NEW NIST PUBLICATION

April 20, 198?

NISTIR 88-3722

Advanced Ceramics: A

Critical Assessment of

Wear and Lubrication

R. G. Munro and S. M. Hsu

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Institute of Standards and Technology

(Formerly National Bureau of Standards)

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

January 1 989

Sponsored by:

Gas Research Institute 8600 West Bryn Mawr Avenue

Chicago, IL 60631

NISTIR 88-3722

Advanced Ceramics: A

Critical Assessment of

Wear and Lubrication

R. G. Munro and S. M. Hsu

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Institute of Standards and Technology

(Formerly National Bureau of Standards)

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

January 1989

National Bureau of Standards became the

National Institute of Standards and Technology on August 23, 1988, when the Omnibus Trade and

Competitiveness Act was signed. NIST retains

all NBS functions. Its new programs will encourage

improved use of technology by U.S. industry.

Sponsored by:

Gas Research Institute 8600 West Bryn Mawr Avenue

Chicago, IL 60631

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Robert A. Mosbacher, Secretary

Ernest Ambler, Acting Under Secretary

for Technology

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS

AND TECHNOLOGY

Raymond G. Kammer, Acting Director
,
ADVANCED CERAMICS:

A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF

WEAR AND LUBRICATION

TOPICAL REPORT

June 1986 - October 1986

Prepared by

R. G. Munro and S. M. Hsu

Ceramics Division

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899

Under Contract to

Center for Advanced Materials

The Pennsylvania State University

University Park, PA 16802

Contract Number: GRI-TPSU-NBS-1 302-379

CAM 8901

for

Gas Research Institute

Contract Number: 5084-238-1302

GRI - 88/0290

GRI Project Manager

Matthew E. Schreiner

Materials Technology and Components

January, 1989

GRI DISCLAIMER

LEGAL NOTICE: This report was prepared by the National Institute of Standards and

Technology under contract to The Pennsylvania State University as an account of work

sponsored by the Gas Research Institute (GRI). Neither GRI, members of GRI, nor any

person acting on behalf of either:

a. Makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect

to the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information

contained in this report, or that the use of any apparatus, method or

process disclosed in this report may no infringe privately owned rights;

or

b . Assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages

resulting from the use of, any information, apparatus, method, or

process disclosed in this report.

v
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RESEARCH SUMMARY

Title

Contractor

Subcontractor

Principal

Investigators

Report

Period

Objectives

Technical

Perspective

Results

Advanced Ceramics: A Critical Assessment of Wear and Lubrication

Center for Advanced Materials

The Pennsylvania State University

GRI Contract Number 5084-238-1302

Ceramics Division

National Institute of Standards and Technology

CAM Contract Number: GRI-TPSU-NBS- 1302-379

Stephen M. Hsu and Ronald G. Munro

June, 1986 - October, 1986

To assess the tribological issues, needs, and priorities for research on friction,

wear, and lubrication of ceramic materials relevant to gas-fired prime movers.

Currently, small, but well established, markets exist for gas-fired reciprocating

engines. The oil, gas, and agricultural industries use such engines to provide

power to drilling operations, air compression, and fluid pumping. In these

applications, the availability of the fuel may be a greater factor than efficiency in

determining usage. Similarly, gas-fired turbine engines are used widely in

power plants. In the latter application, reliability, lifetime, and long time

intervals between maintenance are more important considerations than

efficiency. Further, potential new markets exist, in both the near term and the

far future, that could significantly expand the utilization of natural gas prime

movers. In these potential markets, however, the efficiency of the engine is a

critical factor affecting the choice of the fuel source. In the near term, for

example, power cogeneration could become an important market in response to the higher cost of electricity during peak demand periods. In the far future, the

clean burning characteristics of natural gas may make it the most desirable fuel

for advanced, high temperature, high efficiency engines. In both cases, the

question of efficiency requires a clear resolution of tribological issues, with the

most urgent attention being focused on the unique conditions pertaining to gasfired prime mover environments.

A critical assessment of the current state-of-the-art of the tribology of ceramics

is made. While there are many research issues related to the general application

of ceramics in machinery, wear parts, bearings, biomaterials, and liquid-fueled

heat engines, there are unique research needs specific to the gas industry. In

particular, advanced heat engines designed specifically for gas burning used in

energy generation and transportation offer exciting prospects as well as difficult

challenges in materials selection, testing, design guidelines, and life predictions.

The development of the technology for high efficiency gas-burning prime

movers is deemed necessary to maintain current and projected utilization levels

of natural gas. Further, problems associated with high temperature lubrication

of liquid-fueled heat engines, in terms of dispersing soot particulars and the

neutralization of sulfuric acidic species (derived from sulfur compounds in

vii
liquid fuels), may delay or prevent the commercialization of high efficiency

liquid-fueled adiabatic engines,. Consequently, the clean burning

characteristics of natural gas may offer a unique opportunity to capitalize on this

market.

Current tribology research efforts on ceramics are plagued by inconsistent

methodology, lack of materials characterization, lack of environmental control,

and nonuniform sample cleaning and preparation procedures. These practices

yield contradictory data and make generalizations of friction and wear

characteristics of materials impossible. The ever changing processing

techniques for ceramic materials add further measures of confusion. Design

guidelines and materials selection become crucial issues. Wear life is controlled

by effective lubrication, but lubrication of ceramic materials currently is not

understood. Hence, there is no effective lubricant presently available for

ceramics at high temperatures. Effective lubrication is also controlled by

environmental factors. The influence of gas combustion products on lubricants

and ceramic surfaces, therefore, becomes a key focus for GRI.

Based on this assessment, it is recommended that GRI accelerate research in: (1) ceramic materials selection guide for optimum wear life under gas-burning

conditions; (2) lubrication research in defining the chemistry, materials, and

additives that will function under high temperature gas-burning conditions; and

(3) effects of microstructure on wear resistance, surface reactivity, and

lubrication requirements under gas combustion environments.

While there is a large parallel effort in developing liquid-fueled heat engines,

and while many problems identical in form emerge, it is not clear that solutions

that may be derived from liquid-fueled heat engine research can be utilized

readily for gas-fired prime movers. The very nature of tribology is governed by

systems (speed, load, geometry temperatures, pressures, and lubrication) and

environments (combustion gases, contaminants, oxidation, corrosion, and

competing processes). Therefore, solutions specific to GRTs needs may not be

available from other sources that are not gas related. Results from projects such

as materials development, however, can provide useful leads, but even these

results must be tested under specific gas-fired prime mover conditions to establish their utility to the gas industry.

Prompt implementation of the research in the recommended areas will not only ensure GRI's position on parallel technology development, but also may

provide a unique opportunity to exploit to the fullest advanced technologies for

increased utilization of natural gas.

Technical

Approach A review of the tribological issues in engine technology was conducted with an emphasis on the technical barriers confronting the utilization of advanced gasfired engines. The scope of the study was centered specifically on the tribology

of materials in gas fired engine applications. The resulting assessment project

probed several sources of fired prime mover technology. The study included

discussions of work in progress, site visits, and reviews of open literature.

Strong evidence was found during the course of this study to suggest that

tribology research will have a major role to perform in the establishment of

competitively efficient gas-fired heat engines.

vm
Project

Implications This report is responsive to part of the mandate of the Center for Advanced

Materials at The Pennsylvania State University and was funded as a subcontract

within the GRI support for that Center.

The Center for Advanced Materials contains a major organizational unit within

which material specific aspects of industrial end use technologies based on the

actual or potential use of natural gas are assessed in order to define and focus

subsequent advanced materials research and development activities at the CAM

The ultimate purpose of such research activity, and hence the objective of the

assessment activity, is the maintenance of a competitive position for natural gas

among the various sources of energy in industrial end use technologies.

This report covers the area of tribology (i.e. lubrication, friction, and wear of

moving parts) with an emphasis on natural gas engines. The technical problems

actually and/or expected to be associated with such engines are described, the

research state-of-the-art is described, and research needs are outlined.

Recommendations for research projects and the implications which the success of such research would have for the natural gas industry are described. Based

on this report, research on tribology has been given a priority rating within the

general context of research on advanced materials for natural gas applications.

Furthermore, the prioritization of particular tribological problems in such

applications can now be made.

Max Klein

Senior Scientist,

Thermodynamics

Matthew E. Schreiner

Project Manager,

Materials Technology & Components

IX
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CONTENTS

Section Page

RESEARCH SUMMARY vii

CONTENTS .....xi

ABSTRACT 1

I. INTRODUCTION 4

II. OVERVIEW 12

III. ISSUES....... 17

A. Rotary Engines 18

B. Gas-Fired Reciprocating Engines 20

C. Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engines 22

D. Turbine Engines 24

IV. MATERIALS ANALYSIS 24

V. TRIBOLOGY OF CERAMICS....... 32

Wear Mechanisms 34

Materials Variations 34

Environmental Effects ......... 35

Structure and Phase Transformations 35

Friction and Wear............. 36

Material Durability 37

Material Porosity 37

Lubrication 37

Quantitative Restrictions 38

VI. LUBRICATION OF CERAMICS............ 38

Temperature < 200°

C

39

Temperature 200°- 600°C 40

Temperature > 600°

C

41

Lubricant Types: Gases 43

Lubricant Types: Liquids 44

Lubricant Types: Solids 46

Prospects for Lubricated Ceramics 50

VII. RECOMMENDATIONS 52

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 56

REFERENCES..... 58

TABLES 67

FIGURES 72

xi
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TABLES

Table Page

I. A summary of the general materials properties needed for advanced gas-fired prime

movers . . . . . . 67

II. A summary of the major wear mechanisms of alumina, silicon nitride, silicon carbide,

and partially stabilized zirconia, as cited in the technical literature...... 68

III. Commercial solid lubricants. 69

IV. Estimated life of solid-lubricated piston rings 70

V. Recommended topical research areas to advance the development of gas-fired prime

movers 71

xrn

FIGURES

Figure Page

Fig. 1. Working cycle of a rotary engine 72

Fig. 2. Primary wear components in a reciprocating engine 73

Fig. 3. Melting points of selected ceramics 74

Fig. 4. Thermal conductivity of selected ceramics 75

Fig. 5 . Heat capacity of selected ceramics 76

Fig. 6. Thermal diffusivity of selected ceramics 77

Fig. 7. Flexural strength of selected ceramics at room temperature 78

Fig. 8 . Flexural strength of selected ceramics at high temperature 79

Fig. 9. Fracture toughness of selected ceramics 80

Fig. 10. Thermal shock resistance of selected ceramics 81

Fig. 11. Mass density of selected ceramics..... 82

Fig. 1 2. Linear thermal expansion of selected ceramics 83

Fig. 13. Comparison of wear as a function of load for different batches of alumina under

paraffin oil lubricated conditions (constant condition tests) 84

Fig. 14. Wear rate of silicon nitride as a function of humidity 85

Fig. 15. Rate of wear of alumina as a function of slide direction on the basal sheets 86

Fig. 16. Anisotropy in the wear of alumina 87

Fig. 17. Phase diagram of zirconia 88

Fig. 18. Wear coefficients of alumina derived from literature values 89

Fig. 19. Wear coefficient of lubricated alumina derived form literature results 90

Fig. 20. Wear coefficient of silicon nitride derived from literature results 91

Fig. 21. Wear coefficient of silicon carbide derived from literature results 92

Fig. 22. Wear coefficient of partially stabilized zirconia derived from literature results 93

Fig. 23. Coefficient of friction of silicon nitride as a function of sliding speed 94

Fig. 24. Wear rate of silicon nitride as a function of sliding speed 95

xv
Fig. 25. A study of the dependence of wear scar transitions on material 96

Fig. 26. Coefficient of friction of silicon nitride as a function of sliding distance 97

Fig. 27. Effect of porosity on the wear of alumina. 98

xvi
Advanced Ceramics

A Critical Assessment of Wear and Lubrication

R. G. Munro and S. M. Hsu

Ceramics Division

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

ABSTRACT

A critical assessment of the current state-of-the-art of the tribology

of ceramics is made. While there are many tribological research issues

related to the general application of ceramics in machinery, wear parts,

bearings, biomaterials, and liquid-fueled heat engines, there are unique

research needs specific to the gas industry. In particular, advanced heat

engines designed specifically for gas burning used in energy generation and

transportation offer exciting prospects as well as difficult challenges in

materials selection, testing, design guidelines, and life predictions.

The development of the technology for high efficiency gas -burning

prime movers is deemed necessary to maintain current and projected

utilization levels of natural gas. Further, problems associated with high

temperature lubrication of liquid- fueled heat engines, in terms of

dispersing soot particulates and the neutralization of sulfuric acidic

species (derived from sulfur compounds in liquid fuels) , may delay or prevent the commercialization of high efficiency liquid-fueled adiabatic

engines. Consequently, the clean burning characteristics of natural gas

may offer a unique opportunity to capitalize on this market.
Current tribology research efforts on ceramics are plagued by

inconsistent methodology, lack of materials characterization, lack of

environmental control, and nonuniform sample cleaning and preparation

procedures. These practices yield contradictory data and make

generalizations of friction and wear characteristics of materials

impossible. The ever changing processing techniques for ceramic materials

add further measures of confusion. Design guidelines and materials

selection become the crucial issues. Wear life is controlled by effective

lubrication, but lubrication of ceramic materials currently is not

understood. Hence, there is no effective lubricant presently available for

ceramics at high temperatures. Effective lubrication is also controlled by

environmental factors. The influence of gas combustion products on

lubricants and ceramic surfaces, therefore, becomes the key focus for GRI

.

To identify the critical technical barriers confronting the

utilization of advanced gas-fired engines, data were gathered specifically

i on the tribology of materials for gas-fired engine applications. Site

visits and discussions with a number of GRI contractors in industry were

conducted as the first step in identifying critical issues. Then, an

extensive review of the technical literature was made to determine what

information was available to resolve those issues, and, more importantly,

what critical information was not yet available. These data were used to

examine the issues for each of the principal engine types (rotary,

reciprocating, and turbine). Materials property data for ceramics were

then reviewed in the context of the operating environments and conditions

for these engines. Thermal, mechanical, and tribological properties were

examined along with the important considerations for lubricating ceramics

2
in engine applications. The analysis of these data considered the impact

and relative merits of using various advanced materials and resulted in

recommendations for research activities that could have a significant

impact on the development of gas-fired prime movers.

Based on this assessment, it is recommended that GRI accelerate

research in: (1) ceramic materials selection guides for optimum wear life

under gas-burning conditions; (2) lubrication research in defining the

chemistry, materials, and additives that will function under high

temperature gas -burning conditions; and (3) effects of microstructure on

wear resistance, surface reactivity, and lubrication requirements under gas

combustion environments.

While there is a large parallel effort in developing liquid- fueled

heat engines, and while many problems identical in form emerge, it is not

clear that solutions that may be derived from liquid- fueled heat engine

research can be utilized readily for gas-fired prime movers. The very

nature of tribology is governed by systems (speed, load, geometry,

temperatures, pressures, and lubrication) and environments (combustion

gases, contaminants, oxidation, corrosion, and competing processes).

Therefore, solutions specific to GRI's needs may not be available from

other sources that are not gas related. Results from projects such as materials development, however, can provide useful leads, but even these

results must be tested under specific gas-fired prime mover conditions to

establish their utility to the gas industry.

3
Prompt implementation of the research in the recommended areas will

not only ensure GRI ' s position in parallel technology development, but also

may provide a unique opportunity to exploit to the fullest advanced

technologies for increased utilization of natural gas.

I . INTRODUCTION

The Center for Advanced Materials was established, in part, in

recognition of the need for technical advances in materials science and

engineering to sustain, develop, and promote applications of natural gas

fuels. As with any new effort, a certain number of cursory studies were

required to determine more clearly what the detailed scope of the effort

should be. One of those studies was the work reported here assessing the

research needs with respect to the tribological aspects of gas-fired prime

movers

.

This topic was of special interest because the future commercial

success of such prime movers may depend critically on the ability of the

engines to operate for long periods of time with low maintenance. For

example, operation of an engine for 20,000 hours would be roughly

equivalent to driving an automobile for 1,000,000 miles at 50 miles per

hour. Preventing component wear and failure would be vital to such a fete.

The intent of this tribology study was to provide a brief look at the

issues, needs, and priorities for tribology research in gas-fired

applications as perceived bv current GRI contractors . Discussions with GRI

contractors soon revealed that there was a broad-based recognition of the

importance of tribology. However, there was no previous review of the

tribology of advanced materials focused on gas-fueled applications on which

4
this effort could build. Consequently, the investigators took the liberty

of pursuing this study in far greater detail than was requested for the

project. An extensive review of the literature was conducted during which

a considerable amount of data was extracted to illustrate the current

status of the tribologically relevant technical information. Further,

these data were used to identify critical research concerns.

Recommendations for research on advanced ceramics were developed as a

synthesis of the research needs expressed by the GRI contractors and as identified in the data analysis.

Research in tribology provides a basis for the much needed advances in

technology that will enable more reliable, efficient, and, therefore, more

competitive utilization of natural gas in residential heat pumps, power

cogenerators for hospitals and hotels, and engines for transport

vehicles. 1

"

3 Such applications inevitably involve moving parts that cause

friction and wear which diminish the reliability, efficiency, and

effectiveness of the engine. In these applications, conversion energy is

lost from the work done against friction. Perhaps more importantly, parts

that suffer wear can cause energy losses due to leakage and can result in

premature component failure and, hence, system downtime.

The importance of tribology to efficient use of energy is well

recognized. 4 " 5 More importantly, research in tribology is beginning to be

recognized as an essential prerequisite to advances in technological

concepts quite generally. For example, in the mid-1980's, several reviews

of the need and impact of tribology research were conducted for the Energy

Conversion and Utilization Technology program of the Department of Energy

(DOE/ECUT). 6 An "Assessment of Government Tribology Programs" found that

5
there were approximately 215 projects being conducted under the sponsorship

of 21 government organizations. Most of that work pertained to the

Department of Defense, and it was noted particularly that industrial

tribology areas received little attention. According to that assessment,

past research efforts in tribology had been evolutionary in nature rather

than exploratory. However, through such efforts as the assessment, the

need for planned, exploratory research in tribology was beginning to be

understood. That assessment reported that there were developing efforts in

wear research, high temperature lubrication, and ceramic friction and wear. However, it noted that little attention had yet been given to design

predictability or to composite materials. It was noted that much of the

research concerned lubrication, including efforts to find a synthetic oil

to be used in gas turbine engines at temperatures up to 315 °C (600°F)

.

Other major efforts were directed towards materials for high-speed rolling

contact bearings.

At approximately the same time, an "Assessment of Industrial Attitudes

Toward Generic Research Needs in Tribology" also was conducted for the

DOE/ECUT. 7 That assessment found that funding for generic tribology

research was very limited. Further, when industries did provide funding

for such research, there was no focusing of the efforts or coordination of

the programs. Generally, expenditures were for the development of specific

products. However, discussions with the 27 industries reviewed

consistently indicated a need for tribology research results. Technically

sophisticated organizations generally expressed a greater emphasis on

understanding tribological mechanisms. Four research areas were given

special mention. First, there was a strongly expressed consensus that

6
research results were not readily accessible to the potential users in

industry. The common methods of reporting research results, such as technical papers and handbooks, were considered to be too limited. Second,

there was a broad interest in relating laboratory tests to applications in

the field. Third, a growing interest was found in using ceramics in power

plants and for specific components such as cam followers, bearings, and

cylinder liners. Overall, the assessment concluded that much more data

would be needed before applications of engineering ceramics would become

generally viable. The fourth area with special emphasis concerned the link

between chemical environment and tribological phenomena. The latter issue was noted as the most persistently cited concern in the assessment.

Two other assessments focusing on specific industries and their energy

losses that could be prevented or reduced through appropriate tribology

research were also made for DOE/ECUT. One of those assessments reviewed

industries in mining, agriculture, primary metals, chemicals and refining,

food, and pulp and paper . 8 The other assessment reviewed the

transportation and electric utilities industries . 9 The latter review

examined wear issues and made recommendations for long-term research and

development programs. Reliability was considered to be the central theme

for research in the utilities industry. General areas of recommended

research included component failure analysis, wear rate data, tribology of

ceramics, and reliability or durability. Specific problem areas included

piston rings, main and connecting rods, bearings, valve trains, oil pumps,

abradable seals, and rotor systems.

None of the tribology assessments considered the needs and interests

of the natural gas industry except in a cursory manner. Hence, the present

7
assessment effort began with an overview of gas applications in which

tribology research could play an important role.

Currently, small, but well established, markets exist for gas-fired

reciprocating engines. The oil, gas, and agricultural industries use such

engines to provide power for drilling operations, air compression, and

fluid pumping. In these applications, the local availability of natural

gas as a fuel may be a bigger factor than efficiency in the decision to use

gas-fueled engine. In contrast, gas-fired turbine engines are widely used

in power plants. In these gas turbines, reliability, lifetime, and

maintenance interval can be more important considerations than efficiency.

However, in future potential markets, high efficiency in energy conversion

could become a more critical issue. As the energy usage increases, power

cogeneration could become an important market for natural gas in response

to the higher cost of electricity during peak demand periods. The clean

burning characteristics of natural gas may make it the most desirable fuel

for the more advanced, high temperature, high efficiency adiabatic engines,

resulting in another potential market for natural gas. In both of these

applications, the increased need for efficiency requires a clear resolution

of tribological issues, with the most urgent attention being focused on the

unique conditions pertaining to gas-fired prime mover environments.

In general, the consequences of putting two material surfaces into

contact under relative motion depend on many complex and interdependent

variables. Viewed microscopically, the surfaces of the materials, even

when highly polished, have numerous irregular topographical features called

asperities. During contact, the loading of one surface pressing against

the other is actually supported by these asperities. Since the surface

8
area of the asperities is usually quite small, the stress developed in an asperity can be very large, approaching the yield strength of the material.

When the two surfaces are in relative motion, additional sever straining

occurs when the asperities of one surface collide with the asperities of

the other surface. The asperities may suffer plastic deformations, crack

generation, fracture, or phase transformations as a result of the

collisions. There is evidence that very high temperatures, on the order of

1500 - 2000°C, are also associated with asperity-asperity collisions. The

effects of the localized temperature extremes on the tribological

performance properties of the materials are not known at this time. It may

be conjectured, though, that asperity-asperity collisions are a critical

part of the wear process.

As a result, the variables that are important to the tribological

aspects of engine operation include speed, load, geometry, temperature,

materials, pressure, and the specific conditions associated with the

operation of the system, such as atmosphere, contaminants, wear history,

and surface compositional changes.

Tribology involves nonequilibrium, nonlinear, nonsteady state, dynamic

processes and interactions of materials that depend not only on what

materials are used, but also on how the materials are used. In other

words, to design. a tribological system properly, the dependencies of

performance on the total system being investigated must be considered,

particularly the roles of the materials, the lubricant, the environment,

and the operating conditions. Consequently, the tribological

characteristics encountered in the use of advanced ceramics in gas-fired

prime movers will have features distinct from the characteristics

9
encountered in studies of liquid-fueled engines. The consequences of using

natural gas as a fuel, have not been studied previously

.

1

0

’ 1

A

The only way

to verify and to understand the significance of those tribological features

specific to gas-fired environments is to conduct experiments specifically

designed to examine advanced ceramics in gas-fired environments.

Natural gas consists essentially of methane gas. Methane burns more

cleanly in air than do gasoline or diesel fuel. The combustion products of

natural gas are mostly CO, C02 , and N0X

. These products are rather . different from the products of liquid fuel combustion. As a result, the

interactions among the engine surfaces, the combustion products, and the

lubricant for future gas -fired heat engines may be quite different than for

the future liquid- fueled heat engines. Also, certain mechanical aspects of

the combustion process will be different when gas is used as a fuel and

need to be considered. For example, methane gas is found to explode in an uncontrolled manner when it is used at high compression ratios

(approximately 15:1) such as are used in a diesel engine. To prevent that

situation, the diesel engine design may have to be modified for gas fuel to

make use of a lower compression ratio (approximately 10:1). However, at

this lower compression ratio, spark ignition is required along with a carbureted fuel system. Unfortunately, the end result of such an

adaptation would be an engine that produces only about 75% of the output

power of the unmodified diesel engine. 15 ’ 16

In principle, increasing the compression ratio towards 15:1 would

increase the efficiency and power output of the gas-fired engine. To do

so, however, methods to overcome or eliminate the uncontrolled detonation

of the natural gas fuel mixture must be found. Two different approaches to

10
this objective are under consideration in GRI supported research. The

first method is simply to reduce the amount of gas in the fuel and air

mixture. The resulting lean burn condition, however, necessitates further

design modifications such as a precombustion chamber and/or a more

turbulent main combustion chamber. It is anticipated that the lean burn

approach could lead to an engine efficiency on the order of 33%. This

efficiency would still be significantly less than the 37% rating achievable

by diesel engine designs.

The second approach to increasing the compression ratio is to

eliminate the fuel-air mixture detonation problem completely by using a direct fuel injection technique. Again, engine modifications would be

necessary to provide both an injection mechanism and an appropriate

ignition source. The important advantage in using direct injection of the

gas fuel is that the constraints imposed by the detonation problem would be

removed. Hence, the compression ratio could be higher, and, perhaps more

importantly, the temperature of the combustion chamber could be increased

significantly. The latter advantage would require the use of insulating

materials such as advanced ceramics for critical engine components . The

resulting engine could achieve a maximum efficiency of 38-40%.

From these considerations, proper tribological treatment may be needed

with respect to materials selection and the lubrication of the components

in the various engines. Therefore, a critical review of the status of the

tribological issues in engine technology has been conducted to identify the

technical barriers confronting the advanced utilization of gas-fired

engines. The scope of this study is centered specifically on the tribology

of materials in gas-fired engine applications.

11
II. OVERVIEW

Wear and lubrication problems currently exist for all high

temperature, high efficiency heat engine critical moving parts,

particularly seals, piston and cylinder contacts, apex-housing wear in

rotary engines, and valves, valve seats, and valve stems. Ceramics are materials of choice due to their high temperature strength and wear

resistance. Unfortunately, the wear rates of ceramics are very high

causing premature failures. It is not clear whether the high wear rate is

attributable to materials inadequacy or to lack of effective lubrication.

Very little definitive data exist. Such data, essential to design

criteria, must be acquired through system specific research efforts.

Such conclusions were derived from an analysis of information

available in technical literature and from visits and discussions with

industries and research groups involved in GRI- supported or related engine

research. Site visits provided the most important source of relevant

information in terms of focusing on the immediate problems, understanding

the current attempts to resolve the problems, and gaining an insight on the

nature of the research needed to obtain longer-term solutions capable of

advancing high efficiency engine technology. While many companies and

individuals were contacted, research groups at Caterpillar Tractor Co.,

John Deere Co., and Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) proved to be the

most helpful and GRI specific.

The visit to SwRI was particularly fruitful. Discussions indicated a primary concern with three problem areas. In the wear of engine

components, the immediate problem with piston- type engines was considered

to be the wear of the valve and valve seat assembly and the valve stem. It

12
was felt that the mechanical designing of a more efficient engine had been

accomplished, but that the associated materials problem had not yet been

solved. The difficulty was that the more efficient engine operated at

higher temperatures. For significant increases in efficiency, the

temperature increase was large enough to make the use of metal alloys less

appropriate. The most promising solution to the problem, especially for

long-term results, was expected to be obtained through the use of advanced

ceramic materials. A related problem, lubrication at the higher

temperatures, was also considered to be essential to the progress in engine

technology. The technical basis for developing new lubricants for higher

temperatures and/or for ceramics has not yet been established. Substantial

and comprehensive data on the stability of lubricants, the effectiveness of

controlling wear and friction at high temperatures, and the tribological

properties of ceramic materials were much needed. SwRI also emphasized the

need to relate such data to engine conditions, laboratory bench tests, and

engine test rigs. Interest was expressed particularly for wear models that

could be used to extrapolate wear rates obtained in rig tests for 2000

hours to full scale applications of 20,000 hours.

The group at Caterpillar Tractor Co. indicated that they considered

two problem areas to be especially important: lubrication of advanced

engines and valve wear. In advanced engine designs, lubricant consumption

and the formation of deposits were highlighted as the major problems

confronting current and near future efforts. It was emphasized that

lubrication was the key limiting factor in the development of a low heat

rejection engine. A need for laboratory tests correlated to engine tests

was also strongly indicated. Special problems in lubrication and wear were

13
discussed for the use of natural gas as a fuel. The combustion products of

natural gas are relatively dry when compared to gasoline or diesel fuels.

The cleaner natural gas, while highly desirable, creates a greater reliance

on the effectiveness of the lubricant in preventing engine failure.

Further, the environmental effects on the wear process are not adequately

understood. For example, upon changing to a lean burn condition, valve

wear was seriously increased. The need for materials related research,

centered most likely on ceramics, was indicated as a high priority.

The John Deere facility at Woodbridge, New Jersey and Moline, Illinois

were also visited. The focus of the discussions was on a high efficiency

rotary engine as a gas -fired prime mover. The design of the rotary engine

is simple in principle and has specific advantages resulting from fewer

moving parts. However, the apex seal is crucial to engine operation.

Hence, the wear of the apex seal/rotary housing couple is an immediate and

a long-term concern. Wear of the apex/housing couple creates a leakage

that results in a reduction of power output and efficiency. Such leakage

can also contribute to the formation of deposits on the surface against

which the apex seal must slide. These deposits become traps for wear

debris and also create nonuniform surface profiles resulting in further

wear. Such deposits can also occur directly prior to significant leakage

at the apex seal and thereby contribute to accelerated wear. Advances in

rotary engine development, therefore, are hindered by two distinct

tribological problems: wear of the rotor apex/housing couple and the

formation of degraded lubricant deposits. Solutions to these issues,

however, are interconnected. Under the design conditions, the materials

used may not be adequate. At the same time, the materials may be

14
inadequate because of the lack of adequate lubrication. When a satisfactory lubricant is available, the materials may be sufficient. To

safeguard technology development, a dual approach seems appropriate; i.e.,

a parallel development effort of materials and lubricants. Efforts in

defining a more durable metal alloy or a surface modification treatment may

provide a short-term solution. However, in the context of using the rotary

engine in cogeneration applications, the need for significantly increased

efficiency may dictate that advanced structural ceramics be used.

A persistent theme in the discussions with various engine research

groups was the need for new materials for which advanced ceramics were

considered to be the leading candidates. Independent analysis of the

materials criteria for advanced engine designs leads to the same conclusion. Given the goal of higher efficiency, in the range of 37-40

percent, it has become clear that the waste heat energy must be reduced.

Approximately one-third. of the energy developed in combustion is lost in

nonrecoverable form by diffusion through the engine parts. While

unrecoverable, such losses are preventable by using improved thermal

insulation. In principle, then, increasing the efficiency of the engine is

rather straightforward. However, increasing efficiency while

simultaneously maintaining adequate wearlife and system reliability is a

far more complicated matter. Overall, the materials requirements for

advances in heat engine technology require reductions in heat loss, high

wear resistance, low friction, reduced lubricant deposits, and, in some

cases, less engine dead weight or inertia. The only materials that

currently have the potential of satisfying all of these requirements are advanced structural ceramics.

15
Discussions with engine research groups, analysis of engine materials

requirements, and a review of current literature on engine research

strongly suggested the need for a critical assessment of ceramic tribology.

A major review of the technical literature was conducted to learn what

information was available on the wear of ceramics under any conditions. A

computer search of the literature covering the time period from 1955 to the

present was performed. Approximately 1200 articles were found pertaining

to the wear of ceramics, with an emphasis on the wear of specific ceramics

( silicon nitride, silicon carbide, alumina, and partially stabilized

zirconia) . These papers were further screened by requiring that the data

in the papers be susceptible to critical evaluation; i.e., enough

information had to be contained in the paper such that data from different

papers could be compared in common terms. For example, comparisons of the

wear of a material as a function of load and sliding speed could be

accomplished only if the dimensionless wear coefficient could be computed,

the sliding speed could be determined in a common unit such as meters per

second, and the load could be expressed as the normal load. Applying this

requirement reduced the number of papers to be reviewed to seventy. Thus,

the first conclusion found in the literature review was that comparisons of

data from different studies is a major problem in the current data base.

The review then proceeded along two paths : What materials data were

available on ceramic materials for gas-fired prime movers? What

tribological data existed on ceramics for advanced heat engine technology?

Implicit in both paths was the question, "what data are missing?"

Data gathered from the site visits, the literature review, and other

contacts and discussions are analyzed in the following sections. The

16
section on Issues concentrates on each type of gas -fired prime mover and

cogeneration engine with an emphasis on applications, advantages, and

challenges. The section on Materials Analysis considers the impact and

relative merits of various advanced materials. Section IV reviews the

status of the Tribology of Ceramics with respect to critical considerations

for heat engines . Section V analyzes the lubrication requirements of

ceramics. The final section, Recommendations, discusses the research

activities which could have a significant impact on the development of gasfired prime movers

III. ISSUES

Potential applications of gas-fired prime movers exist for each of the

principal engine types (reciprocating, rotary, and turbine). The operating

conditions and the demands placed on the engines vary significantly with

the intended application and engine design.

The critical issues are: efficiency, reliability, lifetime, and cost.

Each of these factors is directly linked to tribology. For example, wear

is the controlling parameter for reliability and lifetime. Friction

governs efficiency. The cost can be heavily influenced by friction and

wear characteristics of materials, the materials costs, and the durability

of the materials.

Each engine type is discussed separately. The nature of the engine,

the intended and potential applications, and the operating conditions and

demands placed on the engine are reviewed first to establish the context

and scope of the research areas. Next, special problem areas perceived as

17
major barriers to advances and developments in engine technology are discussed with an emphasis on those problems requiring concurrent advances

in fundamental material and lubrication aspects of tribology. Each

subsection concludes with a discussion of the generic material properties

that will be needed to advance the engine design. In each case, materials

currently considered as the leading candidates to fulfill the material

requirements are identified.

A. Rotary Engines 17 ' 27

The rotary engine is the simplest mechanical form of the engine

designs in terms of its small number of moving parts. A schematic

rendering of its operation is given in Fig. 1. The heart of the engine is

the triangular rotor that rotates within a trochoid surface at operating

speeds that range from a few thousand to as high as 11,000 rpm. Each face

of the rotor functions as a combustion chamber. The combustion cycle

begins when an apex seal uncovers the air intake port allowing air to enter

the immediate chamber. When the next apex seal closes the intake port,

compression of the air begins. A fuel charge is ignited in the chamber at

the point of maximum compression of the air (compression ratios in the

range 7 to 10). In the resulting power stroke, the apex seal uncovers the

exhaust port allowing the gases to exit the chamber. During this

operation, the apex seals may experience temperatures of the order to

500°C

.

The small size, low vibration, and potentially low maintenance make

the rotary design suitable to a number of lower power domestic applications

such as heat pumps and stationary power cogeneration functions. The high

power density and high speed capabilities give the rotary engine

18
significant potential for high power transport applications. Consequently,

designs for the rotary engine range from a few kilowatts of power output to

1700 kW.

The major problem areas of the rotary engine are the wear and

lubrication of the rubbing surfaces. Wear of the apex seal, for example,

causes leakage that results in higher fuel consumption and reduced power

output. Wear also occurs on the trochoid surface, the side housing, and at

the corner and oil seals. Elimination of these losses could contribute as much as ten percent improvement in both fuel consumption and power. For

the smaller size engines, the overall efficiency of the engine must be

improved to be competitive with existing alternative designs. Improvements

due to reduced leakage losses, while important, would not be sufficient to

make the rotary engine highly attractive. Other efforts to reduce losses

such as by improved insulation of components are highly desirable.

Improved heat insulation, though, places greater demands on the material

characteristics and makes the tribological conditions more severe. In

general, the ideal materials would have low wear and low friction to ensure

durability and mechanical efficiency, but also would have to possess low

thermal conductivity, high temperature strength, high fracture toughness,

and good thermal shock resistance.

Currently, the approach taken by the industry to secure improved

performance for the rotary engine is to seek surface coatings or modified

surfaces that are harder and more wear resistant than the steel substrate

material. Special heating and rapid solidification techniques are being

applied to produce a modified surface layer on the contacting surfaces.

The method produces a thick surface layer (about 3 mm) that has reduced

19
friction. Other surfaces are being hardened through chromium plating and

soft nitriding. Special coatings of tungsten carbide and chromium oxides

are also being used to improve surface wear resistance.

More advanced approaches are attempting to utilize the inherent

thermally insulative properties of high technology structural ceramics.

Monolithic ceramics made from silicon nitride, silicon carbide, and

partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) are the leading candidate materials.

Ceramic coatings using chromium oxide over PSZ is considered to be another

possible useful approach that combines the thermal characteristics of PSZ

and the wear resistance of Cr2 03

. Successful application of these new materials hinges on the

development and availability of effective lubricants for these materials.

Detailed discussions are presented in section V.

B. Gas -Fired Reciprocating Engines28 " 29

Reciprocating engines are the most widely used type of engine

currently produced. Hence, there is a wealth of industrial experience in

the design and operation of such engines that may be called upon in the

development of gas-fired piston engines. There are several reasons to

suppose that such engines would have a useful and viable position in the

commercial marketplace. Natural gas burns more cleanly than either

gasoline or diesel fuels. As a result, one would expect fewer maintenance

problems arising from deposits and corrosion. The lifetime of a gas-fired

piston engine should, therefore, exceed that obtained from liquid fuels.

The basic operation of the piston engine involves several moving parts

for which tribological considerations are crucial, as suggested by Fig. 2.

Valves control the intake of the air and gas and the exiting of the

20
exhaust. The combustion chamber is defined by the cylinder head and liner

components and the top cap of the piston. Air and fuel enter the chamber

as the piston recedes from the cylinder head. The valves are closed during

the subsequent compression stroke which continues until a compression ratio

is achieved in the range from eight to fourteen. The fuel and air mixture

is ignited at the point of maximum compression to begin the power stroke.

The cycle is completed by the exhaust stroke.

Gas -fired reciprocating engines are being developed for stationary

applications such as residential heat pumps and large size power

cogeneration units for use in hospitals, hotel, and other facilities. The

power capabilities needed for such engines range from a few kilowatts to

over 500 kW. The central issue that needs to be addressed by the engine

developers pertains to the efficiency of the engine compared to existing

alternate designs. The current thermal efficiency of approximately 30%

must be improved to the 40% range to make gas -fired piston engines

competitive. To achieve such improvements, it will be necessary to utilize

new materials such as high technology ceramics.

The efficiency and durability of the piston engine is strongly related

to the wear life and friction characteristics of the components that

encounter sliding wear. The cylinder liner, piston rings, valves, valve

seats, and valve stems, in particular, may contribute to wear related

problems. The valve and valve seat may also experience impact wear. To

improve the efficiency of the engine, these parts need to have improved

thermal insulation such that heat losses through various cooling mechanisms

can be reduced. Efficiency could also be improved through the use of

lighter weight materials. The need for better insulation, higher

21
temperature capability, and lighter weight again suggests the use of

ceramics. Silicon nitride is the leading material, but use of this

material requires a suitable mating surface for which there would be

relatively low wear and friction. A major difficulty in the developmental

area is the lack of basic data on the wear of ceramic pairs and materials

compatibility

.

C. Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engines 30 " 35

Advances in the design of diesel engines currently are focusing on the

development of low heat rejection (LHR) engines, sometimes also called

adiabatic diesel engines. These engines are intended for use in heavy duty

transport applications and would not generally be expected to consider

natural gas as an appropriate fuel. However, the experience gained from

the research on materials for LHR engines could be valuable to the

development of gas-fired engines. Indeed, the most advanced research

efforts on the use of ceramics and other state-of-the-art materials have

been made for LHR diesel engines.

The tribological problem areas for LHR diesel engines, in fact, are essentially the same as those for gas-fired piston engines: cylinder

liners, piston rings, valves, valve seals, and valve stems. The primary

difference between these engines is that LHR diesel engines are being

designed with much higher operating temperatures. The near-future goal is

operation at 600°C, while in the far-future temperatures may reach 1000°C.

The material needs for the LHR engine at 600° C, in terms of the thermal

characteristics, should be expected to be similar to the material needs of

the rotary apex seal at 500°C.

22
The emphasis in the design of the LHR diesel engine is to eliminate,

as much as possible, the loss of energy to cooling. Such losses amount to

approximately one- third of the heat energy released in the combustion

process. Within the combustion chamber, the heat energy impinges directly

on the cylinder liner, the piston cap and rings, the cylinder head, and the

valve assembly. These components, therefore, must have a high thermal

shock resistance as well as excellent friction and wear resistance. These

components also interface with other engine parts that are at much lower

temperatures. Hence, monolithic high temperature components need to have

good dimensional stability in the presence of large temperature gradients.

If thermally insulating coatings are used instead of monolithic materials,

then the thermal expansion coefficient of the coating material needs to be

compatible with the thermal characteristics of the substrate. The

materials meeting these requirements are the advanced structural ceramics.

The leading materials in current research efforts are silicon nitride and

silicon carbide. Coating materials of titanium carbide, chrome plating,

and chromium carbide are also being considered.

The most frequently cited barrier to the development of the

applications of ceramic materials results from the lack of comprehensive

understanding of the performance properties of structural ceramics. Basic

data are needed in every aspect of characterization of the material,

mechanical and material properties, and tribological performance results.

In the latter area, wear, friction, corrosion, and deposit formations need

to be understood in the context of the operating environment of the engine.

In particular, the tribology of ceramic materials at high temperature and

23
reaction chemistry at high temperature need significant advances, beginning

with the development of a comprehensive data base.

D. Turbine Engines 36 ' 37

Gas -powered turbine engines are currently well established as high

power industrial cogenerators with power levels ranging from 500 kW to

100,000 kW. In these applications, gas turbines are particularly

noteworthy for their high degree of reliability. This reliability factor

is significant in terms of both servicing considerations and overall

operating economics. Higher reliability corresponds to lower maintenance

costs, longer lifetimes, and less loss of production time due to

unscheduled downtime. These engines also have a relatively high operating

efficiency and a low pollution output. The advantage of higher efficiency,

however, does not persist to lower power levels. Currently, a gas turbine

engine operating at low power achieves an efficiency of only about thirty

percent. For potential applications in the 50-100 kW range, the efficiency

would have to be improved to the 40% level to be cost competitive with

other engine types.

The primary near future possibility for improving the efficiency of

gas turbine engines is to increase the turbine inlet temperature which may

be achieved by using advanced structural ceramics. The basic material

requirements to be considered, low weight density, good thermal insulation,

and high thermal shock resistance, are characteristics for which ceramics

are widely noted.

24
IV . MATERIALS ANALYS IS 38-65

Successful development of competitive gas-fired engines for

cogeneration and transport applications may be achievable through the use

of ceramic materials for critical components. In its most rudimentary

context, the successful development of these engines will be determined by

only one factor: cost. That factor, however, is a function of three

technical considerations: efficiency, lifetime, and reliability, as well

as the direct economic considerations in the procurement of materials and

fabricated components. The three engine performance variables can be

enhanced by using ceramic materials in the engines, provided such materials

achieve reductions in:

a. Heat loss

b. Dead weight and inertia

c. Wear

d. Friction

e. Deposits

Each of these factors will vary with the material that is selected. The

thermal and tribological factors will depend further on the temperature and

other environmental conditions under which the material components must

operate. In general, the desirable properties of the materials used in

gas-fired engines may be summarized as in Table I. These properties may be

organized into a somewhat logical order by considering the relative

necessity of each property. Thus, for example, the fact that the material

must maintain its structural integrity at the operating temperatures

experienced by the components requires that the material not melt or undergo any other change of phase at any temperature up to the operating

25
temperature. Consideration of the potential temperature levels that could

be generated by asperity-asperity collisions also suggests that having a very high melting point might be desirable. Even supposing the existence

of a structural material that maintains its structural integrity at high

temperature, it must also have relatively good insulating properties such

that the heat loss can be reduced. Use of such a material in an engine

environment requires that its mechanical strength be sufficient for the

application as a structural component. In operation, it is vital that the

material not experience such wear that the power level is reduced or that

engine failure is accelerated. Furthermore, the material itself should not

create a load that diminishes the useful power output. Thus, the

coefficient of friction should be minimized and the density of the material

should be as low as feasible. The material must be capable of cycling

through a wide range of temperatures to permit servicing and engine

shutdown. Hence, the material should have a high thermal shock resistance.

For coatings and for monolithic components that have an interface with a metal part, compatibility of the thermal expansion characteristics will be

needed. Dimensional stability may also be an important consideration over

a wide range of temperature.

Among current materials, various grades of silicon nitride, silicon

carbide, and zirconia are being given the most serious consideration for

use in gas-fired engines. Figures 3-12 compare these materials in terms of

the properties most desired for engine applications.

The melting points or decomposition temperatures (TM ) shown in Fig. 3

for the primary candidate materials are all relatively high in temperature

compared to the anticipated operating conditions. However, in a tribo26
contact, collisions between surface asperities can result in much higher

local temperatures. Indeed, compared to the potential asperity-asperity

contact temperatures (1A = 1500-2000°C) , the decomposition temperature for

silicon nitride may be considered marginal. The consequences of an

asperity-asperity contact temperature being approximately the same as the

melting point or the decomposition temperature are not known

experimentally, but it may be speculated that there are both beneficial and

harmful effects. If entire surface layers of a material were to melt or merely soften, accelerated wear rates would be expected. When such

softening or melting is restricted to micro-regions, the localized wear

rate may increase. Alternatively, it is conceivable that such localized

micro-melting would produce a beneficial effect in the form of regional

lubrication. Glassy disordered surfaces that have been observed in some wear tests of ceramic materials might have been the result of such micromelting processes. Thus, if TM = TA is desirable, then silicon nitride

might be the material of choice. However, if TM » TA is more important,

then the choice would be between silicon carbide and a zirconia material.

A preference might be given to silicon carbide because of the harm that

might result from using unstabilized zirconia at temperatures near its high

temperature crystallographic phase transition.

The primary contribution to increased efficiency introduced by the use

of ceramics results from their capacity to reduce heat losses. The

diffusion of heat through a continuum solid depends on the thermal

conductivity (K) and heat capacity (C) of the material and the bulk density

(p) of the substance. The relative influence of each of these factors is

summarized by way of the diffusivity (D = K/pC) . The greater the

27
diffusivity, the less effective the material will be in inhibiting the loss

of heat energy to coolants. Figs. 4-6 compare the thermal parameters for

the principal ceramics. Thermal conductivity has the dominant effect on

the transport of heat. It is clear that the zirconia materials with

exceptionally low thermal conductivity provide the best thermal insulation.

Silicon nitride will transport approximately twice as much heat as zirconia

under the same conditions, while silicon carbide transports heat at

approximately four times the rate of transport in zirconia.

Use of thermally insulating ceramics will increase the operating

temperature of the engine. The material characteristics of ceramics cause

further temperature increases at asperity-asperity contacts. Wear rates

under these conditions may accelerate as a result of the softening or weakening of the material under the increasing temperature. Consequently,

it is important that the material not only be structurally strong, but that

it also retains its strength as temperature is increased. Figures 7 and 8

examine these tendencies for the principal ceramics in terms of their

flexural strength at room temperature and at 1000°C. Partially stabilized

zirconia has the highest flexural strength at room temperature, but the

strength rapidly deteriorates at higher temperatures. This property of

zirconia may preclude its use in any high efficiency advanced engine. Hot

pressed silicon carbide, in contrast, has a relatively high strength at

room temperature and retains most of that strength at 1000°C. Hot pressed

silicon nitride also shows good strength retention, though it does not do

as well as silicon carbide. The remaining grades of materials show much

less effectiveness with respect to the retention of strength.

28
The fracture toughness of the principal ceramics is similar to the

flexural strength property in terms of the general performance trend as seen in Fig. 9. Partially stabilized zirconia has a high fracture

toughness at room temperature but does not retain that high value at

elevated temperatures. Hot pressed silicon nitride performs reasonably

well under the fracture tests, as does pressureless sintered silicon

nitride. Hot pressed and pressureless sintered silicon carbide are somewhat lower in fracture toughness than silicon nitride, but the

retention of performance to higher temperatures is better.

In an engine environment, the ceramic material may be required to

cycle through rather wide temperature ranges during operation as well as during start-up and shut-down. The wear rates of the materials may

increase under these conditions due to thermal shock effects.

Microcracking and crack growth may occur in the surface layers especially

where the stress field from the tribocontact is large. High thermal shock

resistance, therefore, is desirable for durability and wear resistance.

Figure 10 shows that silicon nitride is distinctly better in this

characteristic than the other principal ceramic materials. Both

pressureless sintered and hot pressed forms of silicon nitride exhibit

approximately twice the thermal shock resistance of the other materials and

hence, should suffer less deterioration in wear resistance from thermally

induced degradation in the microstructure.

Additional potential advantages of using ceramics in heat engines

include reduction in weight and increased dimensional stability. Figure 11

shows that the principal ceramics are all relatively light. Silicon

nitride and silicon carbide have comparably small densities, while zirconia

29
is nearly twice as heavy as the other materials. For applications

requiring minimum weight for optimum efficiency, such as for rotors, the

difference between zirconia and silicon nitride or silicon carbide is quite

significant. Distinct differences also occur in Fig. 12 for the linear

thermal expansion coefficient. Zirconia exhibits a large value for thermal

expansion which could be advantageous when the ceramic material must

maintain a small differential dimensional tolerance with a metal component.

Cast iron, for example, has a thermal expansion coefficient comparable in

value to that of zirconia. However, to maintain optimum dimensional

stability, silicon nitride would be best. Dimensional stability would be

advantageous in maintaining the tolerances of the seals between wearing

surfaces

.

Use of ceramics under engine operating conditions exposes the

materials to reactive environments for long time durations. Oxidation and

other reactions with the gas combustion products may alter the material and

structural composition of the surface layers of the components

significantly. Such reactions therefore also may influence the mechanical

and tribological characteristics exhibited by the components. Wear rates

and mechanisms and friction are specifically subject to adverse variations.

Oxidation reactions in silicon nitride, for example, create an oxide scale

of predominantly Si02

. Alkali impurities in the near-surface bulk material

may also migrate along grain boundaries to the surface and form additional

oxidation sites. These changes in composition and chemical structure may

alter the strength of the material, modify the surface microstructure, or even cause a phase instability in the surface layers. Such effects could

produce higher wear and material failure rates. Little applicable data is

30
available for direct use in understanding wear processes in the presence of

oxidation. However, static measurements of oxidation resistance can be

made and used as an initial indication of the severity of the surface

alteration. Such measurements, expressed as percent weight change per

hour, show values that range over several orders of magnitude. Silicon

nitride materials, for example, have initial values from 3 x 10" 5 hr" 1 to

3 x 10" 2 hr" 1

, while silicon carbide ranges from 10" 4 hr" 1 to 10" 3 hr" 1

. These values have a very large variation because the oxidation reactions

depend strongly on the impurities and sintering aids that may be present,

along with microstructural factors such as porosity, pore size, and other

effects that vary the reaction surface area. The current data suggest that

silicon carbide materials have a greater resistance to oxidation than

silicon nitride materials.

Other properties of direct and critical interest to tribological

performance and characterization suffer from a sparsity of data. The

surface hardness values of ceramics at elevated temperatures, under wearing

conditions, and under reactions with the combustion products from the fuel

are not well studied. Likewise further data are needed on the creep

strength of ceramics, oxidation resistance, reactivity with combustion

products, and, of course, detailed data on friction and wear mechanisms.

Based on the information discussed in this section, no one ceramic

material can be identified as distinctly superior to the other principal

ceramics. However, current zirconia materials may be cited for their more

severe limitations and, hence, may be considered to be less likely to be

used in engines. Hot pressed silicon nitride and hot pressed silicon

carbide have the best characteristics with respect to potential

31
tribological performance. Where high temperature strength is the only, or

overriding, consideration, silicon carbide would be the material of choice.

However, when overall thermal and mechanical efficiency are important,

silicon nitride would be preferred among current ceramics.

In many cases, the selection of a material may be determined, not by

the intrinsic materials properties, but by considerations of tribological

factors. Early knowledge of the wear, friction, and durability

characteristics could avoid the use of materials which are subsequently

rejected. Moreover, tribological performance data could provide key

information in the optimization of control parameters used for developing a new generation of ceramics for advanced gas-fired engine designs.

V. TRIBOLOGY OF CERAMICS66-86

An extensive survey of the technical literature has revealed very

little consistency in the manner in which data have been accumulated on the

many aspects of the tribology of ceramics. This lack of consistency has

been the direct result of the lack of understanding of the full complexity

of the problems encountered with ceramic materials. The complexity,

though, has gained recognition through several major research efforts

initiated quite recently. The Gas Research Institute has established the

Center for Advanced Materials at Pennsylvania State University, for which

the present assessment was conducted. The Department of Energy has

included ceramics as a significant portion of their ECUT/Tribology program.

The ASTM has begun the task of developing industry standards for the

specification and testing of ceramics. An international effort, VAMAS , has

32
been started to promote international consistency in measurement

procedures. And, an interagency government project, sponsored by DOE, NBS

,

NSF, DOD/Ft . Belvoir , and DOD/Wright-Paterson, has initiated an effort to

establish A Computerized Tribology Information System (ACTIS) to greatly

enhance the communication and accessibility of tribology data, design

codes, and other information of value to U. S. industry.

The lack of consistency among researchers, with respect to measurement

techniques, materials characterization, and the specification of test

conditions, inhibits the establishment of broad generalizations of trends,

correlations, or theories of any significant scope. However, it may be

useful to examine a few selected portions of the literature to gain an appreciation of the problems involved. In such an exercise, though,

certain caveats must be accepted:

** The designation of a material as silicon nitride or silicon carbide or any other ceramic must be understood

to be an approximate material specification of the

lowest order. The minor constituents of the test

material, which may be sintering aids or other

impurities, the nature of the microstructure, the

porosity, the grain size distribution, the location of

the impurities and defects, and other considerations

can have significant effects on the results of friction

and wear testing and on the effectiveness of a lubricant

33
** The determination of a wear rate may be highly dependent on

the measurement technique. Differences in contact geometry,

sample sizes and orientations, specimen holder

characteristics, and other system variables can result in

differences in the dominant wear mechanism and, hence,

differences in wear rates.

** The reported friction of a given ceramic pair may depend

critically on the presence of unsuspected surface

contaminants

.

With such caveats in mind, it may be useful to observe selected results on

the more central concerns of the tribology of ceramics.

Wear mechanisms: The diversity of results in the current literature

is reflected in the diversity of interpretations that have been made

concerning the mechanisms of wear. Table II summarizes the principal

mechanisms that have been cited as controlling the wear of the four most

studied ceramics, alumina, silicon nitride, silicon carbide, and partially

stabilized zirconia. In general, the wear of a material may be expected to

depend on several classes of variables, including material properties,

environmental conditions, and the operating or test configuration. Plastic

deformation and fracture often have been considered to be the most

prominent factor in the wear of ceramics, but arguments also have been

advanced indicating that crack propagation, surface fatigue, and thermally

induced stresses may play major roles. Environmental factors have been

noted in several papers, primarily in terms of the effects of adsorbed

34
water or humidity. The role of tribochemistry in wear phenomena has become

increasingly prominent in the more recent discussions of wear mechanisms,

reflecting the growing recognition that many factors are involved

interactively in the wear process.

Material variationsFigure 13 illustrates the variation in wear test

results that may occur when two nominally equivalent materials are tested

in the same apparatus by the same operator under the same external

conditions. The figure shows results obtained for two different batches of

alumina balls produced by the same manufacturer. The primary differences

between the two materials was found to be in the microstructures

Environmental effects: Figure 14 shows the wear rate of a hot pressed

silicon nitride material in air with various conditions of humidity. With

increasing humidity, the wear rate could be changed by two orders of

magnitude. These results provide a dramatic illustration of the role of

tribochemistry in the wear processes of ceramics.

Structure and phase transformations: The structure of a single

crystal of a material imposes an orientational dependence on the

interaction of molecules at the crystal surfaces. Different faces of a single crystal grain of material present different atomic orbitals for

interaction with the contacting tribomaterial and with any lubricant

molecules or surface impurities. The resulting surface characteristics may

possess an anisotropy that affects the observed wear phenomena. An example

of such anisotropic behavior is shown in Figs. 15-16 for alumina.

It must be expected, further, that any change in the structure of the

material would affect the wear results also. The phase diagrams of most

ceramics exhibit numerous crystallographic structural forms as shown, for

35
example, in Fig. 17 which illustrates the pressure- temperature phase

diagram for zirconia. In a tribocontact , both temperature and pressure can

vary over a wide range in an extremely short period of time, on the order

of nanoseconds. At the extremes of the pressure and temperature

excursions, grains of material in the contact may undergo phase

transformations which dynamically affect the wear mode of the material.

Monoclinic zirconia, for example, has been observed to yield tetragonal

zirconia wear debris in some wear tests.

Friction and wear: Studies on the wear of ceramic materials may be

found in the literature for a variety of test conditions. Results from

those studies can sometimes be compared, as in Figs. 18-22. Such

comparisons are obtained by computing the values of the wear coefficients

for the respective cases. The wear coefficient is a normalized measure of

wear based on the wear volume per unit sliding distance per unit normalized

load. The normalized load is the applied load divided by the material

hardness. For data comparisons, the wear coefficients may be evaluated if

the wear results, details of the test geometry, and material properties are reported. Treating all materials of a given material class, such as alumina, as being equivalent, results ranging over several orders of

magnitude are found in each case. Understanding these results and their

great variances will be critical to advanced applications of ceramics in

heat engines. To gain such understanding, the interaction of the primary

variables in the wear process must be investigated in experiments designed

to focus on the interactions and their consequences. For example,

variation of the operating conditions in a given wear test apparatus can

36
produce dramatic changes, essentially transitions, in both wear rates and

friction. Figures 23-25 show such a transition in these performance

characteristics for silicon nitride as a function of sliding speed in a pin-on-disk apparatus. It is not clear at the present time whether such

transitions are due to the contact temperature increasing with higher

sliding speeds; the occurrence of large temperature gradients between the

rubbing pair of materials; or due to material fatigue consequences. Figure

25 illustrates the occurrence of wear transitions for a variety of

materials as a function of the applied load in a four-ball wear test. Both

the location of the transition and the severity of the transition clearly

vary with the material. The fact that wear transitions occur at all is a highly significant consideration for designers who intend to use ceramics

for engine components that will experience wear. Obviously, the design of

such components should be such that the material operates in the lower wear

region rather than the higher wear region.

Material durability: Friction and wear transitions can also occur as

a result of accumulated damage to a surface that experiences repetitive

wear. Figure 26 shows an example of this behavior for silicon nitride.

Changes in the surface microstructure due to plastic deformation and crack

growth may be especially important in this phenomenon.

Material porosity: The porosity of the ceramic specimen can have a

large effect on the measured wear results, as shown in Fig. 27. To some

extent, differences in porosity may also reflect other differences in the

microstructure and composition since these variations in porosity are produced by changing the processing procedure and the sintering aid

chemistry

37
Lubrication: Studies on the lubrication of ceramics are all very

recent. Data in the literature are very sparse and are essentially

restricted to considerations of lubricating materials developed for metals.

Conventional lubricants reduce friction and wear of ceramics compared to

dry sliding results, but the extent of that reduction and the optimization

of the formulations will require a significant research effort. New

lubricating materials may be needed, and a fundamental understanding needs

to be developed concerning the interactions of the constituents of the

lubricant and the atomic or molecular species present on the surfaces of

the ceramic materials

.

Quantitative restrictions: The foregoing observations provide a qualitative indication of some of the considerations that are required for

the use of ceramics in engines. Applications of those results to engine

design, however, require quantitative deductions to be made to convert

laboratory results into predictive relations. For advanced ceramics, this

cannot be done with the current technical literature. Quantitative

comparisons of tribological data from different laboratories or merely

different apparatus are frequently meaningless. Standardization is much

needed in the specification and characterization of the ceramic material,

in general, and of the tested specimen in particular. Further, the format

for reporting data from experiments in tribology should be standardized to

eliminate, as much as possible, device and operator dependencies that

prevent comparisons of data. Without such consistency, it will be very

difficult to establish the useful application ranges of ceramics, and

impossible to establish predictive relations.

38
VI. LUBRICATION OF CERAMICS 87-118

Effective control of the friction, wear, and fracture characteristics

of ceramic -metal and ceramic-ceramic contact interfaces by means of

lubrication is crucial to the success of many advanced technologies.

Ceramics, being highly refractory, are relatively brittle and fracture

easily, causing catastrophic failures. A knowledge of the lubrication

process for this class of materials therefore is essential for their

effective application.

A high quality commercial lubricant is a complex mixture consisting of

a base oil and numerous chemical additives. The additives perform rather

specific functions in the lubricant, such as inhibiting corrosion, reducing

wear, delaying the oxidation of the oil, and reducing friction. The

performance of each additive depends on its chemical reactions with surface

material and with other molecules in the mixture. As a result, the

formulation of a lubricant is quite specific to the material being

lubricated.

The research issues in the lubrication of ceramics vary with the

temperature range over which the materials are to be used. Therefore,

research needs perhaps are best described according to the temperature

categories of low temperatures (room temperature to 200°C) , intermediate

temperatures (200 to 600°C) , and high temperatures (600 to 1500°C)

Research issues within a given temperature range may further depend on the

environment and the materials which are themselves dependent on the

temperature. The issues also vary with different classes of lubricants:

gases, liquids, solids, and coatings.

39
Temperature < 200°C : In the temperature range of ambient to 200 °C

many components and systems today operate with liquid lubricants.

Specialty solid lubricants such as graphite or molybdenum disulfide are

also used. Application knowledge of these lubricants with metal systems is

reasonably well understood. Many studies are being conducted on the

mechanisms by which lubricant additives assist the lubrication of metals.

However, very few studies have been done or are being conducted on the

lubrication requirements of ceramics.

Ceramic tribo- elements usually are given a smooth surface texture, due

in part to the need to remove microcracks from the surface . Hence , they

are well suited for hydrodynamic (fluid film) lubrication. Under boundary

lubrication conditions, ceramics, because of their relatively low thermal

diffusivity, would tend to have much higher surface temperatures and

resulting high interface temperatures.

Most liquid lubricants consist of base oils and additives. The

lubricant formulation technology for metals is largely defined by the

chemical reactivity of the additives with iron. The principal constituents

of the major ceramic materials, however, are silicon, zirconium, aluminum,

and boron in the forms of oxides, nitrides, and carbides. As a result, the

iron-based additive technology may not be appropriate for ceramics, and it

may be necessary to pursue an element- specif ic lubrication chemistry to

obtain effective friction and wear control.

Temperature 200 - 600°C : The temperature range of 200 to 600 °C has

h been and currently is very important for ceramic applications.

Technologies embraced in this temperature range are high- temperature

bearings, cutting tools, materials processing systems, and advanced

40
combustion systems. Although lubricants in this temperature range have

been studied intensely (Sliney and Johnson, 1968; Sliney, 1982; Sharma et

al. , 1983: Longson, 1983; Cosgrove 35 et al., 1959; Christy, 1982), a systematic data base has not been developed. In practice, a wide variety

of lubricants have been used with a relatively small number of ceramic

materials. Hot-pressed silicon nitride is the most-used ceramic material

in various lubricant testing programs. Silicon carbide, zirconia, and

reinforced alumina have also been evaluated. Titanium carbides and

nitrides have been used for coatings, as have chromium oxides. Lubrication

in the intermediate temperature range is complicated, not only because of

the wide variety of applications and the different environmental factors

involved, but also because of the variety of lubricant delivery systems,

system compatibility, lubricant degradation, materials changes, lubricantmaterial reactivity, and diffusion. All these factors have a significant

impact on system durability.

Temperature > 600°C : High temperatures need to be considered even

when the average bulk temperature is not high. Asperity- asperity

collisions may produce very high local temperatures at the asperity sites

in ceramics. When the temperature goes above 600° C, very few conventional

lubricants will function. The choice appears to be between hightemperature oxides, fluorides, mixed oxides, glasses, silver, gold, solid

composites, and vapor-phase coating of chemically active species for shortperiod lubrication.

At high temperatures, coke and residue formation may be deleterious to

some rubbing systems. Reactivity with the substrate needs to be balanced

against corrosiveness. Because of Che higher chemical reaction rates,

41
active species may react and desorb rapidly, forming a corrosion product.

Degradation of lubricant molecules and the formation of corrosive species

is another serious problem. Given these constraints, vapor phase

lubrication appears to offer a reasonable promise for an easy and

economical way to lubricate ceramic materials at temperatures above 600° C.

At high temperatures, chemical reactivity between the lubricant and

ceramic substrate is important. Calcium fluoride, barium fluoride, and

lithium fluoride have high reactivity with many ceramic materials, such as

alumina, zirconia, and silicon nitrides. New structures may form at the

surface, resulting in either beneficial or deleterious effects on friction

and wear. High temperature thermodynamic data, phase equilibria, and

solubilities of mixed oxides and fluorides are currently not available.

Thermodynamic models for predicting these relationships need to be

developed.

The natural tendency for materials to adhere under sliding conditions

increases with temperature. Successful lubrication of ceramic surfaces

above 600°C must take into account the lubricant and substrate stability as

a function of time. At high bulk temperatures and even much higher surface

temperatures, the lubricant will undergo degradation and change. Diffusion

within the substrate will increase with the temperature, causing surface

segregation. Lattice vibrations will increase in amplitude, enhancing

plastic deformation and dislocation mobility. When the temperature

approaches half the melting point, deformation by creep becomes the

dominant mechanism of the material under shear stresses. The lubricant has

to maintain adhesive bonds with the changing substrate.

42
Lubricant resupply and the disposal of degraded lubricant at high

temperatures is an additional concern in actual applications. In the

absence of a liquid lubricant, disposal of wear debris from the surfaces

could become a serious problem due to the resulting abrasive wear. Degraded lubricant could also form deposits on the surfaces, creating

barriers to new lubricant supply.

Very few lubricants have been demonstrated to be effective and durable

at temperatures above 600 °C. Even fewer have been tested on ceramic

surfaces, especially at those temperatures. There is, therefore, a need

both to understand lubrication mechanisms and to find new lubricants for

high- temperature applications.

Lubricant Tvoes : Gases : Both inert gases and air have been used to

provide fluid film support for bearings and other tribological contacts.

Because of the limited load capacity and restrictions in terms of gas

supply and bearing design, very few industrial systems use gas lubrication.

Because no surface contact takes place under the air or gas bearing

concept, the choice of the surface material is not as significant as in

other cases. The key issue in this area has been the difficulty

encountered during start-up and variable-speed operations, under which wear

and adhesion become a problem.

Vapor-phase lubrication, via surface chemical reactions to form a strongly adhered protective film on the surfaces, is an attractive

alternative (Pinto et al .

,

1984; Butler and Popovic , 1974; Buckley and

Johnson, 1959)

The concept is to deliver vapor-phase-reactive compounds

at high temperatures to the rubbing contacts. The subsequent reaction

film, if tenacious, will protect the surfaces for a short time against high

43
shear stresses. Phosphate esters and melissic acid have been found to be

useful for steel surfaces at temperatures up to 700°C. Liquid phosphate

esters have also been used with a ceramic engine prototype and were found

partially satisfactory. Klaus (1986) has demonstrated that phosphate

esters deposited between 300 and 900°C on steel surfaces are capable of

forming a tenacious film with thickness on the order of 1000 molecular

layers. The deposition rate and reaction rates are dependent on oxygen

partial pressure, temperatures, and substrate materials. It has been

demonstrated that a low concentration of 0.2 percent by weight of tributyl

phosphate (TBP) , tricresyl phosphate (TCP) , and diphenyl - di - tertbutylphenyl phosphate (DBTBPP) in the vapor stream is sufficient to protect

the steel surfaces at 370°C.

The attractiveness of the vapor-phase lubrication concept lies in the

simplicity and ease of lubricant delivery. A minute amount of lubricant

can be metered out over a period of time to protect the wearing surfaces

.

In the heat engine case, the lubricant may be added in the fuel and

deposited directly on the cylinder liner during combustion.

Research issues in this area involve the need for development of a basic understanding of the chemical reaction mechanisms, the need to

determine the nature of the reaction products, and the need to establish

the reactivity of the potential lubricating materials with the various

ceramic substrates.

Lubricant Types: Liquids : The use of liquid lubricants in heat

engines in the temperature range of 200 to 600°C is limited. At the same

time, liquid lubricants are desirable since they can be used to flush the

system, are available in a useful form to lubricate the engine during the

44
start-up at low temperatures, and may be used to remove wear debris. For

heat engines, even though the temperatures at the piston ring and cylinder

liner will approach 400 to 600°C, the engine sump temperature may only be

150 to 200 °C. Very few liquid lubricants can operate above 300 °C for any

substantial length of time. However, there are two possible concepts which

might be useful for providing lubrication at these temperatures;

controlled burning of lubricants and a combination of liquid and solid

lubrication. In the latter case, the liquid lubricant would be used under

a certain temperature range. When the temperature rises above a preset

value, the liquid lubricant flow would be shut off and the solid lubricants

would begin to function. A very stable liquid lubricant therefore is

needed

There is an extensive literature as well as a significant amount of

industrial experience on metal lubrication via additives in liquid base

oils. For ceramics, however, very few similar studies have been conducted.

Shimauchi et al. (1984) conducted both laboratory and prototype singlecylinder engine endurance tests to assess the effects of liquid lubricants

on ceramic components. They concluded that different liquid lubricants

affected the tribological performance of various ceramic surfaces

significantly. The tests were conducted using different liquid lubricants

on various material pairs under controlled laboratory tribological

conditions. The materials consisted of various plasma-sprayed coatings 0.2

mm thick (including chromium oxides, carbides, titanium and tungsten

carbides, zirconia, and chromium oxide with vanadium carbides). Only one

oil, an ester fluid without additives, functioned reasonable well.

45
Data from Garrett's turbo -compound engine program also show that the

choice of liquid lubricant is of paramount importance (Keiser and Castor,

1981). That program tested an extensive list of materials and lubricants

at 650°C. Again, esters appeared to be a promising candidate to control

friction and wear of various superalloys, ceramics, and composites. An

extensive data base like this yields valuable information through trial and

error, but little fundamental understanding is gained. Why a particular

ester family functioned well and other esters would not function under the

same conditions was not clear. Fundamental studies will yield a knowledge

base from which future lubricants and additives for ceramics may be

developed.

The key issue in the area of liquid lubricants for heat engines is the

basic understanding of surface chemical reactions between the liquid

lubricants and the ceramic surfaces. For silicon carbides and nitrides, a limited data base of silicon chemistry exists in the geochemistry and

semiconductor areas. For example, water reacts rapidly with silicon

through hydrolysis reactions and forms various hydrides with different

friction and wear characteristics. In fact, the reactivity of water with

many ceramic materials has long been recognized and utilized in ceramic

machining. Zirconia, on the other hand, may not respond to water or other

silicon-specific chemistry. In metal systems, controlled chemical reaction

rates have proved to be a key for effective lubrication. No corresponding

data base exists for ceramics.

The availability of additives and the understanding of additive

mechanisms at high temperatures is critical (Fehrenbacher , 1985). Oil

evaporation, degradation, degradation products, degradation product

46
corrosiveness with materials, and the effective control of emissions are other significant technical challenges in this area. A detailed discussion

of some aspects of this subject has been presented by Fehrenbacher (1985).

At high temperatures above 600°C, there are also lubricants existing

in the liquid state. However, most of these lubricants are solids at room

temperature. Thus, before a device lubricated by high temperature

lubricants such as silicates and borates can be utilized, the sliding

interface must first be heated. This limits their potential applications.

Lubricant Types: Solids : One interesting aspect of ceramic

lubrication is that, to date, very few studies have been conducted using

solid lubricants on ceramic surfaces. The majority of the studies of

ceramic materials in the form of either coatings or solid materials are tested at room temperature or moderate temperatures (300°C) with a liquid

lubricant. Several studies of ceramic materials have been reported

(Shimauchi et al. , 1984; Keiser and Castor, 1981).

There are many studies related to the use of solid lubricants for

metals under severe environments (American Society of Lubrication

Engineers, 1971, 1978, and 1984; Weilbach, 1982). A number of reports

(Gardos, 1982; Yonushonis , 1980 and 1983; Ling, 1985; Lucek, 1979; Dayton

and Sheets, 1976; Fusaro, 1982 and 1983) specifically examine solid

lubricants for ceramics. Solid lubricants used in these studies are varied

but mainly consist of layer lattice solids (graphite, molybdenum

disulfides, graphite fluorides, tungsten sulfides, etc.) polyimides,

oxides, and polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE)

While there are many solid lubricants, the choice of solid lubricant

delivery method is critical to successful application. Solid lubricants

47
can be supplied through transfer films, coatings, liquid suspension, gas

suspension, bonded films, powder compact, surface modification, or burnished coatings. In many of these methods, lubricant- substrate bonding,

adhesion, and reactivity are crucial to the success of lubricant delivery.

Again, experience with these methods and materials combinations is mostly

with metal systems. Very few ceramic substrates have been studied. Based

on metal system experience, the critical issues are seen to be lubricantsubstrate or lubricant- surface adhesion; lubricant- surface reactivity and

bonding strength; rate of adhesion and reaction; and lubricant film

stability, strength, and durability.

The effectiveness of the lubrication obviously depends on how readily

and how strongly the solid lubricant adheres to the surface or substrate.

In the case of solid lubricants carried by gas, the lubricant has a relatively short period of time to adhere to the surface. Once at the

surface, the bonding strength of the solid film with the substrate is

important. Often this is achieved through the chemical reaction between

the solid lubricant and the surface or substrate materials. In ceramics,

the adhesion and reaction may be a problem with many solid lubricants. The

high- temperature kinetics of solid lubricants with ceramic surfaces have

simply not been tested. In many cases, depending on the method of

delivery, the relative rates of adhesion and reaction with the amount of

time allowed by the rubbing action may be important. At high temperatures,

desorption or other unfavorable reactions such as phase change or new

compound formation may also interfere with the normal processes of

lubrication.

48
Because of the wide variety of materials and potential solid

lubricants, and also the additional variation introduced by the methods of

lubricant delivery, a systematic assessment of lubricant- ceramic

combinations is needed. Table III lists some commercially available solid

lubricants and their temperature limitations with metal systems. Notice

that most solid lubricants in air have a maximum operating temperature in

the range of 200 to 500 °C. These are, however, adequate for some heat

engine applications. Table IV lists the estimated life of some of the

solid lubricants in the piston ring zone at projected heat engine

conditions and temperatures

The basic mechanisms of solid lubrication, even at low to moderate

temperatures, are not well understood. Graphite and MoS2 have been studied

extensively. Other higher temperature materials have not been

systematically investigated. At high temperatures (600°C) , reactivity of

the lubricant with the substrate and the degradation of the lubricant

either through oxidation and/or thermal degradation complicate the

mechanistic understanding. Under tribochemical conditions, where enhanced

reaction rates arise because of bond rupturing and the presence of the

dangling bonds, many reactions occur that normally would not take place.

These areas of surface adhesion and chemical reactivity are largely

untouched in metal systems.

Testing of ceramic materials at high temperatures (650°C) has been

very limited (Longson, 1983; Weilbach, 1982; Gardos , 1982; Yonushonis , 1980

and 1983) . Lubricants used include cesium molybdate complex, galliumindium- tungsten diselenide (Ga/In/WSe2 ) compact, tungsten disulfide,

polyimide, metal-free phthalocyanine , graphite, and calcium fluoride-barium

49
fluoride eutectic in nickel foam. Ceramic materials used were primarily

silicon nitrides and silicon carbides. Most of the test results reported

poor performance compared to conventional metal systems under approximately

the same speed and load conditions . The ceramic counterpart at high

temperatures typically lasted 1 or 2 hours, compared with thousands of

hours of operating time for metals.

One of the technical challenges mentioned by many researchers involved

in ceramic bearing testing with solid lubricants is the rapid rise in

temperatures at the interface. Ceramics have lower thermal diffusivity

than metals. Ceramics, being brittle, fracture relatively easily,

producing high friction under boundary lubrication conditions. Frictional

heating can produce extremely high flash temperatures and interfacial

temperatures . For higher temperature lubricants , such as oxides (bonded

Pb0-Si02 ) or inorganic salts, the friction often is quite high (coefficient

of friction being about 0.2 to 0.8). Many high- temperature solid

lubricants such as glasses and fluorides are brittle and abrasive below

their softening-point temperatures. Thus, a combination low- temperature

lubricant and high- temperature lubricant will be necessary.

Prospects for Lubricated Ceramics : There is an urgent need to develop

an effective lubrication system so that ceramics can be utilized

effectively. To accomplish this goal, research is required in several

critical areas:

(1) Lubrication Mechanisms

o Low temperature (bulk temperature) applications will create

the largest short term markets for structural ceramics. The

chemical reactivity between hydrocarbon lubricant structures

50
and ceramic surfaces needs to be defined. The mechanism of

reaction and rate of reaction under boundary lubrication

conditions should be studied to examine the structural

effects, functional group influence, and physical properties

effects

o Surface forces at ceramic surfaces need to be measured. The

additional double layer forces at ceramic surfaces will

affect adsorption, lubricant- substrate adhesion, wetting,

and reactivity.

o Lubrication behavior of solid lubricants at high

temperatures needs elucidation. Effects of diffusion,

segregation, reactions, and degradation on adhesion and

surface protection need careful study. The formation of new

phases and reaction products at high temperatures need to be

defined both with and without tribocontacts

o Thermodynamic equilibrium of phases and solubilities of

lubricant and substrate need to be determined

experimentally, and models need to be developed to predict

these equilibria.

o Degradation mechanisms of lubricants and their influence on friction and wear over the temperature ranges of interest

should be studied.

(2) Lubricant Development

o Element-specific chemistry-based additives which provide

friction and wear control through the formation of

protective films need to be developed.

51
o High temperature antioxidants that can survive exposure to

400°C for a short period of time should be developed.

Different mechanisms may be operative in this temperature

regime

.

o For heat engine applications, high temperature (400°C)

ashless dispersants and acid neutralizers are needed,

o Novel chemical processes for synthesizing high temperature

liquid lubricants need to be explored.

(3) Lubricant Delivery and Disposal Research

o Vapor phase deposited lubrication for short duration

protection is a very attractive concept. Functionality,

reactivity, deposit control, and reaction mechanisms need to

be investigated systematically,

o Impregnation of material substrates by lubricants in the

form of coatings, physical vapor deposition, ion beam

mixing, and self - lubricating composites should be explored,

o Spent lubricant and wear debris will be deleterious to

system durability. Mechanical design changes to prevent

debris accumulation, as well as chemical means to remove

debris, may be critical to the lubricant selection.

In general, the fundamental information needed for application to

ceramics lubrication research is lacking. While the technology for metal

lubrication has matured, the detailed mechanisms are not fully understood.

Thus, information transfer from existing technologies to ceramic

lubrication may be slight. A systematic effort needs to be established to

52
define the surface energy, surface reactivity, surface composition of

simple single crystals with different molecules under different

environmental factors.

VII. RECOMMENDATIONS

GRI has a rare opportunity to advance the utilization of natural gas

via advances in gas-fired prime movers. Prompt action on the part of GRI

may establish natural gas as the fuel of choice for high efficiency, high

temperature heat engines and for high durability cogeneration applications.

To exploit this opportunity, GRI must accelerate research in several

principal areas of tribology: (1) A ceramic materials selection guide must

be developed for use in designing for optimum wear life under gas -burning

conditions; (2) Lubrication research must be pursued to develop a combination of lubricant chemistry, engine materials, and additives that

will function under high temperature gas-burning conditions; and,

(3) Effects of engine material microstructure on wear resistance, surface

reactivity, and lubrication requirements in gas combustion environments

must be determined.

The key goals to be attained in the successful use of advanced gasfired engines in cogeneration and transport applications are increased

efficiency and durability. Currently, attainment of both of these goals is

limited, not by theoretical designs, but by the availability of materials

and lubricants capable of sustaining the relatively extreme conditions

demanded by the advanced high temperature designs. Current engines are

already designed to utilize the best metal alloy materials near the

operating limits of their material properties. Thus, the need for still

53
higher operating temperatures demands the use of advanced ceramics in

engines

.

Ceramic materials are generally well characterized in terms of

mechanical properties. However, most of these properties are measured

under static, nontribological conditions. Application of ceramics as wear

components requires friction and wear data that are not well documented in

the current literature. Results specific to gas-burning environments are extremely scarce.

Studies are badly needed in the four general areas as listed in

Table V. The development of data on the sliding wear and friction

characteristics of ceramics is an especially high priority need. These

data have both immediate and basic applications. Such data, for example,

will be valuable in surmounting such problems as the wear of the apex

seal/housing couple in rotary engines. Further, these data will serve the

more basic, longer term function of developing an understanding of wear

mechanisms for ceramic materials. This understanding will be necessary for

the development of predictive models of wear and durability which may be

used in the design of engine components. To accomplish these goals, the

wear characteristics of advanced ceramic materials must be mapped as a function of several operating conditions, including speed, load,

temperature, and environmental conditions, under both dry and lubricated

wear and in the presence of gaseous combustion products. Furthermore, a detailed understanding of micros tructural effects needs to be developed.

A comparably high priority should be given to the development of

lubricants for preventing or reducing the wear of ceramic materials.

Lubrication is a much overlooked problem in discussions of the applications

54
of ceramics in tribological systems. This circumstance results partly

because of a lack of appreciation of the functions of a lubricant and

partly because hov a lubricant works is not fully understood by the

component designers who are not necessarily tribologists or schooled in

tribology. Lubricants are used primarily to reduce friction and wear by

forming a protective film between the tribosurfaces . In the simplest

concept, this film could be formed by any flowing material and would work

merely by separating the solid surfaces. However, in most cases where

lubrication is needed in an engine, this simplistic form of lubrication is

not applicable. Instead, the lubricating film must be formed as a chemical

reaction product between the applied lubricant and the substrate material.

It is this role of chemistry that is most frequently neglected in the

considerations given to the use of ceramic materials in tribo-systems

Lubricants are also used to clean the surfaces of the tribo-materials by

removing the wear debris that would otherwise contribute to additional

wear. How this function will be performed at elevated temperatures has not

yet been established. Research is needed on the general mechanisms of

lubrication for ceramics, the formation of deposits, the stability of the

formulated lubricant at high temperatures , and the influence that gas

combustion products may have on lubricant degradation. Such factors are important for durability, efficiency, and scheduled maintenance intervals.

Wear processes inherently involve the surface properties of materials.

Hence, those properties relating to strength, yielding, cracking, or flowing of the material are especially significant contributors to the

severity of wear produced in the tribocontact and to the nature of the wear

mechanism. As a result, data on surface hardness, fracture toughness,

55
creep strength, and surface ductility are needed to characterize or to

determine the role of these properties in wear processes. How these

characteristics depend on temperature and how they affect the accumulation

of wear damage must be considered especially in designs requiring high

durability of long component wearlife. Further, such data are much needed

to understand the wear mechanisms of ceramics under conditions prevalent in

engine operations

.

The environmental factors associated with the combustion processes in

the engine also create tribochemical conditions that cannot be neglected.

At the temperatures generated by the combustion of the fuel, most

materials, including ceramics, will exhibit some degree of chemical

reactivity. Specifically, oxygen and the fuel's combustion products can be

expected to react with the substrate. Data on the stability of ceramics

against such reactions are scarce. Likewise, data on the influence that

those reactions may have on wear mechanisms and wear rates are very

limited. To fill these gaps in the understanding of environmental effects,

detailed and systematic studies of oxidation resistance and the reactivity

of ceramics with gas combustion products should be pursued. Further, such

studies should be done concurrently with wear tests to determine their

roles in wear mechanisms and rates.

Gas-fired engines have a viable future as producers of useful

mechanical and electrical power. The technological barriers impeding the

realization of that future are not so extreme that they cannot be

surmounted with a reasonable effort in the near future. It is apparent

that, among all the alternatives, ceramic materials have the greatest

potential for increasing the durability and efficiency of gas-fired engines

56
to the levels necessary to achieve the successful utilization of natural

gas prime movers. Advances in the tribology of ceramic materials represent

the critical, pivotal, developments needed for that success.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to acknowledge the generous support of the Gas

Research Institute; the cooperation of personnel from John Deere, SwRI , and

Caterpillar; the diligent literature research of Mr. Yu-shu Wang; and the

wear data from Mr. Richard Gates of NBS . We also thank particularly the

following persons for their helpful discussions:

Steven King Southwest Research Institute

Southwest Research Institute

Southwest Research Institute

Southwest Research Institute

Shannon Vinyard

George Fodor

William Wei

Kevin Bruch

Bill Davis

Douglas Cobb

Frank Kelly

Brad Beardsley

Caterpillar Tractor Co.

Caterpillar Tractor Co.

Caterpillar Tractor Co.

Caterpillar Tractor Co.

Caterpillar Tractor Co.

Art Vatsky

John Lauter

Dan Newman

Jim Walker

John Deere Co.

John Deere Co.

John Deere Co.

John Deere Co.

John Deere Co.

John Deere Co.

Paul Swanson

Bruce Boardman

57
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58
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59
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60
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Overview Property Differences," D. C. Larcen, J. W. Adams and R.

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53. "PSZ Ceramics for Adiabatic Engine Components," M. E. Woods and I. Oda, SAE Paper No. 820429 (1982).

54. "Role of Stress -Induced Phase Transformation in Enhancing Strength

and Toughness of Zirconia Ceramics," T. K. Gupta, in Fracture

Mechanics of Ceramics . Vol. 4, R. C. Bradt, D. P. H. Hasselman, and

F. F. Lange, eds. (Plenum PRess, 1978).

55. "High Pressure Transformation Toughening: A Case Study on Zirconia," S. Block, G. J. Piermarini, B. J. Hockey, B. R. Lawn,

and R. G. Munro , J. Am. Cer. Soc. 69, (1986).

56. "Effect of Stress-Induced Phase Transformation on the Properties of

Polycrystalline Zirconia Containing Metastable Tetragonal Phase,"

T. K. Gupta, F. F. Lange, and J. H. Bechtold, J. Mater. Sci. 13 . 1464 (1978).

57. "The P-T Phase Diagram of Zirconia," S. Block, J. A. H. da

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61
58 . "Design of Transformation Toughened Ceramics," N. Ciaussen and M.

Ruhie , in Advances in Ceramics . Vol. 3, A. H. Heuer and L. W.

Hobbs, eds . (American Ceramic Society, 1981).

59. "Toughened PSZ Ceramics - Their Role as Advanced Engine

Components," M. Marmach, D. Servent, R. Hannink, M. J. Murray, and

M. V. Swain, SAE Paper No. 830318 (1983).

60. "Thermal Stress Resistance Parameters for Brittle Refractory

Ceramics: A Compendium," D. P. H. Hasselman, Cer. Bull. 49, 12

(1970).

61. "Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Oxidation of Hot Pressed Silicon

Nitride," S. C. Singhal, J. Mater. Sci. H, 500 (1976).

62. "Oxidation Kinetics of Hot Pressed Silicon Carbide," S. C.

Singhal, J. Mater. Sci. 1.1, 1246 (1976).

63. "Microstructural Aspects of Deformation and Oxidation of MagnesiaDoped Silicon Nitride," N. J. Tighe, U. S. National Bureau of

Standards Report NBSIR 76-1153 (National Bureau of Standards,

1976) .

64. "The Strength and Oxidation of Reaction-Sintered Silicon Nitride,"

A. G. Evans and R. W. Davidge , J. Mater. Sci. 5, , 314 (1970).

65. "Oxidation Behavior of Sialons," S. C. Singhal and F. F. Lange, J.

Am. Cer. Soc. 60, 190 (1977).

66. "Engine Rig for Screening Ceramic Materials," S. G. Timoney, SAE

Paper No. 840433 (1984)

.

67. "A High Temperature Test Rig for Sliding and Rolling Wear," A.

Hammarsten and S. Hogmark, Wear 115 . 139 (1987).

68. "Development of an Oxidation-Wear Coupled Test for the Evaluation

of Lubricants," R. S. Gates and S. M. Hsu, Lubr. Eng. 40, 13

(1984).

69. "Development of Step-Loading Seizure Test for Engine Oil Additive

Response," R. S. Gates and S. M. Hsu, NBS Spec. Publ. SP674, 183

(1984).

70. "Ceramic Tribology: Methodology and Mechanisms of Alumina Wear,"

R. S. Gates, Thesis, Pennsylvania State University (1987).

71. Wear Control Handbook . M. B. Peterson and W. 0. Winer, eds.

(American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1980).

62
72. "Development of Sliding Surface Material for Combustion Chambers

for a High-Output Rotary Engine," Y. Shidahara, Y. Murata, Y.

Tanita, and Y. Fujimoto, in Proceedings of the Third International

Pacific Conference on Automotive Engineering, Motor Vehicle

Technology, Nov. 11-14, 1985 (Society of Automotive Engineers,

1985).

73. "Tribology at High Temperature for Uncooled Heat Insulated Engine,"

T. Shimauchi, T. Murakami, T. Nakagaki, and M. Mizushina, SAI Paper

No. 840429 (1984).

74. "Development of High Durability Exhaust Valve for PC Engine," M.

Asnani and F. Kuonen, SAE Paper No. 850358 (1985).

75. "Tribological Investigations for an Insulated Diesel Engine," R.

S. Radonavovic, R. Kamo, and K. F. Dufrane , SAE Paper No. 830319

(1983).

76. "Tribological Systems for High Temperature Diesel Engines," P. Sutor and W. Bryzik, SAE Paper No. 870157 (1987).

77. "Influence of Lubricating Oil Additives on Friction of Ceramics

Under Conditions of Boundary Lubrication," P. Studt, Wear 115 . 185

(1987).

78. "Solid Lubrication Studies for Adiabatic Diesel Engines," P. Moorhouse, B. Mortimer, and R. Kamo, SAE Paper No. 850508 (1985).

79. "Cycles and Performance Studies for Advanced Diesel Engines," R.

Kamo , in Ceramics for High Performance Applications - II , J . J

Burke, E. N. Lenoe , and R. N. Katz, eds . (Brook Hill, 1978).

80. "Adiabatic Turbocompound Engine Performance Prediction," R. Kamo

and W. Bryzik, SAE Paper No. 780068 (1978).

81. "Friction and Wear of Hot Pressed Silicon Nitride and Other

Ceramics," H. Ishigaki, I. Kawaguchi, M. Iwasa, and Y. Toibana, J.

Tribology 108, 514 (1986).

82. "Friction, Deformation, and Fracture in Polycrystalline SiC and

Si 3 N4

," 0. Adevoye and T. F. Page, Wear 70, 37 (1981).

83. "Interaction of Tribochemistry and Microfracture in the Friction

and Wear of Silicon Nitride," T. E. Fischer and H. Tomizawa, Wear

105 . 29 (1985).

84. "Porosity Dependence of Wear and Other Mechanical Properties on Fine-Grain AI 2 O 3 and B4

C , " C. C. Wu and R. W. Rice, Cer. Eng. &

Sci. 6 , 977 (1985).

63
85. "Wear Mechanisms of Ceramic Materials in Dry Rolling Friction," S.

S. Kim, K. Kato, K. Hokkirigawa, and H. Abe, J. Tribology 108 . 522

(1987).

86. "Fundamental Tribological Properties of Ceramics," D. H. Buckley

and K. Miyoshi, NASA Tech. Memo. 86915 (1985).

87. American Society of Lubrication Engineers, Proceedings of the

International Conference on Solid Lubrication, Denver, Colorado,

Aug. 24-27 (1971).

88. American Society of Lubrication Engineers, Proceedings of the 2nd

International Conference on Solid Lubrication, Denver, Colorado,

Aug. 15-18 (1978).

89. American Society of Lubrication Engineers, Proceedings of the 3rd

International Conference on Solid Lubrication, Denver, Colorado,

Aug. 7-10 (1984).

90. "Halogenated Gases for High Temperature Lubrication of Metals,"

D.H. Buckley and R.H. Johnson, Ind. Eng. Chem. 5.1, 699 (1959).

91. "Vapor Deposition of Lubricant," A. Butler and N. Popovic, Lubr.

Eng. 30, 59 (1974).

92. "Lubrication for Rolling Element Spacecraft Parts," R. I. Christy,

Tribology International (October, 1982).

93. "Evaluation of Dry Powdered Lubricants at 1000°F in a Modified

Four-Ball Wear Machine," S.L. Cosgrove, L.B. Sibley, and C.M.

Allen, ASLE Trans. 2, 217 (1959).

94. "Evaluation of Grooved Solid Lubricated Bearings," R.D. Dayton and

M. A. Sheets, AFAPL-TR-75-76- (February, 1976).

95. "Identification of Tribological Research and Development Needs for

Lubrication of Advanced Heat Engines," L. Fehrenbacher , Final

Report, ORNL Contract 86x-47986V (April, 1985).

96. "Polyraides: Tribological Properties and Their Use as Lubricants,"

R.L. Fusaro, National Aeronautics and Space Administration report

NASA TM 82959 (1982) .

97. "Polyimides Formulated from a Partially Fluorinated Diamine for

Aerospace Tribological Applications," R.L. Fusaro, National

Aeronautics and Space Administration report NASA TM 83339 (1983).

98. "Solid Lubricated Rolling Element Bearings," M. N. Gardos , Huges

Report No. FR 83-76-663 (October, 1982).

99. "Compound Cycle Turbofan Engine Materials Report," R.J. Reiser and

J.G. Castor, Final Report, AFWAL-TR-81 -2141 (1981).

64
100. "Vapor Phase Lubrication," E.E. Klaus et al., DOE ECUT Tribology

Progress Reports (1983-1986).

101. "Fundamentals of High Temperature Friction and Wear with Emphasis

on Solid Lubrication for Heat Engines," F.F. Ling, U. S. Army ARO

Contract DAAG 39-84-M-0479 (June 1985)

102. "Lubrication of High Temperature Ceramic Materials," B. Longson,

Tribology International 16, 221 (1983).

103. "Severe Environment Testing of Silicon Nitride Rolling Elements,"

J.W. Lucek, L.B. Sibley, and J.W. Rosenlieb, NAVAIR Contract

n00019-77-C-0551 (March 1979).

104. "In situ Formation of Solid Lubricating Films from Conventional

Mineral Oil and Ester Base Lubricants," N. Pinto, J.L. Duda, E.E.

Graham, and E.E. Klaus, ASLE Proc. 3rd Inter. Conf. on Solid Lubr.

(1984)

105. "High Temperature Lubricants: Oils and Greases," S.K. Sharma, P. Vasudevan, andU.S. Tewari, Tribol . Inter . 16, 213 (1983).

106. "Tribology at High Temperature for Uncooled Heat Insulated

Engines," T. Shimauchi, T. Murakami, T. Nakagaki, A.Y. Tsuy, and K.

Umeda, SAE Paper 840429 (1984).

107. "Preliminary Evaluation of Greases to 600°F and Solid Lubricants to

1500°F in Ball Bearings," H.E. Sliney and R.L. Johnson, ASLE

Trans. 11, 330 (19 ).

108. "Solid Lubricated Materials for High Temperatures -- A Review,"

H.E. Sliney, Tribol . Inter . (October 1982).

109. "High Temperature Bearing and Dry-Lubricated Concepts, Phase I,"

A.O. Weilbach, Final Report, DARPA/ONR Contract N00014-82-C-0248

(1982).

110. "Solid Lubricated Silicon Nitride Bearings at High Speed and

Temperature, Phase II," T. M. Yonushonis, Report NAVAIR N00019-

81 -C-0473 (1983).

111. "Dry Lubrication of High Temperature Silicon Nitride Rolling," T.M.

Yonushonis, Final Report NAVAIR N00019-79-C-0612 (1980).

112. "Friction and Wear of Refractory Compounds," K.P. Zeman, W.R.

Young, and L.F. Coffin, Report APEX 625 of the General Electric

Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Department (May 1959) .

113. "Lubricating Properties of Some Bonded Fluoride and Oxide Coatings

for Temperatures to 1500°F," H.E. Sliney, NASA TN D478 (1960).

65
114. "Research and Development of Airframe Bearings for Aerospace

Vehicles," R.J. Matt et al . , Technical Documentary Report ASDTDR-63-716 (September 1963).

115. "Mechanism of Wear of Nonmetallic Materials," C.H. Riesz and H. S Weber, WADC-TR-59-316 , Part 4 (June 1962).

116. "Development of Nuclear Reactor Bearings for 1500°F Space

Operation," P. H. Horton and W. J. Kurzeka, ASME Paper 69-WA/Lub11 (1969).

117. "Friction and Wear at Elevated Temperatures," E. Rabinowicz and M

Imai, WADC Technical Report 59-603, Part 2 (May 1961).

118. "Development of a Ceramic Rolling Contact Bearing for High

Temperature Use," K. M. Taylor et al., ASME Paper Gl-LUB-12

(1961).

66
Table I: A summary of the general material properties needed for advanced

gas-fired prime movers.

Thermal Characteristics

High melting point

Low thermal conductivity and diffusivity

Low thermal expansion

High thermal shock resistance

Mechanical Properties

High flexural strength

High fracture toughness

Low density

Tribological Performance

Low friction

Low wear

Long wearlife

67
Table II: A summary of the major wear mechanisms of alumina, silicon

nitride, silicon carbide, and partially stabilized zirconia, as cited in the technical literature.

Condition Al2 03 Si3 SiC PSZ

Ambient Fracture

Delamination

Plast . deform.

Grn.bnd. crack

Fatigue

Delamination

Plast. deform.

Grn.bnd. crack

Fatigue

Fracture

Plast. deform.

Grn.bnd. crack

Delamination

Therm. stress

Fracture

Fatigue

Lubr. or wetPlast . deform.

Fracture

Tribochemical

Plast . deform.

Fracture

Tribochemical

Plast . deform.

Fracture

Therm. shock

Tribochemical

Vacuum or

Hi . Load

Adhesion Fracture — —

Hi . Temp

.

400 °C to

1000°C

Plast . deform.

Therm. stress

Fracture

Therm. shock

Tribochemical

Fracture

Therm. stress

Therm. stress

68
Table III: Commercial Solid Lubricants

Lubricant Acceptable usage temperature with metals, °C

In Air In N2 or Vacuum

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

molybdenum disulfide -240 370 -240 820

polytetrafluorethylene - 70 290 - 70 290

fluoroethylene -propylene - 70 200 - 70 200

graphite -240 540 unstable in vacuum

niobium diselenide 370 1320

tungsten disulfide -240 430 -240 820

tungsten diselenide 370 1320

lead sulfide 480

lead oxide 650

calcium fluoride 430 820 430 820

- barium fluoride

eutectic

69
Table IV: Estimated Life of Solid-Lubricated Piston Rings

Material Best K" T ( °F)

max

Estimated Life"

(hours)

Unlubricated ceramic 12 X 10" 8 1800 12

Plug- lubricated ceramic 1.2 X 10" 8 1000 120

Bonded film 3 X

1 CO H O 700 0.4

Carbon graphite 2 X —o

1 00 1000 100

Filled Teflon 6 X O

1 00 500 17

Polyimide 18 X 10" 8 800 14

NASA hi -temp film 30 X 10" 8 1600 2.3

Metal matrix composite 100 X 10" 8 1000 1.7

£"Dimensionless wear coefficient, K = HV, H = hardness, D - DL

distance traveled, L = Load

“Life based on 0.020 in. wear under typical conditions, P = 300 psi

Source: Owens, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas in Ling, F. F.

,

"Fundamentals of high temperature friction and wear with emphasis on solid

lubrication for heat engines," U. S. Army ARO Contract DAAG 39-84-M-0479

June, 1985.

70
Table V: Recommended topical research areas to advance the development of

gas -fired prime movers.

Performance

Dry and lubricated wear and friction properties

Wear regimes and rates

Wearlife

Mechanisms of friction and wear

Materials compatibility

Wear Protection

Lubrication of ceramics

Additives for advanced lubricants

Deposit control

Influence of gas combustion products

Surface Reactivity of Ceramics

Oxidation resistance of ceramics

Interaction with gas combustion products

Environmental effects on surface microstructure

Surface Strength

Surface hardness

Fracture toughness

Creep strength

Surface ductility

71
Fig. 1: Working cycle of a rotary engine

Intake

Exhaust

(a) Intake (b) Compression

(c) Combustion (d) Power (e) Exhaust
Fig. 2: Primary wear components in a

reciprocating engine

Valves and

valve seat inserts

Piston and

cylinder liner
Fig. 3: Melting points of selected ceramics

O

©

O

CL

GJ3

d

Q) 2

Note: The silicon nitride materials

decompose rather than melt

PSSN

HPSN

RSSN

PSSC

HPSC

RSSC

sz

PSZ

= Pressureless Sintered Silicon Nitride = Hot Pressed Silicon Nitride = Reaction Sintered Silicon Nitride = Pressureless Sintered Silicon Carbide = Hot Pressed Silicon Carbide = Reaction Sintered Silicon Carbide = Stabilized Zirconia = Partially Stabilized Zirconia
Thermal

Conductivity,

cal/cm

Fig. 4: Thermal conductivity of selected ceramics

Ceramics
Heat

Capacity,

cal/g

Fig. 5: Heat capacity of selected ceramics

0.25

O

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

PSSN HPSN RSSN PSSC HPSC RSSC SZ PSZ

0.00

Ceramics
Thermal

Diffusivity,

Fig. 6: Thermal diffusivity of selected ceramics

Ceramics
Flexural

Strength,

MPa

Fig. 7: Flexural strength of selected ceramics

at room temperature

Ceramics
Flexural

Strength.,

MPa

Fig. 8: Flexural strength of selected ceramics

at high temperature

Ceramics
Fracture

Toughness,

MNm

Fig. 9: Fracture toughness of selected ceramics

Ceramics
Fig. 10: Thermal shock resistance of selected ceramics

900 r

800 - 700

600 • 500 - 400 - 300 - 200

100

0 - PSSN HPSN RSSN PSSC HPSC RSSC SZ PSZ

Ceramics
Fig. 11: Hass density of selected ceramics

Ceramics
Linear

Thermal

Expansion,

10

i at

to

Fig. 12: Linear thermal expansion coefficient

of selected ceramics

PSSN HPSN RSSN PSSC HPSC RSSC SZ PSZ

Ceramics
Wear

Scar

Diameter,

Fig. 13: Wear as a function of load for

different batches of alumina

100

Load, kg
Wear

Rate.

10~

10

kg/N

m

Fig. 14: Wear rate of silicon nitride

as a function of humidity

Humidity, %
Rate

of

Wear,

mm^/km

kg

x

10^

Fig. 15: Rate of wear of alumina as a function of

slide direction on the basal sheets.

500

•

a-Al203

400 •

•

8=1° 10'

• 650 g load

300 H20 lubricated

200*

:

100—140 m/min

sliding speed

< 100

>

0

i « « • i i i lW i 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320

Direction of Slide, <p
Rate

of

Wear,

mm

J

/km

kg

Fig. 16: Anisotropy in the wear of alumina.

Angle 6, degrees
Fig. 17: Phase diagram of zirconia
Hertzian

Pressure,

MPa

Fig. 18: Wear coefficients of alumina derived

from literature values

1E4

1000

100 r

10

A12°3/A12°3

Dry

1

0.001 0.010

-8

10

0.100 1.000 10.000

Sliding Speed, m/s
Hertzian

Pressure,

MPa

Fig. 19: Wear coefficient of lubricated alumina

derived from literature results.

1E4

1000 r

100 •—

0.01

io

-7 - io-4

AI2O3/A1203

Lubricated

0.10 1.00

Sliding Speed, m/s
Hertzian

Pressure,

MPa

Fig. 20: Wear coefficient of silicon nitride

derived from literature results.

Sliding Speed, m/s
Hertzian

Pressure,

MPa

Fig. 21: Wear coefficient of silicon carbide

derived from literture results.

Sliding Speed, m/s
Fig. 22: Wear coefficient of partiality stabilized zirconia

derived from literature results.

Sliding Speed, m/s
Coefficient

of

Friction

Fig. 23: Coefficient of friction of silicon nitride

as a function of sliding speed

0.9

0.7

0.5

0.3

Sliding Speed, mm/sec

10 1000
Wear

Rate,

10

^mm^/N-m

Fig. 24: Wear rate of silicon nitride as

a function of sliding speed

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

Sliding Speed, mm/sec

10 100 1000
Wear

Scar

Diameter,

Fig. 25: A study of the dependence of

wear transitions on material

B

a

10

1 -

M2°3

10 100

Load, kg
Coefficient

of

friction

Fig. 26: Coefficient of friction of silicon nitride

as a function of sliding distance

Sliding Distance, m
Wear

Area,

Fig. 27: Effect of porosity on the wear of alumina

0 10 20 30 40

Porosity, %
NBS-114A (rev. 2-80

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SH EET (See instructions) 4

.

TITLE AND SUBTITLE

1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO.

2. Performing Organ. Report No. 3. Publication Date NISTIR- 88/3722 January 1989

5. Advanced Ceramics: A Critical Assessment of Wear and Lubrication

AUTHOR(S)

R. G. Munro and S. M. Hsu

6.

PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than NBS. see instructions)

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

(formerly NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

GAITHERSBURG, MD 20699

7. Contract/Grant No. GRI-TPSU-NBS-1302-379

8. Type of Report & Period Covered

Topical Report

June 1986-October 1986

9.

SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street, City. State. ZIP)

Gas Research Institute

8600 West Bryn Mawr Avenue

Chicago, IL

10.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

[ Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

11.

ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bi bliography or literature survey, mention it here)

A critical assessment of the state of the art of the tribology of ceramics is made. To identify the

critical technical barriers confronting the utilization of advanced gas-fired engines, data were gathered

specifically on the tribology of materials for gas-fired engine applications. Site visits and discussions

with a number of GRI contractors in industry were conducted as the first step in identifying critical issues. Then, an extensive review of the technical literature was made to determine what information was available to resolve those issues, and, more importantly, what critical information was not yet

available. These data were used to examine the issues for each of the principal engine types (rotary,

reciprocating, and turbine). Materials property data for ceramics were then reviewed in the context of

the operating environments and conditions for these engines. Thermal, mechanical, and tribological

properties were examined, along with the important considerations for lubricating ceramics in engine

applications. The analysis of these data considered the impact and relative merits of using various

advanced materials and resulted in recommendations for research activities that could have a significant

impact on the development of gas-fired prime movers.

12. KEY WORDS (Six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate key words by semicolons)

assessment

;

gas-fired; natural gas; prime mover; tribology

13. AVAILABILITY

|y | Unlimited

| | For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

| Order From Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

| X 1 Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA. 22161

14. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

109

15. Price

USCOMM-DC 6043-P80
-

.

N