided in the Appendix to provide a 

background for interpreting the park-specific analyses. 

Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico

Bandelier National Monument (BAND) is in northcentral New Mexico on the eastern slopes of the Sierra de los 

Valles and Pajarito Plateau (fig. 2). BAND was established in 

1916 to recognize an array of archeological, historical, and 

natural features (Rothman, 1988). The 32,831-acre monument is composed of two areas: the main section is south and 

southwest of Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), and 

the smaller 800-acre Tsankawi section is southeast of LANL. 

BAND comprises six canyons, which dissect the Pajarito 

Plateau in a northwest to southeast direction. The northwestern part of BAND is in the Sierra de los Valles of the Jemez 

Mountains, the remains of a large volcano known as the Valles 

Caldera (Wing, 1957; Christensen, 1980). South of the Jemez 

Mountains lie the San Miguel Mountains, which border the 

west side of the main monument. The Rio Grande forms the 

southeastern boundary of the monument and captures all of the 

drainage from the canyons. 

Overall, BAND has a semiarid, temperate, continental 

mountain climate (Mott, 1999). Climate station 290743 is in 

BAND at an elevation of 6,060 ft northwest of the visitors’ 

center (fig. 2). The mean annual precipitation is about 15 

inches (1941–76) with August typically recorded as the wettest month (2.9 inches) and November the driest (0.65 inch) 

(Western Regional Climate Center, 2006). Average monthly 

air temperatures ranged from 28.6oF in January to 71.7oF in 

July, with an average annual temperature of 50.2oF, and with 

daily extremes ranging from –32oF on January 7, 1971, to 

106oF on July 8, 1951 (Western Regional Climate Center, 

2006). 

Geology

A few principal geological features influence water quality in BAND. The upper surface of the Pajarito Plateau, known 

locally as the “Bandelier Tuff,” was formed from eruption of 

the Valles Caldera (Purtymun and Adams, 1980). The Bandelier Tuff, up to 200 ft thick, forms the Pajarito Plateau and the 

monument’s cliff-forming units. The Puye Formation, a large 

alluvial fan complex, underlies most of this unit, and Cerros 

del Rio basalt underlies the Bandelier Tuff in the eastern part 

of the Pajarito Plateau near the Rio Grande’s White Rock Canyon. The Pajarito Fault, which separates the Jemez Mountains 

on the west from the Pajarito Plateau on the east and generally 

trends along the western border of LANL, is a major structural 

feature in the park that plays a critical role in ground-water 

movement and is a source of spring discharges in the perennial 

drainages (Mott, 1999; McCalpin, 2005). Generally geologic 

sections in BAND show a base layer of lava or basalt overlain 

by ash-derived Bandelier Tuff, capped by another layer of lava 

that forms the rimrock of the mesa. In some locations this pattern is repeated several times (that is, lava or basalt is overlain 

by tuff capped by more lava) and is further complicated by 

faulting and interim periods of erosion (Wing, 1957). 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 17

!

!

!

!

!

#

#

# #

#

#

#

!(

!(

#

#

!(

#

##

#

#

#

#

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Santa Fe National Forest

State Highway 4

State Highway 4

Santa Fe National Forest

Cochiti Indian Reservation

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Dome Wilderness

Bandelier National Monument

Cochiti Lake

Private

Lands

Private

Lands

719

!(#

")

S I E R R A D E 

L O S V A L L E S

NEW MEXICO

COLORADO

UTAH ARIZONA

EXPLANATION

Surface water

Intermittent streams

Perennial streams

Rio Grande

Trails in or near monument

Highways in or near monument

Lakes, ponds, and reservoirs

Boundary of Bandelier National Monument

Selected water-quality sampling sites

Springs

Streams

Ranger cabin

0 2 4 MILES

0 3

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 

streams and lakes, 1:100,000; Federal land, 1:2,000,000; highways, trails, 

park boundary, National Park Service, scale unspecified.

Climate station (290743)

Site number Bandelier National 

Monument

35°40'

S A N M I G U E L M O U N T A I N S

White Rock Canyon

P A J A R I T O P L A T E A U

VALLES

CALDERA

White Rock

Rio Grande

106°10'

San Ildefonso 

Indian Reservation

San Ildefonso Pueblo

Tsankawi Section - 

Bandelier National Monument

Los Alamos

106°20'

Santa Fe 

National Forest

J E M E Z M O U N T A I N S

Rito de los Frijoles

305

302

327

306

6 KILOMETERS

35°50'

Location map

331

330

920

720

556

320

319

318

719

317 316

315

314

313

304

310

834

836 835

308 5590

5591

5576

307

837 (Visitor Center)

326

325

323 322

721

303

Sanchez Canyon

Alamo Creek

Medio Canyon

Capulin Creek

Rio Chiquito

Lummis Canyon

Figure 2. Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, and locations of water-quality sampling sites.
18 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Water Resources

Bandelier National Monument includes the perennial 

Rito de los Frijoles (Upper and Lower Frijoles Creek) and 

five other major north-northwest- to south-southeast-draining 

canyons, including the Lummis, Alamo, Capulin, Medio, and 

Sanchez Canyons (fig. 2). These canyons receive base flow 

from springs that discharge along the mountain and plateau 

interface and drain to the Rio Grande and Cochiti Lake. A 

5.5-mi reach of the Rio Grande flows along the southwestern 

border of the monument; however, only the west bank and 

associated riparian area are within Bandelier’s boundaries. 

From March 1983 to September 1996, a streamflowgaging station, USGS station 08313350, was operated on the 

Rito de los Frijoles in the monument; the station has since 

been taken over by LANL (site 307 in fig. 2; table 6). Peakflow data were collected intermittently from this same station, 

starting in June 1965 and continuing through May 2003. 

Streamflow at this station generally was highest during April 

and May (5.80 cubic feet per second, ft3/s) and lowest in July 

(1.22 ft3/s). The highest annual streamflow was recorded in 

water year 1987 (4.49 ft3/s) and the lowest in water year 1996 

(0.78 ft3/s). The highest peak flow was recorded on July 21, 

1978, at 3,030 ft3/s. Average annual runoff, based on 14 years 

of record, was 1.63 inches from the 17.5-square-mile drainage 

basin (U.S. Geological Survey, 2001). Typical annual hydrographs for Pajarito Plateau canyons show flashy responses to 

summer monsoons and snowmelt-driven peaks in mid-spring 

(Mott, 1999). There are a number of other streamflow-gaging 

stations operated on the Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin 

Creek, which are summarized by Mott (1999) and Purtymun 

and Adams (1980). Evapotranspiration, which is the major 

water-loss route from the Pajarito Plateau, combined with 

alluvial sediment storage and downward migration to deeper 

water-bearing zones limit the amount of streamflow leaving 

the area’s canyons (Mott, 1999). Mott provides an updated 

discussion of the complex ground-water flow paths in and near 

the monument and suggests potential flow paths for LANL 

contaminants that could be affecting the Rito de los Frijoles or 

possibly Alamo Creek. 

Discharge from springs support base flow in the canyons. Four named springs within the park: Basalt (site 303), 

Turkey (site 304), Apache (site 305), and Frijoles (site 556) 

Springs, were further analyzed in this report (fig. 2; table 6). 

Turkey Spring (site 304) discharges from volcanic rocks 

associated with the Valles Caldera and provides perennial 

flow of a tributary canyon to Capulin Creek. Discharge from 

these springs ranges from less than 0.95 gallon per minute 

(gpm) at Apache Spring to approximately 22.2 gpm at Turkey 

Spring (Purtymun and Adams, 1980). Two additional springs, 

Sawyer Spring (site 302), which is very near Apache Spring, 

and Upper Frijoles East Fork Spring (site 306), which is in the 

headwaters of the Rito de los Frijoles, were identified during 

the historical data compilation; however, no information is 

available on these sites from the park or in the literature. There 

was only one sample collected in 1961 from site 302 and two 

samples collected in 1977 and 1978 from site 306 (fig. 2; 

table 6). The Upper Frijoles East Fork Spring (also called 

the North Fork Spring of Frijoles Canyon) discharges from a 

perched aquifer from fractured volcanic rocks associated with 

the Valles Caldera and contributes to the base flow in the Rito 

de los Frijoles (Purtymun and Adams, 1980). 

Wildfires in 1977 (La Mesa Fire) and 1996 (Dome Fire) 

each burned more than 15,000 acres in the adjacent Santa Fe 

National Forest, the Rito de los Frijoles and Capulin Creek 

drainages, and the surrounding Dome Wilderness area (fig. 2). 

These fires resulted in flow-regime changes with increased 

number, magnitude, and frequency of peak flows in the 

Capulin Creek and Rito de los Frijoles drainages (Veenhuis, 

2002). In 2000, the Cerro Grande Fire burned more than 

100,000 acres of Santa Fe National Forest, the LANL, and 

the monument. Aquatic biota shifts to disturbance-tolerant 

invertebrates and reduced taxa density were documented as a 

result of the postfire flash flooding associated with these largescale wildfires, and postfire floods in the monument revealed 

elevated concentrations of selected cations, nutrients (nitrogen 

and phosphorus), and sediment (Vieira and others, 2004). 

Purtymun and Adams (1980) reported elevated concentrations 

of major constituents (bicarbonate and calcium), trace 

elements (barium, iron, lead, manganese, and zinc), and 

phenols in storm runoff in the Rito de los Frijoles drainage 

following the 1977 wildfire. 

Cochiti Lake, at the southeast boundary of the monument 

on the Rio Grande, is one of the 10 largest earthfill dams in 

the United States built between 1965 and 1975 for flood and 

sediment control on the Rio Grande (Public Law 86–645; U.S. 

Congress, 1960). Cochiti Lake, which is principally within 

the boundaries of the Pueblo de Cochiti Reservation, also now 

serves as a perennial source of water for fish, wildlife, and 

recreation (U.S. Congress, 1964). The flood easement held 

for the dam by the USCOE allows as many as 361 acres of 

the monument to be inundated; flooding has occurred in the 

canyons in BAND several times, including 1979 and 1985. 

These floods destroyed hiking trails, eroded the shoreline, 

deposited drift litter (including [human] garbage), threatened 

and damaged archeological ruins, damaged boundary and drift 

fences (leading to additional trespass grazing by feral cattle), 

and damaged riparian vegetation, including the extirpation 

of six plant species from the park that had been present at 

Frijoles Spring (Rothman, 1988; Allen and others, 1993). The 

recreational mandate for the reservoir requires 1,200 acres of 

open water to be maintained, and the pool levels must be continually readjusted upward because of the expanding sediment 

delta. This process results in regular flooding and changing 

ecological characteristics of the reservoir’s backwater areas in 

the monument (Mott, 1999). 

According to the State of New Mexico 2004–2006 

Integrated Clean Water Act §303(d)/§305(b) report, several 

streams in the Upper Rio Grande Basin flowing through the 

monument are listed as impaired on the 303(d) list for one or 

more water-quality constituents (State of New Mexico, 2004). 

Capulin Creek is impaired for high-quality cold-water fishery 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 19

Table 6. Stream and spring sites with water-quality data in or upstream from Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1951 to 

2001.

[abv, above; blw, below; DD, decimal degrees; E., east; mi, mile; no., number; USFS, USDA Forest Service; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; W., west; Site 

no. shown in figure 2; *, site 721 located outside monument boundary; site names retained from original source database]

Site 

no.

Site name Latitude DD Longitude DD No. of 

samples

Period of 

record

Spring sites

302 Santa Fe National Forest Sawyer Spring 35.8239 106.3889 1 1961

303 19N.07E.22.131 Basalt Spring 35.8661 106.1956 40 1951–1998

304 Turkey Springs 35.7387 106.3534 36 1977–1992

305 Apache Springs 35.8259 106.3895 37 1961–1988

306 Upper Frijoles - East Fork Spring 35.8334 106.4119 2 1977–1978

556 Frijoles Spring Along Rio Grande 35.7506 106.2568 38 1971–1984

Alamo Creek sites

719 Alamo Canyon Bottoms 35.7183 106.2909 9 1977–1978

721* Upper Alamo Canyon 35.8106 106.4148 2 1977–1978

834 Alamo Canyon above Ponderosa Trail Crossing 35.7919 106.3525 56 1977–2001

Capulin Creek sites

310 Upper Capulin Creek at Bandelier/USFS Boundary 35.7763 106.3534 29 1977–1991

313 Capulin Creek Downstream of Ranger Base Cabin 35.7578 106.3296 11 1994–1996

314 Capulin Creek Downstream of Horse Corral 35.7556 106.3264 11 1994–1996

835 Capulin Creek 35.7750 106.3417 8 2001

5590 Capulin Creek upstream of Gaged Flume 35.7600 106.3310 11 1994–1996

5591 Capulin Creek at Base Camp Gaging Station 35.7679 106.3347 85 1977–1992

Rito de los Frijoles sites

307 Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National Monument 35.7764 106.2689 198 1977–1995

308 Rito de los Frijoles below Frijoles Falls 35.7584 106.2584 3 1992

315 Frijoles Creek just below USGS Gaging Station 35.7764 106.2684 14 1994–1996

316 Frijoles Creek near Rainbow House Ruin 35.7746 106.2673 14 1994–1996

317 Frijoles Creek Southwest of Park Housing 35.7710 106.2657 14 1994–1996

318 Lower Frijoles Creek above Ceremonial Cave 35.7905 106.2885 86 1977–1992

319 Lower Frijoles Creek at Headquarters Gaging Station 35.7741 106.2665 289 1957–1992

320 Lower Frijoles Creek blw White Rock Housing Area 35.7671 106.2622 95 1983–1992

322 Upper Frijoles Creek - West Fork 35.8317 106.4180 36 1977–1992

323 Upper Frijoles Creek - East Fork 35.8334 106.4123 36 1977–1992

325 Upper Frijoles Creek - Upper Upper Crossing 35.8216 106.4096 15 1984–1987

326 Upper Frijoles - Confluence E. & W. Forks 35.8288 106.4131 1 1978

327 Frijoles above Burn Area 35.8149 106.3972 2 1977–1978

330 Rito Cañon de los Frijoles below Cave 35.7892 106.2864 15 1985–2001

331 Rito Cañon de los Frijoles Bridge 3/4 Mi abv Cave 35.7942 106.2992 4 1985–2001

720 Frijoles at Rio Grande 35.7562 106.2567 5 1973–1978

836 Rito de los Frijoles above Upper Falls 35.7809 106.2730 12 2001

837 Rito de los Frijoles at Bandelier Visitor Center 35.7753 106.2684 2 2001

920 Rito Cañon de los Frijoles Bridge abv Lower Falls 35.7608 106.2586 4 1985–2001

5576 Upper Frijoles Creek - Upper Crossing 35.8156 106.3611 51 1966–2001
20 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

(HQCF) based on benthic-macroinvertebrate bioassessments 

and sedimentation/siltation, and the Rito de los Frijoles is 

impaired for HQCF and primary- and secondary-contact 

recreation from elevated DDT concentrations, fecal coliform 

counts, water temperature, and turbidity levels. The probable 

sources of impairment in these canyons are sediment runoff 

following forest fires, natural sediment sources, recreational 

activities, and chemical spills (State of New Mexico, 2004). 

All waterbodies in the Tsankawi unit are on the 303(d) list: 

Sandia Canyon for not supporting wildlife habitat from PCBs; 

Los Alamos Canyon for not supporting livestock watering and 

wildlife habitat from elevated gross alpha counts and selenium 

concentrations; and Pueblo Canyon for not supporting 

livestock watering and wildlife habitat from elevated gross 

alpha counts and concentrations of selenium and mercury. 

The probable sources of impairment for these canyons include 

improper waste disposal, the presence of hazardous waste 

sites, atmospheric deposition, erosion and sedimentation from 

upland development, natural geologic sources, and runoff from 

fires (State of New Mexico, 2004). 

Additional water-resources issues identified by the 

I&M Program include residues from the application of 

organochlorine pesticides near the headquarters area in 

the 1950s and 1960s; effects of sedimentation on benthic 

macroinvertebrate populations in Capulin Creek; ecological 

effects from inundation by Cochiti Lake; large-scale wildfire 

effects; water-quality degradation from land disturbance 

activities outside the park boundary; and effects of road salt 

and cindering activities on State Highway 4 on the Rito de los 

Frijoles (Thomas and others, 2006). Visitor effects, internal 

park development, and trespass livestock and wildlife (elk 

and deer) over-browsing riparian vegetation are additional 

concerns (McGarigle, 1998; Mott, 1999; Thomas and others, 

2006). Despite the numerous water-quality concerns, the 

monument’s watershed is considered one of its most valuable 

resources (Thomas and others, 2006). 

Available Water-Quality Data

Water-quality data for 35 sites within the monument 

boundary were compiled in the SCPN water-quality database, 

including data for 28 stream sites, 6 springs, and 1 reservoir 

site. Additional data for the areas upstream and surrounding 

BAND also were compiled during the database compilation 

effort, including data for 520 stream sites (including sites from 

the Rio Grande and Los Alamos Canyon), 128 water wells, 51 

lake sites (including Cochiti Lake sites), 42 springs, 10 outfalls, and 2 mines. The BAND sites further discussed in this 

report include only 29 stream sites (site 721 is upstream from 

the park boundary) on Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the 

Rito de los Frijoles, and 4 springs, including Apache, Basalt, 

Frijoles, and Turkey Springs (fig. 2, table 6). 

Most of the historical and recent water samples from 

Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los Frijoles 

(approximately 75 percent) were collected by the NPS; however, the USGS, USFS, and NMED also collected samples in 

these canyons. The NPS collected surface-water-quality data 

as early as 1977 in Alamo and Capulin Creeks and as early 

as 1957 in the Rito de los Frijoles. The NMED is the only 

agency that collected water-quality data since 1996, when 

they sampled all three canyons in 2001. The relative temporal 

distribution of water samples from sites with available data is 

illustrated in figure 3. The Rito de los Frijoles has the longest 

period of record and the largest number of sites with historical water-quality data in BAND. Samples were collected most 

frequently in June, July, and August. 

Sixty-seven samples were collected from three sites in 

Alamo Creek (sites 719, 721, and 834; fig. 2; table 6) between 

1977 and 2001; most data were collected by the NPS in 1977 

(11 samples) following the La Mesa Fire and during a concentrated sampling effort (22 samples) in 1983 (fig. 3). Site 834 is 

the most frequently and recently sampled site with 56 samples 

collected over the period 1977 to 2001. 

Six sites on Capulin Creek (sites 310, 313, 314, 835, 

5590, and 5591; fig. 2; table 6) were sampled by the NPS and 

NMED between 8 and 85 times from 1977 to 2001 for a total 

of 155 samples (fig. 3). Sites 310 (Upper Capulin Creek at 

Bandelier/USFS boundary) and 5591 (Capulin Creek at Base 

Camp gaging station) had the longest periods of record with 

samples collected 29 and 85 times, respectively, at various 

intervals between 1977 and 1992. No water-quality data exist 

for Capulin Creek downstream from the Ranger Base Cabin 

(site 313) and old Horse Corral area (near site 314) in the 

monument (fig. 2). Concentrated sampling efforts occurred 

in 1983 (site 5591) and 1987 (sites 310 and 5591) with 22 

samples collected each of these years in the canyon. 

Twenty sites on the Rito de los Frijoles were variously 

sampled between 1 and 289 times from 1957 to 2001, resulting in 896 samples (fig. 3). Lower Frijoles Creek at Headquarters gaging station (site 319, fig. 2; table 6) had the longest 

period of record, with 289 samples collected by the NPS from 

1957 to 1964 and from 1971 to 1992. Most water-quality 

samples for the Rito de los Frijoles were collected in the upper 

reaches, or Upper Frijoles Creek (at and upstream from site 

5576), and in the lower reaches, or Lower Frijoles Creek, of 

the canyon (at and downstream from site 331). 

The relative temporal distribution of water samples from 

the evaluated springs is illustrated in figure 4. Between 36 

and 40 samples each were collected by the NPS and USGS 

at Basalt (site 303), Turkey (site 304), Apache (site 305), and 

Frijoles (site 556) Springs between 1951 and 1998. For these 

four springs, a total of 151 samples have been collected. 

Information on more than 500 field properties or 

constituents is available for BAND and includes data from 

water, bed-sediment, suspended-sediment, and fish-tissue 

samples. A subset of these data is presented in this report for 

the selected surface-water canyon and spring sites (Alamo 

and Capulin Creeks, the Rito de los Frijoles, and Apache, 

Basalt, Frijoles, and Turkey Springs). The field properties 

and constituents considered for this report include dissolved 

oxygen, pH, specific conductance, major ions, nutrients, 

selected organic compounds and pesticides, selected trace 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 21

Figure 3. Water sample counts, number of sites, and period of record for Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de 

los Frijoles in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1957 to 2001.

1957

1959

1961

19631965

1967

1969

1971

19731975

19771979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

19931995199719992001

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

NUMBER OF SA

MPLES (BY YEAR)

(Site 319 only sampled from 1957 to 1972,

except for site 5576 sampled in 1966) 

(Recent period of record evaluated for waterquality standard exceedances)

Alamo Creek

Capulin Creek

Rito de los Frijoles

2 Number of sites

2 1 1 1

13

13

2

2

2

1

6

10

12

7

9

9

8

8

9 9

1

7

7

7

8

elements (arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, 

lead, manganese, mercury, selenium, silver, uranium, and 

zinc), suspended sediment (or turbidity as a surrogate), and 

fecal coliform bacteria.

Most of the data for the evaluated surface-water and 

spring sites are values of field properties and concentrations 

of major ions and nutrients. Selected trace elements were 

sampled between 1 and 29 times at 21 surface-water and 

spring sites. Radiological constituents were analyzed in one 

sample from Basalt Spring (site 303). Various organic, pesticide, and (or) wastewater compounds were analyzed once or 

twice in samples from the Rito de los Frijoles (sites 330, 836, 

and 837) and from Basalt Spring (site 303), including phenol 

and alkylbenzene sulfonate (ABS). Samples analyzed for 

suspended sediment were collected 146 times from 22 surfacewater and spring sites; turbidity was measured 349 times from 

18 surface-water and spring sites (excluding Basalt Spring). 

Samples analyzed for fecal coliform bacteria were collected 

38 times from 11 surface-water sites; no samples from springs 

were analyzed for microorganisms. 

Selected sites on Alamo Creek (site 834), Capulin 

Creek (sites 313, 314, and 5590), and on the Rito de los 

Frijoles (sites 307, 308, 315, 316, and 317) were measured 

for instantaneous streamflow, daily discharge, and (or) stream 

stage. Most of the available instantaneous flow data (195 

measurements) are from site 307, which is near the visitor 

center in the Rito de los Frijoles drainage, whereas only 

between one and eight flow measurements were made at all 

other surface-water sites in the monument. Flow was measured 

at Basalt Spring (site 303) 19 times. 

Characterization of Water Quality

Surface-Water Quality 

Water-quality data summaries for selected sites on Alamo 

Creek are provided in table 7, for Capulin Creek in table 8, 

and for the Rito de los Frijoles (Upper and Lower Frijoles 

Creek) in table 9. The sites in and upstream from the monument boundary are primarily within the Bandelier Tuff with 

selected headwater sites flowing through intermediate to 

siliceous volcanic rocks and (or) the Santa Fe Group (arkosic 

siltstone and sandstone with clay and pebbly conglomerate), 

which overlie the Bandelier Tuff, and a few sites near the 

confluence of the canyon streams with the Rio Grande flowing 

through the underlying basaltic and andesitic lava flows. 
22 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Field Properties

Acid neutralizing capacity values ranged from 16.3 

to 262 milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate (mg/L as 

CaCO3) for sites in Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito 

de los Frijoles (tables 7, 8, and 9). Generally these waters 

are neither strongly acidic nor basic and have median ANC 

values ranging from 35.4 to 56.1 mg/L as CaCO3 for all three 

creeks. Concentrations are similar to those measured in the 

monument’s springs. ANC generally decreases with increasing 

streamflow. 

Dissolved oxygen values ranged from 2.7 to 14.3 mg/L 

in Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los Frijoles 

(tables 7, 8, and 9). From data collected since 1988, six DO 

measurements from five sites on Capulin Creek and one 

DO measurement on the Rito de los Frijoles (site 315) were 

below the New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission 

(NMWQCC) HQCF minimum standard of 6 mg/L. Historical 

data indicate some sites on Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and 

the Rito de los Frijoles have periodically experienced reduced 

DO conditions, which could be related to one or more factors, 

including elevated concentrations of nutrients, turbidity levels, 

water temperature, or salinity, as well as the time of day the 

samples were collected. There was not a consistent pattern 

between these water-quality properties and constituents 

and the low DO measurements to explain the reduced DO 

conditions. 

Measurements of pH ranged from 5.4 to 9 standard units 

(SU) in Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los 

Frijoles (tables 7, 8, and 9). Median values were between 7.4 

and 7.57 SU for the three creeks. Two recent (since 1988) 

pH values for site 5591 in Capulin Creek and eight recent 

pH values for sites in Upper (sites 322 and 323) and Lower 

Frijoles Creek (sites 318, 319, and 320) were below the 

acceptable 6.6 SU (minimum) for an HQCF, as defined by the 

NMWQCC. One pH value in Alamo Creek was measured at 

6.6 SU (site 834) in June 1990, which is equal to the State’s 

low pH standard. 

Specific conductance measurements ranged from 11 to 

710 microsiemens per centimeter (μS/cm) in Alamo Creek, 

Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los Frijoles (tables 7, 8, and 

9). In Alamo Creek one historical measurement of 675 μS/cm, 

Figure 4. Water sample counts and period of record of Apache, Basalt, Frijoles, and Turkey Springs in Bandelier 

National Monument, New Mexico, 1951 to 1998.

1951

19531955

1957

195919611963

19651967

19691971

19731975

1977

19791981

19831985

19871989

1991

1993

19951997

1999

8

1

3 2

4

6

5

2 2

1 1 1 1

6

4

7

12

7

1 1 1

6

2 3

5

(Recent period of record

evaluated for water-quality

standard exceedances) 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

NUMBER OF SA

MPLES (BY YEAR)

Apache Spring (Site 305)

Basalt Spring (Site 303)

Frijoles Spring (Site 556)

Turkey Spring (Site 304)

1 Number of samples

30

29
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 23

Table 7. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards at selected Alamo Creek sampling 

sites located in and upstream from Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1977 to 2001.

[ABS, alkylbenzene sulfonate; AL, aquatic life; ANC, acid neutralizing capacity; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; DWS, domestic-water supply; EPA 

RC II, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II; fil, filtered; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; GM, geometric mean; HQCF, high quality cold-water fishery; H, high (maximum) standard; I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; 

N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality standard; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; PC, primary contact recreation; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; 

unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Alamo Creek 

sites 

(see figure 2 

for location

of sites)

Field property 

or 

constituent

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1977 to 20011

Recent POR 

1988 to 20012

No. of 

analyses/ 

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC

standard or 

Federal 

criteria

(Use)3

No. of standard 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites with 

exceedances

Field properties (1977–2001)

4

719, 721, and 834 ANC (mg/L CaCO3) 20/0 20.7 43.4 95 -- --

719 and 834 Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 20/0 4.24 7.91 9.27 6

(HQCF) 0/13/0

719, 721, and 834 pH (SU) 60/0 6.6 7.46 8.5

8.8, H

6.6, L

(HQCF)

0/19/0, L

0/19/0, H

719, 721, and 834 Specific conductance 

(μS/cm) 58/0 50 110 675

1,500, H 

300, L

(HQCF)

0/14/0, L

0/14/0, H

834 Streamflow (ft3/s) 1/0 0.43 0.43 0.43 -- --

719 and 834 Turbidity (NTU) 14/0 2.6 5.6 11

25, H 

10, L

(HQCF)

0/14/0, H

1/14/1, L

719, 721, and 834 Water temperature 

(degrees Celsius) 61/0 4 13 28 20(HQCF) 0/19/0

Nutrients (aggregated)5 (1977–1996)

834 Ammonia, unfiltered

(mg/L as N) 1/0 .140 .140 .140 TVS (AL) 0/1/0

719, 721, and 834 Nitrate, unfiltered

(mg/L as N) 8/3 <.1 .093 .32 10 (DWS) 0/1/0

719 and 834 Orthophosphorus 

(mg/L as P) 2/0 .134 .164 .193 -- --

719 Total phosphorus, 

unfiltered (mg/L as P) 1/0 .315 .315 .315 0.01 EPA RC II --

Other constituents (1977–1996)

834 Fecal coliform

(col/100 mL) 1/0 23 23 23

200, GM

400, I 

(PC)

--

719 ABS, unfil rec (mg/L) 1/1 <.005 <.005 <.005 -- --

719 Phenols (mg/L) 3/2 <.001 -- .002 -- --
24 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 7. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards at selected Alamo Creek sampling 

sites located in and upstream from Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1977 to 2001.—Continued

[ABS, alkylbenzene sulfonate; AL, aquatic life; ANC, acid neutralizing capacity; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; DWS, domestic-water supply; EPA 

RC II, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II; fil, filtered; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; GM, geometric mean; HQCF, high quality cold-water fishery; H, high (maximum) standard; I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; 

N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality standard; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; PC, primary contact recreation; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; 

unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Alamo Creek sites 

(see figure 2 for 

location of sites)

Field property or 

constituent

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1977 to 20011

Recent POR 

1988 to 20012

No. of 

analyses/ 

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC

standard or 

Federal 

criteria

(Use)3

No. of 

standard 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites with 

exceedances

Trace elements (1977–1978)

(Results reported in micrograms per liter; only constituents with concentrations above the censoring level included)

719 Iron, unfil 3/2 <500 -- 620 1,000 fil

(NAWQ) --

719 Lead, unfil rec 3/3 <25 -- <30 TVS fil 

(AL) --

719 Manganese, unfil rec 3/1 <100 -- 100 120 fil 

Tier II --

719, 721, and 834 Uranium, unfil 3/0 2.4 2.5 3.7 2.6 fil 

Tier II

719 Zinc, unfil rec 3/2 <500 -- 58 TVS fil

(AL)

1

 All available data considered from 1977 to 2001; POR varies with constituent and site. 

2

 Last 15 years of available data considered for standards exceedance analysis (that is, all samples collected on or after January 1, 1988 through 

December 31, 2003). At the time of data compilation there were no available data from the source databases collected at these selected sites after 2001. POR 

varies with constituent and site. 

3

 State standards and designated beneficial uses from the New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (2002). Selected Federal criteria are used when 

State standards are not established, including the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2002), the National Ambient Water Quality Criteria (NAWQ), or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter and Tsao, 1996). 

4

 Alamo Canyon sites includes sites 721 (in headwaters upstream from monument boundary) and 834 (at upstream monument boundary), and site 719 

located downstream near the confluence with the Rio Grande (see fig. 2). 

5

 Aggregated nutrients based on Mueller and others (1995); where sample fraction not stated, aggregation includes both filtered and unfiltered concentrations. Zero values were excluded unless converted to a value of less than the censoring level.
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 25

Table 8. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards at selected Capulin Creek sampling 

sites located in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1977 to 2001.—Continued

[AL, aquatic life; ANC, acid neutralizing capacity; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; DWS, domestic-water supply; EPA RC II, U. S. Environmental 

Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II; fil, filtered; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; GM, geometric mean; HQCF, high quality 

cold-water fishery; H, high (maximum) standard; I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality standard, NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; PC, 

primary contact recreation; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per 

centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Capulin Creek sites 

(see figure 2 for 

location of sites)

Field property or 

constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1977 to 20011

Recent POR

1988 to 20012

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use)3

No. of standard 

exceedances/No. 

of analyses/No. of 

sites with 

exceedances

Field properties (1977–2001)

4

310, 313, 314, 5590, 

and 5591 ANC (mg/L CaCO3

) 49/0 40.2 56.1 204 -- --

310, 313, 314, 835, 

5590, and 5591

Dissolved oxygen 

(mg/L) 83/0 5.02 7.85 10.8 6 (HQCF) 6/51/5

310, 313, 314, 835, 

5590, and 5591 pH (SU) 133/0 5.4 7.57 8.64

8.8, H

6.6, L

(HQCF)

0/60/0, H

2/60/1, L

310, 313, 314, 835, 

5590, and 5591

Specific conductance 

(μS/cm) 125/0 70 139 430

1,500, H 

300, L

(HQCF)

0/51/0, H

3/51/3, L

313, 314, and 5590 Streamflow (ft3/s) 18/0 0.19 0.47 0.8 -- --

310, 835, and 5591 Turbidity (NTU) 65/1 1.3 5 44

25, H 

10, L

(HQCF)

0/35/0, H

3/35/1, L

310, 313, 314, 835, 

5590, and 5591

Water temperature 

(degrees Celsius) 134/0 0 15.9 23 20 (HQCF) 2/60/2

Nutrients (aggregated)5 (1977–1996)

313, 314, and 5590 Ammonia, unfiltered 

(mg/L as N) 15/9 <.0008 .259 .468 TVS (AL) 2/15/2

313, 314, and 5590 Ammonia, un-ionized 

(mg/L as N) 15/9 <.00005 .0012 .037 -- --

313, 314, 5590, 310, 

and 5591

Nitrate 

(mg/L as N) 21/15 <.1 .004 .26 10 (DWS) 0/15/0

313, 314, 5590, and 

5591

Orthophosphorus 

(mg/L as P) 17/5 <.0007 .012 1.8 -- --

5591

Total phosphorus, 

unfiltered

(mg/L as P)

2/0 .459

1.09

1.71 0.01 

EPA RC II --

Other constituents (1977–1995)

313, 314, and 5590 Fecal coliform 

(col/100 mL) 15/4 0

12.6 (GM)

255

200, GM

400, I

(PC)

2/15/2, GM

0/15/0, I

5591 ABS, unfil rec 

(mg/L) 2/2 <.005 <.005 <.005 -- --

5591 Phenols (mg/L) 2/2 <.001 <.001 <.001 -- --
26 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 8. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards at selected Capulin Creek sampling 

sites located in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1977 to 2001.—Continued

[AL, aquatic life; ANC, acid neutralizing capacity; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; DWS, domestic-water supply; EPA RC II, U. S. Environmental 

Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II; fil, filtered; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; GM, geometric mean; HQCF, high quality 

cold-water fishery; H, high (maximum) standard; I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality standard, NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; PC, 

primary contact recreation; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per 

centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Capulin Creek sites 

(see figure 2 for 

location of sites)

Field property or 

constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1977 to 20011

Recent POR

1988 to 20012

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use)3

No. of standard 

exceedances/No. 

of analyses/No. of 

sites with 

exceedances

Trace elements (1977–1978)

(Results reported in micrograms per liter; only constituents with concentrations above the censoring level included)

5591 Barium, unfil rec 4/3 <500 -- 780 4 fil 

Tier II --

5591 Iron, unfil 4/2 <500 -- 3,750 1,000 fil

NAWQ --

5591 Manganese, unfil rec 4/2 <100 -- 1,273 120 fil 

Tier II --

5591 and 310 Uranium, unfil 2/2 1.9 2.4 2.6 fil 

Tier II --

5591 Zinc, unfil rec 4/2 <500 -- 62 TVS fil

(AL) --

1 All available data considered from 1977 to 2001; POR varies with constituent and site. 

2 Last 15 years of available data considered for standards exceedance analysis (that is, all samples collected on or after January 1, 1988 through 

December 31, 2003). At the time of data compilation there were no available data from the source databases collected at these selected sites after 2001. POR 

varies with constituent and site. 

3 State standards and designated beneficial uses from the New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (2002). Selected Federal criteria are used when 

State standards are not established, including the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2002), the National Ambient Water Quality Criteria (NAWQ), or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter and Tsao, 1996). 

4

 Capulin Creek sites includes sites 310 (at monument boundary) and 835, gage station site 5591, and sites located downstream from ranger cabin and horse 

corral, including sites 313, and 314, and 5590 (see fig. 2).

5 Aggregated nutrients based on Mueller and others (1995); where sample fraction not stated, aggregation includes both filtered and unfiltered concentrations. 

Zero values were excluded unless converted to a value of less than the censoring level.
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 27

Table 9. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in selected Rito de los Frijoles (Upper 

and Lower Frijoles Creek) sampling sites located in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1957 to 2001.—Continued

[ABS, alkylbenzene sulfate; AL, aquatic life; ANC, acid neutralizing capacity; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; col/100 mL; colonies per 100 milliliters; DWS, 

domestic-water supply; EPA RC II, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II; fil, filtered; GM, 

geometric mean; HQCF, high quality cold-water fishery; H, high (maximum) standard; I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per 

liter; N, nitrogen; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; PC, primary 

contact recreation; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; 

<, less than; --, not available; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Rito de los 

Frijoles sites 

(see figure 2 for 

location of sites)

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1957 to 20011

Recent POR

1988 to 20012

No. of 

analyses /

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC

standard 

or Federal 

criteria (Use)3

No. of standard 

exceedances/No. of 

analyses/No. of sites 

with exceedances

Field properties (1957–2001)

Upper Frijoles4 ANC (mg/L as 

CaCO3)

42/0 16.3 35.4 55 -- --

Lower Frijoles4 134/0 23.2 49.7 262 -- --

Upper Frijoles Dissolved oxygen 

(mg/L)

75/0 6 8.06 11 6 

(HQCF)

0/39/0

Lower Frijoles 214/0 2.7 8.2 14.3 1/121/1

Upper Frijoles

pH (SU)

138/0 5.9 7.4 8.8 8.8, H

6.6, L

(HQCF)

3/40/2, L

0/40/0, H

Lower Frijoles 551/0 6.3 7.5 9 5/124/3, L

0/124/0, H

Upper Frijoles Specific conductance 

(μS/cm) 

139/0 46 110 170 1,500, H 300, L

(HQCF)

--

Lower Frijoles 586/0 11 110.5 710 --

Upper Frijoles

Turbidity (NTU)

69/0 1.3 10.3 47.8 25, H

10, L

(HQCF)

4/35/1, H

16/35/2, L

Lower Frijoles 167/1 1.6 7.5 84 1/60/1, H

9/60/4, L

Upper Frijoles Water temperature 

(degrees Celsius)

133/0 3 12.3 19

20 (HQCF)

0/40/0

Lower Frijoles 683/0 0 10.4 25 5/124/3

Nutrients (aggregated)5 (1957– 2001)

Upper Frijoles Ammonia, unfiltered

(mg/L as N)

2/0 0.16 0.175 0.19

TVS (AL) --

Lower Frijoles 74/42 <.1 .009 .466 --

Upper Frijoles Ammonia, 

un-ionized 

(mg/L as N)

2/0 .0002 .0006 .001

--

--

Lower Frijoles 60/38 <.0002 -- .001 .014

Upper Frijoles Nitrate 

(mg/L as N)

10/2 <.1 .10 .4

10 (DWS) --

Lower Frijoles 84/50 <.4 .018 7 --

Upper Frijoles Nitrogen, unfiltered

(mg/L as N)

2/0 .2 .265 .33

0.12 EPA RC II

0/1/0

Lower Frijoles 39/26 <.46 .17 3.74 4/30/1

(site 307)

Lower Frijoles Orthophosphorus 

(mg/L as P) 54/20 <.01 .020 10.2 -- --

Upper Frijoles Total phosphorus, 

unfiltered

(mg/L as P)

2/0 .06 .06 .06

0.01 EPA RC II

--

Lower Frijoles 57/2 <.01 .050 6.2 42/44/3
28 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 9. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in selected Rito de los Frijoles (Upper 

and Lower Frijoles Creek) sampling sites located in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1957 to 2001.—Continued

[ABS, alkylbenzene sulfate; AL, aquatic life; ANC, acid neutralizing capacity; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; col/100 mL; colonies per 100 milliliters; DWS, 

domestic-water supply; EPA RC II, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II; fil, filtered; GM, 

geometric mean; HQCF, high quality cold-water fishery; H, high (maximum) standard; I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per 

liter; N, nitrogen; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; PC, primary 

contact recreation; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; 

<, less than; --, not available; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Rito de los 

Frijoles sites 

(see figure 2 for 

location of sites)

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1957 to 20011

Recent POR

1988 to 20012

No. of 

analyses /

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC

standard 

or Federal 

criteria (Use)3

No. of standard 

exceedances/No. of 

analyses/No. of sites 

with exceedances

Other constituents (1977–2001)

Upper Frijoles Fecal coliform 

(col/100 mL)

1/0 2 2 2 200, GM

400, I

(PC)

--

Lower Frijoles 21/3 0 30.8 (GM) 229 2/18/2, GM

Lower Frijoles ABS, unfil rec 3/2 <.005 -- .3 -- --

Lower Frijoles Bis (2-ethylhexyl) 

phthalate, unfil rec 4/2 <.48 -- 1.38 59 (AL) 0/4/0

Lower Frijoles 

(319) Phenols, unfil rec 8/3 <.005 .004 .068 -- --

Lower Frijoles 

Suspended sediment, 

concentration 

(mg/L) 194/4 <1 22 98,800

-- --

Trace elements (1971–1995)

(Results reported in micrograms per liter; only constituents with concentrations above the censoring 

level included; zero values recensored)

Upper Frijoles Arsenic, unfil1/1 <5 <5 <5 150 fil 

(AL)

--

Lower Frijoles 7/6 <1 -- 14 --

Upper Frijoles Barium, unfil rec1/1 <100 <100 <100 4 fil 

Tier II

--

Lower Frijoles 12/9 <100 1,069 1,530 --

Upper Frijoles Cadmium, unfil1/1 <1 <1 <1 TVS fil

(AL)

--

Lower Frijoles 6/5 <1 -- 2 --

Lower Frijoles Copper, unfil rec 4/3 <1 -- 108 TVS fil (AL) --

Lower Frijoles Iron, fil

Iron, unfil rec

29/0 73 120 840 1,000 fil

NAWQ

0/29/0

9/1 360 900 240,000 --

Upper Frijoles Lead, unfil rec1/1 <10 <10 <10

TVS fil (AL) --

Lower Frijoles 12/8 <10 3.48 1,000 --
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 29

Table 9. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in selected Rito de los Frijoles (Upper 

and Lower Frijoles Creek) sampling sites located in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1957 to 2001.—Continued

[ABS, alkylbenzene sulfate; AL, aquatic life; ANC, acid neutralizing capacity; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; col/100 mL; colonies per 100 milliliters; DWS, 

domestic-water supply; EPA RC II, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II; fil, filtered; GM, 

geometric mean; HQCF, high quality cold-water fishery; H, high (maximum) standard; I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per 

liter; N, nitrogen; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; PC, primary 

contact recreation; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; 

<, less than; --, not available; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Rito de los 

Frijoles sites 

(see figure 2 for 

location of sites)

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1957 to 20011

Recent POR

1988 to 20012

No. of 

analyses /

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC

standard 

or Federal 

criteria (Use)3

No. of standard 

exceedances/No. of 

analyses/No. of sites 

with exceedances

Trace elements (1971–1995)—Continued

(Results reported in micrograms per liter; only constituents with concentrations above the censoring 

level included; zero values recensored)

Lower Frijoles

Manganese, fil

Manganese, 

unfil rec

28/0 5 9.0 21

120 fil Tier II

0/28/0

9/3 <100 117 14,000 --

Upper Frijoles Mercury, unfil rec1/1 <.5 <.5 <.5 0.012 unfil

(AL)

--

Lower Frijoles 7/7 <.001 -- <.5 --

Lower Frijoles Strontium, fil 2/0 48 52 56 1,500 fil

Tier II --

Upper Frijoles Uranium, unfil4/0 1.9 2.65 3.4 2.6 fil

Tier II

--

Lower Frijoles 20/14 <1 .278 6.8 --

Lower Frijoles Zinc, unfil rec 10/3 <10 62 1,200 TVS fil (AL) --

1 All available data considered from 1957 to 2001; POR reflects range for individual sites within this time period. 

2 Last 15 years of available data considered for standards exceedance analysis (that is, all samples collected on or after January 1, 1988 through 

Decmeber 31, 2003). At the time of data compilation there were no available data from the source databases collected at these selected sites after 2001. Date 

range varies with constituent. 

3 State standards and designated beneficial uses from the New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (2002). Selected Federal criteria are used when 

State standards are not established, including the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2002), the National Ambient Water Quality Criteria (NAWQ), or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter and Tsao, 1996). 

4

 Upper Frijoles includes site 5576 and all sites upstream from it (see fig. 2). Lower Frijoles includes site 331 and all sites downstream from it (see fig. 2). 

5 Aggregated nutrients based on Mueller and others (1995); where sample fraction not stated, aggregation includes both filtered and unfiltered concentrations. 

Zero values were excluded unless converted to a value of less than the censoring level.
30 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

from site 719, exceeded the NMWQCC low SC standard of 

300 μS/cm; this value was from a post-La Mesa Fire sample 

collected in August 1977. In Capulin Creek, the highest 

individual SC measurements of 420, 420, and 430 μS/cm, 

respectively, were made on July 7, 1996, at sites 313, 314, and 

5590, following the April 1996 Dome Fire; these higher values 

were the only recently measured exceedances of the State’s 

low SC standard. In the Rito de los Frijoles, six historical 

measurements, ranging from 303 to 710 μS/cm made in July 

and August 1977 from site 307, exceeded the low SC standard. 

These elevated SC values were likely related to postfire runoff. 

Recent (since 1988) SC measurements made in the Rito de 

los Frijoles did not exceed the State’s low or high standards. 

Specific conductance values were generally more variable in 

the summer months than they were during the winter months. 

Specific conductance is influenced by flow and generally 

decreases with increasing streamflow in the Lower Frijoles. 

Turbidity values ranged from 1.3 to 84 nephelometric 

turbidity units (NTU) in Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the 

Rito de los Frijoles (tables 7, 8, and 9). In Alamo Creek, one 

measurement of 11 NTU, made in May 1988, exceeded the 

NMWQCC HQCF low standard of 10 NTU. In Capulin Creek, 

three recent (since 1988) measurements exceeded the low 

turbidity standard. Turbidity is one of the three constituents 

in the Rito de los Frijoles on the State 303(d) list. Since 1988, 

25 measurements made in the Rito de los Frijoles exceeded 

the low turbidity standard, and 5 measurements exceeded the 

NMWQCC high turbidity standard of 25 NTU. Measurements 

collected before 1988 also frequently exceeded these standards in the Rito de los Frijoles. In all three creeks, turbidity 

measurements are typically highest in the months of March 

through June during the snowmelt runoff period. No turbidity 

data were available to assess the effects of fire-related runoff 

for the sampling events that followed the April 1996 Dome 

Fire.

Water temperature measurements ranged from 0 to 28oC 

in Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los Frijoles 

(tables 7, 8, and 9). No recent measurements from Alamo 

Creek exceeded the NMWQCC HQCF standard for water temperature (20oC); however, four historical measurements made 

from July to September 1977 at site 719 exceeded this standard following the La Mesa Fire. In Capulin Creek, the HQCF 

20oC standard was exceeded twice since 1988: one measurement of 22oC at site 313 and one measurement of 23oC at site 

5590, both made in July 1996 following the Dome Fire. Water 

temperature is one of three properties on the 303(d) list for the 

Rito de los Frijoles. Water temperature exceeded the HQCF 

20oC standard for three Lower Frijoles sites (sites 307, 315, 

and 319) a total of five times between June 1990 and August 

1995. These exceedances ranged from 21 to 25oC. No water 

temperature standards were exceeded at the Upper Frijoles 

sites. 

Major Ions

Runoff, dissolution, and the chemistry of ground 

water discharging from the volcanic rocks in the canyon are 

the principal drivers of the concentrations of cations and 

anions in Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los 

Frijoles. Historical major-ion data for Alamo Creek show 

that the highest recorded concentrations of filtered chloride 

and unfiltered calcium, magnesium, and sodium were from 

the September 1, 1977, sample collected after the La Mesa 

Fire. Data also are sparse for Capulin Creek with sampling 

occurring from 1977 to 1978 and from 1994 to 1996. Review 

of the Capulin Creek data shows that the highest recorded 

concentrations of filtered calcium, chloride, magnesium, 

sodium, and unfiltered sulfate were from the July 1996 

sample collected after the Dome Fire. Elevated concentrations 

of filtered sulfate and unfiltered silica also occurred in the 

analyses of samples collected following the 1977 La Mesa 

Fire from Capulin Creek. Elevated historical concentrations of 

unfiltered calcium, magnesium, nitrate, silica, sodium, sulfate, 

and filtered chloride are associated with the postfire intensive 

sampling events that occurred in the Rito de los Frijoles in 

July 1977 and in June and July 1978. This intensive sampling 

effort captured runoff from the fire-affected headwaters of the 

canyon; the elevated concentrations likely reflect the increased 

contribution of sediment associated with the increased runoff 

following the fire. 

Water type in Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito 

de los Frijoles can be described as calcium bicarbonate with 

some magnesium, potassium, sodium, sulfate, and minor 

contributions of chloride, fluoride and nitrate based on a trilinear (Piper) diagram analysis of available data (fig. 5). This 

concurs with the Purtymun and Adams (1980) description of 

water-quality conditions in the canyons as calcium bicarbonate. The geology, dominated by the Bandelier Tuff, contributes 

to the concentrations of cations and anions measured in the 

canyons’ surface waters. 

Nutrients

Selected available nutrient data for ammonia (unfiltered 

and un-ionized), nitrate (filtered and unfiltered), total nitrogen (unfiltered), orthophosphorus (filtered and unfiltered), 

and total phosphorus (unfiltered) are summarized in tables 

7, 8, and 9, for Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito 

de los Frijoles, respectively. In Alamo Creek, samples were 

collected only one or two times for analysis of unfiltered 

ammonia, orthophosphorus, and total phosphorus and eight 

times (two or three times at each site) for analysis of nitrate. 

In Capulin Creek, samples were collected between 2 and 21 

times for analysis of ammonia (unfiltered and un-ionized), 

nitrate, orthophosphorus, and total phosphorus. Samples were 

analyzed for ammonia (unfiltered and un-ionized), nitrate, 

total nitrogen, orthophosphorus, and total phosphorus between 

2 and 10 times from sites in the Upper Frijoles and between 39 

and 84 times from sites in the Lower Frijoles. 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 31

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60  80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

EXPLANATION

Alamo Creek

Capulin Creek

Rito de los Frijoles

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Calcium Chloride, Fluoride, and Nitrate

PERCENT

PERCENT

Magnesium

Sodium

Sulfate

Sulfate plus Chloride

Calcium plus Magnesium

Bicarbonate

Figure 5. Water types for Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los Frijoles in 

Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1957 to 2001. 

Unfiltered ammonia was measured in a sample from 

Alamo Creek just one time—at a concentration of 

0.140 mg/L—and ranged from less than 0.0008 to 0.468 mg/L 

in Capulin Creek and from less than 0.1 to 0.466 mg/L in the 

Rito de los Frijoles. Capulin Creek exceeded the NMWQCC 

pH and temperature-based TVS for unfiltered ammonia twice 

in July 1996 out of 15 samples (once each from sites 313 

and 5590); Alamo Creek and the Rito de los Frijoles did not 

exceed their computed TVS. Unfiltered ammonia concentrations were highest in August 1995 and July 1996 in Capulin 

Creek and the Rito de los Frijoles. Un-ionized ammonia 

concentrations ranged from less than 0.00005 to 0.037 mg/L 

in Capulin Creek for 15 samples and from less than 0.0002 

to 0.014 mg/L in the Rito de los Frijoles for 62 samples. Unionized ammonia is not regulated in the State of New Mexico. 

Eight samples were collected for analysis of nitrate 

(filtered and unfiltered) from Alamo Creek (7 in 1977 and 

1978 and 1 in 1996) and concentrations ranged from less than 

0.1 to 0.32 mg/L; 21 from Capulin Creek and concentrations 

ranged from less than 0.1 to 0.26 mg/L; and 94 from the Rito 

de los Frijoles (10 samples from the Upper Frijoles and 84 

samples from the Lower Frijoles) and concentrations ranged 

from less than 0.1 to 7 mg/L. The high nitrate concentration 

of 7 mg/L was measured in a sample collected in March 1978 

from site 319 and may be related to postfire runoff. All of the 

historical and recent nitrate values were below the NMWQCC 

drinking-water standard of 10 mg/L. 

Total nitrogen (unfiltered) was measured only in samples 

collected from the Rito de los Frijoles. Concentrations ranged 

from less than 0.46 to 3.74 mg/L, though they were generally 

less than 0.7 mg/L. The high value of 3.74 mg/L was measured in a June 1985 sample from site 330. No State standards 

for total nitrogen exist in New Mexico; however, the total 

nitrogen concentrations exceeded the USEPA-recommended 

nutrient criteria of 0.12 mg/L for Ecoregion II four times out 

of 30 analyses of samples collected from site 307 since 1988 

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002). 

Orthophosphorus was measured in samples from Alamo 

Creek twice, at concentrations of 0.134 and 0.193 mg/L; 17 

times in samples from Capulin Creek and concentrations 

ranged from less than 0.0007 to 1.8 mg/L; and 54 times in 

samples from Lower Frijoles Creek and concentrations ranged 

from less than 0.01 to 10.2 mg/L. Total phosphorus (unfiltered) was measured once in a 1977 sample collected from 

Alamo Creek (from site 719) at a concentration of 0.315 mg/L; 

twice in Capulin Creek in samples from site 5591 in 1977 at 

concentrations of 0.459 and 1.71 mg/L; and 59 times between 

1977 and 2001 in samples from the Rito de los Frijoles (twice 
32 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

in Upper Frijoles and 57 times in Lower Frijoles) and concentrations ranged from less than 0.01 to 6.2 mg/L. No State standards for orthophosphorus or total phosphorus exist in New 

Mexico. In the Rito de los Frijoles, total phosphorus concentrations exceeded the USEPA-recommended nutrient criterion 

of 0.01 mg/L for Ecoregion II 42 times out of 44 analyses of 

samples collected from sites 307, 330, and 836 since 1988; 

concentrations ranged from 0.02 to 0.146 mg/L, respectively 

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002). Additionally, total phosphorus concentrations exceeded the 0.01-mg/L 

criterion in all three creeks in August and September 1977 

and in Upper and Lower Frijoles Creek in June 1985. Elevated 

phosphorus concentrations may be the result of increased 

sediment transport and ash from the fire-affected watersheds. 

Possible sources for elevated orthophosphorus concentrations 

include erosion of phosphorus-rich minerals in soils, particularly weathered apatite, iron or aluminum phosphates, and 

plagioclase feldspars, which are commonly associated with 

basalts and other volcanic rocks (Hem, 1989). Other sources 

of elevated nutrients in the streams could be from human and 

animal wastes, surface runoff, recreational activities in the 

drainage basin, and trespass grazing in the monument. 

Other Constituents

Fecal coliform was one of three constituents that 

resulted in the Rito de los Frijoles being on the State 303(d) 

list; however, few recent data are available. Recreational 

activities, including back-country hiking and trespass grazing 

in the monument, are potential sources of elevated fecal 

coliform counts in surface water. No coliform data were 

collected after 1996 in any of the creeks. In Alamo Creek, 

one sample collected in 1996 from site 834 was analyzed 

for fecal coliform; in Capulin Creek, 15 samples (5 samples 

per site) collected from the downstream sites 313, 314, and 

5590 in 1994 and 1995 were analyzed for fecal coliform; in 

the Rito de los Frijoles, 22 samples were analyzed for fecal 

coliform (one sample from Upper Frijoles and 21 samples 

from Lower Frijoles Creek) in 1985, 1994, and 1995. A count 

of 23 colonies per 100 milliliters (col/100 mL) was measured 

in samples from Alamo Creek; counts ranged from 0 to 255 

col/100 mL in samples from Capulin Creek, and in samples 

from the Rito de los Frijoles, counts ranged from 0 to 229 

col/100 mL (tables 7, 8, and 9). In Capulin Creek, counts from 

two analyses of coliform (234 and 255 col/100 mL measured 

in samples from sites 313 and 314, respectively) from a July 

1994 sampling event exceeded the NMWQCC 200 col/100 

mL standard for primary-contact recreation, which is based on 

a geometric mean. Counts from two analyses of coliform in 

samples collected from the Lower Frijoles (sites 315 and 316) 

narrowly exceeded the State standard with values of 229 and 

208 col/100 ml, respectively. 

Organochlorine pesticides, including DDT, were used in 

BAND (near the developed park headquarters in the Rito de 

los Frijoles drainage) and in the surrounding Santa Fe National 

Forest from the late 1940s into the early 1960s (Scurlock, 

1998; Mott, 1999). The State of New Mexico has included 

the Rito de los Frijoles on the 303(d) list for DDT for many 

years. As part of the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment Program, fish and sediment were sampled in 1997 in 

the Rio Grande Valley, including one site on the Rito de los 

Frijoles below Frijoles Falls (site 308; fig. 2). At this site, the 

study found a greater number of DDT compounds in the bed 

sediment (a total DDT concentration of 16.4 μg/kg dry weight) 

and in whole-body rainbow trout (a total DDT concentration 

of 173 μg/kg wet weight) that exceeded the minimum reporting level than in samples from other sites (table 10; Carter, 

1997). Mott (1999) reported that previous studies found DDT 

concentrations as high as 164 mg/L adjacent to Rito de los 

Frijoles Creek near the heaquarters parking lot. 

Few data are available on organic compounds in Alamo 

and Capulin Creeks. In Alamo Creek, ABS was analyzed once 

in a sample from site 719, and in Capulin Creek, ABS was 

analyzed twice in 1977 in samples collected from site 5591. 

All ABS results were below the censoring level (less than 

0.005 mg/L). In Alamo Creek, phenols were analyzed three 

times in samples from site 719 with a concentration range of 

less than 0.001 to 0.002 mg/L, and in Capulin Creek phenols 

(unfiltered) were analyzed four times, in 1977 and 1978, in 

samples from site 5591 following the La Mesa Fire; all phenol 

results in Capulin Creek were below the censoring level (less 

than 0.001 mg/L). For analyses of samples from the Rito de 

los Frijoles, organic compounds and pesticides detected in 

suspended-sediment and fish-tissue samples are summarized 

in table 10. Fifteen compounds, four that are DDT degradates, were detected in the bed-sediment samples; four DDT 

degradates were detected in the fish-tissue samples. Of these 

compounds, six analyses of sediment samples and three analyses of fish tissue samples had concentrations exceeding one or 

more pollution potential criteria (table 10). Between June and 

September 2001, four water samples were collected from sites 

330, 836, and 837 and analyzed for 85 organic and volatile 

organic compounds, pesticides, and wastewater compounds. 

Of these 85 constituents, 2 compounds were detected above 

their censoring level, including ABS (table 9) and bis 

(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (table 10). There is no State surfacewater-quality standard for ABS. The standard for bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate is 59 micrograms per liter (μg/L), which is 

much higher than the detected concentrations. 

Suspended sediment related to fire-related runoff events, 

recreational use in and near creeks, and runoff from nearby 

State Highway 4 has been identified as a concern in the Rito 

de los Frijoles. Analyses of suspended sediment from 194 

samples ranged from less than 1 to 98,800 mg/L in samples 

collected from the Lower Frijoles between 1977 and 1981 and 

1993 and 1995 (table 9). The higher concentrations (greater 

than 1,100 mg/L) were all measured in 1977 and 1978 and are 

likely related to La Mesa Fire runoff events. No suspendedsediment concentration data were available for sites in the 

Upper Frijoles. Elevated suspended-sediment concentrations 

are generally correlated with high stream discharges and high 

specific conductance. 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 33

Table 10. Organic compounds and pesticides detected in bed-sediment and fish tissue samples from November 9, 1992, sampling 

event at site 308, Frijoles Creek below Frijoles Falls, in the Lower Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico. 

[HHO, human health organism; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level (U.S. National Drinking Water Standards and Health Criteria); nd, none determined; 

Ppcode, parameter code; RfD, reference dose; μg/kg/day, micrograms per kilogram per day; μg/L, micrograms per liter; bold concentrations indicate 

exceedances of pollution potential or criteria]

Ppcode Constituent name Concentration

Pollution potential or criteria

(in μg/L, unless 

otherwise specified)

Organics in bed sediment smaller than 2 millimeters, wet sieved (native water), field, recoverable, dry weight, micrograms per kilogram

(common name; parent)

P49381 Di-n-butyl phthalate (parent: Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) 55 No MCL; RfD2 100 μg/kg/day; 12,000 HHO3

P49383 Diethyl phthalate (parent: Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) 18 No MCL; RfD 800 μg/kg/day; 120,000 HHO

P49406 2,6-dimethylnaphthalene (2,6-DMN; parent: Naphthalene) 21 nd

P49409 Phenanthrene 20 nd

P494261 Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) 56 6 MCL; RfD 20 μg/kg/day; 5.90 HHO

P49427 Benzyl n-butyl phthalate (butyl benzyl phthalate; 

parent: Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) 39 No MCL; RfD 200 μg/kg/day; 5,200 HHO

P49434 Anthracene (parent: Coal tar hydrocarbons) 15 No MCL; RfD 300 μg/kg/day; 110,000 HHO

P49436 Benzo[a]anthracene 16 No MCL; .049 HHO

P49450 Chrysene 16 No MCL; .049 HHO

P49451 p-Cresol (parent: meta-Cresol) 46 nd

P49466 Fluoranthene 22 No MCL; 370 HHO

Pesticides in bed sediment smaller than 2 millimeters, wet sieved (native water), field, recoverable, dry weight, micrograms per kilogram4

P49325 o,p ́-DDD (parent: DDT) 1 nd, see p,p ́-DDT

P49326 p,p ́-DDD (4,4 ́-DDD; parent: DDT) 2 No MCL; .00084 HHO

P49328 p,p ́-DDE (4,4 ́-DDE; parent: DDT) 6 No MCL; .00059 HHO

P49330 p,p ́-DDT (4,4 ́-DDT; parent: DDT) 9 No MCL; .001 FCCC5

.00059 HHO

Pesticides in fish tissue (biota, whole organism, recoverable, wet weight, micrograms per kilogram)4

P49372 p,p ́-DDE (4,4 ́-DDE; parent: DDT) 110 .00059 HHO

P49375 p,p ́-DDD (4,4 ́-DDD; parent: DDT) 35 .00084 HHO

P49376 p,p ́-DDT (4,4 ́-DDT; parent: DDT) 28 .001 FCCC; .00059 HHO; 

P49377 o,p ́-DDD (parent: DDT) 6 nd, see p,p ́-DDT

1

 Expected to bioconcentrate in aquatic organisms (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2006b)

2

 The reference dose (RfD) is an estimate of the amount of a given chemical a person can consume each day over a lifetime without incurring “appreciable 

risk” of negative effects (Pesticide Action Network North America, 2002).

3 Human health organism (HHO) risk for consumption of an organism with the given concentration based on a probability that the contaminant will cause one 

new case of cancer in a population of 1,000,000 (Pesticide Action Network North America, 2002).

4

 Total DDT concentrations can be computed by summing the concentrations of p,p ́-DDD, p,p ́-DDE, and p,p ́-DDT. 

5

 EPA Freshwater Criterion Continuous Concentration (FCCC) is an estimate of the highest concentration of a pollutant in freshwater to which an aquatic 

community can be exposed indefinitely (that is, chronic) without resulting in an unacceptable effect (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2006c).
34 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Trace Elements

Selected trace-element data are available for sampling 

sites in Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los 

Frijoles (tables 7, 8, and 9). Very few data are available for 

Alamo Creek, however, as only two to four samples were 

collected following the 1977 La Mesa Fire. All Alamo Creek 

data were collected from site 719 except for three samples for 

the analysis of uranium, one each of which was collected from 

sites 719, 721, and 834. Analyses of samples for unfiltered 

(or unfiltered recoverable) arsenic, barium, cadmium, copper, 

lead, mercury, selenium, silver, and filtered hexavalent chromium indicated that concentrations of these metals were all 

below their respective censoring level. Unfiltered (or unfiltered 

recoverable) iron (less than 500 to 620 μg/L), manganese (less 

than 100 to 100 μg/L), uranium (2.4 to 3.7 μg/L), and zinc 

(less than 500 to 58 μg/L) were measured at concentrations at 

or above their respective censoring levels (table 7). No applicable State standards exist for these constituents. 

Trace-element data also are very sparse from Capulin 

Creek; only two to four samples were collected between July 

1977 and July 1978 following the 1977 La Mesa Fire. All 

data were collected from site 5591 except for two samples 

collected for the analysis of uranium, one each of which 

was collected from sites 5591 and 310. Analyses of samples 

for unfiltered (or unfiltered recoverable) arsenic, cadmium, 

copper, lead, mercury, selenium, silver, and filtered hexavalent 

chromium indicated that concentrations of these metals were 

all below their respective censoring level. Unfiltered (or 

unfiltered recoverable) barium (less than 500 to 780 μg/L), 

iron (less than 500 to 3,750 μg/L), manganese (less than 100 

to 1,273 μg/L), uranium (1.9 to 2.4 μg/L), and zinc (less than 

500 to 62 μg/L) were measured at concentrations at or above 

their respective censoring levels (table 8). No applicable State 

standards exist for these constituents. 

Water data for Upper Frijoles Creek are limited to 

analyses of one sample for a selected suite of unfiltered (or 

unfiltered recoverable) metals, including arsenic, barium, 

cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium, and silver 

collected June 12, 1985, from site 5576; all results were 

reported as below their respective censoring levels. Also in 

Upper Frijoles Creek, four samples for unfiltered uranium 

from sites 322, 323, 327, and 5576 were collected July 8, 

1977, and ranged from 1.9 to 3.4 μg/L. In Lower Frijoles 

Creek, between 3 and 29 samples were collected for various 

trace elements between 1971 and 1995. The concentrations of 

chromium (unspeciated and hexavalent), selenium, and silver 

in these samples were consistently below their censoring level. 

Maximum observed concentrations of unfiltered (or unfiltered 

recoverable) barium, iron, lead, and manganese appear to 

be elevated in some samples; however, no State standards or 

Federal criteria exist for these constituents (table 9). These 

elevated values are from 1977 and 1978, following the La 

Mesa Fire. 

For detected trace elements without New Mexico 

numeric aquatic-life standards or TVS, the concentrations 

were compared to the chronic NAWQ criteria or Tier II 

values presented by Suter and Tsao (1996) as toxicological 

benchmarks useful for screening constituents for aquatic 

ecological effects. Analyses of samples for filtered iron and 

manganese were available for Lower Frijoles Creek; all 

concentrations for these metals were below the respective 

NAWQ and Tier II criteria (table 9). No filtered trace-element 

data were available for Alamo or Capulin Creeks. 

Most trace-element analyses of water samples from 

Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los Frijoles 

were made on unfiltered (total or total recoverable) samples. 

The NMWQCC standards for most metals are typically for 

filtered constituents; therefore, comparison of the data to State 

standards was not possible for most metals. Mercury and 

selenium standards are based on unfiltered concentrations, but 

all concentrations of these two constituents in all three creeks 

were below their censoring levels, which were at or greater 

than the standards. 

Water Quality of Springs

Selected water-quality data from four springs in the monument sampled at the highest frequency and for the longest 

periods—Apache, Basalt, Frijoles, and Turkey Springs (sites 

305, 303, 556, and 304, respectively; fig. 2)—are summarized 

in table 11. Characterization of water quality from sampling 

sites within the monument is considered relative to specific 

canyons, probable geologic formation, and land-use factors (for example, monument facilities). Most of the data for 

Apache, Basalt, and Frijoles Springs (36 out of 37 samples, 38 

out of 40 samples, and all 38 samples, respectively) were collected before 1988; therefore, characterization of water quality 

at these springs is restricted by the historical nature of these 

data. Within the recent period of record (from 1988 to 1998), 

18 of 36 samples were collected from Turkey Spring. 

Field properties including ANC, DO (except for Frijoles Spring), pH, SC, turbidity (except for Basalt and Frijoles 

Springs), and water temperature were measured at all four 

springs. Samples for analysis of selected organic and radiological constituents (1997 only), nutrients, and trace elements 

were collected from Basalt Spring in the 1950s and in 1997 

and 1998. Apache, Frijoles, and Turkey Springs were each 

sampled one to six times for analyses of total uranium and 

nitrate; however, no other samples for the analysis of trace 

elements or nutrients were collected from these springs. Major 

ion data were collected from all four springs. Bacteriological 

data were not collected from any of these springs. 

Field Properties

ANC values ranged between 34.1 and 99 mg/L CaCO3

and are related to local geology. Generally, ANC measurements were highest at sites 304 (61 to 99 mg/L) and 303 (57 to 

98 mg/L) and lowest at sites 305 (34.1 to 57.5 mg/L) and 556 

(37.8 to 47.6 mg/L). 

Dissolved oxygen values ranged from 5.7 to 9.38 mg/L in 

Apache, Basalt, and Turkey Springs. From data collected since 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 35

Table 11. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in Apache, Basalt, Frijoles, and 

Turkey Springs in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, 1951 to 1998. 

[CaCO3, calcium carbonate; DMS, domestic water supply; EPA RC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria; fil, filtered; H, high (maximum); HQCF, high quality cold-water fishery; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; unfil, unfiltered; μg/L, micrograms 

per liter; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Spring sites 

(site locations 

in fig. 2)

Field property or 

constituent

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1951 to 19981

Recent POR

1988 to 19982

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values 

Minimum 

value

Median 

value 

Maximum 

value 

NMWQCC

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use )

3

No. of standard 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites with 

exceedances

Field properties (1951–1998)

303, 304, 305, 

and 556

Acid neutralizing capacity 

(mg/L of CaCO3) 60/0 34.1 71.7 99 -- --

303, 304, and 305 Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 30/0 5.7 8.2 9.38 6 (HQCF) 1/12/1

303, 304, 305, 

and 556 pH, field (standard units) 141/0 5.85 7.4 8.4

6.6, L

8.8, H

(HQCF)

--

303, 304, 305, 

and 556

Specific conductance 

(μS/cm) 139/0 95 212.5 435 -- --

304 and 305 Turbidity (NTU) 34/0 0.44 6.1 39

10, L

25, H

(HQCF)

1/12/1, L

0/12/0, H

(site 305)

303, 304, 305, 

and 556

Water temperature 

(degrees Celsius) 140/0 2 13.2 29 20(HQCF) --

Nutrients, aggregated4 (1953–1998)

303 Ammonia, fil 2/1 <.01 -- 0.06 -- --

303, 304, 305 

and 556 Nitrate (mg/L as N) 51/1 <.1 2.48 5.65 10 fil(DMS) --

303 Nitrite (mg/L as N) 2/1 <.01 -- .016 -- --

303 Nitrogen, unfiltered

(mg/L as N) 2/0 2.8 3.8 4.9 0.12EPA RC II 2/2/1

303 Orthophosphorus

(mg/L as P) 9/0 .033 0.065 2.65 -- --

303 Total phosphorus, unfiltered 

(mg/L as P) 2/0 2.09 2.42 2.76 0.01EPA RC II 2/2/1

Trace elements (1951–1997)

303 Iron, fil (μg/L) 11/0 10 20 20 1,000 fil

NAWQ --

303 Iron, unfil rec (μg/L) 2/0 40 285 530 -- --

304, 305 and 556 Uranium, natural, unfil (μg/L) 5/0 1.1 1.3 2.0 5,000 fil

(DMS) --

1 Period of record reflects full range evaluated for all relevant sites within this time period; some sites or constituents may not have had data available for the 

entire record. 

2 Last 15 years of available data considered for standards exceedance analysis (that is, all samples collected on or after January 1, 1988 through 

December 31, 2003). At the time of data compilation no data were available from the source databases for the selected sites after 1998. 

3 State standards and designated beneficial uses from the State of New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (2002). Selected Federal criteria are used 

when State standards are not established, including the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002), the National Ambient Water Quality criteria (NAWQ), or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter and Tsao, 1996).

4 Aggregated nutrients based on Mueller and others (1995); where sample fraction not stated, aggregation includes both filtered and unfiltered concentrations. 

Zero values were excluded unless converted to a value of less than the censoring level.
36 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

1988, one DO measurement from Turkey Spring was below 

the NMWQCC HQCF minimum standard of 6 mg/L. 

No recent (since 1988) pH values were outside the 6.6 

to 8.8 SU range defined by the NMWQCC for a high-quality 

cold-water fishery (assigned to these springs due to their proximity to the equivalently classified surface waters); however, 

little to no recent data exist for Apache, Basalt, and Frijoles 

Springs. 

Specific conductance was measured at all four springs 

and ranged from 95 to 435 μS/cm. Most of the SC data for 

sites 303, 305, and 556 were collected before 1988, though 10 

of 28 SC measurements at Turkey Spring were made during 

the recent period of record. The SC values for Basalt Spring 

(site 303), though variable, are generally higher than the 

values for the other springs, while the SC values for Frijoles 

Spring (site 556) are generally lower than values for the other 

springs. 

Turbidity measurements were available only for Turkey 

Spring (site 304) and Apache Spring (site 305). Values for 

site 304 ranged between 0.44 and 7 NTU for 22 samples collected between 1985 and 1992 and were below the NMWQCC 

10-NTU low standard for a HQCF. Values from 12 samples 

collected between 1985 and 1988 from site 305 ranged from 

5 to 39 NTU; values for 7 samples were equal to or greater 

than the 10-NTU low standard (only 1 of these collected since 

1988). The turbidity of one historical sample, collected in May 

1987, from site 305, was measured at 39 NTU and exceeded 

the State’s high turbidity standard of 25 NTU. 

Water temperature (along with pH and SC) measurements were made relatively frequently (28 to 40 measurements per spring) at all four springs. Water temperature was 

highly variable for all four springs and ranged between 2 

and 29oC. The water temperature at site 556, with a median 

19.7oC (34 measurements), was generally higher than that 

at the other three springs, while the water at site 305 had the 

lowest median temperature, 8.7oC, based on 35 measurements. 

No recent data (since 1988) exceeded the NMWQCC HQCF 

standard of 20oC; however, five historical measurements, two 

from site 304 and three from site 556, made in 1984 and 1983, 

respectively, exceeded this standard (exceedances identified 

prior to 1988 are not shown on table 11). These differences in 

temperature may be indicative of the ground-water flow paths 

and residence times or time of year of sampling. 

Major Ions

The volcanic tuff- and basalt-predominated rocks underlying BAND are the principal drivers of major-ion chemistry 

in Apache, Basalt, Frijoles, and Turkey Springs. Major ion 

data for Apache, Frijoles, and Turkey Springs are sparse (one 

to six samples) and were only collected between 1961 and 

1978. Between 10 and 39 samples were collected from Basalt 

Spring (site 303); only one sample collected from this spring 

in August 1997, during the recent period of record, was analyzed for major ions. 

Water types for the four springs ranged from calcium 

bicarbonate to sodium bicarbonate with varying amounts 

of other ions (fig. 6). The predominance of bicarbonate is 

a reflection of the volcanic tuff and (or) basaltic origins of 

the springs’ waters. The water of Frijoles Spring is predominantly sodium bicarbonate, and that of Apache Spring is 

predominantly bicarbonate with equal relative concentrations 

of calcium, magnesium, and sodium. Turkey Spring is a calcium bicarbonate water with some chloride, magnesium, and 

sodium, and Basalt Spring is calcium bicarbonate with some 

chloride, magnesium, nitrate, sodium, and sulfate. Purtymun 

and Adams (1980) describe water types for Apache, Frijoles, 

and Turkey Springs (sites 305, 556, and 304, respectively) and 

their descriptions generally agree with figure 6. 

Overall, ion concentrations are generally higher in the 

water of Basalt Spring (site 303) than in the waters of Turkey, Apache, and Frijoles Springs (sites 304, 305, and 556, 

respectively). Higher ion concentrations at Basalt Spring may 

be attributable to a longer ground-water residence time and 

(or) the composition of the underlying formation from which 

the spring discharges. Purtymun and Adams (1980) suggest 

that Apache Spring is recharged locally and that the residence 

time for ground water is about one month. Frijoles Spring, 

near the mouth of the Rito de los Frijoles, discharges to the 

Rio Grande. Ground water in the Rio Grande Basin aquifer system near Frijoles Spring (known locally as the main 

aquifer) is relatively fast moving, with a velocity estimated to 

be 394 ft per year (Purtymun and Adams, 1980; Robson and 

Banta, 1995), likely resulting in lower dissolved ion concentrations in this spring due to the short residence time. 

Nutrients

Fifty-one samples from all four springs were analyzed 

for nitrate (unfiltered and filtered), and concentrations ranged 

from less than 0.1 to 5.65 mg/L; most of the samples (40) 

were from Basalt Spring. None of the concentrations exceeded 

the NMWQCC domestic water-supply standard of 10 mg/L. 

Measured nitrate concentrations in Apache, Frijoles, and 

Turkey Springs did not exceed 0.8 mg/L. No other nutrients 

were analyzed in samples from Apache, Frijoles, and Turkey 

Springs. In Basalt Spring, samples were analyzed between two 

and nine times for ammonia (filtered), nitrite (unfiltered and 

filtered), total nitrogen (unfiltered), orthophosphorus (unfiltered and filtered), and total phosphorus (unfiltered). 

No aquatic-life or drinking-water standards exist for total 

nitrogen in New Mexico; however, the USEPA-recommended 

criterion for the aggregate nutrient Ecoregion II for total nitrogen in rivers and streams is 0.12 mg/L (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2002). The two total nitrogen (unfiltered) 

concentrations measured in Basalt Spring of 2.8 and 4.9 mg/L 

both exceed this criterion. 

No aquatic-life or drinking-water standards exist for 

total phosphorus in New Mexico; however, the USEPArecommended criterion for the aggregate nutrient Ecoregion 

II for total phosphorus in rivers and streams is 0.01 mg/L 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 37

Calcium Chloride, Fluoride, and Nitrate

EXPLANATION

Basalt Spring (Site 303)

Turkey Spring (Site 304)

Apache Spring (Site 305)

Frijoles Spring (Site 556)

Magnesium

Sulfate

PERCENT

PERCENT

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

Sodium

Bicarbonate

100

0

20

40

60

80

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Calcium plus Magnesium

Sulfate plus Chloride

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Figure 6. Water types for Basalt, Turkey, Apache, and Frijoles Springs in Bandelier 

National Monument, New Mexico, 1965 to 1978.

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002). The two total 

phosphorus (unfiltered) concentrations measured in Basalt 

Spring in August 1997 and June 1998, 2.09 and 2.76 mg/L, 

respectively, both exceed this criterion. Elevated phosphorus 

values may be derived from selected phosphorus-rich minerals, particularly apatite, iron or aluminum phosphates, and 

plagioclase feldspars that are commonly found associated with 

basalts and other volcanic rocks (Hem, 1989). 

Trace Elements, Radionuclides, and Volatile Organic 

Compounds 

Filtered and total recoverable iron, the only trace elements analyzed for more than once in samples collected from 

Basalt Spring, were sampled 11 and 2 times, respectively, 

between 1951 and 1997. Concentrations of total (recoverable) 

iron ranged from 40 to 530 μg/L, whereas concentrations of 

filtered iron ranged from 10 to 20 μg/L. No standards for iron 

are established by the NMWQCC, and the iron (unfiltered) 

concentrations did not exceed the NAWQ criterion of 

1,000 μg/L. 

Total uranium, which can occur naturally, was analyzed 

in one to three samples from Apache, Frijoles, and Turkey 

Springs between 1971 and 1977. Concentrations ranged from 

1.1 to 2.0 μg/L and were well below the NMWQCC domestic 

water-supply standard of 5,000 μg/L. 

On August 14, 1997, USGS collected water samples 

from Basalt Spring (site 303; fig. 2) for analyses of 23 

trace elements, 18 radionuclides, and 13 volatile organic 

compounds (VOCs). Analyses of these samples indicated that 

concentrations of 15 of the 23 trace elements and 10 of the 

18 radionuclides were above the censoring level (table 12); 

all other concentrations of trace elements, radionuclides, and 

VOCs were below censoring levels. None of the detected 

trace-element concentrations exceeded their respective 

NMWQCC standard, USEPA maximum contaminant level 

(MCL), NAWQ criteria, or Tier II values. Values for beta 

radioactivity and gross beta radioactivity exceeded the MCL of 

4 millirems per year (mrem/year; 1 picocurie per liter = 

200 mrem/yr). 
38 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 12. Summary of trace-element and radionuclide values greater than the censoring level for Basalt Spring from the 

August 14, 1997, sample in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico. 

[cs, cesium; fil, filtered; ga, gross alpha; MCL, maximum contaminant level (average annual concentrations) from USEPA National Primary or Secondary Drinking Water Regulations; mrem, millirem (to the critical organ); NMWQCC, domestic water-supply standard set by the New Mexico Water 

Quality Control Commission; Ppcode, parameter code; th, thorium; --, no MCL or NMWQCC standard established; bold type indicates exceedance; 1 

picocurie per liter = 200 mrem/yr]

Ppcode Constituent name (reporting units) Concentration 

NMWQCC or Federal 

standard

Trace elements (micrograms per liter)

P01105 Aluminum, water, unfiltered, recoverable 940 --

P01097 Antimony, water, unfiltered 1 NMWQCC 6 (fil)

P01002 Arsenic, water, unfiltered 3 NMWQCC 50 (fil)

P71870 Bromide, water, filtered, milligrams per liter 0.02 --

P01037 Cobalt, water, unfiltered, recoverable 3.3 --

P01042 Copper, water, unfiltered, recoverable 7.9 --

P01046 Iron, water, filtered 10 NAWQ (1,000 fil) 

P01045 Iron, water, unfiltered, recoverable 530 --

P01051 Lead, water, unfiltered, recoverable 1 50 (fil)

P01132 Lithium, water, unfiltered, recoverable 20 --

P01056 Manganese, water, filtered 2.8 Tier II (120 fil)

P01055 Manganese, water, unfiltered, recoverable 30 --

P01062 Molybdenum, water, unfiltered, recoverable 6 --

P01067 Nickel, water, unfiltered 7.6 NMWQCC 100 (fil)

P01082 Strontium, water, unfiltered 90 --

Radionuclides (all units in picocuries per liter unless otherwise stated)

P75987 Alpha radioactivity 2-sigma combined uncertainty, water, filtered, th-230 curve 1.7 NMWQCC 15 (ga)

P75989 Beta radioactivity 2-sigma combined uncertainty, water, filtered, cs-137 curve 4.1 MCL (4 mrem/yr)

P03515 Gross beta radioactivity, water, filtered, cs-137 curve 8.8 MCL (4 mrem/yr)

P49939 Plutonium-238 2-sigma combined uncertainty, water, filtered 0.01 --

P76003 Strontium-90 2-sigma combined uncertainty, water, filtered 26 NMWQCC 8

P75985 Tritium 2-sigma combined uncertainty, water, unfiltered 26 NMWQCC 20,000

P07000 Tritium, water, unfiltered 60 NMWQCC 20,000

P75992 Uranium-234 2-sigma combined uncertainty, water, filtered .03 --

P75994 Uranium-235 2-sigma combined uncertainty, water, filtered .01 --

P75991 Uranium-238 2-sigma combined uncertainty, water, filtered .03 --
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 39

Summary of Surface-Water and Springs 

Characterization and Considerations for 

Monitoring

For the surface water in BAND, bacteriological contamination from back-country recreational use was identified 

as a water-quality concern in Alamo and Capulin Creeks 

and the Rito de los Frijoles. Fecal coliform counts exceeded 

State standards twice each in Capulin Creek and the Rito de 

los Frijoles. However, coliform sampling was infrequent, 

so it is not possible to identify whether these exceedances 

were isolated occurrences of elevated coliform counts or 

whether exceedances are a regular occurrence associated with 

increased visitor numbers or other potential factors. Regular bacteriological sampling would be helpful to identify if 

coliform exceedances are a chronic occurrence. If sampling 

indicates a recurring problem, a bacteriological source tracking study could be done to determine if the coliform were of 

human or animal origin. 

Fire-related effects have resulted in altered, degraded 

water quality in Alamo Creek, Capulin Creek, and the Rito 

de los Frijoles, which is evidence that postfire runoff control 

efforts are an important management step that BAND can take 

when fires occur in the canyons and headwater forests. A plan 

for monitoring water quality in the monument’s creeks following large fires would be useful in identifying key water-quality 

concerns related to postfire runoff and in monitoring stream 

recovery; however, a long-term water-quality monitoring plan 

that incorporates suspended sediment, major ions, nutrients, 

and trace-element monitoring would be required to compare 

fire-related effects to baseline water-quality conditions. 

Concerns regarding elevated levels of turbidity may be 

warranted; however, the cause of these elevated values is not 

clearly established, and natural runoff events may well be a 

factor in elevated turbidity. Recent (September 2001) sampling did not indicate elevated turbidity levels. No turbidity 

measurements were available following the 1996 Dome Fire, 

when fire-related runoff would have been expected to result in 

increased sediment loads in Capulin Creek. 

The few trace-element data do not conform to State 

requirements for filtered fraction samples (for most constituents); therefore, determination of compliance with State 

standards is not possible. Censoring levels commonly match or 

exceed standard levels, which limits the ability to relate traceelement concentrations to regulatory criteria. Trace-element 

data for Alamo and Capulin Creeks are limited to one to four 

samples collected in 1977 and 1978 following the La Mesa 

Fire. Trace-element data for the Rito de los Frijoles is available only through 1995. Current trace-element data analyzed 

at applicable censoring levels will be required to define and 

characterize the water-quality conditions in Alamo Creek, 

Capulin Creek, and the Rito de los Frijoles. 

Effects of runoff from State Highway 4 are not evident 

in the historical water-quality data for the Rito de los Frijoles; however, this may be due to the sampling frequency and 

timing in relation to potential contributing runoff events. A 

focused effort would be needed to determine if this concern is 

a management priority for protecting water quality in the Rito 

de los Frijoles.

Water-quality data are sparse for Apache, Basalt, Frijoles, and Turkey Springs in BAND. Most of the available data 

were collected before 1979. The only spring with recent data 

is Basalt Spring. The volcanic tuff and (or) basalt underlying 

most of the monument are the principal drivers controlling the 

bicarbonate and calcium bicarbonate waters discharging from 

these springs. Elevated concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus may be a consequence of local runoff, atmospheric 

deposition, trespass grazing near springs, or from transport 

through the aquifer from affected recharge areas outside the 

park. Elevated phosphorus concentrations at Basalt Spring 

also may be derived from apatite and related volcanic minerals associated with the underlying basalt. If some or all of 

these springs are determined by the SCPN and BAND to be a 

high priority, then regular water-quality sampling, including 

nutrients, will be needed to establish a current water-quality 

baseline. 

Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona

Canyon de Chelly National Monument (CACH) is in 

the high plateau area of the Navajo Nation Reservation in 

northeastern Arizona. The monument is characterized by a 

distinct, amorphous, two-fingered canyon (Canyon del Muerto 

and Canyon de Chelly) carved by erosion from wind and by 

streams that flow westward from their origins on the northwest slope of the Defiance Plateau (fig. 7). CACH, which 

encompasses 83,840 acres (130 mi2), ranges in elevation from 

5,500 to 7,500 ft. The monument is bordered on the east by 

the Chuska Mountains, which trend north-northwest along the 

Arizona-New Mexico border. The mountains end at Chinle 

Wash, where the exposed De Chelly Sandstone disappears 

underground east of Chinle, Arizona (National Park Service, 2005a). The monument was established in 1931 for its 

extensive archeological remains and is jointly administered 

by the NPS, which manages the cultural and natural resources 

and monument visitor services, and the Navajo Nation, which 

retains control of the surface and subsurface (that is, mineral) 

uses of the land within the monument. CACH lies entirely 

within the boundary of the Navajo Indian Reservation, and the 

canyon floors provide the land for homes, farms, and grazing for approximately 50 Navajo families (Eckert and others, 

2003). Agriculture, including alfalfa, squash, corn, and fruit 

orchards and intensive grazing by sheep, cattle, horses, and 

goats, has been ongoing for many years in the canyon drainages. A majority of the current activities occur in Canyon del 

Muerto and in the Tsaile Creek drainage upstream from the 

monument (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999). 

CACH has an arid climate characterized by periods 

of drought (National Park Service, 2005a). Climate station 

021248 is in CACH at an elevation of 5,610 ft in Monument 
40 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Canyon (fig. 7). Mean annual precipitation is about 9.2 inches 

(1970–2006) with August the wettest month (1.3 inches) and 

June the driest (0.3 inch) (Western Regional Climate Center, 

2006). July through October comprise the monsoonal season 

in the monument. Average annual snowfall is 5.7 inches with 

most snowfall occurring in January (1.8 inches). Average 

monthly air temperatures ranged from 18.8oF in December to 

92.4oF in July with an average annual temperature of 53.5oF 

and with daily extremes ranging from –24oF on January 3, 

1974, to 105oF on July 2, 2002 (Western Regional Climate 

Center, 2006). Summer thunderstorms have been estimated 

to contribute approximately 40 percent of the rainfall in a 

typical year (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999). 

In the headwaters of the monument in the Chuska Mountains, 

precipitation in the form of rain and snow is greater than in the 

canyons. Average annual precipitation in the headwaters area 

is estimated to be approximately 18 inches total with about 7 

to 8 inches from snowfall (Harshbarger and Repenning, 1954). 

Geology

The Organ Rock Formation of the Cutler Group (Early 

Permian Period) is exposed in some areas of the monument 

and underlies the predominant De Chelly Sandstone (Baars, 

2000; Nations and Stump, 1981). During the middle Permian 

Period (around 260 million years ago), the distinctive, steeply 

inclined, crossbedded, wedge-shaped De Chelly Sandstone, 

which forms the monument’s walls, was deposited as windblown dune sands (Baars, 2000). Capping the De Chelly Sandstone in the area of the monument is the Triassic Shinarump 

Conglomerate, the basal member of the Chinle Formation. 

Alluvium (unconsolidated sediments) composed mostly of 

sand is present in the drainage bottoms of CACH (Thomas and 

others, 2006). The headwaters of the monument’s canyons, 

which begin in the Chuska Mountains, issue from the base of 

the Chuska Sandstone (Tertiary Period) and the Chinle Formation (Triassic Period). Scattered igneous rocks (plugs, dikes, 

and lava flows) occur in the Chuska Mountains, resulting in 

breccia and tuff deposits from which small springs discharge; 

though these springs are smaller (lower discharge) than 

those issuing from sandstones, they could contribute to the 

water-quality signature in selected headwater canyon streams 

(Harshbarger and Repenning, 1954). 

The Organ Rock Formation, principally a red siltstone 

and shale, is hydrogeologically important because many of 

the springs discharging within CACH originate at the Organ 

Rock–De Chelly contact (Baars, 2000; Stephen Monroe, 

National Park Service, written commun., 2007). The overlying 

De Chelly Sandstone is a reddish-orange, well-sorted, fine- to 

very fine-grained sandstone with some cementation, making 

it a relatively good aquifer. Locally, the Chinle Formation 

contains claystone, mudstone, and siltstone, which erode 

easily, resulting in sediment that is accumulating in Tsaile 

Lake (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999). 

The Shinarump Conglomerate is a yellowish-gray stratum 

composed of poorly sorted, moderate- to well-cemented 

sandstones intermixed with lenses of consolidated gravel and 

is known for its petrified conifer logs and associated deposits 

of uranium (Harshbarger and Repenning, 1954; Nations and 

Stump, 1981). The Chuska Sandstone is a white to gray, 

medium to fine-grained, moderately sorted sandstone and 

is the principal aquifer providing base flow to headwater 

tributaries. 

Water Resources

The monument includes two main canyons (Canyon 

del Muerto and Canyon de Chelly) and two smaller canyons 

(Black Rock Canyon and Monument Canyon) along with 

multiple side canyons and arroyos. The streamflow in these 

canyons and arroyos is supported by occasional flooding from 

summer thunderstorms and spring snowmelt-derived runoff 

(National Park Service, 2005a). Springs that discharge from 

cliff faces at geologic contacts support intermittent flow within 

the monument canyons and form unique microenvironments 

(hanging gardens) of high biodiversity. The main canyons 

trend westward from the eastern edge of the Defiance Plateau 

to Chinle Wash located about 10 mi west of the Chuska Mountains (fig. 7). The canyons have steep, vertical walls that range 

from 30 ft near the mouth of Canyon de Chelly to 1,000 ft 

deep with an average depth of 700 ft (www2.nature.nps.gov/

geology/parks/cach/index.cfm, accessed February 10, 2006). 

Tsaile Creek perennially feeds Canyon del Muerto, and 

Wheatfields and Whiskey Creeks (which are perennial in the 

upper reaches) are the principal streams flowing into Canyon 

de Chelly. All of these drainages originate above 8,000 ft in 

the Chuska Mountains, an upland area that contains more 

perennial streams than any other part of the Navajo Nation 

lands due to relatively high amounts of precipitation (Eckert 

and others, 2003; Harshbarger and Repenning, 1954). Streams 

become intermittent or ephemeral in and near the monument. 

Tsaile Creek is the only perennial stream between the Chuska 

Mountains and the monument. Riparian areas along the 

perennial reaches of these streams are especially important for 

the flora and fauna that inhabit the area, including migratory 

birds (Thomas and others, 2006). The headwater streams 

become intermittent as they leave the Defiance Plateau and 

enter the monument due to evapotranspiration, losses to 

alluvium and bedrock aquifers, and diversions for agricultural 

use. Harshbarger and Repenning (1954) identified the 

point of minimum flow on all streams in the area where the 

streams enter the canyons of CACH; downstream from this 

point, streamflow increases due to spring snowmelt runoff, 

occasional monsoonal rainstorms, and springs discharging 

along canyon walls. Canyon de Chelly ultimately drains into 

the San Juan River Basin by way of Chinle Wash. 

Streams are incised into the sediments within the canyons and continue to downcut, affecting irrigation diversions, 

lowering the water table, and favoring the survival and spread 

of invasive flora species such as tamarisk and Russian olive 

over native species such as cottonwood and willow. In 2005 

the NPS initiated an extensive effort to eradicate these species 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 41

Figure 7. Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, and locations of water-quality sampling sites. 

Crystal Creek

#

#

XWXWWX#

XW

#

#XW

XWXW

XW

#

#

#

XWXW # #

#

#

#

#

#

##

# ##

#

#

Black Rock Canyon

Wheatfields Creek

XW#

#

#

Tsaile Lake

C h u s k a M o u n t a i n s

0 4

0 3 6 12 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Selected water-quality sampling sites

Lakes

Surface water (creeks, washes)

Surface water

Perennial streams

Intermittent or ephemeral streams

Lakes, ponds, and reservoirs

Canyon de Chelly National Monument

State boundary

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data; surface water

and lakes, reservoirs, pond data, 1:100,000; State boundary,

1:2,000,000; park boundary from National Park Service, 

scale unspecified.

Climate station (021248)

Streamflow-gaging station

1097

109°30' 109°20' 109°10' 109°

36'

36°10'

36°20'

ARIZONA

NEW MEXICO

D e f i a n c e P l a t e a u Monument Canyon

Chinle Wash

1196

1201

5587

1164

1163 5586

1162

1161

1192

1191 1209

1208

1207

1211

1210

1165

1206

1198

5585

1157 5584

1184

8 MILES

Site number

5588

1181

1097

1203

1197

1096

1194

1160

1159

1158

1186

1182

1180

1179

Whiskey Creek

Wheatfields Lake

Location map

Tsaile Creek

Canyon del Muerto

Canyon de Chelly

#

Navajo Indian Reservation

Navajo

Indian 

Reservation

Navajo

Indian 

Reservation

#

#

Navajo Indian 

Reservation

ARIZONA

UTAH

NEW MEXICO

COLORADO

Canyon de Chelly 

National Monument

Many Farms 

Lake
42 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

from along the riparian corridor in CACH (National Park 

Service, 2005a). Subsistence agriculture and grazing occur in 

the canyon bottoms and rely on the limited water in CACH. 

Currently (2007) the monument gets its water supply for visitors and employees from a 600-ft supply well at the Visitor’s 

Center that likely draws water from the De Chelly Sandstone 

aquifer (National Park Service, 2005b; Thomas and others, 

2006; Donald Bills, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 2006). The sandstone formations (De Chelly Sandstone, 

Shinarump Conglomerate, and Chuska Sandstone) are the 

most likely aquifers for additional development along with the 

alluvial deposits in the stream channels. 

Two large earthen storage reservoirs (Tsaile and Wheatfields Lakes) were constructed on the upper canyon rims 

primarily for recreational and agricultural purposes (fig. 7). 

Wheatfields Lake, which is adjacent to Wheatfields Creek, 

was constructed in 1963 and has a storage capacity of 5,700 

acre-ft (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999). This 

reservoir is filled by diverted flow from Wheatfields Creek, 

which accounts for as much as 6 percent of the runoff from the 

Canyon de Chelly drainage (Eckert and others, 2003). Tsaile 

Lake is located directly on Tsaile Creek and was constructed 

in 1964; it has a storage capacity of 3,100 acre-ft and can 

discharge as much as 52 ft3/s (Eckert and others, 2003; Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, 1999). These dams have 

reduced peak flows during snowmelt, limited the availability 

of fine-grained sediment (and thus increased the erosive potential of the flows), enabled encroachment of exotic vegetation along stream channels, and resulted in a longer, smaller 

sustained spring runoff period. The altered runoff period has 

had a negative effect on the Navajo farmers’ ability to access 

and plant their crops in the upper parts of the canyon (Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, 1999; National Park Service, 

2005b). Eckert and others (2003) determined that the direct 

effect of Wheatfields Lake on reducing the natural peak flows 

of Canyon de Chelly was minor and that in larger runoff years 

the effect from Tsaile Lake also would be minor due to the 

emergency spillway that flows back into Tsaile Creek when 

the reservoir is at capacity. 

Since December 1999, a streamflow-gaging station 

(USGS Station 09379025) has been operated near the 

boundary of CACH and site 1179 (fig. 7). Mean monthly 

streamflow ranges from 49.2 ft3/s in April to 0.14 ft3/s in 

November. The highest annual streamflow was recorded in 

water year 2004 (14.7 ft3/s) and the lowest was in water year 

2002 (1.25 ft3/s). The highest peak flow was recorded on 

August 13, 2001, at 1,000 ft3/s, which was the most recent 

year continuous streamflow data were available for this station 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2001). Typical annual hydrographs 

for the western drainages flowing from the Defiance Plateau 

region show snowmelt-driven runoff peaks in midspring; 

occasional flash-flood responses can result in a secondary 

peak from summer monsoons. Typical hydrographs also 

indicate extended periods of very low to no flow. 

Navajos have used the Canyon de Chelly area for agriculture since A.D. 1700, which has contributed to the current 

state of range deterioration and poor condition of the riparian areas upstream from and within the monument. The 1996 

Navajo Nation Watershed Prioritization Study ranked Canyon 

de Chelly watershed as the number one priority out of 18 

locally identified watersheds for watershed restoration planning and project development (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999). 

There are multiple, potential sources of impairment in 

these canyons. Encroachment of exotic vegetation can threaten 

plant communities and cultural resources and lower the water 

table. Diversion structures in the canyon’s headwaters that are 

used to support agriculture reduce the amount of water reaching downstream riparian habitats. Recreational and residential 

vehicles result in erosion and pollution. Residential and commercial development and mining in the headwaters and near 

canyon rims can degrade water quality, while agriculture and 

ranching activities in and upstream from the monument can 

lead to erosion and elevated nutrient concentrations in streams. 

Depletion of the ground-water supply, apparent die-off or 

decline of hanging gardens, and a general lack of coordinated 

management between the NPS and Navajo Nation regarding 

the monument’s water resources also are contributing to the 

impairment of CACH water resources (Thomas and others, 

2006; Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999). Despite 

the numerous water-quality and quantity concerns, the monument’s watershed is an important natural and cultural resource 

to the canyon residents and monument visitors. 

Available Water-Quality Data

Water-quality data from 225 samples were evaluated 

for this report, which include data for: (1) water flowing into 

the monument from headwater creeks, including samples 

from Tsaile, Wheatfields, Whiskey, and Crystal Creeks and 

Monument Canyon (includes three sites within the park); (2) 

samples from Tsaile and Wheatfields Lakes upstream from the 

monument; and (3) samples from Chinle Wash flowing out of 

the park (fig. 7; table 13). The relative temporal distribution 

of water samples from sites with available data and the types 

of analyses conducted on samples are illustrated in figure 8. 

The number of analyses by constituent or field property is 

provided in table 14. The NNEPA collected 77 percent of 

these samples, the NPS 21 percent, and the USGS 2 percent. 

For the headwater creeks, there was one sample collected in 

1978 from a site in Monument Canyon and 154 samples (from 

24 sites in Tsaile, Wheatfields, Whiskey, and Crystal Creeks) 

collected between 1978 and 2003 by the NNEPA and NPS. 

Only 10 creek samples (from three sites) were collected within 

the boundary of CACH; the remaining 144 samples were collected upstream from the monument. From Tsaile and Wheatfields Lakes, there were 66 samples (from 10 sites) collected 

between 1967 and 2003 by the NNEPA and USGS; 62 of the 

samples were collected since 1996. In March 1971 the USGS 

collected one sample from Chinle Wash near the monument 

boundary. The NNEPA collected three samples (from one site) 

inside the monument boundary between 1999 and 2003. 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 43

Table 13. Stream and lake sites with water-quality data in, near, or upstream from Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 

1967 to 2003.

[DD, decimal degrees; m, meters; No., number; NTUA, Navajo Tribal Utility Authority; nr, near; Trib., tributary; Site no. shown in figure 7; 

*, sites located within the monument boundary; site names retained from original source database]

Site 

no.

Site name Latitude 

DD

Longitude 

DD

No. of 

samples

Period of 

record

Headwater creeks

Crystal Creek sites

1180 Crystal Creek 36.0536 108.9610 18 1995–2003

1181 Crystal Creek 36.0493 109.0444 1 2000

1182 Crystal Creek 36.0536 108.9610 3 1997–2003

1197 Upstream of Bridge near Crystal NM 36.0536 108.9604 7 1995–1998

Monument Canyon site

1097* N00946 36.1000 109.3464 1 1978

Tsaile Creek sites

1184 Tsaile Creek 36.3175 109.1271 10 1996–1999

1186* Tsaile Creek 36.2739 109.2050 1 2000

1198 Tsaile Creek at Forest Road Junction 36.3160 109.1280 6 1996–1998

1206 N01248 36.2792 109.1928 1 1978

1210 N01266 36.3319 109.1128 1 1978

1211 N01267 36.3414 109.1100 1 1978

5584 Tsaile Creek 50 m below N12 Bridge 36.2812 109.1758 24 1996–2003

5585 Tsaile Creek Trib 0.25 Mile upstream from Lake 36.2826 109.1645 6 1995

Wheatfields Creek sites

1191 Wheatfields Creek 36.2290 109.1124 1 2000

1192 Wheatfields Creek 36.2050 109.1003 1 2000

1201 Wheatfields Creek Gaging Station 36.2138 109.0821 6 1995–1998

1207 N01261 36.2942 109.0281 1 1978

1208 N01262 36.2942 109.0333 1 1978

1209 N01263 36.2514 109.0433 1 1978

5586 Wheatfields Creek, 40 m upstream Wheatfields Lake Diversion 36.2143 109.0819 15 1995–1998

5587 Wheatfields Creek, 100 m downstream of gage 36.2372 109.0481 17 1995–2003

Whiskey Creek sites

1194 Whiskey Creek 36.1424 109.0187 17 1995–2003

1203 Upper Whiskey Creek Gaging Station 36.1421 109.0171 7 1995–1998

5588* Whiskey Creek 20 m upstream Gaging Station 36.1279 109.1417 8 1995–2000

Headwater lakes

Tsaile Lake sites

1096* Tsaile Lake Surface Sample 36.2750 109.2076 2 1987–1988

1157 Tsaile Lake East Shore – Fecal 36.2760 109.1982 2 2001–2002

1158* Tsaile Lake West Shore – Fecal 36.2763 109.2077 2 2001–2002

1159 Tsaile Lake - Wq_N 36.2774 109.2043 15 2001–2003

1160* Tsaile Lake - Wq_S 36.2728 109.2024 15 2001–2003

1165 Tsaile Lake 1105111001527 36.2783 109.1979 2 1967–1970

Wheatfields Lake sites

1161 Wheatfields Lake – Fecal 36.2038 109.0983 4 1997–2002

1162 Wheatfields Lake – Fecal 36.2138 109.0919 2 2001–2002

1163 Wheatfields Lake - Wq_N 36.2106 109.0924 11 2001–2003

1164 Wheatfields Lake - Wq_S 36.2028 109.0968 11 2001–2003

Chinle Wash sites

1179* Chinle Wash 36.1548 109.5385 3 1999–2003

1196 Chinle Creek nr NTUA South Well 36.1544 109.5457 1 1971
44 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Figure 8. Total number of stream and reservoir samples collected for bacteriological data, trace elements, nutrients, and 

field properties, number of sites, and period of record, Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 1967 to 2003.

Few water-quality data were collected prior to 1995, and 

few of the data were collected inside the monument boundary. Only four sites (sites 1180, 1194, 5584, and 5587, fig. 7; 

table 13) had more than 15 samples collected over the period 

of record. Monument Canyon has only one historical sample 

collected in 1978 and very little data (four samples) were 

collected for Chinle Wash, limiting potential interpretation of 

these waters. 

Characterization of Water Quality

Selected available water-quality data from headwater 

creeks, Tsaile and Wheatfields Lakes, and Chinle Wash are 

summarized in table 14. Water-quality categories evaluated 

include field properties, nutrients, bacteriological data, other 

constituents (chlorine, suspended solids, and dissolved solids), 

and trace elements. 

Surface water in the monument has not been assessed and 

classified as part of Arizona’s 303(d) process, and Tribal Water 

Quality Standards have not been approved by the USEPA for 

this area; therefore, all CACH sites were evaluated under the 

Arizona “tributary rule” for comparison to numeric standards. 

This rule (Arizona Administrative Code R18-11-105, amended 

2002) is used by the State to determine designated uses for 

waters not specifically listed in the surface-water protection 

rules. For the water-quality standard exceedance analysis conducted for this report (table 14), all sites evaluated at CACH 

within the State boundary were considered intermittent or 

perennial and above 5,000 ft and, therefore, were designated 

for aquatic and wildlife cold-water use. Stream sites in New 

Mexico (far upstream from the monument boundary) were not 

evaluated for water-quality standard exceedances. 

Field Properties

Acid neutralizing capacity, DO, pH, SC, turbidity, and 

water temperature were measured between 76 and 115 times 

at 18 headwater creek sites. Tsaile and Wheatfields Lakes 

had field properties measured between 2 and 47 times at eight 

sites, with multiple depths measured during a single day’s 

sampling event. Chinle Wash had selected field properties 

measured only three or four times at two sites. Streamflow was 

measured 35 times at 10 sites in the headwater creeks but was 

measured only twice in Chinle Wash. Dissolved oxygen, pH, 

and turbidity values exceeded the Arizona aquatic cold-water 

fishery standards in one or all of these waters between 1988 

and 2003 (table 14). 

Exceedances for low DO, below the aquatic cold-water 

7-mg/L standard, were observed in measurements made 

from all three water groups. Nearly one-half of all Tsaile 

and Wheatfields Creek measurements (29 of 60 values), 

1967196919711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

NUMBER OF SA

MPLES (BY

YEAR)

Field properties

Bacteriological data

Trace elements

7

Nutrients

1 1 1 1 1

9

11

12

11

7

9 13

13 10

Number of sites

1
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 45

Table 14. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in selected surface-water 

sampling sites located in, near, and upstream from Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 1967 to 2003.—Continued

[AWC, aquatic cold water; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; Cr III, chromium III; 

deg C, degrees Celsius; DWP, drinking-water protected use; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria 

for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact; FC, fish consumption; fil, filtered; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; GM, geometric mean; H, high (maximum) standard; 

I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; MPN, most probable number; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SS, suspended sediment concentrations (at or near baseflow 

only); SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; >, greater than; 

--, not available or not computed; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Selected 

surface-water 

sites (see figure 7 

for location 

of sites)

Field property 

or constituent 

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1967 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 20032

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

AZDEQ 

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use)

3

No. of standard 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites 

with exceedances

Field properties (1967–2003)

Headwater creeks4

Acid neutralizing capacity 

(mg/L CaCO3)

76/0 100 160 1,100

Headwater lakes -- -- 5 8/0 80 110 190

Chinle Wash 4/0 98 129 240

Headwater creeks

Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)

104/0 5.3 7.10 13.3

7 min 

(AWC)

29/60/7

Headwater lakes 44/0 4.0 6.25 13.9 33/41/4

Chinle Wash 3/0 6 8.26 8.62 1/3/1

Headwater creeks

pH (SU)

115/0 7 8.30 9.17

9, H

6.5, L

(AWC)

3/64/2, H

0/64/0, L

Headwater lakes 47/0 8.14 8.94 9.96 22/45/3, H

0/45/0, L

Chinle Wash 4/0 7.4 8.08 8.32 0/3/0, H

0/3/0, L

Headwater creeks

Specific conductance 

(μS/cm)

111/0 105 334 560

Headwater lakes 44/0 162 179 443 -- --

Chinle Wash 4/0 219 300 334

Headwater creeks

Streamflow (ft3/s)

35/1 <1 1.54 19.4 -- -- Chinle Wash 2/0 1.56 24.8 48

Headwater creeks

Turbidity (NTU)

111/0 0.69 8.64 1,000

10

(AWC)

28/63/7

Headwater lakes 2/0 1.5 3.95 6.4 0/1/0

Chinle Wash 3/0 1,000 1,000 1,000 3/3/1

Headwater creeks

Water temperature 

(deg C) 

113/0 1.8 17.8 29

Headwater lakes 44/0 15.8 18.1 21.4 -- --

Chinle Wash 3/0 13.3 14.9 29.4

Nutrients, aggregated6 (1971–2003)

Headwater creeks

Ammonia, unfiltered 

(mg/L as N) 

89/68 <.05 0.045 1

TVS 

(AWC)

0/55/0

Headwater lakes 14/8 <.5 .114 0.63 0/13/0

Chinle Wash 3/1 <.5 -- 1.2 0/3/0

Headwater creeks Ammonia, un-ionized

(mg/L as N) 

24/0 .0002 .007 .247 -- -- Headwater lakes 2/0 .002 .009 .015
46 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 14. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in selected surface-water 

sampling sites located in, near, and upstream from Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 1967 to 2003.—Continued

[AWC, aquatic cold water; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; Cr III, chromium III; 

deg C, degrees Celsius; DWP, drinking-water protected use; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria 

for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact; FC, fish consumption; fil, filtered; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; GM, geometric mean; H, high (maximum) standard; 

I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; MPN, most probable number; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SS, suspended sediment concentrations (at or near baseflow 

only); SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; >, greater than; 

--, not available or not computed; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Selected 

surface-water 

sites (see figure 7 

for location 

of sites)

Field property 

or constituent 

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1967 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 20032

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

AZDEQ 

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use)

3

No. of standard 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites 

with exceedances

Nutrients, aggregated6 (1971–2003)—Continued

Headwater creeks

Nitrate (mg/L as N) 

91/79 <.05 .042 0.76

2,240 (FBC)

10 (DWP)

0/55/0

Headwater lakes 15/13 <.05 -- .2 0/13/0

Chinle Wash 3/1 <.2 .21 .26 0/3/0

Headwater creeks

Nitrogen, unfiltered

(mg/L as N) 

51/45 <1.7 .272 >1.9 0.38 

EPA RC III 6/51/4

Headwater lakes 12/10 <.95 -- 1.21 0.40 

EPA RC III 2/12/2

Headwater creeks

Orthophosphorus 

(mg/L as P) 

88/29 <.02 .08 3

Headwater lakes 14/9 <.01 .031 .18 -- --

Chinle Wash 3/2 <.1 -- .06

Headwater creeks

Total phosphorus, 

unfiltered (mg/L as P) 

90/14 <.1 .145 1.6 0.022 

EPA RC III 76/90/17

Headwater lakes 12/10 <.2 -- .26 0.017 

EPA RC III 2/12/2

Chinle Wash 4/0 .01 .785 1.6 0.022 

EPA RC III 3/4/1

Bacteriological data (1995–2001)

Headwater creeks Escherichia coli (E. coli)

(MPN/100 mL) 13/6 2 83 

(GM) >1,600 235, I (FBC) 4/13/4

Headwater creeks Fecal coliform

(col/100 mL) 

31/0 1 16.1 

(GM) 500 -- --

Headwater lakes 9/7 0 -- 10

Headwater creeks Total coliform 

(col/100 mL) 38/3 9.2 211 (GM) >1,600 -- --

Other constituents (1995–2003)

Headwater creeks Chlorine, total residual 

(mg/L)

13/12 <.05 -- .15

.005 (AWC)

1/13/1

Chinle Wash 2/2 <.05 -- <.05 0/2/0

Headwater creeks

Dissolved solids (mg/L)

55/0 51 190 330 -- --

Headwater lakes 44/0 104 118 292

Headwater creeks

Suspended solids (dried at 

110 deg C, mg/L)

27/10 <10 13.0 1,000

80, SS7

(AWC)

2/13/1

Headwater lakes 12/11 <10 -- 17 0/12/0

Chinle Wash 2/0 1,300 1,800 2,300 2/2/1
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 47

Table 14. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in selected surface-water 

sampling sites located in, near, and upstream from Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 1967 to 2003.—Continued

[AWC, aquatic cold water; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; Cr III, chromium III; 

deg C, degrees Celsius; DWP, drinking-water protected use; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria 

for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact; FC, fish consumption; fil, filtered; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; GM, geometric mean; H, high (maximum) standard; 

I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; MPN, most probable number; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SS, suspended sediment concentrations (at or near baseflow 

only); SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; >, greater than; 

--, not available or not computed; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Selected 

surface-water 

sites (see figure 7 

for location 

of sites)

Field property 

or constituent 

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1967 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 20032

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

AZDEQ 

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use)

3

No. of standard 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites 

with exceedances

Trace elements (1970–2003) (Results reported in micrograms per liter)

Headwater creeks

Aluminum, fil

27/18 <.1 .031 .11

87 fil 

NAWQ Headwater lakes 14/4 <.025 .040 40 --

Chinle Wash 2/0 .08 .086 .093

Headwater creeks

Arsenic, fil

83/71 <.003 .002 4.9

190 (AWC)

0/48/0

Headwater lakes 14/7 <.005 .004 2 0/13/0

Headwater creeks Barium, fil 

Barium, unfil rec 

68/6

9/0

<.002

52

.12

100

260

190 98,000 fil

(FBC)

0/40/0

--

Headwater lakes

Barium, fil 

6/0 .051 .20 91 0/5/0

Chinle Wash 2/0 .099 .13 .16 0/2/0

Headwater creeks Cadmium, fil 81/78 <.5 -- .098 TVS 

(AWC) 0/13/0

Headwater creeks Chromium unsp, fil 83/81 <2 -- 1.6 TVS 

(AWC, Cr III) 0/14/0

Headwater creeks

Copper, fil

77/67 <4 2.34 15 TVS 

(AWC)

1/12/1

Headwater lakes 14/9 <1 1.00 11 1/13/1

Headwater creeks Iron, fil 

Iron, unfil rec 

39/29

3/0

<4

40

7.00

100

100

180 1,000 fil

NAWQ -- Headwater lakes

Iron, fil 

3/0 24 25 40

Chinle Wash 1/0 10 10 10

Headwater creeks Lead, fil 76/74 <2 -- <50 TVS 

(AWC) 0/11/0

Headwater creeks Manganese, fil 

Manganese, unfil rec 

39/38

3/1

<1

<5

--

--

<50

17

120 fil

Tier II 

196,000 unfil 

(FBC)

--

0/3/0

Headwater lakes Manganese, fil 2/0 5 5 5 120 fil

Tier II --

Headwater creeks Mercury, unfil rec 47/46 <.2 -- <1 420 (FBC)

0.6 (FC) 0/26/0

Headwater creeks

Nickel, fil

74/66 <4 2.49 <50 TVS 

(AWC)

0/12/0

Headwater lakes 14/8 <10 1.96 4 0/13/0
48 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 14. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in selected surface-water 

sampling sites located in, near, and upstream from Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 1967 to 2003.—Continued

[AWC, aquatic cold water; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; Cr III, chromium III; 

deg C, degrees Celsius; DWP, drinking-water protected use; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria 

for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact; FC, fish consumption; fil, filtered; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; GM, geometric mean; H, high (maximum) standard; 

I, instantaneous; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; MPN, most probable number; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, phosphorus; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; POR, period of record; rec, recoverable; SS, suspended sediment concentrations (at or near baseflow 

only); SU, standard units; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; >, greater than; 

--, not available or not computed; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR]

Selected 

surface-water 

sites (see figure 7 

for location 

of sites)

Field property 

or constituent 

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1967 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 20032

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

AZDEQ 

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use)

3

No. of standard 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites 

with exceedances

Trace elements (1970–2003) (Results reported in micrograms per liter)—Continued

Headwater creeks Selenium, fil 

Selenium, unfil

72/67

47/44

<3

<4

1.18

1.54

<60

<60

5 fil NAWQ 

2 unfil rec 

(AWC)

0/42/0

0/25/0

Headwater creeks Silver, fil 77/76 <50 -- 25 TVS 

(AWC)7 1/12/1

Headwater lakes Strontium, fil 2/0 240 255 270 1,500 fil 

Tier II --

Headwater creeks Uranium, fil 

Uranium, fil (pCi/L)

1/0

2/0

.18

1.9

--

2.2

.18

2.4

35 (DWP)

--

0/1/0

--

Headwater creeks

Zinc, fil

78/72 <5 37.7 140 TVS 

(AWC)

0/12/0

Headwater lakes 13/10 <10 6.87 62 0/12/0

1 “Complete POR” data include all available data. “Recent POR” data only include exceedance results for sampling sites with data on these same waters 

located within the State of Arizona (that is, headwater sites located in New Mexico that fall under New Mexico standards are not included in the exceedance 

analysis). POR varies with constituent and site. 

2 Last 15 years of available data (for sites located within Arizona) considered for standards exceedance analysis (that is, all samples collected on or after 

January 1, 1988, through December 31, 2003). POR varies with constituent and site. 

3 State standards and designated beneficial uses from the State of Arizona Administrative Code (2002). Selected Federal criteria are used when State standards 

are not established, including the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002), the 

National Ambient Water Quality criteria (NAWQ), or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter and Tsao, 1996). 

4

 Includes available data from sampling sites on Tsaile, Wheatfields, Whiskey, Monument, and Crystal Creeks located within the States of Arizona and New 

Mexico. 

5

 Includes all available data from Tsaile and Wheatfields Lakes; includes data collected from multiple depths sampled on the same day, in some cases, for the 

same constituent.

 6 Aggregated nutrients based on Mueller and others (1995); where sample fraction not stated, aggregation includes both filtered and unfiltered concentrations. 

Zero values were excluded unless converted to a value of less than the censoring level.

7 Suspended-sediment standard used as comparison to suspended-solids data (no suspended-sediment data available for these waters); acute TVS standard 

used for comparison for filtered silver (no chronic standard established in Arizona).
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 49

one of three Chinle Wash measurements, and 80 percent 

all Tsaile and Wheatfields Lake measurements (33 of 41 

values) were less than 7 mg/L. Low DO values of 4.0 and 

5.3 mg/L were measured in the headwater creeks and lakes. 

The low DO measurements in the lakes, all made from July 

through September, were taken at various depths ranging 

from the surface to a maximum depth of 13.1 ft. The lowest 

DO readings from a given measurement event were generally 

not correlated with the measurement made at the deepest 

depth. Low DO, which can stress fish and macroinvertebrate 

populations, may be a result of high stream temperatures, 

stratification in lakes and reservoirs that produce anoxic 

conditions at depth, high salinity, elevated turbidity levels 

(which reduces photosynthetic activity), atmospheric pressure, 

and (or) increased organic contaminant concentrations. 

Measurements of pH exceeding the 9-SU aquatic coldwater fisheries standard were observed in 22 of 45 measurements made from the headwater lakes (21 from Tsaile 

Lake and 1 from Wheatfields Lake) and ranged from 9.11 

to 9.96 SU. Three measurements from Wheatfields Creek 

also exceeded the pH standard of 9 SU and ranged from 9.1 

to 9.17 SU. The predominantly sandstone-derived calcium 

bicarbonate and carbonate waters in the creeks and lakes in 

and upstream from the monument are a potential cause of the 

elevated pH values. 

Nearly one-half of all recent turbidity measurements 

(28 of 63) from Tsaile and Wheatfields Creeks exceeded 

the aquatic cold-water fisheries standard of 10 NTU; these 

elevated turbidity values ranged from 11.8 to 1,000 NTU. No 

other measurements from headwater streams indicated high 

turbidity. Elevated turbidity values of 1,000 NTU also were 

observed for the three recent measurements made at Chinle 

Wash. Elevated turbidity could be a result of stream channel 

downcutting and erosion and other sources that can result in 

increased suspended solids (for example, from erosion of silt 

and clays, sewage, and algal blooms). Erosion and channel 

incision have been identified as water-quality concerns by 

park personnel and documented by the NRCS in previous 

studies; likewise, the potential for excess nutrients exists in the 

watershed from overgrazing of riparian areas and encroaching 

residential development activities (Thomas and others, 2006; 

Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999). 

While water temperature is not currently regulated by the 

State of Arizona, water temperatures equal to or exceeding 

25oC (the standard for a marginal cold-water fishery in New 

Mexico) were measured in Tsaile Creek, Whiskey Creek, and 

Chinle Wash. These measurements were made from mid-July 

to mid-September, when temperatures would be expected to be 

elevated. 

Major Ions

The predominant water type for the surface-water-quality 

sites is calcium bicarbonate with some carbonate, magnesium, 

potassium, and sodium (fig. 9). Some samples indicate higher 

concentrations of magnesium and lower concentrations of 

calcium in headwater creeks and lakes than in Chinle Wash, 

which may well be a signature from the Chuska Sandstone 

source rocks. Generally the waters are of similar water type 

upstream from, within, and downstream from the monument. 

Nutrients

Samples that were analyzed for selected nutrients, including ammonia (unfiltered and un-ionized), nitrate (unfiltered 

and filtered), total nitrogen (unfiltered), orthophosphorus 

(unfiltered and filtered), and total phosphorus (unfiltered) 

were collected between 24 and 91 times from 17 sites in the 

headwater creeks. Tsaile and Wheatfields Lakes had nutrients 

analyzed in 2 to 15 samples from five sites, with multiple 

depths sampled during a single day’s sampling event. Only 

three or four samples collected from two sites in Chinle Wash 

were analyzed for nutrients (unfiltered ammonia, nitrate, and 

orthophosphorus or total phosphorus). No concentrations 

exceeded the Arizona aquatic cold-water fisheries standards 

for unfiltered ammonia or nitrate (table 14). 

The USEPA-recommended nutrient criteria for total 

nitrogen are 0.38 mg/L in rivers and streams and 0.40 mg/L 

for lakes and reservoirs in aggregate Ecoregion III. Analyses 

of six (of 51 analyses) and two (of 12 analyses) total nitrogen 

(unfiltered) samples collected from the headwater creeks and 

lakes, respectively, exceeded the recommended criteria, and 

concentrations ranged from greater than 0.50 to greater than 

1.9 mg/L. No total nitrogen data were available to evaluate 

for Chinle Wash. A majority (45 of 51 analyses for headwater 

creeks and 10 of 12 analyses for headwater lakes) of the total 

nitrogen analyses of samples from the headwater creeks and 

lakes had censoring levels that were greater than the recommended total nitrogen criteria levels. 

While Arizona has not established in-stream standards 

for total phosphorus, the USEPA has recommended that total 

phosphorus concentrations be less than 0.022 mg/L in rivers 

and streams and less than 0.017 mg/L for lakes and reservoirs for controlling eutrophication in aggregate Ecoregion 

III, which includes CACH (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2002). Analyses of 76 headwater creek samples (of 

90 recent samples) for total phosphorus (unfiltered) had concentrations ranging from 0.041 to 1.6 mg/L, and three analyses 

of samples from Chinle Wash had total phosphorus (unfiltered) 

concentrations ranging from 0.65 to 1.6 mg/L, which exceeded 

the recommended total phosphorus criterion for rivers and 

streams. Two analyses of samples from Wheatfields Lake (of 

12 samples from both reservoirs) exceeded the recommended 

total phosphorus criterion for lakes and reservoirs. 

Elevated nutrient concentrations could be the result of 

grazing activities in the riparian areas, recreational activity 

on the reservoirs, natural erosion from sedimentary rocks 

(phosphorus), agricultural production in the riparian and 

upland areas, and residential development with individual 

septic systems encroaching on the monument. 
50 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Bacteriological Data

Samples analyzed for selected bacteria, including 

Escherichia coli (E. coli), fecal coliform, and total coliform, 

were collected 13, 31, and 38 times (from 9, 8, and 12 sites, 

respectively) in headwater creeks. Tsaile and Wheatfields 

Lakes had nine samples collected and analyzed for fecal 

coliform. No samples were analyzed for bacteria from Chinle 

Wash. Four individual E. coli values exceeded the Arizona 

full-body contact standard of 235 col/100 mL (table 14). No 

Arizona standards exist for fecal or total coliform, though 

1 and 16, respectively, of these results in the headwater 

creeks were high (equal to or greater than 500 col/100 mL) 

indicating bacterial contamination. Contamination can occur 

from livestock, wildlife, and human activities occurring either 

directly in the creeks or riparian areas or on upland areas that 

contribute overland runoff to creeks during rainfall events. 

The lack of bacteriological data on Chinle Wash prohibits 

evaluating effects from the Navajo Canyon bottom dwellings 

and associated residential, grazing, and agricultural activities 

occurring within the monument. 

Other Constituents

Thirteen samples from headwater creeks and two samples 

from Chinle Wash were analyzed for total residual chlorine 

(TRC), which is free available chlorine plus combined available chlorine. One value (0.15 mg/L) exceeded the Arizona 

aquatic cold-water fisheries standard set at 0.005 mg/L, which 

is only three times the censoring level of 0.05 mg/L and could 

be attributed to analytical uncertainty. All other values were 

reported as below the censoring level. Additional analyses for 

TRC with censoring levels lower than the standard may be 

warranted. Elevated TRC concentrations may be indications of 

human contamination from leaking septic tanks (from households using bleach). TRC can be toxic to aquatic life at certain 

concentrations; toxicity increases with lower values of pH and 

(or) increasing temperature (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency Office of Water, 1999). Permissible concentrations 

and acute and chronic toxic effects of residual chlorine on 

aquatic organisms were reported by the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency Office of Water (1985). 

No State standards for dissolved solids exist in Arizona; 

however, dissolved solids concentrations above 500 mg/L 

exceed the secondary drinking-water regulation guideline. 

 100  80 

 60  40 

 20  0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

Calcium Chloride, Fluoride, and Nitrate

Magnesium

Sulfate

PERCENT

PERCENT

Sodium plus Potassium

Carbonate plus Bicarbonate

Calcium plus Magnesium

Sulfate plus Chloride

Headwater creeks

Headwater lakes

Chinle Wash

EXPLANATION

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Figure 9. Water types for headwater creeks, headwater lakes, and Chinle Wash, 

Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona, 1967 to 2003.
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 51

Concentrations of dissolved solids represent all dissolved 

constituents in the water sample and did not approach or 

exceed 500 mg/L for any of the data (table 14). 

Suspended-sediment concentration data were unavailable 

for any of the waters evaluated for CACH; therefore, available 

suspended-solids data are summarized in table 14 to describe 

the extent of suspended material in the headwater creeks and 

lakes and in Chinle Wash. Concentrations of suspended solids 

were higher than the Arizona aquatic cold-water fisheries 

80-mg/L standard for suspended sediment in four samples 

(two each in the headwater creeks and Chinle Wash). However, 

due to differing field sampling and analytical laboratory 

methodologies, suspended-solids concentrations are generally 

not comparable to suspended-sediment concentrations 

and should not be used interchangeably for data collected 

from natural water. Where sand-sized materials exceed 25 

percent of the sediment dry weight, suspended-sediment 

concentrations tend to be larger than their corresponding 

suspended-solids values (Gray and others, 2000). Suspendedsolids concentrations were greater than 250 mg/L from one 

headwater creek sample (1,000 mg/L) and the two Chinle 

Wash samples (1,300 and 2,300 mg/L). Concentrations of 

suspended solids sampled from the headwater lakes were low 

(less than 10 to 17 mg/L). 

Trace Elements

Many samples that were analyzed for trace elements in 

headwater creeks and lakes and Chinle Wash had values below 

the censoring levels (table 14), and values above these levels 

were well below the applicable numeric criteria or chronic 

aquatic cold-water computed TVS. One analysis of filtered 

copper narrowly exceeded the chronic aquatic cold-water 

computed TVS (7.16 μg/L) in a sample from Tsaile Lake (11 

μg/L) collected in September 2002; this value also exceeded 

the acute TVS (10.5 μg/L). One analysis of a sample collected 

in August 1996 from Tsaile Creek exceeded the acute aquatic 

cold-water computed TVS for filtered silver of 5.64 μg/L with 

a measured value of 25 μg/L (all other filtered silver values 

were nondetect). There is not a chronic aquatic-life TVS for 

filtered silver in Arizona. No other trace-element concentrations exceeded the numeric standard or calculated TVS. 

As additional upland development and mining occur 

in the headwaters of the monument, monitoring for trace 

elements would allow the NPS to determine if these upstream 

activities are affecting water quality. Owing to the lack of 

data from Chinle Wash, it is not possible to determine if any 

activities occurring within the monument are contributing to 

increased trace-element concentrations. 

Summary of Surface-Water Characterization and 

Considerations for Monitoring

Data available from the headwater creeks and lakes in 

CACH indicate reduced dissolved oxygen and elevated pH and 

turbidity levels, nutrients (unfiltered nitrogen and phosphorus), 

bacteriological counts (E. coli), suspended solids, and possibly 

elevated residual chlorine, though few data were available for 

this last constituent. Few data were available for Chinle Wash, 

which limits interpretation of changes in water quality occurring within the monument from natural sources or anthropogenic activities. In order to track changes in water quality and 

to determine if elevated concentrations are a concern, it would 

be helpful to incorporate routine stream and lake water-quality 

monitoring for core field properties and turbidity, coliforms, 

and nutrients. Analyzing samples for trace elements in Chinle 

Wash would fill a current data gap and help determine if 

upstream activities are affecting water quality. 

Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New 

Mexico

Chaco Culture National Historical Park (CHCU) is a 

semiarid desert steppe (about 6,200 ft) in the northwestern 

corner of New Mexico in the center of the San Juan River 

Basin on the southeastern part of the Colorado Plateau. CHCU 

is renowned for its unique archeological ruins built between 

A.D. 850 and 1250. The archeological sites at CHCU are considered sacred homelands of Puebloan people of New Mexico, 

the Hopi Tribe, the Navajo Nation, and other Native American 

peoples of the Southwest (National Park Service, [n.d. a]; 

National Park Service, [n.d. b]). The prominent geomorphic 

feature of the park and the central feature along which most of 

the prehistoric sites are located is Chaco Canyon, which drains 

the valley from southeast to northwest and is characterized 

by a steep-walled canyon and gentle, sloping mesas (fig. 10). 

Chaco Wash becomes Chaco River near the park’s northwest 

boundary and eventually flows into the San Juan River. 

CHCU has a semiarid climate and is characterized by 

spring snowmelt-dominated runoff, a summer monsoonal 

season, and periods of drought. Climate station 291647 is 

about 18 mi east of the largest CHCU park unit at an elevation 

of 6,180 ft (fig. 10). Mean annual precipitation is 8.9 inches 

(1922–2006) with August the wettest month (1.3 inches) and 

June the driest (0.4 inch) (Western Regional Climate Center, 2006). July through October is the monsoonal season in 

the park. Average annual snowfall is 14.6 inches. Average 

monthly air temperatures ranged from 28.2oF in January to 

72.6oF in July, with an average annual temperature of 49.6oF. 

Daily extremes ranged from –38oF on December 12, 1961, to 

104oF on July 26, 1979 (Western Regional Climate Center, 

2006). 

Geology

During the Late Cretaceous Period (approximately 75 

to 80 million years ago), CHCU was part of the migrating 

coastline of the Western Interior Seaway that divided North 

America into two separate land areas. CHCU is underlain 

by Cretaceous sedimentary rocks that were derived from 

alternating marine and coastal or lowland environments. 
52 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

# #

# #

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

# #

#

# #

##

#

Chaco River

1386 1387

2178

2177

2175

2172

2170

2168

2167

2166

1346

2090

2164

1345

1344 1343

1342 1341

Chaco Wash

Fajada Wash

Escavada Wash

Gallo Wash

Kim-me-ni-oli Wash

#

EXPLANATION

Surface water

Other (canals, diversions)

Intermittent or ephemeral

Chaco Wash, Chaco River, and Kim-me-ni-oli Wash

Lakes, ponds and reservoirs

Chaco Culture National Historical Park

Selected water-quality sampling sites

Surface water

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data; 

surface water and lakes, ponds and reservoirs,

1:100,000; park boundary from the National

Park Service, scale unspecified.

Climate station (291647)

1342 Site number

108°10' 108° 107°50' 107°40'

35°40'

35°50'

36°

36°10'

0 3 6 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

Streamflow-gaging station (09367680)

Juans

Lake

San Juan River

Navajo Dam

Gallup

Chaco Culture

National Historical Park

UTAH

ARIZONA

COLORADO

NEWMEXICO

Location map

Figure 10. Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, and locations of water-quality sampling sites.
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 53

Most of the rocks exposed in CHCU are from two subunits 

of the Mesaverde Group: the Menefee Formation, which is 

exposed at the edges of the valley floor and throughout the 

Kim-mi-ni-oli Wash drainage and the overlying Cliff House 

Sandstone, which forms the high cliffs in the park (Scott 

and others, 1984). Near the northern boundary of the park, 

the overlying Lewis Shale and Pictured Cliffs Sandstone are 

exposed (National Park Service, 2004). Alluvium, composed 

of fine-grained sediments of varying thickness, overlies the 

Mesaverde Group formations along Chaco Wash and its 

tributaries (Garland Moore, National Park Service, Southwest 

Region, written commun., [1972–1974?]; Martin, 2005). 

The Menefee Formation is an erodible gray siltstone and 

mudstone interbedded with sandstone, carbonaceous shale, 

and variable amounts of coal (Baars, 2000). The resistant Cliff 

House Sandstone is a buff-colored marine sandstone interbedded with shales (www.nps.gov/chcu/geology.htm accessed 

March 13, 2006). The Lewis Shale is a thick black shale interbedded with thin beds of bentonite clay derived from volcanic 

ash eruptions (Scott and others, 1984; Baars, 2000). Younger 

Tertiary and Quaternary deposits, which have been mostly 

eroded away by wind, water, and mass wasting, followed similar flow paths as the present-day Chaco River channel that has 

been cut down to its current depth of 300 ft, leaving a series of 

alluvial terraces composed of varying amounts of gravel, sand, 

silt, and clay (Scott and others, 1984). 

Water Resources

CHCU’s main drainage, Chaco Wash, becomes Chaco 

River at the northwestern park boundary. The main canyon 

tributaries include Escavada, Fajada, and Gallo Washes, and 

several smaller secondary washes and arroyos (fig. 10). Chaco 

Wash is a narrow, sinuous channel that has incised into the 

valley floor by as much as 32 ft since the 1930s (Gellis, 2002). 

These ephemeral or intermittent drainages cut through various 

alluvial deposits and support semiriparian vegetation critical 

for maintaining biodiversity in the region (Garland Moore, 

National Park Service, Southwest Region, written commun., 

[1972–1974?]; Scott and others, 1984; Thomas and others, 

2006). Few springs are within the park, but these are considered important natural resources because of CHCU’s waterlimited environment (Thomas and others, 2006). 

Daily streamflow data were collected from 1976 to 1990, 

at USGS Station 09367680 Chaco Wash at Chaco Canyon 

National Monument, New Mexico (site 1343; table 15). 

Mean monthly discharge range from 13.1 ft3/s in February 

to 0.34 ft3/s in December over the period 1979 to 1990. Peak 

flows were recorded from 1976 through 2003 with the highest 

flow recorded on August 23, 2003, at 4,970 ft3/s. Numerous 

periods of no flow were recorded during the time this station 

was operational. Total average annual runoff was 0.09 inch 

for water years 1983 to 1990 from the 578-mi2 drainage basin 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2001). 

The highly porous and permeable sandstone units of the 

Mesaverde Group and Pictured Cliff Sandstone can be good 

sources of ground water (artesian in some cases) though water 

quality can be unpotable due to high dissolved solids (Baars, 

2000; Garland Moore, National Park Service, Southwest 

Region, written commun., [1972–1974?]). Numerous attempts 

were made to tap the Chaco Wash alluvium for potable water 

supply; however, these efforts were largely unsuccessful due 

to the undesirable quality and yield from these shallow wells 

(Martin, 2005). The park’s water supply is from a 3,095-ft 

artesian well in the maintenance yard that was drilled into the 

Gallup Sandstone aquifer in 1972 (Martin, 2005). The NPS 

currently monitors discharge at Chaco Wash at Chaco Canyon 

National Monument gaging station (09367680) and shallow 

ground water using a network of wells at three locations in 

the park (Stephen Monroe, National Park Service, written 

commun., 2007). 

Mining (coal and uranium) activities along with oil and 

gas exploration, coal-bed methane extraction, power generation, and associated water and residential development in the 

area surrounding the park are considered potential concerns 

for surface- and ground-water quantity and quality in CHCU 

(Thomas and others, 2006; Martin, 2005). Coal has been and 

continues to be surface mined from the Menefee Formation in 

the vicinity of Gallup, New Mexico (southwest of the park), 

and from the Fruitland Formation, which overlies the exposed 

Mesaverde Group formations north of the park (Hejl, 1982; 

Baars, 2000). Past studies have shown the coal extraction 

occurring in the Fruitland Formation is hydrogeologically 

isolated from the park and therefore is not a concern for park 

resources, except where mining-affected surface runoff could 

affect water quality in the tributaries flowing into Chaco Wash 

and the Chaco River (Martin, 2005). Coal-fired electric-power 

generation in the region has the potential to affect regional 

precipitation quality (Goetz and others, 1987). 

Erosion control is among the most critical resource 

needs of the park to protect its cultural resources (Thomas 

and others, 2006). Grazing in the surrounding contributing 

drainage areas could affect water quality where runoff and 

erosion occur; however, the main park area has been ungrazed 

for several years and is representative of desert grassland 

and semiriparian habitats in the San Juan Basin (Thomas and 

others, 2006). 

Available Water-Quality Data

Water-quality data from 797 surface-water samples were 

collected by the USGS between January 1976 and October 

1983. To evaluate water quality, the samples were divided into 

the following three stream groupings: (1) Chaco Wash and 

Chaco River, which flow through the center of the park; (2) 

three tributary washes to Chaco Canyon, including Escavada, 

Fajada, and Gallo Washes; and (3) Kim-me-ni-oli Wash, which 

flows through the western part of the park. Water-quality data 
54 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 15. Stream sites with water-quality data in, upstream from, and downstream from Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New 

Mexico, 1976 to 1983.

[Br, bridge; DD, decimal degrees; E, east; EB, east boundary; Hwy, highway; KMNO, Kim-me-ni-oli; Lk, lake; Mi, mile; Mon, Monument; Natl, National; 

NM, New Mexico; No., number; Nr, near; PB, Pueblo Bonito; R, River; SE, southeast; S, south; Vis Ctr, visitor center; Site no. shown in figure 10; 

*, sites within the park boundary; site names retained from original source database]

Site 

no.

Site name Latitude DD Longitude DD No. of 

samples

Period of 

record

Chaco Wash

1341* Chaco Wash at EB at Chaco Canyon Natl Mon, NM 36.0200 107.8517 2 1981–1982

1343* Chaco Wash at Chaco Canyon National Monument, NM 36.0287 107.9184 648 1976–1983

1345* Chaco Wash nr PB at Bridge at Chaco Canyon Natl Mon, NM 36.0540 107.9651 57 1981–1983

2167 20N.09W.03.332 Chaco R 8 Mi SE Vis Ctr Chaco Mon 35.9892 107.7842 1 1976

2172 21N.11W.05.4220 Chaco R below E. Wash, Chaco Natl Mon, NM 36.0814 108.0228 5 1976–1978

2178 22N.13W.26.2314 Chaco R at Hwy 371 Bridge 36.1139 108.1917 2 1981–1982

Contributing Washes

Escavada Wash

2176 22N.11W.25.433 Escavada Wash at Hwy 56 Br., NM 36.1039 107.9562 10 1977–1981

Fajada Wash

1342* Fajada Wash at Chaco Canyon Natl Mon, NM 36.0175 107.9184 7 1981–1983

Gallo Wash

1344* Gallo Wash at Chaco National Monument, NM 36.0350 107.8909 11 1979–1983

2169 21N.09W.17.233 Gallo Wash at Dike nr Chaco Natl Mon, NM 36.0522 107.8126 1 1978

Kim-me-ni-oli Wash

1346* Kim-me-ni-oli Wash nr Lake Valley, NM 35.9792 108.1381 21 1978–1983

2090 Kim-me-ni-oli Wash nr Crownpoint, NM 35.8486 108.0606 15 1978–1983

2164 18N.11W.21.111 KMNO Wash at Hwy 57 Crossing 35.7834 108.0190 1 1982

2166 20N.12W.33.331 KMNO Wash 6 Mi E Milk Lk, NM 35.9178 108.1267 2 1981–1982

2168 21N.12W.31.414 KMNO Wash at Dike 36.0064 108.1531 2 1981–1982

2170 21N.12W.07.222 KMNO Wash 1.1 Mi S L.V. School, NM 36.0756 108.1501 2 1981–1982

2175 22N.12W.31.4143 KMNO Wash above Juan Lake 36.0942 108.1548 1 1981

2177 22N.13W.25.322 KMNO Wash 0.7 Mi SW La Vida Mission, NM 36.1114 108.1778 9 1978–1982

were not available from other washes and arroyos in CHCU. 

No water-quality data have been collected in the park since 

1983. The relative temporal distribution of water samples from 

sites with available data and the types of analyses conducted 

on samples are illustrated in figure 11. The number of analyses 

by the three stream groupings for individual field properties 

and constituents is provided in table 16. Between January 

1976 and October 1983, 715 samples from six sites were 

collected from Chaco Wash; eight of these samples were collected outside the park boundary. Ninety-one percent of the 

samples were collected from Chaco Wash at Chaco National 

Monument (site 1343, fig. 10; table 15). Twenty-nine samples 

(from four sites) were collected from the contributing washes, 

including 10 samples from Escavada Wash between February 

1977 and July 1981, 7 samples from Fajada Wash from June 

1981 to October 1983, and 12 samples from Gallo Wash from 

January 1979 through October 1983. Kim-me-ni-oli Wash was 

sampled 53 times at eight sites from March 1978 to October 

1983. 

Noticeable data gaps for CHCU are the lack of recent 

data for any of the surface-water sites in or near the park. 

Though a large number (more than 500) of streamflow 

measurements, water-temperature measurements, and 

suspended sediment results are available from Chaco Wash, 

most other field properties and constituents were measured or 

analyzed much less frequently. 

Characterization of Water Quality

The historical water-quality data available for the three 

site grouping were assessed according to State standards 

associated with designated uses assigned by the State of 

New Mexico, including aquatic-life, warm-water fishery, and 

livestock-watering standards. Because these historical data 

(collected between 1976 and 1983) are the only water-quality 

data available for this area, these data are compared to current 

water-quality standards even though most of the current (2007) 

State water-quality standards were not applicable when these 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 55

samples were collected. Additionally, no fish are currently 

present in CHCU, which limits the interpretation of historical 

values that exceed aquatic-life and warm-water fishery 

standards (Stephen Monroe, National Park Service, written 

commun., 2007). 

Field Properties

Acid neutralizing capacity, DO, pH, SC, and turbidity were measured in all three site groups (except turbidity, 

which was not measured in Kim-me-ni-oli Wash) between 

one and 126 times at 45 sites (table 16). Streamflow and water 

temperature were measured frequently (533 to 699 times) in 

Chaco Wash and the Chaco River and 14 to 47 times in the 

contributing washes (Escavada, Fajada, and Gallo Washes) and 

Kim-me-ni-oli Wash. 

One pH measurement of 6.3 SU (out of 124 measurements) from Chaco Wash was below the warm-water fisheries standard of 6.6 SU. Measurements of pH exceeding the 

aquatic warm-water fisheries standard of 9 SU were observed 

in 13 of 42 measurements (from six sites) made in Kim-me-nioli Wash and ranged from 9.1 to 9.5 SU. Elevated pH values, 

which can harm fish, could be the result of weathering of the 

typically alkaline Menefee Shale and Cliff House Sandstone 

formations exposed in Chaco Wash and the Chaco River, 

Kim-me-ni-oli Wash, and contributing arroyos in and upstream 

from the park. 

Specific-conductance measurements (maximum values 

ranged from 3,250 to 5,000 μS/cm) were elevated in all three 

water groups. Elevated specific conductance (salinity) reflects 

the concentration of major dissolved ions and can influence 

sensitive aquatic biota. Elevated salinity could be a result of 

dissolution of mineral salts from soil and bedrock and leaching 

of mineral salts from upstream mining activities. 

Turbidity values (values ranged from 2,200 to 36,000 

NTU) were elevated in measurements made in Chaco Wash 

(three measurements) and Escavada Wash (one measurement). 

Elevated turbidity values could be a result of stream-channel 

downcutting and erosion and other sources that can result in 

increased suspended solids (for example, silts, clays, and sewage). Park personnel have identified erosion as a water-quality 

concern for CHCU, and the potential for excess nutrients and 

erosion from trampled riparian areas and washes exists in the 

watershed from grazing activities occurring outside fenced 

park boundaries (Thomas and others, 2006). Few turbidity and 

DO measurements are available to determine if these may be a 

chronic water-quality concern for the park. 

Field properties

Nutrients

Trace elements

Radiological data

7 Number of sites

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

NUMBER OF SA

MPLES (BY YEAR)

2

3

7

3

2

13

9

6

Figure 11. Total number of stream samples (and sites) collected for field properties, nutrients, trace elements, and 

radiological constituents, Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, 1976 to 1983.
56 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 16. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards at selected stream-sampling sites 

located in, upstream from, and at the downstream boundary of Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, 1976 to 1983.—

Continued

[AL, aquatic life; dep, dependent; Contrib., contributing; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for 

Ecoregion III; fil, filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; LW, livestock watering; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, 

National Ambient Water Quality; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (Standard); No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; 

P, phosphorus; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; POR, period of record; R., river; rec, recoverable; temp, temperature; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table 

value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L (provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; 

unsp, unspeciated; W., wash; WF, warm-water fishery; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; --, not available or not 

computed; bold type indicates exceedance]

Selected streams

(see figure 10 for

location of sites

Field property

or constituent

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1976 to 19831

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC 

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use) 2

No. of 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/ 

No. of sites 

with

 exceedances

Field properties (1976–1983)

Chaco W. & R.

ANC (mg/L CaCO3)

67/0 74 161 465

Contrib. washes -- -- 3 13/0 75 170 340

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 35/0 140 285 590

Chaco W. & R.

Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 

2/0 11.9 12 12

5 (L, WF)

0/2/0

Contrib. washes 2/0 11.6 11.6 11.6 0/2/0

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 24/0 6 8.3 13.8 0/24/0

Chaco W. & R.

pH (standard units) 

124/0 6.3 7.6 8.9 6.6, L 

(WF)

9, H 

(WF)

1/124/1, L

0/124/0, H

Contrib. washes 25/0 6.7 8.0 8.6 0/25/0, L

0/25/0, H

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 42/0 7 8.8 9.5 0/42/0, L

13/42/6, H

Chaco W. & R.

Specific conductance 

(μS/cm) 

126/0 185 440 3,250

Contrib. washes 25/0 255 500 5,000 -- --

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 42/0 275 2,185 4,200

Chaco W. & R.

Streamflow 

(cubic feet per second)

699/0 0 19 3,240

Contrib. washes 25/0 .1 30 500 -- --

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 47/0 .1 3.2 600

Chaco W. & R.

Turbidity (NTU)

3/0 2,200 10,000 36,000 -- -- Contrib. washes 1/0 7,900 -- 7,900

Chaco W. & R.

Water temperature 

(degrees Celsius) 

553/0 0 5.5 29

32.2 (WF)

0/553/0

Contrib. washes 14/0 0 9.8 22 0/14/0

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 36/0 0 19 28 0/36/0

Nutrients (aggregated)4 (1976–1983)

Chaco W. & R.

Ammonia, unfiltered 

(mg/L as N) 

23/3 <.01 .05 .52 0.11–2.5 

(pH & 

temp dep. 

TVS)

0/21/0

Contrib. washes 5/0 .02 .11 .19 0/5/0

Kim-me-ni-oli Wash 16/1 <.06 .15 .47 6/16/3

Chaco W. & R. Ammonia, un-ionized 

(mg/L as N) 

2/1 <.00005 -- .0014 -- -- Kim-me-ni-oli W. 1/0 .044 -- .044

Chaco W. & R.

Nitrate (mg/L as N) 

4/0 .97 2.4 2.6 -- -- Contrib. washes 1/0 2.78 -- 2.78
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 57

Table 16. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards at selected stream-sampling sites 

located in, upstream from, and at the downstream boundary of Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, 1976 to 1983.—

Continued

[AL, aquatic life; dep, dependent; Contrib., contributing; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for 

Ecoregion III; fil, filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; LW, livestock watering; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, 

National Ambient Water Quality; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (Standard); No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; 

P, phosphorus; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; POR, period of record; R., river; rec, recoverable; temp, temperature; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table 

value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L (provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; 

unsp, unspeciated; W., wash; WF, warm-water fishery; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; --, not available or not 

computed; bold type indicates exceedance]

Selected streams

(see figure 10 for

location of sites

Field property

or constituent

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1976 to 19831

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC 

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use) 2

No. of 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/ 

No. of sites 

with

 exceedances

Nutrients (aggregated)4 (1976–1983)—Continued

Chaco W. & R.

Nitrogen, unfiltered

(mg/L as N) 

23/0 1.6 14 46

0.38 

EPA RC III 

23/23/4

Contrib. washes 5/0 1.8 12 20 5/5/3

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 8/0 .76 2.0 3.6 8/8/6

Chaco W. & R.

Orthophosphorus 

(mg/L as P) 

38/0 .01 .06 4.89

Contrib. washes 5/0 .03 .13 .68 -- --

Kim-me-ni-oli Wash 9/2 <.01 .02 .07

Chaco W. & R. Total phosphorus, 

unfiltered 

(mg/L as P) 

25/0 .09 2.0 8.4

0.022 

EPA RC III

25/25/4

Contrib. washes 5/0 .63 1.7 4.2 5/5/3

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 15/0 .02 .16 1.3 13/15/5

Other constituents (1976–1983)

Chaco W. & R.

Suspended sediment 

(mg/L)

676/0 395 24,200 148,000

Contrib. washes 23/0 412 4,230 61,800 -- --

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 45/0 22 363 30,900

Trace elements (1976–1983) (Results reported in micrograms per liter)

Chaco W. & R.

Aluminum, fil 

3/0 30 50 330

87 fil (AL)

1/3/1

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 9/0 10 80 2,600 4/9/3

Chaco W. & R.

Arsenic, fil 

Arsenic, unfil 

40/1

72/0

<1

3

2

33.5

17

1,200

150 fil 

(AL)

0/40/0

--

Contrib. washes 5/0

15/0

2

4

9

8

20

90

05/0

--

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 16/0

16/0

1

1

2

3

6

10

0/16/0

--

Chaco W. & R.

Barium, fil5

Barium, unfil rec 

47/40

69/1

<100

<100

29

2,800

600

20,000

4 fil

Tier II 

7/47/3

--

Contrib. washes 8/5

9/0

<100

300

23

3,300

200

6,400

3/8/2

--

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 15/9

16/5

<100

<100

31

100

100

600

6/15/3

--

Chaco W. & R.

Beryllium, unfil rec

6/0 10 20 50

5.3 fil 

(AL)

--

Contrib. washes 2/0 20 20 20 --

Kim-me-ni-oli W. Beryllium, fil5

Beryllium, unfil rec

14/13

9/8

<3

<10

<10

--

10

10

1/14/1

--
58 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 16. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards at selected stream-sampling sites 

located in, upstream from, and at the downstream boundary of Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, 1976 to 1983.—

Continued

[AL, aquatic life; dep, dependent; Contrib., contributing; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for 

Ecoregion III; fil, filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; LW, livestock watering; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, 

National Ambient Water Quality; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (Standard); No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; 

P, phosphorus; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; POR, period of record; R., river; rec, recoverable; temp, temperature; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table 

value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L (provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; 

unsp, unspeciated; W., wash; WF, warm-water fishery; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; --, not available or not 

computed; bold type indicates exceedance]

Selected streams

(see figure 10 for

location of sites

Field property

or constituent

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1976 to 19831

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC 

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use) 2

No. of 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/ 

No. of sites 

with

 exceedances

Trace elements (1976–1983) (Results reported in micrograms per liter)—Continued

Chaco W. & R.

Cadmium, unfil 

15/9 <1 10.7 20 -- -- Contrib. washes 3/2 <1 <2 30

Contrib. washes

Chromium unsp, unfil

6/1 <20 120 180

74 fil (AL 

TVS 100)

--

Chaco W. & R. 35/1 <20 140 370 --

Kim-me-ni-oli W. Chromium unsp, fil

Chromium unsp, unfil

7/6

15/4

<10

<10

<10

10

10

60

0/7/0

--

Chaco W. & R.

Copper, fil 

Copper, unfil 

6/2

20/1

<2

<20

10

280

20

880

9 fil (AL 

TVS 100)

4/6/1

--

Contrib. washes 2/0

3/0

10

280

10

280

10

330

2/2/2

--

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 1/0

10/0

20

10

--

20

20

150

1/1/1

--

Chaco W. & R.

Iron, fil 

Iron, unfil rec 

82/1

66/0

<10

3,200

80

190,000

21,000

690,000

1,000 fil

NAWQ

3/77/1

--

Contrib. washes 13/0

11/0

40

27,000

230

260,000

1,300

330,000

1/12/1

--

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 30/0

23/0

30

680

125

10,000

2,200

85,000

1/30/1

--

Chaco W. & R.

Lead, unfil rec

68/4 <200 300 1,800 -- -- Contrib. washes 6/0 100 400 900

Chaco W. & R.

Manganese, fil 

Manganese, unfil rec 

51/39

68/0

<1

60

.052

4,600

8,800

30,000

120 fil

Tier II

4/49/2

--

Contrib. washes 8/5

11/0

<10

340

4.7

5,900

20

25,000

0/8/0

--

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 22/5

23/0

<10

10

10

150

50

1,100

0/22/0

--
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 59

Table 16. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards at selected stream-sampling sites 

located in, upstream from, and at the downstream boundary of Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, 1976 to 1983.—

Continued

[AL, aquatic life; dep, dependent; Contrib., contributing; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for 

Ecoregion III; fil, filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; LW, livestock watering; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, 

National Ambient Water Quality; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (Standard); No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; 

P, phosphorus; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; POR, period of record; R., river; rec, recoverable; temp, temperature; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table 

value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L (provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; 

unsp, unspeciated; W., wash; WF, warm-water fishery; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; --, not available or not 

computed; bold type indicates exceedance]

Selected streams

(see figure 10 for

location of sites

Field property

or constituent

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1976 to 19831

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC 

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use) 2

No. of 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/ 

No. of sites 

with

 exceedances

Trace elements (1976–1983) (Results reported in micrograms per liter)—Continued

Chaco W. & R.

Mercury, fil 

Mercury, unfil rec5

16/13

28/6

<.1

<.5

.05

.9

1.3

5.5

0.012 unfil 

(AL)

--

22/28/4

Contrib. washes 1/0

11/3

.7

<.1

--

.30

.7

4.5

--

8/11/3

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 16/5

16/1

<.1

<.1

.10

.25

1.4

.7

--

15/16/5

Chaco W. & R.

Nickel, fil

Nickel, unfil rec

1/1

4/0

<1

100

--

150

<1

500 4,600 fil 

(AL)

0/1/0

--

Contrib. washes 1/1

1/0

<1

100

--

--

<1

100

0/1/0

--

Chaco W. & R.

Selenium, fil 

Selenium, unfil rec

15/4

38/5

<1

<1

1

2.5

4

37 5 fil

NAWQ 

5 unfil rec 

(AL)

0/15/0

10/38/2

Contrib. washes 2/0

11/1

1

<1

2

1

3

6

0/2/0

1/11/1

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 16/10

18/9

<1

<1

<1

.8

1

3

0/16/0

0/18/0

Chaco W. & R.

Silver, unfil

4/3 <2 -- <20 3.5 fil (AL 

TVS 100) -- Kim-me-ni-oli W. 9/7 <1 <1 1

Chaco W. & R.

Strontium, fil 

Strontium, unfil rec 

16/0

17/0

40

230

165

1,900

840

7,900

1,500 fil

Tier II

0/16/0

--

Contrib. washes 3/0

3/0

40

170

110

330

140

1,700

0/3/0

--

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 15/0

16/0

490

480

670

760

1,000

1,100

0/15/0

--

Chaco W. & R.

Uranium (natural), fil

Uranium (natural), unfil

5/0

1/0

1.2

43

2.2

--

7.8

43 2.6 fil

Tier II

2/5/2

--

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 22/0

2/0

.7

1

1.9

1.3

3

1.6

3/22/3

--

Chaco W. & R.

Zinc, fil 

Zinc, unfil rec 

12/6

18/0

<8

100

15.5

805

70

2,000

118 fil 

(AL TVS 

100)

0/12/0

--

Contrib. washes 2/0

3/0

40

860

100

1,000

160

1,100

1/2/1

--

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 14/1

15/0

<10

10

10

50

30

370

0/14/0

--
60 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 16. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards at selected stream-sampling sites 

located in, upstream from, and at the downstream boundary of Chaco Culture National Historical Park, New Mexico, 1976 to 1983.—

Continued

[AL, aquatic life; dep, dependent; Contrib., contributing; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for 

Ecoregion III; fil, filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; LW, livestock watering; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, 

National Ambient Water Quality; NMWQCC, New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (Standard); No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; 

P, phosphorus; pCi/L, picocuries per liter; POR, period of record; R., river; rec, recoverable; temp, temperature; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table 

value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L (provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; 

unsp, unspeciated; W., wash; WF, warm-water fishery; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; --, not available or not 

computed; bold type indicates exceedance]

Selected streams

(see figure 10 for

location of sites

Field property

or constituent

(reporting units)

Complete POR

1976 to 19831

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

NMWQCC 

standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use) 2

No. of 

exceedances/

No. of analyses/ 

No. of sites 

with

 exceedances

Radiological constituents (1978–1983)

Chaco W. & R. Gross alpha radioactivity, 

natural uranium curve, 

fil (pCi/L) 

5/2 <2.2 4.1 35

15 (LW)

1/5/1

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 9/6 <2.7 1.1 31 2/9/2

Chaco W. & R. Gross alpha radioactivity, 

natural uranium curve, 

fil (μg/L)

9/4 <3.2 6.0 <51

Contrib. washes 1/0 12 -- 12 -- --

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 29/28 <4 -- <77

Chaco W. & R. Radium-226 plus 

Radium-228 (pCi/L)

1/1 <3.08 -- <3.08

30 (LW)

0/1/0

Kim-me-ni-oli W. 4/4 <2.11 -- <3.50 0/4/0

1

 Period of record reflects full range evaluated for all relevant sites within this time period; some sites or constituents may not have had data available for the 

entire record. All available data considered; POR varies with constituent and site.

2

 State standards and designated beneficial uses from the State of New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission (2002). Selected Federal criteria are used 

when State standards are not established, including the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002), the National Ambient Water Quality criteria (NAWQ), or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter and Tsao, 1996). 

3

 Includes all available data from Escavada, Fajada, and Gallo Washes. 

4

 Aggregated nutrients based on Mueller and others (1995); where sample fraction not stated, aggregation includes both filtered and unfiltered concentrations. 

Zero values were excluded unless converted to a value of less than the censoring level.

 5 Most or all the censoring levels for this constituent exceed the NMWQCC or Federal criteria, and exceedances could be higher because the censoring level is 

larger than the water-quality standard. 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 61

Major Ions

Chaco Wash, Chaco River, and contributing washes 

(Escavada, Fajada, and Gallo Washes) are predominantly 

a sodium bicarbonate water type, and Kim-me-ni-oli Wash 

is predominantly a sodium sulfate type water (fig. 12). 

A few analyses of samples for major ions indicate high 

concentrations of chloride (Kim-me-ni-oli Wash) or calcium 

(Chaco Wash). Generally the waters are of similar chemical 

composition upstream and through Chaco Wash and the 

Chaco River. Kim-me-ni-oli Wash appears to be controlled by 

different source rock geochemistry that is higher in sodium 

and sulfate, which is a reflection of the dominant Menefee 

Formation in this drainage. 

Nutrients 

Samples analyzed for nutrients, including ammonia 

(unfiltered and un-ionized), nitrate (unfiltered and filtered), 

total nitrogen (unfiltered), orthophosphorus (unfiltered and 

filtered), and total phosphorus (unfiltered), were collected 

between one and 38 times from 29 sites in Chaco Wash and 

the Chaco River, the contributing washes (Escavada, Fajada, 

and Gallo Washes), and Kim-me-ni-oli Wash. Un-ionized 

ammonia and nitrate were analyzed from samples only one to 

four times. 

Six analyses of samples (out of 16 samples) from 

Kim-me-ni-oli Wash exceeded the New Mexico chronic 

warm-water TVS for unfiltered ammonia (table 16), based 

on available temperature and pH data, and were generally 

associated with higher water temperatures and pH values. 

The USEPA-recommended nutrient criterion for 

total nitrogen is 0.38 mg/L in rivers and streams (U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 2002). All analyses of 

36 samples from the three water groups analyzed for total 

nitrogen (unfiltered) exceeded the recommended criterion, 

and concentrations ranged from 0.76 to 46 mg/L. Median 

total nitrogen concentrations from Chaco Wash and the 

Chaco River were 14 mg/L and from the contributing 

washes 12 mg/L, indicating elevated nitrogen in the waters 

contributing to the Chaco River. The highest overall 

concentrations (15 samples exceeded 10 mg/L) were analyzed 

in samples from Chaco Wash, Escavada Wash, and Fajada 

Wash; 12 of these were from Chaco Wash. The three highest 

values of 34, 43, and 46 mg/L were each measured in Chaco 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60  80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

Calcium Chloride, Fluoride, and Nitrate plus Nitrite

Magnesium

Sulfate

PERCENT

PERCENT

Sodium plus Potassium

Bicarbonate

Calcium plus Magnesium

Sulfate plus Chloride

EXPLANATION

Chaco Wash and Chaco River

Contributing washes

Kim-me-ni-oli Wash

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Figure 12. Water types of contributing washes (Escavada, Fajada, and Gallo Washes), Chaco 

Wash and the Chaco River, and Kim-me-ni-oli Wash, Chaco Culture National Historical Park, 

New Mexico, 1976 to 1983. 
62 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Wash; two of these values were associated with suspendedsediment concentrations greater than 23,000 mg/L. Due to 

the historical nature of these data and lack of corresponding 

quality-control data, these unusually high values could be 

the result of laboratory error or reporting error (though they 

are consistently high), or they may represent actual high 

concentrations of nitrogen. 

While the State of New Mexico has not established 

instream standards for total phosphorus, the USEPA has 

recommended total phosphorus concentrations be less than 

0.022 mg/L in rivers and streams for controlling eutrophication in aggregate Ecoregion III, which includes CHCU (U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 2002). Concentrations of 

43 analyses of samples (out of 45 samples from 12 sites) for 

total phosphorus (unfiltered) exceeded the recommended total 

phosphorus criterion for rivers and streams, and these elevated 

concentrations ranged from 0.07 to 8.4 mg/L. The highest 

overall concentrations (16 samples equal to or greater than 

2 mg/L) were measured in Chaco Wash and Fajada Wash and 

were associated with elevated suspended-sediment concentrations (greater than 10,900 mg/L). 

Elevated concentrations of nutrients could be the result of 

grazing activities resulting in erosion and runoff in the riparian 

areas, atmospheric nitrogen deposition (from burning of fossil 

fuels), or natural weathering of nitrogen-rich or phosphorusrich bedrock (Holloway and Dahlgren, 2002; Gardner, 1990; 

Chapman, 1998; Paerl, 1997). Excessive levels of nutrients 

may cause eutrophication, an unhealthy increase in the growth 

of phytoplankton that can lead to reduced water clarity, low 

dissolved oxygen, changes in aquatic species composition, and 

potentially harmful algal blooms (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2001; Galloway and others, 2003). 

Other Constituents

Suspended sediment concentrations (values ranged 

from 22 to 148,000 mg/L) were elevated in analyses of 

samples from Chaco Wash (676 analyses) with a median 

of 24,200 mg/L. Escavada Wash had the highest median 

suspended sediment value (43,550 mg/L) while Gallo 

Wash had the lowest median value (2,440 mg/L) of the 

three contributing washes. Concentrations for suspended 

sediment analyses from Kim-me-ni-oli Wash were all below 

5,000 mg/L for the 36 samples collected after April 1981 

while the eight of the 10 samples collected before this time 

were greater than 5,000 mg/L (6,630 to 30,900 mg/L). 

Elevated suspended sediment values could be a result of 

stream-channel downcutting and erosion and other sources 

that can result in increased suspended materials (for example, 

silts and clays). Park personnel have identified erosion as 

a water-quality concern for CHCU, and the potential for 

erosion from trampled riparian areas and washes exists in the 

watershed from grazing activities occurring outside fenced 

park boundaries (Thomas and others, 2006). 

Trace Elements

Analyses of samples from Chaco Wash and Kim-me-nioli Wash for concentrations of (filtered) aluminum exceeded 

the New Mexico chronic aquatic-life standard of 87 μg/L one 

and four times, respectively, and concentrations ranged from 

90 to 2,600 μg/L (table 16). One value of 2,600 μg/L measured 

in a June 1982 sample from Kim-me-ni-oli Wash exceeded 

the acute standard of 750 μg/L. Filtered aluminum reported in 

high concentrations could be a result of particulates passing 

through the filter membrane and may not be a reflection of 

actual dissolved aluminum in the aquatic system (Hem, 1989).

One filtered beryllium concentration of 10 μg/L, from 14 

samples collected in Kim-me-ni-oli Wash, exceeded the New 

Mexico chronic aquatic-life standard of 5.3 μg/L. All other 

values for beryllium were below the censoring levels, which 

ranged from less than 3 to less than 10 μg/L, some of which 

are higher than the standard. 

Seven filtered copper concentrations, four from samples 

collected in Chaco Wash and one each from samples collected 

in Fajada, Escavada, and Kim-me-ni-oli Wash, exceeded the 

New Mexico chronic aquatic-life standard of 9 μg/L, based on 

a TVS of 100 mg/L hardness, and these elevated concentrations ranged from 10 to 20 μg/L. Unfiltered copper concentrations were as high as 880 μg/L in samples from Chaco Wash. 

Concentrations of unfiltered mercury exceeded the New 

Mexico chronic aquatic-life standard of 0.012 μg/L a total 

of 45 times, and concentrations ranged from less than 0.1 to 

5.5 μg/L, including 2 exceedances each from analyses of samples collected from Fajada and Escavada Wash, 4 from Gallo 

Wash, 15 from Kim-me-ni-oli Wash, and 22 from Chaco Wash 

and Chaco River. The remaining mercury results were below 

their censoring levels, which ranged from less than 0.1 to less 

than 0.5 μg/L and which are higher than the standard. Awareness of the bioaccumulative effects of mercury in the environment occurred after these data were collected; this awareness 

prompted the development of new analytical methods to detect 

mercury at lower concentrations (Microbac Laboratories, Inc., 

2005) and resulted in the current Federal criterion and State 

aquatic-life standards. These elevated values maybe a result of 

the surrounding geology or from atmospheric deposition.

Water concentrations exceeded the chronic aquatic-life 

standard of 5 μg/L for unfiltered recoverable selenium 11 

times, and concentrations ranged from 6 to 37 μg/L. Ten of 

these elevated concentrations were from analyses of samples 

collected from Chaco Wash, and one was from Fajada Wash. 

Potential selenium sources include the local geology (Menefee 

Formation and Lewis Shale), leaching from seleniferous soils 

in the park’s drainage area, and perhaps atmospherically 

deposited coal-fired powerplant ash (Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

2007). 

For detected trace elements without New Mexico 

numeric aquatic-life standards or TVS, the concentrations 

were compared to the chronic NAWQ criteria or Tier II 

values presented by Suter and Tsao (1996) as toxicological 

benchmarks useful for screening constituents for aquatic 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 63

ecological effects. These Federal benchmarks were exceeded 

in analyses of samples for filtered barium (16 times), iron 

(5 times), manganese (4 times), and uranium (5 times) and 

were identified as constituents of potential ecological concern 

(table 16). Filtered iron reported in high concentrations could 

be a result of particulates passing through the filter membrane 

and may not be a reflection of actual dissolved iron in the 

aquatic system (Hem, 1989). The filtered strontium values did 

not exceed the recommended Tier II criterion. 

Unfiltered iron (concentrations ranging from 680 to 

690,000 μg/L) and unfiltered strontium (concentrations 

ranging from 170 to 7,900 μg/L) were measured at elevated 

levels in analyses of samples from all three water groups; 

however, no State aquatic or human-health standards exist for 

these constituents (table 16). Iron concentrations increased 

as suspended-sediment concentrations increased, indicating 

elevated iron is associated with sediment transport occurring 

in the drainages. Concentrations of filtered strontium ranged 

from 40 to 1,000 μg/L in all three water groups and are below 

the 1,500-μg/L Tier II criterion. The median value for filtered 

(dissolved) strontium in major North American rivers was 

reported to be 60 μg/L by Durum and Haffty (1961), indicating 

generally elevated concentrations. Potential natural weathering 

sources for strontium include the minerals strontianite 

(strontium carbonate) and celestite (strontium sulfate), which 

could be present in the Menefee Formation and Lewis Shale in 

the park (Hem, 1989). 

Radiological Constituents

Gross alpha radioactivity was measured in 14 samples; 

values from one of five analyses of samples from Chaco Wash 

and two of nine analyses of samples from Kim-me-ni-oli 

Wash exceeded the 15 picocuries per liter (pCi/L) standard for 

livestock watering (table 16). Values exceeding this standard 

in samples from these washes ranged from 29 to 35 pCi/L. 

These elevated values may well be a result of naturally 

occurring radionuclides from the surrounding geology or from 

atmospheric deposition. 

Summary of Surface-Water Characterization and 

Considerations for Monitoring

All available water-quality data evaluated for CHCU were 

collected between 1976 and 1983, which limits interpretation 

and limits understanding of current water-quality conditions 

and potential effects. Information on human activities on land 

surrounding the park prior to and during the sample-collection 

activities also is sparse, further limiting the ability to interpret 

these historical data. The contributing washes offered the 

smallest number of sample results for evaluation, and any 

differences in water quality related to differences in natural 

factors or to land-use activities in the three washes could not 

be ascertained from this small dataset. 

Data from Chaco Wash generally indicates 

higher concentrations of nutrients (unfiltered nitrogen, 

orthophosphorus, and unfiltered phosphorus) and trace 

elements. More exceedances of New Mexico water-quality 

standards were identified in Chaco Wash than in the other 

evaluated waters in CHCU, which may be a reflection 

of natural influences from the Lewis Shale and Menefee 

Formation predominant in the Chaco Wash drainage area or 

of the current land-use activities. Data from Chaco and Kimme-ni-oli Wash indicate elevated gross alpha radioactivity, 

which could have resulted from weathering of radioactive 

minerals from source bedrock or from mining occurring in 

the contributing area. Concentrations of unfiltered nitrogen 

and phosphorus were elevated in analyses of samples 

from all waters evaluated in CHCU and could be related 

to atmospheric deposition (nitrogen), bedrock weathering 

(primarily phosphorus but possibly nitrogen), and upland and 

semiriparian zone grazing activities. 

Historical concentrations of trace elements are elevated 

for several constituents in one or more analyses of samples 

from park waters and exceed State criteria for aquatic life 

for filtered aluminum, beryllium, copper, and zinc and for 

unfiltered mercury and selenium. All analyses of samples 

from waters in CHCU had multiple exceedances of the chronic 

aquatic-life standard for unfiltered mercury. Concentrations 

of unfiltered selenium also frequently exceeded the State 

standard in analyses of samples from the contributing washes 

and Chaco Wash. In addition to the constituent concentrations 

that exceeded the State standards, concentrations of filtered 

barium, iron, manganese, and uranium exceeded selected 

ecological benchmarks and may warrant inclusion in future 

monitoring efforts. Uranium mining and coalbed methane 

exploration are actively occurring in the San Juan Basin and in 

proximity to the park, which could expose trace elements (in 

mining wastes) to weathering and dissolution. High concentrations of selected trace elements also could be the result of 

atmospheric deposition or natural bedrock and soil weathering 

processes, which can be magnified by agricultural irrigation of 

mineralized soils. 

For future water-quality monitoring efforts, it would be 

useful to include analyses of samples for nutrients, trace elements, and radiological constituents to evaluate if concentrations of these water-quality constituents identified as elevated 

in the historical data set are currently measurable at levels of 

ecological concern and to identify if surrounding land-use 

activities could be affecting park water quality. 

Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona 

and Utah

Glen Canyon National Recreation Area (GLCA), which 

covers more than 1.2 million acres, extends from southeastern 

Utah more than 180 mi into northeastern Arizona. The main 

feature of the park, Lake Powell, covers about 13 percent of 

the park area and terminates at Lees Ferry where the lake outflow becomes the Colorado River again (fig. 13). The dam that 

created the lake was constructed by the Bureau of Reclamation 
64 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

in 1963 and is the only major dam on the main stem of the 

Colorado River upstream from Lees Ferry. The remaining part 

of GLCA is a landscape of highly dissected red rock canyons, cliffs, and plateaus. Glen Canyon National Recreation 

Area was created by Congress in 1972 to “provide for public 

outdoor recreation use and enjoyment of Lake Powell and 

lands adjacent thereto in the states of Arizona and Utah and 

to preserve scenic, scientific, and historic features contributing to public enjoyment of the area” (National Park Service, 

2006, p. 1). The Colorado River is the main drainage into Lake 

Powell, and the Paria, Escalante, San Juan, and Dirty Devil 

Rivers are major tributaries that flow into GLCA. More than 

90 side canyons fed by springs and ephemeral drainages are 

considered tributaries to the main body of Lake Powell (Hart 

and others, 2005a). 

GLCA has an arid climate with large seasonal variations 

in temperature and precipitation; generally, rainfall is highest 

in October and lowest in June, and snowfall predominates in 

December and January. Due to the large extent of this park, 

six selected climate stations in and surrounding GLCA were 

summarized to show the general range and variability of temperatures, precipitation, and snowfall for the area (table 17). 

On average, the coldest months are December and January and 

ranges from 12.3° to 28.5°C; July is the warmest month on 

average and ranges from 88.7° to 103.4°C. Average monthly 

precipitation is typically least in June and ranges from 0.15 to 

0.47 inch and highest in late summer (July or August) or fall 

(October) and ranges from 0.74 to 1.19 inches. Mean annual 

precipitation is between 5.6 and 7.6 inches for all but Escalante (station 422592), which has an average precipitation of 

approximately 11 inches and is at a higher elevation. Average 

annual snowfall is low, ranging between 2.1 and 5.8 inches 

at five of the stations; Escalante recorded an average of 25.6 

inches (Western Regional Climate Center, 2006). 

Geology

GLCA was formed by downcutting of the Colorado 

and San Juan Rivers and their tributaries, which has exposed 

more than 8,000 ft of bedrock and surficial deposits. The 

dominant bedrock unit in the park surrounding Lake Powell 

is the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone. The Navajo Sandstone, 

Kayenta Formation, and Wingate Sandstone form the red 

sandstone and mudstone that dominate the Glen Canyon 

Group (named for exposures in Glen Canyon) resulting in 

vertical cliffs more than 2,000 ft high (Nations and Stump, 

1981; Anderson and others, 2003). The formations exposed 

in GLCA include the oldest Pennsylvanian formation, the 

Hermosa Group, followed by the Permian Cutler Group. The 

successively younger overlying rocks are the Triassic Chinle 

and Moenkopi Formations, which are in turn overlain by 

the Glen Canyon Group, followed by the San Rafael Group, 

Morrison Formation, Cretaceous Tropic Shale and Dakota 

Sandstone, and finally the Straight Cliffs Formation (Anderson 

and others, 2003). 

The drainages of three perennial rivers analyzed for this 

section of the report—the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria 

Rivers—are dominated by the Cutler Group and Moenkopi 

Formation (from mouth of Dirty Devil River to approximately 

15 mi upstream), the Glen Canyon Group, and Quaternary 

alluvium. The Cutler Group includes very fine- to mediumgrained, quartz sandstone with siltstone and sandy shale, and 

minor amounts of coarse-grained sandstone, limestone, chert, 

magnetite, feldspar, or muscovite. The Moenkopi Formation 

is composed of siltstone, sandstone, claystone, limestone, and 

conglomerate with minor gypsum deposits. The Glen Canyon 

Group is a very fine- to medium-grained quartz sandstone with 

calcareous to iron-rich cements and some minor siltstone and 

shales (Anderson and others, 2003). 

Water Resources

Major perennial rivers that flow into Lake Powell include 

the Colorado, Dirty Devil, Escalante, and San Juan Rivers. 

The Paria River flows into the Colorado River downstream 

from Glen Canyon Dam. Additional ephemeral streams, 

canyons, washes, and springs contribute water to GLCA. As of 

the writing of this report, 185 springs have been identified; it 

is believed that more than 600 springs may exist within GLCA 

(Thomas and others, 2006). These water bodies support critical wildlife habitat in the arid landscape, including riparian, 

wetland, lake, and spring habitats such as hanging gardens. 

Hanging gardens are well developed in the Navajo Sandstone 

along the banks of Lake Powell and in side canyons such as 

the Escalante Canyon (Anderson and others, 2003).

Continuous discharge is measured at multiple 

streamflow-gaging stations in Utah and Arizona on rivers 

that flow into and out of Lake Powell and in the larger GLCA 

area (table 18). Additional streamflow data are collected 

periodically or have been collected historically through 

these watersheds contributing to Lake Powell and the Lower 

Colorado River (U.S. Geological Survey, 2001). Streamflow 

characteristics are extremely variable between these basins. 

Winter months show the lowest mean monthly discharge for 

the Colorado (near Cisco) and San Juan Rivers; whereas, 

July shows the lowest mean monthly discharge for the 

Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers. The highest mean 

monthly discharge was recorded in the summer months, May 

through August, in all but the Dirty Devil River (March) and 

the Paria River (January). There is a lengthy record of 55 

or more years at most of these stations, except for the Paria 

River sites, which have only operated as a real-time station 

since August 2002 and May 2004. The variability at the 

downstream Colorado River (Lees Ferry) site is minimal due 

to the carefully controlled releases from Lake Powell. A 2001 

study of seepage in the Escalante River basin was completed 

by Wilberg and Stolp (2005) and concluded that large amounts 

of surface water are not lost or gained along the 15 evaluated 

reaches of the Escalante River. The Dirty Devil, Escalante, 

and Paria Rivers contribute substantially less water than the 

Colorado and San Juan Rivers when the ranges of minimum 
Table 17. Summary of temperature, precipitation, and snowfall records from six climate stations near Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, 1901 to 2006. [avg, average; AZ, Arizona; °F, degrees Fahrenheit; max, maximum; min, minimum; precip, precipitation; Sta., station; temp, temperature; UT, Utah; data compiled from Climate Center (2006)]

Climate station1

(station number)

Approximate 

locations shown 

in figure 13

Elevation 

(feet)

Monthly 

avg temp 

min (°F)

Monthly 

avg temp 

max (°F)

Daily temp 

extremes 

low (°F)

Daily temp 

extremes high

(°F)

Mean 

annual 

temp

(°F)

Monthly avg 

precip min 

(inches)

Monthly avg 

precip max 

(inches)

M

an

pr

(in

Big Water, UT(420688) 4,100 23.3 December 99.7 July –3 February 6, 1989 December 23, 1990 112 July 8, 1989 58.7 0.15 June 0.89 October Escalante, UT(422592) 5,810 14.1 January 88.7 July –22 January 22, 1937 104 July 14, 2002 49.3 .47 June 1.19 July 1Hanksville, UT (423611)

4,310 12.3 January 98.7 July –33 February 6, 1989 114 July 8, 1989 53.6 .24 February .74 August 

Hite Ranger Sta., UT(423968)

4,000 28.5 January 99.1 July –2 January 29, 1979 111 July 17, 1991 60.9 .32 June 1.15 October 

Lees Ferry, AZ(024849)

3,210 26.8 January 103.4 July 0 May 18, 1938 August 31, 1995 119 July 13 2005 62.6 .20 June 1.04 August 

Mexican Hat, UT(425582)

4,130 20.2 January 98.4 July –17 January 13, 1963 110 July 13, 1971 56.7 .21 June .82 October 

1 Temperature data collected at Big Water from 1986 through 2006, at Escalante from 1901 through 2006, at Hanksville from 1948 through 2006, at Hite Ranger Station 

2006, at Lees Ferry from 1916 through 2006, and at Mexican Hat from 1948 through 2006.
66 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 18. Summary of real-time streamflow gages of major perennial rivers flowing into and out of Glen Canyon National Recreation 

Area, Arizona and Utah. 

[abv, above; AZ, Arizona; est, estimated; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; max, maximum; min, minimum; na, not available; nr, near; R, River; UT, Utah; all statistics from 

the National Water Information System (U.S. Geological Survey, 2001)]

Station 

(locations 

shown in 

figure 13)

Station name

Period of daily 

discharge record

(excludes earlier 

peak flow 

measurements)

Mean monthly 

min discharge

(ft3/s) (month)

Mean monthly 

max discharge 

(ft3/s) (month)

Highest peak 

flow recorded 

(ft3/s) (date)

Annual

discharge

(ft3/s) (2005)

09180500 Colorado R nr Cisco, UT October, 1, 1913

to present

3,080 

(January)

21,500 

(June)

1

76,800

(June 19, 1917) 6,820

09333500 Dirty Devil R abv Poison Spring 

Wash nr Hanksville, UT

June 7, 1948

to present

53

(July)

138

(March)

25,700 (est)2

(September 10, 1980) na

09337500 Escalante R nr Escalante, UT July 29, 1910

to present

6.5 

(July)

24 

(May)

4,550

(August 24, 1998) 37.4

09379500 San Juan R nr Bluff, UT July 27, 1915

to present

1,080 

(December)

5,500 

(June)

56,000

(August 12, 1929) 2,293

09380000 Colorado R at Lees Ferry, AZ 

(Lake Powell outflow)

October 1, 1921

to present

3

13,000

(September, 

October)

3

16,000

(August)

4

127,000

(July 1, 1927) 11,550

09381800 Paria R nr Kanab, UT August 7, 2002

to present

5.3 

(July)

43

(January)

15,400

(August 31, 1963) 42.1

09382000 Paria R at Lees Ferry, AZ May 14, 2004

to present

6.7 

(July)

78 

(January)

16,100 (est)

(October 5, 1925) 46.3

1

 Peak flow of 125,000 ft3/s estimated on July 4, 1884. 

2

 Peak flow of 35,000 ft3/s estimated on November 4, 1957. 

3

 Monthly statistics computed from October 1996 to December 2003, not through entire discharge record. 

4

 Peak flows of 300,000 and 220,000 ft3/s estimated on July 7, 1884, and June 18, 1921, respectively, before 1963 dam closure.

and maximum monthly streamflow among these sites are 

compared. 

Multiple water-resource concerns exist at GLCA. All 

or parts of 35 grazing allotments that encompass more than 

1,429 mi2 within GLCA predate the creation of the park 

area. Cattle can affect riparian areas by trampling vegetation, 

depositing animal waste, causing streambank collapse 

and erosion, and damaging or removing native seedlings, 

which can facilitate the growth of exotic species. Off-road 

vehicle use in side canyons and in washes contributes to 

habitat deterioration and increased erosion (Thomas and 

others, 2006). Natural oil seeps and oil, gasoline, and other 

fuel-related contamination from personal and commercial 

watercraft used on Lake Powell affect water quality (Thomas 

and others, 2006; Hart and others, 2005a). Additionally, 

improperly disposed human waste can contribute pathogenic 

microorganisms and nutrients to the water. Upstream and 

adjacent land-use effects from road construction, grazing, 

mineral and energy resource extraction and processing, 

development, and wildfire also are water-resource-related 

concerns for the park area. Tributaries deposit significant 

sediment loads to Lake Powell, which can be enriched in 

nutrients (for example, phosphorus) and may accumulate 

contaminants, which are then deposited in the lake’s deltas. 

Hart and others (2005b) reported on sediment chemistry and 

potential chemical accumulation in Colorado River delta 

deposits. 

The Paria River, from the Utah-Arizona border to the 

confluence with the Colorado River, was on the 2004 303(d) 

list in Arizona for suspended sediment and turbidity but 

was delisted for turbidity due to insufficient supporting data 

in December 2005 (Arizona Department of Environmental 

Quality, 2005). Upstream from the park boundary, the 

Escalante River is on the 2002 303(d) list for temperature 

for cold-water species of game fish and other aquatic life 

(beneficial use class 3A) from the confluence with Boulder 

Creek to the North Creek confluence (Millennium Science 

& Engineering, Inc., 2005). Because the monitoring and 

assessment of water quality in Lake Powell, the Colorado 

River, and the San Juan River are the focus of other ongoing 

programs, this report will focus on other waters for the 

discussion on availability and characterization of water-quality 

data in GLCA. These other waters include three primary 

contributing perennial waters to GLCA, the Dirty Devil, 

Escalante, and Paria Rivers, along with a group of smaller 

contributing tributaries that flow into the Escalante River or 

directly into Lake Powell. 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 67

Available Water-Quality Data

Data from 117 surface-water samples collected by the 

NPS, ADEQ, USGS, and UTDWQ between October 1947 and 

June 2003 were evaluated for this report to characterize water 

quality from samples of water flowing into and within the park 

in one of five stream groupings: three primary contributing 

perennial rivers (the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria 

Rivers) and a composite of samples from a group of smaller 

tributaries that flow into Lake Powell and the Escalante River 

(fig. 13; table 19). Although there are additional ephemeral 

and intermittent streams, washes, and arroyos contributing 

water to GLCA, no data were available from these other 

water bodies to evaluate. An additional data reference for the 

Escalante River drainage basin from September 1909 through 

December 2002 is the USGS water-quality and streamflow 

data compilation by Wilberg and Stolp (2005). 

The relative temporal distribution of samples and field 

measurements collected from stream sites flowing into and 

within the park (excluding the San Juan and Colorado Rivers, 

unnamed water bodies without data) and types of analyses 

conducted on samples are illustrated in figure 14. The relative 

temporal distribution of water samples and field measurements 

just from the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers and 

types of analyses conducted on samples are illustrated in 

figure 15; the number of measurements of field properties and 

analyses of samples for major ions, nutrients, trace elements, 

and radiological constituents collected from these three rivers 

is summarized, by field property or constituent, in table 

20. The number of water samples from the fourth and fifth 

groups of selected smaller tributaries to Lake Powell and the 

Escalante River is summarized, by major constituent class, in 

table 21. Generally, very few historical data are available and 

included sampling of only one site per year between 1947 and 

1968, with no data collected in 1958, 1962, and 1964. During 

this period of limited sampling only the Paria River was 

sampled, except from 1951 to 1953 when the Escalante River 

was sampled. The Dirty Devil River was first sampled in 1969. 

The largest number of samples and measurements collected 

from these water bodies in any one year was in 1998 when 480 

samples or measurements were collected from 41 sites on 18 

different water bodies; 189 of these were collected from the 

Paria River. Sampling has been extremely variable over this 

56-year period as evidenced by figures 14 and 15. 

Noticeable data gaps for GLCA are the lack of historical 

data between 1954 and 1968, when only a few field properties from only one site were measured. Data were collected 

less frequently from 1989 to 1994 than in periods directly 

preceding and following this time (fig. 14). Samples analyzed for trace-element data were collected very infrequently 

before 1975. The Dirty Devil River was sampled with various 

frequencies between 1969 and 1991, and it has been sampled 

only three times since 1991, in 1993, 1997, and 1998. 

Characterization of Water Quality

Water data collected since 1988 from the Dirty Devil, 

Escalante, and Paria Rivers were assessed according to 

selected designated uses assigned by the State of Utah, 

including chronic aquatic-life cold and aquatic-life support 

exceedances, and secondary-contact recreation standards 

(table 20). Additionally, applicable sections of the Paria 

River were assessed according to designated uses assigned by 

the State of Arizona including chronic aquatic and wildlife 

warm-water exceedances and full-body contact standards. All 

historical data from these streams were summarized, including number of analyses, number of censored values, and 

minimum, maximum, and median values (table 20). Where 

possible, reported zero values were recensored to applicable 

censoring levels for determination of median values. 

A second data and exceedance summary was compiled 

for the smaller intermittent or ephemeral tributaries flowing 

into the Escalante River or Lake Powell with one or more 

water-quality standard exceedance. Statistical data summaries 

were based on the complete period of record available and 

exceedances were based on evaluation of data collected 

since 1988 (table 21). These 14 waters, all within the Utah 

portion of GLCA, include five tributaries to the Escalante 

River (Coyote Gulch, East Moody Canyon, Harris Wash, 

Silver Falls Creek, and The Gulch) and nine tributaries to 

Lake Powell (Croton Canyon, Last Chance Creek, Little 

Valley Wash, North Wash, Tibbet Canyon, Trachyte Creek, 

Wahweap Creek, Wesses Canyon, and White Canyon Creek) 

shown in figure 13 and detailed in table 19. These streams all 

flow into the Escalante River or into Lake Powell (directly 

or through another tributary); no tributaries flowing into the 

Dirty Devil or Paria Rivers with exceedances were identified, 

and no tributaries flowing into the Colorado or San Juan 

Rivers were evaluated. Additionally, no tributary waters in 

the Arizona portion of GLCA matched these criteria. This 

summary includes just the 12 field properties and constituents 

with one or more State water-quality standard or Federal 

criterion exceedance (since 1988) identified for these waters; 

therefore, not all of the available water-quality data from the 

14 evaluated tributaries are described in table 21. The field 

properties and constituents are dissolved oxygen, pH (high), 

water temperature, and unfiltered phosphorus, and eight 

filtered trace elements: aluminum, barium, copper, iron, lead, 

manganese, mercury, and selenium. There are other smaller 

intermittent and ephemeral water bodies with water-quality 

data that flow into and within GLCA; however, these were not 

summarized herein because no exceedances were identified. 

Field Properties

Collectively among the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria 

Rivers, field properties, including DO, pH, SC, and water temperature, were measured 672, 1,007, 1,422, and 1,340 times, 
68 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

"

"

" "

"

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

# #

# ###

##

#

#

#

#

# # #

#

##

### # # # #

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

##

#

#

#

#

# ##

#

# #

#

#

#

#

#

# #

# #

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

#

*#

*#

*#

*#

#*

*#

#*"

Colorado River

Tibbet Canyon

Little Valley Wash

Silver Falls Creek

420688

422592

423611

423968

425582

024849

Arches

National Park

Paria River

Colorado River

Sevier River

Fremont River

Escalante River

Halls Creek

Navajo Creek

San Juan River

Dirty Devil River

North Wash

Last Chance Creek

Harris Wash

The 

Gulch

Trachyte Creek

Coyote Gulch

Wesses Canyon

Croton Canyon

Wahweap Creek

White Canyon Creek

E. Moody Canyon

Boulder Creek

North Creek

Canyonlands

National Park Capitol Reef 

National Park

Bryce Canyon

National Park Natural Bridges

National Monument

3960 3961

3959

3958

3956

3022

3955

3954

3133

3021

3020

3017

3016

3945

3941

3015

3014

3928

3904 3903

3013

3901 3900

3899

3888

3882 3878 3868

3831

3011

3007 3821

3818

3817

3816

3773

1212

1282

3757

3755

3753 3754

37473745

37443741

3001

30002997

2993

2992

2991

2989

2230

2985

2983

2980

2977

3729

3728

3727

3726

3725

3724

2973

1349

3658

3657

1340

3653

3651

3650

2999

09381800

09380000

09379500

09333500

09180500

09382000

09337500

UTAH

ARIZONA

112° 111° 110°

37°

38°

#

"

*#

Lees Ferry

Lake 

Powell

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data; 

surface water and lakes, ponds and reservoirs, 

1:100,000; State boundary, 1:2,000,000; climate 

stations, park boundaries, and study areas from 

the National Park Service, scale unspecified.

EXPLANATION

Lakes, ponds, and reservoirs

Glen Canyon National Recreation Area (GLCA)

GLCA study area

Other National Park Service park units

State boundary

0 41⁄2 9 18 MILES

0 95 190 380 KILOMETERS

Glen Canyon 

National Recreation

 Area

UTAH

ARIZONA

COLORADO

NEW MEXICO

Location map

Selected water-quality sampling sites

Surface water

Climate stations 

3831 Site number

Streamflow-gaging station 

Intermittent streams

Figure 13. Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, and locations of water-quality sampling sites.
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 69

Table 19. Selected stream sites with water-quality data in or upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and 

Utah, 1947 to 2003.—Continued

[AZ, Arizona; Cnfl, confluence; DD, decimal degrees; E, East; Mi, mile; Mtn, Mountain; NE, northeast; NNE, north-northeast; no., number; NRA, National 

Recreation Area; NW, northwest; Rd, road; S, south; Spr, spring; SW, southwest; UT, Utah; W, west; Xing, crossing; Site no. shown in figure 13; *, site located 

within park boundary; site names retained from original source database]

Site 

no.

Site name Latitude DD Longitude DD No. of 

samples Period of record

Dirty Devil River

1212* Dirty Devil River near Hite, Utah 1.00 37.9158 110.3882 1 1976

1282* Dirty Devil River at Lake Powell 37.8972 110.3951 2 1991

3015* Dirty Devil Inflow to Lake Powell 37.9731 110.4000 1 1998

3650 Dirty Devil River near Hanksville, Utah 38.4000 110.6840 2 1975–1976

3651 Dirty Devil River above Poison Spr Wash near Hanksville, UT 38.0942 110.4074 186 1969–1991

3773 Dirty Devil River above Little Meadow near Hanksville 38.4069 110.6849 120 1973–1976

3888 Dirty Devil River above Cnfl / Poison Spring Wash 38.0975 110.4064 179 1976–1998

3941 Dirty Devil River T29S R13E Sec17 NW1/4 NE1/4 38.2950 110.5186 1 1986

Escalante River

1340* Escalante River at mouth near Escalante, Utah 37.3142 110.9035 82 1951–1953

2977* Escalante River at Coyote Gulch 37.4280 110.9804 1 2001

2980* Escalante River above Stevens Canyon 37.4361 110.9818 1 2001

2983* Escalante River above Fools Canyon 37.4672 111.0018 1 2001

2985* Escalante River 3.7-Miles above Fools Canyon 37.4864 111.0027 1 2001

2989* Escalante River above Scorpion Gulch 37.5289 111.0629 1 2001

2992* Escalante River below Moody Creek 37.5655 111.0865 1 2001

2993* Escalante River above 25-Mile Wash 37.5794 111.1290 1 2001

2997* Escalante River above Fence Canyon 37.6128 111.1791 2 1981–2001

2999* Escalante River above Harris Wash 37.6628 111.2157 10 2001–2003

3014* Escalante River above Lake Powell 37.4319 110.9836 33 1997–2003

3653 Escalante River near Escalante, UT 37.7780 111.5746 160 1969–2001

3741 Escalante River above Horse Canyon 37.7186 111.2674 1 2001

3744 Escalante River above The Gulch 37.7253 111.2974 2 2001

3747 Escalante River above Boulder Creek 37.7569 111.3502 2 1981–2001

3753 Escalante River above Sand Creek 37.7750 111.4579 1 2001

3754 Escalante River above Calf Creek 37.7755 111.4185 1 2001

3755 Escalante River below Calf Creek 37.7764 111.4163 3 2001–2002

3757 Escalante River above Mamie Creek 37.7805 111.5060 2 1981–2001

3878 Escalante River below Cnfl / Calf Creek 37.7764 111.4158 19 1976–1978

3882 Escalante River above Cnfl / Calf Creek 37.7756 111.4183 139 1978–2003

3899 Escalante River below Cnfl / Pine Creek 37.7781 111.5739 10 1982–1984

3900 Escalante River NE of Escalante at River Ford 37.7767 111.5928 9 1980–1982

3901 Escalante River 3.5 mi W of Town at Weir Gage 37.7725 111.6661 50 1980–2003

Paria River

1349* Paria River at Lees Ferry, AZ 36.8722 111.5946 1,395 1947–2000

2230 Paria River at Rd Xing near Cannonville, Utah 37.5283 112.0441 1 1974

2973* Cmpar000.55 36.8643 111.5965 12 1998–2000

3657 Paria River at White House Ruins near Glen Canyon, UT 37.0753 111.8905 27 1977–1979

3658 Paria River below Water Pockets Gulch near Page, AZ 36.9464 111.6763 26 1977–1979

3724 Cmpar007.95 36.9319 111.6643 12 1998–2000

3725 Cmpar013.79 36.9566 111.7430 12 1998–2000

3726 Cmpar022.37 36.9952 111.7928 13 1998–2000

3727 Cmpar029.87 37.0009 111.8643 12 1998–2000
70 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 19. Selected stream sites with water-quality data in or upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and 

Utah, 1947 to 2003.—Continued

[AZ, Arizona; Cnfl, confluence; DD, decimal degrees; E, East; Mi, mile; Mtn, Mountain; NE, northeast; NNE, north-northeast; no., number; NRA, National 

Recreation Area; NW, northwest; Rd, road; S, south; Spr, spring; SW, southwest; UT, Utah; W, west; Xing, crossing; Site no. shown in figure 13; *, site located 

within park boundary; site names retained from original source database]

Site 

no.

Site name Latitude DD Longitude DD No. of 

samples Period of record

Paria River—Continued

3728 Cmpar029.90 37.0019 111.8646 12 1998–2000

3729 Cmpar030.00 37.0014 111.8656 12 1998–2000

3816 Paria River at US89 Xing 37.1075 111.9061 122 1976–2003

3817 Paria River at Kodachrome Basin Rd Xing 37.5281 112.0434 30 2000–2003

3818 Paria River at U12 Xing 37.5675 112.0506 41 1981–2003

3821 Paria River 3 Mi NNE of Tropic 37.6664 112.1089 9 1997–1998

3958 Paria River at Old Town Site 37.2505 111.9535 59 1998–2003

Tributaries to the Escalante River

Coyote Gulch

3020* Coyote Gulch above Escalante River 37.4286 110.9808 3 1998–1999

3021* Coyote Gulch at NRA Fence 37.4275 111.0872 13 1998–2003

East Moody Canyon

2991* East Moody Canyon at mouth 37.5583 111.0835 1 2001

Harris Wash

3000* Harris Wash at mouth 37.6633 111.2160 2 2001

3016* Harris Wash above Cnfl/ Escalante River 37.6636 111.2156 8 2002–2003

3017* Harris Wash at NRA Fence 37.6400 111.2992 3 1998–2000

Silver Falls Creek 

3001* Silver Falls Creek at mouth 37.6669 111.2121 1 2001

The Gulch

3745 The Gulch at mouth near Confluence with Escalante 37.7255 111.2974 3 1998–2001

3868 The Gulch Creek in Long Canyon at Burr Trail Xing 37.8558 111.3086 100 1980–2003

3945 The Gulch above Cnfl/ Steep Creek 37.8633 111.3117 5 1998–2000

3954 The Gulch at Roundy Cabin 37.8194 111.3208 3 1998–2000

Tributaries to Lake Powell

Croton Canyon

3955 Croton Canyon 1/3 Mi below Grand Bench Rd Xing 37.2275 111.3144 17 1998–2002

Last Chance Creek

3022* Last Chance at Burning Hills Rd Xing 37.1842 111.3678 37 1998–2003

3133 Last Chance Creek at Smokey Mtn Rd Xing 37.3467 111.5256 1 1998

Little Valley Wash

3961 Little Valley Wash at Grand Bench Rd Xing 37.2331 111.2778 21 1998–2002

North Wash

3013* North Wash above Lake Powell 37.7364 110.4500 11 1997–1998

3904 North Wash below Hog Springs 37.9592 110.4808 11 1997–1998

Tibbet Canyon

3959 Tibbet Canyon 2 Mi above Cnfl/ Warm Creek 37.1728 111.5769 5 1998–2002

Trachyte Creek

3903 Trachyte Creek at U276 Xing above Cnfl / Black Creek 37.9581 110.5725 19 1985–1998

3928 Slate C 1mi above Salt Flat at Road Xing 32S R10E 

Sec10SW1/4NE1/4 38.0403 110.7919 7 1980–1996
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 71

Table 19. Selected stream sites with water-quality data in or upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and 

Utah, 1947 to 2003.—Continued

[AZ, Arizona; Cnfl, confluence; DD, decimal degrees; E, East; Mi, mile; Mtn, Mountain; NE, northeast; NNE, north-northeast; no., number; NRA, National 

Recreation Area; NW, northwest; Rd, road; S, south; Spr, spring; SW, southwest; UT, Utah; W, west; Xing, crossing; Site no. shown in figure 13; *, site located 

within park boundary; site names retained from original source database]

Site 

no.

Site name Latitude DD Longitude DD No. of 

samples Period of record

Tributaries to Lake Powell—Continued

Wahweap Creek

3956 Wahweap Creek at Warm Creek Rd Xing 37.0808 111.6508 59 1998–2003

Wesses Canyon

3960 Wesses Canyon at Cow Camp 37.2619 111.5897 5 1998–2002

White Canyon Creek 

3007* White Canyon at mouth 37.8053 110.3683 3 1979–1980

3011* White Canyon Creek above Lake Powell 37.8200 110.3508 12 1997–1998

3831 White Canyon Creek E of Fry Canyon 37.6564 110.1278 11 1997–1998

19471949195119531955195719591961196319651967196919711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003

Number of sites

Field properties

Major ions

Nutrients

Trace elements

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

NUMBER OF SAMPLES (BY YEAR)

1 site per year, 1947 - 1968

(No samples collected in 1958, 1962, and 1964)

3

3

3 3

4

5

5

9

9

9 12

22

16

7

16

8

7

7

6 7

6 5 6 6

7

4

15

8

19

41

26 26

47

16

11

7

Figure 14. Total number of sites and samples for field properties and major ions, nutrients, and trace elements 

collected from selected streams, excluding the Colorado and San Juan Rivers, and unnamed waters, flowing into 

and within Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 to 2003. [Water sources represented in 

graph include Bullfrog Creek, Coyote Gulch, Croton Canyon, Dark Canyon, Dark Canyon Creek, Dirty Devil River, 

East Moody Canyon, Escalante River, Fence Canyon, Fools Canyon, Fortymile Gulch, Grand Gulch, Gypsum Canyon, 

Halls Creek, Harris Wash, Horse Canyon, Kane Gulch, Lake Canyon, Last Chance Creek, Lime Creek, Little Valley 

Wash, Maidenwater Creek, Moqui Canyon, Neon Canyon, North Wash, Paria River, Pennell Creek, Red Canyon, Ruin 

Canyon, Scorpion Gulch, Silver Falls Creek, Stevens Canyon, Stillwater Canyon, The Gulch, Tibbet Canyon, Trachyte 

Creek, Twentyfive Mile Wash, Wahweap Creek, Warm Creek, Wesses Canyon, White Canyon Creek].
72 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

respectively, between 1947 and 2003. Hardness and turbidity 

also were measured throughout this period in all three rivers, 

though less frequently. Streamflow was measured frequently 

in the Paria River (1,153 times) and at about the same frequency as the other field properties in the other two rivers. 

Measured values of DO, pH, turbidity, and water temperature 

exceeded the Utah or Arizona aquatic-life or recreationalcontact standards in one or all of these waters between 1988 

and 2003 (table 20). For the 14 evaluated tributaries summarized in table 21, measurements of DO, pH, and water temperature were made much less frequently, and most streams 

or washes were sampled fewer than 20 times, except for The 

Gulch (sampled between 93 and 102 times), Last Chance 

Creek (sampled between 18 and 44 times), and Wahweap 

Creek (sampled between 35 and 57 times). These three field 

properties were exceeded between one and eight times in these 

tributary waters. 

Six out of 117 DO measurements (sites 3882 and 3901) 

did not meet the Utah minimum DO standard of 6.5 mg/L 

in the Escalante River and one out of 109 measurements 

exceeded this standard at site 3958 in the Paria River. Between 

one and three values exceeded the aquatic-life warm-water 

DO standard of 5.5 mg/L out of 68 measurements (from five 

streams) in the evaluated tributaries. The Arizona aquatic and 

wildlife warm-water standard of 6 mg/L was not met for 20 

out of 71 measurements (sites 2973, 3724, 3725, 3726, 3727, 

3728, and 3729) in the Paria River. Low DO concentrations 

can be a sign of elevated concentrations of organic compounds 

or nutrients or high turbidity levels and can be harmful to biological community function and health below 5 mg/L (Chapman, 1998). 

A pH value exceeding the aquatic and wildlife warmwater and full-body contact standards of 9 SU in Arizona was 

observed once at site 3727 out of 71 measurements in the Paria 

River. Historical pH measurements made before 1988, but 

Paria River - Trace elements

Paria River - Nutrients

Paria River - Major ions

Paria River - Field properties

Escalante River - Trace elements

Escalante River - Nutrients

Escalante River - Major ions

Escalante River - Field properties

DirtyDevil River - Trace elements

DirtyDevil River - Nutrients

DirtyDevil River - Major ions

DirtyDevil River - Field properties

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

NUMBER OF SAMPLES (BY YEAR) 

19471949195119531955195719591961196319651967196919711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003

Figure 15. Total number of water samples collected from the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers for 

field properties, major ions, nutrients, and trace elements, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona 

and Utah, 1947 to 2003.
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 73

Table 20. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards for selected stream-sampling sites in 

the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers located in and upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 

to 2003.—Continued

[ac sol, acid soluble; AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water (AZ); AZ, Arizona; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; deg C, degrees 

Celsius; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact (AZ); fil, 

filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, 

phosphorus; POR, period of record; R, River; rec, recoverable; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L 

(provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; UT, Utah; UTDEQ, Utah Department of Environmental Quality; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; 2B, secondary-contact recreation (UT); 3A, 

aquatic-life cold (UT); 3C, aquatic-life support (UT); 30d, 30-day average; III, chromium III; *, extreme outlier excluded; bold type indicates exceedance during 

recent POR]

Selected 

streams

(see fig. 13 for 

location of 

streams)

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1947 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 2003

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

UTDEQ or AZDEQ 

standard or 

Federal criteria

(Use)2

No. of exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites with 

exceedances (Use)

Field properties (1947–2003)

Dirty Devil R Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 147/0 4.4 8.6 17.5* 5 (UT 3C,30d)

6.5 (UT 3A,30d)

6 (AZ AWW)

0/4/0 (3C)

Escalante R Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 211/0 4.8 8.5 13.57 0/14/0 (3C)

6/117/2 (3A)

Paria R Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 314/0 3.9 8.3 14.8 1/109/1 (3A)

20/71/7 (AWW)

Dirty Devil R Hardness, unfil 

(mg/L as CaCO3) 141/0 340 670 1,900

Escalante R -- -- Hardness, unfil 

(mg/L as CaCO3) 77/0 150 230 1,900

Paria R Hardness, unfil 

(mg/L as CaCO3) 143/0 140 490 1,600

Dirty Devil R pH (standard units) 306/0 6.5 8.0 9.1 6.5, L 

9, H

(UT 2B,3A,3C)

6.5, L

9.0, H

(AZ AWW, 

FBC)

0/5/0, L (2B, 3C)

0/5/0, H (2B, 3C)

Escalante R pH (standard units) 316/0 6.58 8.2 10.2

0/157/0, L (2B)

0/157/0, H (2B)

0/132/0, L (3A) 

0/132/0, H (3A)

Paria R pH (standard units) 385/0 6 8.2 9.7

0/166/0, L (2B,3C)

0/166/0, H (2B,3C)

0/71/0, L (AWW,FBC)

1/71/1, H (AWW,FBC)

Dirty Devil R Specific conductance (μS/cm) 467/0 600 1,800 5,270

Escalante R Specific conductance (μS/cm) 503/0 183 685 4,350 -- --

Paria R Specific conductance (μS/cm) 452/0 253 1,320 4,620

Dirty Devil R

Streamflow (cubic feet 

per second)

362/0 0 95 760

Escalante R 342/0 0 12 322.6 -- --

Paria R 1,153/0 0 17 6,270
74 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 20. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards for selected stream-sampling sites in 

the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers located in and upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 

to 2003.—Continued

[ac sol, acid soluble; AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water (AZ); AZ, Arizona; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; deg C, degrees 

Celsius; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact (AZ); fil, 

filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, 

phosphorus; POR, period of record; R, River; rec, recoverable; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L 

(provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; UT, Utah; UTDEQ, Utah Department of Environmental Quality; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; 2B, secondary-contact recreation (UT); 3A, 

aquatic-life cold (UT); 3C, aquatic-life support (UT); 30d, 30-day average; III, chromium III; *, extreme outlier excluded; bold type indicates exceedance during 

recent POR]

Selected 

streams

(see fig. 13 for 

location of 

streams)

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1947 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 2003

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

UTDEQ or AZDEQ 

standard or 

Federal criteria

(Use)2

No. of exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites with 

exceedances (Use)

Field properties (1947–2003)—Continued

Dirty Devil R Turbidity (NTU) 161/0 0 140 8,390

10 (UT 2B, 3A)

15 (UT 3C)

50 (AZ AWW)

3/5/1 (2B)

3/5/1 (3C)

Escalante R Turbidity (NTU) 216/0 0 17.3 18,420

81/144/3 (2B)

60/122/2 (3A)

21/22/1 (3C)

Paria R Turbidity (NTU) 275/0 0 223.5 54,380 139/156/4 (2B)

42/72/7 (AWW)

Dirty Devil R Water temperature (deg C) 425/0 0 10.5 36

27 (UT 3C)

20 (UT 3A)

2/28/1 (3C)

Escalante R Water temperature (deg C) 381/0 0 11.5 30 1/26/1 (3C)

29/154/3 (3A)

Paria R Water temperature (deg C) 534/0 0 16 39 17/115/3 (3C)

Nutrients (aggregated)3 (1947–2003)

(Zero values excluded except where able to recensor to censoring level)

Dirty Devil R Ammonia, unfil (mg/L as N) 159/64 <.01 .082 1.40

UT TVS 

0/132/0/ (3C)

Escalante R Ammonia, unfil (mg/L as N) 137/113 <.01 .025 .329 0/118/0 (3A)

Paria R Ammonia, unfil (mg/L as N) 91/60 <.01 .028 .740 0/87/0 (3C)

Escalante R Ammonia, un-ionized

(mg/L as N) 1/1 <.003 -- <.003 0.02(UT 3A) 0/1/0 (3A)

Dirty Devil R Nitrate (mg/L as N) 99/0 .011 .158 1.75 4 (UT 3A, 3C)

2,240 

(AZ FBC)

--

Escalante R Nitrate (mg/L as N) 130/3 <.1 .090 1.45 0/20/0 (3A)

Paria R Nitrate (mg/L as N) 98/1 <.1 .700 2.55 0/2/0 (3C)

Dirty Devil R Nitrogen, unfil (mg/L as N) 70/0 .12 1.04 23

0.38 

EPA RC III

--

Escalante R Nitrogen, unfil (mg/L as N) 57/0 .002 .328 14.9 5/19/1 (EPA RC III)

Paria R Nitrogen, unfil (mg/L as N) 43/0 .218 1.26 34.3 0/2/0 (EPA RC III)

Dirty Devil R Orthophosphorus 

(mg/L as P) 108/30 <.01 .020 .94

Escalante R -- -- Orthophosphorus 

(mg/L as P) 69/19 <.01 .020 .98

Paria R Orthophosphorus 

(mg/L as P) 42/11 <.01 .035 .39

Dirty Devil R Total phosphorus, unfil 

(mg/L as P) 147/5 <.02 .500 21

0.05 

(UT 2B, 3A)

2/3/2 (2B)

Escalante R Total phosphorus, unfil 

(mg/L as P) 192/20 <.02 .050 2.81 51/125/4 (2B)39/103/3 (3A)

Paria R Total phosphorus, unfil 

(mg/L as P) 203/16 <.02 .131 9.4 97/140/4 (2B)
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 75

Table 20. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards for selected stream-sampling sites in 

the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers located in and upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 

to 2003.—Continued

[ac sol, acid soluble; AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water (AZ); AZ, Arizona; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; deg C, degrees 

Celsius; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact (AZ); fil, 

filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, 

phosphorus; POR, period of record; R, River; rec, recoverable; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L 

(provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; UT, Utah; UTDEQ, Utah Department of Environmental Quality; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; 2B, secondary-contact recreation (UT); 3A, 

aquatic-life cold (UT); 3C, aquatic-life support (UT); 30d, 30-day average; III, chromium III; *, extreme outlier excluded; bold type indicates exceedance during 

recent POR]

Selected 

streams

(see fig. 13 for 

location of 

streams)

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1947 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 2003

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

UTDEQ or AZDEQ 

standard or 

Federal criteria

(Use)2

No. of exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites with 

exceedances (Use)

Trace elements (1971–2003)

(Results reported in micrograms per liter; zero values excluded except where able to recensor to censoring level)

Dirty Devil R Aluminum, fil 3/2 <30 -- 10

87 fil 

(UT 3A, 3C)

0/2/0 (3C)

Escalante R Aluminum, fil 49/32 <30 5.06 7,200 2/33/1 (3A)

3/16/1 (3C)

Paria R Aluminum, fil

Aluminum, unfil rec.

44/31

70/70

<30

<100

4.12

--

3,600

<100

8/44/2 (3C)

--

Dirty Devil R Arsenic, fil 

Arsenic, ac sol

20/3

139/0

<5

1

2.85

5.0

10

18 190 fil 

(UT 3A, 3C)

190 fil 

(AZ AWW)

50 unfil 

(AZ FBC)

0/3/0 (3C)

--

Escalante R Arsenic, fil 

Arsenic, ac sol

60/39

68/0

<5

1

3.16

3.0

14

29

0/34/0 (3A)

0/16/0 (3C)

Paria R

Arsenic, fil 

Arsenic, ac sol

Arsenic, unfil

118/37

39/0

15/0

<5

1

2

2.0

3.5

13.0

8.8

30

2,400

0/40/0 (3C)

--

--

Dirty Devil R Barium, fil 

Barium, ac sol 

6/1

136/109

<100

<50

86.4

13.3

300

500

4 fil Tier II

3/3/2 (Tier II)

--

Escalante R Barium, fil 

Barium, ac sol

91/0

86/34

34.7

<50

67.8

51.5

3,400

680

87/87/4 (Tier II)

--

Paria R Barium, fil 

Barium, ac sol

140/43

43/29

<100

<50

73.2

19.7

530

1,960

4 fil Tier II 

98,000 fil 

(AZ FBC)

68/68/6 (Tier II)

0/1/0 (FBC)

--

Paria R Beryllium, fil

Beryllium, unfil rec

70/17

2/0

<1

.57

2.0

.58

38.4

.59

5.3 fil 

(AZ AWW)

6/70/4 (AWW)

--

Dirty Devil R Cadmium, fil 

Cadmium, ac sol

6/3

63/0

<1

1

2.54

1.0

572

15* 1.1 fil 

(UT TVS 100)

700 unfil 

(AZ FBC)

--

--

Escalante R Cadmium, fil 

Cadmium, ac sol

47/46

5/0

<1

1

--

1.0

3.1

4

1/47/1

UT TVS = 1.8

Paria R

Cadmium, fil 

Cadmium, ac sol

Cadmium, unfil

45/42

16/0

3/1

<1

1

<20

.102

1.0

--

5

3

80

 --

--

--

Dirty Devil R Chromium unsp, fil

Chromium unsp, ac sol

5/2

60/0

<5

5

6.70

10.0

45

305 210 fil (III)

(UT TVS 100)

100 unfil

(AZ FBC)

--

--

Escalante R Chromium unsp, fil

Chromium unsp, ac sol

51/43

5/0

<5

5

.472

10.0

45

37

--

--

Paria R

Chromium unsp, fil

Chromium unsp, ac sol

Chromium unsp, unfil

125/39

17/0

8/0

<5

5

20

2.0

10.0

65.0

24

100

200

--

--

--
76 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 20. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards for selected stream-sampling sites in 

the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers located in and upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 

to 2003.—Continued

[ac sol, acid soluble; AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water (AZ); AZ, Arizona; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; deg C, degrees 

Celsius; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact (AZ); fil, 

filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, 

phosphorus; POR, period of record; R, River; rec, recoverable; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L 

(provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; UT, Utah; UTDEQ, Utah Department of Environmental Quality; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; 2B, secondary-contact recreation (UT); 3A, 

aquatic-life cold (UT); 3C, aquatic-life support (UT); 30d, 30-day average; III, chromium III; *, extreme outlier excluded; bold type indicates exceedance during 

recent POR]

Selected 

streams

(see fig. 13 for 

location of 

streams)

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1947 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 2003

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

UTDEQ or AZDEQ 

standard or 

Federal criteria

(Use)2

No. of exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites with 

exceedances (Use)

Trace elements (1971–2003)—Continued

(Results reported in micrograms per liter; zero values excluded except where able to recensor to censoring level)

Dirty Devil R

Copper, fil 

Copper, ac sol

Copper, unfil rec

12/3

97/0

1/0

<1

10

10

5.0

24.0

--

45

910

10 12 fil 

(UT TVS 100)

1,300 unfil rec 

(AZ FBC)

--

--

--

Escalante R Copper, fil 

Copper, ac sol

50/45

11/0

<1

5

.257

15.0

47

45

1/47/1

UT TVS = 22

Paria R

Copper, fil 

Copper, ac sol

Copper, unfil rec

63/55

24/0

10/3

<1

8

<20

.0033

23.0

115

17,100

425

470

2/40/2

UT TVS = 37.1

--

Dirty Devil R

Iron, fil 

Iron, ac sol

Iron, unfil rec 

19/3

147/0

1/0

<3

.04

1,620

20.0

6.0

--

100

298

1,620

1,000 fil 

(UT 3A, 3C)

0/3/0 (3C)

--

--

Escalante R

Iron, fil 

Iron, ac sol

Iron, unfil rec 

75/31

95/0

54/0

<3

.039

10

20.0

.330

30.0

13,300

22

600

2/19/1 (3C)

--

--

Paria R

Iron, fil 

Iron, ac sol

Iron, unfil rec 

134/65

47/0

85/0

<3

.1

2.36

10.0

3.98

1,500

9,250

99.99

240,000

6/47/2 (3C)

--

--

Dirty Devil R Lead, fil

Lead, ac sol

6/3

90/0

<1

5

1.74

12.0

75

460 3.2 fil 

(UT TVS 100)

15 unfil rec 

(AZ FBC)

--

--

Escalante R Lead, fil

Lead, ac sol

50/45

15/0

<1

5

.021

10.0

80

40

2/47/1

UT TVS = 5.8

Paria R

Lead, fil

Lead, ac sol

Lead, unfil rec

125/49

18/0

7/4

<1

5

<200

2.0

11.0

122

574

250

1,000

3/40/2

UT TVS = 10.9

--

Dirty Devil R

Manganese, fil 

Manganese, ac sol

Manganese, unfil rec 

15/4

140/0

1/0

<1

15

206

6.0

560

--

2,500

1,725

206 120 fil Tier II

0/3/0 (Tier II)

--

--

Escalante R Manganese, fil 

Manganese, ac sol

85/7

79/0

<1

13

14.5

45.0

14,000

1,500

2/84/1 (Tier II)

--

Paria R

Manganese, fil 

Manganese, ac sol

Manganese, unfil rec

126/55

43/0

85/34

<1

20

<10

7.11

300

30.0

2,700

4,850

19,000

120 fil Tier II

196,000 unfil 

rec (AZ FBC)

6/60/2 (Tier II)

--

0/70/0 (FBC)
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 77

Table 20. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards for selected stream-sampling sites in 

the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers located in and upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 

to 2003.—Continued

[ac sol, acid soluble; AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water (AZ); AZ, Arizona; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; deg C, degrees 

Celsius; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact (AZ); fil, 

filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, 

phosphorus; POR, period of record; R, River; rec, recoverable; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L 

(provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; UT, Utah; UTDEQ, Utah Department of Environmental Quality; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; 2B, secondary-contact recreation (UT); 3A, 

aquatic-life cold (UT); 3C, aquatic-life support (UT); 30d, 30-day average; III, chromium III; *, extreme outlier excluded; bold type indicates exceedance during 

recent POR]

Selected 

streams

(see fig. 13 for 

location of 

streams)

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1947 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 2003

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

UTDEQ or AZDEQ 

standard or 

Federal criteria

(Use)2

No. of exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites with 

exceedances (Use)

Trace elements (1971–2003)—Continued

(Results reported in micrograms per liter; zero values excluded except where able to recensor to censoring level)

Dirty Devil R Mercury, fil 

Mercury, ac sol

4/4

50/0

<.1

.1

--

0.15

<.5

2.9

0.012 fil 

(UT 3A, 3C)

0.01 fil 

(AZ AWW)

420 unfil 

(AZ FBC)

0/3/0 (3C)

--

Escalante R Mercury, fil 

Mercury, ac sol

47/46

4/0

<.1

.1

--

.100

.2

.2

1/31/1 (3A)

0/16/0 (3C)

Paria R

Mercury, fil 

Mercury, ac sol

Mercury, unfil rec

52/52

14/0

14/8

<.1

.1

<.5

--

.250

.031

<.5

2.2

2.1

0/40/0 (3C)

--

--

Dirty Devil R Nickel, fil

Nickel, ac sol

3/0

62/0

10

10

10

20

10

72 160 fil 

(UT TVS 100)

28,000 unfil rec 

(AZ FBC)

--

--

Escalante R Nickel, fil

Nickel, ac sol

1/0

4/0

30

15

--

18

30

25

--

--

Paria R Nickel, fil

Nickel, ac sol

1/0

15/0

10

10

--

25

10

80

--

--

Dirty Devil R Selenium, fil

Selenium, ac sol

16/0

31/0

.2

.2

.800

.800

3.1

32

5 fil 

(UT 3A, 3C)

2 unfil rec 

(AZ AWW)

7,000 unfil rec

(AZ FBC)

0/3/0 (3C)

--

Escalante R Selenium, fil

Selenium, ac sol

57/48

1/0

<1

.5

.305

--

2.9

0.5

0/31/0 (3A)

0/17/0 (3C)

Paria R

Selenium, fil

Selenium, ac sol

Selenium, unfil

213/45

4

5/0

12/3

<1

0.5

<1

2.10

.50

2.5

279.4

2.5

23

1/67/1 (3C)

--

--

Dirty Devil R Silver, fil

Silver, ac sol

9/3

12/0

<2

2

5.0

5.0

10

18

4.1 fil 

(UT TVS 100)

7,000 unfil rec

(AZ FBC)

--

--

Escalante R Silver, fil

Silver, ac sol

47/47

1/0

<2

5

<2

--

<2

5

--

--

Paria R Silver, fil 112/40 <2 2.0 5 --

Dirty Devil R Strontium, fil 1/0 2,500 -- 2,500 1,500 fil Tier II -- Escalante R Strontium, fil 3/0 440 550 630

Dirty Devil R Zinc, fil 

Zinc, ac sol

16/2

120/0

<1

5

12.5

55.0

200

385 110 fil 

(UT TVS 100)

420,000 unfil rec 

(AZ FBC)

--

--

Escalante R Zinc, fil 

Zinc, ac sol

51/41

47/0

<1

5

.838

25.0

110

140

--

--

Paria R

Zinc, fil 

Zinc, ac sol

Zinc, unfil rec 

175/58

39/0

12/1

<1

6

<20

7.29

45.0

215

14,300

2,050

1,500

1/42/1

UT TVS = 338

0/70/0 (FBC)
78 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 20. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards for selected stream-sampling sites in 

the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers located in and upstream from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 

to 2003.—Continued

[ac sol, acid soluble; AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water (AZ); AZ, Arizona; AZDEQ, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; deg C, degrees 

Celsius; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion III; FBC, full-body contact (AZ); fil, 

filtered; H, high (maximum) standard; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; N, nitrogen; No., number; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; P, 

phosphorus; POR, period of record; R, River; rec, recoverable; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, table value standard computed at a hardness of 100 mg/L 

(provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); unfil, unfiltered; unsp, unspeciated; UT, Utah; UTDEQ, Utah Department of Environmental Quality; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available or not computed; 2B, secondary-contact recreation (UT); 3A, 

aquatic-life cold (UT); 3C, aquatic-life support (UT); 30d, 30-day average; III, chromium III; *, extreme outlier excluded; bold type indicates exceedance during 

recent POR]

Selected 

streams

(see fig. 13 for 

location of 

streams)

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1947 to 20031

Recent POR

1988 to 2003

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

UTDEQ or AZDEQ 

standard or 

Federal criteria

(Use)2

No. of exceedances/

No. of analyses/

No. of sites with 

exceedances (Use)

Radiological constituents (1975–1991) (Results reported in picocuries per liter)

Dirty Devil R Alpha radioactivity, fil 5/0 4 38 56

15 (UT 3A, 3C)

--

--

--

Escalante R Alpha radioactivity, fil 6/0 2 3.0 7

Paria R Alpha radioactivity, fil 5/0 2 23.0 35

Dirty Devil R Beta radioactivity, unfil 20/0 0 20.5 761

50 (UT 3A, 3C)

--

--

--

Escalante R Beta radioactivity, unfil 11/0 1 11.0 30

Paria R Beta radioactivity, unfil 7/0 0 35.0 363

Dirty Devil R Radium-226, unfil 7/0 0 2.0 770

--

--

--

--

Escalante R Radium-226, unfil 6/0 0 .250 2

Paria R Radium-226, unfil 6/0 0 1.25 10

Dirty Devil R Tritium, unfil 14/0 0 172.5 1,081

--

--

--

--

Escalante R Tritium, unfil 6/0 1 42.5 500

Paria R Tritium, unfil 2/0 86 293 500

1

 Period of record reflects full range evaluated for all relevant sites within this time period; some sites or constituents may not have had data available for the 

entire record. All available data considered; POR varies with constituent and site.

2

 State standards and designated beneficial uses from the State of Utah Department of Environmental Quality (all three rivers) and the Arizona Department 

of Environmental Quality (Paria River only) (State of Arizona, 2002; Utah Department of Environmental Quality, 2005). No hardness data available for Paria 

River sites in Arizona; therefore, no AZ TVS standards were evaluated. Selected Federal criteria are used when State standards are not established, including the 

USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002), the National Ambient Water Quality 

criteria (NAWQ), or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter and Tsao, 1996).

3

 Aggregated nutrients based on Mueller and others (1995); where sample fraction not stated, aggregation includes both filtered and unfiltered concentrations. 

Zero values were excluded unless converted to a value of less than the censoring level.

4

 Additional acid-soluble selenium result values of 0 μg/L were not considered for this summary as no censoring levels could be determined for these data, 

including 105 (Dirty Devil River), 85 (Escalante River), and 38 (Paria River) results. 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 79

Table 21. Statistical summary of water-quality data and aquatic-life or secondary-contact recreation exceedances for evaluated 

tributaries that flow into the Escalante River or Lake Powell, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Utah, 1979 to 2003. —Continued

[min., minimum; chr, chronic; Cr, creek; Cyn, canyon; deg C, degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter; P, phosphorus; POR, period of record; SU, standard 

units; T II, Tier II criteria; TVS, computed table value standard applicable to aquatic-life uses; W, wash; mg/L, micrograms per liter; 2B, secondary-contact 

recreation (Utah); 3B, aquatic-life warm (Utah); 3C, aquatic-life support (Utah); 30 dav, 30-day average; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR; --, 

no data or not applicable]

Stream 

or wash

(complete 

period of 

record)

Water bodies 

labeled in 

figure 13

Field properties Nutrients Trace elements (filtered, μg/L)

Dissolved oxygen, min. (mg/L)

pH, high (SU)

Water temperature (deg C)

Total phosphorus, 

unfiltered 

(mg/L as P)

Aluminum

Barium

Copper

Iron

Lead

Manganese

Mercury

Selenium

Minimum value–Maximum value over complete POR, 

No. of analyses / No. of censored values (over complete POR)

No. of exceedances / No. of analyses / No. of sites with exceedances (from recent POR, 1988 to 2003) 

(Usecodes)a

(Zero values recensored to applicable censoring level where able)

Water-quality standard (by usecode)

5.5 (3B)

5 (3C)

30 dav

9 (2B, 3B, 

3C)

27

(3B, 3C)

0.05

(2B, 3B)

87 (3B, 

3C, chr) 4 (T II) 37.11(b)(TVS, chr) 1,000 (3B) 10.94(b)(TVS, chr)

120

(T II)

0.012 

(3B, 3C, 

chr)

5

(3B, chr)

Tributaries to the Escalante River

Coyote Gulch

(1998–2003)

6.8–9.5

8/0

0/8/0

(3C)

7.9–8.5

9/0

0/9/0

(2B, 3C)

13.8–34.5

8/0

1/8/1

(3C)

<.02–0.242

7/2

2/7/1

(2B)

<30

7/7

0/7/0

(3C)

110–268

9/0

9/9/2

(T II)

<1–<12

7/0

0/7/0

(TVS)

<10–26.2

7/6

0/7/0

(3C)

<1–<3

7/7

0/7/0

(TVS)

5.8–21

5/0

0/5/0

(T II)

<.1–<.2

7/7

0/7/0

(3C)

<1–<5

7/7

0/7/0

(3C)

East Moody Cyn

(2001)

-- --

28.5

1/0

1/1/1

(3C)

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Harris Wash

(1998–2002)

7.17–8.8

3/0

0/3/0

(3C)

7.3–8.4

4/0

0/4/0

(2B, 3C)

7.5–27.9

5/0

1/5/1

(3C)

<.02–.162

3/1

1/3/1

(2B)

<30

2/2

0/2/0

(3C)

85.4–170

4/0

4/4/2

(T II)

<1–<12

2/2

0/2/0

(TVS)

<10–33.5

4/1

0/4/0

(3C)

<1–<3

2/2

0/2/0

(TVS)

92

1/0

0/1/0

(T II)

<.1–<.2

2/2

0/2/0

(3C)

<1–<5

2/2

0/2/0

(3C)

Silver Falls Cr

(2001)

-- --

28

1/0

1/1/1

(3C)

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

The Gulch

(1980–2003)

5.1–12.5

93/0

0/59/0

(3C)

7–9.2

102/0

0/64/0

(2B, 3C)

0–33

96/0

3/60/1

(3C)

<.02–2.5

84/17

15/47/1

(2B)

<30–850

21/15

1/21/1

(3C)

110–280

31/0

31/31/4

(T II)

<1–<12

24/24

0/24/0

(TVS)

<10–344

28/8

0/28/0

(3C)

<1–<3

24/24

0/24/0

(TVS)

9.4–91.6

30/0

0/30/0

(T II)

<.1–<.2

24/24

0/24/0

(3C)

<1–2.6

24/22

0/24/0

(3C)

Tributaries to Lake Powell

Croton Canyon

(1998–2001)

3.3–11.8

14/0

2/14/1

(3B)

7.5–8.2

16/0

0/16/0

(2B, 3B)

6.3–28.6

15/0

3/15/1

(3B)

<.02–.084

11/1

2/11/1

(2B, 3B)

<30–860

10/8

1/10/1

(3B)

24–120

14/0

14/14/1

(T II)

<1–<12

10/10

0/10/0

(TVS)

<10–1,550

13/4

1/13/1

(3B)

<1–11.1

10/9

1/10/1

(TVS)

32–1,400

14/0

12/14/1

(T II)

<.1–<.2

10/10

0/10/0

(3B)

1–16.4

14/0

2/14/1

(3B)

Last Chance Cr

(1981–2003)

6.2–10.2

18/0

0/18/0

(3B)

7.7–8.7

44/0

0/38/0

(2B, 3B)

6–32

25/0

6/19/1

(3B)

<.02–.289

20/11

3/20/1

(2B, 3B)

<30–830

15/11

3/15/2

(3B)

25.9–147

20/0

20/20/2

(T II)

<1–265

14/13

1/14/1

(TVS)

<10–1,670

24/8

1/18/1

(3B)

<1–20.7

14/13

1/14/1

(TVS)

11–490

26/0

13/20/2

(T II)

<.1–<.2

14/14

0/14/0

(3B)

<1–10.3

20/3

1/20/1

(3B)

Little Valley W.

(to Croton Cyn)

(1998–2001)

4.5–11.4

17/0

1/17/1

(3B)

7.4–8.8

18/0

0/18/0

(2B, 3B)

5.5–26.7

18/0

1/18/1

(3B)

<.02–.109

17/5

7/17/1

(2B, 3B)

<30–700

16/10

4/16/1

(3B)

5.2–160

16/0

16/16/1

(T II)

<12–15

16/13

0/16/0

(TVS)

<10–1,520

17/4

2/17/1

(3B)

<1–<3

16/16

0/16/0

(TVS)

7.2–600

18/0

6/18/1

(T II)

<.1–<.2

16/16

0/16/0

(3B)

<5–8.5

18

4/18/1

(3B)
80 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 21. Statistical summary of water-quality data and aquatic-life or secondary-contact recreation exceedances for evaluated 

tributaries that flow into the Escalante River or Lake Powell, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Utah, 1979 to 2003. —Continued

[min., minimum; chr, chronic; Cr, creek; Cyn, canyon; deg C, degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter; P, phosphorus; POR, period of record; SU, standard 

units; T II, Tier II criteria; TVS, computed table value standard applicable to aquatic-life uses; W, wash; mg/L, micrograms per liter; 2B, secondary-contact 

recreation (Utah); 3B, aquatic-life warm (Utah); 3C, aquatic-life support (Utah); 30 dav, 30-day average; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR; --, 

no data or not applicable]

Stream 

or wash

(complete 

period of 

record)

Water bodies 

labeled in 

figure 13

Field properties Nutrients Trace elements (filtered, μg/L)

Dissolved oxygen, min. (mg/L)

pH, high (SU)

Water temperature (deg C)

Total phosphorus, 

unfiltered 

(mg/L as P)

Aluminum

Barium

Copper

Iron

Lead

Manganese

Mercury

Selenium

Minimum value–Maximum value over complete POR, 

No. of analyses / No. of censored values (over complete POR)

No. of exceedances / No. of analyses / No. of sites with exceedances (from recent POR, 1988 to 2003) 

(Usecodes)a

(Zero values recensored to applicable censoring level where able)

Water-quality standard (by usecode)

5.5 (3B)

5 (3C)

30 dav

9 (2B, 3B, 

3C)

27

(3B, 3C)

0.05

(2B, 3B)

87 (3B, 

3C, chr) 4 (T II) 37.11(b)(TVS, chr) 1,000 (3B) 10.94(b)(TVS, chr)

120

(T II)

0.012 

(3B, 3C, 

chr)

5

(3B, chr)

Tributaries to Lake Powell—Continued

North Wash

(1997–1998)

7.21–11.4

16/0

0/16/0

(3B)

8.1–8.8

16/0

0/16/0

(2B, 3B)

3.96–27.7

16/0

2/16/1

(3B)

<0.02–0.02

10/8

0/10/0

(2B, 3B)

<30

5/5

0/5/0

(3B)

110–130

5/0

5/5/2

(T II)

<1–<10

5/5

0/5/0

(TVS)

<3–<10

5/5

0/5/0

(3B)

<1

5/5

0/5/0

(TVS)

5.6–29

5/0

0/5/0

(T II)

<0.1

5/5

0/5/0

(3B)

1.2–1.5

5/0

0/5/0

(3B)

Tibbet Canyon 

(to Warm Cr)

(1998–2002)

1.9–9.1

4/0

3/4/1

(3B)

7.2–9.4

5/0

1/5/1

(2B, 3B)

27.6–32.2

4/0

4/4/1

(3B)

.027–.069

4/0

2/4/1

(2B, 3B)

63–1,100

3/0

1/3/1

(3B)

22–55.7

4/0

4/4/1

(T II)

<1–<12

3/3

0/3/0

(TVS)

33.1–1,530

3/0

1/3/1

(3B)

<1–<3

3/3

0/3/0

(TVS)

7.6–35.4

3/0

0/3/0

(T II)

<.1–<.2

3/3

0/3/0

(3B)

<5–1.6

3/1

0/3/0

(3B)

Trachyte Creek

(1987–1998)

6.2–13

17/0

0/16/0

(3B)

7.8–10

17/0

1/16/1

(2B, 3B)

4.68–27

17/0

0/16/0

(3B)

<.02–.78

14/3

6/13/1

(2B, 3B)

<30–57

3/2

0/3/0

(3B)

15–66

5/0

5/5/1

(T II)

<1–<10

5/5

0/5/0

(TVS)

<3–50

5/2

0/5/0

(3B)

<1–<10

5/5

0/5/0

(TVS)

11–160

3/0

1/3/1

(T II)

<.1

5/5

0/5/0

(3B)

<1–4.9

5/2

0/5/0

(3B)

Wahweap Creek

(1998–2003)

5.3–11.3

35/0

1/35/1

(3B)

7.4–9

57/0

0/57/0

(2B, 3B)

1.2–32.1

38/0

8/38/1

(3B)

<.02–2.75

40/20

9/40/1

(2B, 3B)

<30–740

15/9

4/15/1

(3B)

22.2–180

19/0

19/19/1

(T II)

<1–508

14/11

1/14/1

(TVS)

<10–1,340

16/7

1/16/1

(3B)

<1–68

13/11

1/13/1

(TVS)

<.5–1,190

19/1

11/19/1

(T II)

<.1–.264

13/12

1/13/1

(3B)

<1–5.13

19/2

1/19/1

(3B)

Wesses Canyon 

(to Warm Cr)

(1998–2002)

4.7–9.2

4/0

2/4/1

(3B)

7.9–8.29

5/0

0/5/0

(2B, 3B)

21.2–21.7

4/0

0/4/0

(3B)

<.02–.072

4/1

1/4/1

(2B, 3B)

<30–38

3/2

0/3/0

(3B)

40–56.8

4/0

4/4/1

(T II)

<1–<12

3/3

0/3/0

(TVS)

<10–177

4/2

0/4/0

(3B)

<1–<3

3/3

0/3/0

(TVS)

7.5–249

4/0

1/4/1

(T II)

<.1–<.2

3/3

0/3/0

(3B)

<1–<5

3/3

0/3/0

(3B)

White Canyon 

Creek

(1979–1997)

7.1–9.5

6/0

0/3/0

(3B)

8–8.7

6/0

0/3/0

(2B, 3B)

15–24.8

6/0

0/3/0

(3B)

<.02–.85

3/1c

--

(2B, 3B)

160

1/0

1/1/1

(3B)

120–170

2/0

2/2/2

(T II)

<2–15

3/2

0/1/0

(TVS)

<10–60.4

3/2

0/1/0

(3B)

<1–<2

3/3

0/1/0

(TVS)

--

<.1

1/1

0/1/0

(3B)

<1

3/3

0/1/0

(3B)

a

 State standards and designated beneficial uses from the State of Utah Department of Environmental Quality (Utah Department of Environmental Quality, 

2005). Selected Federal criteria are used when State standards are not established, including the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions 

II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002), the National Ambient Water Quality criteria (NAWQ), or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter 

and Tsao, 1996). 

b

 TVS values are the same for these sites because measured hardness exceeded 400 mg/L as CaCO3 for each of these sites. This is the maximum value used for 

TVS calculations. 

c

 All data collected before 1988. 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 81

not summarized as part of the standards exceedance analysis, 

exceeded this standard in all three rivers. Two of the evaluated 

tributaries, Tibbet Canyon and Trachyte Creek, each exceeded 

the aquatic-life warm and secondary-contact recreation standard of 9 SU for one value out of 21 measurements. 

Specific-conductance measurements were high in the 

Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers (maximum values 

ranging from 4,350 to 5,270 μS/cm); however, no standards 

exist in Utah or Arizona for SC. Generally, SC values were 

lower in the Escalante River (median value 685 μS/cm) than 

in the Dirty Devil or Paria Rivers, which had median values of 

1,800 and 1,320 μS/cm, respectively. 

Turbidity values were high in measurements from all 

three perennial rivers and exceeded the Utah and Arizona 

standards, which ranged from 10 to 50 NTU, numerous times. 

The maximum turbidity values ranged from 8,390 (Dirty Devil 

River) to 18,420 (Escalante River), to a high of 54,380 NTU 

(Paria River), though the median values indicate that generally 

the Escalante River had the lowest turbidity of the three rivers. 

Elevated turbidity values can result from erosion, stream 

channel downcutting, and other sources that can increase 

suspended solids. Higher turbidity levels corresponded to 

higher discharge for these rivers. 

Measurements of water temperature exceeded the Utah 

standard for aquatic-life support (27oC) between 1 and 17 

times in all three rivers at five sites (sites 3014, 3651, 3816, 

3818, and 3958). The aquatic-life cold-water standard of 

20oC was exceeded 29 times in the Escalante River at three 

sites (sites 3653, 3882, and 3901). Upstream from the park, 

the Escalante River from Boulder Creek confluence to the 

North Creek confluence was listed in the Utah 2002 303(d) 

list for exceeding the cold-water fishery temperature criteria; 

however, the Escalante River Watershed Water-Quality 

Management Plan suggested that historical water-quality data 

had not been collected to target the maximum daily water 

temperature or the critical season and that new data, collected 

in 2003, was to be used for the TMDL analysis (Millennium 

Science & Engineering, Inc., 2005). Maximum water 

temperature values ranged from 30 to 39oC and were generally 

higher in the Paria River (median temperature of 16oC) than 

the other two rivers (median temperatures between 10.5 and 

11.5oC). Water temperature standards for aquatic-life 

warm-water or aquatic-life support were exceeded between 

one and eight times in measurements made in all but three 

of the evaluated tributaries, and maximum values ranged 

from 26.7 to 34.5oC. Water temperature and DO are 

inversely related; as temperatures rise in these rivers, the DO 

concentrations fall. 

Major Ions

The predominant geologic formation in the area of the 

Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers is the Glen Canyon 

Group (including the Navajo Sandstone, Kayenta Formation, 

and Wingate Sandstone). Within the Glen Canyon Group, 

mineral content varies and can result in variable water-type 

characterization. Water samples from the Paria and Dirty Devil 

Rivers are similar in major ion content and can be described 

as a calcium and sulfate water type with some magnesium, 

sodium, and chloride (fig. 16). Water samples from the 

Escalante River are a calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate 

water type with some sulfate and chloride. Anion data from 

the 14 evaluated tributaries were insufficient to identify the 

water type. 

Nutrients

Samples analyzed for nutrients, including ammonia 

(unfiltered and un-ionized), nitrate (unfiltered and filtered), 

total nitrogen (unfiltered), orthophosphorus, and total 

phosphorus (unfiltered), were collected between 1 and 203 

times from 24 sites in the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria 

Rivers. No recent data exceeded the chronic aquatic-life 

standards for unfiltered ammonia in Utah based on available 

water temperature, pH, and unfiltered ammonia values, though 

much of the data lacked one or more of these values. No 

unfiltered ammonia data were available for the Arizona section 

of the Paria River. Nitrate concentrations did not exceed the 

applicable Utah or Arizona standards in the recent or historical 

data. Othophosphorus is not regulated in Utah or Arizona, 

and values are substantially less than the total phosphorus 

concentrations. Concentrations of total nitrogen and total 

phosphorus were elevated. 

The USEPA-recommended nutrient criterion of 

0.38 mg/L for total nitrogen in rivers and streams in Ecoregion 

III, which includes GLCA, was exceeded (since 1988) five 

times in analyses of samples from site 3882 in the Escalante 

River (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002). 

However, the median total nitrogen values for the Dirty 

Devil and Paria Rivers also exceeded this criterion based on 

all 70 and 43 historical analyses of samples, respectively. 

The highest historical values measured in these three rivers 

(all over 10 mg/L) were in analyses of samples collected in 

1977, 1984, and 1985. Of the 14 evaluated tributaries, one 

value from The Gulch (0.436 mg/L, site 3868) and one value 

from Trachyte Creek (0.614 mg/L, site 3903) exceeded the 

0.38-mg/L recommended level. Currently (2007), Utah and 

Arizona have no water-quality standard for total nitrogen. 

Utah’s secondary-contact recreation stream standard for 

total phosphorus (unfiltered) of 0.05 mg/L was exceeded in 

analyses of samples from all three rivers between 2 and 97 

times at nine sites (sites 3888, 3014, 3755, 3882, 3901, 3816, 

3817, 3818, and 3958). The Paria River had the most frequent 

exceedances; 97 out of 140 values (69 percent) exceeded 

this criterion. Only three analyses of samples (of which two 

exceeded the standard) collected from the Dirty Devil River 

since 1988 were available for exceedance analysis. Ten of 

the 14 evaluated tributaries indicate one or more total phosphorus (unfiltered) exceedances (48 exceedances total) out 

of 204 analyses of samples (table 21). The Gulch and Wahweap Creek had the largest number of exceedances (15 and 9 
82 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

exceedances, respectively). Currently (2007), Arizona has no 

water-quality standard for total phosphorus. 

Elevated nutrient concentrations, particularly total 

nitrogen and phosphorus, could be the result of grazing 

activities in the riparian areas, atmospheric deposition 

(nitrogen), agricultural runoff in the upland areas, soil erosion, 

weathering of nitrogen- or phosphorus-rich bedrock materials, 

and residential development along riparian areas upstream 

from the park contributing septic or wastewater to the rivers 

(Holloway and Dahlgren, 2002; Gardner, 1990; Chapman, 

1998; Paerl, 1997). Elevated nutrient levels may lead to 

eutrophication in the rivers or receiving waters (for example, 

Lake Powell) resulting in reduced water clarity and dissolved 

oxygen concentrations, species composition changes, and 

potentially harmful algal blooms (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2001; Galloway and others, 2003). 

Trace Elements

Current (2007) Utah and Arizona water-quality criteria for (chronic) aquatic life or full-body contact were used 

to evaluate recent trace-element data for the Dirty Devil, 

Escalante, and Paria Rivers for 16 trace elements (table 20). 

Additionally, results for analyses of barium and manganese 

in samples collected in Utah were evaluated using the Federal 

Tier II criteria as no aquatic-life or recreational-contact standards are established for these constituents in Utah. 

For the trace element concentrations evaluated using 

the Utah State standards, one or more exceedances in 

the Escalante or Paria Rivers were identified for filtered 

aluminum, cadmium, copper, iron, lead, mercury, selenium, 

and zinc. No trace-element exceedances of Utah State 

standards were identified in the Dirty Devil River based on 

analysis of recent (since 1988) data; however, there were only 

two sites on the Dirty Devil River with hardness data available 

for TVS computations, and of these, analyses of only three 

samples were available for standard exceedance analysis. Of 

the 14 evaluated tributaries, 7 had one or more exceedance of 

the Utah State standards for unfiltered aluminum, copper, iron, 

lead, mercury, or selenium (table 21). 

Thirteen (5 on the Escalante River from sites 3014 and 

3901, and 8 on the Paria River from sites 3816 and 3958) 

out of 95 recent analyses of samples for filtered aluminum 

exceeded the Utah chronic aquatic-life 87-μg/L standard 

with elevated concentrations ranging from 160 to 7,200 μg/L 

Calcium Chloride, Fluoride, and Nitrate

Magnesium

Sulfate

PERCENT

PERCENT

Sodium plus Potassium

Calcium plus Magnesium

Sulfate plus Chloride

Bicarbonate

EXPLANATION

Dirty Devil River

Escalante River

Paria River

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Figure 16. Water types of the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers, Glen Canyon 

National Recreation Area, Arizona and Utah, 1947 to 2003.
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 83

(table 20). Additionally, two concentrations on the Escalante 

River, measured at 7,200 and 2,700 μg/L in September 1999 

and February 2000, respectively, and four concentrations on 

the Paria River ranging from 1,840 to 3,600 μg/L, measured 

in August or September 1998 or February 2003, exceeded the 

higher acute standard of 750 μg/L. Seven of the 14 evaluated 

tributaries had between one and four aluminum exceedances 

and analyses of samples from four of these sites also exceeded 

the higher acute standard. Exceedances from the evaluated 

tributaries ranged in concentration from 94 to 1,100 μg/L. 

Aluminum can pass through standard 0.45-μm pore filters in 

colloidal form, which could result in misleadingly high filtered 

aluminum concentrations (Hem, 1989; Sposito, 1996). 

For the trace element data evaluated using the Arizona 

State standards, analyses of samples from the Paria River 

exceeded the filtered beryllium aquatic and wildlife 

warm-water standard of 5.3 μg/L six times (from sites 3725, 

3726, 3727, and 3728) out of 70 samples. These six values 

ranged from 5.8 to 38.4 μg/L. 

Filtered cadmium exceeded the Utah calculated sitespecific TVS of 1.8 μg/L, based on an average hardness value 

of 217 mg/L and a maximum concentration of 3.1 μg/L, in 

one analysis from 47 samples collected from site 3014 on the 

Escalante River. There are many sources of cadmium in the 

environment, including atmospheric from volatilization of 

cadmium through fossil fuel combustion and metallurgical 

processing (Hem, 1989). 

The Escalante River had one exceedance (out of 47 

analyses of samples) from site 3014 and the Paria River had 

two exceedances, one exceedance each (out of 40 analyses of 

samples) from sites 3816 and 3958, of their filtered copper 

TVS of 22 and 37.1 μg/L, respectively. Copper was exceeded 

twice in analyses of samples from the evaluated tributaries: 

once in Last Chance Creek with a value of 265 μg/L and a 

TVS of 37.1 μg/L and once in Wahweap Creek with a value 

of 508 μg/L and a TVS of 37.1 μg/L, based on a hardness of 

400 mg/L. 

Filtered iron concentrations exceeded the 1,000-μg/L 

aquatic-life cold-water and aquatic-life support standards 

twice from site 3014 (out of 19 analyses of samples) in the 

Escalante River and six times from sites 3816 and 3958 (out of 

47 analyses of samples) in the Paria River. These exceedance 

concentrations ranged from 1,220 to 13,300 μg/L; no relation 

existed between these elevated values and flow. Iron was 

exceeded once each in samples from 4 of the 14 evaluated 

tributaries (Croton Canyon, Last Chance Creek, Tibbet 

Canyon, and Wahweap Creek) and twice in samples from 

Little Valley Wash (table 21). Exceedance concentrations in 

the tributaries ranged from 1,010 to 1,670 μg/L. 

Filtered lead concentrations exceeded the TVS of 

5.8 μg/L twice out of 47 analyses of samples from the 

Escalante River (from site 3014) and the TVS of 10.9 μg/L 

three times out of 40 analyses of samples collected from the 

Paria River (from sites 3816 and 3958). Samples from the 

Paria River exceeded the computed acute TVS of 281 μg/L 

with one measured value of 574 μg/L. For the evaluated 

tributaries, analyses of samples from Croton Canyon, Last 

Chance Creek, and Wahweap Creek each had one exceedance 

of their computed chronic TVS (10.94 μg/L for all three) for 

filtered lead. 

One exceedance of the filtered mercury standard of 

0.012 μg/L in the Escalante River from site 3882 (out of 31 

analyses of samples) and one in Wahweap Creek from site 

3956 (out of 13 analyses of samples) occurred in the data 

collected since 1988; these exceedance concentrations were 

0.200 and 0.264 μg/L, respectively. Filtered mercury was not 

detected in the Dirty Devil River (out of 4 analyses of samples) or in the Paria River (out of 52 analyses of samples). 

One exceedance of the filtered selenium standard 

occurred from site 3816 in the Paria River (out of 67 recent 

analyses of samples); the value was 5.1 μg/L, which is only 

slightly higher than the Utah chronic standard of 5 μg/L. 

For the Paria River sites in Arizona, a chronic standard for 

unfiltered recoverable selenium applies to aquatic warm-water 

(2 μg/L), full-body contact (7,000 μg/L), and fish consumption (9,000 μg/L) uses; however, no recent data (since 1998) 

exist for unfiltered or unfiltered recoverable selenium analyzed 

in samples collected from these sites. There are no unfiltered 

recoverable selenium data from the Arizona section of the 

Paria River. However, 35 filtered selenium values ranging 

from 6 to 279.4 μg/L (out of 70 samples collected since 1988) 

from the Arizona section of the Paria River exceeded the 

2-μg/L Arizona standard for unfiltered recoverable selenium 

for an aquatic warm-water fishery indicating elevated selenium 

concentrations in this section of the Paria River (not shown in 

table 20). In the 14 evaluated tributaries, eight exceedances 

in four water bodies that all flow into Lake Powell (Croton 

Canyon, Last Chance Creek, Little Valley Wash, and Wahweap Creek) were identified with exceedance concentrations 

ranging from 5.13 to 16.4 μg/L. Croton Canyon also had the 

two highest measured concentrations of unfiltered selenium. 

In the Paria River, one value from the analyses of 42 

samples collected since 1988 for filtered zinc exceeded the 

TVS of 338 μg/L from site 3958 with a value of 14,300 μg/L; 

however, the median filtered zinc concentration for the Paria 

(based on 175 analyses of samples) is 7.29 μg/L, which is 

lower than the calculated standard. None of the 14 tributaries 

evaluated had zinc exceedances. 

For detected trace elements without Utah or Arizona 

(Paria River only) numeric aquatic-life standards or TVS, the 

concentrations were compared to the chronic NAWQ criteria 

or the secondary chronic Tier II values, as presented by Suter 

and Tsao (1996), as toxicological benchmarks useful for 

screening constituents for aquatic effects. Concentrations of 

filtered barium, manganese, and strontium were evaluated 

using this approach. Recent analyses of samples for barium 

and manganese had concentrations greater than the applicable 

Tier II values and were identified as constituents of possible 

ecological concern (tables 20 and 21). Barium exceeded the 

Tier II criterion of 4 μg/L in all recent analyses of samples 

collected from the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers, 

in three of the five evaluated tributaries flowing into the 
84 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Escalante River, and in all nine of the evaluated tributaries 

flowing into Lake Powell. Concentrations of manganese 

exceeded the Tier II criterion of 120 μg/L between two and 

six times in analyses of recent samples collected from the 

Escalante and Paria Rivers and from six of the nine evaluated 

tributaries that flow into Lake Powell. 

Organic, Pesticide, and Wastewater Compounds

Sampling for analyses of organic and wastewater compounds was limited in the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria 

Rivers. Before 1980, the surfactant methylene blue active 

substance was the only wastewater compound analyzed in 

samples from the Dirty Devil River, and results ranged from 

nondetect to 0.03 μg/L. Two additional water samples were 

analyzed in 1983 in the Dirty Devil and one in 1979 in the 

Paria River; both of these were nondetect. Oil and grease in 

unfiltered water samples were analyzed in 1980, 1983, and 

1984 in the Dirty Devil River with results ranging from 0.2 to 

4 μg/L and once in 1983 in the Escalante River with a result of 

8 μg/L. 

Eighteen water samples were collected and analyzed for 

one or more pesticides (more than 100 total pesticide compounds) between 1985 and 1987 from the Dirty Devil and 

Paria Rivers and from 1985 to 1991 and in 2002 from the 

Escalante River. Most of these results were nondetect. Three 

analyses of samples from the Escalante River and two from 

the Paria River had pesticide concentrations measured above 

the censoring level for one or more compounds (15 total 

compounds identified). The compounds with values above 

censoring levels are listed in table 22. No sediment or fishtissue samples were collected and analyzed concurrently with 

these water samples. 

Radiological Constituents

Few data for radionuclides are available and were 

collected from 1975 through 1991 from the Dirty Devil, 

Escalante, and Paria Rivers. Samples from all three perennial 

rivers were analyzed for alpha and beta radioactivity, 

radium-226, and tritium between 2 and 20 times (table 20). 

No exceedances were identified in the data collected since 

1988 for alpha and beta radioactivity, which have standards 

of 15 and 50 pCi/L, respectively, in Utah; however, historical 

values measured prior to 1988 in samples from the Dirty Devil 

and the Paria Rivers exceeded these standards. Radiological 

constituents were not analyzed in samples from the 14 

evaluated tributaries. Historical elevated concentrations could 

be the result of naturally occurring radionuclides from the area 

geology or from atmospheric deposition. 

Summary of Surface-Water Characterization and 

Considerations for Monitoring

Historical and recently collected water-quality data from 

the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers flowing in and 

through GLCA were evaluated and summarized according to 

data availability and compared to Utah and Arizona (selected 

sections of the Paria River only) numeric aquatic-life or 

recreation standards. 

Very few data collected before 1973 are available and 

most of these data are for one site on the Escalante River. A 

noticeable decline in water-quality data-collection activities 

occurred from 1983 through 1996, after which time datacollection activities increased. Data for concentrations of 

radiological constituents and organic compounds are few 

and dated. Generally, water-quality data are lacking for 

tributaries to the perennial rivers in GLCA and for ephemeral 

or intermittent tributaries and washes flowing directly into 

Lake Powell. Future monitoring plans would benefit from 

addressing these data gaps. 

During the recent period of record for the three rivers, 

frequent exceedances of water-quality standards or criteria by 

values of field properties and nutrient concentrations (greater 

than 25 percent) include low DO in the Arizona section of the 

Paria River, high turbidity in all three rivers, elevated unfiltered phosphorus in all three rivers, and elevated unfiltered 

nitrogen in the Escalante River. Low DO also was measured 

in the Escalante River 5 percent of the time during the recent 

period of record. Water temperature measurements in the 

Escalante and Paria Rivers exceeded selected beneficial use 

criteria 19 and 15 percent of the time, respectively, during 

the recent period of record. During this time, from measurements made in the 14 evaluated tributaries, DO standards were 

exceeded between one and three times in Croton Canyon, 

Little Valley Wash, Tibbet Canyon, Wahweap Creek, and 

Wesses Canyon; pH standards were exceeded once each in 

Tibbet Canyon and Trachyte Creek; and water temperature 

standards were exceeded between one and eight times in all 

but three of the evaluated tributaries. The standard for unfiltered phosphorus was exceeded between 6 and 15 times in 

The Gulch, Little Valley Wash, Trachyte Creek, and Wahweap 

Creek and between 1 and 3 times in Coyote Gulch, Harris 

Wash, Croton Canyon, Last Chance Creek, Tibbet Canyon, 

and Wesses Canyon. 

During the recent period of record for the three rivers, 

filtered trace elements with five or more exceedances include 

aluminum in the Paria River (Utah section), barium in the 

Escalante and Paria Rivers, beryllium in the Paria River 

(Arizona section), iron in the Paria River (Utah section), and 

manganese in the Paria River (Utah section). Historical and 

recent data for filtered selenium in the Paria River indicate 

elevated concentrations. During the recent period of record, 

one to eight filtered trace-element concentrations exceeded 

their standard in analyses of samples collected from 12 of the 

14 evaluated tributaries. 

Natural geologic processes and multiple anthropogenic 

factors may contribute to elevated concentrations of selected 

constituents in GLCA waters. Erosion can result in high levels 

of solids and sediment that can lead to elevated turbidity, 

which can in turn result in increased water temperatures, 

increased concentrations of phosphorus and selected trace 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 85

Table 22. Pesticide compounds with values above censoring levels from samples collected in 

1985, 1986, and 2002 in the Escalante and Paria Rivers, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, 

Arizona and Utah.

[μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, no data]

Detected pesticide compound (common name)

(unfiltered recoverable unless otherwise indicated)

Range of detections, μg/L 

Escalante 

River

Paria 

River

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4–D) 1 1

alpha-Endosulfan .014 .014

Aldrin .004 .004

Chlordane, technical .014 .014

N,N-diethyl-M-toluamide (DEET), filtered, recoverable 2.9 --

Diazinon .6 .6

Dieldrin .002 .002

Endrin .006 .006

Heptachlor epoxide -- .083

Heptachlor .003 .003

o,p ́-DDD (DDT metabolite) .011 .011

o,p ́-DDE (DDT metabolite) .004–.01 .004–.015

o,p ́-DDT (DDT metabolite) .012 .012

Silvex .1 .1

Toxaphene .24 .24

elements, and reduced DO concentrations. Routine monitoring 

would provide a more complete documentation of the 

natural background levels of these various water-quality 

measurements and constituents and would aid the park in 

focusing water-quality management decisions on the most 

relevant and controllable issues. 

Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado

Mesa Verde National Park (MEVE) is in southwestern Colorado (fig. 17) and was established in 1906 for the 

preservation of the archeological and other Anasazi cultural 

resources. The park encompasses much of a prominent mesa 

(or cuesta) with a steep, highly eroded escarpment at the 

northern end of the park. Multiple north-south-trending, gently 

sloping, flat-topped ridges separated by rugged canyons drop 

from the escarpment to the Mancos River to form numerous 

ephemeral drainages. 

Precipitation in MEVE typically falls as snow in the 

winter months and as thundershowers in the summer monsoonal period. Climate station 055531 is approximately 7 mi 

southeast of the park at an elevation of 7,110 ft (fig. 17). Mean 

annual precipitation is 17.8 inches (1948–2006). August is 

the wettest month (2 inches) and June is the driest (0.6 inch). 

Average snowfall is 80 inches and the greatest snowfall is 

typically in January (20 inches). Average monthly temperatures (1948–2006) ranged from 18.5oF in January to 86.3oF in 

July, with an average annual temperature of 49.3oF, and daily 

extremes ranging from –20oF, on January 13, 1963, to 100oF, 

on July 13, 1971 (Western Regional Climate Center, 2006). 

Geology

Bedrock in MEVE is composed of Late Cretaceous 

sandstones and shales. The oldest unit is the Dakota 

Sandstone, which is porous and permeable, providing potential 

as a productive formation for oil and gas exploration (Griffitts, 

1990; Baars, 2000). The Dakota is overlain by the Mancos 

Shale, which crops out along the northern and northeastern 

boundaries of the park. Water derived from the Mancos 

Shale typically contains naturally elevated concentrations of 

salts, selenium, and sulfate (Colorado Department of Public 

Health and Environment, 2002b; Carroll and others, 1998). 

Next youngest is the Point Lookout Sandstone, which is one 

of three formations associated with the Mesaverde Group. 

The Point Lookout Sandstone forms the sandstone caprock 

in Morefield Canyon (fig. 17; Griffitts, 1990). The Point 

Lookout Sandstone is an important natural gas reservoir and 

producer (Carroll and others, 1998). The second member of 

the Mesaverde Group, the Menefee Formation, is composed 
86 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

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School Section Canyon

Prater Canyon

Mud Creek

Chicken Creek

Mancos River

Mancos River

McElmo Creek

Aqueduct

Rock Canyon

Johnson Canyon

Lewis Creek

Soda Canyon

Long Canyon Navajo Canyon

Waters Canyon

Whites Canyon

Weaver Canyon

Weber Canyon

Morefield Canyon

2186

U.S. Highway 160

Mesa Verde 

National Park

COLORADO

UTAH

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ARIZONA

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Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data;

surface water and lakes, ponds, and reservoirs,

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Cortez

Mancos

2189

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108°30' 108°20'

37°10'

37°20'

EXPLANATION

Selected water-quality sampling sites

Springs (includes seeps)

Surface water (Mancos River)

Sewage lagoons

U.S. Highway 160

Main park roads

Surface water

Perennial streams

Intermittent streams

Canals, pipelines, ditches

Lakes, ponds, and reservoirs

Mesa Verde National Park Climate station (055531)

Sampling site number

Streamflow-gaging station 

(371508108212801)

0 21⁄2 5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

Location map

4645

4449

4448

4512

4541

4445

4539 4538

4444

4443

4442 5592

4537

4440

4439

4438

4437

4436

4435

4434

4510

4433

4432

4508

4431

4430

4429

4428

5593

4425

4424

4423

4422

4421

4420

4417

4416

4415

4523

4522

2220

2213

2203

2202

5589

1384

2189

2093

2092

2091

4516

4419

4418

055531

371508108212801

Figure 17. Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, and locations of water-quality sampling sites.
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 87

primarily of easily eroded, gray to brown, carbonaceous shale 

and sandstone (Baars, 2000). Economically recoverable coal 

and coal-bed methane resources have been identified in the 

Menefee Formation (Haines, 2003). The youngest sandstone 

in the park, the buff-orange Cliff House Formation, caps the 

mesa in the park (Griffitts, 1990). The Cliff House Sandstone 

is where the famous Anasazi cliff dwellings are in the park. 

The porous and permeable sandstones of the Mesaverde Group 

also are good source rocks for water (Baars, 2000). 

Water Resources

The Mancos River is a perennial stream that originates 

in the La Plata Mountains north of Mancos, Colorado, and 

flows for 4.7 mi along the eastern park boundary (fig. 17). A 

USGS streamflow-gaging station (station 09371000) has been 

operated on the Mancos River near Towaoc, Colorado, from 

October 1920 to September 1943 and from February 1951 to 

2007. This station is approximately 14 mi downstream from 

the park. Mean monthly streamflow, for water years 1921 to 

2006, was highest in May (171 ft3/s) and lowest in December 

and January (14 ft3/s). The highest annual mean streamflow 

was 138 ft3/s in 1973 and the lowest was 4.28 ft3/s in 1959. 

Average annual runoff, based on 78 years of record, was 

1.3 inches in the 526-mi2 drainage basin (U.S. Geological 

Survey, 2001). Since August 2000, the NPS in cooperation 

with the USGS has been operating a streamflow-gaging station 

on the Mancos River in MEVE (station 371508108212801; 

fig. 17). Typical annual hydrographs for canyons in the 

Mancos River Basin show flashy responses to summer 

monsoons and snowmelt-driven peaks in midspring. 

The Mancos River supports warm-water aquatic life and 

primary and secondary-contact recreational use downstream 

from U.S. Highway 160 along the eastern boundary of the 

park, to the Colorado-New Mexico border (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2005). The Mancos River in the area of 

the park supported native fish species (blue head sucker, flannelmouth sucker, speckled dace, and roundtail chub), but these 

species have disappeared due to drought and associated severe 

fires in 1996 and 2000 (Thomas and others, 2006). 

Water-quality issues for the Mancos River, as identified in 

the I&M Phase II Report (Thomas and others, 2006), include 

nutrient and bacterial contamination from trespass grazing in 

the Mancos River riparian corridor and from sewage-treatment 

facilities within and upstream from the park. Insecticide and 

algicide applications, including aerial mosquito control with 

Malathion applied directly to lakes and rivers in the area, pesticide applications from surrounding agricultural activities, and 

herbicide (for example, Tordon) use within the park to control 

invasive exotic species such as tamarisk and musk thistle, 

are a water-quality concern. Runoff of silt from neighboring gravel pits, streets, unpaved roads, and construction sites 

along with runoff from development along the Mancos River 

corridor upstream from the park is a concern. Metals contamination from mining and ore processing in areas adjacent to 

and upstream from the park and potential contamination from 

natural-gas lines crossing the Mancos River upstream from 

the park are concerns. Fire has been an important factor in and 

surrounding the park. The most recent fire occurred in 2000, 

and an accidental drop of fire retardant containing cyanide 

in the Mancos River resulted in a 7-mi-long fish and invertebrate kill. Sporadic runoff events of water laden with ash and 

silt have inundated the riverbed within and downstream from 

the park following the fire (Marilyn Colyer, National Park 

Service, written commun., February 2005). Drought has been 

a persistent and intermittently severe environmental condition 

in this arid region and has, in some years, resulted in sections 

of the Mancos River entirely drying up. Recent macroinvertebrate sampling in the Mancos River in MEVE shows severely 

reduced macroinvertebrate and fish populations of limited 

diversity, but no cause for this condition has been identified (Stephen Monroe, National Park Service, oral commun., 

October 2006). Additionally, the Mancos River and tributaries, upstream from U.S. Highway 160 and the park, are on 

the 2004 Colorado 303(d) list of impaired waters for elevated 

copper concentrations (Colorado Department of Public Health 

and Environment, 2004). 

Numerous springs are found throughout the park, 

discharging primarily from the exposed sandstone and shale 

formations of the Mesaverde Group. These springs, although 

typically very small, compose the critical water resources 

available to wildlife. Additional water sources in the park 

include pools, reservoirs, pits, and potholes, many of which 

are perennial and also serve as important sources of water 

for wildlife. Water-quality issues for the park’s springs, as 

identified in the I&M Phase II Report (Thomas and others, 

2006) include atmospheric pollutant deposition from coalfired powerplants and oil and gas development in the Four 

Corners area (Williams and Tonnessen, 2000; Barrows, 2003; 

San Juan Citizens Alliance, 2002), erosion and water-quality 

effects from large episodic forest fires (Floyd, Romme, and 

Hanna, 2000; Floyd and Salamacha, 2001; Gaug, 2001), 

and discharge from sewage lagoons in Soda, Morefield, and 

Navajo Canyons. 

Available Water-Quality Data

The data analyzed for MEVE in this report were 

collected by the USGS, NPS, USFS, CDPHE, and Colorado 

River Watch. Data are available for 57 sites within the park, 

including data for 37 springs, 1 stream site, 18 lakes (including 

reservoirs, ponds, or potholes), 2 diversions or canals, and 

3 sewage outfalls. Data for 237 sites were retrieved for the 

area surrounding the park, including data for 11 springs, 155 

stream sites (including sites from the Mancos River, McElmo 

Creek, and Dolores River), 9 diversions or canals, 46 groundwater sites, 14 lake sites (including reservoirs, ponds, or 

potholes), and 2 sewage outfalls. The following discussion 

focuses on selected sites on the Mancos River in the vicinity 

of the park and selected springs inside the park (fig. 17; 

table 23). Data from McElmo Creek and the Dolores River 
88 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 23. Mancos River and spring sites with water-quality data in, upstream from, and downstream from Mesa Verde National Park, 

Colorado, 1971 to 2002.

[APW, Ancestral Pueblo; DD, decimal degrees; HS, High School; JHS, Junior High School; no., number; *, sites located within park boundary; site names 

retained from original source database]

Site 

no.

Site name Latitude 

DD

Longitude 

DD

No. of 

samples Period of record

Mancos River sites

1384* Mancos River above Weber Canyon 37.2161 108.3403 1 1975

2091 Mancos River near Mancos, Co. 37.3572 108.2548 3 1975–2002

2092 Mancos River near Cortez, Co. 37.1078 108.4640 31 1976–1979

2093 Mancos River below Johnson Canyon near Cortez, Co. 37.0992 108.4662 44 1979–1982

2186 Mancos River above Grass Canyon 37.0614 108.5373 1 1975

2189 Mancos River above Soda Canyon 37.1256 108.4518 1 1975

2202 Mancos River above Canyon 37.2703 108.3609 1 1975

2203 Mancos River 1.2 Miles below Mud Creek 37.2800 108.3619 4 1994

2213 Mancos River at H Road, below Chicken Creek 37.3272 108.3289 5 1975–1994

2220 Mancos River below East and West Forks 37.3536 108.2611 16 1978–1994

4516 Mancos River at Mancos 37.3667 108.2667 122 1971–2001

4522 Mancos HS Greer Br Mancos HS 37.3270 108.3290 92 1994–1998

4523 Mancos JHS School Br Mancos JHS 37.3433 108.2928 63 1994–1997

4537 Mancos River 37.2814 108.3629 15 1986–1998

4538 Mancos River above Mancos Sewer Outlet 37.3418 108.3015 1 1995

4539 Mancos River below Mancos Sewer Outlet 37.3445 108.3014 1 1995

4541 Mancos River below Confluence with Mud Creek 37.2950 108.3658 1 1995

4645 Mancos River downstream of Mancos 37.3185 108.3336 1 1989

Spring sites

4415* Spruce Tree House Spring (Cliff Canyon) 37.1844 108.4874 15 1983–1998

4416* Rock Spring 37.2159 108.5452 1 1984

4417* Spring House Spring (Long Canyon) 37.1934 108.5221 2 1988

4418* Fewkes Canyon Spring (Cliff Canyon) 37.1646 108.4779 2 1983–1984

4419* Spring 155 Yards North of Sunset House (Cliff Canyon) 37.1674 108.4703 1 1994

4420* 150 Yards North of Sunset House (Cliff Canyon) 37.1672 108.4703 1 1994

4421* Long House Spring 37.1865 108.5352 12 1983–1998

4422* Wickiup Canyon Spring 37.2014 108.5211 1 1984

4423* Mid-Navajo Canyon Drainage Spring 37.2116 108.5120 1 1988

4424* Rock Canyon Spring 37.1628 108.5286 1 1989

4425* Soda Canyon Spring 37.2368 108.4960 2 1989–1992

4428* Balcony House Spring 37.1623 108.4636 3 1992–1995

4429* Spring in Back of Balcony House 37.1615 108.4634 1 1998

4430* Cattail Spring 37.2691 108.4152 2 1991–1998

4431* U.S. Highway 160 Spring near Park Entrance 37.3447 108.4153 13 1987–1998

4432* Soda Canyon Spring at APW Trail 37.1952 108.4772 2 1987–1992

4433* Big Hill Pipes 37.3071 108.4127 3 1984–1995

4434* School Section Canyon Springs 37.2725 108.4541 3 1987–1994

4435* Echo Cliffs Drainage Spring 37.1664 108.4965 2 1991

4436* Rock Springs near Roadcut 37.2079 108.5429 2 1986–1987

4437* Long Canyon Drainage 37.1972 108.5289 1 1990

4438* Wickiup Slump Pothole 37.1800 108.5023 1 1987

4439* Morefield Ridge Road Spring 37.2458 108.4032 1 1987

4440* Prater Canyon Drainage Spring 37.2871 108.4286 1 1987

4442* School Section Canyon Springs 37.2616 108.4517 1 1993

4444* Turkey Spring 37.2688 108.4265 1 1994

4445* Cliff Palace Spring (Cliff Canyon) 37.1668 108.4726 1 1994

5589* Morefield Spring 37.2378 108.4056 12 1977–1998

5593* Waters Spring 37.2656 108.3912 1 1993
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 89

(approximately 9 miles north of MEVE) were not included 

because these streams are outside the park boundary. 

The frequency of water-quality sample collection along 

the Mancos River has varied with few sites offering more 

than a historical snapshot of water-quality conditions. The 

relative temporal distribution of water samples from Mancos 

River sites with available data is illustrated in table 24. Only 

three sites (4516, 4522, and 4537) have 5 or more years of 

record since 1971. From 1971 to 1988, 190 water samples 

were collected from 10 sites on the Mancos River; most of the 

samples (31, 44, 12, and 95 samples) were collected from 4 

sites (sites 2092, 2093, 2220, and 4516, respectively); all other 

sites had only one or two samples (fig. 17; tables 23 and 24). 

From 1988 to 2002, 205 samples were collected from 11 sites 

on the Mancos River; most of these samples (92, 63, 27, and 

13 samples) were collected from four sites (sites 4522, 4523, 

4516, and 4537, respectively), and all other sites had only one 

or two samples collected during this time. Site 1384 is within 

the park at the downstream park boundary; however, it was 

only sampled once in October 1975. Sites 2091 and 4516 are 

the only two sites sampled since 2000. 

The relative temporal distribution of water samples from 

springs with available data is illustrated in table 25. Waterquality data for springs were collected by the NPS at 36 sites 

in MEVE. Between 1977 and 1988, 26 samples were collected 

from 18 sites, and from 1988 to 1998, a total of 76 samples 

were collected from 27 sites. One-half of the samples were 

collected from four springs, which included sites 4415, 4421, 

4431, and 5589 (fig. 17; tables 23 and 25) with 15, 12, 13, and 

12 samples collected, respectively, over the complete period of 

record. 

The SCPN water-quality database contains approximately 

390 field properties or constituents for MEVE. A subset of 

these characteristics were analyzed and presented in this report 

for selected Mancos River sites and springs, including field 

properties (pH and SC), major ions, nutrients, trace elements 

(aluminum, arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, 

iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silver, 

zinc), and fecal and total coliform bacteria. Measurements 

were made at several stream sites on the Mancos River for 

instantaneous streamflow, daily discharge, and (or) stream 

stage. No discharge data were available from the springs inside 

the park. 

Characterization of Water Quality

Surface-Water Quality

Surface-water-quality data were collected by the NPS, 

USGS, USFS, CDPHE, and Colorado River Watch at 18 sites 

on the Mancos River in the area upstream from, in, and downstream from the park (fig. 17; table 23). The sampling sites 

in and upstream from the park are primarily within outcrop 

areas of the Mancos Shale with a few sites in the gravels and 

alluvium overlying the Mancos Shale (Utah State University, 

2004). Upstream from the sampling sites, the headwaters 

of the Mancos River flow through predominantly siltstone, 

mudstone, sandstone, and shale (some of which is the Mancos 

Shale). The sites downstream from MEVE are primarily in 

the Menefee Formation with a few sites in intrusive rocks of 

middle Tertiary age. 

In order to describe what is known regarding waterquality conditions as the Mancos River enters the park, waterquality data for three Mancos River sampling sites directly 

upstream from the park and downstream from the Mud Creek 

tributary (sites 2202, 2203, and 4537) are summarized in table 

26 (fig. 17). Two of these sites (2203 and 4537) had samples 

collected since 1988; however, site 2203 was sampled only 

twice in March and July 1994. Site 2202 was sampled only 

once in October 1975. Data from site 1384, the only site 

sampled within the park, also is summarized in table 26. Data 

for the remaining Mancos River sites were not included in the 

summary or this analysis due to the sites’ distance from the 

park; however, when meaningful, references to Mancos River 

data from sites farther upstream or downstream from the park 

are made. 

Field properties, selected major ions, and one or more 

trace-element and nutrient constituents were measured or 

analyzed in samples from each of the four sites (sites 1384, 

2202, 2203, and 4537), though the same field properties and 

constituents were not always measured or analyzed in samples 

from all sites. Streamflow was measured at three of the sites, 

but these were each measured only one or two times. Streamflow was not measured at site 4537, which has the longest 

water-quality sample record (from 1986 to 1998). Total or 

fecal coliform was measured in samples collected seven times 

between 1991 and 1998 from site 4537 and once in July 1995 

from site 4541 (upstream from site 2203, fig. 17). No other 

water-quality constituents were measured in samples from site 

4541. 

Field Properties

 At the four sites on the Mancos River within or directly 

upstream from the park with data, 14 pH measurements were 

made between 1975 and 1998; 10 were made during the 

recent period of record. Of these recent measurements, one 

pH value of 6.1 SU (table 26) was measured at site 4537 in 

September 1991 and was outside the 6.5–9.0 SU range defined 

by CDPHE for cold- and warm-water aquatic life. All other 

values ranged between 7.3 to 8.4 SU for these sites. 

Specific conductance was measured 14 times at the 

four sites on the Mancos River within or directly upstream 

from the park and ranged from 947 to 2,253 μS/cm for the 

four sites sampled between 1975 and 1998. Corresponding 

historical streamflow data are insufficient to determine how 

flow is related to conductivity in this section of the Mancos 

River. Stream SC measurements did not correlate with spring 

SC measurements made on the same date. Generally, lower 

conductivity values are associated with higher flow conditions 
90 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 24. Period of record and sample counts for sites with water-quality data on the Mancos River in and near Mesa Verde National 

Park, Colorado, 1971 to 2002.

[no., number; --, no samples; numbers in boxes indicate number of water-quality samples collected during the specified year]

Site no. 

(downstream 

order)

Historical period of record Recent period of record

(from 01/01/1988 to most current record)

No. recent 

samples/

Total no. 

19711972197319741975197619771978197919801981198219831984198519861987198819891990199119921993199419951996199719981999200020012002

samples

4516 4 7 1 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 2 4 4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- 27/122

2091 -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2 2/3

2220 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2/14

4523 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 23 12 20 8 -- -- -- -- -- 63/63

4538 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

4539 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

2213 -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

4522 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 20 22 15 19 16 -- -- -- -- 92/92

4645 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

4541 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

2203 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2/2

4537 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 -- 1 -- -- -- -- 13/15

2202 -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

1384 -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

2189 -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

2092 -- -- -- -- -- 5 10 11 5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/31

2093 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 8 14 11 11 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/44

2186 -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

Total 4 7 1 3 12 11 16 24 24 20 19 17 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 5 4 5 6 49 38 36 27 17 0 0 1 2 205/395
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 91

Table 25. Period of record and sample counts for springs in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, with water-quality data, 1977 

to 1998.

[no., number; --, no samples; numbers in boxes indicate number of water-quality samples collected during the specified year; sites in bold were sampled 

12 or more times]

Site 

no. 

Historical period of record Recent period of record 

(from 01/01/1988 to most current record)

No. recent 

samples / 

Total no. 

samples

1977197819791980198119821983198419851986198719881989199019911992199319941995199619971998

4415 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 1 -- -- 1 1 1 1 1 -- 1 1 3 1 1 1 12/15

4416 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

4417 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 2/2

4418 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/2

4419 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- 1/1

4420 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- 1/1

4421 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 1 -- -- -- 1 1 -- 1 -- 1 2 2 1 -- 1 10/12

4422 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

4423 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

4424 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

4425 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 2/2

4428 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- 2 -- -- -- 3/3

4429 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 1/1

4430 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 2/2

4431 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- 1 1 2 -- 2 2 2 1 -- 1 12/13

4432 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/2

4433 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- 1/3

4434 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 1 -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- 2/3

4435 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2/2

4436 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/2

4437 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

4438 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

4439 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

4440 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

4442 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

4443 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 1 -- -- -- -- 2/2

4444 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- 1/1

4445 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- 1/1

4446 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- 1/1

4448 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

4449 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0/1

4508 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- 1 3/4

4510 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/2

5589 1 -- -- -- -- -- 1 1 -- -- -- -- -- 1 1 -- 2 2 1 1 -- 1 9/12

5592 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

5593 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- 1/1

Total 3 0 0 0 0 0 4 9 0 1 9 6 5 5 9 3 9 13 13 4 1 8 76/102
92 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 26. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in selected Mancos River sites 

located directly upstream from or within Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1975 to 1998.—Continued

[AL, aquatic life; ALW2, aquatic-life warm-water class 2; CDPHE, Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion III; fil, filtered; GM, geometric mean; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams 

per liter; MPN, most probable number; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality; No., number; P, phosphorus; PCR, primary contact recreation; 

POR, period of record; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available; bold type indicates 

exceedance during recent POR]

Mancos 

River sites

(sites shown in 

figure 17)

Field property or 

constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1975 to 19981

Recent POR

1988 to 19982

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value Median value Maximum value

CDPHE 

standard or Federal 

criteria

(Use)3 

No. of standard 

exceedances/

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

sites with 

exceedances

Field properties (1975–1998)

Upstream sites4

pH (standard units) 13/0 6.1 7.7 8.4 6.5, L

9.0, H 1/10/1, L

Park site (1384) 1/0 8.4 8.4 8.4 (PCR) --

Upstream sites Specific conductance 

(μS/cm) 

13/0 947 1,490 2,253 -- -- Park site (1384) 1/0 1,800 1,800 1,800

Nutrients (1975–1998)

Upstream sites Nitrate, fil 

(mg/L as N) 10/6 <0.01 0.07 0.61 -- --

Upstream sites Nitrate plus nitrite 

(mg/L as N)

3/0 <.05 .06 .13 -- --

Park site (1384) 1/0 .14 -- .14 --

Upstream sites Orthophosphorus, filtered 

(mg/L as P)

1/0 .01 -- .01 -- --

Park site (1384) 1/0 .02 -- .02 --

Upstream sites Total phosphorus, filtered 

(mg/L as P) 10/1 <.1 .13 .2 .022 unfil EPA RC III 7/8/1

Bacteriological data (1991–1998)

Upstream sites Fecal coliform (MPN) 7/0 23 480 (GM) 15,000 200, GM (PCR) 4/7/1, GM

Upstream sites Total coliform (MPN) 8/0 43 641 (GM) 15,000 -- --

Trace elements, in micrograms per liter (1975–1998)

Upstream sites Aluminum, fil 10/4 <100 100 400 87 (ALW2) 5/8/1

Upstream sites Arsenic, fil 4/4 <1 <1 <1 150 (ALW2) 0/2/0

Upstream sites Cadmium, fil 10/9 <10 -- 2 TVS (ALW2) 0/8/0

Upstream sites Chromium, fil 10/0 10 35 50 --5 --

Upstream sites Copper, fil 10/8 <10 -- 10 TVS (AL) 0/8/0

Upstream sites

Iron, fil 

11/2 <10 80 1,790

1,000 NAWQ

1/8/1

Park site (1384) 1/0 60 60 60 --

Upstream sites Lead, fil 10/10 <50 <50 <50 TVS (AL) 0/8/0
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 93

Table 26. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards in selected Mancos River sites 

located directly upstream from or within Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1975 to 1998.—Continued

[AL, aquatic life; ALW2, aquatic-life warm-water class 2; CDPHE, Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion III; fil, filtered; GM, geometric mean; L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams 

per liter; MPN, most probable number; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality; No., number; P, phosphorus; PCR, primary contact recreation; 

POR, period of record; TVS, table value standard; unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not available; bold type indicates 

exceedance during recent POR]

Mancos 

River sites

(sites shown in 

figure 17)

Field property or 

constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1975 to 19981

Recent POR

1988 to 19982

No. of 

analyses/No. 

of censored 

values

Minimum 

value Median value Maximum value

CDPHE 

standard or Federal 

criteria

(Use)3 

No. of standard 

exceedances/

No. of 

analyses/

No. of 

sites with 

exceedances

Trace elements, in micrograms per liter (1975–1998)—Continued

Upstream sites

Manganese, fil

11/2 <10 20 70 TVS (AL) 0/8/0

Park site (1384) 1/0 30 30 30 -- --

Upstream sites Molybdenum, fil 10/5 <10 6.7 80 370 Tier II 0/8/0

Upstream sites Nickel, fil 10/1 <10 20 70 TVS (AL) 0/8/0

Upstream sites Selenium, fil 13/2 <1 4.0 15 4.6 (ALW2) 4/10/2

Upstream sites Zinc, fil 10/4 <10 10 3,100 TVS (AL) 1/8/1

1 All available data considered from 1975 to 1998; POR reflects range for individual sites within this time period. 

2 Last 15 years of available data considered for standards exceedance analysis (that is, all samples collected on or after January 1, 1988 through December 31, 

2003). At the time of data compilation no data were available from the source databases collected at these selected sites after 1998. 

3 State standards and designated beneficial uses from the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (2002a). Selected Federal criteria are used 

when State standards are not established, including the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002) or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter and Tsao, 1996).

4 Upstream sites include those sites located downstream from Mud Creek, and upstream from Mesa Verde National Park (Sites 2202, 2203, 4537, and 4541 

[bacteriological data only]). Sites with data for specified constituents are indicated; not all constituents were sampled at all sites.

5 Filtered unspeciated chromium is not regulated in Colorado. Chromium III and VI are regulated for aquatic-life toxicity as is total chromium (50 μg/L for 

drinking water); however, no speciated chromium data were available for these sites.
94 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

when more dilute snowmelt or rainwater account for most of 

the streamflow; higher conductivity values are typically associated with lower flow conditions. 

Major Ions

Sulfate was the dominant anion in analyses of water 

samples collected from the Mancos River, and concentrations 

ranged from 365 to 1,018 mg/L at the sites within and directly 

upstream from the park. Concentrations of sulfate and bicarbonate tended to increase with distance downstream, which is 

likely the result of influence of the Mancos Shale. No aquaticlife or recreational water-quality standards are associated with 

sulfate; however, the secondary drinking-water standard of 

250 mg/L was exceeded in 69 of 194 analyses (36 percent) in 

samples collected between 1975 and 1994 from all sites (from 

the upstream site 4516 to the downstream site 2186). 

Few sites had adequate major ion data to characterize 

water type for the Mancos River; even with few data, however, 

some patterns were evident between upstream and downstream 

sites. The water type is a calcium-magnesium sulfate water 

(fig. 18) in the area within and directly upstream from the 

park. Farther upstream, Site 2091, near the upstream outcrop 

extent of the Mancos Shale, is higher in calcium and bicarbonate, while farther downstream, below the East and West 

Forks of the Mancos River, site 2213 is higher in sulfate. As 

the Mancos River flows along the park boundary and farther downstream (sites 2202, 1384, 2092, and 2093), sulfate 

becomes more prevalent, indicating an increasing effect of 

drainage from Mancos Shale and Menefee Formation terrains. 

Nutrients

Samples were collected for analysis of nitrate (filtered), 

nitrate plus nitrite (unfiltered and filtered), orthophosphorus 

(filtered), and total phosphorus (filtered) between 1 and 10 

times at the sites on the Mancos River in and directly upstream 

from the park between 1975 and 1998 (table 26). 

Nitrate was analyzed in samples 10 times at one site 

(4537), just upstream from the park, from 1986 to 1998; 

concentrations ranged from less than 0.01 to 0.61 mg/L with a 

median value of 0.07 mg/L. Nitrate plus nitrite was analyzed 

in samples four times from three sites (sites 1384, 2202, 

and 2203), and concentrations ranged from less than 0.05 to 

0.14 mg/L. 

Orthophosphorus was analyzed once each in samples 

from two sites (sites 1384 and 2202) with concentrations 

of 0.02 and 0.01 mg/L, respectively. Total phosphorus was 

analyzed in 10 samples collected from 1986 to 1998 from site 

4537; concentrations ranged from less than 0.1 to 0.2 mg/L 

with a median concentration of 0.13 mg/L. Analyses of 

seven of the eight recent (since 1988) samples collected from 

this site exceeded the USEPA-recommended criterion of 

0.022 mg/L for total phosphorus. Nutrient data were generally 

sparse and not consistently sampled between upstream and 

downstream sites; therefore, potential nutrient effects from 

the park’s sewage lagoons, surrounding agricultural land, or 

upstream development could not be evaluated from this small 

historical dataset. 

Bacteriological Data

Mancos River site 4537 was sampled seven times for 

analyses of fecal coliform, and sites 4537 and 4541 were 

sampled a total of eight times for analyses of total coliforms 

(table 26). Analyses of samples from site 4537 exceeded 

the primary-contact recreation standard for fecal coliform 

of 200 col/100 mL four times. Site 4541 was sampled only 

once and the total coliform measurement did not exceed this 

standard. No surface-water standard exists in Colorado for 

total coliforms. 

Trace Elements

For the four Mancos River sites within or directly 

upstream from the park (fig. 17, sites 1384, 2202, 2203, and 

4537), one or more filtered trace elements were analyzed from 

samples, including aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, 

copper, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, 

and zinc. These four sites were periodically sampled 1 to 13 

times between 1975 and 1998 (table 26). Of these four sites, 

only site 4537 had multiple samples collected and analyzed 

for trace elements; all of these samples were collected between 

1986 and 1998. Samples from site 2203 were analyzed twice 

for selenium in March and July 1994. Samples from sites 

1384 and 2202 collected only once in October 1975 were each 

analyzed for a few trace elements (iron and manganese for site 

1384; and arsenic, iron, manganese, mercury, and selenium for 

site 2202). 

Ten samples from site 4537 were analyzed for various 

trace elements, including aluminum, cadmium, chromium, 

copper, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and zinc. Of these, values of aluminum, iron and zinc 

exceeded their State standard or Federal criteria. Aluminum 

concentrations ranged from less than 100 to 400 μg/L from 

site 4537; five concentrations, in analyses of samples from 

1988 to 1995, exceeded the chronic aluminum aquatic-life 

standard of 87 μg/L. Iron concentrations ranged from less than 

10 to 1,790 μg/L and a median value of 80 μg/L. No aquaticlife standard for filtered iron exists for Colorado waters; however, the NAWQ criterion for filtered iron is 1,000 μg/L, and 

one result from a filtered sample collected in September 1994 

exceeded this standard. Lead concentrations were all measured 

as nondetect (less than 50 μg/L), which was higher than the 

computed TVS. Analyses of samples collected from site 4537 

exceeded the TVS for zinc (computed as 382.4 μg/L) once in 

July 1998 with a value of 3,100 μg/L. 

The Mancos River and tributaries, upstream from U.S. 

Highway 160, are listed as impaired due to copper contamination in the 2004 303(d) list (Colorado Department of Public 

Health and Environment, 2004); however, none of the data 

for site 4537 exceeded the computed TVS for copper (computed as 29.3 μg/L). Copper data were not available for the 

other sites directly upstream from or within the boundaries 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 95

 40 

Calcium Chloride plus Nitrate

Magnesium

Bicarbonate

Sulfate

PERCENT

PERCENT

Sodium plus Potassium

Calcium plus Magnesium

Sulfate plus Chloride

EXPLANATION

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 60 

 80 

 100 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 60 

 80 

 100 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 40 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

Site 1384

Site 2202

Site 2203

Site 4537

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Figure 18. Water types for selected upstream from and in-park Mancos River sites, 

Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1975 to 1998.

of the park. Analyses of samples collected six times between 

1989 and 1993 from site 4516, which is approximately 10 mi 

upstream from the park near the town of Mancos, exceeded the 

TVS for copper (computed as 13.4 μg/L) with values ranging 

from 14 to 39 μg/L. 

Selenium was analyzed 13 times in samples collected 

between 1975 and 1998 from sites 2202 (1 sample), 2203 (2 

samples), and 4537 (10 samples). Selenium concentrations 

ranged from less than 1 to 15 μg/L with a median value of 

4.0 μg/L. Three analyses of samples from site 4537 (collected 

in October 1989, September 1990, and August 1993) with 

values of 15, 5, and 6 μg/L, respectively, and one analysis of a 

sample from site 2203 with a value of 6 μg/L (collected in July 

1994) exceeded the chronic aquatic-life standard for selenium 

(4.6 μg/L). These two sites are about 0.8 mi upstream from the 

park’s eastern boundary (fig. 17). 

Two other Mancos River sites have a trace-element data 

record of 5 or more years; sites 4522 and 4516, which are 

approximately 5 and 10 mi upstream from the park boundary, 

respectively. Trace-metal analyses of samples from these sites 

indicated periodic exceedances of the aquatic-life standards 

for filtered copper and silver and total recoverable iron. 

Trace elements such as aluminum, copper, iron, zinc, 

and selenium can enter the water column through natural and 

anthropogenic sources. In the upper Mancos River watershed, 

mining and natural gas development activities have the potential to fracture and expose the underlying formations to water 

and air (for example, dewatering activities resulting in highly 

mineralized water pumped and combined with surface water), 

which has the potential to increase trace-element contributions 

to surface water (Chapman, 1998; Arthur and others, 2003). 

Coal-bed methane produced water can have elevated concentrations of trace elements such as iron, manganese, and barium 

(Rawn-Schatzinger and others, 2004). Where anthropogenic 

influences are absent or minimal, the types and relative concentrations of trace elements in the surface water are related to 

the geology. Examination of the historical and current mining 

areas relative to the spatial distribution of elevated traceelement concentrations was beyond the scope of this study. 
96 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Water Quality of Springs

From 1977 to 1998, measurements of pH and SC were 

made and concentrations of major ions, nutrients (except one 

site), and trace elements were analyzed in samples from 23 of 

26 springs, though the same field properties or constituents 

were not measured or sampled at all sites (tables 25 and 27; 

fig. 17). One or more samples for the analyses of inorganic 

constituents were collected from 22 sites; one or more samples 

for the analysis of bacteria were collected from 15 sites; and 

one sample for the analysis of tritium was collected from 1 

site. Because of the few water-quality data for springs, this 

analysis focuses on the four springs with the highest sampling frequency, which includes Spruce Tree House Spring 

(site 4415), Long House Spring (site 4421), U.S. Highway 

160 Spring near park entrance (site 4431), and Morefield 

Spring (site 5589). For the purpose of this analysis, data were 

compared to selected stream or ground-water-quality standards, though the State-designated beneficial uses of springs in 

MEVE were undetermined for this report. 

Field Properties

The pH values for springs ranged from 4.5 to 8.8 SU and 

only a few values were outside the 6.5–9.0 SU range defined 

by CDPHE for cold- and warm-water aquatic life, including 

four pH measurements that were lower than the State standard 

from three springs (table 27). Site 4431, which discharges 

from the Mancos Shale in the northeastern corner of the park, 

had two pH values measured below the State standard. The 

other two low-pH values were from sites 4421 and 4424. 

Specific conductance was measured at all sampled spring 

sites in the park and ranged from 102 to 19,700 μS/cm. The 

high value of 19,700 μS/cm was measured in August 1993 at 

a spring in School Section Canyon (site 4442); all other SC 

measurements were below 10,000 μS/cm. SC was measured 

only once at this site, so the representativeness of this value 

for this site cannot be determined, but it was one to two orders 

of magnitude greater than all other SC measurements made for 

springs in the park. Higher SC values, ranging from 2,420 to 

3,640 μS/cm (site 5589) and 6,020 to 8,176 μS/cm (site 4431) 

are related to the high concentrations of salts, selenium, and 

sulfate typically found in the Menefee Formation and Mancos 

Shale, respectively, and lower SC values, ranging from 265 to 

420 μS/cm are associated with springs discharging from the 

Cliff House Sandstone (sites 4415 and 4421). 

Major Ions

Variations in water quality and water type reflect the variable geology within the park. Water types were identified for 

the four sites with more than five samples and are illustrated in 

figure 19. Spruce Tree House and Long House Springs (sites 

4415 and 4421) discharge from the Cliff House Sandstone and 

are predominantly calcium-bicarbonate type waters. The U.S. 

Highway 160 Spring (site 4431), which discharges from the 

Mancos Shale, is predominantly a mixed sodium-sulfate water 

type with some magnesium. Morefield Spring (site 5589), 

which discharges from the Menefee Formation, is predominantly a sodium-bicarbonate type water. 

Nutrients

Nitrate (unfiltered) and total phosphorus (filtered) 

were the only nutrients analyzed in samples collected from 

the springs in MEVE between 1983 and 1998. Nitrate 

concentrations from analyses of samples from all springs 

(excluding site 4433) in MEVE ranged from less than 0.01 

to 12 mg/L with a median concentration of 0.3 mg/L (table 

27). Analyses of eight samples from site 4431, which is near 

the park entrance and U.S. Highway 160, had the highest 

median nitrate value of 4.08 mg/L. Site 4438 (Navajo Canyon) 

also had a high nitrate value of 7.50 mg/L from one analysis. 

Analyses of samples from site 4433 (Big Hill Pipes) had three 

very high nitrate values measured between 1984 and 1995 

ranging from 29.9 to 71.4 mg/L (table 27). These are the only 

nitrate data available for this site, and they appear anomalously 

high in comparison to nitrate values from other springs 

sampled in the park; however, overall ion concentrations from 

these three samples were high. Without additional nitrate 

analyses, including quality-control data, it is not possible 

to determine if these values are representative of unusual 

conditions at this site or possibly a reporting or laboratory 

error. These three sites with elevated nitrate concentrations are 

not near or downstream from the park’s three sewage lagoons. 

No aquatic-life standards exist for nitrate in Colorado; 

however, when recent data (since 1998) are compared to the 

Colorado ground-water standard of 10 mg/L, two nitrate 

values (one each from sites 4431 and 4433) exceeded this 

standard with values of 12 and 29.9 mg/L, respectively. 

Total phosphorus (filtered) concentrations for the same 

period for all springs ranged from less than 0.10 to 1.6 mg/L 

with a median concentration of 0.10 mg/L. No aquatic-life 

standard exists for total phosphorus in Colorado; however, 

the USEPA-recommended criterion for the aggregate nutrient 

Ecoregion III, which includes MEVE, for total phosphorus 

in rivers and streams, is 0.022 mg/L (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2002). Of the 49 recent analyses of 

samples collected from 22 springs in the park, more than 

one-half (33 analyses) had total phosphorus concentrations 

greater than this recommended criterion. Analyses of samples 

from four sites, three in the southwestern part of the park 

and one in the central area of the park, had total phosphorus 

concentrations greater than 1.0 mg/L (sites 4438, 4437, 4442, 

and 4435); these sites were each analyzed for total phosphorus 

one time and had concentrations of 1.4, 1.6, 1.4, and 1.6 mg/L, 

respectively. Site 4437 is near the Wetherill Sewage Lagoon 

in Long Canyon (fig. 17). Elevated phosphorus values may 

be derived from selected phosphorus-rich minerals such as 

apatite, from ash and sediment transport following fires, or 

from sewage lagoons. 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 97

Table 27. Statistical summary of water-quality data and exceedances of water-quality standards for selected springs in Mesa Verde 

National Park, Colorado, 1977 to 1998.

[CDPHE, Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment; COGW, Colorado ground water (all uses); Cr III, chromium III; DOM, domestic-water 

system; EPA RC III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion III; fil, filtered; GM, geometric mean 

(excludes censored values); H, high; I, instantaneous (grab); L, low (minimum) standard; mg/L, milligrams per liter; MPN, most probable number; N, nitrogen; 

No., number; P, phosphorus; PCR, primary contact recreation; POR, period of record; unfil, unfiltered; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; <, less than; --, not 

available; bold type indicates exceedance during recent POR; *, includes data from Big Hill Pipes (site 4433)]

Field property or constituent

 (reporting units)

Complete POR

1977 to 19981

Recent POR

1988 to 19982

No. of analyses/

No. of censored 

values 

Minimum 

value

Median 

value

Maximum 

value

CDPHE standard 

or Federal 

criteria

(Use)3

No. of water-quality 

standard exceedances/

No. of analyses/ No. of 

sites with exceedances

Field properties (1977–1998)

pH, field (standard units) 77/0 4.5 7.7 8.8

6.5, L

9.0, H

(PCR)

4/50/3, L

0/50/0, H

Specific conductance (μS/cm) 76/0 102 1,446 19,700 -- --

Nutrients (1983–1998)

Nitrate, unfil (mg/L as N) 69/23

(72/23)*

<0.01

(<.01)*

0.30 

(.36)*

12

(71.4)* 10 (COGW) 2/49/2

Total phosphorus, filtered (mg/L as P) 72/26 <.10 .10 1.6 0.022 unfil 

EPA RC III 33/49/21

Bacteriological data (1991–1998)

Fecal coliform (MPN) 30/8 <1 85 GM 4,600 200 GM (PCR)

2,000 GM (DOM)

6/30/5

1/30/1

Total coliform (MPN) 31/10 <2 1,289 GM 24,000 1, I (COGW) 21/31/12

Trace elements (1977–1998), in micrograms per liter

Aluminum, fil 72/30 <100 100 33,000 50 (COGW) 29/49/18

Arsenic (unspeciated), fil 33/27 <1 .31 100 50 (COGW) 0/12/0

Barium, fil 73/0 10 60 270 2,000 (COGW) 0/50/0

Cadmium, fil 73/57 <4 2.0 40 5 (COGW) 11/50/5

Chromium (unspeciated), fil 77/29 <10 10 140 100 Cr III (COGW) 4/50/3

Copper, fil 77/54 <10 3.0 430 200 (COGW) 1/50/1

Iron, fil 77/7 <10 140 14,260 300 (COGW) 15/50/11

Lead, fil 76/56 <50 28 230 50 (COGW) 16/49/9

Manganese, fil 77/19 <10 20 2,370 50 (COGW) 19/50/10

Molybdenum, fil 76/46 <10 6.3 140 370 Tier II 0/49/0

Nickel, fil 77/39 <10 6.6 740 100 (COGW) 9/50/3

Selenium, fil 72/41 <1 0.53 104 20 (COGW) 6/49/2

Silver, fil 1/1 <6 -- <6 50 (COGW) --

Zinc, fil 77/33 <10 10 2,060 2,000 (COGW) 1/50/1

1 Period of record reflects full range evaluated for all relevant sites within this time period; some sites or constituents may not have had data available for the 

entire record.

2 Last 15 years of available data considered for standards exceedance analysis (that is, all samples collected on or after January 1, 1988, through 

December 31, 2003). At the time of data compilation no data were available from the source databases for the selected sites after 1998.

3 State standards and designated beneficial uses from Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (2005). All trace-element standards based on 

Colorado ground-water standards, where available. Selected Federal criteria are used when State standards are not established, including the USEPA National 

Recommended Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002) or the secondary chronic Tier II values (Suter and 

Tsao, 1996).
98 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Calcium Chloride plus Nitrate

Magnesium

Carbonate plus Bicarbonate

Sulfate

PERCENT

PERCENT

Sodium plus Potassium

Calcium plus Magnesium

Sulfate plus Chloride

EXPLANATION

Long House Spring (Site 4421)

Morefield Spring (Site 5589)

Spruce Tree House Spring (Site 4415)

U.S. Highway 160 Spring near 

 park entrance (Site 4431)

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60  80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

 0 

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0 

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Figure 19. Water types for the four springs with five or more major ion samples in Mesa Verde 

National Park, Colorado, 1977 to 1998.

Bacteriological Data

Between 1991 and 1998, 30 and 31 springs in the park 

were measured for fecal and total coliform (table 27). Six 

measurements (from sites 4417, 4430, 4434, 4444, and 

5589) exceeded the primary-contact recreation fecal coliform standard of 200 col/100 mL with values ranging from 

240 to 4,600 MPN. One value (from site 4434) exceeded the 

drinking-water supply standard of 2,000 col/100 mL for fecal 

coliform. More than one-half (21 of 31 measurements from 

12 sites) of the total coliform values exceeded the Colorado 

ground-water standard of 1 col/100 mL with values ranging 

from 21 to 24,000 MPN. The ground-water standard is the 

only total coliform standard in Colorado. The springs in the 

vicinity of the sewage lagoons in Soda, Navajo, and Morefield 

Canyons could be affected by these facilities. Because springs 

are the principal water source in the park, they are frequented 

by wildlife, which could be contributing to elevated levels of 

bacteria in these waters. Visitor access to springs in the park is 

restricted. 

Trace Elements

For the springs, analyses for 12 filtered trace elements 

(aluminum, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, 

manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and zinc) were 

completed for 72 to 77 samples collected between 1977 and 

1998 from 50 to 57 sites (table 27). Additionally, samples 

were analyzed for filtered arsenic 33 times (from 20 sites), and 

once for filtered silver (from site 4446). Since 1988, analyses 

of samples for selected trace elements from four springs (sites 

4415, 4431, 4421, and 5589; fig. 17) were made between six 

and nine times; the remaining sites were only sampled and 

analyzed for trace elements once or twice during this same 

time period. For analyses of samples collected from springs 

between 1988 and 1998, some trace-element concentrations 

exceeded the 30-day chronic aquatic warm-water standards 

and the Colorado ground-water standard. Of the 14 traceelements analyzed, exceedances of all but arsenic, barium, 

molybdenum, and silver occurred in one or more samples 

collected since 1988.
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 99

For all springs, the filtered aluminum concentrations 

ranged from less than 100 to 33,000 μg/L with a median of 

100 μg/L. Two extreme values were recorded in samples 

from site 5589 (30,900 and 33,000 μg/L in 1995 and 1998, 

respectively) and one from site 4431 (20,800 μg/L in 1989); all 

other values were less than 7,700 μg/L. No quality-control data 

were available to verify these high concentrations, and other 

trace-element analyses of samples collected from these sites 

showed filtered aluminum concentrations one to two orders of 

magnitude lower. Analyses of aluminum in samples from three 

additional sites (sites 4424, 4437, and 4438) had values of 

900, 4,400, and 1,400 mg/L, respectively. All other recorded 

values for aluminum were one to two orders of magnitude 

smaller. Discharge from three of these sites (sites 4437, 4438, 

and 5589) comes from the Menefee Formation, discharge from 

one site (site 4424) comes from the Cliff House Sandstone, 

and discharge from one site (site 4431) comes from the 

Mancos Shale near the park entrance and U.S. Highway 

160. Twenty-nine exceedances of the State’s ground-water 

standard for aluminum (50 μg/L) were identified at 18 spring 

sites located throughout various ephemeral drainages in the 

park. Of these, analyses for aluminum in samples from three 

sites (5589, 4431, and 4421) showed repeated exceedances 

of the State chronic aquatic-life standard. Water with low pH 

(below 4.0 SU) can contain elevated aluminum concentrations 

(Hem, 1989); however, only one of the elevated aluminum 

values (30,800 mg/L measured in a sample from site 4431 

in 1989) corresponds to low pH (4.6 SU). The inclusion of 

aluminum-rich particulate material, which can pass through 

some filter media, can lead to elevated aluminum values that 

can be erroneously reported as part of the dissolved phase in 

the sample (Hem, 1989). Filter size was not available for the 

historical water-quality data. 

The filtered cadmium concentrations ranged from less 

than 4 to 40 μg/L with a median of 2.0 μg/L in trace-element 

analyses of samples collected between 1977 and 1998. 

Analyses of samples from five sites (5589, 4431, 4433, 4435, 

and 4442) exceeded the ground-water standard of 5 μg/L; 

analyses of samples from two of these sites (Morefield and 

U.S. Highway 160 Springs) indicated repeated exceedances of 

this standard. One or more concentrations measured in three 

springs (sites 4431, 4435, and 5589) were greater than 10 μg/L 

in analyses of samples collected from 1987 to 1998. Discharge 

from each of these sites comes from a different geologic 

formation. 

The filtered “total” (unspeciated) chromium 

concentrations ranged from less than 10 to 140 μg/L with a 

median value of 10 μg/L in trace-element analyses of samples 

collected from 1977 to 1998. The ground-water standard for 

trivalent chromium is 100 μg/L; analyses of four samples 

(from sites 4431, 4433, and 4434) exceeded this standard for 

samples collected since 1987. 

Filtered copper concentrations ranged from less than 10 

to 430 μg/L with a median of 3.0 μg/L in trace-element analyses of samples collected between 1977 and 1998. Two elevated 

copper concentrations, 131 and 430 μg/L, measured in 1977 

and 1991, respectively, were measured in samples from two 

sites (4449 and 4435, respectively). The 1991 value from site 

4435 exceeded the ground-water standard of 200 μg/L. All 

other copper concentrations measured in samples from springs 

in the park were at or below 24 μg/L. 

Filtered iron concentrations typically ranged from less 

than 10 to 2,690 μg/L. Analyses of samples collected from 

Morefield Spring (site 5589) had two extreme values of 8,360 

and 14,260 μg/L measured in 1995 and 1998, respectively. The 

Colorado ground-water standard for iron is 300 μg/L; analyses of 15 samples (from 11 sites) collected between 1988 and 

1998 had concentrations exceeding this standard. Iron, like 

aluminum, can have colloidal properties pass through a filter 

and be reported erroneously as “dissolved” (Hem, 1989). 

The filtered lead concentrations ranged from less than 50 

to 230 μg/L with a median of 28 μg/L. Analyses of samples 

collected from seven sites scattered throughout the ephemeral 

drainages of the park had one exceedance of the Colorado 

ground-water standard of 50 μg/L; analyses of samples 

from two sites (sites 4431 and 5589) had seven and two 

exceedances, respectively. Analyses of samples collected from 

three of these springs (sites 4431, 4442, and 4433), which 

discharge from the Mancos Shale and Menefee Formation, had 

elevated lead values greater than 100 μg/L. 

Filtered manganese concentrations ranged from less than 

10 to 2,370 μg/L with a median value of 20 μg/L in 

trace-element analyses of samples collected from 1977 to 

1998. The Colorado ground-water standard for manganese 

is 50 μg/L. Nineteen analyses of recently collected samples 

from 10 sites exceeded this standard. Based on analyses 

of eight samples collected from 1987 to 1998, manganese 

concentrations measured from site 4431—which discharges 

from the Mancos Shale—are, on average, the highest in the 

park with a range of values 490 to 2,370 μg/L. Concentrations 

of manganese and iron can be elevated under low DO 

conditions typical of springs and ground water. 

Filtered nickel concentrations ranged from less than 10 to 

740 μg/L with a median of 6.6 μg/L in trace-element analyses 

of samples collected from 1977 to 1998. Analyses of nine 

samples from three sites (sites 4431, 4433 and 4442) exceeded 

the Colorado ground-water standard of 100 μg/L. Nickel analyses of samples collected from the U.S. Highway 160 Spring 

(site 4431) indicated seven exceedances of this standard. 

Filtered selenium concentrations ranged from less than 1 

to 104 μg/L with a median of 0.53 μg/L. Analyses of samples 

collected from two springs (sites 4431 and 4433) exceeded 

the State ground-water standard for selenium (20 μg/L) one or 

more times; analyses of samples from the U.S. Highway 160 

Spring (site 4431) exceeded this selenium standard five times, 

which are likely attributable to natural selenium sources within 

the Mancos Shale. 

Filtered zinc concentrations generally ranged from less 

than 10 to 840 μg/L with a median of 10 μg/L. One elevated 

zinc value (2,060 μg/L) was recorded in analysis of a sample 

collected from site 4434 in September 1988, which exceeded 

the Colorado ground-water standard of 2,000 μg/L. One other 
100 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

analysis of zinc, in a sample collected from this site approximately one year earlier (in October 1987), was measured at 

50 μg/L. No other zinc analyses exceeded this standard. 

Summary of Surface-Water and Springs 

Characterization and Considerations for 

Monitoring 

The Mancos River data are generally sparse, and 

the sites within and directly upstream from the park were 

sampled only once in October 1975 (sites 1384 and 2202) 

or twice in March and July 1994 (site 2203). One site was 

sampled multiple times between 1986 and 1998 (site 4357); 

however, no streamflows were measured. The river increases 

in dissolved ions, particularly calcium and sulfate, as it flows 

from the town of Mancos, along the park boundary, and 

downstream from the park toward Johnson Canyon, indicating 

an increasing effect of drainage from Mancos Shale and 

Menefee Formation terrains. Concentrations of aluminum, 

selenium, and zinc exceeded the State standards one or more 

times at the sites in or just upstream from the park. These 

elevated concentrations could be related to upstream geology 

or to anthropogenic activities such as agricultural or mining 

activities; however, current water-quality data are needed to 

determine if these constituents are present at concentrations 

exceeding State standards or Federal criteria. A focused waterquality study, including nutrients, trace elements, and currently 

and historically used herbicides and sampled across different 

aquatic environment media, including sediment and fish tissue, 

would be useful to determine if these potential constituents are 

contributing to the degraded macroinvertebrate and reduced 

fish population in the Mancos River. 

The quality of the water discharging from springs in 

Mesa Verde National Park appears to be controlled primarily 

by the surrounding geologic formations, resulting in elevated 

concentrations of nutrients, major ions, and selected trace 

elements. Concentrations of aluminum, cadmium, chromium, 

copper, iron, lead, nickel, selenium, and zinc each exceeded 

their respective water-quality standard one or more times. 

Aluminum concentrations were particularly high in samples 

from sites 4431 and 5589 and may warrant a focused study to 

evaluate the source. Elevated concentrations of nitrogen and 

phosphorus could be related to surrounding geology (phosphorus), to fire effects, or to activities within or upgradient 

from the park, including the sewage lagoons in the park. Two 

springs were identified as having elevated concentrations 

of multiple constituents, including site 4431 (near the park 

entrance and U.S. Highway 160) and site 5589 (Morefield 

Spring in Morefield Canyon). Analyses of samples from site 

4433, Big Hill Pipes, indicated elevated concentrations of 

nutrients and selenium, which could be related to upgradient 

agricultural activities or geology. Nitrogen levels for this 

site were anomalously high and may well be a reporting or 

analytical error. The inconsistency and paucity of the data 

limit the ability to compare the water quality of these springs 

to identified management concerns. Measurements of pH 

and analyses of samples for nutrients and trace elements are 

suggested for any future water-quality monitoring of springs. 

Comparison to ground-water data from this area could help 

identify if sources of elevated constituent concentrations were 

related to geology or surrounding land-use activities. 

Synthesis of Surface-Water Characterization 

and Implications for Future Water-Quality 

Monitoring Activities

Although each park unit is charged with managing its 

own natural resources, including water, the SCPN and national 

NPS offices also have an interest in the regional or national 

water-quality issues that may be of concern to multiple 

parks. In order to address this interest, the total number of 

exceedances (by park) of applicable State standards and uses 

or Federal criteria are summarized in table 28 for stream sites 

sampled between 1988 and 2003 in BAND, CACH, CHCU, 

GLCA, and MEVE. 

From this summary it is evident that many field properties 

and constituents are not measured or sampled regularly 

enough to determine if exceedance of State standards or 

Federal criteria is a chronic occurrence in these surface waters. 

Field properties or constituents with 20 or more measurements 

or samples per park and an overall exceedance rate of 25 

percent or higher indicate recurring exceedances in data 

collected between 1988 and 2003. These include low dissolved 

oxygen concentrations in CACH and GLCA (in Arizona); 

elevated turbidity levels through the Utah and Arizona sections 

of GLCA; elevated nitrogen (unfiltered) concentrations in 

CHCU; elevated total phosphorus (unfiltered) concentrations 

in BAND, CACH, CHCU, and GLCA (both Arizona and 

Utah); elevated barium (filtered) concentrations in GLCA 

(both Arizona and Utah); and elevated mercury concentrations 

in CHCU. These field properties and constituents are 

suggested candidates for additional water-quality monitoring 

in the specified parks. Selected constituents exhibited 

percent exceedances higher than 25 percent; however, the 

total numbers of analyses are too few to determine if the 

exceedances are a regular occurrence. These sparse data, 

including total phosphorus (filtered) in MEVE, Escherichia 

coli in CACH, fecal coliform in MEVE, suspended solids in 

CACH, aluminum (filtered) in CHCU and MEVE, copper 

(filtered) in CHCU, and selenium (filtered) in MEVE also are 

potential candidates for more frequent monitoring to determine 

if they may indicate a water-quality concern. On a network 

scale and based on the characterization of water-quality data 

from these five parks, it would be useful for future SCPN 

water-quality monitoring plans to include measurements of 

pH and DO and analyses of samples for nutrients, turbidity 

(that is, suspended sediment), and selected trace elements 

including aluminum, copper, selenium, and possibly mercury. 

Routine monitoring for these field properties or constituents to 

establish a baseline and track changes in water quality would 
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 101

Table 28. Summary of water-quality standard exceedances by park for stream sites for five Southern Colorado Park Network park 

units, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, 1988–2003.—Continued

[AL, aquatic life; ALW2, aquatic-life warm-water class 2 (CO); AWC, aquatic and wildlife cold water (AZ); AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water (AZ); 

AZ, Arizona; BAND, Bandelier National Monument; CACH, Canyon de Chelly National Monument; CHCU, Chaco Culture National Historical Park; CO, 

Colorado; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; deg C, degrees Celsius; EPA RC II/III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended 

Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II/III; FBC, full-body contact (AZ); fil, filtered; GLCA, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area; GM, geometric mean; H, high 

(maximum) standard; HQCF, high-quality cold-water fishery (NM); L, low (minimum) standard; LW, livestock watering; MEVE, Mesa Verde National Park; 

mg/L, milligrams per liter; MPN/100 mL, most probable number per 100 milliliters; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality; NM, New Mexico; 

No., number; P, phosphorus; PC, primary contact (NM); PCR, primary-contact recreation (CO); SS, suspended sediment; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, 

table value standard computed using a hardness of 100 mg/L CaCO3 (provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); 

unfil, unfiltered; UT, Utah; WF, warm-water fishery (NM); 2B, secondary-contact recreation (UT); 3A, aquatic-life cold (UT); 3B, aquatic-life warm (UT); 3C, 

aquatic-life support (UT); 30 dav, 30-day average; <, less than; --, not available; bold type indicates percent exceedance greater than 25 percent for 20 or more 

analyses per park; italicized text indicates percent exceedance greater than 25 percent for fewer than 20 analyses per park; data for CHCU are from 1976 to 

1983]

Park 

(State[s])

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

State standard 

or Federal criteria (Use)1

No. of exceedances/No. of 

analyses/No. of sites with 

exceedances (1988–2003)

Percentage of 

exceedances 

per total no. of 

analyses

Field measurements

BAND (NM) Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 6 (HQCF) 7/224/6 3.1

CACH (AZ) Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 7 min (AWC) 30/63/8 47.6

GLCA (AZ, UT) Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)

6.5 (UT 3A, 30 dav)

5.5 (UT 3B, 30 dav)

6 (AZ AWW)

7/226/3 (3A)

9/127/5 (3B)

20/71/7 (AWW)

3.1

7.1

28.2

BAND (NM) pH (standard units) 6.6, L (HQCF) 10/243/6, L 4.1

CACH (AZ) pH (standard units) 9, H (AWC) 3/67/2, H 4.5

CHCU (NM) pH (standard units) 6.6, L (WF)

9, H (WF)

1/191/1, L

13/191/6, H

0.52

6.8

GLCA (AZ, UT) pH (standard units) 9.0, H (UT 2B, 3B)

9.0, H (AZ AWW, FBC)

2/174/2, H (2B, 3B)

1/71/1, H (AWW, FBC)

1.1

1.4

MEVE (CO) pH (standard units) 6.5, L (PCR) 1/10/1, L 0.1

BAND (NM) Specific conductance (microsiemens 

per centimeter) 300, L (HQCF) 3/65/3, L 4.6

BAND (NM) Turbidity (nephelometric turbidity units) 10, L (HQCF)

25, H (HQCF)

29/144/8, L

5/144/2, H

20.1

3.5

CACH (AZ) Turbidity (nephelometric turbidity units) 10 (AWC) 31/66/8 4.7

GLCA (AZ, UT) Turbidity (nephelometric turbidity units)

10 (UT 2B, 3A)

15 (UT 3C)

50 (AZ AWW)

223/305/8 (2B)

60/122/2 (3A)

24/27/2 (3C)

42/72/7 (AWW)

73.1

49.2

88.9

58.3

BAND (NM) Water temperature (deg C) 20 (HQCF) 7/243/5 2.9

GLCA (AZ, UT) Water temperature (deg C) 20 (UT 3A)

27 (UT 3B, 3C)

29/154/3 (3A)

24/133/6 (3B)

27/244/10 (3C)

18.8

18.0

11.1

Nutrients

BAND (NM) Ammonia, unfil (mg/L as N) TVS (AL) 2/16/2 12.5

CHCU (NM) Ammonia, unfil (mg/L as N) 0.11 – 2.5 

(pH & temp dep. TVS) 6/42/3 14.3

BAND (NM) Nitrogen, unfil (mg/L as N) 0.12 EPA RC II 4/31/1 12.9

CACH (AZ) Nitrogen, unfil (mg/L as N) 0.38 EPA RC III 6/51/4 11.8

CHCU (NM) Nitrogen, unfil (mg/L as N) 0.38 EPA RC III 36/36/13 100

GLCA (AZ, UT) Nitrogen, unfil (mg/L as N) 0.38 EPA RC III 5/21/1 23.8

MEVE (CO) Total phosphorus, fil (mg/L as P) EPA RC III (.022 unfil) 7/8/1 87.5

BAND (NM) Total phosphorus, unfil (mg/L as P) 0.01 EPA RC II 42/44/3 95.5
102 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

Table 28. Summary of water-quality standard exceedances by park for stream sites for five Southern Colorado Park Network park 

units, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, 1988–2003.—Continued

[AL, aquatic life; ALW2, aquatic-life warm-water class 2 (CO); AWC, aquatic and wildlife cold water (AZ); AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water (AZ); 

AZ, Arizona; BAND, Bandelier National Monument; CACH, Canyon de Chelly National Monument; CHCU, Chaco Culture National Historical Park; CO, 

Colorado; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; deg C, degrees Celsius; EPA RC II/III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended 

Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II/III; FBC, full-body contact (AZ); fil, filtered; GLCA, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area; GM, geometric mean; H, high 

(maximum) standard; HQCF, high-quality cold-water fishery (NM); L, low (minimum) standard; LW, livestock watering; MEVE, Mesa Verde National Park; 

mg/L, milligrams per liter; MPN/100 mL, most probable number per 100 milliliters; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality; NM, New Mexico; 

No., number; P, phosphorus; PC, primary contact (NM); PCR, primary-contact recreation (CO); SS, suspended sediment; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, 

table value standard computed using a hardness of 100 mg/L CaCO3 (provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); 

unfil, unfiltered; UT, Utah; WF, warm-water fishery (NM); 2B, secondary-contact recreation (UT); 3A, aquatic-life cold (UT); 3B, aquatic-life warm (UT); 3C, 

aquatic-life support (UT); 30 dav, 30-day average; <, less than; --, not available; bold type indicates percent exceedance greater than 25 percent for 20 or more 

analyses per park; italicized text indicates percent exceedance greater than 25 percent for fewer than 20 analyses per park; data for CHCU are from 1976 to 

1983]

Park 

(State[s])

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

State standard 

or Federal criteria (Use)1

No. of exceedances/No. of 

analyses/No. of sites with 

exceedances (1988–2003)

Percentage of 

exceedances 

per total no. of 

analyses

Nutrients—Continued

CACH (AZ) Total phosphorus, unfil (mg/L as P) 0.022 EPA RC III 79/94/18 84.0

CHCU (NM) Total phosphorus, unfil (mg/L as P) 0.022 EPA RC III 43/45/12 95.6

GLCA (AZ, UT) Total phosphorus, unfil (mg/L as P) 0.05 (UT 2B, 3A) 198/444/20 (2B)

39/103/3 (3A)

44.6

37.9

Bacteriological data

CACH (AZ) Escherichia coli (MPN/100 mL) 235, I (FBC) 4/13/4 30.8

BAND (NM) Fecal coliform (col/100 mL) 200, GM (PC) 4/33/4, GM 12.1

MEVE (CO) Fecal coliform (MPN) 200, GM (PCR) 4/7/1, GM 57.1

Other constituents

CACH (AZ) Chlorine, total residual (mg/L) .005 (AWC) 1/15/1 6.7

CACH (AZ) Suspended solids 

(dried at 110 deg C, mg/L) 80, SS (AWC) 4/15/2 26.7

Trace elements (Results reported in micrograms per liter)

CHCU (NM) Aluminum, fil 87 fil (AL) 5/12/4 41.7

GLCA (AZ, UT) Aluminum, fil 87 fil (UT 3A, 3B, 3C)

2/33/1 (3A)

14/71/7 (3B)

12/92/4 (3C)

6.1

19.7

13.0

MEVE (CO) Aluminum, fil ALW2 (87) 5/8/1 62.5

CHCU (NM) Barium, fil 4 fil Tier II 16/70/8 22.9

GLCA (AZ, UT) Barium, fil 4 fil Tier II 291/291/32 100

CHCU (NM) Beryllium, fil 5.3 fil (AL) 1/14/1 7.1

GLCA (AZ, UT) Beryllium, fil 5.3 fil (AZ AWW) 6/70/4 8.6

GLCA (AZ, UT) Cadmium, fil 1.1 fil (UT TVS 100) 1/47/1 2.1

CACH (AZ) Copper, fil TVS (AWC) 1/12/1 8.3

CHCU (NM) Copper, fil 9 fil (AL TVS 100) 7/9/4 77.8

GLCA (AZ, UT) Copper, fil 12 fil (UT TVS 100) 5/191/5 2.6

CHCU (NM) Iron, fil 1,000 fil NAWQ 5/119/3 4.2

GLCA (AZ, UT) Iron, fil 1,000 fil (UT 3B, 3C) 6/82/5 (3B)

8/108/3 (3C)

7.3

7.4

MEVE (CO) Iron, fil NAWQ (1,000) 1/8/1 12.5

GLCA (AZ, UT) Lead, fil 3.2 fil (UT TVS 100) 8/190/6 4.2
Characterization of Water Quality for Five Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 103

Table 28. Summary of water-quality standard exceedances by park for stream sites for five Southern Colorado Park Network park 

units, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, 1988–2003.—Continued

[AL, aquatic life; ALW2, aquatic-life warm-water class 2 (CO); AWC, aquatic and wildlife cold water (AZ); AWW, aquatic and wildlife warm water (AZ); 

AZ, Arizona; BAND, Bandelier National Monument; CACH, Canyon de Chelly National Monument; CHCU, Chaco Culture National Historical Park; CO, 

Colorado; col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; deg C, degrees Celsius; EPA RC II/III, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Recommended 

Nutrient Criteria for Ecoregion II/III; FBC, full-body contact (AZ); fil, filtered; GLCA, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area; GM, geometric mean; H, high 

(maximum) standard; HQCF, high-quality cold-water fishery (NM); L, low (minimum) standard; LW, livestock watering; MEVE, Mesa Verde National Park; 

mg/L, milligrams per liter; MPN/100 mL, most probable number per 100 milliliters; N, nitrogen; NAWQ, National Ambient Water Quality; NM, New Mexico; 

No., number; P, phosphorus; PC, primary contact (NM); PCR, primary-contact recreation (CO); SS, suspended sediment; TVS, table value standard; TVS 100, 

table value standard computed using a hardness of 100 mg/L CaCO3 (provided as a baseline for comparison, site-specific TVS used for exceedance analysis); 

unfil, unfiltered; UT, Utah; WF, warm-water fishery (NM); 2B, secondary-contact recreation (UT); 3A, aquatic-life cold (UT); 3B, aquatic-life warm (UT); 3C, 

aquatic-life support (UT); 30 dav, 30-day average; <, less than; --, not available; bold type indicates percent exceedance greater than 25 percent for 20 or more 

analyses per park; italicized text indicates percent exceedance greater than 25 percent for fewer than 20 analyses per park; data for CHCU are from 1976 to 

1983]

Park 

(State[s])

Field property 

or constituent

 (reporting units)

State standard 

or Federal criteria (Use)1

No. of exceedances/No. of 

analyses/No. of sites with 

exceedances (1988–2003)

Percentage of 

exceedances 

per total no. of 

analyses

Trace elements (Results reported in micrograms per liter)—Continued

CHCU (NM) Manganese, fil 120 fil Tier II 4/79/2 5.1

GLCA (AZ, UT) Manganese, fil 120 fil Tier II 52/269/10 19.3

GLCA (AZ, UT) Mercury, fil 0.012 fil (UT 3A, 3B) 1/31/1 (3A)

1/70/1 (3B)

3.2

1.4

CHCU (NM) Mercury, unfil recoverable 0.012 unfil (AL) 45/55/12 81.8

GLCA (AZ, UT) Selenium, fil 5 fil (UT 3B, 3C) 8/88/4 (3B)

1/120/1 (3C)

9.1

0.8

MEVE (CO) Selenium, fil ALW2 (4.6) 4/10/2 40

CHCU (NM) Selenium, unfil recoverable 5 unfil rec (AL) 11/67/3 16.4

CACH (AZ) Silver, fil TVS (AWC) 1/12/1 8.3

CHCU (NM) Uranium (natural), fil 2.6 fil Tier II 5/27/5 18.5

CHCU (NM) Zinc, fil 118 fil (AL TVS 100) 1/28/1 3.6

GLCA (AZ, UT) Zinc, fil 110 fil (UT TVS 100) 1/42/1 2.4

MEVE (CO) Zinc, fil AL (TVS) 1/8/1 12.5

Radiological constituents (Results reported in picocuries per liter)

CHCU (NM) Gross alpha radioactivity, natural uranium 

curve, fil 15 (LW) 3/14/3 21.4

1 Designated beneficial uses and standards from the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (2002a), State of Utah Department of Environmental Quality (2005), the Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (State of Arizona, 2002), or the New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission 

(State of New Mexico, 2002). Selected Federal criteria are used when State standards are not established, including the USEPA National Recommended Nutrient 

Criteria for Ecoregions II and III (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002), the National Ambient Water Quality criteria (NAWQ), or the secondary chronic 

Tier II values (Suter and Tsao, 1996).
104 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

help determine if historical elevated values identified in these 

five parks are a persistent or emerging water-quality concern 

throughout parks in the network. 

It would be helpful to consider the State standard or Federal criteria used to evaluate these data within the context of 

each park’s geology and environmental setting. The incidents 

of percent exceedances in excess of 80 percent (for example, 

barium in GLCA) may indicate that the standard or criterion 

used is too low for the expected background conditions found 

in these surface waters, or it may indicate a persistent waterquality concern. Regular long-term water-quality monitoring 

is necessary to determine a baseline condition for these waters 

without which degradation or improvement over time cannot be determined. Three principal issues identified from the 

characterization of water-quality data for these parks ought to 

be considered for future water-quality monitoring: analysis of 

data at censoring levels below applicable State water-quality 

standards or Federal criteria, corresponding measurement of 

streamflow (or spring discharge) with samples, and collection 

of samples over the entire annual hydrologic cycle rather than 

just during one season of the calendar or water year. 

Summary

Historical natural-resource monitoring data, including 

water-quality data, in the National Park Service Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network have been collected irregularly and 

commonly have lacked corresponding interpretation, all of 

which has restricted the use of the data. Increased pressures 

from surrounding land-use activities coupled with substantial 

increases in the number of recreational visitors present the 

parks with numerous resource-management challenges. 

In 1999, the National Park Service initiated the Inventory 

and Monitoring Program as part of the 1998 National 

Parks Omnibus Management Act, which was designed 

to establish natural-resource inventory and monitoring as 

standard practices within the National Park Service in order 

to provide a scientific basis for sound park management. 

To help address these issues, to inform future water-quality 

monitoring planning efforts, and to address relevant National 

Park Service Inventory and Monitoring Program objectives, 

the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the National 

Park Service, compiled, reviewed, and summarized available 

historical (1925 to 2004) water-quality data for 19 park 

units in the Southern Colorado Plateau Network in northern 

Arizona, southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, 

and southern Utah. These parks, which were established 

for their unique and significant cultural and (or) natural 

resources, include 3 national parks, 13 national monuments, 1 

national historic site, 1 national historical park, and 1 national 

recreation area. The 19 park units range in size from about 

34 acres to greater than 1.2 million acres and total almost 2.9 

million acres. Water-quality stressors frequently identified 

as part of the Phase I and II activities of the National Park 

Service Inventory and Monitoring Program included erosion, 

extreme weather events, water withdrawals, trespass grazing, 

urban development, and invasive exotics. 

The National Park Service Southern Colorado Plateau 

Network and the U.S. Geological Survey cooperated in acquisition, organization, management, and synthesis of available 

water-quality data associated with the waters of the Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network parks as part of the Inventory and 

Monitoring Program activities. Electronically available waterquality data were retrieved (as recently collected as January 

2004) for sampling sites located within, adjacent to, and 

upstream from the 19 park areas. Within the boundaries of the 

19 park units, water-quality data were retrieved for 602 sites: 

160 streams or rivers, 160 springs, 207 ponds, lakes or reservoirs, 70 water wells, 3 outfalls, and 2 diversions. Approximately 2,306 different field properties or constituents were 

included in the retrieval. The period of record, data collected, 

and sampling agencies varied among water-quality sites, and 

many sites had data for only one or a few samples. Sampling 

methodology, analytical methods, and quality assurance were 

not available for much of the historical data, which limited 

data comparability and interpretation. 

The water-quality data collected within the boundaries 

of the 19 park units were described in terms of availability 

by major water-quality constituent classes, park unit, site 

type (that is, streams, springs, lakes [including reservoirs, 

ponds or pools], and ground-water sites), and selected identified water sources. Park units were classified as “data rich” 

or “data poor” based on the number and type of samples and 

the period of record to provide a general categorization of 

available water-quality data for individual parks. Data-poor 

parks were those with fewer than 10 samples for any given 

site type and data-rich parks included parks with greater than 

100 water-quality samples for any given site type. Data-poor 

parks for all site types included Aztec Ruins National Monument, Petroglyph National Monument, Rainbow Bridge 

National Monument, Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument, Walnut Canyon National Monument, and Yucca House 

National Monument. Park units with between 10 and 100 

samples for one or more site types included Canyon de Chelly 

National Monument, El Malpais National Monument, El 

Morro National Monument, Hubbell Trading Post National 

Historic Site, Navajo National Monument, Petrified Forest 

National Park, Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument, 

and Wupatki National Monument. Data-rich parks with more 

than 100 samples for one or more site types included Bandelier National Monument, Chaco Culture National Historical 

Park, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Grand Canyon 

National Park, and Mesa Verde National Park. Most of the 

water-quality data collected fell within five constituent classes: 

field properties (8,692 samples), major ions (5,627 samples), 

nutrients (4,403 samples), bacteriological data (3,409 samples), and trace elements (3,305 samples) and most of the 

data were for stream and spring sites. The exception was Glen 

Canyon National Recreation Area, which had a large amount 

of lake data for Lake Powell. 
Summary 105

The report also describes the geology, water resources, 

water-quality issues, data gaps, and water-quality standard 

exceedances identified in five of the park units determined to 

be of high priority. The five park units are Bandelier National 

Monument in New Mexico, Canyon de Chelly National 

Monument in Arizona, Chaco Culture National Historical Park 

in New Mexico, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area in 

Arizona and Utah, and Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado

Statistical summaries of water-quality characteristics 

were presented and considerations for future water-quality 

monitoring were provided for these five park units. For 

these five park units, the field properties analyzed for this 

report were acid neutralizing capacity, dissolved oxygen, 

pH, specific conductance, turbidity, and water temperature. 

Constituent classes analyzed include major ions, nutrients, 

trace elements, and bacteriological data. Selected additional 

constituent classes (for example, radiological constituents or 

synthetic organic compounds) were mentioned where relevant 

to a particular park’s available water-quality data. Streamflow 

data were summarized, where available. Water-quality data 

are strongly site-dependent, and results were assessed within 

this context, especially when a water body was characterized 

on the basis of a small number of sampling points. For 

the purpose of identifying the levels of water-quality field 

properties or constituents that maybe of concern to individual 

parks and the Southern Colorado Plateau Network, recent 

(1988 to 2003) water-quality data were evaluated relative to 

applicable State or Federal water-quality standards or criteria 

for sites located within or near to park boundaries for water 

bodies of interest identified by Southern Colorado Plateau 

Network personnel as high priority. Not all available waterquality data were evaluated (for example, ground water). 

Chaco Culture National Historical Park did not have any 

recent data, and historical data (1976 to 1983) were used to 

characterize the water quality in this park. In most cases, 

chronic aquatic-life and (or) primary- or secondary-recreation 

standards were used to evaluate water-quality data collected in 

evaluated waters due to the importance of ecological integrity 

and recreation to the National Park Service. Occasionally, 

livestock watering, domestic water-supply, or drinking-water 

standards were used for comparing water quality of springs or 

other water-quality data to State standards when no aquaticlife or recreation standards applied. Additional analyses 

included the use of trilinear (Piper) diagrams to characterize 

the chemical composition of selected water bodies and 

comparison of relative concentrations of selected constituents 

between sampling sites. A synthesis of the five park units’ 

water-quality characteristics and implications for future waterquality monitoring activities were also presented. 

Bandelier National Monument is in north-central New 

Mexico on the eastern slopes of the Sierra de los Valles and 

Pajarito Plateau. The monument is composed of two areas: the 

main section is south and southwest of Los Alamos National 

Laboratory and the smaller 800-acre Tsankawi section is 

southeast of Los Alamos National Laboratory. Bandelier 

National Monument includes the perennial Rito de los Frijoles 

(Upper and Lower Frijoles Creek) and five other major northnorthwest- to south-southeast-draining canyons, including 

the Lummis, Alamo, Capulin, Medio, and Sanchez Canyons. 

These canyons receive base flow from springs that discharge 

along the mountain and plateau interface and drain to the Rio 

Grande and Cochiti Lake. A 5.5-mi reach of the Rio Grande 

flows along the southwestern border of the monument and 

captures all of the drainage from the canyons; however, only 

the west bank and associated riparian area are within Bandelier’s boundaries. 

The 1977 La Mesa Fire, the 1996 Dome Fire, and the 

2000 Cerro Grande Fire have resulted in flow-regime changes 

with increased number, magnitude, and frequency of peak 

flows in the Capulin Creek and Rito de los Frijoles drainages. Aquatic biota shifts to disturbance-tolerant invertebrates 

and reduced taxa density were documented as a result of the 

postfire flash flooding associated with these large-scale wildfires, and postfire floods in the monument indicated elevated 

concentrations of selected cations, nutrients (nitrogen and 

phosphorus), and sediment. 

The water-quality sites discussed in this report included 

29 stream sites on Alamo Creek (67 samples), Capulin Creek 

(155 samples), and the Rito de los Frijoles (896 samples), and 

4 springs (155 samples), including Apache, Basalt, Frijoles, 

and Turkey Springs. Most of the data for the evaluated surfacewater and spring sites were values of field properties and 

concentrations of major ions and nutrients. Various organic, 

pesticide, and (or) wastewater compounds were analyzed once 

or twice in samples from the Rito de los Frijoles and from 

Basalt Spring.

For the surface water in BAND, bacteriological contamination from back-country recreational use was identified as a 

water-quality concern in Alamo and Capulin Creeks and 

the Rito de los Frijoles. However, coliform sampling was 

infrequent, so it was not possible to identify whether the few 

exceedances identified (two each in Capulin Creek and the 

Rito de los Frijoles) were isolated occurrences of elevated 

coliform counts or whether exceedances were a regular 

occurrence associated with increased visitor numbers or other 

potential factors. Concerns regarding elevated levels of turbidity may be warranted; however, the cause of these elevated 

values is not clearly established, and natural runoff events may 

well be a factor in elevated turbidity, though recent (September 

2001) sampling did not indicate elevated turbidity levels. The 

few trace-element data do not conform to State requirements 

for filtered fraction samples (for most constituents); therefore, 

determination of compliance with State standards was not 

possible. Censoring levels commonly matched or exceeded 

standard levels, which limited the ability to relate traceelement concentrations to regulatory criteria. Water-quality 

data were sparse for Apache, Basalt, Frijoles, and Turkey 

Springs in the monument and most of the available data were 

collected before 1979. The only spring with recent data is 

Basalt Spring. The volcanic tuff and (or) basalt underlying 

most of the monument are the principal drivers controlling the 

bicarbonate and calcium bicarbonate waters discharging from 
106 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

these springs. Elevated concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus may be a consequence of local runoff, atmospheric 

deposition, trespass grazing near springs, or from transport 

through the aquifer from affected recharge areas outside the 

park. Elevated phosphorus concentrations at Basalt Spring 

also may be derived from apatite and related volcanic minerals 

associated with the underlying basalt.

Canyon de Chelly National Monument is in the high 

plateau area of the Navajo Nation Reservation in 

northeastern Arizona. The monument includes two main 

canyons (Canyon del Muerto and Canyon de Chelly) and two 

smaller canyons (Black Rock Canyon and Monument Canyon) 

along with multiple side canyons and arroyos. Tsaile Creek 

perennially feeds Canyon del Muerto, and Wheatfields and 

Whiskey Creeks (which are perennial in the upper reaches) are 

the principal streams flowing into Canyon de Chelly. Streams 

become intermittent or ephemeral in and near the monument. 

Navajos have used the Canyon de Chelly area for agriculture 

since A.D. 1700, which has contributed to the current state of 

range deterioration and poor condition of the riparian areas 

upstream from and within the monument. The 1996 Navajo 

Nation Watershed Prioritization Study ranked Canyon de 

Chelly watershed as the number one priority out of 18 locally 

identified watersheds for watershed restoration planning and 

project development. 

Water-quality data from 225 samples were evaluated for 

this report and include data for water flowing into the monument from headwater creeks, including samples from Tsaile, 

Wheatfields, Whiskey, and Crystal Creeks and Monument 

Canyon (includes three sites within the park); samples from 

Tsaile and Wheatfields Lakes upstream from the monument; 

and samples from Chinle Wash flowing out of the park. Few 

water-quality data were collected prior to 1995 and few of 

the data were collected inside the monument boundary. Only 

four sites had more than 15 samples collected over the period 

of record. Monument Canyon has only one historical sample 

collected in 1978 and very little data (four samples) were 

collected for Chinle Wash, limiting potential interpretation of 

these waters. Data available from the headwater creeks and 

lakes in this park indicated reduced dissolved oxygen and 

elevated pH and turbidity levels, nutrients (unfiltered nitrogen 

and phosphorus), bacteriological counts (E. coli), suspended 

solids, and possibly elevated residual chlorine, though few 

data were available for this last constituent. Few data were 

available for Chinle Wash, which limited interpretation of 

changes in water quality occurring within the monument from 

natural sources or anthropogenic activities. 

Chaco Culture National Historical Park is a semiarid 

desert steppe in the northwestern corner of New Mexico in 

the center of the San Juan River Basin on the southeastern 

part of the Colorado Plateau. The prominent geomorphic 

feature of the park is Chaco Canyon, which drains the valley from southeast to northwest and is characterized by a 

steep-walled canyon and gentle, sloping mesas. Chaco Wash 

becomes Chaco River near the park’s northwest boundary and 

eventually flows into the San Juan River. The main canyon 

tributaries include Escavada, Fajada, and Gallo Washes and 

several smaller secondary washes and arroyos. Mining (coal 

and uranium) activities along with oil and gas exploration, 

coal-bed methane extraction, power generation, and associated water and residential development in the area surrounding 

the park are considered potential concerns for surface- and 

ground-water quantity and quality in this park. Erosion control 

is among the most critical resource needs of the park to protect 

its cultural resources. 

Water-quality data from 797 surface-water samples were 

collected by the U.S. Geological Survey between January 

1976 and October 1983. To evaluate water quality, the samples 

were divided into the following three stream groupings: Chaco 

Wash and Chaco River, which flow through the center of the 

park; three tributary washes to Chaco Canyon, including Escavada, Fajada, and Gallo Washes; and Kim-me-ni-oli Wash, 

which flows through the western part of the park. More than 

90 percent of the samples were collected from Chaco Wash at 

Chaco National Monument. A large number (more than 500) 

of streamflow measurements, water-temperature measurements, and suspended sediment results were available from 

Chaco Wash; most other field properties and constituents were 

measured or analyzed much less frequently. Because these 

historical data (collected between 1976 and 1983) were the 

only water-quality data available for this area, these data were 

compared to current water-quality standards even though most 

of the current (2007) State water-quality standards were not 

applicable when these samples were collected. 

Data from Chaco Wash generally indicated higher 

concentrations of nutrients and trace elements and more 

exceedances of New Mexico water-quality standards than 

were identified in the other evaluated waters in Chaco Culture National Historical Park. These elevated values may be 

a reflection of natural influences from the Lewis Shale and 

Menefee Formation, which are predominant in the Chaco 

Wash drainage area, or of the current land-use activities. Data 

from Chaco and Kim-me-ni-oli Wash indicated elevated gross 

alpha radioactivity, which could have resulted from weathering 

of radioactive minerals from source bedrock or from mining 

occurring in the contributing area. Concentrations of unfiltered 

nitrogen and phosphorus were elevated in analyses of samples 

from all waters evaluated in Chaco Culture National Historical 

Park and could be related to atmospheric deposition (nitrogen), 

bedrock weathering (primarily phosphorus), and upland and 

semiriparian zone grazing activities. Historical concentrations 

of trace elements were elevated for several constituents in one 

or more analyses of samples from park waters and exceeded 

State criteria for aquatic life for filtered aluminum, beryllium, 

copper, and zinc and for unfiltered mercury and selenium. 

Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, which covers 

more than 1.2 million acres, extends from southeastern Utah 

more than 180 mi into northeastern Arizona. The main feature 

of the park, Lake Powell, covers about 13 percent of the park 

area and terminates at Lees Ferry where the lake outflow 

becomes the Colorado River again. The remaining part of this 

park unit is a landscape of highly dissected red rock canyons, 
Summary 107

cliffs, and plateaus. The Colorado River is the main drainage 

into Lake Powell, and the Paria, Escalante, San Juan, and Dirty 

Devil Rivers are major tributaries that flow into Glen Canyon 

National Recreation Area. More than 90 side canyons fed by 

springs and ephemeral drainages are considered tributaries to 

the main body of Lake Powell. 

Multiple water-resource concerns exist at Glen Canyon 

National Recreation Area, including grazing, off-road vehicle 

use, mineral and energy resource extraction and processing, 

development, and wildfires. Data from 117 surface-water 

samples collected between October 1947 and June 2003 were 

evaluated for this report in one of five stream groupings: 

three primary contributing perennial rivers (the Dirty Devil, 

Escalante, and Paria Rivers) and a composite of samples from 

a group of smaller tributaries that flow into the Escalante 

River or Lake Powell. Water data collected since 1988 from 

the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers were assessed 

according to selected designated uses assigned by the State of 

Utah, including chronic aquatic-life cold and aquatic-life support exceedances and secondary-contact recreation standards. 

Additionally, applicable sections of the Paria River were 

assessed according to designated uses assigned by the State 

of Arizona, including chronic aquatic and wildlife warmwater exceedances and full-body contact standards. A second 

data and exceedance summary was compiled for the smaller 

intermittent or ephemeral tributaries flowing into the Escalante River or Lake Powell with one or more water-quality 

standard exceedance. These 14 waters, all within the Utah 

portion of Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, include five 

tributaries to the Escalante River (Coyote Gulch, East Moody 

Canyon, Harris Wash, Silver Falls Creek, and The Gulch) and 

nine tributaries to Lake Powell (Croton Canyon, Last Chance 

Creek, Little Valley Wash, North Wash, Tibbet Canyon, 

Trachyte Creek, Wahweap Creek, Wesses Canyon, and White 

Canyon Creek). 

During the recent period of record (since 1988) for 

the Dirty Devil, Escalante, and Paria Rivers, frequent 

exceedances of water-quality standards or criteria by values 

of field properties and nutrient concentrations (greater than 

25 percent) included low dissolved oxygen in the Arizona 

section of the Paria River, high turbidity in all three rivers, 

elevated unfiltered phosphorus in all three rivers, and elevated 

unfiltered nitrogen in the Escalante River. Water temperature 

measurements in the Escalante and Paria Rivers exceeded 

selected beneficial use criteria 19 and 15 percent of the 

time, respectively, during this time. Between one and 15 

exceedances of dissolved oxygen, pH, water temperature, or 

unfiltered phosphorus occurred since 1988 in one or more 

of the evaluated tributaries. During the recent period of 

record for the three rivers, filtered trace elements with five or 

more exceedances included aluminum, beryllium, iron, and 

manganese in the Paria River, and barium in the Escalante and 

Paria Rivers. Historical and recent data for filtered selenium in 

the Paria River indicated elevated concentrations. Since 1988, 

one to eight filtered trace element concentrations exceeded 

their standard in analyses of samples collected from 12 of 

the 14 evaluated tributaries. Natural geologic processes and 

multiple anthropogenic factors may contribute to elevated 

concentrations of selected constituents in park waters. Erosion 

can result in high levels of solids and sediment that can lead 

to elevated turbidity, which can in turn result in increased 

water temperatures, increased concentrations of phosphorus 

and selected trace elements, and reduced dissolved oxygen 

concentrations.

Mesa Verde National Park is in southwestern Colorado 

and encompasses much of a prominent mesa with a steep, 

highly eroded escarpment at the northern end of the park. 

Multiple north-south-trending, gently sloping, flat-topped 

ridges separated by rugged canyons drop from the escarpment 

to the Mancos River to form numerous ephemeral drainages. 

The Mancos River is a perennial stream that originates in the 

La Plata Mountains north of Mancos, Colorado, and flows for 

4.7 mi along the eastern park boundary. Numerous springs 

are found throughout the park, discharging primarily from 

the exposed sandstone and shale formations of the Mesaverde 

Group. These springs, although typically very small, compose 

the critical water resources available to wildlife. 

Water-quality issues for the Mancos River, as identified 

in the Inventory and Monitoring Phase II Report, include 

nutrient and bacterial contamination from trespass grazing in 

the Mancos River riparian corridor and from sewage-treatment 

facilities within and upstream from the park. Insecticide and 

algicide applications in and surrounding the park and runoff 

of silt from neighboring gravel pits, streets, unpaved roads, 

and development along the Mancos River corridor upstream 

from the park are also concerns. Metals contamination from 

mining and ore processing in areas adjacent to and upstream 

from the park and potential contamination from natural-gas 

lines crossing the Mancos River upstream from the park are 

additional concerns. Fire (the most recent occurred in 2000) 

and drought have been important factors in and surrounding 

the park. Water-quality issues for the park’s springs, as 

identified during Phase II of the Inventory and Monitoring 

Program, include atmospheric pollutant deposition from coalfired powerplants and oil and gas development in the Four 

Corners area; erosion and water-quality effects from large 

episodic forest fires; and discharge from sewage lagoons in 

Soda, Morefield, and Navajo Canyons. This report focused on 

selected sites on the Mancos River in the vicinity of the park 

and selected springs inside the park. The frequency of waterquality sample collection along the Mancos River has varied 

with few sites offering more than a historical snapshot of 

water-quality conditions with only three sites having 5 or more 

years of record since 1971 (only two sites have been sampled 

since 2000). 

Water-quality data for springs were collected by the 

National Park Service at 36 sites in Mesa Verde National Park; 

one-half of the samples were collected from four springs. 

The Mancos River increases in dissolved ions, particularly 

calcium and sulfate, as it flows from the town of Mancos, 

along the park boundary, and downstream from the park 

toward Johnson Canyon, indicating an increasing effect of 
108 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

drainage from Mancos Shale and Menefee Formation terrains. 

Concentrations of aluminum, selenium, and zinc exceeded 

the State standards one or more times at the sites in or just 

upstream from the park. These elevated concentrations could 

be related to upstream geology or to anthropogenic activities 

such as agricultural or mining activities. The quality of the 

water discharging from springs in Mesa Verde National Park 

appears to be controlled primarily by the surrounding geologic 

formations, resulting in elevated concentrations of nutrients, 

major ions, and selected trace elements. Concentrations of 

aluminum, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, nickel, 

selenium, and zinc each exceeded their respective waterquality standard one or more times. Aluminum concentrations 

were particularly high in samples from two springs and may 

warrant a focused study to evaluate the source. Elevated 

concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus could be related 

to surrounding geology (phosphorus), to fire effects, or to 

activities within or upgradient from the park, including the 

sewage lagoons in the park. 

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Appendix. Overview of Water-Quality Properties of Interest to Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 113

Appendix. Overview of Water-Quality 

Properties of Interest to Southern 

Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 

National Park Service (NPS) natural resource managers 

without a background in water-quality analysis may find some 

background information on the water-quality properties discussed within this report helpful. An overview of the relevance 

of particular field measurements or constituent values is 

provided herein along with definitions of selected properties. 

Known aquatic effects and interrelations between properties 

and constituents also are described, where applicable. 

Field Properties

Commonly measured field properties used for assessing 

water quality include dissolved oxygen concentrations, pH, 

specific conductance, and water temperature; these, along with 

streamflow, are the four core field properties required by the 

NPS for the water-quality monitoring component of the Vital 

Signs Program (Freshwater Workgroup Subcommittee, 2002). 

Additional useful field properties for evaluating water quality 

include acid neutralizing capacity and turbidity.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations vary with water 

temperature, salinity, turbidity, photosynthetic activity of algae 

and plants, and atmospheric pressure, with oxygen solubility 

decreasing as temperatures and salinity increase. Dissolved 

oxygen concentrations can vary seasonally and diurnally (that 

is, over a 24-hour period) relative to biological photosynthetic 

and respiratory activities and water temperature. Because 

oxygen is involved in or influences nearly all chemical and 

biological processes in water, it is a fundamental part of waterquality assessment. One-day average standards for DO vary 

among States for SCPN park areas and range from 6.0 mg/L 

to 7.0 mg/L for cold-water fisheries and from 5.0 mg/L to 

6.0 mg/L for warm-water fisheries, depending on the life stage 

of the fishery being evaluated (table 2). Chronically low DO 

values can result in stressed or reduced fish and macroinvertebrate populations (Chapman, 1998; Giller and Malmqvist, 

1998). 

pH is an important variable in water quality because it 

influences many chemical reactions and biological processes 

within a water body. The pH indicates the acidic or basic 

character of a water body at a given temperature and varies 

as a function of temperature (Chapman, 1998). The chronic 

cold and warm aquatic-life and recreation pH standards for 

Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah range between 6.5 

and 6.6 standard units (SU) for the minimum standard and 

between 8.8 and 9.0 SU for the maximum standard (table 2). 

High pH levels (greater than 9.0 SU) can harm fish by 

denaturing cellular membranes, resulting in reduced biological 

activity (Murphy, 2005). Eutrophic (nutrient-enriched) waters 

can elevate pH and reduce carbon dioxide. Fish also are 

strongly affected by low pH, especially in waters with elevated 

concentrations of aluminum (Giller and Malmqvist, 1998). 

Specific conductance (SC) is the measure of the capacity 

of water to conduct an electric current and is proportional to 

the relative concentrations of dissolved solids and major ions 

(Chapman, 1998). Specific conductivity values reflect the 

concentration of major dissolved ions (for example, common 

anions—bicarbonate, chloride, and sulfate; common cations—

sodium, magnesium, calcium, and potassium) and can 

influence aquatic biota sensitive to high salinity levels or high 

concentrations of selected ions. No water-quality standards 

exist for specific conductance in the SCPN area, except in 

New Mexico, where low (300 μS/cm) and high standards 

(1,500 μS/cm) have been established for high-quality coldwater fisheries. Specific conductance is influenced by flow 

and generally decreases with increasing streamflow. 

As with DO, water temperatures vary seasonally 

and diurnally. Altitude, latitude, season, time of day, air 

circulation, cloud cover, flow, and depth of water all influence 

water temperature, and temperature affects physical, chemical, 

and biological processes in the water column (Chapman, 

1998). Instantaneous water temperature standards for coldand warm-water fisheries range from 20 to 25oC and 27 to 

32.2oC, respectively, depending on the fishery classification 

and State regulations (table 2). Water temperature influences 

biota by affecting metabolic rates and oxygen concentrations 

in the water, while most life history aspects of insects are 

affected by water temperature (Giller and Malmqvist, 1998). 

The rate of chemical reactions and biological functions (for 

example, aquatic organism metabolic rate) increase with 

increasing water temperatures, which can in turn increase 

oxygen consumption, the decomposition of organic matter, 

and the solubility of some constituents and all gases in water 

(Chapman, 1998). 

Acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) is a measure of the 

ability of water to resist or neutralize changes in pH (buffering capacity) and has been more specifically defined as the 

difference between the sum of base cations (Ca+Mg+Na+K) 

and strong acid anions (SO4+NO3+Cl). The closely related 

term alkalinity refers to filtered samples (dissolved into solution), whereas ANC refers to unfiltered samples that include 

the dissolve solutes plus the solid and suspended materials 

(Rounds, July 2006). An “ANC sensitivity scale” for defining the relative buffering capacity of lakes was developed by 

Jeffries and others (1986). The condition of a lake or stream 

improves as the ANC levels increase. ANC levels at or below 

zero are considered “chronically acidic” indicating acidic conditions where the water has lost its capacity to buffer acidity; 

streams with ANC levels below 25 microequivalents per liter 

are considered “transiently acidic” indicating variably acidic 

conditions where the water may retain some limited ability to 

buffer acidity (Lazorchak and others, 2000). 

Turbidity is a physical characteristic of water. It can be 

defined as “an expression of the optical property that causes 

light to be scattered and absorbed by particles and molecules 

rather than transmitted in straight lines through a water 
114 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

sample” (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999, 

p. 7–1). Turbidity can vary seasonally due to changes in 

biological activity in the water and the amount of surface 

runoff. Heavy rainfall events can result in short-term large 

increases in turbidity. Normal turbidity values range from 1 to 

1,000 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU), but measurements 

can be affected by instrument type and calibration, storage of 

samples prior to measurement, settling (during storage), and 

changes in pH. Natural or anthropogenic organic matter such 

as sewage effluent or high suspended-sediment concentrations 

can lead to increased levels of turbidity (Chapman, 1998). 

High turbidity levels may be harmful to fish and their larvae 

because sunlight increases the water temperatures resulting in 

reduced DO concentrations. Additionally, photosynthesis can 

be reduced because of limiting light to aquatic plants (Giller 

and Malmqvist, 1998). 

Major Ions

Commonly evaluated major ions include bicarbonate, 

calcium, chloride, fluoride, magnesium, potassium, silica, 

sodium, and sulfate. These selected cations and anions are 

commonly dissolved in most natural water as a result of 

surface- and ground-water interactions, geology, soil, aquifer 

composition, and human activities. Collectively, major ions are 

used to characterize water types (for example, calcium carbonate water) of various water bodies using techniques such as 

mathematical ratios, ion-concentration diagrams, and trilinear 

(Piper) diagrams (Hem, 1989). 

Nutrients

Nutrients (ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, total nitrogen, 

orthophosphate, and phosphorus) in water can originate from 

various sources, including natural sources (erosion of rocks 

and soil containing phosphorus minerals, organic matter 

decomposition, and atmospheric deposition) and anthropogenic sources (fossil fuel combustion, fertilizers, phosphate 

detergents, and discharges from sewage-treatment facilities, 

septic systems, and animal feedlots). 

Ammonia in water can result from multiple sources, 

including the breakdown of nitrogenous organic and 

inorganic materials in water and soil, human and animal 

wastes, atmospheric gas exchange, selected industrial 

processes, and the reduction of nitrogen gas in water by 

microorganisms (Chapman, 1998). At certain pH levels, 

elevated concentrations of [un-ionized] ammonia (NH3) 

are toxic to aquatic life. State water-quality standards for 

un-ionized ammonia are computed as site-specific table-value 

standard dependent on temperature and pH (table 2). High 

concentrations of ammonia in water (for example, 2 to 3 mg/L 

or higher) are a useful indicator of organic pollution from 

sources such as domestic sewage, fertilizer runoff, or industrial 

waste (Chapman, 1998). Unfiltered ammonia is the sum of 

un-ionized ammonia and the concentration of the ammonium 

ion (NH4

+

) in water. 

Nitrate (NO3

–

) and nitrite (NO2

–

) are present in natural 

waters. Nitrate is the common form of nitrogen in water, but it 

can be biochemically reduced to nitrite through denitrification. 

Typically, nitrite is rapidly oxidized to nitrate and generally is 

not detected or is detected only in very small concentrations 

in surface water. While nitrate and nitrite can occur in ground 

water from soil leaching, elevated concentrations of these constituents in ground water are typically an indication of anthropogenic effects. Industrial and municipal wastes and inorganic 

nitrogen fertilizers can contribute to elevated nitrate concentrations. Weathering of igneous rocks, plant and animal decomposition, and runoff are additional natural sources of nitrate to 

surface waters (Chapman, 1998). Total nitrogen (unfiltered or 

filtered) includes concentrations of nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, 

and organic nitrogen. There are currently (2007) no waterquality standards for total nitrogen in Arizona, Colorado, New 

Mexico, or Utah; therefore, total nitrogen values from surfacewater samples collected in all four States were evaluated using 

the USEPA-recommended ecoregional nutrient criteria for 

rivers and streams (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

2002). 

Phosphorus, which occurs in water in dissolved and 

particulate form, is an essential nutrient for living organisms 

and is generally the limiting nutrient for algal growth and primary productivity in a water body (Chapman, 1998). Natural 

sources of phosphorus include the weathering of phosphorusrich rocks and decomposed organic matter. Anthropogenic 

sources of phosphorus include wastewater (primarily from 

detergents), fertilizer runoff, and industrial effluent. There are 

currently (2007) no water-quality standards for phosphorus in 

Arizona, Colorado, or New Mexico; the USEPA ecoregional 

nutrient criteria for rivers and streams were used to evaluate 

the filtered or unfiltered total phosphorus data from the waters 

in these three States (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

2002). Total phosphorus from an unfiltered sample measures 

all forms of phosphorus in a sample, including dissolved and 

suspended orthophosphate, condensed phosphate, and organic 

phosphate; whereas, total phosphorus measured from a filtered 

sample measures the fraction of the total phosphorus which 

is in solution and not attached to suspended particles (U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, 2006). 

Trace Elements

The term “trace” is a commonly used term for substances 

that regularly occur in concentrations less than 1 mg/L and 

typically include metals as well as radioactive elements and 

organic compounds. Within the context of this report, “trace 

elements” refers to metals and includes iron and manganese, 

though these constituents are often considered major elements. Many trace elements (for example, cobalt, copper, iron, 

manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc) are essential 

elements required, in small quantities, for plant and animal 
Appendix. Overview of Water-Quality Properties of Interest to Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 115

metabolism (Hem, 1989). However, most trace elements in 

large concentrations can be harmful to plants and animals 

and even humans. Both natural (erosion and dissolution of 

elements from source rocks) and anthropogenic sources (fossil 

fuel combustion, industrial and municipal wastewater releases, 

urban and agricultural runoff, solid waste landfills, atmospheric deposition, and mining) contribute trace elements to 

the water. 

Aluminum toxicity to aquatic organisms varies depending 

on its speciation and the life stage of the exposed organisms, 

and it is considered most toxic in its unstable monomeric 

form, which occurs in acidic streams with low pH (Giller and 

Malmqvist, 1998; Baker, 1982). Aluminum can bioaccumulate 

in fish, and effects of high doses of aluminum can affect 

metabolism, cell growth, and respiration (Moiseenko and 

others, 2005). Chronic toxicity information on beryllium is 

generally lacking in comparison to other metals toxicity data; 

however, a study by Hsieh and others (2003) using a Microtox 

chronic toxicity test showed beryllium as the most toxic out of 

13 high-priority pollutant metals. Toxicity in this test indicated 

lowest observable effects concentration (LOEC) ranging 

from 0.742 to 1.49 μg/L for the Vibrio fisheri test species. 

In contrast, USEPA’s acute toxicity value for beryllium, 

based on a 24–96 hour test, was 2,500 μg/L. Another study 

suggested that toxicity of beryllium on fish in acidic waters 

is comparable to aluminum and that beryllium may be an 

important unrecognized contaminant in acidified waters 

(Jagoe and others, 1993). High concentrations of cadmium 

can be toxic and can bioaccumulate in fish depending on the 

calcium carbonate concentration in the water (Moiseenko and 

others, 2005). Cadmium toxicity varies on the basis of the 

amount of free cadmium ions available, the concentrations 

of other metals and ions, and the fish species present (Hem, 

1989; Sunda and others, 1978). Though copper also is one 

of several essential elements required by aquatic organisms 

to support various life processes, high copper concentrations 

are toxic to fish; toxicity varies on the basis of concentrations 

of other metals and major ions in the water, the amount of 

free copper ions, and the fish species (Moiseenko and others, 

2005; Hem, 1989; Sunda and others, 1978). Iron, along with 

other essential microelements, while functionally critical 

to live organisms, can be toxic to aquatic organisms in high 

environmental concentrations (Moiseenko and others, 2005). 

Iron’s chemical behavior is strongly influenced by the pH and 

the oxidation capacity of the water and microbial processes. 

Similar to aluminum, iron particulates are small enough 

to pass through a standard 0.45-μm pore filter resulting in 

elevated “dissolved” concentrations that are actually partially 

composed of colloidal materials (Hem, 1989). Lead is toxic 

to aquatic life and humans and is known to accumulate in 

fish kidneys, liver, and muscles. Mercury is toxic and can 

bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms and humans (Moiseenko 

and others, 2005). Though industrial and commercial uses 

of mercury have been reduced since the 1970s, the volatility 

of mercury and its continued release through the burning of 

coal and other industrial processes has resulted in its being 

widely dispersed throughout the environment (Hem, 1989). 

Selenium, which can be released to water through irrigation 

return flow and coal-fired powerplants as well as from 

seleniferous shales and soils, has been shown to be acutely 

and chronically toxic to aquatic organisms, and controversy 

remains as to appropriate protective numeric criteria (Canton 

and Van Derveer, 1997). Selenium can affect fish populations 

by reducing reproductive success and can bioaccumulate and 

become toxic to adult fish, macroinvertebrates, and other 

aquatic life over time (Lemly, 1999). Excessive concentrations 

of strontium, which often accompanies calcium in the natural 

environment, has a high bioaccumulation capacity and can 

disturb bone tissue and disrupt metabolic processes involving 

the liver and blood (Moiseenko and others, 2005). Strontium, 

along with barium, is sometimes a marker for water produced 

from oil drilling (Mineral Information Institute, 2004). Zinc 

is an important mineral for plant and animal metabolism; 

however, in large concentrations it can be toxic to fish, and it 

is characterized by a synergistic effect resulting in increased 

toxicity when combined with copper (Moiseenko and others, 

2005). Because of its relative abundance (about the same as 

copper or nickel) and its wide use in metallurgical processing 

of bronze and brass, for galvanizing steel, and in paints and 

rubber, zinc is widely dispersed in the environment (Hem, 

1989). Harmful effects on aquatic organisms from excess 

trace elements are variable and somewhat unpredictable, but 

at normal redox and pH conditions, most trace elements are 

adsorbed onto particulate matter, resulting in low dissolvedelement concentrations (Chapman, 1998). 

Solids (Suspended and Dissolved)

Suspended solids are generally defined as the fraction 

that will not pass through a 0.45-μm pore diameter filter; 

whereas, dissolved solids are defined as the fraction able to 

pass through a filter of that size. Turbidity and transparency 

in water are controlled by the type and concentrations of 

suspended materials, which can consist of variously sized silt, 

clay, microorganisms (for example, plankton), and inorganic 

and organic matter. Concentration of suspended solids can 

vary substantially with discharge. Dissolved solids and suspended solids correspond to filterable and nonfilterable residue, respectively. “Residue” applies to the weight of material 

(that is, solids) remaining following evaporation and oven drying of a water sample at a given temperature and is approximately equal to the total dissolved and suspended materials 

in water, recognizing that about one-half of the bicarbonate in 

the sample is transformed and volatilized as carbon dioxide 

(Chapman, 1998). 

The results of these measurements are highly dependent 

upon the specific methods and drying temperature used 

due to variable volatility of organic and inorganic materials 

dissolved or suspended in water. Hem (1989, p. 156) indicates 

that the different drying temperatures, which typically are 

in the 103oC to 105oC or 180oC range, “do not produce 
116 Review of Available Water-Quality Data for Southern Colorado Plateau Network, 1925 to 2004

significantly different results for most of the more dilute 

natural waters compared with other factors that may influence 

this determination.” Dissolved solids also can be approximated 

by the sum of the dissolved concentrations of the major ions 

but is dependent on several assumptions and can result in a 

significantly different result than results obtained by residue 

left by evaporation methods; likewise, specific conductance 

also can provide an indication of the content of dissolved 

solids in water (Hem, 1989). Historical dissolved- and 

suspended-solids data without corresponding methodological 

information (unfortunately typical of these types of data) 

are of limited analytical utility and were only considered 

approximate when comparing sites and samples in this report. 

Elevated suspended-solids concentrations can affect 

natural food production at concentrations of 250 mg/L and can 

interfere with reproduction of some fish at 500 mg/L (Johnson, 

1985). Concentrations of dissolved solids greater than 2,000 

mg/L are known to adversely affect some sensitive fish species 

and younger stages of some fish species (Johnson, 1985; U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency Office Of Water, 2004). 

Bacteriological Organisms

While water quality is highly dependent on the purifying 

processes of many natural bacterial communities, some types 

of microorganisms are associated with human and animal 

waste and have been linked to human health problems; 

therefore, the risk of infection is increased to those who use 

contaminated water for drinking, food preparation, personal 

hygiene, and recreation. The survival of bacteria in water 

is dependent on the overall quality of the receiving water, 

including turbidity, oxygen concentrations, temperature, and 

nutrients. Once introduced into the water, some bacteria can 

adsorb onto clay, sand, and sediment, which can result in 

accumulation of bacteria in lakes and rivers. Bacterial counts 

and microbial source tracking for microorganisms of fecal 

origin (for example, Escherichia coli, the normal mammalian 

intestinal bacteria often used as an indicator organism, and 

other fecal coliforms such as fecal streptococci) are common 

practices to establish safe levels for various types of water 

use such as drinking or recreation and to evaluate and 

potentially reduce potential human and animal sources for 

the contamination. Natural surface waters, even in remote 

areas, may contain up to 100 organisms per 100 mL, but 

ground water does not contain any fecal bacteria unless it 

is contaminated (Chapman, 1998). Additional microscopic 

particles of potential concern are viruses (for example, 

hepatitis) and other pathogens (for example, Salmonella); 

however, it is not common practice to test for these in waterquality monitoring programs, and no data for these other types 

of constituents were compiled as part of the data compilation 

effort for this report. Microbial testing for fecal bacteria is 

a sensitive technique subject to sample contamination and 

holding times, and enumeration of specific types of colonies 

is dependent on methodology. Positive results are an indicator 

of recent contamination, but the absence of organisms in a 

particular sample does not assure the absence of contamination 

(Chapman, 1998). 

Organic Compounds

All natural waters contain some organic compounds; 

much of it is derived from living material undergoing natural 

processes (for example, plant photosynthesis and terrestrial 

organic matter transported to a water body), but some of it can 

derive from human sources such as wastewater. The amount 

of organic matter in water is typically small in comparison to 

dissolved inorganic constituent concentrations; however, even 

small amounts of organic materials can have significant effects 

on water’s chemical behavior such as metals solubility, redox 

reactions, and microbiological behavior in the aquatic environment (Chapman, 1998). Organic compounds can be considered 

in terms of naturally occurring organic materials and synthetic 

organic compounds that are released through the waste streams 

into our environment, including wastewater-treatment effluent, industrial discharges, atmospheric deposition, agricultural 

and urban runoff, and septic systems. Concentrations of total 

organic compounds are typically approximated in terms of dissolved (DOC) and total organic carbon (TOC), though related 

field properties such as chemical oxygen demand (COD) or 

biological oxygen demand (BOD) also can be used as indicators of organic contamination above “natural” background 

levels (Chapman, 1998). Measuring DOC and (or) TOC is not 

frequent in most monitoring programs, and few water-quality 

monitoring programs analyze for synthetic organic compounds 

due to the difficulty of obtaining an uncontaminated sample 

and the expense of the analytical determinations. 

Radiological Constituents

Naturally occurring and manmade radioactive constituents or radionuclides can be found in surface and ground 

waters and are derived from rocks and soil or from nuclear 

reactions that can release radioactivity into the environment. 

Radionuclides common in ground water include radon-222, 

radium-226, uranium-238, uranium-234 (from the uranium-238 decay series), and radium-228 (thorium-232 decay 

series). The occurrence and distribution of radionuclides in 

ground water is principally controlled by the surrounding geology, hydrogeology, and geochemical environment (Zapecza 

and Szabo, 1986). The effects of radiation on aquatic organisms, including increased mortality, genetic mutation, and 

reproductive loss, have been studied by many; radionuclides 

can accumulate in bottom sediments and remain dissolved in 

the water, both of which can be sources for bioaccumulation in 

aquatic organisms (Blaylock and others, 1993). 

Measurements of radionuclides can be expressed in terms 

of specific nuclides as a rate of radioactive disintegration 

(for example, picocuries per liter, pCi/L) or in chemical units 

(micrograms or milligrams per liter). Alternatively they can be 
Appendix. Overview of Water-Quality Properties of Interest to Southern Colorado Plateau Network Park Units 117

measured in more general terms such as total gross alpha or 

beta activity. Regardless of the type of measurement and units 

used for radionuclides, careful consideration of the censoring 

levels is warranted as results are commonly reported as 

nondetect and therefore do not provide adequate information 

to determine actual background levels (Hem, 1989), thus 

limiting the utility of these data. 

Hem (1989) reported uranium measured in concentrations 

between 0.1 and 10 μg/L in natural waters (with concentrations greater than 10 mg/L in water associated with uraniumore deposits); uranium-238 is the predominant isotope of 

natural uranium and is considered weakly radioactive. Radium 

isotopes are strongly radioactive and detectable at trace 

concentrations; of these, radium-226 (disintegration product 

of thorium-238) and radium-228 (one of the disintegration 

products of thorium-232) are generally evaluated as a sum of 

the two in terms of water-quality standards. Typical concentrations of radium in most natural waters are less than uranium 

and generally less than 1.0 pCi/L, though higher concentrations associated with deep aquifers or in areas affected by 

uranium and phosphate mining can occur. The effectiveness of 

the analytical procedures used to determine the amount of different radium isotopes present in water has historically favored 

measuring alpha-emitting particles such as radium-226 instead 

of beta-emitting particles such as radium-228 and did not 

always distinguish between radium isotopes and radon (Hem, 

1989), which are considerations when evaluating historical 

data lacking specifics on analytical methodology. 

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