Natural Resource Program Center

1201 Oakridge Drive

Fort Collins, CO 80525

www.nature.nps.gov

E X P E R I E N C E Y O U R A M E R I C A

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Program Center
National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and 

Monitoring Workshop

St. John, U. S. Virgin Islands, July 11-13, 2006

Technical Report NPS/NRPC/WRD/NRTR-2007/015

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Program Center
On the cover: USGS divers Erinn Muller and Tony Spitzack monitor coral disease on Newfound Reef, St. John, US Virgin Islands.

Above: NPS biologists Jeff Miller and Rob Waara monitor coral cover at Tektite Reef, Virgin Islands National Park, St. John, USVI.

Photographs by Caroline Rogers. 
National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and 

Monitoring Workshop

St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands, July 11-13, 2006

Technical Report NPS/NRPC/WRD/NRTR-2007/015

Dr. Caroline S. Rogers

US Geological Survey, Caribbean Field Station, 1300 Cruz Bay Creek, St. John, VI 00830

Gary E. Davis

Visiting Chief Scientist, Ocean Programs, National Park Service, 1201 Eye Street NW, 11th Floor (2301)

Washington, D.C. 20005

Cliff McCreedy

Marine Management Specialist, National Park Service, 1201 Eye Street, NW, 11th Floor (2301)

Washington, D.C. 2005

February 2007

U.S. Department of the Interior

National Park Service

Natural Resource Program Center

Fort Collins, Colorado
ii National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

The Natural Resource Publication series addresses natural resource topics that are of interest 

and applicability to a broad readership in the National Park Service and to others in the management of natural resources, including the scientific community, the public, and the NPS 

conservation and environmental constituencies. Manuscripts are peer-reviewed to ensure 

that the information is scientifically credible, technically accurate, appropriately written for 

the audience, and is designed and published in a professional manner.

The Natural Resource Technical Reports series is used to disseminate the peer-reviewed results of scientific studies in the physical, biological, and social sciences for both the advancement of science and the achievement of the National Park Service’s mission. The reports provide contributors with a forum for displaying comprehensive data that are often deleted from 

journals because of page limitations. Current examples of such reports include the results of 

research that addresses natural resource management issues; natural resource inventory and 

monitoring activities; resource assessment reports; scientific literature reviews; and peer reviewed proceedings of technical workshops, conferences, or symposia.

Views and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect 

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not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the National Park Service.

Printed copies of reports in these series may be produced in a limited quantity and they are 

only available as long as the supply lasts. This report is also available from the Natural Resource Publications Management Web site (http://www.nature.nps.gov/publications/NRPM) 

on the Internet, or by sending a request to the address on the back cover.

Please cite this publication as:

Rogers, Caroline S., and Gary E. Davis, and Cliff McCreedy. 2007. National Parks and 

Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop: St. John, U.S. Virgin 

Islands, July 11-13, 2006. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NRPC/WRD/NRTR2007/015. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS D-90, February 2007
 National Park Service iii

Contents

Figures iv

Appendixes v

Acknowledgments vi

INTRODUCTION 1

Purpose of This Synthesis 1

Workshop Structure 1

BACKGROUND 3

Marine Reserve Establishment 3

KEY WORKSHOP FINDINGS 9

Reserve Goals and Expectations 9

Reserve Locations and Contents 9

Community Compliance and Effective Enforcement 9

Connectivity within the Caribbean and Western 

Atlantic 10

Reserve Effects on Humans 10

Reserve Effects on Fish and Other Harvested Species 11

Reserve Effects on Coral Reefs and Other Benthic 

Habitats 11

Research, Monitoring, and Information Management 12

Marine Reserves Alone Are Not Sufficient 13

North American Network of Marine Protected Areas 14

CONCLUSIONS 17

Workshop Outcomes 17

SUMMARY FINDINGS, 

RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND 

RECOMMENDATIONS 21

Reserve Goals and Expectations 21

Reserve Locations and Contents 21

Community Compliance and Effective Enforcement 21

Connectivity within the Caribbean and Western 

Atlantic 21

Reserve Effects on Humans 22

Reserve Effects on Fish and Other Harvested Species 22

Reserve Effects on Coral Reefs and Other Benthic 

Habitats 22

Research, Monitoring, and Information Management 23

Recommendations 23

LITERATURE CITED 25
iv National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

Figure 1. Map of Buck Island Reef 

National Monument.

Figure 2. Map of Dry Tortugas 

National Park showing Research 

Natural Area.

Figure 3. Map of Virgin Islands 

Coral Reef National Monument, 

Virgin Islands National Park.

Figures
 National Park Service v

Appendix A. List of participants27

Appendix B. Presentations 31

Appendix C. Virgin Islands 

National Monument 

Proclamations and Dry Tortugas 

National Park Research Natural 

Area Designation 35

Proclamation 7392—Boundary Enlargement and 

Modifications of the Buck Island Reef National 

Monument 35

Proclamation 7399—Establishment of the Virgin 

Islands Coral Reef National Monument 36

Dry Tortugas National Park Research Natural Area 

38

Appendixes
vi National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

 Support for this workshop was provided by the 

National Park Service Office of International 

Affairs and the Water Resources Division, the 

US Geological Survey, and the Friends of Virgin 

Islands National Park. Special thanks to Sasha 

Wright with the National Park Service South 

Florida Caribbean Inventory and Monitoring 

Network for producing the excellent maps.

Acknowledgments
 National Park Service vii

 National Park Service 1 

Oceans are in serious trouble for several reasons, 

not the least of which is unsustainable fishing (Hutchings 2000, Jackson et al. 2001, Pauly 

et al. 2002, USCOP 2004, Worm et al. 2006). 

Separating the effects of pollution, invasive species, diseases, and ocean warming from fishing is 

critical, if resource managers are to move beyond 

reactively treating symptoms of stress to addressing the underlying causes of degradation. Places 

where scientists can study ocean ecosystems 

without influences of fishing are extremely rare 

in the United States. Fishing occurs in more 

than 99% of U. S. waters, including units of the 

National Park System (parks). Recently, marine 

reserves (reserves), i.e., marine protected areas 

(MPAs) in which extractive uses are prohibited 

entirely or restricted to take of a few pelagic or 

other species, were established in and around 

five national parks (Buck Island Reef National 

Monument, Channel Islands National Park, Dry 

Tortugas National Park, Glacier Bay National 

Park and Preserve, Virgin Islands Coral Reef 

National Monument). These reserves provide 

an unparalleled opportunity to study the effects 

of fishing in tropical, temperate, and sub-arctic 

ecosystems at scales ranging from thousands to 

hundreds of thousands of hectares. National 

Park Service policy allows recreational fishing 

and commercial fishing authorized by statute or 

regulation. Park managers need to ensure that 

fishing does not cause unacceptable impacts to 

natural resources and processes.

In July 2006, the National Park Service (NPS) 

and U. S. Geological Survey (USGS) held 

an international workshop on St. John, U. S. 

Virgin Islands (USVI), to discuss research, 

monitoring, and management experiences with 

MPAs in Florida and the Caribbean in order 

to identify opportunities for future research 

and monitoring in the new reserves in Buck 

Island Reef National Monument (BUIS), Dry 

Tortugas National Park (DRTO), Virgin Islands 

Coral Reef National Monument (VICR), and in 

nearby Virgin Islands National Park (VIIS). The 

emphasis of this workshop was on evaluation 

of reserve performance, not on reserve 

design or establishment processes. A primary 

objective of the workshop was to assist NPS in 

making science-based management decisions 

on marine reserves. Specifically, NPS needs 

to know the consequences, both social and 

ecological, of changing fishing practices in these 

parks. An experiment was begun with reserve 

establishment. Now we need to take advantage 

of this unique opportunity and directly measure 

the effects of removing fishing from these 

ecosystems.

Workshop participants included thirty 

scientists and managers from the United States 

(including Puerto Rico and the U. S. Virgin 

Islands), Mexico, the Bahamas, Belize, St. Lucia, 

Barbados, Colombia, and the British Virgin 

Islands (see Appendix A for List of Participants).

Purpose of This Synthesis

The purpose of this document is to synthesize 

the highlights of the ideas that emerged from the 

workshop discussions, particularly those relevant 

to the NPS marine reserves, not to summarize 

the presentations and discussion group reports. 

The workshop presentations are listed in Appendix B and are available at the following website: 

www1.nature.nps.gov/im/units/sfcn/viismtg.cfm.

Workshop Structure

Workshop participants explored four themes: 

1) Expectations and Goals of Marine Reserves, 

2) Connectivity, 3) Research and Monitoring, 

and 4) Next Steps. Connectivity here is used in 

a very broad sense to include ecological, social, 

and management connectivity. A particular effort 

was made to integrate socioeconomic aspects of 

marine reserves into the workshop. The objective 

was for participants to learn from each other 

about the performance of marine reserves in the 

western Atlantic and Caribbean and to apply 

the “lessons learned” specifically to the three 

National Park Service marine reserves in this 

region.

In his keynote address, Rafe Boulon, Chief of 

Resource Management for Virgin Islands National Park, framed the issues and opportunities for 

research and monitoring with an overview of 

MPAs in the USVI and introductions to VICR, 

BUIS, and VIIS.

While we focused on the USVI and Dry 

Tortugas, Florida, in this workshop, we recognize 

that the ideas and concepts could have application to other regions as well. We also recognize 

that “connectivity” has many meanings and 

applications, both social and ecological. We 

explored this core concept for ocean stewardship 

in the widest possible context of multiple scales 

of time and space, and in its many manifestations 

including: Ecological—food web, competition; 

Geographical—ocean currents; Natural history—

larval dispersal, settlement habitats; Social—

people to nature, within human communities; 

and Economic—fisheries, tourism.

INTRODUCTION

 National Park Service 3

Ocean and coastal resources have been included 

in the National Park System since the establishment of Acadia National Park in 1916, with a 

total of 74 units established for their beauty, 

national significance and educational value. The 

National Park Service is charged with conserving the cultural and natural resources of ocean 

parks unimpaired for current and future generations. However, as people move to the coasts 

(56% U. S. population now, 75% projected in 25 

years), the National Park Service must contend 

with recreational demands, consumptive uses of 

coastal resources, and increased development of 

coastal watersheds adjacent to and within park 

units. Major park stewardship issues include the 

same issues that concern other coastal managers: 

fishing, habitat fragmentation and destruction, 

pollution, unsustainable uses, disturbance, and 

invasive species. In the National Park System, 

resource managers and scientists are hindered in 

many cases by a poor understanding of marine 

resource conditions and undocumented human impacts. Park managers also must contend 

with inadequate understanding of the underlying causes of ecological degradation, which in 

turn hinders their ability to effectively mitigate 

impacts. This lack of capacity hinders efforts to 

restore degraded marine ecosystems, maintain 

populations of targeted fish species and sustain 

fishing opportunities.

National Park managers and scientists must also 

consider the problem of “shifting baselines”. In 

1995, Daniel Pauly noted that each generation of 

fisheries scientists thinks of the baseline for fish 

species composition and abundance as the level 

existing when they first started their studies, and 

as stocks decline further, each successive generation accepts the new level as the new baseline 

against which to measure changes (Pauly 1995, 

Pauly et al. 2002). This “shifting baseline” syndrome is also applicable to evaluation of changes 

in coral reefs. It can result in a failure to recognize just how dramatic the changes have been 

and how urgent the need is for greater resource 

protection.

In recent years, marine reserves were created 

in four parks (Dry Tortugas NP, Buck Island 

NM, Virgin Islands Coral Reef NM, and Channel Islands NP) and parts of Glacier Bay NP 

were closed to provide increased protection 

for marine life and habitats. The new reserves 

are essentially a series of landscape-scale trials in Alaska, California, Florida, and the U. S. 

Virgin Islands. No-take reserves in parks of the 

1950s and 1960s (i.e., areas with no fishing or 

other extractive uses) were on the order of 10s 

of hectares in extent. The National Park System 

now presents opportunities to examine reserves 

that range in size from 2,000 ha to 140,000 ha 

in diverse systems with multiple scales of treatments. Time is passing, the trials are underway, 

and ecosystems are changing in response to the 

treatments. As yet, NPS does not have enough 

research and monitoring in place to learn how to 

effectively advance the science for understanding 

ecosystem dynamics and to improve conservation strategies. Research and monitoring together 

support the cornerstone of area-based stewardship and adaptive management—knowledge and 

understanding of ecosystems, including people. 

Other key elements of stewardship include restoration ecology and connecting people to these 

special places.

Marine Reserve Establishment

In January 2001, President Clinton established 

5,145 ha Virgin Islands Coral Reef National 

Monument off St. John and expanded Buck 

Island Reef National Monument off St. Croix 

to 7,627 ha. All fishing is prohibited in BUIS 

and only blue runner (pelagic jacks) and baitfish in Hurricane Hole may be taken in VICR. 

The National Park Service, which also manages 

Virgin Island National Park off St. John and Salt 

River Bay National Historic Park and Ecological 

Reserve off St. Croix, administers these new national monuments.

At Dry Tortugas National Park, NPS is currently 

promulgating regulations that will allow fishing 

to continue in just over half of the park, and create a 15,700 ha marine reserve called a Research 

Natural Area (RNA) that complements two 

reserves adjacent to the park established in the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary. The three Dry Tortugas reserves together will total 67,235 ha. Recreational fishing 

and other resource consumptive activities will 

not be allowed in the DRTO-RNA. Commercial 

tour providers and private boaters will be required to use mooring buoys, and anchoring will 

be prohibited in the reserve to prevent damage to 

corals and other delicate organisms.

Marine reserves have been established throughout the world with a variety of goals, most often 

conservation of biodiversity and enhancement 

of fisheries (Sobel and Dahlgren 2005). The national monument proclamations for VICR and 

BUIS did not explicitly cite these objectives or 

use these phrases, but their terminology is largely 

BACKGROUND
4 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

Figure 1. Map of Buck Island Reef 

National Monument. ecological, and the goal is clearly to increase the 

protection for coral reefs, sea grass beds, and 

other interdependent habitats and species. Both 

proclamations specifically mention the objective 

of sustaining “the tropical marine ecosystem”. 

Likewise, both proclamations specifically refer 

to protection of spawning aggregations and the 

whole range of habitats needed to support the 

different life stages of reef-associated organisms, 

many of which settle as larvae in shallow nearshore habitats and then move to deeper water as 

they mature. The concept of ecological connectivity is implied in the BUIS Proclamation with 

its reference to oceanic currents transporting 

planktonic larvae of reef organisms. The VICR 

Proclamation refers to the extensive mangrove 

habitat within Hurricane Hole as a nursery area 

“essential to the overall functioning and productivity of regional fisheries.”

In the 1960s, when Buck Island Reef National 

Monument and the marine area of Virgin Islands 

National Park were established, very small areas 

less than 50 ha each (the Marine Garden and 

Trunk Bay) were set aside as “no take” zones. 

These proved to be insufficient to sustain resources. Now NPS has a few areas over 5,000 ha 

to test. How effective will these be in restoring 

or sustaining ecosystem integrity, stability, and 

capacity for self-renewal in the face of extreme 

natural events, ocean warming, coral diseases, 

increasing acidity of the ocean, and pollution?

Dr. Alan Friedlander pointed out some of the 

shortcomings of other fishery management 

tools. For example, rotational closures in Hawaii 

have not been effective (Williams et al. 2006). 

In addition, while quotas and size limits can be 

helpful, some gear types, such as gill nets that kill 

all species they catch, are especially destructive.
 National Park Service 5

Figure 2. Map of Dry Tortugas 

National Park showing Research 

Natural Area.

- 0 1 2 4

Kilometers

Atlantic Ocean

Garden

Key

0 1 2 4

Miles

Loggerhead

Key

Tortugas Ecological

Reserve North

Dry Tortugas

National Park (DRTO)

Boundary

Research Natural Area (RNA) Boundary

Bush Key

Long Key

RNA Area= 11998 Hectares

DRTO Area=

26228 Hectares

Historic

Preservation Adaptive Use

Area
6 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop 

Figure 3. Map of Virgin Islands Coral 

Reef National Monument, Virgin Islands National Park.

Total VICRNM Area= 5153 Hectares

ST20

ST10

- 0 0.5 1 2

Kilometers

Sir Francis Drake Channel

Coral Bay

Reef Bay

Virgin Islands

Coral Reef

National Monument

(VICRNM)

0 0.5 1 2

Miles

Eagle

Shoal

VICRNM

VICRNM

VICRNM

Atlantic Ocean

Caribbean Sea

St. John

Virgin Islands National Park Boundary
 National Park Service 7

 National Park Service 9

Ocean resources in all three NPS reserves in 

Florida and the Caribbean have been degraded, 

and greater protection clearly was warranted. 

One overarching question is whether or not the 

marine reserves will help reverse the declines 

and restore ecosystem structure and function. 

Fishing is just one of many stressors. Will removing it improve ecosystem integrity, stability, beauty, and capacity for selfrenewal? Will it improve 

the capacity for ecosystems to better endure 

or mitigate effects of other stressors? Marine 

reserves offer the opportunity to separate the 

effects of fishing from those of other factors and 

thereby improve understanding of ecosystem 

functioning.

Reserve Goals and Expectations

Biodiversity has some inherent limitations as a 

reserve goal because existing reserves may not 

contain the full range of habitats needed for 

sustainability—a gap analysis may be needed to 

determine if they are ‘complete.’ Also, since not 

all habitats have equal value there is a need to 

identify limiting factors, such as critical habitats 

for recruitment and reproduction.

Persistence is required to restore and ensure 

resilience of coral reefs. Like treating accident 

victims, other reserves in the region have gone 

through three phases of development: 1) establishment—“stop the bleeding,” 2) enhance 

conditions within the reserve—“start the breathing,” and 3) enhance conditions adjacent to the 

reserve—“get in shape.”

Compliance and effective enforcement are based 

on education and outreach, not only on surveillance and authority. Education and outreach are 

critical. People need to have realistic expectations or they may lose faith in civic institutions. 

For example, real benefits of reserves are more 

likely to increase reproductive capacity and system capacity for self-renewal, not spillover and 

growth of fish for people to catch.

Reserve Locations and Contents

Baseline information is needed to evaluate 

changes in reserves. In particular, deep-water 

areas in VICR and BUIS need better habitat 

characterizations, movement patterns of juvenile and adult organisms need to be discovered, 

and larval movements need to be documented 

to improve and calibrate population replenishment models. NPS needs more high resolution, 

near-shore, ocean current and bathymetry data. 

NPS needs to help NOAA and USGS harmonize 

habitat mapping and site characterizations so the 

products are useful for park managers.

Relative to earlier reserves in this region, these 

new reserves may seem large. However, they may 

not work as well as people expect or would like 

as they may not be ecologically complete and/or 

large enough. Although in total the three Dry 

Tortugas reserves [the existing ones and the new 

RNA (approved in November 2006)] are three 

times the size of the USVI reserves, they still may 

not be large enough to contain all of the components, including sufficient juvenile recruitment 

and spawning habitat, necessary to sustain the 

resources they encompass. For example, DRTO 

has very little mangrove habitat and BUIS contains no mangrove communities or shallow seagrass beds that are important nurseries for many 

fishes and lobster.

When the proclamations for the NPS reserves in 

the USVI were made in 2001, very little information on the resources within the new boundaries 

existed, particularly in deep water. BUIS extends 

to depths of 1,500 m, and VICR reaches depths 

greater than 50 m. Within the last few years, fish 

surveys by NOAA and NPS, and cruises on the 

NOAA ships Nancy Foster and Ron Brown have 

added to the information for these deeper sites, 

revealing new species. Nevertheless, NPS managers still lack detailed information on resources 

within the monuments. Recent surveys revealed 

that the swath separating the eastern and western 

portions of the south side of VICR actually contains better-developed coral reefs on the midshelf than those inside the monument (Monaco 

et al. 2007). NPS and the USVI government are 

working with the Delegate to Congress to swap 

this area for an area of equivalent size just west 

of the eastern boundary. NPS resource managers expressed an interest in identification of “hot 

spots” i.e., areas of particularly high biodiversity, 

within and near the reserves.

Community Compliance and Effective 

Enforcement

Demarcation of the boundaries for the VI monuments is particularly difficult because of the 

expense of installing and maintaining boundary markers (buoys) in deep water. In fact, it is 

not possible to mark much of the boundary of 

the BUIS because depths exceed 1,000 meters. 

Establishing clear and identifiable boundaries 

is critical for compliance and effective enforcement. In one recent case, a fisher from St. Croix 

was cited for fishing within the reserve but was 

not charged because he claimed he would need a 

GPS to locate the reserve boundary and the regKEY WORKSHOP FINDINGS
10 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

Puerto Rico.

If the reserves are largely dependent on local 

habitats and fish assemblages for larvae for replenishment, local management becomes even 

more critical. More research, such as that done 

off St. Croix on bluehead wrasse showing that 

fish larvae are locally retained, is necessary 

(Warner et al. 2000, Hamilton et al. 2006). In 

addition, further research on movement of adult 

fishes and how they use habitats in time and 

space is needed for a better understanding of 

connectivity among reefs, reserves, and adjacent 

exploited areas. NOAA has just begun a tagging 

and telemetry study of several species of fishes 

within VIIS and VICR.

Dr. Chuck Birkeland noted that when investigating connectivity, it is not always clear just which 

species to select for study. He also highlighted 

the need to consider not only dispersal of larvae 

but also their survivability—in other words, larvae must settle in habitat that is suitable for their 

growth and survival.

Future research should focus on the role of the 

VICR, BUIS, and DRTO reserves in the overall 

region (Western Atlantic and Caribbean); the 

possible links between St. Croix and St. John 

(i.e., BUIS, VICR, and VIIS), between VIIS and 

VICR, and between BUIS and the East End Marine Park.

Reserve Effects on Humans

Basic information is needed to identify and 

characterize demographics of local reserve 

stakeholders, to describe changes in human 

use of ocean resources, and measure attitudes, 

beliefs, and values related to reserves. Regional 

fishery data, e.g., geo-referenced landings and 

effort, are needed to evaluate effects of reserves 

on fishers and fisheries, as well as to evaluate 

resource conditions. It is important to learn how 

reserves have affected local or regional markets 

for fishery products or other facets of fishing 

(gear purchases, social communities). Currently, 

most available socio-economic data are gathered 

at too coarse a scale to detect or describe marine 

reserve effects. Potential partners in addressing 

these issues include NOAA Sanctuaries, the 

National Marine Protected Area Center, 

international fishery management councils, and 

academics.

The frequency, extent, and nature of 

management agency interactions with the 

public can be good measures of effectiveness. 

Dr. Manuel Valdez-Pizzini and Dr. Daniel 

Suman noted that there are tools that provide 

guidance for gaining the support of the people 

ulations do not require fishers to own GPS units.

Enforcing reserve regulations that prohibit fishing is critically important for a number of reasons. Even a relatively small level of fishing effort 

can have substantial negative consequences. If 

reserves do not effectively reduce fishing mortality to near zero, scientific endeavors to measure 

reserve effects will be futile. Also, fishers want 

to see consistent enforcement. Lack of sufficient 

enforcement staff is a universal problem. Some 

of the most effective reserves are those that have 

the broadest public support. If fishers and others 

support the reserves, less enforcement is necessary. To build trust and support, fishers can be 

enlisted to help with management of reserves. 

For example, in Banco Chinchorro, Mexico, 

fishers are provided with radios to help patrol reserve waters and report violations. In the USVI, 

federal and territorial fishing regulations need to 

be updated and harmonized.

Connectivity within the Caribbean and 

Western Atlantic

The degree of connectivity among marine reserves and other MPAs has very significant 

management implications for the region. Dr. Bob 

Cowen presented a model of current patterns 

and potential dispersal of reef fish larvae within 

the Caribbean (see Cowen et al. 2000, Cowen 

et al. 2006). The model is based on the number 

of days that larvae remain viable and on current 

direction and velocity. It is possible to show the 

size and shape of the area (“dispersal kernel”) 

that larvae can potentially reach from a particular source and to identify areas of suitable habitat. Dr. Cowen demonstrated that incorporation 

into the model of vertical transport of larvae, 

rather than just passive transport in the currents, 

substantially changed the “dispersal kernel”. 

Jamaica and possibly St. Croix appear to be 

more isolated than many other land masses. Dr. 

Cowen identified a need for more shallow water 

bathymetry and current data, and a finer resolution model for the U. S. Virgin Islands.

Significantly, although most marine organisms 

have planktonic larvae that can be dispersed 

over large distances, evidence to date suggests 

that most larvae of reef-associated animals come 

from within 10s of kilometers rather than 100s of 

kilometers away. This finding suggests the need 

for more closely-linked reserves throughout the 

region. Dr. Cowen’s model focused on fish larvae. A similar model of the transport of elkhorn 

coral larvae throughout the Caribbean has been 

presented by Dr. Iliana Baums and co-workers 

(Baums et al. 2005). It suggests some separation 

of elkhorn populations in eastern and western 

regions of the Caribbean, with mixing near 
 National Park Service 11

to coral reefs. They prey on other invertebrate 

carnivores and grazers in reef systems. Removing large lobsters reduces the biodiversity and 

resilience of the entire system. It became clear 

that the potential reproductive contribution of a 

large population of big lobsters at Dry Tortugas, 

upstream from the Florida Keys, could greatly 

benefit lobster fisheries near and far. In 1974, 

NPS, with concurrence of the State of Florida, 

created a 26,000 ha lobster sanctuary, protecting lobsters in both juvenile and adult habitats. 

Nearly 30 years later, when male lobsters finally 

grew large enough to mate with large females, the 

large females at Dry Tortugas began producing 

huge quantities of eggs. Soon they were pouring millions of larvae into the ocean currents 

that swirl around the Florida Keys, before they 

settled into juvenile habitats in Florida Bay and 

Biscayne Bay and eventually entered the Florida 

Keys fisheries.

The lobster fishery’s success appears to be based 

on a network of reserves that protects significant 

portions of lobster populations throughout their 

life cycle in adult and juvenile habitats. The reserves complement traditional socio-economic 

measures that control fishing effort and allocate 

resources among diverse interest groups with 

gear restrictions, fishing seasons, and bag limits. 

The cascading effects of fishing, that is, the effects of fishing on other components of the ecosystem, are not well understood (see Newman 

et al. 2006). Likewise, the effects of removing 

fishing pressure are not well comprehended. 

Within VICR, fishing of the pelagic blue runners 

(Caranx crysos) is permitted at a few locations, 

and fishing of baitfish in Hurricane Hole is allowed. The possible effects of allowing fishing of 

these species and their roles in both pelagic and 

benthic ecosystems are not well enough known 

to predict impacts.

Another “unknown” is the likelihood of an increase in the number of apex predators, including sharks, as a result of reserve establishment 

(Friedlander and DeMartini 2002). This particular topic might be of special interest to visitors 

and residents.

Reserve Effects on Coral Reefs and Other 

Benthic Habitats

An underlying theme for this workshop was the 

need to better understand the response of benthic habitats to the cessation of fishing and the 

effects of benthic degradation on fishes. When 

fishing stops, the effects on targeted fish species 

are relatively predictable and can occur quickly. 

However, the effects on the coral reefs and associated sea grass beds, mangroves, and algal plains 

who use the reserves or who were affected 

by their establishment, and involving them in 

the management of the reserves. Examples 

of these tools are the surveys described in 

the Socioeconomic Manual for Coral Reef 

Management (Bunce et al. 2000) and the IUCN 

booklet “How is your MPA doing?” (Pomeroy et 

al. 2004). There is a need for widespread public 

support and knowledge of how people use the 

marine reserves and nearby areas. It is also very 

important that people have realistic expectations 

about the benefits that may or may not accrue 

from the greater protection of resources.

Communication and education about the purposes of the reserve and ongoing research and 

monitoring ideally will be a continuing activity. 

One major goal is the acceptance of the reserves. 

The Soufriere Marine Management Area in St. 

Lucia now enjoys widespread support, but this 

required about a decade of concerted effort and 

involvement of local people.

Reserve Effects on Fish and Other 

Harvested Species

Basic fisheries monitoring—geo-referenced 

landings, fishing effort, characteristics of human 

communities engaged in fisheries—is needed in 

the U. S. Virgin Islands. Fisheries-independent 

information—population dynamics of targeted 

species—is needed for all of the reserve areas. 

Research is needed to test hypotheses such as 

“reserves cause more big fish, which have higher 

fecundities, which produce more little fish, that 

grow into more big fish” and “fish recruitment is 

better (higher, more frequent, more successful) 

in reserves than outside in similar habitat.”

Experience from elsewhere in the region, such 

as the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

reserves, revealed that when fishing was eliminated some fishes became more abundant and 

increased in average length within a few years. 

However, when fishing stopped, responses of 

prey species for groupers and other species targeted by fisheries were unpredictable. Likewise, 

the effects on non-targeted and non-prey species 

are not known. Recent work in the Bahamas 

Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (where fishing stopped in 1986) showed that increases in 

groupers did not lead to overall decreases in 

herbivorous parrotfishes because larger parrotfishes were able to escape predation (Mumby et 

al. 2006).

Early protection of lobsters in DRTO also 

produced benefits (Davis 2004). Lobsters are 

important predators that strongly influence 

the structure and functioning of many tropical 

marine ecosystems, from sea grass meadows 
12 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

became more stable, coral grew back rapidly 

within about 6 years. The links between fishes 

and physical structure, and fishes and living coral 

cover, are not well understood. However, reduction of topographical complexity is thought to 

contribute to an imbalance in the system and 

losses in herbivory that can hinder coral recruitment (Szmant 1997). If topographical complexity 

is reduced because of hurricanes, anchor damage, bioerosion, and eventual disintegration of 

dead corals, fish may not come back.

Research, Monitoring, and Information 

Management

Monitoring needs to include regional-scale 

factors as well as local ones. Community engagement needs to be monitored and better 

understood. A goal of reserve management is to 

engage the public in monitoring through programs such as Reef Check, REEF and the Great 

Annual Fish Count. Budget and decision support 

tools, such as geographically explicit models that 

allow groups of people to play out and discuss 

“what if...” scenarios, are needed to help guide 

research and monitoring efforts.

Indications of reserve health should include 

demographics of once common species that are 

now rare, because they have great potential for 

change and are well known by human communities, e.g., Nassau grouper. Expectations include 

trajectories of change in trophic and size structures. Sizes of dispersal kernels are key measurements. For highly mobile species, reproductive 

and recruitment habitats may be all that can be 

studied in reserves.

A substantial amount of research and monitoring 

has taken place in the USVI and at Dry Tortugas. 

Federal and territorial agencies have provided 

significant amounts of support over many years. 

Data on fishes, corals, and other organisms from 

some of the longest monitoring programs in the 

Caribbean come from the USVI. Benthic habitat 

maps provide the foundation for future research 

and monitoring.

These long-term programs provide opportunities to take advantage of and build on historical 

information as well as more recent data. Many 

MPAs in the region lack baseline data, but NPS, 

USGS, and NOAA have invested significant 

financial and human resources to collect high 

quality data. There is a need to sustain the current monitoring that is occurring in the parks 

and monuments and to explore the possibility 

and feasibility of additional monitoring and experimental research to measure the effects of removing fishing pressure from these ecosystems. 

The effective collaboration among these and 

are not predictable and improvement could take 

decades or longer. As a specific example, coral 

reef habitats within the no take zones within the 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary have 

not shown clear improvement since 1997 for undetermined reasons. It is not clear how changes 

in fish trophic groups after reserve establishment 

affect benthic resources.

A key concern is that regional and global stressors could undermine the benefits of the marine 

reserves. The 2005 bleaching event, followed by 

severe disease outbreaks, resulted in about 50% 

mortality of the living coral at long-term monitoring sites in BUIS and VIIS (Miller et al. 2006). 

The bleaching, which was especially severe in 

the USVI and Puerto Rico, was associated with 

the highest sea water temperatures ever recorded 

in the Caribbean. The response of fishes to this 

extensive coral mortality is not known. Monitoring of fishes associated with long-term transects 

could help reveal this fish/habitat relationship. 

Fish diversity and abundance often seem more 

correlated with the complexity of the physical 

structure than the amount of living coral. Hurricanes have also caused destruction in the USVI. 

Dry Tortugas was affected by four hurricanes 

in 2005 alone. There has also been growing 

concern over increasing acidity of the oceans 

and possible disastrous effects on corals and 

other calcium carbonate producing organisms 

(Kleypas et al. 2006).

Of course stressors associated with more tractable human activities, such as land-based sources 

of pollution and careless coastal development, 

can lead to decline in coral cover and other habitat changes particularly for reefs that are near 

shore. NPS has jurisdiction over upland and 

adjacent terrestrial areas and is therefore in a position to prevent or mitigate detrimental coastal 

development, such as sedimentation carried by 

storm runoff and other land-based stressors.

To add to the complexity, the synergy among the 

array of natural and human-related stressors is 

not understood. For example, what is the interaction of overfishing and global climate change? 

Also, the past history of an area will have an 

important influence on its ability to recover once 

fishing has been removed (Hughes et al. 2003, 

2005).

Are there thresholds beyond which recovery or 

improvement will not occur? Dr. Chuck Birkeland noted that about 20 years after Crown of 

Thorns sea stars in Palau decimated live coral 

leaving only unconsolidated rubble, the reef had 

not recovered in spite of abundant coral recruitment. However, apparently after the substrate 
 National Park Service 13

algae)? As fish and mobile invertebrates grow 

larger in reserves, how do their feeding habits 

change and what effects does that have on benthic communities? Does improvement of benthic 

habitats within marine reserves eventually lead 

to an increase in the size of dispersal kernels for 

coral and fish larvae?

Another research focus is the testing of the hypothesis that corals in areas with very high current velocities are less susceptible to bleaching 

and disease. A pilot study on this between scientists from the University of the Virgin Islands 

and USGS has begun. These scientists also plan 

to evaluate the use of ADCPs (Acoustic Doppler 

Current Profilers) to document coral spawning 

and potential links between coral reefs in St. 

John and St. Thomas. 

USGS and NPS will continue to collaborate on 

coral disease research. Although it would be very 

difficult to test, it is possible that the restoration 

of a more balanced ecosystem within and even 

adjacent to the NPS reserves could lead to a 

reduction in disease. For example, recent work 

suggests that macroscopic algae (seaweeds), 

which have increased substantially in the last 2-3 

decades, could be releasing dissolved organic 

carbon that promotes growth of disease-causing 

organisms (Smith et al. 2006). Reduction of macroalgae following increases in herbivory could 

therefore be very beneficial.

The NPS monitoring program has developed a 

list of “vital signs,” key indicators of ecosystem 

and population condition, to guide monitoring 

of parks in the Dry Tortugas and the USVI, 

including the reserves (see www1.nature.nps.

gov/im/units/sfcn. Existing monitoring under this 

program will be expanding. There is also a need 

for monitoring the effectiveness of enforcement 

and education. Knowing more about how people 

use these areas, how markets and fisheries 

change, and if visitation (tourism) has increased 

as a result of marine reserve establishment are 

important, as well.

Marine Reserves Alone Are Not Sufficient

Although marine reserves are very promising 

tools and have the potential to reverse degradation, they will not resolve all issues confronting 

parks, and reserves can not be the only form 

of resource management (see Lubchenco et al. 

2003). It is theoretically possible for fish populations in reserves to increase in number and mean 

size, while nearby populations outside the reserves collapse. Some fish and other species that 

move quickly through marine reserves will not 

be protected by the reserves for sufficient time to 

improve their contributions to subsequent genother agencies provides many opportunities for 

advances in understanding of marine ecosystems 

within parks. Management and synthesis of existing information is an ongoing need. Research 

and monitoring must be done over appropriate 

spatial and temporal scales.

Research and monitoring to evaluate marine 

reserve performance is scientifically challenging. 

There is no simple way to measure the ability 

of coral reef ecosystems to recover or to know 

whether they can possibly recover to their initial, 

intact condition. Ideally, research would have 

begun before and continued after reserve establishment at a number of sites with comparable 

habitat ranging from well-developed, high coral 

cover reefs, to sea grass beds, and other benthic 

habitats inside and outside each NPS reserve. 

Also, the most powerful comparisons would 

depend on the complete absence of any fishing. 

While much can be learned from the ongoing 

monitoring programs, further discussion is needed to develop the most appropriate experimental 

approach to evaluating reserve performance. 

Specifically the identification of comparable sites 

inside and outside reserves needs be determined 

and used consistently among various investigators. Some workshop participants suggested 

that the effects of banning fishing could be so 

substantial that much could be learned from 

comparison of numerous sites inside and outside 

reserve boundaries even if the sites are not strictly comparable. In other words, the consistency of 

treatment (= no fishing) could potentially override inherent site variability.

Other related research and monitoring activities 

were discussed in addition to those designed 

to directly measure reserve effectiveness. For 

example, as noted above, monitoring of fishes 

associated with long-term transects that NPS 

maintains around St. John and Buck Island could 

help reveal effects of the severe bleaching/disease 

event in 2005. It is not known how long it might 

take these effects to become apparent if they do 

occur. Monitoring of elkhorn coral during the 

bleaching event suggested that some genotypes 

were more susceptible to bleaching as some colonies bleached while others adjacent to them did 

not. Further research on susceptibility of major 

reef-building corals to disease is a critical need.

Ecological processes such as herbivory and recruitment (both fish and coral) have not received 

much attention. Additional information is needed on the appropriate level of parrotfish biomass 

and the changes in herbivory as fishes increase in 

size. Also, what are the linkages among fish and 

mobile invertebrates (lobster, conch, urchins) 

and benthic sessile communities (corals and 
14 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

erations. Stressors other than fishing, e.g., runoff 

from upland development and pollution from 

upstream sources, can degrade water quality in 

marine reserves. NPS has jurisdiction over adjacent and upland areas and is well-positioned to 

control detrimental human activities. But stressors from outside the marine reserve boundaries 

can diminish benefits of reserve designation. 

When marine reserves are established, fishing 

activity may shift to other areas and displace, 

not reduce, pressure on resources. This has apparently happened off St. Croix, as fishers have 

shifted from BUIS to adjacent Lang Bank.

North American Network of Marine 

Protected Areas

The North American Tri-national Commission 

for Environmental Cooperation has initiated 

development of a North American Network 

of Marine Protected Areas with a shared 

resources monitoring project among sister park 

sites along the west coast in the Baja to Bering 

region. This effort may provide a model for the 

Caribbean region. Agreement to shared goals 

and expectations of the monitoring program 

were the foundation of the project, followed by 

selection of a few indicators of interest to the 

selected ‘sister park’ sites. Currently, monitoring 

protocols for those selected factors are being 

developed (www.cec.org).
 National Park Service 15

 National Park Service 17

local factors and direct fishing effects. Fishers 

need to be convinced that research can be extended beyond reserves to other sites. The group 

expressed optimism that a partnership of NPS, 

USGS, NOAA and academic scientists could 

move forward on these issues. Many bright, dedicated people are engaged already, both managers and scientists, and they are looking for ways 

to leverage funds and find creative ways to work 

together for maximum results. We have engaged 

a diversity of professions, including social sciences, and look forward to productive collaborations. U. S. programs are relatively well funded, 

compared to many in the Caribbean. Nevertheless, funds and personnel are still quite limited 

and need to be deployed carefully. We believe 

basing decisions about research and monitoring on the experiences from others in the region 

discussed at this workshop will pay dividends, as 

will involving communications experts early in 

the study designs and reporting processes.

Recent coral bleaching and disease events and 

associated mortality demonstrate the crisis 

nature of this research. Complexity of benthic 

communities masks reserve effects and reduces 

the ability to detect changes related to changes 

in fishing activities. Reserve effects on complex 

benthic communities are neither as linear nor 

direct as they appear to be with fished species. 

The uncertainty associated with identifying and 

measuring the linkages among various parts of 

the system over time makes it challenging to determine cause-consequence relationships. Time 

lags introduced by these complex linkages complicate civic engagement—it’s hard to convince 

the public to be patient and wait for the results, 

e.g., the Dry Tortugas lobster reserve took 25 

years to realize what appear to be its full effects. 

Many factors other than fishing affect benthic 

communities and confound the measurements of 

reserve effects.

It will continue to be important to focus on the 

effects of eliminating fishing, other stressors, and 

the relationships among them to help tease out 

the effects of fishing and the consequent cascading effects. Fishes and other exploited resources 

contribute critically to coral reef ecosystems. We 

need to document the expected changes and 

plan for the unexpected by remaining flexible in 

experimental design and goal setting. Investigators of these reserves start with multiple historic 

data bases, e.g., Rafe Boulon’s mangrove fish surveys, Jim Beets’s and Alan Friedlander’s 18-year 

fixed station evaluations of fish changes, NPS 

and USGS coral reef monitoring transects, and 

Workshop Outcomes

The workshop was successful in bringing together professionals from the U. S. and many Caribbean nations and islands to improve a shared 

understanding of experiences in many MPAs 

and marine reserves, and to provide additional 

guidance to the National Park Service in beginning to create a broader framework for monitoring and research in the USVI and Dry Tortugas, 

Florida. What connections should be explored 

further in these reserves to advance knowledge 

in social science, economics, ecology, oceanography, and fisheries science? Development of 

relationships among other parks in the region 

may offer opportunities for comparative studies 

and collaboration, e.g., the British Virgin Islands 

share a boundary with VICR—and similar resources and threats. Products of this workshop 

will include the presentations on web-sites (NPS 

and USGS), and this summary document to support requests for grants, and other funds, and 

to identify research and monitoring priorities in 

NPS and USGS.

Goals of Reserve Research and Monitoring:

• Understand and document changes in biodiversity and fisheries in and around reserves

• Measure and project trajectories of changes in 

trophic and population size structures in biological communities (“vital signs”)

• Measure changes in dispersal kernel size

• Engage human communities (local, regional 

and larger) in reserve monitoring

• Measure and monitor social acceptability of 

reserves

• Measure and monitor reproductive output of 

reserves (spillover is secondary)

• Measure use of critical habitats

• Monitor human use

• Monitor efficacy of enforcement (compliance) 

and education (outreach)

Case studies, i.e., stories with messages, can be 

useful tools for communicating results of science 

and scholarship. What kinds of stories and messages will we be able to communicate from the 

experiences in and around these three reserves? 

The answers to this question will help guide and 

set priorities for reserve research and monitoring.

To make these reserves attractive for long-term 

investments in research and monitoring, the notake provisions need to be effectively enforced 

and the enforcement efficacy documented. 

Global influences need to be differentiated from 

CONCLUSIONS
18 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

NOAA benthic habitat maps, and should be able 

to progress quickly. Both short and long-term 

perspectives are important and needed, and it is 

critical to recognize and acknowledge our collective ignorance, because it is important to know 

what we don’t understand.
 National Park Service 19

 National Park Service 21

research and monitoring can help heal these 

wounds if partnerships and traditional ecological knowledge are sought and information 

shared widely and soon.

• The new reserves in the U. S. Virgin Islands 

and Dry Tortugas National Park will likely 

influence ocean and human communities 

throughout the Western Atlantic and Caribbean regions.

Research Questions

Note: these questions refer to reserves in the USVI 

and DRTO but all are relevant to other reserves as 

well

• How will various kinds and scales of connectivity influence research and monitoring of reserve performance?

• What can be learned about connectivity from 

these reserves?

• What connections should be explored further in these reserves to advance knowledge 

in social science, economics, ecology, oceanography, and fisheries science? 

• What connections should be explored further 

to evaluate reserve performance?

• How are herbivory and algal cover related?

• How do reserves affect larval dispersal and recruitment? 

• How can ‘small-scale’ detailed models for local 

applications directly in and around reserves 

best contribute to understanding and evaluating reserve performance?

• How do episodic events (rare, natural, extreme 

events) differentially affect reserves and surrounding exploited areas, i.e., are reserves 

more resilient?

• How are coral recruitment and settlement different in and around reserves?

• How is water quality at a micro scale on and 

around individual reefs different in and around 

reserves?

• What are the sources and fates for larvae of key 

organisms in the reserves and VIIS?

• How effective are enforcement efforts, including education and outreach?

• How do regional fishery data, e.g., georeferenced landings and effort, reflect effects 

on fishers, fishing opportunities, and fisheries?

• Will larger apex predators in reserves reduce 

tourism by threatening visitors and frightening 

others away?

• What defines human (public) perceptions of 

healthy coral reefs? Are rugosity and other 

structural elements part of it?

• What happened to fishers displaced from the 

NPS reserves in the USVI and how were reReserve Goals and Expectations

Findings

• The goals and expectations of marine reserves 

in the Caribbean and Western Atlantic region 

are diverse, but most focus on biodiversity, 

ecological integrity, and fishery benefits in 

attempts to balance needs for sustainable uses 

and heritage values for future generations. 

• Meaningful ecological changes resulting from 

reserve establishment likely will take decades, 

not years, to manifest themselves.

Research Questions

• Are reefs in reserves more stable and do they 

recover more quickly from stressors than 

exploited reefs?

Reserve Locations and Contents

Findings

• More basic information, especially from deepwater habitats, is needed to characterize the 

reserves and to evaluate changes in the future.

• NPS needs more technical capacity for exploring deep portions of the NPS reserves.

Research Questions

• Are the new reserves large enough to create 

measurable responses?

• Do the new reserves contain sufficient examples of various habitats to sustain communities 

and viable populations?

• Are the new reserves in the right locations? 

• How much do adult fishes and invertebrates 

move in relation to reserve size?

Community Compliance and 

Effective Enforcement

Findings

• Reserves need to be effectively enforced and 

demarcated to be useful and attractive for research investments.

• Reserves are more effective when local communities support them and believe the rules 

and regulations to be fair and equitable.

Connectivity within the Caribbean and 

Western Atlantic

Findings

• Oceanographic conditions combine in various ways with natural history and behavior 

of organisms to determine larval connections 

among patches of suitable habitat. As reserves 

increase reproductive output, the ability to discover how these factors interact will be enhanced. 

• Relationships with local constituencies are 

often damaged during reserve establishment; 

SUMMARY FINDINGS, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND 

RECOMMENDATIONS
22 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

mance of the reserve?

• Will reserves increase apex predator populations (sharks) to the point they may threaten 

visitor safety?

• How do population demographics of exploited 

species change in reserves and in adjacent 

areas?

Reserve Effects on Coral Reefs and Other 

Benthic Habitats

Findings

• Effects of fishing on non-targeted components 

of ecosystems are poorly understood; these 

reserves offer opportunities to measure and 

evaluate these processes.

• Linkages among fishery-targeted species, 

especially fishes, and benthic communities are 

poorly known; these reserves offer opportunities to explore potential linkages.

Research Questions

• Will effects of other stressors, e.g., ocean 

warming, coral diseases, pollution, or acidification, obscure or alter the effects of eliminating 

fishing?

• Will interactions among stressors or history of 

individual sites obscure fishing effects?

• Are there thresholds of change beyond which 

coral reefs can not recover, even with intervention? 

• What are the linkages among fish and mobile 

invertebrates (lobster, conch, urchins) and 

benthic sessile communities (corals and algae)?

• As fish and mobile invertebrates grow larger in 

reserves, how do their feeding habits change 

and what effects does that have on benthic 

communities?

• How is habitat structure related to fish population dynamics?

• What are the effects of recent coral losses on 

fish populations?

• What is the relative resilience of reserve reefs 

vs. non-reserve reefs?

• What is the relationship of parrotfish biomass 

and reef health?

• Are there significant genetic variations among 

corals, within species, that affect thermal 

tolerances or disease resistance?

• Are coral pathogens alien invasives or endemic?

• Was coral mortality lower in areas with higher 

currents?

• What proportion of bleached corals recovered 

without disease; are they genetically different 

or in different microhabitats?

gional fisheries affected?

• How have the NPS reserves affected local or 

regional markets for fishery products or other 

facets of fishing, e.g., gear purchases, social 

communities?

• What other economic activities have changed 

in or near the reserves, e.g., have the reserves 

become destinations that attract visitors thereby increasing tourism-based economies?

• What are reserve visitor expectations and 

satisfaction levels and do they change with resource conditions?

• How could comparative studies with other 

reserves inform research and monitoring in 

these reserves and surrounding areas?

Reserve Effects on Humans

Findings

• Older reserves in the Caribbean and Western 

Atlantic tend to enjoy more public support 

than more recently established reserves 

• The MesoAmerican Reef Project and the book 

“How is your MPA Doing?” (Pomeroy et al. 

2004) offer models for measuring and monitoring reserve effects on human communities.

Research Questions

• How can social-economic monitoring best be 

integrated with ecological monitoring?

• How can user groups provide advice to NPS 

regarding reserve management?

• Who are the reserve users, what are their 

characteristic ages, education, and demographics, and how do their views of the reserves and 

NPS change over time?

• How do human uses, attitudes, beliefs, and 

values related to displacement from reserves 

change over time?

• How do people’s satisfaction, attitudes, and 

expectations with reserves change over time?

• How do the economic impacts of reserves and 

new uses compare among local, regional, and 

distant human communities?

• How does NPS interact with the public and 

what is the efficacy of law enforcement in 

reserves?

Reserve Effects on Fish and Other Harvested 

Species

Findings

• Time lags of various lengths, up to decades, 

should be expected between cessation of fishing and marine-life population or ecosystem 

responses.

• So called “spill-over” effects are poorly documented and uncertain; the NPS reserves offer a 

good opportunity to measure and evaluate this 

process.

Research Questions

• How will continued fishing for pelagic blue 

runners or baitfish in VICR affect the perfor-
 National Park Service 23

Recommendations

• Document reserve managers’ interactions with 

local residents and other users, and record outcomes

• Engage local and distant communities in 

monitoring reserve condition

• Develop formal civic engagement processes, 

e.g., advisory councils

• Inventory and characterize deep-water habitats, including Lang Bank.

• Fishing effort and landings need to be measured and monitored in VICR and around other 

reserves with sufficient geographical scale to 

evaluate reserve influence and potential spillover effects

Research, Monitoring, and Information 

Management

Findings

• Integrated socioeconomic and ecological 

monitoring is more effective than either alone 

for determining reserve performance.

• The highest priorities for monitoring and research are to document changes at population 

levels, to determine how much replenishment 

is occurring, and to determine social and ecological ‘hot spots’ critical for spawning, nursery 

habitats, migration, and fishing.

• Existing and planned monitoring and surveys 

should be continued or implemented.

Research Questions

• How do populations, communities, and ecosystems change in and around reserves?

• How do coral reefs, particularly benthic cover, 

structural features, and diversity change in and 

around reserves?

• How do fish community trophic structures 

change in and around reserves?

• What roles do Cyanobacteria blooms play in 

reef health?

• How are watershed features and conditions 

linked to nearby coral reefs?

• What factors control or limit coral recruitment 

in and around reserves?

• What knowledge of coral diseases is needed 

to develop reef recovery and mitigation 

strategies?

• How permeable are reserve boundaries to fish 

and mobile invertebrates?

• How much critical habitat is in the reserves?

• How are populations of fishery-targeted species and other species changing?

• VICR is really a ‘network’ of three small reserves, how are they linked or do they influence 

each other?

• Where are the ecological and social ‘hot spots’ 

(spawning, migratory, nursery, fishing) in and 

around the reserves?

• How important are blue runner and baitfish to 

pelagic and benthic communities?

• How are reserves connected ecologically, 

socially, and oceanographically to near and 

distant areas?

• What are the relative effects of fishing and 

other stressors on ecosystems and human 

communities within and near reserves?

• How can coral and fish recruitment habitats be 

defined at micro scales?

• How has human use of areas changed following the inclusion of these areas within reserves? 

• How is the natural history of key species likely 

to influence reserve effects?

• What molecular tools for coral genetics and 

diseases are needed to identify outcomes of 

stress and to separate anthropogenic factors 

from nature?

 National Park Service 25

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 National Park Service 27

APPENDIX A. List of participants

Name e mail phone address

Chuck Birkeland charlesb@hawaii.edu 808 956-8678 Hawaii Cooperative Fishery Research Unit, USGS

2538 The Mall

Edmondson Hall 164

Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa

Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

Jim Bohnsack Jim.Bohnsack@noaa.

gov

305 361 4252 Southeast Fisheries Center

NOAA Fisheries Service

75 Virginia Beach Dr. 

Miami, FL 33149

Rafe Boulon rafe_boulon@nps.gov 340 693 8950, ext 224 National Park Service

1300 Cruz Bay Creek

St. John, VI 00830

Gary Brewer gbrewer@usgs.gov 304 724 4507 U.S. Geological Survey

Eastern Region Biology

11649 Leetown Road

Kearneysville, WV 25430

Bob Cowen rcowen@rsmas.miami.

edu

305 421 4023 Robert K. Cowen

RSMAS/Marine Biology and 

Fisheries

University of Miami

4600 Rickenbacker Causeway

Miami, FL 33149

Gary Davis gary_davis@nps.gov 202 513 7178 

805 658 5707

Visiting Chief Scientist

Ocean Programs

U. S. National Park Service

Washington, DC 20005

Alan Friedlander alan.friedlander@noaa.

gov

afriedlander@oceanicin

stitute.org

808 259 3165 Fisheries Ecologist

NOAA/NOS/NCCOS/CCMA

Biogeography Team

Makapu’u Point

41-202 Kalanianaole Hwy

Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795

Bob Halley rhalley@usgs.gov 727 803 8747, ext 3020 US Geological Survey

600 4th Street

St. Petersburg, Fl 33701

Edwin Hernandez coral_giac@yahoo.com 787 764-0000, 4855 University of Puerto Rico

Department of Biology

Coral Reef Research Group

P.O. Box 23360

San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931-

3360

Zandy Hillis-Starr zandy_hillis-starr@nps.

gov

340 719 7042 Christiansted NHS/Buck Island 

Reef NM/Salt River Bay NHP-EP

2100 Church Street, #100

Christiansted, VI 00820-4611

Brian Keller Brian.Keller@noaa.gov 727 553 1100, 1201 Florida Institute of 

Oceanography

830 First St., South

St. Petersburg, Florida 33701

Isaias Majil bacalarchico@hotmail.

com

501 224 4552 Marine Protected Areas 

Coordinator

P.O. Box 148

Belize Fisheries Department

Belize City

Belize C.A.
28 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

Name e mail phone address

Cliff McCreedy Cliff_McCreedy@nps.

gov

202 513 7164 Marine Management Specialist

National Park Service

1201 Eye Street, NW

11th Floor (2301)

Washington, DC 20005

Jeff Miller william_j_miller@nps.

gov

340 693 8950, 227 Fisheries Biologist

South Florida/Caribbean Network

Virgin Islands National Park

1300 Cruz Bay Creek

St. John, VI 00830

Mark Monaco Mark.Monaco@noaa.

gov

301 713 3028,160 Marine Biologist

Team Leader CCMA 

Biogeography

1305 East West Highway

NSCI1 SSMC4

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Sharrah Moss sharrahmoss@thebaha

masnationaltrust.org

242 393 1317 Bahamas National Trust

P. O. Box N4105

Nassau, Bahamas 

Erinn Muller emuller@usgs.gov 340 693 8950, 236 USGS Caribbean Field Station

1300 Cruz Bay Creek

St. John, VI 00830

Hazel Oxenford hoxenford@uwichill.

edu.bb

246 417 4571 Centre for Resource 

Management and Environmental 

Studies (CERMES)

University of the West Indies, 

Cave Hill Campus,

PO Box 64, BB 11000

BARBADOS

Matt Patterson matt_patterson@nps.

gov

305 252 0347 South Florida / Caribbean 

Network Coordinator

National Park Service

18001 Old Cutler Road

Suite 419

Palmetto Bay, FL 33157

Martha Prada m_prada@rocketmail.

com

pradamc@gmail.com

57 8512-9558 Coralina

Avenida 20 de Julio, No. 5-92

San Andres Isla, Colombia

Barbara Reveles revelesbar@hotmail.

com

52 983 8380 122 Reserva de la Biosfera

Banco Chinchorro

Caroline Rogers caroline_rogers@usgs.

gov

340 693 8950, 221 USGS Caribbean Field Station

1300 Cruz Bay Creek

St. John, VI 00830

Tyler Smith tsmith@uvi.edu 340 693 1394 Center for Marine and 

Environmental Studies

University of the Virgin Islands

2 John Brewers Bay

St. Thomas, VI 00802

Jack Sobel 202 351 0454 The Ocean Conservancy

2029 K St. NW

Washington, DC 20006

Tony Spitzack t_spitzack@hotmail.com 340 693 8950, 236 USGS Caribbean Field Station

1300 Cruz Bay Creek

St. John, VI 00830

Daniel Suman dsuman@rsmas.miami.

edu

305 421 4685 Rosenstiel School of Marine & 

Atmospheric Science University 

of Miami

4600 Rickenbacker Causeway

Miami, FL 33149
 National Park Service 29

Name e mail phone address

Toby Tobias williamtobias@vitelcom.

net

340 713 2415 Department of Planning and 

Natural Resources

Division of Fish and Wildlife

45 Mars Hill, Frederiksted

St. Croix, USVI 00841

Manolo ValdezPizzinimvpizzini@uprm.edu

m_pizzini@hotmail.com

787 538 1466 Interdisciplinary Center for 

Coastal Studies

Apartado 9266

Recinto Universitario de 

Mayagüez

Mayagüez, PR 00681-9266

Nancy Woodfield nkwoodfield@yahoo.

com

809 494 3904 British Virgin Islands

National Parks Trust

PO Box 860

Tortola, BVI

 National Park Service 31

APPENDIX B. Presentations

All of these Powerpoint presentations are 

available at the following website: www1.nature.

nps.gov/im/units/sfcn/viismtg.cfm

Workshop Introduction Marine Reserves Research 

& Monitoring 

Gary E. Davis

U.S. National Park Service

Washington, District of Columbia

Virgin Island Marine Protected Areas: Our Hope 

for the Future?

Rafe Boulon,

Virgin Islands National Park and Coral Reef 

National Monument

St. John, Virgin Islands

Marine Reserves: Goals & Expectations – A Case 

Study Buck Island Reef National Monument

Zandy Hillis-Starr

Christiansted National Historic Park, Buck 

Island Reef National Monument, and Salt River 

Bay National Historic Park and Ecological 

Preserve

St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

Marine Reserve Goals and Expectations

Jim Bohnsack

NOAA Fisheries

Miami, Florida

Efficacy of Marine Protected Areas in the 

Hawaiian Archipelago

Alan Friedlander, Eric Brown, and Mark 

Monaco

NOAA

Waimanalo, Hawaii

Research & Monitoring in the Soufriere Marine 

Management Area, Saint Lucia

Kai Wulf

Soufriere Marine Management Area

Saint Lucia

Research And Monitoring In The Proposed And 

Existing Marine Protected Areas Of The British 

Virgin Islands

Nancy Woodfield

British Virgin Islands National Park Trust

Tortola, British Virgin Islands

Modeling The Scale Of Population Connectivity

Robert K. Cowen, Claire Paris, & Ashwanth 

Srinivasan

University of Miami

Miami, Florida

Connectivity Considerations

Charles Birkeland

U. S. Geological Survey

University of Hawaii

Honolulu, Hawaii

MPAs in Puerto Rico: Lessons Learned

Manuel Valdes Pizzini

Centro Interdisciplinario de Estudios del Litoral

University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez

Puerto Rico

Banco Chinchorro Biosphere Reserve, Mexico

Barbara Reveles

National Commission of Protected Natural Areas

CONANP, Mexico

Integrated Coral Reef Ecosystem Mapping & 

Monitoring to Support Living Marine Resource 

Management

Mark E. Monaco, T.A. Battista, A.M. Friedlander, 

W.R. Callender

NOAA - Center for Coastal Monitoring & 

Assessment Biogeography Team

Silver Spring, Maryland

Research and Monitoring: Evolution, Methods and 

Case Studies

Jeff Miller, Matt Patterson, Dr. Andrea Atkinson, 

Judd Patterson, Rob Waara, Dr. Kevin R.T. 

Whelan, Brian Witcher, Alexandra Wright

NPS South Florida/ Caribbean Network I&M 

Program

St. John, Virgin Islands

Long-term Monitoring of Reef Fishes in Virgin 

Islands National Park

Alan Friedlander & Jim Beets

University of Hawaii

Hilo, Hawaii

Research and Monitoring in Caribbean MPAs: 

Lessons Learned

Hazel A. Oxenford and Patrick McConney

Centre for Resource Management and 

Environmental Studies (CERMES)

University of the West Indies

Barbados 

Current Research And Monitoring Efforts In 

Puerto Rico’s No-Take Mpas

Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado, Richard 

Appeldoorn, Mayra García, & María del Mar 

López

University of Puerto Rico

San Juan, Puerto Rico
32 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (ECLSP), 

Bahamas

Sharrah Moss

Bahamas National Trust

Nassau, Bahamas

The Seaflower MPA, Columbia Monitoring And 

Management Priorities

Martha C. Prada

Corporacion para El Desarrollo Sostenible del 

Archipielago de San Andreas, Providencia, y 

Santa Catalina

CORALINA

South Florida / Caribbean Network Inventory & 

Monitoring Program

Matt Paterson

National Park Service

Palmetto Bay, Florida

Protection and Management of Natural Heritage 

in Belize

Isaias Majil

Belize Fisheries Department

Marine Zone Monitoring Program: Florida Keys 

National Marine Sanctuary

Brian D. Keller

Science Coordinator

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
 National Park Service 33

 National Park Service 35

APPENDIX C. Virgin Islands National Monument 

Proclamations and Dry Tortugas National Park 

Research Natural Area Designation

Proclamation 7392—Boundary Enlargement and 

Modifications of the Buck Island Reef National 

Monument 

January 17,2001

By the President of the United States of 

America

A Proclamation

Buck Island Reef National Monument was established on December 28, 1961 (Presidential 

Proclamation 3443), just north of St. Croix in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands, for the purpose of protecting 

Buck Island and its adjoining shoals, rocks, and 

undersea coral reef formations. Considered one 

of the finest marine gardens in the Caribbean 

Sea, the unique natural area and the rare marine 

life which are dependent upon it are subject to 

the constant threat of commercial exploitation 

and destruction. The monument’s vulnerable 

floral and faunal communities live in a fragile, 

interdependent relationship and include habitats essential for sustaining the tropical marine 

ecosystem: coral reefs, sea grass beds, octocoral 

hardbottom, sand communities, algal plains, 

shelf edge, and oceanic habitats. The boundary 

enlargement effected by this proclamation brings 

into the monument additional objects of scientific and historic interest, and provides necessary 

further protection for the resources of the existing monument.

The expansion area includes additional coral 

reefs (patch, pur and groove, and deep and wall), 

unusual “haystacks” of elkhorn coral, barrier 

reefs, sea grass beds, and sand communities, as 

well as algal plains, shelf edge, and other supporting habitats not included within the initial 

boundary. Oceanic currents carry planktonic larvae of coral reef associated animals to the shallow nearshore coral reef and sea grass habitats, 

where they transform into their juvenile stage. As 

they mature over months or years, they move offshore and take up residence in the deeper coral 

reefs, octocoral hardbottom, and algal plains. 

Between the monument’s nearshore habitats and 

its shelf edge spawning sites are habitats that play 

essential roles during specific developmental 

stages of many reef-associated species, including 

spawning migrations of many reef fish species 

and crustaceans. Several threatened and endangered species forage, breed, nest, rest, or calve in 

the waters included in the enlarged monument, 

including humpba ck whales, pilot whales, four 

species of dolphins, brown pelicans, least terns, 

and the hawksbill, leatherback, and green sea 

turtles. Countless species of reef fishes, invertebrates, plants, and over 12 species of sea birds 

utilize this area.

The ecologically important shelf edge is the 

spawning site for many reef species, such as 

most groupers and snappers, and the spiny lobster. Plummeting to abyssal depths, this habitat 

of vertical walls, honeycombed with holes and 

caves, is home to deepwater species and a refuge 

for other species.

The expansion area also contains significant cultural and historical objects. In March 1797, the 

slave ship Mary, captained by James Hunter of 

Liverpool, sank in this area, and its cargo of 240 

slaves was saved and brought to Christiansted. 

In March 1803, the General Abercrombie, 

captained by James Booth of Liverpool, also 

wrecked in this area, and its cargo of 339 slaves 

was brought to Christiansted. Slave shipwrecks 

in U.S. waters are rare. The monument contains 

remnants of these wrecks. Other wrecks may 

also exist in the monument.

Section 2 of the Act of June 8, 1906 (34 Stat. 225, 

16 U.S.C. 431), authorizes the President, in his 

discretion, to declare by public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific 

interest that are situated upon the lands owned 

or controlled by the Government of the United 

States to be national monuments, and to reserve 

as a part thereof parcels of land, the limits of 

which in all cases shall be confined to the smallest area compatible with the proper care and 

management of the objects to be protected.

Whereas it appears that it would be in the public 

interest to reserve such lands as an addition to 

the Buck Island Reef National Monument:

Now, Therefore, I, William J. Clinton, President 

of the United States of America, by the authority vested in me by section 2 of the Act of June 

8, 1906 (34 Stat. 225, 16 U.S.C. 431), do proclaim 

that there are hereby set apart and reserved as an 

addition to the Buck Island Reef National Monument for the purpose of care, management, 

and protection of the objects of historic and 

scientific interest situated on lands within the 

said monument, all lands and interests in lands 

owned or controlled by the United States within 

the boundaries of the area described on the map 
36 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

entitled “Buck Island Reef National Monument 

Boundary Enlargement” attached to and forming a part of this proclamation. The Federal land 

and interests in land reserved consist of approximately 18,135 marine acres, which is the smallest 

area compatible with the proper care and management of the objects to be protected.

All Federal lands and interests in lands within 

the boundaries of this monument are hereby 

appropriated and withdrawn from all forms of 

entry, location, selection, sale, or leasing or other 

disposition under the public land laws, including 

but not limited to withdrawal from location, entry, and patent under the mining laws, and from 

disposition under all laws relating to mineral and 

geothermal leasing, other than by exchange that 

furthers the protective purposes of the monument.

For the purpose of protecting the objects identified above, the Secretary shall prohibit all boat 

anchoring, provided that the Secretary may 

permit exceptions for emergency or authorized 

administrative purposes, and may issue permits 

for anchoring in deep sand bottom areas, to the 

extent that it is consistent with the protection of 

the objects.

For the purposes of protecting the objects identified above, the Secretary shall prohibit all extractive uses. This prohibition supersedes the limited 

authorization for extractive uses included in 

Proclamation 3443 of December 28, 1961.

Lands and interests in lands within the monument not owned or controlled by the United 

States shall be reserved as a part of the monument upon acquisition of title or control thereto 

by the United States.

The Secretary of the Interior shall manage the 

monument through the National Park Service, 

pursuant to applicable legal authorities, to implement the purposes of this proclamation. The National Park Service will manage the monument in 

a manner consistent with international law.

The Secretary of the Interior shall prepare a 

management plan, including the management of 

vessels in the monument, within 2 years that will 

address any further specific actions necessary to 

protect the objects identified above.

The enlargement of this monument is subject to 

valid existing rights.

Nothing in this proclamation shall be deemed to 

revoke any existing withdrawal, reservation, or 

appropriation; however, the national monument 

shall be the dominant reservation.

Warning is hereby given to all unauthorized 

persons not to appropriate, injure, destroy, or 

remove any feature of this monument and not to 

locate or settle upon any of the lands thereof.

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my 

hand this seventeenth day of January, in the year 

of our Lord two thousand one, and of the Independence of the United States of America the 

two hundred and twenty-fifth.

[Filed with the Office of the Federal Register, 

8:45 a.m., January 19, 2001]

NOTE: This proclamation was published in the 

Federal Register on January 22.

Proclamation 7399—Establishment of the Virgin 

Islands Coral Reef National Monument - 

January 17, 2001

By the President of the United States of America

A Proclamation

The Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument, in the submerged lands off the island of St. 

John in the U.S. Virgin Islands, contains all the 

elements of a Caribbean tropical marine ecosystem. This designation furthers the protection 

of the scientific objects included in the Virgin 

Islands National Park, created in 1956 and expanded in 1962. The biological communities of 

the monument live in a fragile, interdependent 

relationship and include habitats essential for 

sustaining and enhancing the tropical marine 

ecosystem: mangroves, sea grass beds, coral 

reefs, octocoral hardbottom, sand communities, 

shallow mud and fine sediment habitat, and algal 

plains. The fishery habitats, deeper coral reefs, 

octocoral hardbottom, and algal plains of the 

monument are all objects of scientific interest 

and essential to the long-term sustenance of the 

tropical marine ecosystem.

The monument is within the Virgin Islands, 

which lie at the heart of the insular Caribbean 

biome, and is representative of the Lesser Antillean biogeographic province. The island of St. 

John rises from a platform that extends several 

miles from shore before plunging to the abyssal 

depths of the Anegada trough to the south and 

the Puerto Rican trench to the north, the deepest 

part of the Atlantic Ocean. This platform contains a multitude of species that exist in a delicate 

balance, interlinked through complex relationships that have developed over tens of thousands 

of years.
 National Park Service 37

As part of this important ecosystem, the monument contains biological objects including several threatened and endangered species, which 

forage, breed, nest, rest, or calve in the waters. 

Humpback whales, pilot whales, four species of 

dolphins, brown pelicans, roseate terns, least 

terns, and the hawksbill, leatherback, and green 

sea turtles all use portions of the monument. 

Countless species of reef fish, invertebrates, and 

plants utilize these submerged lands during their 

lives, and over 25 species of sea birds feed in the 

waters. Between the nearshore nursery habitats 

and the shelf edge spawning sites in the monument are habitats that play essential roles during 

specific developmental stages of reef-associated 

species, including spawning migrations of many 

reef fish species and crustaceans.

The submerged monument lands within Hurricane Hole include the most extensive and welldeveloped mangrove habitat on St. John. The 

Hurricane Hole area is an important nursery 

area for reef associated fish and invertebrates, 

instrumental in maintaining water quality by filtering and trapping sediment and debris in fresh 

water runoff from the fast land, and essential 

to the overall functioning and productivity of 

regional fisheries. Numerous coral reef-associated species, including the spiny lobster, queen 

conch, and Nassau grouper, transform from 

planktonic larvae to bottom-dwelling juveniles 

in the shallow nearshore habitats of Hurricane 

Hole. As they mature, they move offshore and 

take up residence in the deeper coral patch reefs, 

octocoral hardbottom, and algal plains of the 

submerged monument lands to the south and 

north of St. John.

The monument lands south of St. John are predominantly deep algal plains with scattered areas 

of raised hard bottom. The algal plains include 

communities of mostly red and calcareous algae with canopies as much as half a meter high. 

The raised hard bottom is sparsely colonized 

with corals, sponges, gorgonians, and other invertebrates, thus providing shelter for lobster, 

groupers, and snappers as well as spawning sites 

for some reef fish species. These algal plains and 

raised hard bottom areas link the shallow water 

reef, sea grass, and mangrove communities with 

the deep water shelf and shelf edge communities 

of fish and invertebrates.

Section 2 of the Act of June 8, 1906 (34 Stat. 225, 

16 U.S.C. 431), authorizes the President, in his 

discretion, to declare by public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific 

interest that are situated upon the lands owned 

or controlled by the Government of the United 

States to be national monuments, and to reserve 

as a part thereof parcels of land, the limits of 

which in all cases shall be confined to the smallest area compatible with the proper care and 

management of the objects to be protected.

Whereas it appears that it would be in the public 

interest to reserve such lands as a national monument to be known as the Virgin Islands Coral 

Reef National Monument:

Now, Therefore, I, William J. Clinton, President 

of the United States of America, by the authority vested in me by section 2 of the Act of June 

8, 1906 (34 Stat. 225, 16 U.S.C. 431). do proclaim 

that there are hereby set apart and reserved as 

the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument, for the purpose of protecting the objects 

identified above, all lands and interests in lands 

owned or controlled by the United States within 

the boundaries of the area described on the map 

entitled “Virgin Islands Coral Reef National 

Monument” attached to and forming a part of 

this proclamation. The Federal land and interests 

in land reserved consist of approximately 12,708 

marine acres, which is the smallest area compatible with the proper care and management of the 

objects to be protected.

All Federal lands and interests in lands within 

the boundaries of this monument are hereby 

appropriated and withdrawn from all forms of 

entry, location, selection, sale, or leasing or other 

disposition under the public land laws, including 

but not limited to withdrawal from location, entry, and patent under the mining laws, and from 

disposition under all laws relating to mineral and 

geothermal leasing, other than by exchange that 

furthers the protective purposes of the monument. For the purpose of protecting the objects 

identified above, the Secretary shall prohibit all 

boat anchoring, except for emergency or authorized administrative purposes.

For the purposes of protecting the objects identified above, the Secretary shall prohibit all extractive uses, except that the Secretary may issue 

permits for bait fishing at Hurricane Hole and for 

blue runner (hard nose) line fishing in the area 

south of St. John, to the extent that such fishing 

is consistent with the protection of the objects 

identified in this proclamation.

Lands and interests in lands within the monument not owned or controlled by the United 

States shall be reserved as a part of the monument upon acquisition of title or control thereto 

by the United States.

The Secretary of the Interior shall manage the 
38 National Parks and Caribbean Marine Reserves Research and Monitoring Workshop

monument through the National Park Service, 

pursuant to applicable legal authorities, to implement the purposes of this proclamation. The National Park Service will manage the monument in 

a manner consistent with international law.

The Secretary of the Interior shall prepare a 

management plan, including the management of 

vessels in the monument, within 3 years, which 

addresses any further specific actions necessary 

to protect the objects identified in this proclamation.

The establishment of this monument is subject to 

valid existing rights.

Nothing in this proclamation shall be deemed to 

revoke any existing withdrawal, reservation, or 

appropriation; however, the national monument 

shall be the dominant reservation.

Warning is hereby given to all unauthorized 

persons not to appropriate, injure, destroy, or 

remove any feature of this monument and not to 

locate or settle upon any of the lands thereof.

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my 

hand this seventeenth day of January, in the year 

of our Lord two thousand one, and of the Independence of the United States of America the 

two hundred and twenty-fifth.

[Filed with the Office of the Federal Register, 

8:45 a.m., January 19, 2001]

NOTE: This proclamation was published in the 

Federal Register on January 22.

Dry Tortugas National Park Research Natural 

Area 

The Research Natural Area Zone (RNA) will 

cover 46% (46 square nautical miles) of the park. 

It will include a representative range of the park’s 

near-pristine terrestrial and marine ecosystems 

(e.g. islands, sea grass beds, shallow and deep 

coral reefs, sand and hard bottom sea floors). 

Management emphasis will be to provide the 

greatest possible protection of resource integrity 

and to promote non-manipulative research1 and 

visitor education. Natural processes will occur 

without disturbance or impacts from humans. 

The RNA will protect biological diversity, provide a baseline area for measuring long-term 

ecological changes and a serve as a reference 

site for separating the effects of human activities from those caused by natural environmental 

changes.

A variety of recreational and educational opportunities will be available to visitors in the 

RNA such as wildlife viewing, snorkeling, and 

diving. Recreational fishing and other resource 

consumptive activities will not be allowed in 

this zone. To prevent damage to corals and other 

delicate organisms, commercial tour providers 

and private boaters will be required to use mooring buoys, and anchoring will be prohibited. Allowing non-consumptive uses in the RNA, with 

careful monitoring of impacts of these activities, 

will provide exceptional resource appreciation 

and public education benefits. The objectives of 

the research natural area fulfill the legislated purposes of Dry Tortugas National Park are compatible with and complement the Tortugas Ecological Reserve recently established by the Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary.
 National Park Service 39

The U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) is the nation’s principal conservation agency, charged 

with the mission to “protect and provide access to our Nation’s natural and cultural heritage and honor 

our trust responsibilities to Indian tribes and our commitments to island communities.” More specifically, 

Interior protects America’s treasures for future generations, provides access to our nation’s natural 

and cultural heritage, offers recreation opportunities, honors its trust responsibilities to American Indians and Alaska Natives and its responsibilities to island communities, conducts scientific research, 

provides wise stewardship of energy and mineral resources, fosters sound use of land and water resources, and conserves and protects fish and wildlife. The work that we do affects the lives of millions 

of people; from the family taking a vacation in one of our national parks to the children studying in 

one of our Indian schools.

NPS D-90, February 2007