adapting 

to coastal 

climate 

change

a guidebook for 

development 

planners

MAY 2009

this publication is made possible by the support of the american people through the United states agency for international 

development (Usaid). it was prepared by the coastal Resources center–University of Rhode island (cRc–URi) and international 

Resources group (iRg).
ADAPTING TO COASTAL 

CLIMATE CHANGE

A GUIDEBOOK FOR DEVELOPMENT 

PLANNERS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NAT OI NAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRAT OI N
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

iii

table of contents

acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

summary for policymakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.2 Roadmap to the Guidebook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

assess vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.1 Global Climate Change and Threats to the World’s Coasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.2 Vulnerability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3 Coastal Vulnerability Hot Spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

select course of action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.1 Identify Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.2 Define Adaptation Goals and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.3 Adaptation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.4 Selecting Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

mainstream coastal adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.1 What is Mainstreaming? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.2 National and Regional Entry Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.3 Sectoral Investments and Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.4 Coastal Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.5 Overcoming Barriers and Obstacles to Successful Mainstreaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

implement adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.1 Ensure Adequate Administrative and Institutional Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

5.2 Strengthen Legal Frameworks and Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

5.3 Strengthen Personnel Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.4 Highlight Costs of Doing Nothing and Costs of Adaptation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.5 Develop Sustainable Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.6 Plan for Externalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5.7 Maintain Scientific Basis for Policy and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.8 Maintain an Inclusive and Participatory Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.9 Select Technically Appropriate and Effective Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

evaluate for adaptive management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6.1 Evaluation of Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.2 Adapting Evaluation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Annex A – Adaptation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

contribution to development goals and addressing climate change impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

1. Coastal Wetland Protection and Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

2. Marine Conservation Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3. Marine Protected Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4. Payment for Environmental Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

built environment is less exposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

1. Beach and Dune Nourishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

2. Building Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

3. Coastal Development Setbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

4. Living Shorelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5. Structural Shoreline Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
iv

table of contents (continued)

diversified livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

1. Fisheries Sector Good Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

2. Mariculture Best Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3. Tourism Best Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

human health and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122

1. Community-based Disaster Risk Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123

2. Flood Hazard Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127

overarching planning and governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

1. Coastal Watershed Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133

2. Integrated Coastal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

3. Special Area Management Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

v

list of figures

Figure 1.1 A coastal adaptation roadmap applies a climate lens to the ICM policy cycle often used by coastal practitioners

Figure 2.1 Vulnerability to sea level rise and storm surge

Figure 2.2 Vulnerability framework

Figure 3.1 Ordering coastal adaptation outcomes

Figure 3.2 Adaptation options related to the goals of the U.S. National Estuary Program.

Figure 4.1 How entry points reinforce each other and contribute to a more integrated strategy

Figure 4.2 Mainstreaming adaptation in coastal tourism

Figure 4.3 Adaptation can be mainstreamed within the national development strategy, sector strategies, or donor grants

Figure 6.1 Adaptive management process

list of tables

Table 2.1 A Summary of climate change observations and trends in the coastal zone

Table 2.2 Threats to the coastal environment

Table 2.3 Examples of exposed coastal assets and factors of sensitivity

Table 3.1 Examples of adaptation goals for coastal climate change

Table 3.2 Adaptation measures, goals, and climate change impacts

Table 4.1 An assessment of the national adaptation programme of action

Table 6.1 What motivates evaluation and what are the benefits

Table 6.2 Adaptation measures and adaptive management responses

acronyms

BMP Best Management Practice

CRC Coastal Resources Center

ICM Integrated Coastal Management

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IRG International Resources Group

LDC Less Developed Countries 

NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action

PES Payments for Environmental Services

SCCRF Special Climate Change Fund

SIDS Small Island Developing States

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

URI University of Rhode Island

USAID United States Agency for International Development

V&A Vulnerability and Adaptation
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

vi

acknowledgements

This Guidebook was prepared under the leadership of the Global Climate Change Team and Water and Coastal Team 

of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Bureau for Economic Growth, Agriculture, 

and Trade, in partnership with the Coastal Resources Center at the University of Rhode Island (URI-CRC), and the 

International Resources Group (IRG). Many others provided advice, content and ideas. In particular, we wish to 

thank our Advisory Committee members whose initial input and periodic comments and contributions helped shape 

the effort. 

We also greatly appreciate the invaluable feedback from coastal professionals and practitioners around the world. In 

particular, we want to acknowledge the interest in and support of the Guidebook by participants of the following: the 

4th Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands convened in Hanoi, Vietnam in April 2008; the EcoCostas 

Network meeting in Ecuador in May 2008; the 2008 Summer Institute in Advanced Coastal Management at URI; 

and the Workshop on Mainstreaming Climate Change Development Strategies, Programs and Projects held in Panama 

in October 2008. 

Special thanks are extended to staff at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for their input, 

expertise, and support to build local capacity in coastal adaptation. 

The Project Team—comprised of Richard Volk and John Furlow (USAID); Pamela Rubinoff, James Tobey, Donald 

Robadue, Glenn Ricci, Lesley Squillante (URI-CRC); Glen Anderson, Yoon Kim and Kyung Kim (IRG)—would also 

like to recognize by name the Advisory Committee members and the many practitioners who contributed adaptation 

measures and graphics, and who provided technical review and practical advice that has enhanced this Guidebook:

Ellik Adler, United Nations Environment Programme Kem Lowry, University of Hawaii

Amanda Babson, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Audra Luscher, U.S. NOAA Coastal Services Center

Carl Bruch, Environmental Law Institute Elizabeth Matthews, Palau Conservation Society

Virginia Burkett, U.S. Geological Survey Joseph Murphy, U.S. Embassy Fiji

Gillian Cambers, University of Puerto Sandra Nichols, Environmental Law Institute

Rico Sea Grant College Program

Gwen Shaughnessy, Maryland Coastal Program

Hannah Campbell, Conservation International, 

formerly with U.S. NOAA Climate Program Office Sena De Silva, Network of Aquaculture Centres of Asia

Jeff DeBlieu, The Nature Conservancy Adam Stein, NOAA Coastal Services Center

Bill Dennison, University of Maryland Robert Stickney, Texas A&M University

Center for Environmental Science

Jessica Troell, Environmental Law Institute

Lesley Ewing, California Coastal Commission Jay Udelhoven, The Nature Conservancy

Serena Fortuna, United Nations Environmental Programme Lisa Vaughan, U.S. NOAA Climate Program Office

Fathimath Ghina, UNESCO Laverne Walker, Coastal Zone Management Unit, St. Lucia

Karen Jakubowski, Clean Air Cool Planet Anne Walton, U.S. NOAA National 

Zoë Johnson, Maryland Department of Natural Resources Marine Sanctuary Program

Jeftic Ljubomir, United Nations Environmental Programme Alan White, The Nature Conservancy
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

vii

preface

The challenges we all must face in adapting to climate variability and change present themselves with increasing 

urgency. Nowhere will these challenges be greater than in the developing world where often weak institutions and 

governance systems struggle to deal with mounting pressures from population growth, inadequate infrastructure, and 

diminishing or already depleted natural resources.

In this context, the unique ecosystem processes and extraordinary development pressures within the coastal zone 

require that development planners – and the donors who assist with development – give special urgency to the task of 

helping to build resiliency against the impacts of climate change. The changes are many and already underway. They 

include rising sea level, increasingly intense cyclones, altered precipitation and runoff, elevated sea surface temperature, 

and ocean acidification.

The decades ahead will witness increased numbers of people, infrastructure, and ecosystems at risk in the coastal 

zone. National and local leaders across all sectors must begin now to engage stakeholders in assessing vulnerability 

and designing adaptation strategies that are technically, financially, and politically achievable. Meanwhile, donors too 

must work to protect their investments by incorporating analyses of climate variability and change into the design and 

implementation of virtually every kind of development assistance program to be implemented within the coastal zone.

This Guidebook is both a tool in itself and a link to other resources to help with those efforts. The processes, tools, 

and resources that it contains are based on the inputs of numerous coastal planners, climate change experts, and other 

development professionals. It was prepared under the guidance of the Water Team and Global Climate Change Team 

of the U.S. Agency for International Development.

The effective application of these tools, development of new techniques and sharing of lessons will be critical to 

meet all of the myriad challenges of a fast evolving landscape/seascape of coastal climate change adaptation around 

the world. We consider this a first edition and welcome and encourage your comments, suggestions, and inputs for 

inclusion in subsequent editions.

Please address correspondence about the Guidebook to:

The U.S. Agency for International Development 

Global Climate Change Team 

Washington, DC, USA 20523-3800 

climatechange@usaid.gov
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

viii

summary for policymakers

Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook for Development Planners (the Guidebook) provides a detailed 

treatment of climate concerns in coastal areas. The Guidebook proposes an approach for assessing vulnerability to 

climate change and climate variability, developing and implementing adaptation options, and integrating options 

into programs, development plans, and projects at the national and local levels. This is known as a vulnerability and 

adaptation or V&A approach. The summary presented here is designed for policymakers and others who are interested 

in the Guidebook’s key messages and may review the full version later or use the Guidebook as a reference document. 

The summary is organized by the steps in the V&A approach that is recommended in this Guidebook. References for 

the information provided in this summary are included in the main body of the Guidebook.

There is an unequivocal scientific consensus that the changes brought by climate change are already occurring and 

will intensify in the future, likely resulting in significant alteration of coastal ecosystems, coastal hazards, and lifestyle 

changes for fishers, coastal resource users, waterfront property owners and coastal communities. These have farreaching impacts on a range of challenges for coastal resource managers. Dramatically stepped up efforts are needed 

to guide proactive adaptation actions that benefit human and natural ecosystems for present and future generations. 

Step 1

Assess 

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course 

of action

Step 3

Mainstream 

coastal 

adaptation

Step 4

Implement 

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for 

adaptive 

management

STEP 1. ASSESS VULNERABILITY 

The assessment of vulnerability focuses on gaining an understanding of how climate variability and change 

will impact coastal communities, the goods and services provided by natural resources, and human-built 

infrastructure.

Vulnerability assessment for climate change in specific coastal regions considers three factors: 1) the nature 

and magnitude of climate variability and change; 2) the human, capital, and natural assets that will be 

exposed to and impacted by climate change; and 3) the current capacity of coastal communities and 

ecosystems to adapt to and cope with climate impacts.

Climate is changing in response to increased greenhouse gas emissions, and projections for the coming decades 

paint a somber picture.

There is scientific consensus that increases in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere drive warming 

temperatures of air and sea, and that the world’s oceans acidify as they absorb the carbon dioxide. Warming 

of air and sea causes shifts in precipitation patterns and hydrological cycles, sea level rise, and more 

frequent and severe extreme weather events (e.g., storms and storm surge). These effects are already being 

witnessed in the world’s coastal regions and are projected to intensify in years to come. 

Climate change will impact the health, function and productivity of coastal ecosystems, thus impacting the 

health and welfare of coastal communities and the billions of people that depend on these natural resources.

Climate changes will have significant and immediate consequences for the world’s coasts, the goods and 

services provided by coastal ecosystems, and coastal inhabitants. This includes accelerated coastal erosion 

and loss of land and property, flooding, saltwater intrusion, shifts in the distribution and abundance of 

valuable marine habitats, species and biodiversity, and the accelerated spread of exotic and invasive species. 
ix

It may mean more frequent coral bleaching and increased mortality, loss of coastal wetland ecosystems and 

fishing grounds, and growth in the spread of marine dead zones. 

The ocean is also becoming more acidic (decreased seawater pH) as it absorbs atmospheric carbon 

dioxide (CO2

). Ocean acidification has potential widespread effects on marine ecosystems. It may inhibit 

calcification, which will threaten the survival of coral-reef ecosystems. It will inhibit the growth of 

calcareous algae at the base of the food web and of shell-forming marine organisms (such as scallops), 

and it will stunt the growth of calcified skeletons in many other marine organisms, including commercial 

fish species. These species changes then affect local fisheries livelihoods and food supplies for coastal 

communities. 

The ability of ecosystems and habitats to adapt to climate impacts can be increased by reducing other 

stressors such as overfishing and land-based pollution. Reducing these current stresses will increase the 

resilience or ability of the environment to adapt to future impacts, thus reducing threats to human welfare.

Coastal areas most vulnerable to climate change are low-lying islands, coastal areas and deltas; countries 

subjected to hurricanes and typhoons; and less developed countries

Relative to other coastal areas, low-lying islands, including many Small Island Developing States (SIDS), 

are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because they have relatively scarce natural resources 

(e.g., water resources, construction materials and physical space) and they have limited and high cost 

transportation options. Low-lying SIDS have little scope for adaptation and are particularly vulnerable to 

sea level rise and storm surge.

Less developed countries are vulnerable to climate change because of rapid population growth, much of 

it concentrated in coastal areas; high dependency on climate-sensitive industries such as fisheries, coastal 

agriculture and tourism; a degraded natural resource base; weak administration and governance systems; 

and poor transportation and communication infrastructure. 

Low lying coastal areas and deltas are highly vulnerable to sea level rise, extreme weather events and 

storm surge. Globally, at least 150 million people live within 1 meter of high tide level, and 250 million 

live within 5 meters of high tide. At greatest risk are the densely populated Asian mega-deltas of rivers 

including the Yangtze (China), Ganges-Brahmaputra (Bangladesh), Mekong (Cambodia), and Irrawaddy 

(Myanmar). Other major mega-deltas at risk are the Nile (Egypt), Niger (Africa), and Mississippi (USA). 

Climate change combines with and amplifies non-climate stressors on coastal ecosystems.

Coastal ecosystems are already seriously stressed in 

many areas of the world. Reasons include intense coastal 

development and overpopulation, poverty, internal conflict, 

fragmentation and loss of habitat, over-fishing, pollution, 

and spread of invasive species. These non-climate stressors 

will impair the resilience of ecosystems, i.e., the ability of 

the ecosystem to maintain its integrity and to continue to 

provide critical goods and services to coastal communities. 

Mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, seagrass beds, dune 

communities and other systems on or near shorelines serve 

critical ecological functions that are important to human 

society. Such functions include fisheries, storm protection, 

flood mitigation, erosion control, water storage, groundwater 

recharge, pollution abatement, and retention and cycling of 

nutrients and sediments. Healthy habitats function as selfUncontrolled development along the coast results 

in conflicts over access, increased demands on 

infrastructure, degraded water quality and increased 

risks to natural hazards. Sinaloa, Mexico 
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

x

repairing “natural infrastructure,” in contrast to human-built infrastructure, thus minimizing maintenance 

costs. When these critical resources are compromised, coastal ecosystems are weakened—and weakened, 

unhealthy coastal ecosystems are less resilient to climate change and variability. 

Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of society to plan for and respond to change in a way that makes it 

better equipped to manage its exposure and sensitivity to climate change.

Adaptive capacity depends on economic well-being, ecological well-being, the extent of dependency on 

natural resources, infrastructure (human-built or natural), effectiveness of institutions and governance 

systems, insurance, secure land tenure and mediation measures, and information and communication 

systems. A community with the capacity to adapt is likely to be more resistant to impacts or able to recover 

from stressful events and conditions. 

Step 1

Assess 

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course 

of action

Step 3

Mainstream 

coastal 

adaptation

Step 4

Implement 

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for 

adaptive 

management

STEP 2: SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

Planned adaptation is strategic and aims to address the full range of coastal climate change hazards in ways 

that meet social objectives. 

In general, there are two types of adaptation—‘reactive’ and ‘planned’. Reactive adaptations are the changes 

in policy and behavior that people and organizations adopt after they have observed changes in climate 

and coastal risks. This Guidebook focuses on planned adaptation—that which is strategic, intentional, 

proactive, and occurs at the societal level.

The selection of a course of action to address climate vulnerability involves the identification of adaptation 

goals, and assessment of individual adaptation measures or measures bundled into a strategy.

Coastal areas may be subject to a variety of climate impacts. Therefore, it is useful to prioritize your climate 

vulnerabilities. This will help in selecting your adaptation options and course of action. It is important to 

coordinate this with the decision-making procedures that govern the program, plan, or project for which 

climate is a concern. We urge policymakers to engage major stakeholders in setting adaptation goals, 

selecting criteria for and assessing adaptation options, and providing input into the final selection process. 

Major categories of management goals common to adaptation programs in coastal areas include: 

1) Maintain functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

2) Reduce exposure and vulnerability of the built environment 

3) Strengthen governance frameworks for coastal adaptation 

4) Maintain livelihood opportunities and diversify options

5) Reduce risks to human health and safety
xi

A gallery of coastal adaptation measures has been 

developed for the Guidebook. Many of these will be 

familiar to coastal management professionals—the 

climate lens is new, but in most cases the tools are 

not. 

The Guidebook includes practitioner briefs on 17 

coastal adaptation measures and strategies. Each 

brief describes the measure’s relevance, purpose and 

application to climate change, information and data 

requirements, design considerations, suggestions 

for improving likelihood of success, and list of 

resources. The 17 briefs were chosen by coastal 

practitioners from an initial list of 50 adaptation 

measures. 

Traditionally, practitioners would view many of 

these adaptation measures in terms of their potential 

benefits in promoting coastal management goals. 

Applying a climate lens means that adaptation 

measures are viewed in terms of how they 

reduce impacts and/or improve the resilience of 

communities and ecosystems in the face of climate 

change and variability while promoting coastal 

management goals. In other words, it means 

planning with a longer time scale and a wider range 

of possible variability in mind.

Criteria for evaluating adaptation measures consider technical effectiveness, costs, expected benefits, and 

implementation characteristics.

Countries or coastal areas may share the same climate change issues. Yet, each has different circumstances 

(climate, natural resources, infrastructure, technological state, economy, governance, etc.) so the responses 

to those climate change issues may vary. Coastal adaptations must be “tailored” to the local context through 

an inclusive process that matches development goals with the climate change issues and the technical 

capabilities and the capacity of the institutions and community stakeholders of the place. Following are key 

criteria for deciding the best adaptation option given the local context:

•	 Technical effectiveness: will the adaptation option be effective in solving problems arising from climate 

change while also meeting current development or management goals?

•	 Costs: what is the cost to implement the adaptation measure?

•	 Benefits: what types (and magnitudes) of benefits will be generated by the adaptation measure and who 

will benefit?

•	 Implementation considerations: how easy is it to design and implement the option in terms of the 

level of skill required, information needed, and scale of implementation?

It is useful to distinguish between climate benefits and non-climate benefits. Climate benefits include such 

things as avoiding damages and their associated costs and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Non-climate 

benefits are those that result under current climate conditions. An example is enforcing prohibitions on 

mining coral reefs, an activity that exacerbates coastal erosion and reduces coastal protection. Adaptations 

that yield non-climate benefits greater than the costs of implementation are referred to as “no regrets” 

Adaptation measures are summarized as 

practitioner briefs in Annex A. 
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

xii

options. This term implies society will have no regrets in implementing these measures—even if climate 

change is less significant than projected. 

In general, except in intensely developed areas, adaptation options that favor ecosystem and living shoreline 

approaches are recommended over hard structures to stabilize the shoreline. 

Living shoreline approaches address erosion and flooding by providing for long-term protection, restoration 

or enhancement of vegetated shoreline habitats. Such ”no regrets” approaches—i.e., approaches that 

are beneficial even in the absence of climate change—should be a priority. The use of natural living 

infrastructure provides multiple benefits while minimizing repair costs. Functional coastal ecosystems are 

more resilient to climate change and variability. They also provide goods and services that are important to 

human society in the face of climate change (fisheries, livelihoods, food security, storm protection, flood 

mitigation, shoreline natural defenses, erosion control, water storage, groundwater recharge, retention 

of nutrients and sediments, and filtering of pollutants). Maintaining ecosystem biodiversity is critical to 

ensuring healthy ecosystems and thus natural-resource dependent livelihoods, such as wild fisheries. 

Adaptation responses will often include “bundles” of adaptation measures and require additional considerations 

in evaluating multiple measures.

In evaluating and selecting the best combination of adaptation measures, policymakers and practitioners 

might consider the following: 

•	 Complements vs. substitutes: Ideally, bundles should include adaptation measures that are 

complementary to each other. This capitalizes on synergies and ensures that each measure adds benefits. 

If measures are substitutes for each other, select and include in the bundle the measure that is least 

costly and/or provides the greatest net benefits.

•	 Budget constraints: Often, there are limited financial resources available to cover the costs of 

implementation. In these situations, no-cost and low-cost measures may be more attractive than 

expensive measures such as human-built infrastructure. Adaptation is a continuous process, so we 

recommend a phased approach when priority measures are not affordable.

Step 1

Assess 

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course 

of action

Step 3

Mainstream 

coastal 

adaptation

Step 4

Implement 

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for 

adaptive 

management

STEP 3: MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

Climate change adaptation on the coast must be understood as a fundamental challenge for managing coastal 

resource uses and must be ‘mainstreamed’ into coastal policy at all levels.

Mainstreaming means that climate concerns and adaptation responses are integrated into relevant 

development policies, plans, programs, and projects at the national, sub-national, and local scales. National 

climate change adaptation strategies are more effective when guidance on adaptation is mainstreamed into 

development and sectoral plans and strategies and is “owned” by those authorities responsible for preparing 

and implementing them. 

There are many entry points for mainstreaming coastal adaptation. This Guidebook highlights three of 

these: 1) national or regional level public policy, 2) sectoral investments and projects, and 3) sub-national, 

place-based initiatives. Each entry point offers challenges, creates new roles for citizens, the private sector 
xiii

and government, and can create new opportunities. 

Government must play a pivotal role in creating enabling 

policy, financial and legal frameworks, capturing and 

sharing experience, and raising public awareness. 

Guidelines and policies for mainstreaming climate concerns 

and adaptation responses into capital investment plans and 

project cycles are recommended in the face of climate 

change.

Development banks, such as the African Development 

Bank and the World Bank, are increasingly concerned 

that a substantial share of investments are at risk from 

direct impacts from climate change, thereby increasing 

vulnerabilities or reducing the intended development 

benefits. Estimates of Development Banks’ portfolio at 

risk range from 25-40%. For example, infrastructure that cannot be adapted to withstand the impacts of 

climate change may expose more people and assets to risk. Mainstreaming climate concerns into capital 

investment plans and project cycle management entails integrating climate issues and adaptation priorities 

into country strategies. Greater consideration must also be given to vulnerability and adaptation in project 

designs, screening, selection and evaluation. 

Engaging a broad group of stakeholdersthroughout 

the process is key to successful adaptation.

A two-track approach combining local level, community-based adaptation with national level enabling policy, 

finance and legal frameworks is an effective approach to adaptation implementation.

Successful mainstreaming requires reinforcing linkages between local and national level adaptation entry 

points. Government, together with non-government partners, must play a pivotal role in fostering the 

connections across national, sectoral, and place entry points.

There may be resistance to mainstreaming climate adaptation. Coastal managers can draw upon their repertoire 

of experience to formulate strategies to overcome such barriers.

There is often inherent resistance to the introduction of any new policy idea. Because climate change 

impacts are cumulative and occur over the long-term, there may be little sense of urgency to act. 

Individuals and organizations may resist because of the uncertainties that surround climate change 

and because they have different tolerance levels for the risks associated with taking action under such 

uncertainties. The Guidebook lists good practices for successful and sustained coastal adaptation that 

have proven effective in coastal management worldwide and that can help in overcoming resistance to 

mainstreaming coastal adaptation.

Step 1

Assess 

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course 

of action

Step 3

Mainstream 

coastal 

adaptation

Step 4

Implement 

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for 

adaptive 

management

STEP 4: IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION

Implementation of adaptation measures brings new challenges and potential conflicts. Practitioners and coastal 

professionals need to be aware of these and address them proactively.
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

xiv

Implementation challenges include: inadequate administrative, institutional, and staff capabilities; lack of 

sustainable financing or cost recovery; weak legal frameworks and enforcement; information gaps on the 

costs of acting vs. not acting (doing nothing); maintaining scientific data and monitoring to sustain the 

measures; unengaged political leadership and stakeholders; and poor technical effectiveness of the measures. 

The Guidebook identifies specific responses to each implementation challenge. Many of these challenges 

can be anticipated and addressed prior to implementation—i.e., during the assessment, design, and 

mainstreaming steps of coastal adaptation. 

Coastal practitioners and professionals must be alert to implementation challenges and address them 

proactively as they become evident. Recommended actions include periodic program reviews at the national 

or local levels to ensure agencies and communities are aware of successes and failures. Another action is to 

educate and encourage the public and property owners to be active in the stakeholder process. Also, take 

action to keep coastal adaptation on the public agenda, and conduct monitoring and scientific studies to 

reduce uncertainty about the effectiveness of the measures being implemented.

Step 1

Assess 

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course 

of action

Step 3

Mainstream 

coastal 

adaptation

Step 4

Implement 

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for 

adaptive 

management

STEP 5: EVALUATE FOR ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

Coastal adaptation is an on-going and iterative process that will benefit from periodic evaluation of performance 

coupled with an adaptive management process to fine-tune implementation.

Once coastal adaptation measures are implemented, there will likely be considerable interest in how they 

perform. Policymakers will be keen to demonstrate that the measures are beneficial to the citizenry. They 

will also want to assuage stakeholders who have borne some of the costs of the measures. Evaluation is 

the process of reviewing and analyzing all relevant data and information required to determine if the set 

of adaptation options are meeting expectations. If measures do not perform according to expectations, 

they must be adjusted. The process of reflecting on and adjusting the course of action based on evaluation 

results, new information, and changing conditions is referred to as adaptive management.
chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

15
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

16

1.1 BACKGROUND

Coasts and the world’s oceans are crucial to life on Earth, 

they support livelihoods, and are vital to the global 

economy in many ways. Coastal ecosystems exist at the 

interface between terrestrial and marine environments. 

They include some of the most diverse and dynamic 

environments on earth. This narrow band of the earth’s 

surface attracts human populations because it is a focal 

point for economic growth—accounting for a majority 

share of humanity’s infrastructure, transportation and 

trade, energy processing, tourism, and recreation. 

Coastal ecosystems provide a myriad of ecological 

goods and services. They provide habitat and nurseries 

for the majority of commercially important marine fish 

and shellfish species, and provide food security and 

livelihoods for over 1 billion people. They offer storm 

surge protection, erosion control, and flood mitigation. 

They also help retain nutrients and sediments and filter 

pollutants. Thus, the socioeconomic and ecological 

importance of the coastal zone is virtually unparalleled. 

Considering that the majority of humans 

reside along coasts, coastal regions have 

become uniquely important to the wellbeing of society and the need for proactive 

action to adapt to climate changes is ever 

more pressing.

Global climate change already impacts and will 

continue to impact coastal communities, ecosystems, 

and many facets of people’s lives in the coastal zone 

where approximately 2.7 billion people—over 40% 

of the world's population—live. Even without climate 

change, coastal areas face a litany of problems associated 

with population growth, habitat change, resource overexploitation and degradation, water pollution, and 

changes in freshwater flows. Climate change is expected 

to amplify many of these and other stresses on coastal 

areas. This in turn increases the need and urgency to 

include coastal adaptation as part of effective coastal 

management. As a consequence of these realities, 

climate change is considered by many to be one of the 

most important challenges of the 21st century and a 

priority for immediate action for coastal areas. 

In 2007, the Global Climate Change Team in the 

United States Agency for International Development 

(USAID) Bureau for Economic Growth, Agriculture 

and Trade developed guidance to help USAID Missions 

and partners account for and address vulnerabilities 

to climate variability and change in their projects 

and programs. The document, Adapting to Climate 

Variability and Change – A Guidance Manual for 

Development Planning (USAID, 2008), is structured 

around a six-step vulnerability and adaptation (V&A) 

process1

. This process helps planners and stakeholders 

to assess vulnerability to climate variability and change, 

and to identify, assess, select, implement, and evaluate 

adaptation options that reduce climate impacts. 

The V&A Manual was intended as general guidance on 

the full range of climate concerns and impacted sectors. 

It provides links to important sources of information 

and tools and offers a broad overview of methods and 

best practices for conducting vulnerability assessments 

and evaluating adaptation measures. The V&A Manual 

includes case studies illustrating some of these best 

practices. 

This coastal adaptation Guidebook is a companion 

document to the V&A Manual and provides the 

practitioner with more detailed and sector-specific 

1 The six steps are: 1) Screen for vulnerability; 2) Identify 

adaptations; 3) Conduct analysis; 4) Select course of action; 

5)Implement adaptations; and 6) Evaluate adaptations
INTRODUCTION

17

guidance for responding to climate variability and 

change impacts on coastal areas. The emphasis is on 

developing country contexts. 

The Guidebook’s primary goals are to:

•	 Advance understanding of climate change impacts 

along coasts, vulnerability, and approaches for 

mainstreaming coastal adaptation measures into 

development policies, plans, and programs

•	 Provide practical adaptation options for responding 

to the impacts of climate variability and change on 

the coast

•	 Draw lessons from experience on how to overcome 

implementation barriers and utilize an adaptive 

management approach to coastal climate adaptation

TERMINOLOGY

Adaptation: Adjustment in natural or 

human systems in response to actual or 

expected climatic changes or their impacts, 

so as to reduce harm or exploit beneficial 

opportunities.

Climate change: Any change in weather 

averaged over time due to natural variability or 

because of human activity.

Climate variability: Variations in the mean 

state and other statistics (such as standard 

deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) 

of the climate on all temporal and spatial 

scales beyond that of individual weather 

events. Examples of climate variability include 

extended droughts, floods, and conditions 

that result from periodic El Niño and La Niña 

events.

Hazard Mitigation: Sustained action taken 

to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to life and 

property from a hazard event. Considered as 

one of four phases of emergency management, 

together with preparedness, response, and 

recovery.

Mitigation: Within a climate change context, 

mitigation is a human intervention to actively 

reduce the production of greenhouse gas 

emissions (reducing energy consumption in 

transport, construction, at home, at work etc.), 

or to remove the gases from the atmosphere 

(sequestration)

Vulnerability: The degree to which a human 

or natural system is susceptible to, or unable 

to cope with, adverse effects of climate change. 

Vulnerability is a function of the character, 

magnitude, and rate of climate variation to 

which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its 

adaptive capacity.

1.2 ROADMAP TO 

THE GUIDEBOOK 

The Guidebook follows a common approach, or 

cycle, to program development as shown in Figure 

1.1. The approach is similar to the Integrated 

Coastal Management (ICM) policy cycle often used 

by coastal practitioners and includes the following 

steps: vulnerability assessment (Step 1), planning 

and selection of a course of action (Step 2), formal 

adoption or mainstreaming of adaptation actions (Step 

3), implementation (Step 4), and evaluation (Step 5). 

This highlights a central message of the Guidebook: 

the process of coastal planning and action is not 

radically changed by applying a climate lens. While the 

process and good practices of planning and program 

management apply equally to climate change as they 

do to other coastal issues, the Guidebook will show 

that some of the strategies of coastal management 

are influenced by climate change considerations. For 

example, there will be greater emphasis on naturebased adaptations and a longer planning horizon must 

be taken into account. 

Each chapter of the Guidebook refers to one of the 

five steps of the program cycle. Chapter 2 focuses on 

diagnosis of coastal climate change impacts, trends, and 

vulnerability. Chapter 2 also summarizes current stresses 

and threats to coastal areas from development pressures 

and weaknesses in management. 

Coastal communities are likely to face a number 

of climate-impacted issues and challenges—some 

in the near term and others within the next several 

years or decades. Chapter 3 provides guidance on 

setting priorities and formulating adaptation goals. 

It also provides a list of 17 adaptation measures and 

summarizes the criteria for evaluating and selecting 

adaptations. 
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

18

Coastal adaptation requires a mandate and funding. 

Chapter 4 describes how coastal V&A can be 

mainstreamed into public planning and budgeting 

processes and policies at national, sub-national, and 

local scales. ICM experience has taught us that the list of 

potential obstacles to successful mainstreaming is long. 

This chapter presents lessons learned on overcoming 

these obstacles and offers strategies and preconditions 

for sustained mainstreaming of coastal adaptation.

After the adaptation options have been evaluated and 

selected and once there is a formal mandate and funding 

to proceed, you are ready to take action. Chapter 

5 focuses on making adaptation plans operational 

and overcoming typical obstacles to successful 

implementation. 

Coastal adaptation is not a one-time event. It is an 

adaptive and iterative process. Chapter 6 focuses 

on evaluating the progress of the actions that are 

undertaken and adapting to changing conditions based 

on valid reasons and circumstances. 

Step 1

Assess 

vulnerability

Chapter 2

Assess climate 

change 

impacts, 

trends and 

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course 

of action

Chapter 3

Prioritize 

issues and 

define 

adaptation 

goals 

Analyze 

and select 

adaptation 

measures

Step 3

Mainstream 

coastal 

adaptation

Chapter 4

Mainstream 

coastal 

adaptation in 

policy, plans, 

and programs

Secure 

mandate and 

funding

Step 4

Implement 

Adaptation

Chapter 5

Implement 

adaptations

Take actions to 

build capacity 

and avoid 

implemenntation 

barriers

Step 5

Evaluate for 

adaptive 

management

Chapter 6

Evaluate 

adaptations

Take adaptive 

actions

Figure 1.1 A coastal adaptation 

roadmap applies a climate lens to the 

ICM policy cycle often used by coastal 

practitioners
INTRODUCTION

19

Each chapter of the Guidebook refers to one of the 

five steps of the program cycle. Chapter 2 focuses on 

diagnosis of coastal climate change impacts, trends, and 

vulnerability. Chapter 2 also summarizes current stresses 

and threats to coastal areas from development pressures 

and weaknesses in management. 

Coastal communities are likely to face a number 

of climate-impacted issues and challenges—some 

in the near term and others within the next several 

years or decades. Chapter 3 provides guidance on 

setting priorities and formulating adaptation goals. 

It also provides a list of 17 adaptation measures and 

summarizes the criteria for evaluating and selecting 

adaptations. 

Coastal adaptation requires a mandate and funding. 

Chapter 4 describes how coastal V&A can be 

mainstreamed into public planning and budgeting 

processes and policies at national, sub-national, and 

local scales. ICM experience has taught us that the list of 

potential obstacles to successful mainstreaming is long. 

This chapter presents lessons learned on overcoming 

these obstacles and offers strategies and preconditions 

for sustained mainstreaming of coastal adaptation.

After the adaptation options have been evaluated and 

selected and once there is a formal mandate and funding 

to proceed, you are ready to take action. Chapter 

5 focuses on making adaptation plans operational 

and overcoming typical obstacles to successful 

implementation. 

Coastal adaptation is not a one-time event. It is an 

adaptive and iterative process. Chapter 6 focuses 

on evaluating the progress of the actions that are 

undertaken and adapting to changing conditions based 

on valid reasons and circumstances.
chapter 2

ASSESS VULNERABILITY

20
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

21

This chapter first provides an overview of climate 

change observations and trends in the coastal zone, their 

impacts on coastal sectors, and the panoply of existing 

threats to human and natural ecosystems in the coastal 

zone. Climate change only amplifies these threats 

and further increases the challenges of strategically 

managing the coasts and seas and their extraordinary 

but shrinking resources. The chapter then explores four 

critical factors: climate change projections, exposure 

to climate change, sensitivity to climate change, and 

the capacity of society to cope with actual or expected 

climate changes (adaptive capacity and resiliency of 

coastal ecosystems). Coastal vulnerability hot-spots are 

also highlighted. 

2.1 GLOBAL CLIMATE 

CHANGE AND THREATS TO 

THE WORLD’S COASTS

There is scientific consensus that increases in greenhouse 

gases in the atmosphere drive the warming of air and 

sea temperatures and cause the world’s oceans to acidify 

from the carbon dioxide they absorb. Even if greenhouse 

gases were capped today, air and sea temperatures 

will continue to rise as a result of past emissions—as 

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have a lifetime 

of between 10 and several thousand years. Warming 

of air and sea induces precipitation change, sea level 

rise, and more extreme weather events (e.g., storms 

and sea surge). The most significant and immediate 

consequences of these climate changes for the world’s 

coasts include coastal erosion, flooding, drought, 

saltwater intrusion, and ecosystem change. There are 

also other health, economic and social impacts. 

These climate changes and impacts are already affecting 

coastal areas and ecosystems and projections for the 

coming decades paint a somber picture. Table 2.1 

summarizes observations and trends of the effects 

of increased greenhouse gases on coastal and ocean 

systems.

Rising sea-level poses a severe threat to countries 

where their coastal regions have heavy concentrations 

of population and economic activity. Through the 

20th century, global rise of sea level contributed to 

increased coastal inundation, erosion and ecosystem 

loss (IPCC, 2007a). Until recently, studies of sea level 

rise typically predicted a 0-1 meter rise during the 21st 

century. For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on 

Climate Change (IPCC) anticipates that sea level will 

rise by 0.6 m or more by 2100 (IPCC, 2007c). Ocean 

thermal expansion was expected to be the dominating 

factor behind this rise. However, new data on rates of 

deglaciation (the uncovering of land previously covered 

by a glacier) in Greenland and Antarctica suggest that 

glacial melt may play a significant role in creating an 

even greater rise in sea level—i.e., 1-3 meters in this 

century (Dasgupta et al., 2007). A rise of this amount 

would displace hundreds of millions of people in the 

developing world.

Sea level rise and other changes brought on by climate 

change can affect land-based activities (see Figure 2.1) 

and coastal ecosystems, especially wetlands and coral 

reefs, and have serious implications for the well-being 

of societies dependent on coastal ecosystems for goods 

and services. Rises in marine/coastal water surface 

temperatures lead to the bleaching and widespread 

mortality of coral reefs. Further, saltwater will displace 

or at least intrude coastal aquifers; and estuarine 

systems will likely become more brackish. Alterations 

to estuarine and marine ecosystems will have potentially 

severe impacts on fisheries and the goods and services 

provided by marine and coastal biodiversity. 

As more carbon dioxide (CO2

) dissolves in the oceans, 

they become more acidic (decreased seawater pH). This 

creates the potential for widespread effects on marine 

ecosystems. It may inhibit calcification, which will 

threaten the survival of coral-reef ecosystems. It will 

inhibit the growth of calcareous algae at the base of the 

food web and of shell-forming marine organisms (such

VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT







	

	

Assess climate change projections 

Assess exposure to climate change

Assess sensitivity to climate change

Assess health of coastal habitats and 

ecosystems

Assess adaptive capacity

“A 0.5 °C increase in sea surface temperature 

is associated with a 40 percent increase in 

hurricane frequency and activity.” Saunders and 

Lea, Nature, January 29, 2008
ASSESS VULNERABILITY

22

Table 2.1 A Summary of climate change observations and trends in the coastal zone

Coastal Impact Observations Projected Trends

•	

•	 •	

•	 •	

Sea Level Rise

•	

•	

•	

•

•	

•

For the 20th century, sea levels rose at a rate of 1.7 to

1.8 mm/yr

In the last decade, the worldwide average rate was 

measured to be 3.0 mm/yr

Coastal erosion is increasingly observed around the 

world; it can be related to either sea level rise or 

subsidence, or both

Sea levels are expected to rise by at least 0.6 meters 

by the century’s end; glacial melt is expected to 

increase this rise

Coastal flooding could grow tenfold or more by the 

2080s, affecting more than 100 million people per year 

due to sea-level rise, especially in Southeast Asia

It is projected that seawater intrusion due to sealevel rise could severely affect aquaculture in heavilypopulated mega-deltas, such as in Southeast Asia

A one-meter rise in sea level could inundate 17% 

of Bangladesh and completely flood the Republic of 

Maldives, reduce Bangladesh’s rice farming land by half 

and affect millions of livelihoods

A 2°C increase in temperature could result in the loss 

of a number of island states

Sea Surface 

Temperature 

Change

•	

•

•	

•

•	

•	 •

Between 1970 and 2004, sea surface temperatures 

around the planet rose between 0.2-1.0°C, with a 

mean increase of 0.6°C

The Caribbean Sea has warmed by 1.5°C in the last 

100 years

Observations since 1961 show that the ocean has 

been absorbing more than 80% of the heat added to 

the climate system

Changes in water temperature caused wide scale coral 

bleaching in the Asia region, damaging as much as 75-

100% of coral in the Philippines in 1998

By 2100, temperatures are projected to rise in the 

tropical Atlantic (2-4°C), Pacific (1.5-3.5°C) and Indian 

(3°C) Oceans

Increases in sea surface temperature of about 1-3°C 

are projected to result in more frequent coral 

bleaching events and widespread mortality

Studies project that with a 1°C increase in sea surface 

temperatures, all coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef, 

Southeast Asia and the Caribbean could be bleached

Increased 

Frequency 

of Extreme 

Weather 

Events

•	 •

•	

• •	

Increases in category 4 and 5 tropical cyclones, 

hurricanes and typhoons during the 20th century have 

been reported

Tropical cyclone activity has increased since 1970, with 

a trend towards longer lived storms and storms of 

greater intensity

Mass mortality of mangrove species in the Caribbean 

has been attributed to the increased frequencies of 

hurricanes in the region

El Niño events have become more frequent, persistent 

and intense during the last 20 years compared to the 

previous 100

Models project a likely increase of peak wind 

intensities and increased mean and peak near-storm 

precipitation in future tropical cyclones

The population exposed to flooding by storm surges 

will increase over the 21st century, especially in South, 

Southeast and East Asia

Precipitation 

Change

• •	

•

•	

•

•	

Precipitation has increased by up to 10% in the 

Northern Hemisphere and decreased in other 

regions (e.g., North and West Africa, parts of the 

Mediterranean and the Caribbean)

The frequency and severity of drought has increased in 

some regions, such as parts of Asia and Africa

Very dry areas have more than doubled since the 

1970s

Australia incurred over US$13 billion in drought 

damage between 1982-2003

Projections for Latin America show a general year 

round drop in seasonal precipitation of up to 60% 

with the greatest effects felt in Mexico and Central 

America

Precipitation change is very likely to increase the 

frequency of flash floods and large-area floods in many 

regions

In Tarawa, Kiribati, it is projected that drought damages 

could to reach 18% of the gross domestic product by 

2050

Ocean 

Acidification

• Since 1750, an average decrease in pH of 0.1 units has 

been observed

It is projected that the pH of the world’s oceans could 

fall by up to a further 0.3 – 0.4 units by 2100, resulting 

in the lowest ocean pH levels in 20 million years

Sources: IPCC, 2007a, b; IUCN, 2007.
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

23

as scallops), and it will stunt the 

growth of calcified skeletons in many 

other marine organisms, including 

commercial fish species.

Rising sea-level coupled with 

increased sea surface temperatures 

is expected to contribute to more 

frequent and severe extreme weather 

events, such as coastal storms. These, 

in turn, will generate larger waves, 

storm surges, and increased coastal 

erosion. Annually, about 120 million 

people are exposed to tropical cyclone 

hazards alone; storms killed 250,000 

people between 1980 and 2000 

(IPCC, 2007a). 

The recent human tragedies of the 

December 2004 Indian Ocean 

tsunami, Hurricane Katrina (United States, August 

2005), Cyclone Sidr (Bangladesh, November 2007) and 

the Cyclone Nargis (Myanmar, May 2008) prove that 

coastal calamities can overwhelm resources and disaster 

responses of developed and less developed nations alike. 

Each coastal disaster provides tangible examples of the 

potential impacts that may unfold during the next 

century as a result of global warming and associated sealevel rise. As real disasters unfold around us, the need 

for global action today becomes ever more obvious and 

pressing.

Rainfall patterns are also changing and the effects 

of El Niño and La Niña episodes have worsened. 

This has resulted in increased cyclones, flooding and 

drought cycles. Runoff from more intense precipitation 

and changes in seasonal freshwater flows in many 

coastal environments can result in broad ecosystem 

changes. This includes changes in coastal erosion and 

sedimentation to which mangroves, estuaries, and coral 

reefs are particularly vulnerable. Meanwhile, nutrientrich runoff under conditions of higher sea surface 

temperature will likely promote coastal hypoxia or 

seasonal hypoxic events. Changing weather patterns 

affect the distribution and range of species and disrupt 

the natural balance of many ecosystems and this has 

potential impacts on fisheries. When bacteria, viruses, 

mosquitoes or other disease vectors change their 

geographical range as a result of global warming, 

diseases also spread. 

Figure 2.1 Vulnerability to sea level rise and storm surge 

Source: Maryland Commission on Climate Change, 

Adaptation & Response Working Group. 2008

Erosion impacts both public and private investments which 

are often built too close to the shore or do not consider 

appropriate building techniques for dynamic shorelines.

CORAL REEFS AND SEA 

SURFACE TEMPERATURE RISE

Scientists estimate the world has already lost 

30% of its coral reefs, mostly from the effects 

of overfishing, nutrient pollution, and habitat 

conversion, but coral bleaching and increasingly 

acidic seas—both associated with climate 

change—are exacerbating these effects and 

pushing many coral reefs over the edge. With 

climate change, more than 80% of the world’s 

coral reefs may die within decades.

Sources: Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007 

and Nelleman, et al., 2008
ASSESS VULNERABILITY

24

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

In short, climate change is increasing the frequency 

of natural disasters with overarching impacts on the 

health and resilience of coastal ecosystems and the 

global economy. Sea level rise; more frequent and 

severe extreme weather events; increased flooding; 

and the degradation of freshwater, fisheries and other 

coastal resources could impact hundreds of millions of 

people. The socioeconomic costs on coasts will escalate 

(IPCC, 2007a). This occurs at a time when there is an 

ever increasing human dependence on coastal resources 

and growing populations in the coastal zone. In some 

regions already stressed with overpopulation, poverty, 

internal conflict, resource overuse and the spread of 

disease, these impacts from climate change can be 

devastating.

Table 2.2 lists the many impacts of climate change 

on coastal sectors and concerns. It highlights that the 

world’s coastal regions are already under assault as a 

result of coastal development patterns and habitat loss, 

over-fishing, pollution, and other environmentallydamaging activities. Climatic changes combine with 

and amplify existing non-climate stressors to make such 

coastal communities even more vulnerable. 

Mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, seagrass beds, dune 

communities—and the rich biodiversity provided by 

these and other systems on or near shorelines— serve 

critical ecological functions that are important to human 

society in the face of climate change. For example, they 

serve as vital nurseries and habitat for fisheries, and 

provide food security and livelihoods for over one billion 

people; provide protection from storms and wave surges; 

reduce impacts from flooding; provide shoreline natural 

defenses; control erosion; provide water storage and 

groundwater recharge; retain nutrients and sediments; 

and filter pollutants. When these critical resources are 

compromised, coastal ecosystems become weakened and 

unhealthy and are less resilient to the effects of climate 

change and variability. Hence, an important element of 

any adaptation strategy is to identify and reduce those 

human-based stresses on coastal ecosystems that can be 

controlled. By doing this, we can work with nature to 

increase ecosystem resilience and thereby increase the 

ability of coasts to cope with climate change.

Table 2.2 Threats to the coastal environment

Sector Climate Change Threats Other Human Threats

Coral Reefs, 

Coastal 

Wetlands and 

Ecosystems

Loss of coral reefs from coral bleaching and ocean 

acidification

Loss or migration of coastal wetland ecosystems, 

including salt marshes and mangroves

Runoff from more intense precipitation causing 

coastal erosion, and sedimentation adversely affecting 

estuaries and coral reefs

Nutrient rich runoff under conditions of higher sea surface temperature promoting coastal hypoxia and 

marine dead zones

Change in the distribution and abundance of 

commercially valuable marine species 

Increased spread of exotic and invasive species

30 percent of the world’s coral reefs have been lost 

as a consequence of overfishing, pollution, and habitat 

destruction 

Intense coastal development and habitat loss

Pollution and marine dead zones

Conversion of mangroves and wetlands for 

mariculture

Disruption of the quantity, quality, and timing of 

freshwater inflows to estuaries

Damage to seagrass beds from sedimentation, 

recreational boating, fishing and tourism

Coral mining for construction and lime making

Oil spills from shipping

Spread of invasive species

Coastal reinforcement disrupts natural shoreline 

processes

Sand and gravel mining of riverbeds and beaches

Capture 

Fisheries

Overall decline in ocean productivity

Eutrophication and coral mortality leading to reduced 

fish catch

Loss or shifts in critical fish habitat

Temperature shifts causing migration of fishes

Extreme events, temperature increases and oxygen 

depletion reducing spawning areas in some regions

Temperature changes affecting the abundance and 

distribution of marine pathogens

Ocean acidification and increases in temperature 

damaging coral reefs

Over-harvesting

Destructive fishing practices (e.g., bottom trawling, 

dynamite fishing, beach seining)

Land-based sources of pollution (sewage, industrial 

waste, nutrient runoff, etc.)

Sedimentation of coastal systems from land-based 

sources
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

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25

Sector Climate Change Threats Other Human Threats

Mariculture

Increases in water temperature could result in 

unpredictable changes in culture productivity

Environmental changes could increase stress and 

vulnerability to pathogens and parasites in cultured 

organisms

Overall decline in ocean productivity reduces supplies 

of wild fish used for fish meal for mariculture sector

Changes in weather patterns and extreme weather 

events reduce productivity and damage operations 

(loss of infrastructure and stock)

Overexploitation of juveniles and larvae seed stock 

for fish farms

Release of chemicals, nutrients and sediment in pond 

effluents

Spreading of pathogens and disease to local 

ecosystems and neighboring culture operations

Loss of protective habitats from improper siting of 

mariculture facilities

Recreation 

and Tourism

Storms, erosion, and precipitation damaging 

infrastructure and causing losses to beaches

Compromised water quality and increasing beach 

closures

Increases in tourism insurance costs on high-risk 

coasts

Improper siting of tourist facilities

Alteration of the shoreline, coastal processes and 

habitat

Strain on freshwater resources for tourist facilities

Marine pollution and habitat disruption from 

recreational boating

Freshwater 

Resources

Saltwater intrusion of freshwater sources

Encroachment of saltwater into estuaries and coastal 

rivers

Waves and storm surges reaching further inland, 

increasing coastal inundation and flooding

Decreased precipitation, enhancing saltwater intrusion,

and exacerbating water supply problems

Discharge of untreated sewage and chemical 

contamination of coastal waters

Unregulated freshwater extraction and withdrawal of 

groundwater

Upstream dams

Enlargement and dredging of waterways

Human 

Settlements 

Coastal inundation causing relocation inland

Building and infrastructure damage from increasing 

coastal storm intensity and flood exposure

Sea level rise raising water levels during storm surge

Reduced clearance under bridges

Overtopping of coastal defense structures 

Sea level rise, erosion, and extreme weather events 

leading to degradation of natural coastal defense 

structures

Rapid increase in coastal development projected to 

impact 91% of all inhabited coasts by 2050

Inappropriate siting of infrastructure

Shoreline armoring

Habitat conversion and biodiversity loss 

Human Health

Heat stress from extremely hot periods

Injuries, illness, and loss of lives due to extreme 

weather events

Malnutrition and food shortages during extreme 

events

Increased spread of vector-borne disease (dengue 

fever and malaria), waterborne diseases (diarrhea) and

toxic algae (ciguatera)

Pollution and water contamination

Conflict

Coastal land loss leading to coastal land and resource 

scarcity or loss, and human migration

Water use conflicts due to scarcity

Population migration to urban areas as ocean 

productivity and food availability declines and fishers 

are displaced

Displacement and loss of shore access resulting from 

tourism and coastal development

Sources: IPCC, 2007a, b; IUCN, 2007

2.2 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

Assessing a coastal area’s vulnerability to the impacts of 

climate change involves understanding: 1) the climate 

projections for a given region or locale, 2) what is at 

risk (climate change exposure and sensitivity), and 3) 

the capacity of society to cope with the expected or 

actual climate changes (adaptive capacity). Combined, 

these three factors define the vulnerability of people 

in a place to climate change. Figure 2.1 illustrates this 

relationship, which is described in the subsequent four 

sub-sections.
ASSESS VULNERABILITY

26

Figure 2.2 Vulnerability framework

CLIMATE 

CHANGE

projections and 

trends

SENSITIVITY

The degree to 

which the coast 

andpeople are 

impacted

EXPOSURE

Types and amount 

of assets at risk

POTENTIAL 

IMPACT

That may occur 

without planned 

adaptation

ADAPTIVE 

CAPACITY

Ability to cope 

with actual or 

expected changes 

VULNERABILITY

Source: Adapted from Allison, 2007.

2.2.1 ASSESSING CLIMATE 

PROJECTIONS FOR A COASTAL AREA

Tailoring adaptation measures to climate change 

requires information on climate processes and impacts 

for specific coastal areas over a timeframe much longer 

than the typical 5-10 years used for planning and policy. 

When assessing vulnerability and what to do about it, 

it is reasonable to use a 100 year timeframe—since we 

know climate change impacts will grow stronger with 

time. 

Successful adaptation requires setting clear geographic 

boundaries within which to focus the assessment and 

actions. This is especially difficult in coastal areas, but 

it is important. Here, the interconnectedness of issues 

is amplified by the flows of water from rivers and 

ocean currents. A tendency is to incorporate too many 

adaptation elements. Good practices in coastal climate 

change adaptation include: 

•	

•	

•	

Match boundaries to issues of concern 

If issues are rooted in the larger watershed, the 

analysis and possibly the implementation must be 

broader, but avoid overextending the scope of the 

effort

Differentiate between boundaries for analysis and 

those for policymaking and action (the latter must 

remain focused and is narrower) and work across 

political boundaries when necessary

•	

•	

•	

Understand inshore ocean currents so that, for 

example, an analysis of biological vulnerability 

includes consideration of the dispersal patterns of 

important larvae in the assessment areas and actions

Recognize the temporal and spatial scope of 

populations—e.g., coastal populations frequently 

engage in seasonal employment as fishers, farmers, 

crew on ships; and the number of people in seaside 

resorts changes dramatically between high and low 

seasons

Recognize the inherent dynamics of the natural 

environment, such as seasonal and inter-annual 

variations in beach sand movement, and fish stock 

abundance and structure

Larger scale climate change models and projections, 

such as those of the IPCC, as well as on-line regional 

mapping tools and downscaling models (e.g., the 

SERVIR Climate Mapper http://www.iagt.org/

downloads.aspx#sv or http://www.servir.net/ and the 

PRECIS Regional Climate Modeling System http://

precis.metoffice.com/) provide a starting point to 

understand an overall context, but lack the resolution 

and specificity needed to assess the vulnerability of 

specific coastal areas. 

They can, however, provide a starting point from 

which to overlay local knowledge on past and current 

climate trends for the specific place. For example, local 

knowledge can help answer the basic question: “Has 
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

27

the frequency, magnitude, or timing of precipitation, 

extreme weather events and other climate impacts 

changed in the last several decades?” A review of historic 

records for climate variability and hazard events in a 

specific area can also help validate the projections. 

Spatial data and maps to visualize biophysical impacts 

(e.g., shoreline, storm surge, and flooding maps) also 

aid in this exercise. 

To develop climate change projections for a coastal area, 

assess available information and formulate assumptions 

to create scenarios that reflect a range of low to high 

degrees of change. Stakeholders can use these scenarios to 

assess vulnerabilities and identify issues and adaptation 

measures. Scenarios can also help move dialogue from 

a debate about exactly how the climate will change to a 

discussion among key stakeholders, experts and project 

staff on the implications of the different scenarios (high, 

medium, low change). Projections should include 

changes in temperature, precipitation, sea level rise and 

severe storm events along the coastal watershed (bays, 

estuaries, nearshore currents and rivers).

At the end of this assessment phase, there should be two 

or more projections of climate change and the potential 

impacts of each to the environment. There should also 

be a constituency of stakeholders who understand the 

context of the place relative to climate change.

At this point, it is useful to prepare an issue statement

that provides a concise and factual description of the 

climate change challenges that affect the community. 

All stakeholders should contribute to the statement to 

ensure there is shared understanding of the problem. An 

example might look like:

“Greater frequency and intensity of storms on the 

island of Antigua puts at risk the health and safety of 

the population and infrastructure. It is in the long-term 

interest of the community to take measures to increase 

storm hazard preparedness and resilience.”

•	

USE BEST AVAILABLE 

INFORMATION AND 

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

By integrating the best available knowledge 

and involving local communities, it is possible 

to take responsible action in situations 

where there are uncertainties and imperfect 

information. Following the precautionary 

approach, actions should not be impeded 

by an absence of full scientific certainty. A 

skillful adaptation approach is to look at the 

trends suggested by existing models along 

with the trends that are beginning to show 

themselves in the region in question and to 

plan accordingly. Trends will continue to change 

and emerge for generations to come—even 

should mitigation efforts greatly reduce global 

greenhouse gas emissions.

2.2.2 ASSESSING EXPOSURE 

TO CLIMATE CHANGES

Exposure is defined as the types of valued assets that 

are at risk of being impacted by changes in the climate 

system as well as by ocean acidification. These assets 

include social assets (people, health, education), 

economic assets (property, infrastructure, and income), 

and ecological assets (natural resources and ecological 

services). 

To select a course of action for adapting to climate 

change, communities need to answer several questions, 

such as: “What are the most important assets that 

are at risk?” “What is the threshold at which impacts 

will occur?” For example, in Tamboko, the Solomon 

Islands—where coastal communities are exposed to 

seasonal flooding—community-level assessments 

identified drinking water as the most valued asset 

(IFRC, 2005). 

When determining the most important assets exposed 

to climate change risks consider:

Impact to critical systems: Is a vital food (e.g., fishery), 

safety or economic asset at risk?

SPATIAL DATA

Maps and measurements of coastal areas are 

invaluable to understand how climate impacts 

will play out.

•	

•	

Shoreline	mapping—coastal	elevation,	sea	

level rise projections, erosion rates, storm 

surge inundation, land use and land cover

Socioeconomic	context—coastal	resource	

uses, demographics, development density, 

and administrative boundaries
ASSESS VULNERABILITY

•	

•	

•	

28

Attitudes towards risk: What is the community’s 

level of risk perception and tolerance—e.g., coastal 

communities with tourism may perceive eroding 

beaches as a higher risk than those without tourism.

Impacts on current government/stakeholder priorities:

Does the potential impact put a major economic 

development priority at risk? Will there be an impact 

on a social problem for which significant resources 

have already been allocated?

Level of certainty about the projected consequence of 

climate change: If there is high uncertainty about the 

likelihood of a potential risk, exposure to the risk 

may be considered a low priority.

Reversibility of changes that may occur in the absence 

of effective management response: Can the asset be 

recovered after being impacted? If not, the issue 

might be a high priority. An example is a coral reef 

ecosystem. Once the coral animals die, the reef 

structure breaks down with no easy way to regain 

the ecological goods and services of habitat, fisheries, 

tourism, and storm protection.

	•

2.2.3 ASSESSING SENSITIVITY 

TO CLIMATE CHANGE

The potential impact of climate change is determined 

by an asset’s level of exposure and its sensitivity—i.e., 

the degree of likely damage—if exposed to climate 

change. For example, 100 houses along the coast may 

be exposed to flooding. However, the 60% that are built 

on raised foundations are less sensitive to damage from 

flood waters. Table 2.3 highlights assets and factors 

that can make them sensitive to the impacts of climate 

change.

Healthy ecosystems and social groups have significant 

ability to absorb impacts. An example of this is 

Vietnam, which experiences eight to 10 major coastal 

storms annually. Tidal flooding associated with these 

storms usually leads to the breaching of sea dykes and 

economic losses to the local population. To protect 

coastal assets and improve livelihoods, the Vietnam Red 

Cross has been planting and protecting thousands of 

hectares of mangrove forests along the northeast coast 

Table 2.3 Examples of exposed coastal assets and factors of sensitivity

Groupings Coastal Assets Exposed Dimensions of Sensitivity

Social People, health, education, sanitation, historic 

and cultural assets, social capital

Material assets and savings, secure land tenure, 

community cohesiveness, the state of public 

health, sanitation conditions in the community 

Built environment Property and coastal infrastructure, ports and shipping

Siting of buildings and coastal infrastructure 

and construction methods, availability of 

insurance systems and emergency funds 

Ecological 

infrastructure

Natural resources, wildlife, coastal watersheds, 

ecological values, protected areas, unique 

ecosystems and landscape/seascape amenities

Existing condition and health of coastal ecosystems 

and natural barriers to coastal flooding, abundance 

and variety of natural resources and unique 

ecosystems, quality of coastal stewardship efforts 

Source: Adapted from Kaiser, 2006

SERVIR can integrate and downscale global information, assess 

vulnerabilities from natural hazards in real time, and evaluate 

past and future climate trends, as seen here in this example of 

a CATHALAC/USAID study of regional biodiversity and climate 

change. For more information go to www.servir.net
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

29

of Vietnam since 1994. The mangroves have reduced 

the cost of dyke maintenance by millions of dollars 

annually and reduced damages from coastal storms. 

Similarly, after the Indian Ocean Tsunami, a regional 

effort was initiated to create coastal “Green Zones” and 

protect mangrove forests as buffers. 

To assess the sensitivity of coastal assets exposed to 

climate change, it is useful to answer the following 

questions: 

•	

•	

•	

How and to what degree were social, economic and 

ecological assets affected by past climate conditions 

and coastal hazard events?

What specific characteristics make groups or systems 

sensitive?

Was everyone equally impacted? If not, what were the 

differences between various individuals and groups?

•	 What is the sensitivity of “non-exposed” assets? For 

example, agriculture activities that take place away 

from the coast may rely on a highly exposed and 

sensitive coastal road or port for export. Losing this 

transportation asset could result in a loss in the value 

of the agricultural assets.

Answers to these types of questions help in estimating 

the likelihood and degree of potential impacts to 

systems and assets. They also help in identifying specific 

characteristics that make coastal assets vulnerable/

sensitive and the thresholds at which impacts will likely 

occur. For each projection, assess what is exposed and 

its sensitivity to various degrees of climate change. You 

can then estimate the impacts by collecting data on the 

costs of the assets, number of people or infrastructure 

that will be exposed.

•	

•	

Resilience to coastal hazards and adaptive 

capacity are linked. High levels of adaptive 

capacity lead to an increased likelihood of 

being able to absorb impacts of climate 

change and rebound. The Coastal Community 

Resilience Guidebook provides benchmarks 

and a methodology for conducting resilience 

assessments in the coastal context. (USAID, 

2007)

Swimming lessons for women in Zanzibar is important 

for their new mariculture livelihood venture. This also 

builds their adaptive capacity to survive if their community 

were to be hit by a large storm surge or tsunami.

2.2.4 ASSESSING 

ADAPTIVE CAPACITY

Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of society to 

change in a way that makes it better equipped to 

manage its exposure and/or sensitivity to climatic 

influences. A community with the capacities to adapt 

is likely to be more resilient or able to recover from 

stressful events and conditions (see text box). Referring 

back to Figure 2.1, it is the first two factors, exposure 

and sensitivity, that dictate the gross vulnerability of a 

coastal community and its potential susceptibility to 

adverse impacts. The third factor, adaptive capacity, 

reflects a community’s ability to manage, and thereby 

reduce, gross vulnerability.

When you look at a community’s exposure, sensitivity, 

and adaptive capacity as a whole, the result is net 

vulnerability. Net vulnerability is the ability of a 

community to manage risk and thus minimize or 

prevent potential impacts. For example, a coastal 

region could have high gross vulnerability, but relatively 

moderate net vulnerability as a result of its high adaptive 

capacity. The reverse is also possible—i.e., a coastal area 

with low gross vulnerability may be compromised by its 

limited degree of adaptive capacity, thereby increasing 

its net vulnerability.

A broad range of factors reflect adaptive capacity: 

Political leadership and commitment

Resource availability (e.g., human, physical, 

technological, and financial)
ASSESS VULNERABILITY

•	

•	

•	

•	

30

Institutional and governance networks and 

competence

Social capital and equity

Information technologies and communication 

systems

Health of environment

There are many studies with lists of determinants 

of adaptive capacity. Most indicators are focused on 

national scale factors such as gross domestic product, 

poverty indices and demographics. These indicators are 

helpful for comparative purposes, but not very useful 

for local decision-making. On a practical level, the aim 

of assessing adaptive capacity is to answer questions 

such as:

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

How well do community members work together 

on coastal development planning and coastal 

management, including coastal hazards?

What practices are currently employed to cope with 

natural hazards? Who is responsible for developing 

and implementing such measures? How effective are 

they?

Are the public and decision-makers informed and 

engaged?

Do most people rely on the same activity for their 

livelihoods? For example, does everyone rely on 

fishing or agriculture, such that a single event could 

destroy the livelihoods of many in the community or 

country?

In an emergency, are there multiple means of 

communicating or transporting people and 

supplies? Or will damage to a single road, bridge, or 

telecommunications hub isolate a community?

How healthy are the ecosystems and how well are 

natural resources managed?

Adaptive capacity is not evenly distributed across and 

within societies. Also, wealthy countries have greater 

adaptive capacity than poorer countries (Nichols 

et al., 2007). This reality of adaptive capacity has 

been termed the “climate divide” (see text box 

to the left). In this sense, climate change is very 

much a development issue. Also within countries, 

it is the case that women and poor socioeconomic 

groups have less adaptive capacity and are the most 

vulnerable (see text box on next page).

Assessing the adaptive capacity of a place or sector 

helps in understanding why vulnerability exists in the 

first place. To reduce vulnerability, stakeholders must 

understand its root causes. These are much deeper 

societal issues than, for example, poorly constructed 

houses being located in areas of coastal erosion. Root 

causes might include poverty, insecure property rights, 

natural resource dependency, degraded resources, and 

weaknesses in institutions and political assets (Adger, 

1999). Adaptive capacity can be strengthened through 

policies that enhance social and economic equity, 

reduce poverty, improve natural resources and coastal 

management, increase public participation, generate 

useful and actionable information, and strengthen 

institutions. 

In 2004 many communities in the Indian Ocean revealed a 

weakness in adaptive capacity due to the strong dependence 

on fisheries livelihoods, which was severely impacted by the 

tsunami.

THE “CLIMATE DIVIDE”...

WHAT IS IT?

The “climate divide” is a term used to explain 

the inequities and differences in responsibility 

for, impact from, and the capacities needed 

to reduce the effects of climate change. 

These disparities influence the strategies 

people use to cope with stresses and changing 

environments. Disproportionate impacts of 

climate change will be felt by less developed 

countries and small island developing states. 

Within countries, internal disparities and 

inequities influence how coastal climate change 

impacts different socioeconomic groups.
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

31

GENDER DIMENSIONS OF VULNERABILITY TO COASTAL CLIMATE 

CHANGE

Men and women are affected differently by the impacts of climate change and climate vulnerability. Women 

tend to be poorer, more marginalized and much more likely to be afflicted by natural disasters. Worldwide, women are more vulnerable because of their social roles, inequalities in the access and control of 

resources, lower education, poorer health, and their low participation in decision-making. Climate change 

magnifies existing inequities. 

Women are not only the primary victims of climate change, but they can also be effective change agents, 

managing both mitigation and adaptation. Women have extensive knowledge and expertise that can be 

applied in assessing community risk, selecting adaptation measures and mobilizing communities to manage 

risk.

To mainstream gender into climate change adaptation, we need the following types of information:









Women’s and men’s resource use patterns, access, and responsibilities (to include a discussion on how 

might these change with climate change, and how they would adapt) 

Women’s and men’s roles in decision-making

Women’s and men’s vulnerability—the gender dimensions of different climate change impacts (e.g. 

droughts and flooding) and how they would affect women and men

Understanding how men’s and women’s roles change and may complement each other when coping 

with climate change

Gender inequalities are deeply ingrained and difficult to change, but you can overcome obstacles by:











Ensuring that participatory planning methods are inclusive and motivate, support, and encourage 

women and men to engage in the process

Understanding practical barriers to women’s participation in discussions, planning and decisionmaking, and in micro-enterprise

Ensuring that issues identified and analyzed are relevant and of interest to both men and women—

this will help both genders formulate ideas and engage in the adaptation process

Learning to recognize and handle conflict—personal attitudes and feelings about equal participation 

and gender mainstreaming will vary and some may work against it

Establishing gender focused and disaggregated monitoring

For more information see: Gender Equality and Adaptation, WEDO and IUCN (http://www.

genderandenvironment.org/admin/admin_biblioteca/documentos/Factsheet%20Adaptation.pdf)

2.3 COASTAL VULNERABILITY 

HOT SPOTS

Low-lying coastal areas, deltas and countries—many 

of which are small island developing states—and less 

developed countries are especially vulnerable to climate 

change impacts. Each has social, economic and physical 

vulnerabilities that combine to increase likely impacts 

even further. Other vulnerability hot spots include 

areas with poor and insecure land tenure, and dense or 

urbanized populations that will have to migrate with 

sea level rise.

Small size and isolation mean that SIDS are more 

vulnerable because they have scarce natural resource 

supplies (e.g., water resources, construction materials 

and physical space) and limited and high cost 

transportation options. The primary climate change 
ASSESS VULNERABILITY

32

concerns for SIDS are exposure to sea level rise and 

more intense or frequent cyclones/hurricanes. Lowlying SIDS have even fewer options for adaptation 

and are particularly vulnerable. However, even in 

SIDS there are steps you can take to help reduce 

vulnerability. Examples include relocating buildings 

and infrastructure; using different styles of housing; 

and preserving coral reefs, mangroves, and wetlands that 

offer protection by buffering against storm surges.

SIDS and less developed countries share the same 

economic challenges—high dependency on climatesensitive industries like tourism, agriculture and fisheries; 

a degraded natural resource base; rapid population 

growth; weak administration and infrastructure; and 

poor transportation and communication systems. 

These socioeconomic stressors tend to further increase 

the vulnerability of a place by compromising ecosystem 

functionality. An example of this is the case of the Cuvu 

and Tuva villages in Fiji where unsustainable fishing 

practices destroyed the coral reefs (UNFCCC, 2008). 

Some of the deltas most vulnerable to climate change 

include the heavily populated Yangtze (China), Ganges 

(Bangladesh), Mekong (Cambodia), Niger (Nigeria), 

Irrawaddy (Myanmar), Nile (Egypt) and Mississippi 

(USA). Even in the absence of a changing climate, most 

deltas are deteriorating as a result of human activities 

(e.g., extraction of groundwater and construction of 

upriver dams, levees and channels, and destruction of 

coastal vegetation). These and other such activities have 

affected the deltas’ natural flood pulses and sedimentary 

processes (Day et al., 1997). Climate change has the 

potential to amplify the further decline of deltaic 

systems through sea level rise, increased storm intensity, 

and changes in rainfall and runoff to the coast.

However, these difficulties can be overcome. In cycloneprone Mauritius, precautionary measures have proved 

remarkably successful in reducing injuries and loss 

of life. These measure include creating a network of 

shelters, public education initiatives, early warning 

systems and the mandatory closing of schools and 

businesses in the case of a storm. Similarly, the result of 

Bangladesh’s investment in warning systems, shelters, 

coastal housing standards and evacuation plans for its 

delta areas is a dramatic decline in deaths over the past 

40 years—from a high of a million people in 1970 to 

4,000 in 2007 (Revkin, 2008).

Small island developing states such as the Federated States 

of Micronesia are especially vulnerable to climate change.
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

33

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007, Working Group II Group 

“Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability”. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm

Nellemann, C., Hain, S., and Alder, J. 2008, In Dead Water: Merging of Climate Change with Pollution, Over-harvest 

and Infestations in the World’s Fishing Grounds, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 

http://www.unep.org/pdf/InDeadWater_LR.pdf 

South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) 2006, CV&A: A Guide to Community Vulnerability 

and Adaptation Assessment and Action. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme.

http://www.pacificrisa.org/cms/images/Nakalevu%202006%20CVA%20A%20Guide%20to%20

community%20vulnerability%20and%20adpatation%20assessment%20and%20action%20(3).pdf 

Tompkins, E.L. et.al 2005. Surviving Climate Change in Small Islands: A Guidebook. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research.

http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/surviving.pdf

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) 2008, Adapting to Climate 

Variability and Change: A Guidance Manual for Development Planning.

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/climate/docs/reports/cc_vamanual.pdf

USAID 2007, How Resilient is your Coastal Community? A Guide for Evaluating Coastal Community Resilience to 

Tsunamis and other Hazards. U.S. Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System Program: Bangkok, Thailand. 

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/CCRGuide_lowres.pdf

Woman’s Environment & Development Organization (WEDO) and International Union for 

Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2007, Gender Equality and Adaptation. Fact Sheet.

http://www.genderandenvironment.org/admin/admin_biblioteca/documentos/Factsheet%20Adaptation.pdf

WEBSITES

Computer-based Decision Tools

Adaptation Wizard: Risk based analysis and decision-making, UK Climate Impacts Programme.

www.ukcip.org.uk

Assessment and Design for Adaptation to Climate Change (ADAPT): A Tool to Screen for Climate Risk, World Bank. 

http://go.worldbank.org/AWJKT60300

Community-based Risk Screening Tool - Adaptation & Livelihoods (CRISTAL), International Institute for Sustainable Development. 

www.iisd.org/security/es/resilience/climate_phase2.asp 

Mapping and Modeling

Providing Regional Climates for Impact Studies (PRECIS) Regional Climate Modeling System. UK Met Office. 

http://precis.metoffice.com

SERVIR Regional Modeling and Visualization System

http://www.servir.net 

http://www.iagt.org/downloads.aspx#sv

Vulnerability Assessment Tutorial. U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

http://www.csc.noaa.gov/products/nchaz/htm/methov.htm
chapter 3

SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

34
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

35

Vulnerability assessment provides the basis for 

defining a strategic plan of action. This includes the 

selection of specific adaptation issues, management 

goals and objectives, and bundles of measures. This 

chapter offers guidance on these topics and Annex A 

provides guidance briefs for practitioners on 17 coastal 

adaptation measures. 

3.1 IDENTIFY PRIORITIES

The vulnerability assessment identifies numerous 

climate change risks and potential impacts to different 

sectors. There will likely be more climate change risks 

than can be acted upon based on resource availability 

or institutional and technical capacity. Therefore, 

adaptation to climate change must be strategic. The first 

step is to clearly identify the priority climate change 

risks upon which to focus efforts and resources. These 

priorities then determine the choice of adaptation 

measures selected. 

The information needed to set priorities comes from the 

vulnerability assessment: what assets are most sensitive

and exposed to climate change, and what are the adaptive 

capacities to address climate change impacts?

Priorities should be selected through an inclusive and 

ongoing process that involves the major stakeholder 

groups and decision-makers. It is their perspectives 

and interests that will influence the criteria used for 

judging risk and prioritizing concerns. Encouraging 

broad collaboration and cooperation in the process 

ensures the salience and public and political support 

for coastal adaptation that are necessary for effective 

implementation in the short and long-term. This was 

the conclusion of Pacific Island countries (see text box 

below). While there is no formula for determining 

the most important climate change risks for a specific 

coastal area, it is possible to draw from the experience of 

integrated coastal management best practices. 

•	

•	

•	

•	

Identify and involve governmental agencies and other 

formal institutions—such as universities and user 

groups—that have an interest in the condition and 

use of the coastal ecosystems being considered

Solicit the views of major stakeholder and other 

groups and, to the extent possible, the general public 

(e.g., through focus groups and surveys)

Identify potential leaders and the stakeholder groups 

who will be involved in the implementation of the 

adaptation measures 

Ensure the scope and complexity of the climate 

change issues selected as priorities for adaptation 

measures are appropriate to the capacity of the 

institutions involved









I

Identify priorities. Given the scope and 

multi-faceted effects of climate change, coastal 

adaptation efforts need to choose an initial 

focus on a limited set of key climate threats 

and adaptation issues that capture the interest, 

imagination and commitment of local residents 

and the government departments most directly 

involved. A limited number of climate change 

issues should be selected strategically with 

attention to the complexity of the problems, 

political realities, and available resources to 

achieve goals.

SELECT A COURSE OF ACTION

dentify priorities

Define adaptation goals and objectives

Assess adaptation measures

Select measure or bundle of measures

LESSON FROM THE 

“CAPACITY BUILDING FOR 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF 

ADAPTATION MEASURES IN 

PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES 

PROJECT”

“Implementation of climate change adaptation 

should utilize an open, transparent and 

highly-participatory process that engages the 

community in the exploration of options to 

reduce vulnerability and effectively balances 

the needs and interests of a variety of 

stakeholders.”

Source: Taito Nakalevu, workshop presentation, 

18 and 19 April 2006 in Pohnpei, FSM.
SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

36

3.2 DEFINE ADAPTATION 

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The goal for addressing a climate change issue should 

state the desired changes in or the quality of ecological, 

economic and social conditions you hope to achieve. 

Ensure the goal reflects the principles that guide 

resolution of the issue. For instance, the goal to maintain 

a natural and functioning shoreline may be highly 

appropriate for a majority of coastal settings where a 

natural, functioning shoreline represents the most costeffective and best option to simultaneously meet several 

objectives. Conversely, this goal eliminates adaptation 

measures that involve hard engineering practices such 

as seawalls and groins. Table 3.1 lists some of the major 

categories of management goals common to adaptation 

programs in coastal areas. 

Goals identify the desired endpoint you want to reach. 

Objectives provide the specific achievements that must 

be met in order to reach the goals. The most successful 

long-term coastal management programs teach us the 

importance of setting objectives that are unambiguous 

and time-bounded for each issue the program chooses 

to address. Such objectives are best when they specify 

in quantitative terms what will be achieved by a specified 

date.

KEY TERMS THAT DEFINE A 

HIERARCHY OF OBJECTIVES

Goal: A general statement of the desired 

long-term outcome or impact of the coastal 

management project. A goal statement does 

not imply that the project, by itself, will be 

sufficient to attain this goal. Rather, coastal 

management may contribute to reaching goals 

such as sustainable forms of development, 

the improved adaptation capacity to climate 

change, or improved quality of life, in coastal 

communities.

Objectives: Specific statements of the desired 

accomplishments or outcomes of a project. 

Project objectives are quantifiable and timelimited. Achievement of all project objectives 

should lead to the fulfillment of its stated 

purpose or goal.
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

37

Illustrative Goals and Objectives for Coastal Adaptation to Climate Change

1. Functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

The natural shoreline is ecologically sound and functioning as a dynamic system. Strengthened natural defenses 

protect people and nature from future hazards. Sand dunes, sea grass, mangroves and beaches are physical buffers.



•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

Mangrove forest area is expanded by 30% within 5 years in any given coastal 

lagoon through community-based replanting efforts

Extraction	and	use	of	natural	resources	do	not	compromise	the	sustainability	of	vital	coastal	ecosystems.

Reducing or eliminating non-climate stresses and unfavorable trends helps achieve functional ecosystems 

that are more resilient to climate change and variability. Resilient, healthy systems can better withstand 

all types of perturbations than can systems that are unbalanced or at the edge of their survival.

 Illegal sand and gravel mining in coastal riverbeds and beaches is stopped in one year’s time

Marine	fisheries	are	healthy	and	resilient	to	climate	change.	Reducing	overfishing	and	destructive	fishing	will reduce 

or eliminate non-climate stresses and non-climate trends helps strengthen fish populations and restore fish habitat.

 Use of destructive small-mesh nets is eliminated in a given marine protected area within 2 years

Coastal	and	marine	ecosystems	are	functioning	and	healthy. Functional ecosystems provide goods and services that 

are important to human society in the face of climate change (storm protection, flood mitigation, shoreline stabilization, 

erosion control, water storage, groundwater recharge, and retention of nutrients, sediments and pollutants).

 Mangrove replanting increases mangrove habitat by 30% in a given coastal district in 2 years

Key	climatic	refugia	that	will	likely	experience	less	change	are	reserved	to	“bank”	ecosystem	services	

for future climate changes. Identifying locations that are more stable during periods of global climate 

change can be useful for conservation. In the marine environment, for example, these sites may have strong 

currents, upwelling or other oceanographic features that make them less prone to thermal fluxes.

 Coral reef areas that are more resilient to climate changes are identified within 1 year and management 

plans are completed within 2 years to protect climate change resilient reef systems

Freshwater	supplies	and	access	to	freshwater	for	human	uses	continue	to	be	available.	Proactive 

adaptation measures can reduce or avoid the undesirable impacts of climate change on access to freshwater 

supplies for meeting both growing human demand and environmental flow requirements.

 Water User Associations in three Districts prepare water management plans and approve the plans within 2 years

2. The built environment is less exposed and less vulnerable to damages from natural hazards. Reduce 

human injury, loss of life, and damage and loss to public and private infrastructure with measures that 

protect, accommodate or avoid the impacts of climate change on the built environment.

 A District management plan in a given District that defines coastal development setback rules 

is completed and formally adopted by local government in a two year timeframe

3. Livelihood opportunities are maintained or strengthened in the face of climate change impacts.

 Community savings and loan mechanisms are established in three coastal districts within 15 months to 

increase community resilience and opportunities for fishing households to diversify their livelihoods

4. Impacts of climate change to human health and safety are minimized. Disaster risk management 

and preparedness reduce the risks to human health and safety from natural hazards.

 Flood hazard maps for all coastal provinces are completed in 1 year and at the same 

time pilot disaster risk management plans completed in 5 communities

5. Governance, policy and planning capacities for planned adaptation are strengthened. Vigilance, planning, and continually 

renewed political commitment improve adaptive capacity and reduce society’s vulnerability to climate change impacts. 

 National Adaptation Plan of Action prepared by national working group within 12 

months and recommended implementation actions initiated within 2 years

Table 3.1 Examples of adaptation goals for coastal climate change
SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

38

Orders of Outcome framework helps to sort 

adaptation outcome goals and think strategically 

over the long term (see Figure 3.1). The First Order 

is achieved by assembling key enabling conditions 

for coastal adaptation including clear goals, engaged 

constituencies, formal commitment, and adequate 

institutional capacity. The third goal listed in Table 3.1 

above (governance, policy, and planning capacities) 

is a First Order outcome. The Second Order marks 

changes in the behavior of institutions and relevant user 

groups. Change in coastal construction practices is a 

Second Order outcome. The Third Order marks the 

achievement of the specific societal and environmental 

quality goals such as healthy coastal ecosystems, 

improved human safety, sustainable fisheries, and food 

security. The Fourth Order adds the dimension of 

balance and asks whether the conditions achieved are 

sufficient to sustain a healthy, just, and equitable human 

society that is sustaining the qualities of the ecosystem 

of which it is a part.

Figure 3.1 Ordering coastal adaptation outcomes

Goals

Constituencies

Commitment

Capacity

Source: Adapted from Oslen et al. 1998

3.3 ADAPTATION MEASURES

In general, there are two types of adaptation—

“reactive” and “planned.” Reactive adaptations are 

the changes in policy and behavior that people and 

organizations adopt after changes in climate and 

coastal risks are observed. For example, as the spatial 

and temporal distribution of fish stocks change with 

ocean warming, fishers will automatically change fishing 

practices. As property losses from coastal storms and 

sea-level rise increase, insurance companies will increase 

insurance rates, creating a disincentive to locate in 

hazard zones.

Planned Adaptation is the result of deliberate 

policy decisions on the part of pubic agencies 

vs. autonomous adaptations by private actors 

triggered by market or welfare changes
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

39

This Guidebook focuses on “planned adaptation.” 

Planned adaptation is intentional, proactive, and occurs 

at the societal level. It is strategic and aims to address 

the full range of coastal climate change hazards in ways 

that meet societal objectives. 

Seventeen practitioner briefs on coastal adaptation 

measures and strategies were developed with the 

assistance of coastal practitioners and are included in 

this Guidebook. The 17 briefs were chosen by coastal 

practitioners from an initial list of 50 adaptation 

measures. The term “measure” is used broadly and 

includes specific actions (e.g., a development setback) 

and management approaches (e.g., special area 

management planning) to address climate change 

adaptation. Table 3.2 lists these 17 measures and their 

relationship to the adaptation goals presented above, 

while Table 3.3 provides definitions. Annex A contains 

technical briefs on each measure, including infor

on:

mation 

•	

•	

•	

Relevance to climate change

purpose/application

Information and data requirements 

•	

•	

•	

Design considerations for developing the measure 

Improving the likelihood of success in applying the 

measure as a climate change adaptation

Sources for more information

Many of these adaptation measures are not “new” to 

those involved in managing coastal systems. They 

include strategies and actions familiar to coastal 

practitioners as part of responding to episodes of 

natural hazards and shocks. They are also familiar as 

part of everyday efforts to implement sustainable 

USAID's Global Conservation Program is 

supporting the development and application of 

nature-based adaptation strategies to climate 

change in four large marine ecoregions—the 

Meso-American Reef in Central America, 

Wakatobi National Park and Raja Ampat 

in Indonesia, and Kimbe Bay in Papua New 

Guinea. Nature-based adaptation strategies 

can help people and communities deal with 

climate change impacts by protecting natural 

systems and the benefits they provide—

shoreline protection, erosion control, as well as 

food from fisheries, jobs, and income. Solutions 

to address climate change impacts to the 

marine ecosystems rely on marine protected 

networks specifically designed for resilience 

(i.e. the ability to resist shock or recover 

quickly from stress) to climate change. Building 

resilience in coastal and marine ecosystems 

depends upon: (1) Spreading risk to manage for 

uncertainty by protecting replicates of critical 

habitats (i.e. mangrove forests) over a large 

geographic range; (2) Identifying and securing 

sources of "seed" or marine larvae which are 

critical for maintaining and restoring healthy 

populations; (3) Maintaining connectivity 

between habitats by creating refugia from other 

stresses, such as overfishing; and (4) Managing 

resources effectively by controlling other 

threats and pressures (i.e. sedimentation from 

land-based sources).

For more information: "Scientific Design of a 

Resilient Network of Marine Protected Areas: 

Kimbe Bay, West New Britain, Papua New 

Guinea." Source: http://conserveonline.org/

workspaces/pacific.island.countries.publications

Adaptation measures are summarized as 

practitioner briefs in Annex A. 
SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

40

development—including sound environmental 

management, planned development, wise resource use, 

and poverty reduction. Adopting these measures with a 

climate lens provides an opportunity to be strategic in 

the face of future changes. 

There are also new approaches and tools being 

developed, such as nature-based approaches to coastal 

adaptation (see text box). Nature-based approaches 

include new tools for managing seascapes and 

approaches to conserve biodiversity in the face of 

shifting geographies. They focus on helping people 

and communities deal with climate change impacts by 

protecting mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, seagrass 

beds, dune communities, and other systems on or near 

shorelines and the benefits they provide. As noted earlier 

in section 2.1, these benefits include protection from 

storms; mitigating floods; controlling erosion; providing 

water storage and groundwater recharge; and retaining 

and assimilating nutrients, sediments, and pollutants. 

In addition to these benefits, functional ecosystems 

are critical to maintaining biodiversity and to fishers 

and other resource users whose livelihoods rely on the 

condition of natural systems. These approaches provide 

a departure for the next generation of adaptation 

briefs, with subsequent versions of this Guidebook and 

associated tools. 

Using a single, stand-alone measure is usually not 

the best approach. To respond effectively to a wide 

array of climate change impacts requires combining 

complementary measures. In selecting the best 

combination, it helps to look for measures that 

have interdependencies, contribute to good coastal 

management, and bring additional benefits in terms 

of climate change adaptation. For example, if the 

management goal is to maintain and restore coastal 

wetlands, a variety of adaptation measures can apply: 

coastal development setbacks, coastal zoning, protected 

area management, integrated coastal management, 

and actions to protect living shorelines. Table 3.2 lists 

other measures often undertaken as part of a suite of 

complementary adaptation actions for a particular 

climate change issue or adaptation goal.
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

41

Adaptation 

Measures Description Relevance to Climate Change

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Coastal wetland Provides nursery habitats for fisheries, ecosystems services for communities and their 

protection and livelihoods; serves as a natural water filter, buffer against coastal ecosystems. Climate change 

restoration mitigation and adaptation measure.

Acts as buffer against extreme weather events, storm 

surge, erosion, and floods; limits salt water intrusion.

Formal or informal agreements between parties to exchange benefits, take or refrain from Marine conservation certain actions, transfer certain rights and responsibilities in order to restore and protect fragile agreements coastal and marine ecosystems. Improves the resilience of coastal ecosystems to climate 

change and improves the economic and social conditions 

of coastal communities.

Intertidal or subtidal terrain areas, their waters, flora, fauna, and cultural and historical features, Marine protected of which part or all is protected. An overarching management approach or strategy that can be areas used to bundle a series of measures. Maintains healthy and resilient coastal habitats and 

fisheries productivity; acts as “refugia” and critical sources 

of new larval recruits. 

Payment for Financial instruments under which beneficiaries of ecosystem services compensate the suppliers Provides incentives to protect critical habitats that defend 

environmental as a means to fund sustainable environmental management policies and actions. No-regrets against damages from flooding and storm surges as well 

services option. as coastal erosion.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Beach and dune 

nourishment

Process of adding sand to enlarge and enhance coastal beach and dune features as well as, 

in many cases, planting grasses and native vegetation. Level and rate of nourishment can be 

adjusted to adapt to rising sea levels.

Protects shores and restores beaches; serves as a “soft” 

buffer against flooding, erosion, scour and water damage.

By incorporating climate considerations (e.g. effects of 

Delineate the minimum technical and safety requirements for the design and construction of flooding, waves and wind) in building design, it reduces 

Building standards residential and commercial structures as a means to promote occupant health, welfare and damages and human safety risks from climate change 

safety. Can be prescriptive or objective-oriented. impacts, including extreme events, sea level rise, and 

flooding.

Coastal 

development 

setbacks

Set distance from a coastal feature within which all or specific types of development are 

prohibited; often includes a buffer. Useful within an overarching coastal management program.

Reduces the infrastructure losses and human safety risks 

of sea level rise, storm surge, and erosion.

Living shorelines

Management practice involving strategic placement of plants, stones, sand fill and other materials 

to achieve the dual goal of long-term protection/restoration/enhancement of shoreline habitats 

and the maintenance of natural processes.

Mitigates erosion and protects people and ecosystems 

from climate change impacts and variability in low to 

medium energy areas along sheltered coastlines (e.g. 

estuarine and lagoon ecosystems). 

Structural shoreline 

stabilization

Shoreline hardening or armoring; ranges from technically complex structures to the placement 

of construction debris serving as, for instance, bulkheads, revetments and seawalls. Not a longterm strategy, but option of last response.

Temporary buffer against the impacts of erosion and 

flooding caused by factors such as sea level rise, storm 

surge, and wave attacks. 

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Fisheries sector 

good practices

Adapting fisheries management and strengthening capacity to deal with long-term climaterelated effects on relevant habitats and ecosystems. Can apply to production, infrastructure, 

operations and/or ecosystem protection. 

Contributes to the protection of rural livelihoods, food 

security and marine biodiversity against the impacts of 

extreme climate events, precipitation change, ocean 

acidification, sea level rise and sea surface warming.

Mariculture best 

management 

practices

Largely self-enforced measures to better efficiency and cost in the mariculture sector in order 

to increase the derived benefits and promote development. 

Integration of climate change considerations helps 

safeguard against extreme climate events, precipitation 

change, ocean acidification, sea level rise and sea surface 

warming.

Tourism best 

management 

practices

Actions that enable the tourism sector to improve services and business while minimizing 

the adverse effects on the environment and local communities. Can serve as climate change 

mitigation and adaptation measure.

Integration of climate change concerns helps promote the 

sector’s sustainability as well as safeguard against extreme 

climate events, precipitation change, sea level rise and sea 

surface warming.

HUMAN SAFETY AND SAFETY ENHANCED AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Communitybased disaster risk 

reduction

An overarching management approach or strategy consisting of structural and non-structural 

measures that prevent, mitigate and/or help prepare for the effects of natural hazards. Can be 

used to bundle a series of measures.

By proactive planning and capacity building that addresses 

the specific needs of local communities, increases their 

resilience and ability to respond to the effects of extreme 

climate events and flooding. 

Flood hazard 

mapping

Conducted in areas adjacent to water bodies to ensure land owners, insurers and regulators 

have relevant information on flooding risks. 

Informs coastal planning processes and policy, reducing 

the impact of flooding resulting from storm events, heavy 

rains, storm surges, and extreme tides.

OVERARCHING PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Integrated water resources management (IWRM) in the coastal context, which takes into Coastal watershed consideration watershed and estuary management. An overarching approach or strategy that management can be used to bundle a series of measures.

Preserves estuaries, which act as storm buffers and 

protect against coastal groundwater salinization.

An overarching management approach or strategy involving planning and decision-making Integrated coastal geared to improve economic opportunities and environmental conditions for coastal people. management Can be used to bundle a series of measures.

Provides a comprehensive process that defines goals, 

priorities, and actions to address coastal issues, including 

the effects of climate change.

Improves the management of discreet geographic areas 

Special area An overarching management approach or strategy for a geographic area of critical concern, where there are complex coastal management issues 

management usually within the context of a coastal resources management program. Can be used to bundle and conflicts, including issues related to extreme climate 

planning a series of measures. events, precipitation change, ocean acidification, sea level 

rise and temperature change.

Table 3.2 Adaptation measures, goals, and climate change impacts. Annex A 

contains technical briefs on each Adaptation Measure listed below. 
SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

42

3.4 SELECTING MEASURES

In selecting measures, it is important to acknowledge 

differences among countries. What is the pre-existing 

degree of awareness and salience of climate change 

impacts? What is the locus of decision-making power? 

What is the capacity to address coastal issues? What is 

the country’s “readiness” to tackle accelerated climate 

change? How are present and future environmental 

goods and services maintained?

Different country contexts drive the need to tailor 

adaptation measures to local conditions (see text box). 

Adaptation measures need to be commensurate with the 

realities of time, funding, personnel, and institutional 

capacity. Capacity to respond to climate change issues 

will grow with time, experience, and the positive 

reinforcement that comes with success. Early successes 

of adaptation may begin with establishing setbacks 

and buffer areas, for example, in undeveloped areas or 

areas proposed for future development that are exposed 

to flooding and erosion. More complex adaptation 

measures might include those that involve infrastructure 

development and maintenance. 

Population density and infrastructure are other key 

considerations in selecting measures. For example, in 

developed areas facing potential increases in erosion, 

sea level rise, or flooding, the favored adaptation option 

would be structural shore protection (to stabilize the 

shoreline) vs. retreat. In underdeveloped areas, the 

opposite would be likely—i.e., a strategy of retreat 

would be favored. Retreat refers to a series of measures 

that would remove the population and development by 

“retreating” landward—i.e., away from the potential 

risk.

Coastal managers, stakeholders and decision-makers can 

use a range of criteria in deciding the best adaptation 

option within a given local context. Criteria include:

•	

•	

Technical effectiveness: How effective will the 

adaptation option be in solving problems arising 

from climate change, (i.e. might some measures be 

more beneficial than others)?

Costs: What is the cost to implement the adaptation 

option and what are the benefits? Is one approach 

both cheaper and more effective? Is the measure a 

“no-regrets” measure—i.e., would it be worthwhile 

regardless of climate change (e.g., protecting/restoring 

coastal ecosystems that are already vulnerable or of 

urgent concern for other reasons)?

Benefits: What are the direct climate change-related 

benefits? Does taking action avoid damages to human 

health, property, or livelihoods? Or, does it reduce 

insurance premiums? Are there any greenhouse gas 

reduction advantages that could be valued according 

to the market price for carbon credits? Other benefits 

include increased ecosystem goods and services and 

positive contributions to economic value chains.

Implementation considerations: How easy is it 

to design and implement the option in terms of 

level of skill required, information needed, scale of 

implementation, and other barriers?

•	

•	

Some measures require sophisticated information 

and specialists that are not available

Flexible, adaptive approaches require more 

knowledge and judgment than a simpler, rulebased policy

A standardized setback for a shoreline area is 

simple compared to a detailed scientific study 

of oceanographic, geological or other landscapescale parameters

Working with a resort developer in a particular 

case to make adjustments may be easier than 

creating a broad-reaching policy that deals with 

all business owners in a tourism district who 

unwittingly made investments and physical 

alterations to the shore that expose them to 

hazards and climate change

Tailor to local conditions . Countries 

or coastal areas may share the same 

climate change issues. Yet, each has different 

circumstances—climate, natural resources, 

infrastructure, technological state, economy, 

governance, etc.—so the responses to those 

climate change issues may vary. Coastal 

adaptations must be “tailored” to the local 

context through an inclusive process that 

matches the climate change issues with the 

technical capabilities and the capacity of the 

institutions and community stakeholders of the 

place.

The Climate Ready Estuaries Program of the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency has initiated a review 

of on-the-ground adaptation strategies available to 

coastal managers, with a focus on the eight management 
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

43

goals critical to the National Estuary Program. 

Looking at the management goals (both primary and 

synergistic), together with the climate stressors, benefits, 

and constraints helps managers identify measures and 

bundles of measures that may be implemented to 

mainstream adaptation (see Figure 3.2). 

Most adaptation measures can help in achieving 

multiple objectives and benefits. “No regrets” measures 

should be the priority. For example, wetlands protection 

and living shoreline strategies would be beneficial even 

in the absence of climate change. Living shorelines 

protect from erosion and at the same time can enhance 

vegetated shoreline habitats today and in the future 

as wetlands migrate landward (see Figure 3.3). This, 

in turn, can benefit natural resources-dependent 

livelihoods and increase community resilience. Compare 

this to the option of constructing a seawall—a strategy 

that also could protect against erosion in a specific 

location, but at the same time cause problems in the 

future (e.g., erosion of adjacent shoreline or preventing 

wetland migration), and bring little benefit to the larger 

community and natural ecosystem. Measures that 

provide few benefits other than protection require a 

high degree of certainty about the impact from climate 

change at a particular site.

As a procedure, conduct basic screening of adaptation 

measures on an individual basis. For options that 

are substitutes (beach nourishment vs. shoreline 

stabilization), select the best option to include in 

the overall adaptation strategy. Consider synergistic 

impacts. Some measures will yield better results when 

combined with others (e.g., combining construction 

setbacks together with building codes). Take into 

account budget constraints and try to consider all 

implementation costs as part of the package. Finally, 

be realistic about current organizational capacity to 

simultaneously manage multiple adaptation options.

When selecting measures, also consider how the 

measure may affect greenhouse gas emissions. Many 

measures can be designed in a way that reduces the 

production of greenhouse gases or removes the gases 

from the atmosphere (sequestration). For example, 

although wetlands cover 6% of Earth’s land surface, 

they store 10-20% of its terrestrial carbon. Preserving 

or restoring wetlands helps protect the shoreline and 

the community from climate risks and also mitigates 

greenhouse gas concentrations. Similarly, building 

standards for the coast can serve as both an adaptation 

measure, and be designed to reduce energy use and 

greenhouse gas emissions.

Local stakeholders along with the socioeconomic and 

institutional context of the place will determine the 

relative importance of various criteria in selecting the 

most appropriate adaptation measures. The dynamics 

and processes for the coastline in question will also 

influence these criteria. As well, it is essential to match 

measures to the resources, the technical capabilities, 

and the capacity of the institutions and community 

stakeholders.

Cambodia’s Tonle Sap has adapted to changes in 

water levels, where the lake can rise up to 10 meters. 

This floating school moves with the community as 

it migrates during these seasonal changes.

No-regrets . Many coastal adaptations yield 

benefits independent of climate change. These 

measures address current vulnerabilities and 

focus on increasing the ability of ecosystems 

and communities to cope with current 

environmental pressures and climate variability. 

They provide a benefit now, a benefit in 

the future, and potentially provide a benefit 

whether or not the projected climate changes 

become reality. These options are more likely to 

gain political support given that some climate 

impacts will only be felt over the medium term.
SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

44

Figure 3.2 Adaptation options related to the goals of the U.S. National Estuary Program.

Additional Adaptation Climate Stressor Management Benefits Constraints Examples Option Addressed Goals Addressed

May help protect Not politically 

Retreat from and estuaries, allowing favored due to Maintain/restore abandonment of Sea level rise them to return the high value of wetlansd coastal barriers to their natural coastal property 

habitats and infrastructure

San Francisco Costly; uncertainty Estuary Project Purchase upland Changes in Maintain/restore about sea level rise Protects habitats (planned); development rights percipitation; wetland; Maintain means uncertainty downstream Massachusetts or property rights Sea level rise water quality in the amount of Climate property purchased Protection Plan

Land use San Francisco Bay plans rarely Expand the Could inhibit risky Conversation and incorporate hard planning horizons of Changes in development Development Preserve coastal prohibitions against land use planning to precipitation; and provide Commission land/development development close incorporate longer Sea level rise protection for (SFBCDC) to sensitive habitats climate predictions estuarine habitats has proposed and have limited recommendations durability over time

In evaluating each management goal within their program, managers identify an initial set of measures from 

which they can develop adaptation strategies to meet their management goals. Source: USEPA, 2008

Figure 3.3 Protecting wetland migration corridors will aid in sea level rise adaptation and provide 

mitigation to greenhouse gases.

Source: Maryland Commission on Climate Change, Adaptation & Response Working Group. 2008
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

45

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Note: Sources for more information are also listed in each of the 17 adaptation technical briefs in Annex A

Australian Government 2005, Climate Change Risk and Vulnerability: Promoting an Efficient Adaptation Response in Australia, 

Chapter 5 Adaptation: Private perspectives and policy priorities, Department of Environment and Heritage: Australia.

http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/publications/pubs/risk-vulnerability.pdf

Center for Science in the Earth System 2007, Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local, 

Regional and State Governments, University of Washington and King County: Washington.

http://www.cses.washington.edu/cig/fpt/guidebook.shtml

Heinz Center 2007, A Survey of Climate Change Adaptation Planning, The Heinz Center 

for Science, Economics and the Environment: Washington, D.C.

http://www.heinzctr.org/publications/PDF/Adaptation_Report_October_10_2007.pdf 

New Zealand Climate Change Office 2008, Coastal Hazards and Climate Change: A Guidance Manual for Local 

Government in New Zealand, 2nd Edition, Ministry for the Environment: Wellington, New Zealand. 

http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/climate/coastal-hazards-climate-change-guidancemanual/coastal-hazards-climate-change-guidance-manual.pdf

Olsen, S.B 2006, Ecosystem-based Management: Markers for Assessing Progress, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) & 

Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities: The Hague, Netherlands. 

http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/ecosystem-based_management_english.pdf

Sea Grant 2007, The Resilient Coast: Policy Frameworks for Adapting the Built Environment to Climate 

Change and Growth in Coastal Areas of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico, Texas Sea Grant. 

http://www.urban-nature.org/publications/publications.htm

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2008, Climate Ready 

Estuaries, Climate Ready Estuaries Program, Office of Water. 

http://www.epa.gov/cre

USEPA 2008, Preliminary Review of Adaptation Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems 

and Resources, U.S. Climate Change Science Program: Washington D.C.

http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap4-4/final-report/

WEBSITES 

International Union for Conservation of Nature, Climate Change and Marine Ecosystems

http://www.iucn.org/about/work/initiatives/climate_news/_/climate_change_and_marine_ecosystems/index.cfm

New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, Climate Change Publications: Local Government Reports. 

http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/climate/#local

San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, Preparing for Sea 

Level Rise in the San Francisco Bay Area – A Local Government Forum.

http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/planning/climate_change/2008-04-16_forum.shtml

USEPA National Estuary Program, Climate Ready Estuaries and Adaptation Options Relevant to Estuarine Management Goals

http://www.epa.gov/cre/index.html

http://www.epa.gov/cre/adaptationoptions.html 
chapter 4

MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

46
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

47

Mainstreaming is what gives adaptation the funding 

and authority to take place. Once adaptation needs 

and measures are defined, a mainstreaming process 

is required for formal approval, funding, and 

implementation of the measures. In most cases, it is 

best if you develop the mainstreaming mechanisms in 

parallel with conducting your vulnerability assessment 

and planning. This chapter describes the meaning of 

mainstreaming, and highlights three mainstreaming 

entry points. These are: 1) national or regional level 

public policy, 2) sectoral investments and projects, and 

3) sub-national, place-based initiatives. Good practices 

for overcoming mainstreaming obstacles are also listed. 

MAINSTREAMING











What is mainstreaming?

National and regional entry points

Sectoral investments and projects

Coastal places

Overcoming barriers and obstacles in 

mainstreaming

“Climate change policies cannot be the frosting 

on the cake of development; they must be 

baked into the recipe of growth and social 

development.”

Robert Zoellick, President, the World Bank Group

4.1 WHAT IS MAINSTREAMING?

It is important to recognize that climate change 

adaptation presents a fundamental challenge to 

managing the coastal resources and should be 

“mainstreamed” into coastal management and 

development at all levels. Mainstreaming means 

integrating climate concerns and adaptation responses 

into relevant policies, plans, programs, and projects 

at the national, sub-national, and local scales. At the 

national level, climate change adaptation strategies 

will be more effective if they are mainstreamed into 

development and sectoral plans and strategies, and 

“owned” by those authorities responsible for preparing 

and implementing them. The long-term goal is to 

have climate change adaptation integrated into public 

policy across many sectors, woven into organizational 

missions, and routinely considered in decisions about 

development.

Mainstreaming does NOT mean allowing the climate 

change adaptation issue to get lost amongst many 

other competing priorities. Rather, it means advocating 

strongly for climate change adaptation and for bundles 

of adaptation measures to address priority issues within 

the scope of development goals.

Mainstreaming recognizes that adaptation measures are 

seldom undertaken solely in response to climate change 

(IPCC, 2007b). Given the scale of the problem, and 

the linkages between climate change and development, 

coastal adaptation will happen as an overlay to other 

ongoing initiatives and governance frameworks. 

Existing institutions should be in the forefront of 

designing and implementing adaptation measures. 

This could include those responsible for managing 

water supplies, protecting public health, responding to 

natural disasters, protecting coastal areas and conserving 

and managing marine ecosystems.

As noted earlier, coastal countries or regions use 

many different entry points to incorporate climate 

change measures appropriately. Each entry point 

offers challenges; creates new roles for citizens, the 

private sector and government; and can open up new 

opportunities. 

Constructing water tanks for schools in Tanzania’s Wawi 

Watershed is critical to address current climate issues and 

to improve for health and sanitation of the community.
MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

48

Successful mainstreaming requires reinforcing linkages 

among the many possible adaptation entry points. 

Government, together with non-government partners, 

must play a pivotal role in fostering the connections 

across national, sectoral, and place entry points. 

Examples include: 

Creating enabling policy, finance and legal frameworks.

This includes, for example, prioritizing adaptation 

in national planning and budgeting; harmonizing 

sectoral policies; creating national coordination 

committees, chaired by a ministry with power; 

and providing the financial and technical support 

necessary for adaptation measures to succeed. 

Capturing local experience. Coastal adaptation in a 

specific place or area builds practical experience and 

a sense of ownership for those living and working 

there. This experience can be shared amongst 

different actors at the national level to build capacity. 

Linkages between local communities and government 

strengthen community voice in planning and 

national policy-making for coastal adaptation to 

climate change.

Public awareness. Awareness raising and education 

campaigns help convey information about the 

impacts of climate change and gain consensus on 

adaptation options. Governments need to engage 

more actively with the scientific community and 

provide easily accessible and up-to-date climate 

change information relevant to the needs of coastal 

sectors. 

National, sectoral, and place-based entry points share 

an important set of relationships as illustrated in Figure 

4.1. No sectoral project can ignore the specifics—the 

local stakeholders, physical attributes and resources, 

and governance setting—of the place where it will be 

implemented. Likewise, a place-based approach needs 

to take into account the types of development trends 

occurring or being proposed by sectoral interests. 

Projects that are already or soon-to-be underway 

represent recognized priorities or issues for the area. 

They provide evidence of what is salient to leaders and 

citizens of the place. There are also complementary links 

between sectoral and place-specific entry points and the 

national entry point. For example, national policies, 

budgets and legislation provide the enabling conditions 

necessary for place-based and sectoral adaptation actions 

to occur. At the same time, it is experience in sectoral 

development and local adaptation initiatives that builds 

awareness and experience at the national level.

•	

•	

•	

ENTRY POINTS

Entry Point I: National / regional settings, e.g.:

National Adaptation Programme of Action

National coastal management programs

Hazard mitigation or disaster preparedness

Poverty reduction strategies

National budgeting processes

Entry Point II: Sectoral investments and 

projects, e.g.: 

Tourism development in specific sites

Mariculture

Fisheries

Freshwater supply

Entry Point III: Coastal places, e.g.:

Municipalities, districts, provinces

Ecosystems (estuaries, rivers)

Coastal watersheds

Marine protected areas
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

49

4.2 NATIONAL AND 

REGIONAL ENTRY POINTS

Until recently, national agencies and the development 

community seldom considered the threats posed 

by climate change to lives and livelihoods during 

development planning. That is changing slowly as 

climate change adaptation rapidly gains importance on 

national and international agendas. National climate 

change adaptation strategies need to be mainstreamed 

into other development initiatives such as poverty 

reduction strategies, country strategies and sector 

plans. The advantages of mainstreaming are twofold. By mainstreaming climate change adaptation 

into development initiatives, there is ready access to 

the pool of resources already budgeted/identified for 

those initiatives. This eliminates the need to generate a 

separate resource pool for a stand-alone climate change 

adaptation effort. In parallel, by mainstreaming climate 

change adaptation into development investments, those 

investments are made more resilient. More resilient 

investments, in turn, serve the community more 

effectively, and maximize benefits and returns. It is also 

advantageous to integrate and mainstream adaptation 

to climate change into broader coastal management 

and disaster risk reduction programs, which often exist 

within the administrative framework of a country. 

While there are many possible entry points at the 

national level, it is essential to have a strong agency 

with the authority and capacity as the champion of 

your adaptation initiative. This helps ensure effective 

coordination with and avoids redundancy and/or 

inefficiencies amongst the various agencies involved. It 

also helps ensure coastal climate change adaptation finds 

a place in the national budget. In some cases the most 

effective approach is to create a national coordination 

committee, chaired by a government department with 

authority, such as a country’s planning or finance 

department. 

Figure 4.1 How entry points reinforce each other and contribute to a more integrated strategy

Entry Point Entry Point

II III

Entry Point

I

Sectoral

Projects

Places

climate change

awareness & sector

needs

policies to guide

sectors

National

&

Regional

practical policy experience framework,

mandate,

funding to

assist

adaptation in

places

projects in

sectors drive

issues

local needs (social,

economic,

environmental context)
MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

50

NATIONAL MAINSTREAMING EXAMPLES

Small island developing states in the Pacific and Caribbean have been among the first to work on 

adaptation. As a regional response to the Global Conference on Small Island Developing States in 1994, 

the Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change project was established in 1997.One of their 

five pilot projects lead to the establishment of a National Climate Change Committee in St. Lucia that 

has advanced national level awareness, provided the information and built the capacity to address climate 

change. 

The Pacific island of Kiribati successfully integrated adaptation into national development strategies from 

within the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and later from the Office of the President. This shows 

the effectiveness of coordination on adaptation from within an important ministry.

Bangladesh has produced a National Adaptation Programme of Action and has been successful in 

integrating climate adaptation in a concrete way into several sectors (e.g. coastal management, freshwater 

resource management, and disaster preparedness). 

In Mexico, an Inter-Sectoral Commission on Climate Change was established in 2005, with the Environment 

Ministry responsible for coordinating climate change policy through the Commission. Institutional 

fragmentation and isolation of the adaptation agenda from the development agenda are cited as barriers 

to effective mainstreaming under this framework. The Environment Ministry has little leverage over other 

government departments. 

Tanzania has prepared a NAPA and other East African countries are preparing theirs (Kenya, Uganda, 

Sudan). In Tanzania, a National Climate Change Committee was formed, chaired by the Department of 

Environment in the Vice-President’s office. There are many opportunities for mainstreaming adaptation 

through existing coastal management and poverty reduction programs if the political mandate and funding 

can be found. 

The National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) 

carried out through the United Nations Framework 

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has 

led some developing countries to examine several 

facets of climate change and the need for adaptation 

measures. The UNFCCC provides support to the 50 

least developed countries (many of which are coastal) to 

plan, mainstream, and implement climate adaptation. 

An assessment of the five-year performance of the 

NAPA is instructive on the implementation challenges 

of climate change adaptation. As Table 4.1 shows, most 

countries are considered to have effective institutional 

mechanisms for developing climate adaptation policy 

and strategy. Seventy-five percent have started their 

NAPA.

However, only 10 percent have established national 

programs and reached an early stage of implementation. 

This makes the point that having a NAPA does not 

immediately translate to mainstreaming.
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

51

Table 4.1 An assessment of the national adaptation programme of action

2007 ‘REPORT CARD’ OF PROGRESS WITH NATIONAL ADAPTATION PROGRAMMES OF ACTION

CHALLENGES MEASURE OF SUCCESS PROGRESS

Identify urgent needs and priorities in 

Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

All LDCs submit high quality NAPA 

documents that identify agreed vulnerabilities

75%: most LDCs have started NAPAs 

and are able to identify urgent needs

Identify priority projects for urgent action

All LDCs that undertake a NAPA 

process submit high quality 

projects for implementation

25%: countries have developed projects 

from initial profiles and these are now in the 

pipeline of the Global Environment Facility

Learning by doing: implementing 

adaptation projects

All submitted projects are 

successfully implemented; reviews 

of good practice achieved

10%of LDC countries: at early 

stage of implementation

All countries have effective institutional 

Mainstream adaptation planning

mechanisms for developing climate 

adaptation policy and strategy and good 

practice in integrating climate adaptation 

into relevant planning processes

10%: some 30 countries worldwide (not only 

LDCs) have established national programs

Source: Jallow and Downing, 2007. (More information on NAPAs can be found at the 

UNFCCC web site: http://unfccc.intnational_reports/napa/items/2719.php) 

Investments in composting toilets and wetland treatment for 

sewage, have been critical to reducing impacts to coral reefs in 

Akumal, Mexico, stressed by coral bleaching, increased tourist 

pressures, and land-based pollution.

4.3 SECTORAL INVESTMENTS 

AND PROJECTS

There are a growing number of calls for mainstreaming 

climate change in existing development frameworks 

and sectoral investments. Development banks, such as 

the African Development Bank and the World Bank, 

are increasingly concerned that a substantial share of 

investments are at risk for direct impacts from climate 

change and from underperformance. The estimate is 

that 25% of the World Bank’s portfolio may be at such 

risk (World Bank, 2006). This may, in turn, increase 

vulnerabilities. For example, infrastructure that cannot 

be adapted to withstand the impacts of climate change 

may expose more people and assets to risk. 

In response, organizations such as the World Bank, 

USAID, and other donors have developed screening 

tools and guidelines for integrating climate change 

concerns into development assistance. Some donors 

are requiring that plans for sectoral investments (e.g., 

tourism, fisheries) consider climate change issues in 

all components of the projects they fund, including in 

project identification, assessment, ranking and selection, 

administrative design, financing, and throughout 

monitoring and evaluation. 

Protecting existing and future economic development 

is an intrinsically strong and salient motivation for 

mainstreaming coastal adaptation. For example, tourism 

development investments in specific coastal sites need 

to account for dynamic shoreline processes, natural 

hazards such as potential flooding and storm events, 

and the effects of climate change that can accelerate, 

intensify or alter the coastal conditions required for 

successful tourism. Similar reasoning applies to open 

water or pond-based mariculture. Key infrastructure 

such as pond walls, intake structures, and canals are 
MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

52

already vulnerable to floods and storms. Aggressive 

development of pond-based mariculture can destroy 

the buffering effect of mangrove wetlands. This puts 

coastal property, settlements, and the economic wellbeing of its residents in jeopardy. In relation to fisheries 

investments, this would include an enhanced focus on 

improved management, reducing overcapacity, and 

establishing networks of fisheries reserves to increase 

resiliency

Figure 4.2 illustrates the significance of mainstreaming 

coastal adaptation in tourism. The center column lists 

the coastal conditions needed to ensure the success 

of a tourism investment. On the left side are threats 

that degrade critical features of coastal tourism. This 

includes those that are generated by unsustainable 

tourism development itself, and those that are provoked 

by the impacts of climate change. On the right side are 

a bundle of tourism adaptation measures that reduce or 

avoid the effects of climate change and inappropriate 

tourism development.

Sectoral investments often emanate from national goals 

and strategies, which define specific strategies for various 

sectors (livelihoods, food security, water accessibility, 

energy, infrastructure, health, safety, biodiversity 

conservation). This can be an effective starting point 

for mainstreaming adaptation, and for securing funds 

for effective implementation through capital investment 

plans, donors or other financing organizations (see 

Figure 4.3). 

Terrestrial and sea 

surface temperature 

change 

Extreme 

weather 

Sea level 

rise Precipitation 

change 

CLIMATE CHANGE THREATS 

TO TOURISM

Coastal tourism 

development 

required conditions 

POTENTIAL BUNDLE OF 

MEASURES 

Improper siting 

of infrastructure 

Altered shoreline 

Water 

pollution 

Impeded access to shore 

Conversion of habitat 

Building standards 

Coastal Development 

Setbacks 

Wetland protection and 

restoration 

Beach 

Nourishment 

DESIRED COASTAL OUTCOMES 

Healthy 

ecosystems 

Strong Built 

environment 

Strengthened 

Governance 

Human Health 

and Safety 

Coastal land and 

seascape 

Transportation 

and utility 

infrastructure 

Tourism facilities 

Safe, clean destination 

Fresh water 

Quality 

beaches, reefs 

and marine 

habitat 

Shorefront Stabilization 

Integrated Coastal and 

Water Resources 

Management 

Runoff 

Flooding 

Water 

demand 

Storm 

Damage 

Erosion 

CURRENT COASTAL 

THREATS FROM TOURISM 

FEATURES OF 

COASTAL TOURISM 

Ocean acidification 

Figure 4.2 Mainstreaming adaptation in coastal tourism
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

53

In efforts to mainstream, it is important to think 

about existing processes where planning and capital 

investments are designed. Within a typical project cycle, 

there are several opportunities to mainstream climate 

change: 

Project programming stage

Vulnerability assessment and adaptation can be 

incorporated when countries communicate priorities, 

policies, and issues—reflected in country strategy 

documents.

Project identification

Identify options and implement actions for 

adaptation (policy, program, or infrastructure 

changes). 

Preparation, appraisal, approval

Almost every development project design can include 

a description of the impact of climate change and 

vulnerability on the project and a proposed plan to 

minimize or mitigate impact. The agency financing 

the project can include criteria for assessing the 

project’s climate-sensitivity and proposed adaptation 

strategy.

Monitoring and evaluation

During impact evaluation, evaluators can ask whether 

the project appropriately anticipates and addresses 

climate change and vulnerability concerns.

•	

•	

•	

•	

Figure 4.3 Adaptation can be mainstreamed 

within the national development strategy, sector 

strategies, or donor grants 

4.4 COASTAL PLACES

A natural starting point for mainstreaming climate 

change adaptation—especially with implementing 

a vulnerability assessment approach as set out in 

Chapter 3 of this Guidebook—is with a specific coastal 

place. This is preferable to starting with overarching 

national plans and policies, or sectoral development. 

The reason is that municipalities, districts, provinces, 

and other sub-national entities already play an 

important role in disaster response and natural hazard 

planning. They often implement or co-sponsor local 

infrastructure, health and development projects as well. 

Mainstreaming cross-cutting coastal adaptation issues 

within overall government, and identifying citizen roles 

and responsibilities may appear difficult and costly. 

However, it is less so when stakeholders take ownership 

of the actions and the benefits to be gained are shared.

Place-based entry points are not restricted to existing 

administrative entities. Ecosystems such as coral reef 

systems, estuaries, coastal watersheds, and wetland 

habitats, are compelling focal points for adaptation 

planning as they also form the logical unit for scientific 

studies. Coastal shoreline systems, whether altered or 

natural, that are already subject to a mix of uses—e.g., 

settlements, tourism, fisheries, recreation, mariculture, 

and marine transportation—also need to be studied 

from an ecosystem perspective. Users of such areas must 

recognize that their continued use and benefits depend 

on the integrity of a functioning system.

COMMUNITY-BASED 

ADAPTATION PROGRAM

A new project supported by the Global 

Environment Facility will support 80-200 

community-level climate change adaptation 

projects in 10 countries over the next four 

years, leveraging community action, while 

generating lessons on community-based 

adaptation best practices. (See www.undpadaptation.org/project/cba/subscribe)

4.5 OVERCOMING BARRIERS 

AND OBSTACLES TO SUCCESSFUL 

MAINSTREAMING

Frequently, there is resistance to mainstreaming 

efforts and implementation of adaptation measures. 

Mainstreaming requires forging agreements with a 

broad array of agencies and groups, each with different 
MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

54

policies and constituencies. Thus, mainstreaming can 

be time-consuming and challenging. Some resistance is 

simply inherent in introducing any new policy idea. In 

the case of climate change adaptation, this is exacerbated 

by the cumulative nature and long-term timeframe of 

climate change impacts. It is also complicated by the fact 

that different individuals and organizations will have 

different perceptions of the uncertainties surrounding 

climate change and its impacts and will have different 

tolerance levels for risk. Other sources of resistance 

include:

•

•

•

•

The scope of some adaptation measures may simply 

lie beyond the ability of a community to pay

Other more immediate needs and concerns may 

overshadow considerations about the impacts of 

climate change, which are often measured in years or 

decades

Investment decisions of some industries or firms may 

not have a long timeframe and may discount future 

risks

Actors with the most to gain from adaptation 

measures may not be able to articulate or sufficiently 

influence decisions, while others have ready access to 

power and expertise

There is a great deal of experience in how to formulate 

strategies for addressing these and similar barriers 

to coastal adaptation. Good practices for successful 

implementation that have proven effective in coastal 

management worldwide include: 

Use pilot projects to test how a bundle of policy 

measures might contribute to societal benefits; then 

use the results of these pilots to inform the broader 

audience that will be essential to getting adaptation 

measures adopted and implemented more widely

Move the debate from one focused on rights and 

narrow issues that focus on individuals being asked 

to modify their use of the coast, to one focused on a 

common search for desired societal outcomes—e.g., 

healthy coastal ecosystems that support livelihoods

Build confidence by addressing a simple issue first; 

this sets the stage for then tackling issues that are 

more controversial or less clearly defined 

Conduct directed scientific research (vulnerability 

assessment) that adopts stakeholder concerns as 

real, and tests their hypotheses about the source of 

problems and their solutions

Encourage a focus on interests and common threats, 

rather than on particular measures that might foster a 

hardening of positions

Demonstrate fairness by creating broad policies that 

do not single out particular firms or groups, and do 

not deprive individuals of their constitutional rights 

(e.g. private property rights. See text box below)

Encourage firms or entities to recommend and help 

test their own approaches and practices—possibly 

accompanied by a promise not to impose formal 

regulations on the sector as a result of the outcome 

of those tests

Engage a full range of stakeholders in assessing 

vulnerability, selecting the course of action, and 

assisting in the process of mainstreaming. All 

important governing institutions and stakeholder 

groups need to be involved or informed of what is 

happening so that they can identify with the process 

and become active partners in implementation.

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

Community-based marine protected areas in North 

Sulawesi, Indonesia have increased awareness of fisheries 

and coral reefs, promoted local management and protection 

of marine resources while enhancing supplemental 

livelihoods. Such efforts contribute to nature-based 

adaptation initiatives being developed in the region.
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

55

‘TAKINGS’ OF PRIVATE PROPERTY AND ADAPTATION MEASURES

Potential legal constraints to certain coastal adaptation measures must be kept in mind when selecting and 

implementing an adaptation strategy. One potentially common legal constraint involves the takings issue.

What is a “taking”? A “taking,” or “expropriation,” occurs when a government takes private property for 

a public purpose. A taking usually has four basic elements. First, it arises by government action. Second, 

it affects private property, which includes land and other assets. Third, it must be taken for a valid “public 

purpose.” The constitutions of most countries require “just” and “fair” compensation for taking of private 

property. 

Similarly, if a regulation would significantly reduce the value of private properties, it may be held to be a 

taking and the constitutions of many governments would require compensation to the property owners. 

How could takings affect adaptation measures? If a government enacts specific adaptation measures that 

deprive a private property owner of all economically beneficial uses of the property, a court could 

potentially find that the measures imply a “taking.” This would require the government to pay just 

compensation to the property owner for the loss of use of his or her property. Takings could make some 

measures prohibitively expensive. 

Making adaptation measures “takings-proof.” There are ways that governments can avoid costly takings 

claims. In developing the adaptation measure, the rationale for the measure should have a clear mandate 

(for example in the preamble to a regulation or law). This is important for political, social, and legal 

reasons, especially where individuals are likely to bear some of the burden. The government should make 

the case clearly and strongly for the new restrictions or obligations. If possible, the measures should be 

structured to allow some uses of the property, even if some uses are prohibited or restricted. That way, 

the land retains some use and some economic value. The adaptation measure could also provide in-kind 

compensation. Finally, adaptation measures should include a mechanism for providing exceptions and relief 

in isolated, extreme circumstances, for example through a waiver or other means.

For more information see Environmental Law Institute www.eli.org 
MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

56

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Asian Development Bank 2005, Climate Proofing: A Risk-based Approach to Adaptation, 

Asian Development Bank, Pacific Studies Series: Philippines. 

http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/Climate-Proofing/

International Institute for Environment and Development 2003, Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate 

Change in Least Developed Countries, Climate Change Programme: London, England.

http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/LDCsreport.pdf

Klein, R. et al. 2007, Portfolio Screening to Support the Mainstreaming of Climate Change into Development 

Assistance, Tyndall Center for Climate Change Research, Working Paper 102: Stockholm, Sweden.

http://www.springerlink.com/content/268k680115575124/

Simpson, M.C., Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C.M. and Gladin, E. 2008, Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the 

Tourism Sector: Frameworks, Tools and Practices, United Nations Environment Programme, Oxford University Center 

for the Environment, United Nations World Tourism Organization, World Meteorological Organization. 

http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/news/events/ccamts

Tearfund Climate Change Briefing Paper 1 2006, Overcoming the Barriers: Mainstreaming Climate 

Change Adaptation in Developing Countries, Institute of Development Studies.

http://www.tearfund.org/webdocs/website/Campaigning/Policy%20and%20research/

Overcoming%20the%20barriers%20briefing%20paper.pdf

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 2007, Making Mainstreaming Work: An Analytical Framework, Guidelines and Checklist 

for the Mainstreaming of Marine and Coastal Issues into National Planning and Budgetary Processes, Global Programme of Action for 

the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities, UNEP, & Stockholm Environment Institute: The Netherlands.

http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/analytical_framework_for_mainstreaming_feb_08_1_english.pdf

World Bank 2006, Managing Climate Risk: Integrating Adaptation into World Bank Group 

Operations, The World Bank Global Environment Facility: Washington, D.C.

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/GLOBALENVIRONMENTFACILITYGEFOPERATIONS/

Resources/Publications-Presentations/GEFAdaptationAug06.pdf

WEBSITES

Community-based Adaptation Project, United Nations Development Programme 

http://www.undp-adaptation.org/projects/websites/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=203

Gender and Environment Network, International Union for Conservation of Nature

http://www.genderandenvironment.org/ 

Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change Project in the Caribbean Community

http://www.caricom.org/jsp/projects/macc%20project/macc.jsp?menu=projects

National Adaptation Programmes of Action, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

http://unfccc.int/adaptation/napas/items/2679.php

Tiempo Climate Portal, A Bulletin for Climate and Development

http://www.tiempocyberclimate.org/portal/bulletin.htm
chapter 5

IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION

 

 57
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

58

Many initiatives fail or encounter major barriers when 

making the transition from assessment, planning, and 

preparation to implementation. This can be termed 

the “implementation gap.” This chapter discusses the 

challenges of implementing coastal adaptation measures 

and responses to those challenges. It highlights nine 

areas that require attention during implementation. 

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

IMPLEMENTATION 

CHALLENGES AND 

STRATEGIES



















Ensure adequate governance capacity

Strengthen legal frameworks 

Strengthen personnel capabilities

Highlight costs of “doing nothing”

Develop sustainable funding

Plan for externalities

Maintain scientific basis for policy

Maintain an inclusive and participatory 

process 

Select technically appropriate and effective 

measures

5.1 ENSURE ADEQUATE 

ADMINISTRATIVE AND 

INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY 

All adaptation measures come with administrative 

and institutional challenges. For example, when a 

measure requires regulatory decisions or when it 

must be implemented through agencies that share 

jurisdictions and responsibilities, difficulties can arise. 

Implementation may reveal jurisdictional gaps. In such 

cases, it cannot be assumed that there will be effective 

coordination and communication between the players. 

When institutions are weak, management authorities 

may not be clear and may overlap. Considerable effort 

must go into ensuring the appropriateness of the design, 

and into coordinating the decision-making, financing 

and execution of adaptation measures. In addition, 

measures with a regulatory component and/or measures 

that must be carried out uniformly or area-wide—e.g., 

setbacks, buffers, zoning, coastal management—may 

struggle against an ineffective regulatory regime that 

has limited or no ability to carry out enforcement. If 

legal authority for the adaptation measure is inadequate, 

actions to strengthen legal and institutional frameworks 

are needed. 

Responses to the challenge

Closely supervise the implementation of adaptation 

measures to ensure they are undertaken properly. 

When institutions invest in the human resources to 

do this, they build their own institutional capacity 

for effective coastal adaptation. They also create gains 

for good governance.

Provide support to nascent watershed organizations 

in building coastal adaptation into their work—alone 

they may lack the skills and experience to do so. 

When securing agreements and policy coordination 

with potentially competing line agencies that must 

play a role in coastal adaptation, try to locate the 

adaptation program in a high level position that is 

above line agencies. This legitimizes any agreements 

made and helps create a viable institutional 

mechanism where none exists.

When using integrated tools such as special area 

management planning, tie them closely to the tools 

and programs of other agencies. In cases where there 

is no regional or national institutional support, think 

creatively. For example, establish a para-municipal 

organization or a multiple jurisdiction entity such as 

a council of governments. 

When dealing with measures to control development, 

conduct a careful review of existing policies and 

regulations to identify how the measures can be best 

incorporated. 

Use strategic planning tools, such as a modified 

SWOT (Strengths/ Weaknesses/ Opportunities/ 

Threats) analysis to formulate an implementation 

strategy.

5.2 STRENGTHEN LEGAL 

FRAMEWORKS AND ENFORCEMENT

Legal frameworks and enforcement are common 

concerns to many of the measures in this Guidebook. 

Judicial systems may not support rigorous enforcement 

of some measures such as zoning and setbacks. In 

some countries, local government lacks jurisdiction 
IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION

59

for enforcement over marine and coastal resources. 

Meanwhile, national governments that do have this 

control may have little interest or requirement to work 

with local governments, or may have no influence over 

local decisions in urbanized areas. When an adaptation 

measure does not result in the expected change in 

target group behavior, it is necessary to take corrective 

action. It may not be a faulty legal framework that is 

the problem. Rather, it may be that incentives for the 

target groups to change their behavior are lacking or 

ineffective. For example, developers of hotels along the 

coast might be induced by receiving density bonuses 

(allowances to have more units) in exchange for 

increased setbacks. You may also fail to see expected 

behavior change when costs to the target group for 

implementing the measure are too high.

Responses to the challenge

•	

•	

•	

•	

Make modifications to the legal framework to 

strengthen the adaptation program

Establish inter-agency arrangements or mechanisms 

to address jurisdictional conflicts

Create economic alternatives for people adversely 

affected by implementation of the measure

Encourage individual or collective self-enforcement 

through cooperative user groups 

5.3 STRENGTHEN 

PERSONNEL CAPABILITIES

Many personnel in both government and private 

organizations are not well versed in climate change 

issues. Often, they also do not understand how they 

could contribute to climate change adaptation. 

A first step toward changing this is to create an 

understanding of the impacts of climate change, the 

need for adaptation, and the actions that can be taken 

by the individual and by others inside and outside the 

individual’s own organization/agency. 

Responses to the challenge

•	

•	

Provide information on the climate change problem 

that can help planners and policy makers justify new 

or intensified use of certain adaptation measures

Conduct training and extension on the practical 

aspects of implementing measures—improving 

chances that implementation will more closely match 

requirements 

•	 Offer tailored professional guidance at the operational 

level—e.g., on purchasing required equipment, 

conducting inspections and monitoring 

5.4 HIGHLIGHT COSTS OF 

DOING NOTHING AND COSTS 

OF ADAPTATION MEASURES

Often, at the point when leaders are looking for 

agreement to move forward with coastal adaptation 

measures, there has not yet been a determination of the 

costs of implementing those measures. Nor has there 

been a projection of the costs of doing nothing. This 

lack of cost information makes it difficult to reach 

agreement on moving forward.

Responses to the challenge

•	

•	

Use life-cycle cost analysis in weighing benefits 

against costs of adaptation investments

When possible, calculate the economic effect of 

expected climate change impacts on the local 

economy (currently most such projections are at 

national and global scales—when they exist at all)

Building capacity and providing opportunities for exchange 

among practitioners will be key to successful mainstreaming

5.5 DEVELOP SUSTAINABLE 

FINANCING 

Even the simplest of measures requires funding and 

effort to first put it into action and then to maintain 

it. For example, if a plan stipulates that vegetated 

buffer zones will be in place for an area of coastline, 

there needs to be money and manpower to supervise 
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

60

the actual implementation of those zones. They do not 

happen just because there is a plan.

Securing funding for a few projects or pilot efforts may 

be relatively easy during times when the adaptation 

issue is on the agenda of the government or a donor. 

It is more difficult to secure funding for area-wide 

implementation of measures, for staff to carry out 

regulatory measures, and for those measures that require 

large capital investments and follow-up monitoring and 

supervision.

Responses to the challenge

Engage with international nongovernmental 

organizations, many of whom are incorporating 

climate change adaptation into their local aid 

programs

Identify and tap into complementary programs such 

as coastal management programs, fisheries projects, 

and livelihood initiatives

Mainstream climate into coastal development, thus 

using those funds to build resilience

Seek out international organizations that offer 

national level assistance (see text box)

Explore the use of environmental performance bonds, 

tourism fees, and user fees

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

FUNDS FOR COASTAL 

ADAPTATION

The United Nations Framework Convention 

on Climate Change has established several 

funds managed by the Global Environment 

Facility and implemented by the United Nations 

Development Programme, the United Nations 

Environment Programme, and the World Bank 

to assist developing countries with adapting 

to changing climate. Two of the funds are 

described below. 

The Least Developed Country 

Fund . In November 2001, Parties to the 

UNFCCC decided that least developed 

countries should be assisted in preparing 

National Adaptation Programmes of 

Action to identify urgent needs related to 

adaptation to the adverse effects of climate 

change. Countries can use LDC funds to 

prepare NAPAs or to implement actions 

identified in the NAPAs. 

The Special Climate Change Fund 

(SCCF) . The SCCF under the Convention 

was established in 2001 to support projects 

and programs in development sectors 

most sensitive to climate change, including 

coastal zone management, disaster risk 

reduction, agriculture, and water resources 

management.

•	

•	

For more information, see: GEF/UNDP 

Adaptation Funds (http://www.undp.org/gef/

adaptation/funds/04_1.htm) or UNFCCC 

Support for Adaptation (http://unfccc.int/

adaptation/items/4159.php)

5.6 PLAN FOR EXTERNALITIES

Many adaptation measures are “no-regrets” measures. 

In other words, there are net benefits, including 

some positive externalities. These can create new 

opportunities. On the other hand, adaptation measures 

may also generate unplanned-for negative external 

effects in the short term. For example, a marine 

protected area (a measure) might adversely affect some 

fishers in the short term with the intent of increasing 

stocks. Developing these measures should occur with 

the fishers so that they “own” the process and are 

investing in their future livelihoods. Another example 

is when armored structures are used as a measure to 

stem beach erosion and protect property. These same 

structures that are “protecting” one area, can also change 

the ecosystems and affect adjacent property owners who 

lack such protection.

Responses to the challenge

Use an area-wide approach to policy 

implementation—this helps account for some of the 

unanticipated or downstream impacts of particular 

measures 

Look across the full landscape of the watershed 

when selecting the area of concern where you will 
IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION

61

work and, when possible, select an area where you 

can engage a wide range of stakeholders to address 

multiple issues

Always select your place and your issues before you 

select your management measures

Emphasize the precautionary approach when there 

may be spillover effects from measures, especially 

measures difficult to reverse—e.g., shoreline 

armoring, flood control and water management 

options

5.7 MAINTAIN SCIENTIFIC BASIS 

FOR POLICY AND MONITORING

Sustained, long-term implementation requires scientific 

credibility. What is needed is good, comprehensive, 

science-based information that includes long-term 

trends. For example, the general reasoning in favor of 

a setback needs to be substantiated by data analysis 

that compares past, current and projected future 

trends for the area of concern. Also, the measure 

must be monitored over time to track its effectiveness. 

Stakeholders need to know if the measure is doing what 

it was meant to do. 

Responses to the challenge

•	

•	

Tap into the growing wealth of scientific and technical 

knowledge residing in national governments, 

international agencies, and in professional peer 

networks

Conduct periodic program reviews at the national or 

local levels to ensure agencies and places are aware of 

each others’ successes and failures

Research, evaluate, document and compare the 

benefits and costs of different adaptation strategies 

Conduct continuous scientific monitoring of coastal 

areas tapping into volunteers, students and local 

universities

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

Reef, habitat, and fisheries characterization and 

subsequent monitoring implemented by a local Mexican 

NGO has been essential for siting of marine protected 

areas. policy development, and land use decisions.

5.8 MAINTAIN AN INCLUSIVE 

AND PARTICIPATORY PROCESS

Nearly all the measures in this Guidebook are best 

selected, developed, and implemented with active 

stakeholder involvement. Yet, the lead implementing 

agency may not have stakeholder involvement as a 

priority. Or, it may lack the skills needed to carry 

out a good inclusive process. Further, climate change 

adaptation is time consuming. It requires issue 

analysis, stakeholder dialogue and consensus building. 

Even simple measures need to be accepted by fishers 

and other marine resource users, since enforcement 

through command-and-control actions is costly and 

not necessarily effective. Stakeholder involvement 

is hard to sustain—waxing and waning based on the 

issues themselves and multiple other external factors. 

Climate change is a cross-cutting issue and requires 

a bundle of actions that will likely require multiple 

stakeholder negotiations. Yet, it can be a challenge to 

keep stakeholders involved and engaged over a long 

period of time.

Responses to the challenge

Before designing the policy, ensure you have the 

support of those with the biggest stake in coastal 

adaptation

Design policy to incorporate participatory 

management

Increase social capital and interpersonal networks to 

build community resilience against natural hazards

Promote community involvement and leadership of 

projects to build a sense of ownership 

Implement small, achievable actions that build 

support for a larger effort

Educate the public and property owners and 

encourage them to be active in the stakeholder 

process in order to keep coastal adaptation on the 

public agenda
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

•	

•	

62

Seek top-level government support and leadership to 

build trust and make participation and negotiations 

with stakeholders worthwhile

For actions that need formal adoption by multiple 

entities (e.g., special area management plans), 

treat the process as a major, serious public policy 

formulation effort right from the start

5.9 SELECT TECHNICALLY 

APPROPRIATE AND 

EFFECTIVE MEASURES

Measures need to be appropriate for the area and its 

issue(s). They must also be effective—i.e., they must 

achieve their intended goals. There is any number 

of reasons, however, that can lead to the failure of 

even well designed and fully implemented measures. 

One reason is poor execution. Another is overly 

conservative design—i.e., one that fails to account for 

the accelerating rate of change expected from climate 

dynamics. Poor construction can also result in failure. 

For example, appropriately sited armored structures can 

be effective in addressing coastal shoreline erosion—but 

only if those structures are well constructed by a skilled 

builder. 

Responses to the challenge

Ensure that climate change adaptation measures and 

best practice guidelines are effective

Engage economic actors and industry in preparing 

standards and formulating designs

Take a performance-based approach to policies and 

actions with a focus on outcomes 

Use pilot projects and studies to test the benefits and 

implementation challenges of particular measures

Conduct monitoring and scientific studies to reduce 

uncertainty about effectiveness

Ensure that the preconditions necessary for a measure 

to succeed are in place

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	
IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION

63

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Carruthers, P. 2007, Lessons Learnt Piloting Community Approaches to Climate Change Adaptation in the Cook Islands, 

Presentation at the UNFCCC Expert Workshop for SIDS, February 27th 2007, Rarotonga, Cook Islands.

http://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/adverse_effects_and_response_measures_art_48/

application/pdf/200702_cook_islands_community_adaptation.pdf

Leary, N. et al. 2007, A Stitch in Time: Lessons for Climate Change Adaptation from the AIACC Project, Assessments 

of Impacts and Adaptations to Climate Change (AIACC) Working Paper 38: Washington D.C.

http://www.aiaccproject.org/working_papers/Working%20Papers/AIACC_WP48_Leary_etal.pdf

Levina, E. et al. 2007, Policy Frameworks for Adaptation to Climate Change in Coastal Zones: The Case of the 

Gulf of Mexico, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development: Paris, France.

http://www.ccap.org/docs/resources/434/Policy_Frameworks_for_Adaptation_to_Climate_

Change_in_Coastal_Zones-_The_Case_of_The_Gulf_of_Mexico.pdf

Mataki, M., K. Koshy, and V. Nair 2006, Implementing Climate Change Adaptation in the Pacific Islands: Adapting to Present 

Climate Variability and Extreme Weather Events in Navua (Fiji), AIACC Working Paper 34: Washington D.C.

http://www.aiaccproject.org/working_papers/Working%20Papers/AIACC_WP34_Mataki.pdf

Olsen, S., K. Lowry and J. Tobey 1999, The Common Methodology for Learning: A Manual for Assessing Progress 

in Coastal Management, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island: Narragansett, RI. 

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/SEL_003F.PDF

WEBSITES

Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to Climate Change 

http://www.aiaccproject.org

Global Environmental Facility Adaptation Funds (GEF), United National Development Programme (UNDP)

http://www.undp.org/gef/adaptation/funds/04_1.htm

Support for Adaptation, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

http://unfccc.int/adaptation/items/4159.php
chapter 6

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MANAGEMENT

 64
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

65

Once coastal adaptation measures are implemented, 

there will likely be considerable interest in how they 

perform. Policymakers will be keen to demonstrate 

that the measures are beneficial to the citizenry. They 

will want to assuage stakeholders who have borne some 

of the costs associated with the measures. The public 

will seek assurances that the measures afford them 

as much protection as possible from the impacts of 

climate variability. All parties will expect the measures 

to be adjusted if they do not perform according to 

expectations. Evaluation and adaptive management can 

help address these concerns. 

EVALUATION AND ADAPTIVE 

MANAGEMENT













Specify the evaluation questions 

Establish roles and responsibilities for 

evaluation

Select evaluation tools and develop 

timeline

Conduct evaluation

Communicate evaluation results

Adapt policies, adaptation measures and 

strategies on the basis of evaluation results

Table 6.1 What motivates evaluation and what are the benefits

Type of 

Activity Motivation for Evaluation Benefits of Evaluation 

One-time 

Project

•	

•	

Project completion

New or follow-on project

•	

•	

•	

Gauge project success

Compile lessons learned

Replicate project design

•	 Communicate performance

Place-based 

Plan or 

Program

•	

•	

•	

Planned/regular review

Special request from government

Unanticipated (e.g., result of natural disaster)

•	

•	

•	

•	

Adjust design of adaptation measures

Adjust implementation strategy

Identify and implement emergency measures

Compile lessons learned

•	 Replicate plan or program

National/

Regional Policy

•	 Planned/regular review

•	 Special request from government

•	Unanticipated (e.g., result of natural disaster)

•	 Communicate performance

•	 Guide design and implementation of new policies and 

adaptation measures

•	 Identify and implement emergency measures

•	 Compile lessons learned

6.1 EVALUATION OF 

ADAPTATIONS

Evaluation is the process of review and analysis of all 

relevant data and information required to determine 

if the set of adaptation options is performing to 

expectation. Evaluation may involve a single project 

review or a series of formal and informal timedimensioned assessments. Table 6.1 summarizes the 

motivation for evaluation and the benefits or anticipated 

use of evaluation results.

All evaluations of coastal adaptation measures involve 

a similar methodology and steps. They may vary in 

their scope, types of evaluation tools employed, and 

the resources devoted to the evaluation. However, 

the basic goal of the evaluation is the same—to assess 

the performance of the adaptation measures in terms 

of their design and implementation. The steps of the 

evaluation include the following:

1. Specify evaluation questions—The role of 

evaluation is to determine if the adaptation 

approach is working as it should. The evaluation 

may need to include several questions based on the 

original set of criteria used to assess the proposed 

and selected adaptation measures. The questions 

should be identified early in the process. This way, 

evaluators can determine if the necessary baselines 

and data monitoring and management procedures 

are in place to support the evaluation. 

2. Elaborate an evaluation plan—The evaluation 

plan should clearly state the roles and 

responsibilities for the evaluation. Who will 

conduct, review, approve, and communicate the 

results of different evaluation results? What types 
66

EVALUATE FOR ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

of evaluation methods or tools are required to 

answer the evaluation questions? What is the 

timeline for conducting the evaluation? Ideally, the 

evaluation plan is developed in concert with the 

implementation strategy. This helps ensure there is 

full consideration of the staff and financial resources 

needed to carry out the evaluation.

3. Conduct the evaluation—Evaluation entails a set 

of individual analyses, designed to answer specific 

questions for specific audiences. Evaluation helps 

policymakers review performance, guides reforms 

in adaptation measures, and prompts adjustments 

to their implementation. For purposes of 

transparency and accountability, it may be advisable 

to use independent evaluators. This is especially 

important in terms of answering those questions 

most important to landowners, business, and the 

general public. These often include but are not 

limited to questions about the benefits and costs of 

the measures and their impacts on the environment.

4. Communicate the results—Disseminating the 

evaluation results to the appropriate audiences is 

very important. Make sure your overall evaluation 

plan covers this in detail.

Climate change occurs over the long term. That means 

some outcomes of adaptation measures also require long 

periods of time before they can be properly evaluated. 

As well, there are certain evaluation questions—e.g., 

“What are the impacts of adaptation policies on 

biodiversity or habitat?”—that can only be answered 

over time. 

One of the key challenges in evaluation, particularly 

when it is conducted over a long timeframe, is to “filter 

out the noise.” This is necessary in order to focus only 

on the relevant information and analyses that answer 

the specific evaluation question. The following factors 

can contribute to both good or poor evaluation results: 

•	 Attributes of the adaptation measure—Most often, 

the adaptation measure will provide incentives and/

or sanctions for behavior change among business and 

the general public. The evaluation will often try to 

determine how businesses and individuals react to the 

adaptation measure. Do they recognize its legitimacy, 

do they attempt to circumvent it, and if so, why?

•	 Implementation strategy—The adaptation measure 

may be appropriate, but poorly implemented. There 

may be insufficient staff to monitor implementation. 

There may be too few financial resources to conduct 

the education and awareness activities needed to 

inform the public on their obligations related to a 

new adaptation measure.

•	 Changes in the political, economic, social, or 

cultural context—A variety of factors can affect 

performance of the adaptation measure. These 

include greater or lesser political support, chronic 

inflation or a prolonged economic boom or recession, 

new policies that impact the incentives, or sanctions 

of the adaptation measure.

•	 Unanticipated climate variability and change—

If adaptation measures are evaluated over short 

time intervals, the observed climate for say a fiveyear period might not accord with the vulnerability 

assessment upon which the adaptation measure 

was, in part, designed. An extreme weather event—

for example a 500-year flood—that occurs within 

the period of the evaluation may severely test the 

adaptation measures. 

Attributing change to the relevant factors is critical in 

reaching the correct conclusions about performance 

and determining whether changes are needed in the 

adaptation measure or the way it is implemented. 

6.2 ADAPTING 

EVALUATION RESULTS

The process of developing and implementing 

adaptation measures entails mutual learning on the 

part of policymakers, stakeholders, and the general 

public. The selection of the adaptation measure is 

based on the information set, analyses, and best 

predictions or forecasts of the future. As time passes and 

implementation proceeds, the database of information 

and analysis will change. It will expand to include 

information on the performance of the adaptation 

Figure 6.1 Adaptive M anagement Process

Implement

Select Course

of Action

Assess

Vulnerability

Evaluate Mainstream

Adaptations

Adjust

response

Figure 6.1 Adaptive management process
ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

67

measure. Also added will be information on the factors 

listed in the previous section. Meanwhile, time and 

changing contexts may also alter the stated goals, 

objectives, and the expected results of the adaptation 

measure. 

Thus, as evaluation results become available, 

policymakers, stakeholders, or the public may be 

motivated to press for changes in the choice of adaptation 

measures, their design, or their implementation. 

The process of reflecting on these changes based on 

evaluation results is referred to as adaptive management2

. 

In Figure 6.1, adaptive management is depicted by the 

oval “Adjust Response.” 

Adaptive management and the adjustment of responses 

entail a participatory/analytical approach similar to 

what is recommended in this Guidebook for the initial 

analysis, selection, and mainstreaming of adaptation 

measures:

1. Review the evaluation results and attribute 

poor performance to flaws in design and/or 

implementation of current measures;

2. If flaws in the design of the adaptation measure 

are to be addressed, determine whether current 

measures can be fine-tuned or if alternative or 

complementary measures are required;

3. If modified or new adaptation measures are 

promoted, revise the implementation strategy; and,

4. If flaws in implementation are to be addressed, 

identify, assess, and incorporate recommended 

changes into the implementation strategy. 

Table 6.2 illustrates the types of adaptive management 

responses that might be considered as a result of 

evaluation in a hypothetical place with three types of 

implemented adaptation measures. In this example, the 

evaluation focused on management responses following 

a devastating hurricane with high sustained winds and 

seas, and flooding of a local river.

2 Adaptive management also refers to an overall 

management approach that embodies a “learning by doing” 

philosophy and is ideally suited to management of natural 

resources under uncertainty inherent in climate variability 

and change. Adaptive management approaches emphasize: 

1) ongoing monitoring of performance through the tracking 

of key variables, complemented by research to improve the 

body of information and analysis; 2) periodic assessments 

(evaluation); and 3) modification of policies, practice, and 

institutional capacity as needed to improve performance.
EVALUATE FOR ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

68

Adaptations Evaluation Results Adaptive Management Responses

Communitybased disaster 

risk reduction

•	 Significant numbers of visitors and residents unaware 

of evacuation routes

•	 Preparation of awareness materials for residents and 

visitors (posted in hotels and restaurants)

•	 Improved signage

•	 Increased staff and volunteers to assist with evacuation

•	 Scale of disaster not anticipated in disaster planning 

•	 Revise preparedness, response, and mitigation plan 

to anticipate more intense and/or sustained weather 

events

•	 Poor coordination with regional and national 

authorities on post-disaster support/financing

•	 Convene participatory discussions with regional 

and national authorities to coordinate roles and 

responsibilities

•	 Establish emergency “bank” of supplies and equipment 

needed for post-disaster mitigation

Coastal 

development 

setbacks

•	 Severe shoreline erosion observed beyond setback 

distance from the shore •	 Revise setback regulation to increase distance

•	 Properties not subject to setback regulations suffer 

severe damage •	 Accelerate removal or relocation of buildings within the setback distance

•	 New construction observed in violation of setback 

regulations

•	 Strengthen capacity for permitting, inspection, and 

enforcement; increase penalties

Building codes

•	 Significant wind and water damage observed •	 Revise building codes

•	 New buildings not complying with building codes

•	 Strengthen capacity for permitting, inspection, and 

enforcement; increase penalties

•	 Prepare awareness materials for builders, businesses, 

and residential buyers

•	 Levies failed to contain flood waters in river •	 Assess options for improved watershed management, structural options for containing flood water in main 

channels and overflow reservoirs

•	 Significant beach erosion •	 Establish natural erosion protection measures and 

structural shoreline stabilization options

Table 6.2 Adaptation measures and adaptive management responses
69

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Crane Droesch, A. et. al, 2008, A Guide to the Vulnerability Reduction Assessment, UNDP Working Paper

http://www.undp-adaptation.org/projects/websites/docs/CBA_VRA_Guide_Dec_08.pdf 

National Research Council 2004, Adaptive Management for Water Resources Project Planning, Panel on Adaptive 

Management for Resource Stewardship, Committee to Assess the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Methods of 

Analysis and Peer Review for Water Resources Project Planning, National Academies Press: Washington D.C.

http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10972

Oglethorpe, J. 2002, Adaptive Management: From Theory to Practice, International 

Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): Gland, Switzerland. 

http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20023131426

Salafsky, N., R Margoluis, K.H. Redford 2001, Adaptive Management: A Tool for 

Conservation Practitioners, Foundations of Success: Bethesda, MD.

http://www.fosonline.org/Adaptive_Management1.cfm

WEBSITES

Chesapeake Bay Program, Chesapeake Adaptive Management Model

http://cap.chesapeakebay.net/managementmodel.htm

Collaborative Adaptive Management Network

www.adaptivemanagement.net/whatis.php
70

references

Adger, N. 1999, Social Vulnerability to Climate Change and Extremes in Coastal Vietnam, 

World Development, Vol. 27, No. 2, University of East Anglia: Norwich, UK.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VC6-3X7VR3H-2/2/38ca3a1089f684fe3de2c26739bfc4ee

Allison, E. 2007, Fisheries and Aquaculture Can Provide Solution to Cope with Climate 

Change, Issues Brief 1701, WorldFish Center: Malaysia. 

http://www.iclarm.org/v2/files/CC-ThreatToFisheries1701.pdf

Dasgupta, S., B. Laplante, C. Meisner, D. Wheeler, and J. Yan 2007, The Impact of Sea Level Rise on Developing Countries: 

A Comparative Analysis, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4136, World Bank: Washington, D.C.

http://go.worldbank.org/XU9B5UFR30

Day, J.W., J.F. Martin, L. Cardoch, and P.H. Templet 1997, System Functioning as a Basis of Sustainable 

Management of Deltaic Ecosystems, Coastal Management, Vol 25. No. 2, pp. 115-153.

http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=4103991

Hoegh-Guldberg, O. et al. 2007, Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean 

Acidification, Science, Vol. 318, No. 5857, 14 December 2007, pp. 1737–1742.

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/318/5857/1737

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007a, Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and 

Vulnerability, Chapter 6: Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas, Contribution of Working Group II 

to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press, UK.

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm

IPCC 2007b, Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Chapter 17: Assessment of Adaptation Practices, Options, Constraints 

and Capacity, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press, UK.

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm

IPCC 2007c, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Summary for Policymakers, Contribution of Working 

Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK. 

http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/docs/WG1AR4_SPM_PlenaryApproved.pdf

International Federation of Red Cross (IFRC) 2005, Solomon Islands: From Risk Assessment to Community Action, IFRC: Switzerland.

www.ifrc.org/Docs/pubs/disasters/resources/reducing-risks/cs-solomon-islands.pdf

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 2007, Climate Change and Marine 

Ecosystems, Coastal Ecosystems Newsletter, Issue #6, October 2007.

http://www.iucn.org/about/work/initiatives/climate_news/_/climate_change_and_marine_ecosystems/index.cfm

Jallow, B. and T. Downing 2007, National Adaptation Programmes of Actions (NAPAs): Priorities to Policies, 

Tiempo, Issue 65, International Institute for Environment and Development, and the Stockholm 

Environment Institute, & the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency: London. 

http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/tiempo/portal/archive/pdf/tiempo65low.pdf

Kaiser, G. 2007, Coastal Vulnerability to Climate Change and Natural Hazards, Disaster 

Reduction in Climate Change, Karlsruhe University: Karlsruhe, Germany. 

http://www.cedim.de/download/39_Kaiser.pdf

Nakalevu, T 2006, Capacity Building for the Development of Adaptation Measures in Pacific Island Countries, South 

Pacific Regional Environment Programme. Workshop presentation, 18 and 19 April 2006: Pohnpei, FSM. 

http://www.sprep.org/

Nellemann, C., Hain, S., and Alder, J. 2008, In Dead Water: Merging of Climate Change with Pollution, Over-harvest and 

Infestations in the World’s Fishing Grounds, United Nations Environment Programme: GRID-Arendal, Norway.

http://www.unep.org/pdf/InDeadWater_LR.pdf 

Revkin, A. 2008, The Dangers of Deltas, New York Times, 11 May 2008.

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/11/weekinreview/11revkin.html
71

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Saunders, M and A. Lea 2008, Large Contribution of Sea Surface Warming to Recent Increase 

in Atlantic Hurricane Activity. Nature, 451, 31 January 2008, pp. 557-560. 

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7178/pdf/nature06422.pdf

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 2008, Coral 

Gardening in Cuvu Mina, Fiji, Database on local coping strategies.

http://maindb.unfccc.int/public/adaptation/adaptation_casestudy.pl?id_project=171

U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) 2007, How Resilient is your Coastal Community? A Guide for Evaluating Coastal 

Community Resilience to Tsunamis and other Hazards. U.S. Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System Program: Bangkok, Thailand. 

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/CCRGuide_lowres.pdf

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) 2008, Adapting to Climate 

Variability and Change: A Guidance Manual for Development Planning.

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/climate/docs/reports/cc_vamanual.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2008, Synthesis of Adaptation Options for Coastal 

Areas, Climate Ready Estuaries Program, Office of Water, EPA 430-F-08-024.

http://www.epa.gov/cre/index.html

Woman’s Environment & Development Organization (WEDO) and International Union for 

Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2007, Gender Equality and Adaptation. Fact Sheet

http://www.genderandenvironment.org/admin/admin_biblioteca/documentos/Factsheet%20Adaptation.pdf
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

CONTRIBUTION TO 

DEVELOPMENT GOALS 

AND ADDRESSING CLIMATE 

CHANGE IMPACTS
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 73

Adaptation Relevance to Climate Change Page Measures

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Coastal wetland 

protection and Acts as buffer against extreme weather events, storm surge, erosion, and floods; limits salt water intrusion. 89

restoration

Marine conservation Improves the resilience of coastal ecosystems to climate change and improves the economic and social 93 agreements conditions of coastal communities.

Marine protected Maintains healthy and resilient coastal habitats and fisheries productivity; acts as “refugia” and critical sources 97 areas of new larval recruits. 

Payment for Provides incentives to protect critical habitats that defend against damages from flooding and storm surges as environmental 101 well as coastal erosion. services

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Beach and dune Protects shores and restores beaches; serves as a “soft” buffer against flooding, erosion, scour and water 105 nourishment damage.

By incorporating climate considerations (e.g. effects of flooding, waves and wind) in building design, it reduces 

Building standards damages and human safety risks from climate change impacts, including extreme events, sea level rise, and 109

flooding.

Coastal 

development Reduces the infrastructure losses and human safety risks of sea level rise, storm surge, and erosion. 112

setbacks

Mitigates erosion and protects people and ecosystems from climate change impacts and variability in low to Living shorelines 116 medium energy areas along sheltered coastlines (e.g. estuarine and lagoon ecosystems). 

Structural shoreline Temporary buffer against the impacts of erosion and flooding caused by factors such as sea level rise, storm 120 stabilization surge, and wave attacks. 

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Fisheries sector Contributes to the protection of rural livelihoods, food security and marine biodiversity against the impacts 125 good practices of extreme climate events, precipitation change, ocean acidification, sea level rise and sea surface warming.

Mariculture best Integration of climate change considerations helps safeguard against extreme climate events, precipitation management 130 change, ocean acidification, sea level rise and sea surface warming. practices

Tourism best Integration of climate change concerns helps promote the sector’s sustainability as well as safeguard against management 133 extreme climate events, precipitation change, sea level rise and sea surface warming. practices

HUMAN SAFETY AND SAFETY ENHANCED AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Community- By proactive planning and capacity building that addresses the specific needs of local communities, increases based disaster risk 139 their resilience and ability to respond to the effects of extreme climate events and flooding. reduction

Flood hazard Informs coastal planning processes and policy, reducing the impact of flooding resulting from storm events, 143 mapping heavy rains, storm surges, and extreme tides.

OVERARCHING PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Coastal watershed Preserves estuaries, which act as storm buffers and protect against coastal groundwater salinization. 149 management

Integrated coastal Provides a comprehensive process that defines goals, priorities, and actions to address coastal issues, including 154 management the effects of climate change.

Special area Improves the management of discreet geographic areas where there are complex coastal management issues 

management and conflicts, including issues related to extreme climate events, precipitation change, ocean acidification, sea 160

planning level rise and temperature change.
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

FUNCTIONING AND 

HEALTHY COASTAL 

ECOSYSTEMS

1. COASTAL WETLAND PROTECTION AND RESTORATION

2. MARINE CONSERVATION AGREEMENTS

3. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS 

4. PAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 75

functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

1. COASTAL WETLAND PROTECTION 

AND RESTORATION

Coastal wetlands protection and restoration initiatives 

are commonly incorporated into policy and regulatory 

frameworks and are implemented by government and 

non-government organizations as well as citizens and 

industry. Programs acknowledge the critical functions 

of wetlands in providing nursery habitats for fisheries, 

serving as a natural water filter for pollution, acting 

as a buffer against coastal ecosystems, and providing 

other ecosystems services for communities and their 

livelihoods.

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Conservation of coastal wetlands is both a climate 

change mitigation and climate change adaptation 

strategy. Wetlands mitigate greenhouse gas emissions as 

they store significant amounts of carbon in plants and 

soils.

Natural wetland habitats have proven their ability to 

protect and buffer communities against storm surge, 

erosion and floods. Because wetlands perform these 

and many other vital functions that reduce the impacts 

of climate change, conserving and restoring them is an 

important adaptation strategy.

That said, a lack of definitive information on sea level 

rise and its impacts on wetlands may constrain future 

efforts to protect them. There is also the challenge 

related to site selection for restoration—i.e., how are 

changing conditions expected to impact the effectiveness 

of restoration in a specific site/area?

Most countries have wetland protection and 

restoration programs of various types that contribute 

to their environmental management objectives. Many 

international conferences, declarations and agreements 

call for wetland protection. One of these is The 

Convention on Wetlands. Signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 

1971, it is an intergovernmental treaty that provides 

the framework for national action and international 

cooperation for the conservation and wise use of 

wetlands and their resources. It currently has 158 

Contracting Parties with 1743 wetland sites totaling 

161 million hectares designated for inclusion in the 

Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Marine/coastal wetlands encompass mangrove swamps, 

seagrass beds, estuarine waters, freshwater and brackish 

lagoons, and intertidal mud, sand, or salt flats and 

marshes. Wetlands are such valuable natural areas and 

are so difficult to recreate, that it is critically important 

to conserve and restore them.

Coastal wetlands are among the world’s most productive 

environments and perform a host of ecological and 

hydrological functions that benefit humankind. They 

provide the water and primary productivity upon 

which countless species of plants and animals depend 

for survival. They are cradles of biological diversity and 

home to economically important species, such as fish 

and crustaceans. They support a range of livelihoods 

and provide food security for coastal communities.

In addition to providing important livelihood resources 

for rural coastal communities, coastal wetland also 

supply other vital ecosystem services. This include 

providing protection against future climate change 

and variability. Coastal wetlands act as natural buffers 

against extreme weather events, storm surge and erosion 

and they limit salt-water intrusion. Low lying wetlands 

function as natural sponges by limiting the impact of 

floods. 
76 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

•

•

•

•

Map remaining intact coastal wetland systems in 

the region using field surveys, together with remote 

sensing imagery (where available) to distinguish salttolerant species from freshwater species.

Analyze the vulnerability of the wetland to storms and 

sea-level rise to establish priorities for protection and 

restoration. Post-storm evaluation of wetlands and 

adjacent land impacts provides valuable information 

on the resilience of wetlands and their storm buffer 

capacities.

Determine freshwater flow requirements to support 

the maintenance of estuarine mangroves and other 

brackish water wetlands. Consider potential climate 

change impacts on freshwater flows. 

Determine candidate sites for restoring degraded 

wetlands to original functions, given the long-term 

potential of sea level rise, salinity, and storm events

Coastal topography and wetland migration

a) smooth slope with migrating band 

of wetlands and open water surfaces.

b) steep slope may prevent landward 

migration of wetlands until the rising 

waters reach the top of the slope, 

and water is shallow enough for 

wetland creation. 

Source: OECD 2007 http://www.oecd.

org/dataoecd/36/22/38574805.pdf

a. Wetland and open water migration

b. Net loss until “nick point”

MANGROVE PLANTING PROJECTS IN NORTHERN VIETNAM

Mangroves and coastal wetlands are natural assets in defending coastlines from the dangers of wind and 

storm surge. In northeast Vietnam, thousands of hectares of mangroves have been planted and protected 

since 1994 for this very purpose. Previously, coastal storms would often breach dikes, wreaking havoc 

in both human and economic terms. However, thanks largely to the new mangroves, in the aftermath of 

typhoon Wukong, which pummeled the northeast coast of Vietnam in 2000, neither dike damage nor loss 

of human life was reported. Since then, the mangroves have successfully reduced dike maintenance costs by 

millions of US dollars per year. The mangroves have also contributed to better livelihoods for inhabitants as 

a result of the wealth of crabs, shrimps, and mollusks provided by the mangroves.

Source: IFRC, 2002

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Wetlands are extremely sensitive to sea level rise 

and delta submergence. The rate at which wetlands 

change because of sea level rise depends largely on 

the topography, profile, and habitats that are situated 

landward of existing wetlands. In a general sense, rising 

waters on a gently rising continuous surface should 

result in a band of wetlands migrating landward (Figure 

1), as long as: 1) there are no barriers (i.e. development), 

and 2) the soil and hydrological conditions are favorable. 

Whether or not new wetlands will make up for the 

shoreward wetlands lost to rising water will depend on 

the details of the coastal surface—i.e., the complexity 

of the topography in terms of swales, depressions, 

and overall drainage density. It should be noted that 

the steeper the slope, the more narrow the migrating 

wetland fringe—as the appropriate water depths for 

wetlands growth will cover a narrower portion of the 

sloped profile. To a large degree, natural migration of 

wetlands will also depend on the nature of land use in 

newly inundated areas.
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 77

•	

•	

•	

•	

COASTAL WETLAND PROTECTION AND RESTORATION

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

The other common shoreline topography affecting 

natural migration occurs where there are discontinuities 

in the slope. For example, there may be abrupt rises in 

the slope as seen in profile b in Figure 1. Under this 

scenario, wetlands will be lost since the water becomes 

too deep to support wetland vegetation. No new 

wetlands can form until the water levels rise above the 

steep slope, at which time, the gently sloping surface 

will be shallow enough to support wetlands once again. 

How long it takes for the water to reach that point 

depends on the elevation of the nick point or bluff and 

the rate of sea level rise. Where wetlands are not able 

to migrate inland due to topographic and other natural 

constraints, one option is to create new wetlands in 

suitable areas to compensate for those that are lost. 

There are other considerations in designing coastal 

wetlands conservation, migration and restoration.

Prioritize those sites for habitat restoration that allow 

natural recession landward and thus provide resilience 

to sea level rise. Climate change scenarios should 

inform priorities for protection and rehabilitation.

Select restoration sites for re-vegetation, sediment 

nourishment and conservation agreements that 

provide multiple critical functions (e.g., storm buffer 

for coastal communities and endangered species 

habitat).

Redefine flood hazard zones to match projected 

expansion of flooding frequency.

In many countries, there is no one overarching policy 

on wetlands protection in spite of growing recognition 

of their importance. The institutional framework 

surrounding wetlands is often complex with many 

federal and state level agencies (with and without 

regulatory power over wetlands), municipal authorities, 

research and scientific institutions, nongovernmental 

organizations (NGOs), and civil society groups involved 

in various aspects of wetland management. Institutional 

and governance considerations for developing 

adaptation strategies for wetlands protection in the 

context of climate change should include the following:

Establish or enforce land and water-based zoning 

requirements.

Restrict sand mining, fishing, mangrove cutting, and 

other activities in protected wetland areas.

Adopt ordinances that protect coastal wetlands 

from development while taking into consideration 

ecological and equity issues.

Strengthen effective management and enforcement 

systems.

Develop plans for removal of structures and vessels 

that are stranded in wetlands after a storm so the 

habitat is not destroyed.

Identify special considerations for wetlands in 

highly urbanized areas, to determine how to protect 

the wetlands functions, while protecting existing 

development. This may require that certain wetlands 

are prioritized over others for future protection in the 

face of climate change impacts.

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

An obstacle for wetlands protection involves 

the preference for constructing “hard” shoreline 

stabilization over installing “soft” measures. Seawalls 

and shoreline armoring impedes adaptation of wetlands 

to migrate landward with sea level rise. Careful analysis 

of the location and designs of shoreline protection is 

warranted in areas with coastal wetlands. If wetlands 

preservation and future sea-level rise are discounted, 

coastal structures will contribute to the loss of wetlands 

or the severe transformation of their functions. There 

are, however, some ways to overcome these obstacles.

When undertaking wetland conservation and 

restoration, use a decision-making process that is 

transparent and participatory and where there are 

opportunities for consultation and negotiation with 

all stakeholders within the landscape.

Carry out wetland restoration in coastal areas with 

reference to existing national laws, wetlands policy 

and action plans.

Develop community-led approaches for protection 

and restoration of wetlands, drawing on traditional 

knowledge and practices and with provision of 

incentives for sustainable livelihood development.

Ensure that all relevant government departments 

are consulted and play a central role in restoration 

together with the local communities.
78 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

•	

•	

Use an integrated, inter-sectoral and multi-scale 

approach.

Adopt a landscape approach to restoration—

ecosystems do not function as closed, but as open 

systems that are affected by ecological processes that 

occur in a larger scale.

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC). 2002. Mangrove planting saves lives 

and money in Vietnam. I FRC News Stories, 19 June 2002, IFRC Disaster Preparedness Activities.

www.ifrc.org/docs/news/02/061902

McLeod, E. and R. V. Salm. 2006. Managing Mangroves for Resilience to Climate Change. 

The World Conservation Union (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland.

http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/managing_mangroves_for_resilience_to_climate_change.pdf

Technical Guidelines for the Establishment of a Coastal Greenbelt. March 2007. The 

World Conservation Union (IUCN). Sri Lanka Country Office.

http://global.wetlands.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=pzipyYafZHQ%3d&language=en-US

WEBSITES

The RAMSAR Classification System.

http://www.ramsar.org/ris/key_ris_types.htm

The RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands.

http://www.ramsar.org/
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 79

functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

2. MARINE CONSERVATION AGREEMENTS

Marine Conservation Agreements are a technique 

to reach conservation goals. A formal or informal 

agreement is established between two or more parties 

who obligate themselves for an exchange of benefits, to 

take certain actions, to refrain from certain actions, or 

to transfer certain rights and responsibilities in order to 

achieve agreed upon ocean or coastal conservation goals. 

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Marine Conservation Agreements (MCAs) are used 

to restore and protect fragile coastal and marine 

ecosystems that can attenuate the effects of sea level rise 

and storm surges. Examples of such ecosystems include 

barrier islands, shellfish reefs, coral reefs, seagrass beds, 

mangrove forests, and coastal forests. Restoring and 

protecting these natural areas can also influence local 

climate and play a role in carbon sequestration. When 

undertaken in collaboration with nature-oriented 

businesses, MCAs can improve social and economic 

conditions of coastal communities through fisheries, 

mariculture, and tourism activities. MCAs, commonly 

implemented by non-governmental or private parties, 

complement formal Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) 

by serving as catalysts for the formal establishment of 

MPAs. Functionally, they serve to protect areas similar 

to MPAs, or provide a mechanism for local stakeholder 

involvement in collaborative management of MPAs. 

The MCA is a flexible measure that can be applied by 

a variety of organizations, in a range of situations and 

locations (Table 1). Examples of successful MCAs are 

found in nearly every U.S. state. They also exist at the 

country level, including but not limited to Chile, Costa 

Rica, Ecuador, Fiji, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines, 

Spain, and Tanzania.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

The MCA is an extension of the arrangement where 

private, for-profit entities routinely enter into 

agreements and acquire rights to areas for a wide range 

of purposes such as marinas, utility lines, gravel mining, 

aquaculture, and oil extraction. In many parts of the 

world, marine tenure systems assign communities and 

fishing cooperatives with the rights to marine areas. 

NGOs are now using this model, in collaboration with 

local communities and governments, for an expanded 

list of purposes that include protecting the marine 

environment in specific areas, promoting harvesting 

methods, and limiting access to fragile resources. 

MCAs enable communities, municipalities or NGOs 

to work with the owners (whether public or private) 

of lands and resources lying within marine areas to 

improve levels of protection. They are particularly 

effective when property rights are well-established. They 

can, however, also be used where communities engage 

in collective management. Environmentally important 

intertidal, subtidal, subsurface, surface/air, and adjacent 

terrestrial areas can be included as the focus of an MCA 

(see Figure 1). MCAs promote the continuation of 

existing or the development of future sustainable uses. 

Example uses are for coastal agriculture, aquaculture, 

seagrass beds, coral reefs, timber production, and other 

valuable ecosystem services (fish and wildlife habitat, 

clean water, clean air, or scenic open space). MCAs 

can prohibit certain activities, guide owners and users 

in conservation practices, or confer specific rights, 

interests, or uses to NGOs. These details are spelled out 

in the legal document that typically serves as the formal 

mechanism establishing the MCA.
80 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

The information needed before deciding to apply this 

measure may be similar to that needed to assess the 

feasibility and desirability of choosing the following 

measures: marine protected areas, payments for 

environmental services, living shorelines and other 

measures related to how specific economic sectors use 

natural areas.

Conservation priorities—clearly identify what is to 

be protected or managed.

Threats and strategies—understand the threats 

(including the effects of climate change) to 

conservation priorities and how MCAs can help 

mitigate the threats.

Ownership and current uses of the lands and 

resources—assess these related to the priorities and 

threats in order to ensure all important parties are 

included in the agreement.

Applicable laws and policies—give these careful 

consideration as they provide the legal framework.

Parties to the agreement and other stakeholders—

identify and consult with these prior to and during 

the implementation of an MCA project.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Essential design elements for MCA projects include 

conservation commitments, benefits accruing to 

parties, compliance and enforcement mechanisms, 

and duration of agreement.

While MCAs can be used to protect numerous 

features of the ocean and coastal environment, most 

typically they are applied to finfish, shellfish and their 

habitats.

When possible, MCAs should involve the direct 

participation and agreement of local communities as 

well as provide opportunities for local employment.

MCAs can be applied at different scales depending 

on project goals, from small scales (less than five 

hectares) to extremely large scales (up to 400,000 sq. 

kms.)

Costs and financing—the initial and long-term 

costs associated with the grantor incentives and 

management of lands and resources should be 

identified and sustainable arrangements for financing 

should be arranged.

Estimate the likely impacts of climate change on 

the area or resources targeted for protection. Ensure 

the terms, conditions, benefits, areas, and resources 

identified in the MCA account for these. 

Changes in sea level, sea temperature, and salinity, 

and storm events may bring about changes in areas 

of important biodiversity that are targeted for 

protection. For example, coastal ecosystems may 

migrate upland, if the terrain allows. Or, they may 

disappear if migration is not a possibility. While this 

constraint is not unique to MCAs, it needs to be a 

consideration in the planning of any MCA project.

Typically, MCAs are consummated through legally 

binding documents/mechanisms signed by two or 

more parties. Common examples of formal MCA 

mechanisms include leases, licenses, easements, 

management agreements, purchase and sale agreements, 

concessions, and contracts. These formal mechanisms 

are often defensible in courts. Judicial systems in 

developing countries, however, can be ill-equipped for 

this. Hence, many MCAs rely on the benefit streams 

and close binding relationships between the parties to 

promote enforcement. In other cases, some MCAs rely 

on informal governance arrangements—based on goodwill and verbal promises—in lieu of formal documents. 

In some cultures, formal documents and judicial 

procedures are foreign instruments, making informal 

arrangements the only practical option. Whether 

making formal or informal agreements with NGOs 

or communities, it is important to determine who is 

authorized to engage in such agreements on behalf of 

the community.

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

The primary reason MCAs are attractive compared to 

other climate change adaptation measures is that they 

are based on agreed upon terms and conditions that 

clearly define the roles and responsibilities of each party 

and their benefits.

MCAs provide tangible benefits to both the grantors 

and the grantees. The flow of benefits should be 

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 81

MARINE CONSERVATION AGREEMENTS

monitored periodically and consistently throughout 

the duration of the agreement based on agreedupon performance standards. Providing a “stream” of 

benefits over time helps ensure all parties will continue 

to abide by the terms of the agreement. Grantors 

(the owners and users of the land or resources) may 

receive incentives in the form of direct cash payments, 

tax deductions, community social services and 

infrastructure, employment opportunities, cultural 

preservation, and pride in local accomplishments. In 

return, grantees (NGOs or nature-oriented businesses) 

often receive a public or social benefit in the form of 

“protection” for lands or resources through ownership, 

access restrictions, harvest restrictions, or management 

guarantees. Continuous communication is helpful in 

reminding parties about the purpose of the agreement 

and providing evidence of its success or failure.

An implementation issue specific to MCAs related to 

how boundaries associated with the rights, interests, or 

activities identified within the MCAs change as habitats 

and resources change or migrate. Will the area of the 

MCA migrate as habitats and resources migrate? Or, 

will the MCA remain stationary as the original areas 

targeted for protection migrate? This issue can and 

should be identified and resolved within the language 

of the MCA document.

Given their innovative nature, MCA projects benefit 

from personal leadership and advocacy. Successful 

project leaders take into account the cultural, social, 

political, and economic characteristics and decisionmaking styles of the local communities. This is especially 

important when using informal agreements.

Surface/Air

Subsurface

Intertidal

Subtidal

Terrestrial

Ocean and Coastal Areas Applicable to MCAs

Elements and Variables of Marine Conservation Agreements

Mechanisms Parties Benefits

Examples

Formal Informal Grantor Grantee Incentive Protection

•	 Purchase & •	 Verbal •	 Private •	 NGOs •	 Direct •	 Ownership •	 Chile

sale individuals payments •	 Handshake •	 Communities •	 Access •	 Costa Rica

•	 Lease •	 Private •	 Social services •	 Ecotourism •	 Harvest •	 Ecuador companies •	 Easement Companies •	 Infrastructure •	 Management •	 Mexico •	 Communities •	 License •	 Aquaculturists •	 Jobs •	 Tanzania •	 Local Govt. •	 Permit •	 Other •	 Culture •	 Tropical Isl. •	 State Govt. for-profits •	 Concession •	 Pride •	U.S. •	 Fed’l Govt. •	 Contract •	U.K.

•	 Behavior changes

•	 Laws/regulations

Duration defined or undefined Lead implementer •	 Private MPAs

•	 Community MPAs

•	 State/Fed’l MPAs

Source: http://www.leaseown.org/pdf/PMCA_Workshop/1_MCAWorkshop_FullProceedings.pdf
82

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

In 2006, the Government of Kiribati declared the Phoenix Islands archipelago and waters surrounding them 

as the third largest marine protected area in the world, officially named the Phoenix Islands Protected Area 

(PIPA). The Phoenix Islands Protected Area is a unique partnership between the Government of Kiribati 

that owns the Phoenix Islands, non-governmental conservation organizations (the New England Aquarium 

and Conservation International) and regional governments. The PIPA will be supported by a unique 

"reverse fishing license" financing program in which the Government of Kiribati will be reimbursed for the 

amount that they would have made from selling fishing licenses if PIPA were not protected. The trust will 

be administered by the Government of Kiribati and an advisory board, working collaboratively to ensure 

the long-term sustainability of this remarkable place. One of the many important natural features that PIPA 

will protect is coral reefs. 

Coral reefs worldwide are now threatened by impacts associated with global climate change. Specifically, 

coral reef "bleaching" is caused by many factors that might stress the coral, such as rising water, 

temperatures, pollution, solar radiation, changing salinity, and bacterial infections. The death of corals and the 

resulting disappearance of reefs would result in the loss of an uncountable number of marine invertebrates 

and fishes that rely on the physical structure of the reef for survival. Coral reefs sustain large numbers of 

people that rely on fishing for daily food and income. They also protect coastlines by absorbing constant 

wave energy from the ocean, thereby protecting people living near the coast from increased storm 

damage, erosion and flooding. While free from the local stresses that degraded reefs might cause coral 

bleaching, the Phoenix Islands have not been spared the threat of global warming. In late 2002 one of the 

hottest ever-recorded warming events that has affected any reef around the world hit the Phoenix Islands. 

Because of their remote and pristine nature, high levels of damage were restricted to small areas within 

the Phoenix Islands, with many reef areas showing greater resistance and resilience to bleaching than have 

been documented elsewhere in the world. Their remoteness and the guaranteed protection by the Phoenix 

Islands Protected Area will help the Phoenix Islands to remain as one of the least-impacted reef systems to 

climate change and serve as a model target for protecting and rehabilitating other reefs heavily degraded by 

humans.

For more information, see:

http://phoenixislands.org/works.html

http://www.leaseown.org/DEVEL/Field_Projects/Agreement_Phoenix_Islands.html

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Aaronson, D. and M. Manuel, 2008, Conservation Easements and Climate Change. Sustainable Development Law and Policy, Winter, 2008.

http://www.goldbergkohn.com/assets/attachments/110.pdf

The Nature Conservancy. Conservation Easements: All About Conservation Easements.

http://www.nature.org/aboutus/howwework/conservationmethods/privatelands/conservationeasements/about/allabout.html

WEBSITES

The Nature Conservancy. 2008. Marine Conservation Agreements: A Practitioner’s Toolkit.

http://www.leaseown.org
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 83

functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

3. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are defined by the 

World Conservation Union (IUCN) as “any area 

of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its 

overlaying waters, and associated flora, fauna, historical 

and cultural features, which has been reserved by law 

or other effective means to protect part, or all, of the 

enclosed environment.”

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Healthy ecosystems that are effectively managed are 

likely to be more resilient to the effects of climate 

change by reducing other stressors. For example, 

coral reefs protected from overfishing and pollution 

have been shown to be more resistant and resilient to 

bleaching events. Effectively managed marine protected 

areas (MPAs) can be used to strategically target habitats 

and geographic areas that are critical to maintaining 

ecosystem goods (such as fisheries) and services (such as 

coastal protection, tourism and recreational use). In the 

face of climate events, MPAs can be used to:

Maintain “coastal buffering” habitats, such as 

mangrove forests and coral reefs;

Maintain fisheries productivity through healthy coral 

reefs, mangrove forests and seagrass meadows; 

Serve as “refugia” and critical sources of new larval 

recruits after a coral bleaching event or as species 

ranges shift with changing climes;

Allow space for habitats to “migrate” up and along 

shores as sea level and temperatures rise.

Countries around the world from tropical to polar 

climates have established MPAs to maintain ecosystem 

functions, conserve biodiversity and wildlife, and 

protect cultural and tourism sites. The Convention on 

Biological Diversity strongly recommends a global effort 

to fully protect at least 30% of representative coastal

and marine habitats by the year 2010. 

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

MPAs are useful spatial planning tools that allow for 

targeted management and different resource uses within 

a defined geographic area. MPAs can be embedded 

within larger management and zoning efforts - such 

as coastal zone management, seascapes or networks 

of MPAs - or used as a stand-alone measure. Ideally, 

MPAs should be part of a larger management effort, 

but the lack of resources and capacity often necessitate 

a more limited and targeted approach. MPAs have a 

range of sizes, configurations and functions. MPAs can 

range from small, locally managed areas that are only a 

few hectares in size, to vast international transboundary 

MPAs. Regardless of their size or configuration, most 

MPAs use zoning schemes to designate certain areas for 

particularly human uses or for ecological reserves. Such 

zoning serves multiple objectives including helping to 

reduce user conflicts while protecting highly valued 

habitat and resources. Most MPAs include at least 

one core area within which all extractive and direct 

impact activities such as fishing and boat anchoring 

are prohibited; these critical ecological reserves serve 

to maintain ecosystem function and integrity and can 

contribute to fisheries productivity.

Regulations on resource access and use can be tailored 

to each MPA based on that area’s unique ecological 

and social conditions. These regulations can reduce 

direct impacts to valued ecosystems and support the 

recovery and/or replenishment of habitat and fisheries. 

MPAs can also attract tourism by protecting the health 

and beauty of the very habitat that draws visitors 

to the areas. Local communities and stakeholders 

can effectively implement and manage small scale 

MPAs when granted the appropriate governance or 

management authority. This can reduce the strain on 

•	

•	

•	

•	
84 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

national/provincial governments, which often do not 

have the funding needed to carry out a centralized 

administration of protected areas. “Ownership” by the 

local stakeholders of the MPA, where they understand 

and appreciate the benefits of the MPA, is critical to 

successful management.

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•	

RESPONSE TO CORAL BLEACHING EVENT IN THE SEYCHELLES

In its response to the 1998 coral bleaching event, the Seychelles Government and partners assessed 

resources to determine factors leading to resilience (e.g. areas of increased currents, shading, and marginal 

coral reefs). Together with an extensive monitoring program, the government increased protection for key 

refugia areas and installed moorings for areas impacted by anchors. Areas capable of high resilience will be 

considered for future expansion of the MPA network.

Source: Marshall, P. and H. Schuttenburg. 2006. A Reef Manager’s Guide to Coral Bleaching. 

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia.

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS FOR ESTABLISHING 

A MARINE PROTECTED AREA

Establishing a MPA requires in part some unique 

information. There are simple techniques to help in 

gathering this information with the help of resource 

users and community members.

Compile or develop resource maps that depict 

key habitat, species location, and population and 

migration patterns. Identify the areas that may be 

more resilient to sea surface temperature change, or 

can help mitigate against sea level rise or increased 

frequency of storms.

Identify nearshore currents and source and sink 

areas for seeds/larvae to replenish species in the 

MPA. Determine if there are areas with reduced 

water circulation, upwelling and high sea-surface 

temperatures, which might be increasingly vulnerable 

to climate change. 

Determine the types and intensities of resource uses 

and identify stakeholder dependency on fishing, 

tourism, and mining in the area. 

Identify existing community resident perceptions of 

resource access and use rights.

Identify the larger watersheds and river systems 

affecting the MPA, nearby human settlements and 

up-current sources of pollutants. This information 

is similar to that needed for integrated coastal and 

water resources management planning.

Determine which species and habitats are most 

vulnerable currently and in the future. Determine 

representative and replicate sites as insurance against 

future impacts. 

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Use the MPA’s goals and objectives as a guide to site 

selection and configuration criteria.

Based on objectives, identify high priority areas for 

representativeness of habitat and refugia. Consider 

both current and future conditions and vulnerabilities 

when prioritizing. To increase resilience of MPAs to 

climate change include representative areas of key 

habitat and species and protect refugia that provide 

sources of seeds and larvae. If possible, locate parts 

of the MPA up-current from sources of pollutants—

e.g., rivers, and areas that are urbanized or prone to 

sedimentation.

Locate MPAs close to communities to enable shorebased surveillance, which encourages enforcement.

Consider the habitat of and the capacity for managing 

the MPA, as well as all its goals, in deciding the size 

of the MPA and its design—e.g., it is better as one 

large area or several small areas. For example, in small 

rural coastal communities, several smaller areas may 

be more manageable than one large area., but may 

not be as resilient and may incur more impacts. 

Make the shape of the MPA simple and easily 

defined, using permanent markers placed into the 

substrate, floating buoys, or natural markers such as 

shore-based physical structures or coastline features. 
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 85

•	

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

Design an enforcement program including penalties 

for non-compliance with resource use and access 

rules.

Design and implement a simple community monitoring 

program to evaluate impacts of human behavior, 

climate change, and ecological changes on the MPA and 

its resources; and use this information to make rapid 

management adaptations as necessary.

An MPA is chosen from candidate locations. 

In this example the MPA is within a coral reef 

that surrounds a small island. Typically the 

MPA has a core zone where uses are highly 

restricted and a buffer zone where some 

activities may occur. In the example, fishing is 

permitted only outside the MPA and its buffer 

zone.

(M. Squillante, www.ksgraphic.com)

Core Zone

Buffer Zone

Reef

Reef

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

There is limited understanding of exactly how marine 

ecosystems will respond to climate change at the local 

level. Thus, MPA managers must monitor ecological 

change and associated impacts to stakeholder interests. 

The manager then should use an adaptive management 

process that provides the flexibility to respond to climate 

change impacts on specific marine resources as and when 

those impacts become evident. Unfortunately, there are 

many existing natural and anthropogenic stresses both 

inside and outside the MPA boundaries. Incorporating 

MPAs within a larger coastal management program for 

the area can assist in addressing widespread impacts 

from beyond the boundaries of an MPA. Locally 

managed marine areas have been successful when 

stakeholders are engaged, partnerships are formed and 

tangible benefits are perceived.

MPA management requires sufficient budget for data 

collection, mapping, monitoring and enforcement. 

The creation of MPAs could also result in opportunity 

costs related to lost fishing grounds. This latter cost, 

however, can be reduced by offsetting this figure with 

the estimated potential value from increased numbers 

and size of species expected to migrate out of the 

MPA—this is referred to as the spillover effect. Other 

benefits could include increased revenue streams from 

tourism to the MPA and increased opportunity costs 

of preserving an area in its natural state, such as greater 

value from a healthy coastal buffer.

Participatory planning processes are now the standard 

for effectively designing and managing MPAs and 

help address and diffuse potential resistance to them. 

Stakeholders need to participate early on in the process 

when debating the benefits of establishing an MPA as 

a management tool, deciding upon the zoning scheme, 

and establishing rules to balance conservation goals with 

economic interests. Cooperative management systems 

are often effective in building trust and compliance with 

MPA rules.
86 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Marshall, P and H. Schuttenburg. 2006. A Reef Manager’s Guide to Coral Bleaching. 

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia.

http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/a_reef_managers_guide_to_coral_bleaching

IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (IUCN-WCPA) (2008). Establishing Marine Protected Area Networks—Making It 

Happen. IUCN-WCPA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and The Nature Conservancy. Washington, D.C.

http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/mpanetworksmakingithappen_en.pdf

Pomeroy, R.S., Parks, J.E. and Watson, L.M. (2004). How is Your MPA Doing? A Guidebook of Natural and Social Indicators 

for Evaluating Marine Protected Areas Management Effectiveness. IUCN, Gland Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

http://cms.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/marine/marine_our_work/marine_mpas/mpa_publications.cfm?uNewsID=2094

Grimsditch, G.D. and R.V. 2005. Coral Reef Resilience and Resistance to Bleaching. IUCN, Gland Switzerland 

http://www.reefresilience.org/pdf/coral_reef_resilience_gg-rs.pdf

WEBSITES

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Current Operational Coral Bleaching Hot Spots for the year 2008.

http://www.osdpd.noaa.gov/PSB/EPS/SST/climohot.html

Reef Resilience. Building Resilience into Coral Reef Conservation. The Nature Conservancy.

http://www.reefresilience.org/
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 87

•	

•	

•	

•	

functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

4. PAYMENT FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES

Payments for environmental services (PES) refers 

to various financial instruments that can be used 

to provide long term funding for environmental 

management policies and actions. These can be either 

voluntary or mandatory in nature. They usually involve 

some exchange of financial resources to compensate the 

parties who own, use or control an important natural 

resource or ecosystem for the costs of practicing good 

stewardship and sustainable use (or non-use) of that 

resource. 

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Healthy ecosystems provide services that can help 

coastal communities minimize damages from severe 

storms (river and coastal flooding, storm surges), 

reduce coastal erosion, and help support community 

livelihoods, recreation and ecotourism. Most of the 

ecosystem services supported by PES investments can 

be justified on the basis of current climate conditions 

and represent no-regrets adaptation measures. Making 

projections about ecosystem response is often difficult. 

Future accelerated climate change and variability could 

impact the relative values of ecosystem services. In 

addition, under changed climate conditions, areas not 

currently highly valued for PES could be so valued in 

the future. 

Hundreds of PES programs have been implemented in 

North America, Central America and the Caribbean, 

South America, Africa, and Asia. Most have focused 

on one or more ecosystem services. Most often, PES 

transactions focus on biodiversity protection, water 

supply and regulation, and carbon sequestration. 

Large scale PES initiatives have been implemented in 

Costa Rica, China, and Mexico. Several international 

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) including 

World Wildlife Fund and The Nature Conservancy 

are involved in the design and management of PES 

programs. The Katoomba Group conducted a survey 

of PES programs in four African countries (Kenya, 

Tanzania, Uganda, and South Africa) that identified 

17 carbon projects, 18 biodiversity projects and 10 

water projects at various levels of development. Twenty 

percent of these already featured financial transactions. 

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Payment for ecosystem services is one of several 

economic instruments designed to ensure that services 

that contribute to adaptation strategies and increase 

resilience to climate variability and change are provided 

on a sustainable basis. In PES arrangements, the 

suppliers of ecosystem services are compensated for 

engaging in sustainable best management practices by 

the beneficiaries of those services. 

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment classifies 

ecosystem services into four groups:

Provisioning services—food, fresh water, biomass 

fuel, fiber, and genetic resources

Regulating services—climate regulation, water 

regulation, water purification, natural hazard 

regulation, erosion regulation, pollination, and 

disease regulation

Cultural services—recreation and ecotourism, 

aesthetic, spiritual and religious, and cultural heritage

Supporting services—soil formation, nutrient 

cycling, water cycling, and primary production

PES works best when: 1) a consensus is reached on 

the importance and value of the ecosystem services, 2) 

beneficiaries are willing to pay for those services, and 3) 

suppliers (particularly private landowners) of ecosystem 

services can be identified and contracted to provide the 

services on a sustained basis. A variety of tools can help 

ensure the sustained provision of ecosystem services. 
88 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

There are legal instruments that include regulation and 

restrictions. There are voluntary programs that focus 

on awareness and moral suasion, and there are also 

economic instruments such as sanctions, taxes, and fees. 

The benefit of PES over regulatory approaches is that it 

can provide landowners with compensation that allows 

them to finance and adopt best management practices 

and/or pursue other livelihood options. 

PES programs have focused primarily on regulating 

services related to water supply, water purification, 

and erosion control plus carbon sequestration. PES 

arrangements financed by beneficiary groups such as 

hydropower producers and water companies, businesses 

and industries that require reliable supplies of fresh 

water have compensated owners and managers of 

forests and agricultural lands. In these cases, payments 

encourage owners to maintain land in desired uses and 

sustain or adopt best management practices. Today’s 

keen interest in carbon sequestration, is directing 

considerable attention to the reforestation of areas 

previously converted to agriculture. In coastal areas, 

there are a number of potential PES applications related 

to natural hazard regulation, recreation and ecotourism, 

and provisioning (crops, capture fisheries, aquaculture 

products).

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

While various reports and training materials present in 

different ways the steps to designing a PES program, 

the schematic below provides a good summary of these. 

Following are listed the essential steps of the PES 

design process as adapted from PES Learning Tools, 

The Katoomba Group. The first two steps focus on 

information gathering. This information is in addition 

to the scientific and technical data that might normally 

be compiled to address a particular environmental 

management problem.

Step 1: Identify and assess ecosystem services, sellers, 

and buyers

Define and measure ecosystem services, accounting 

for the incremental benefits of services related to 

mitigating climate change and variability

Assess market value, sellers, and potential buyers

Step 2: Assess institutional and technical capacity

Determine if laws and policies support PES

•	 Clarify land tenure and property rights

Identify implementing institutions and assess/build 

capacity

•	

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

The third and fourth steps focus on the design of 

agreements and implementation approach.

Step 3: Structure PES agreements

•	

•	

•	

Design basic management and business plan

Assess transaction costs and identify options for 

reducing them

Evaluate and select payment mechanism

Step 4: Implement PES program 

• Design and implement outreach/awareness program

Implement verification and monitoring protocol

Evaluate and report PES program progress

•

•

•	

•	

•	

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

PES programs have been successfully implemented 

throughout the world under a range of institutional 

arrangements. PES represents a no-regrets option. 

No-regrets means that the effort put into preparing 

the analysis and carrying out the related instruments 

produces benefits regardless of whether it offers 

additional benefits to aid in climate change adaptation. 

It is desirable to implement PES in most situations on 

the basis of current climate and variability. There are two 

potential and interlinked obstacles that may face PES 

transactions. First is assessing the likely climate impacts 

on the services. Second is quantifying the incremental 

benefits of the ecosystem services as they relate to 

climate change and variability. Where consensus cannot 

be reached on the magnitude of the incremental value, 

the PES program may still be implemented, but the 

negotiated value of ecosystem services will depend in 

part on the relative negotiating positions of buyers and 

sellers. 
PAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 89

In designing and implementing PES programs, a key 

consideration is transaction costs. This is a factor often 

overlooked in traditional planning and management 

approaches. Transaction costs include: 1) search costs—

finding buyers and sellers and establishing ecosystem 

values; 2) negotiation costs; 3) approval costs (where 

governmental support is required); 4) monitoring 

costs; 5) enforcement costs; and 6) insurance policy 

costs for compensation in the event of the loss of the 

good (adapted from USAID PES Sourcebook, 2007). 

The magnitude of transaction costs will depend on the 

spatial scale, number of market participants, and the 

complexity of the market and payment mechanisms. 

Many of these costs must be incorporated into and 

financed by the PES program. Thus, minimizing 

transaction costs, relative to the marketable financial 

value of ecosystem services, is key to establishing a 

successful PES program. 

In terms of adaptation, there may be economic costs if 

the incremental value of ecosystem services attributed 

to increasing resilience to climate change and variability 

are less than anticipated. In this scenario, buyers would 

have paid too much for environmental services. There 

would have been a greater investment in management 

than was necessary. In some cases, if the continued costs 

are much greater than the values received, PES contracts 

could be renegotiated or terminated.

PES programs also require a range of organizational 

skills and commitment over a long time period. Most 

local and national governments lack direct experience in 

designing PES programs. However, many international 

and regional NGOs do have this experience and can 

assist in designing and implementing PES programs. 

That said, governments must be prepared to adopt laws, 

policies, and/or administrative rules to facilitate the 

cost-effective and efficient operation of PES programs. 

Depending on the scale of the PES program, it also 

may be necessary to establish a permanent secretariat to 

manage transactions and monitor sellers’ performance 

in implementing PES management practices.

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Establishing Payments for 

Watershed Services. IUCN Water and Nature Toolkit Series.

http://www.iucn.org/search.cfm?uNewsID=2177

Katoomba Group. 2006. Current State of Play of Carbon, Water, and Biodiversity Markets.

http://www.katoombagroup.org/regions/africa/assessments.php

Katoomba Group. 2008. UNEP, Forest Trends. PES Learning Tools.

http://www.katoombagroup.org/learning_tools.php

Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management Collaborative Research Support 

Program (SANREM CRSP). October 2007. USAID PES Sourcebook.

http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/menu_research/PES.Sourcebook.Contents.php

The Nature Conservancy. May 2006. Ecosystem services – status and summaries.

http://www.nature.org/partners/files/ecosystem_services_may_20061.pdf

The World Bank. Best Practices in PES Design

http://go.worldbank.org/S4M19IKQN0

WEBSITES

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

http://www.millenniumassessment.org
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

BUILT ENVIRONMENT 

IS LESS EXPOSED

1. BEACH AND DUNE NOURISHMENT

2. BUILDING STANDARDS

3. COASTAL DEVELOPMENT SETBACKS

4. LIVING SHORELINES

5. STRUCTURAL SHORELINE STABILIZATION
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 91

built environment is less exposed

1. BEACH AND DUNE NOURISHMENT

Beach and dune nourishment is the process of adding 

sand to enlarge and enhance the beach and dune features 

along the coast. Planting grasses and native vegetation 

is often included with a dune nourishment project to 

enhance the habitat value and stabilize the dune feature. 

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

One of the most likely consequences of global warming 

and rising sea level is that low-lying coastal areas will 

experience greater and more frequent inundation and 

storm impacts. In coastal areas where the beach and dune 

area is limited by the input of mobile sand, the beach 

and dune will narrow as more and more of the beach 

is covered by rising sea level or eroded by waves and 

currents. This narrowing can be minimized or reversed 

by adding sand to the area through nourishment. 

The volume of sand and rate of nourishment can be 

modified and adjusted to adapt to rising sea level. This 

provides a flexible beach and dune buffer between the 

ocean and the fixed backshore area.

Nourishment has been used worldwide at various 

scales to enhance tourism beaches, protect landward 

development, create new land for development, 

and restore habitat. It has been used as a strategy 

for maintaining popular mass tourism destinations 

(Cancun, Bali, Durban, and Miami). 

Seymore, et.al, 1995.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Coastal experts have indicated that a majority of 

the world’s beaches are eroding due to both natural 

processes and manmade forces. As noted by the U.S. 

National Research Council, “Beach nourishment is a 

viable engineering alternative for shore protection and 

is the principal technique for beach restoration; its 

application is suitable for some, but not all, locations 

where erosion is occurring.” As with many shore 

protection alternatives, there are examples of successes 

and failures related to beach nourishment programs 

worldwide. 

Planting grasses and native vegetation is often included 

with a dune nourishment project to enhance the habitat 

value and stabilize the dune feature. Nourishment can 

increase the recreational and/or habitat value of the 

beach and dune. It protects infrastructure related to 

beach tourism industry, commercial and residential 

development. 

When beaches and dunes are wide and high enough to 

buffer the wave energy, they also help protect inland 

development from wave forces and coastal flooding. 

On shorelines with little or no beach area, waves will 

break against the backshore area or in the nearshore 

zone with run-up to the backshore. The energy in 

these waves and the run-up can be significant enough 
92 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED

to damage backshore developments through flooding, 

erosion, scour, and water damage. Often seawalls 

and revetments are built along the coast. These create 

hardened, engineered shorelines that can resist the wave 

forces, reduce backshore erosion and protect inland 

development. However, a broad sand beach or healthy 

beach and dune system can also direct the wave forces 

away from inland development. This provides a form of 

“soft” coastal protection. A nourished beach and dune 

system can further enhance this buffer and minimize 

or eliminate the need for hard shore protection, which 

often causes secondary impacts by eroding adjacent 

shorelines.

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

To determine if beach nourishment is feasible and 

desirable requires information similar to what is needed 

when assessing “living shorelines” and structural 

stabilization adaptation measures.

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	 • Historic data on changes in erosion and seasonal 

shorelines is essential. However, the past may not 

be predictive of the future. Accelerated sea level rise, 

changes in intensity/frequency of storm events or 

changes in the natural supplies of sediment to the 

coast may increase the rate of shoreline change.

Estimates of sea level rise over the period of time 

when beach nourishment will take place.

Information on existing patterns of wind, wave and 

current conditions. Consider potential changes to 

these parameters as a result of future climate change.

Estimates of the sediment budget of the beach. This 

is defined as the amount of sand entering and leaving 

the beach that is being nourished. Consider the effects 

of potential changes to the shoreline that may alter 

this sediment budget—e.g., when there is increased 

sea wall construction on adjacent properties. 

Inventory of sediment supplies for nourishment, 

including land and sea deposits. 

Inventory of ecological assets that may be affected and 

should be evaluated in the environmental assessment. 

This includes coral reefs, wetlands, sea grasses and 

beaches that host turtle nesting, bird migration, or 

marine mammal haul outs. 

•

•

•

•

•

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Clarify the goals of the nourishment program, and 

its anticipated benefits and beneficiaries. Ideally these 

should be incorporated within an overall regional 

beach management plan that looks beyond the area 

of immediate concern. 

Identify the costs and benefits of the beach 

nourishment. Also identify the time period 

during which the program will be in place (initial 

nourishment and future maintenance). 

Consider the potential for changing conditions, 

where sea level rise and increased frequency of storms 

may increase the scope of future maintenance. 

During the environmental assessment, identify 

potential impacts (positive and negative) today and 

in the future. Consider how changes in sea level, 

erosion patterns, and habitat conditions will impact 

critical habitats and natural beach processes. 

Identify potential future dredging projects that might 

provide a source of sediment. Utilize appropriate 

testing protocols to ensure consistency between the 

source of the sediment and the nourishment site (i.e. 

sediment size, chemical composition). 

Two main sources have and will continue to provide the 

sand for large beach nourishment efforts. These are sand 

from dredging and sand from offshore excavation. When 

a nearby port or harbor is dredged for safe navigation, 

the dredged material may be reused to nourish eroding 

beaches and dunes. There are two key considerations, 

however. The sediment type of the dredged material and 

that of the beach must be compatible. Also, the dredged 

sediments must be pollutant-free. 

When using dredged material to create/enhance 

dunes or intertidal/subtidal habitats, it is necessary to 

plant vegetation. This serves dual functions. It creates 

high quality habitat and stabilizes the sediment. In 

selecting the type of vegetation to plant, consider 

both existing and future conditions (i.e. salinity and 

temperature). Remember also that native species may 

be propagated from locally collected seed and plant 

banks.

Estimate future beach maintenance requirements, 

costs and frequency—making sure to consider 

changes in sea level, erosion, storm frequency. Also 

consider the future availability of sediment sources.
BEACH AND DUNE NOURISHMENT

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 93

Develop a beach monitoring program and a protocol 

for maintenance. 

Design a sustainable funding mechanism. 

Nourishment is a long term program that requires 

ongoing maintenance to be effective.

A beach nourishment program requires public policy 

decisions that take an integrated approach across 

environmental, social and economic disciplines. These 

will almost always also cross government agency 

jurisdictions and/or scales (municipal, provincial, 

national). An overall beach management plan for an 

area of coast can be part of a longer term vision for 

nourishment and would have a scope that goes beyond 

individual shorefront lots. Nourishment programs 

should be managed like all other public infrastructure—

i.e., ensuring there is funding and monitoring to support 

ongoing maintenance. When nourishment benefits only 

a certain economic sector (e.g., tourism) or a specific 

neighborhood or community, these beneficiaries should 

provide an appropriate level of cost-share toward the 

program. 

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

The cost of the nourishment must account for both 

the initial project investment and the long-term costs 

of maintenance or augmentation needed to achieve 

the goal of the program (e.g., to ensure a popular 

recreational beach remains above sea level). There are 

multiple benefits to account for as well. This includes 

the protection of the back shore; of the recreational and 

habitat value of the beach and dune; and of the tourism 

value that comes with maintaining a natural, nonarmored shoreline. Evidence of multiple environmental, 

social, and economic benefits for multiple stakeholders 

helps in justifying a potentially expensive nourishment 

program. 

Education and outreach for citizens and public officials 

should explain that beach and dune nourishment are 

shore protective options that can provide valuable 

recreational and habitat areas. Sand is very mobile 

and nourishment at one location can often provide 

long-term enhancement not only to the beach that 

is nourished but also to down-drift beaches. The 

recreational value of beaches is well recognized 

worldwide. Hence, some highly valued beaches may 

require nourishment to maintain high investments and 

market share. Coastal ecologists have focused attention 

on the complexity of the beach ecosystem and the 

importance of beach structure as habitat. This includes 

valued nesting areas for shore birds and sea turtles, haulout areas for marine mammals, and feeding grounds 

for migrating birds. Beach and dune nourishment may 

maintain the viability of this coastal habitat and its 

many related benefits, especially in a time of accelerated 

sea level rise and increased erosion. 

To keep costs low, a new, small scale beach and dune 

nourishment project or maintenance effort could make 

use of “opportunistic” sand. Opportunistic sand sources 

can include excavations from foundations (buildings 

or underground parking), slope cuts, site grading, or 

sand accumulated in reservoirs. However, utilizing 

opportunistic sand is not always the most appropriate 

solution. It may require setting up a temporary stockpile 

storage area—where materials can be stored until 

there is sufficient quantity to implement the project. 

Another reason is that opportunistic sand comes from 

a variety of inland locations and its grain size may not 

be compatible with the sediment requirements of the 

beach. Finally, it may have contaminants that could 

create health or water quality problems. Communities 

undertaking nourishment should develop a program 

to identify potential sources of sand (land or sea) and 

prepare protocols for testing, transport, stockpiling, and 

placement. 

The public needs to be educated on how beach 

nourishment projects are implemented. As a beach 

nourishment effort gets underway, there can be an 

array of construction-related impacts on the beach 

and its adjacent waters. There may be vehicles on the 

beach. Existing biomass may get buried. Turbidity may 

occur. Offshore sediment transport may affect fisheries, 

water quality, reefs and sea grass. While these impacts 

are often temporary, the public needs to be aware of 

and understand them. As well, the public also needs 

to understand that waves and currents can easily erode 

any beach and dune areas—whether formed by natural 

supplies of sand or by natural supplies augmented by 

nourishment. 

In most locations, beach and dune nourishment 

must occur on a regular basis to maintain the desired 

buffer areas. In 1995, the National Research Council 

examined beach nourishment and noted that it should 

be considered as an on-going process and not as a 

single, one-time project. Unfortunately, people are 

often uncomfortable with this as each nourishment 

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94 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED

event requires additional funding. Thus, it is important 

to make the point with stakeholders and decision makers 

that while a nourishment program is an ongoing effort 

with recurring costs, it can also generate many long term 

benefits that offset these costs.

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Cambers, G. 1998. Coping with Coastal Erosion. Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. UNESCO.

http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/source/ero1.htm (entire publication)

http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/source/ero19.htm (Case Study 5: Adding More Sand to the Beach)

Seymore, et. al, 1995. Committee on Beach Nourishment and Protection, Marine Board, National Research 

Council. 1995. Beach Nourishment and Protection, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=4984#toc

Dugan, J.E. and D. M. Hubbard. 2006. Ecological Responses to Coastal Armoring on 

Exposed Sandy Beaches, Shore & Beach v.74, n.1, 17 – 22. 

http://www.surfrider.org/files/DuganHubbard06.pdf

US Environmental Protection Agency and US Army Corps of Engineers. 1998. Evaluation of Dredged 

Material Proposed for Discharge in Waters of the U.S. – Testing Manual (The Inland Testing Manual). 

http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/itm/ITM/

WEBSITES

NOAA Coastal Services Center. Beach Nourishment: A Guide for Local Government Officials.

http://www.csc.noaa.gov/beachnourishment/index.htm
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 95

built environment is less exposed

2. BUILDING STANDARDS

Building standards identify minimum acceptable levels 

of safety for buildings and non-building structures. 

These standards promote health, safety, and welfare of 

the occupants. 

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Issues of human health and safety are key reasons for 

establishing standards and formalizing them into 

building codes. The demand for safer building practices 

has only increased with the aftermath of widespread 

destruction from such episodic disasters as the 2004 

Indian Ocean Tsunami or Hurricane Mitch in Central 

America in 1998. 

Climate change may bring increased storm activity, 

flooding, or sea level rise, which in turn will increase 

wind and wave forces on buildings, including in those 

areas not currently vulnerable. Changes in temperature 

and precipitation patterns could also promote mold, 

and affect the air quality and temperature within 

business and residential structures. 

Many developed and developing countries have 

incorporated building standards as mandatory 

procedures, although the scope and standards of 

application vary significantly. Model codes are available 

at the international level and at the regional level 

(e.g., the Caribbean Model Code adopted by various 

governments). Those developed by the International 

Standards Organization (ISO) offer practical solutions 

and incorporate a significant level of technological 

know-how that are being utilized or adapted in different 

situations. These include a growing recognition of 

climate change effects.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Building standards outline technical requirements for 

design and construction of residential and commercial 

structures. Standards are often formalized into codes. 

They also provide a basis for establishing a permitting 

program that requires municipal or state inspection 

officials to ensure structural integrity and maintain 

quality control in building practices. 

Typically, an industry standards organization defines 

minimum requirements. These can then be exceeded by 

the designer or the municipal authority adopting these 

standards. Standards cover many aspects of construction 

(i.e. structural integrity, electrical, plumbing, sanitation) 

and incorporate consideration of such issues as the 

impact of flooding, wave and wind forces on structures. 

Standards also exist for other infrastructure including 

dams, bridges, wastewater treatment facilities, wells, 

and on-site sewage systems.

Building codes, adopted by government officials at the 

local, state, province, national or international level, 

lay out the required standards for construction of new 

buildings, alterations to existing buildings, changes in 

the use of buildings, and demolition of buildings. 

Some building codes are prescriptive, and specify the 

specific materials, design and construction methods 

designers and builders must use. Other codes are 

performance- or objective-oriented—e.g., they specify 

the desired characteristics of the structure by outlining 

the goals and objectives to be achieved, but allow for a 

variety of methods or materials to meet the standards.

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

National or international codes are based on industrywide experience, but local adaptations can be made 

based on technical information about the unique 

circumstances of a municipality or region.
96 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

Estimate the magnitude and characteristics of current 

and future natural hazards of the area (e.g., wind 

speed, flooding, wave run-up) to determine how to 

design hazard-resistant buildings. 

Identify existing maps or models for wind, seismic 

activity, waves, and flooding so that it is clear where 

buildings may be subjected to extreme wind, water 

or wave action.

Design criteria that incorporate projections for future 

changes in intensity of storms (especially wind and 

wave conditions), flooding elevations, and sea level 

rise. 

Identify pre-established or model codes that may 

apply to the location of concern. Adapt these model 

codes for the specific building styles and engineering 

measures that will minimize the effects from expected 

hazards. 

Use evaluations of the local damages from past hazard 

events to inform decisions on potential solutions 

for the future. Coastal management programs may 

choose to adopt stricter requirements for various 

types of construction in the coastal environment, 

which then can be incorporated into municipal or 

state level codes.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Incorporate local practices, culture, and experience 

and make links to issues of health and safety.

For infrastructure that has a long design life, consider 

requiring the use of materials and techniques 

appropriate for changing climate conditions (heating, 

cooling, moisture considerations). 

Design and implement standards that reflect 

acceptable levels of risk from natural hazards. This is 

especially important for critical public facilities that 

may be a lifeline for communities in vulnerable areas 

or islands (e.g., shelters, hospitals, etc.) In some cases, 

buildings may need to be retrofitted to comply with 

code. Critical uses may simply need to be relocated 

to safer areas.

Identify the pros and cons of implementing 

prescriptive or performance-based codes.

Determine how industry best management practices 

and guidelines can complement the codes so that a 

climate of collaboration rather than conflict can be 

maintained.

Establish a system of enforcement and inspection 

to address day-to-day activities and emergency 

procedures for natural hazard disaster events—

ideally, have a plan in place for how local officials 

make decisions during disaster response and recovery 

that sets out which properties will be allowed to be 

reconstructed.

Develop financial or other incentives to effectively 

implement standards, which when applied will ensure 

buildings are more resilient to natural hazard events.

Provide the training necessary to raise the competency 

level of architects and inspectors. This includes 

ensuring they understand not only the current 

situation but predicted future conditions and how to 

develop climate change adaptation techniques.

Develop guidelines that reflect the standards and 

serve as a teaching tool for good practices for use by 

builders, artisans and local officials. Guidelines can be 

voluntary or can complement a regulatory program. 

Incorporate “green building” standards that reduce 

greenhouse gas emissions, considering such factors as 

options for ventilation and siting, water-reuse within 

wastewater systems or alternative energy sources.

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

Applying building codes can be costly and face 

resistance from consumers, designers, builders and 

local authorities. There is likely to be pressure from 

individuals, corporations, and trade associations to 

reduce the costs and bureaucracy that can accompany 

implementation of codes and thus hamper economic 

development. As a result, it is not always feasible 

to apply a new code without a phasing-in period. 

Successful implementation of building standards also 

requires strong political will to implement stringent 

building standards given the challenges of applying and 

enforcing them. 

Once established, however, building codes provide 

important guidance on acceptable methods for 

rebuilding after natural disasters in a way that reduces 

future losses of life and property. 

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

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BUILDING STANDARDS

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 97

It is essential to consider the costs to developers (private 

and public) of applying the building standards and to 

government for overseeing and enforcing them. While 

adhering to building standards/code may increase initial 

construction costs, it can reduce longer term costs to 

individuals and the community when recovering from 

a disaster. This includes the costs of replacing buildings 

and other infrastructure. Reconstruction after natural 

disasters may provide an opportunity to upgrade or 

retrofit buildings. It may be appropriate, in this case, 

to ensure that public buildings (including shelters and 

hospitals) adhere to a system of building standards, 

inspection and enforcement that exceeds minimum 

code. This strategy increases resiliency and minimizes 

damages and loss from future natural disasters and/or 

climate change. 

Enforcement capacity is the key to the effectiveness 

of building standards and codes for both the private 

and public sector. The system should include a 

mechanism for oversight of the permitting process 

and field operations. Inspections are a core element 

of the oversight process and are one way by which to 

determine compliance. 

Ongoing training is essential to any building standards/

code program. This is especially the case for local 

officials who are responsible for ensuring the standards 

are being effectively and consistently implemented. 

Given what are often financial and human resources 

limitations, it may be appropriate to design a system 

where national codes provide an overarching framework 

of standards and implementation, which is then scaled 

to address priorities (i.e. urban vs. rural, commercial vs. 

residential, public vs. private) or scaled to meet building 

size thresholds. Implementation can also be linked to 

land use plans, where specific hazard zones have different 

building standards. Training for designers, builders, and 

local officials, together with financial incentives, and the 

use of best management practices can help to promote a 

responsible industry.

ADAPTATION TO EXTREME EVENTS IN FIJI’S COASTAL TOURIST 

RESORTS 

To prevent damage from storm surges and sea-level rise, resorts are now built at least 2.6 m above mean 

sea level and 30 m off the high tide mark (these standards might be reviewed in the future). The building 

code prescribes that structures need to withstand wind speeds of 60 km per hour. Individual businesses 

(at least the larger resorts) should have evacuation plans, insurance coverage and procedures before the 

start of the cyclone season, such as staff training, water and food storage, first aid kits, trimming of trees 

and a direct line to the Meteorological Service for early warnings. These efforts are being developed and 

implemented in coordination with government departments and tourism businesses. 

Source: Simpson et.al. 2008

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Caribbean Disaster Mitigation Project. Hazard-resistant Construction. Organization of American States

http://www.oas.org/cdmp/safebldg.htm

Simpson, M. C., S. Gössling, D. Scott, C. M. Hall and E. Gladin. 2008. Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the 

Tourism Sector: Frameworks, Tools and Practices. UNEP, University of Oxford, UNWTO, WMO: Paris, France.

http://www.unep.fr/scp/publications/details.asp?id=DTI/1047/PA

WEBSITES 

Association for Caribbean States. Updating Building Codes of the Greater Caribbean for Winds 

and Earthquakes. Model Building Codes and Evaluation of Existing Building Codes. 

http://www.acs-aec.org/Disasters/Projects/ACS_ND_001/building_codes_eng.htm#Outputs

International Organization for Standardization. Resources for Developing Countries.

http://www.iso.org/iso/resources/developing_countries/publications_and_resources_devco.htm
98 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

built environment is less exposed

3. COASTAL DEVELOPMENT SETBACKS

A coastal development setback may be defined as a 

prescribed distance to a coastal feature, such as the line 

of permanent vegetation, within which all or certain 

types of development are prohibited (Unesco, 1997).

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Setbacks create a buffer between shoreline development 

and the sea that provides some protection against the 

destructive effects of erosion or land loss resulting from 

accelerated sea-level rise or increased storm activity. 

Setbacks, which are used worldwide, are designed to 

minimize damage from erosion and increase public 

access to beaches.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Setbacks locate new development away from hazards 

(e.g. erosion areas or low-lying areas) or sensitive 

landforms (e.g., dunes). They accommodate seasonal 

and long term fluctuations in the shoreline profile. 

Setbacks are normally established from an identifiable 

location (i.e. a dune crest, high tide line) and measured 

landward. Often setbacks contain a buffer zone—a 

natural area that must be retained in, or restored to, 

a natural vegetative condition. Development seaward 

of the setback is often prohibited or is restricted to 

structures that are temporary or easily moved landward, 

if necessary. 

Setbacks can reduce current and potential future adverse 

impacts to coastal development situated in erosion 

or flood-prone areas. At the same time, they protect 

sensitive areas from the impacts of development. They 

can help reduce the need for costly, and often damaging, 

structures to control shoreline erosion. They also 

help maintain natural shore dynamics and shorefront 

access—both of which are critical in changing shoreline 

conditions.

Provisions for water-dependent uses (such as landing 

areas for artisanal fisherman) are often accommodated 

within the setback area. Setback areas often support 

public access to the waterfront. Setbacks for rural and 

urban shorelines may vary significantly with differing 

policies for those areas adjacent to armored shorelines. 

Setbacks in urban areas are especially suitable for public 

shoreline walkways and landscapes that are designed to 

filter storm water to remove contaminants (non-point 

source pollution). A “no-build” development setback is 

most effective when implemented on a multi-lot scale, 

and is commonly used in low density areas without 

hardened shorelines.

Setbacks are implemented on and provide benefits for 

both public and private lands. Because setbacks may 

limit the buildable area available to property owners, 

they are sometimes controversial. Controversy can 

be reduced through public education, dialogue and 

incentives to landowners. It is important to gain 

consensus during a public dialogue and find a proper 

balance between public safety, environmental security 

and private property rights. 

In North Carolina, USA, the setback is determined by 

multiplying the average erosion rate by 30. The minimum 

setback distance is 60 feet from the first stable line of natural 

vegetation. http://dcm2.ehnr.state.nc.us/Hazards/rebuild.htm
COASTAL DEVELOPMENT SETBACKS

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 99

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

Setbacks require information that is similar in kind 

to living shorelines and non-structural shoreline 

protection. 

Conduct an analysis of beach dynamics, shoreline 

ecology and historical erosion rates before establishing 

setbacks. Shoreline dynamics and subsequent setback 

distance may vary from beach-to-beach. 

Set up basic beach profile monitoring transects to 

determine erosion rates—long term data sets will be 

more accurate to characterize shoreline dynamics. 

Erosion rates are likely to change with accelerated 

sea level rise and changes in storm frequency and 

intensity, however predicting this change requires 

more detailed modeling.

When evaluating historical rates (from maps, beach 

profiles, traditional knowledge), determine if the rates 

of erosion have changed from one decade to the next. 

Also determine if changing trends are the result of 

climate change factors (changes in storm activity or 

sea level elevations) or man-made causes (e.g. removal 

of wetlands, construction of shoreline erosion control 

structures or local land subsidence).

Observe characteristics of the beach profile from 

seasonal changes and current climate variability (e.g. 

El Niño). Consider the stability of landforms (barrier 

beaches, dunes, bluffs) and the potential changes that 

may result from accelerated sea level rise, increased 

storm activity and subsequent erosion.

•	

•	

•	

•

•

•

•

APPLYING COASTAL DEVELOPMENT SETBACKS IN ANGUILLA

Setbacks can be useful in coping with present and future coastal erosion. In Anguilla, the Government 

designed a protocol for coastal development setbacks in 1996 as a measure for adaptation to climate 

change and to ensure safe and sustainable coastal development. These setbacks were calculated on a 

site-by-site basis and were based on historic erosion rates, projected coastline retreat due to sea level 

rise and increased storm activity, and other local factors. For over a decade, these setbacks have been 

used to guide coastal development. Enforcement of these guidelines has proven difficult, however, as the 

setbacks guidelines are perceived as being at odds with the interests of developers. In response, the original 

guidelines are being amended and subsequent policy drafted to establish uniform and agreed-upon coastal 

setback policy. In 1998, Nevis adopted setback guidelines similar to those of Anguilla, and in 2007 began 

revising their guidelines to establish mandatory policy. 

Tiempo Climate Newswatch, 2008

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Setback policy is typically established by a state 

or national authority and implemented by issuing 

construction permits for new, expanded, or rebuilt 

development. In many countries, there is a federal 

zone where the government has the authority to limit 

development in the inner-tidal area and adjacent shore. 

Periodic review of current setback standards may be 

warranted as new information on climate change 

becomes available and/or if development is significantly 

damaged by a natural event. 

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

In justifying setback policies, identify how they will 

contribute to reducing the impacts on shoreline 

development from both current and future 

(changing) conditions. 

Identify multiple objectives for setback areas. For 

example, identify how the setback may not only 

benefit public access, but also contribute to habitat 

restoration or other ecosystem services. When 

designing vegetated landscapes within the setback 

area, consider potential climate change affects on 

precipitation patterns and species composition. 

Determine the lifetime of the proposed shoreline 

development and anticipate its future conditions. 

Incorporate setback guidance for rebuilding the 

development should it be damaged or destroyed as 
100 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED

a result of future natural hazards events. Include 

provisions that prevent property owners from 

receiving public compensation for hazard impacts to 

their development. 

Make sure that setbacks—either defined as a rate (e.g. 

expected life of structure multiplied by annualized 

erosion rate) or a specified distance (e.g. 50 meters 

for all development)—consider, where feasible, 

projected erosion and sea level change. The width of 

the setback’s no-build zone should be greater in areas 

currently undeveloped (which may be developed in 

the future), than in already urbanized areas.

Conduct fair and transparent processes that promote 

community participation in defining the setback 

policy. It is critical to understand the costs and 

benefits of such decisions and to identify equitable 

options that promote safety and security for people 

and their traditional livelihoods that depend on 

shorefront access—for example, fisheries. 

Realize that setbacks are also a component of policies 

for public access to the shore as well as for protection 

of water-dependent uses.

The cost of adopting setbacks as a policy is primarily 

borne by the property owner. Where development 

pressures and property values are high, the opportunity 

cost is also high. With or without climate change, 

setbacks yield a variety of benefits. These are linked to 

the fact that setbacks can help reduce property damage 

and safeguard lives from the impacts of erosion and 

flooding. Setbacks also provide landscape, public access 

and natural ecosystem amenities. It is important to 

emphasize the wide range of benefits from setbacks as 

a counterbalance to concerns about the cost or possible 

financial impacts on property owners.

Good technical data is needed to establish effective 

setback lines. While it is known that coastal beaches, 

dunes and bluffs will generally respond to accelerated sea 

level rise through increased erosion, it may be difficult 

to model future rates of erosion with certainty. Setback 

design should consider local input (both citizens and 

technical experts), community goals, and political will, 

together with the specifics of a site analysis, historic 

information, and best professional judgment. Analyzing 

historic trends (maps, aerial photographs), or long-term 

beach profiling data is invaluable, and can be done by 

involving citizens and students so that such studies 

become a part of the education process. 

It is wise to use setbacks as an adaptation tool within 

an overarching integrated coastal management program 

as its benefits are significant, it can meet multiple 

objectives, and it can be considered a precautionary 

measure, or a no-regrets approach to climate change. In 

promoting the use of setbacks, it may be useful to bring 

stakeholders to other areas that have the same problems 

and where setbacks have been used to advantage. This 

can help stakeholders better understand and visualize 

how setbacks can be used to address the same or similar 

shoreline problem as the one they also face today or 

anticipate facing in the future. It is important to note, 

however, that setbacks may not protect structures from 

damage indefinitely. When/if the shore erodes closer 

and closer to the development, there is a decision to be 

made—a decision to retreat or to stabilize the shoreline. 

It is essential to educate the public on erosion rates and 

dynamics, as well as management options. Otherwise, 

owners may perceive setbacks as a burden that only 

reduces their options for fully developing their valuable 

waterfront property. It is critical to reach a public 

consensus on setback policies, taking into consideration 

the need to balance public safety with private property 

rights.

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•	
COASTAL DEVELOPMENT SETBACKS

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Cambers, G. 1998. Planning for Coastline Change: Coastal Development Setback Guidelines in Nevis.

http://www.unesco.org/csi/act/cosalc/cosalc2a.pdf

Cambers, G., L. Richards and S. Roberts-Hodge. 2008. Conserving Caribbean Beaches, Tiempo Climate Newswatch.

http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/tiempo/portal/archive/pdf/tiempo66low.pdf

Daniel, Edsel B. and Mark D. Abkowitz. 2005. Improving the Design and Implementation of Beach Setbacks in Caribbean Small Islands.

http://www.urisa.org/files/Danielvol17no1-6.pdf

Johnsson, M. 2002, Establishing Development Setbacks from Coastal Bluffs, in Magoon, 

Orville (ed.) Proceedings, California and the World Ocean ’02. 

http://www.coastal.ca.gov/W-11.5-2mm3.pdf

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 1997. Planning for 

coastline change: Guidelines for construction setbacks in the Eastern Caribbean Islands.

http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/info/info4.htm

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Global Programme of Action. Guiding 

Principles for Coastal Reconstruction following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.

http://www.gdrc.org/oceans/tsunami_coastal-guidelines.html#one

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 101
102 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

built environment is less exposed

4. LIVING SHORELINES

“Living shoreline” refers to a management practice that 

addresses erosion by providing for long-term protection, 

restoration or enhancement of vegetated shoreline 

habitats. 

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change impacts from increased storm frequency 

and intensity (including wave energy) will accelerate 

shoreline erosion. However, using living shorelines 

measures can stabilize shorelines and also help control 

erosion in estuaries, lagoons, and in riverine areas. The 

design of living shorelines may also help accommodate 

the landward transgression of wetlands that results from 

sea level rise.

Living shoreline treatments were first developed and 

implemented in the Mid-Atlantic Region of the United 

States. To be implemented in other areas of the world, 

their design and application must be adapted for other 

natural systems (e.g., tropical and subtropical areas, 

mangroves and coral reef habitats, etc.).

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Living shorelines are accomplished through the 

strategic placement of plants, stone, sand fill and other 

materials. They are designed to stabilize the shore 

while maintaining natural processes. This includes 

processes such as tidal exchange; sediment movement; 

groundwater flow; and plant community transitions 

between upland, intertidal and aquatic areas. Enhancing 

the natural defenses along a shoreline can protect people 

and their ecosystems from future hazards due to climate 

change and variability. 

Living shorelines seek to maximize habitat and natural 

processes in a range of low to medium energy areas 

found along sheltered coastlines (estuarine and lagoon 

environments). They are not appropriate for high energy 

open ocean coasts. Typically, habitat benefits decrease 

and the structural components increase when projects 

are implemented in higher energy environments. 

Non-structural or “soft” approaches (e.g. marsh 

creation or enhancement, beach nourishment, dune 

restoration, riparian restoration/management, and fiber 

log placement) often can be designed for low energy 

areas. Projects implemented in medium energy areas 

are designed as “hybrids” (e.g., marsh toe revetment, 

marsh sill, living and offshore breakwaters, and reef 

establishment), since they combine the vegetative soft 

structure with the commonly used “hard” structural 

solutions. 

It is important to note that the natural shoreline is not a 

fixed line in the sand. Rather, it is a continuum from the 

upland to sub-aquatic habitats (see cross section). The 

maintenance, enhancement or restoration of a vegetative 

buffer (green belt) should be part of implementation of 

any living shoreline strategy. 

A hybrid solution for this medium energy environment 

includes a rock toe at the edge. Source: Burke Environmental 

Associates: http://www.burkeassociates.biz/LivingShorelinesP.php
LIVING SHORELINES

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 103

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

Much of the site-specific information needed to 

design living shorelines is similar to that required to 

establish coastal development setbacks, carry out 

beach nourishment and implement other shorefront 

stabilization measures.

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•

Define the problem (episodic or chronic erosion) 

and scale of the shoreline region of concern. Analyze 

historic erosion rates. Evaluate the condition 

of adjacent shorelines. Identify potential future 

problems related to sea level rise, storm frequency, 

and intensity.

Determine the exposure of the shoreline from wind 

generated waves (referred to as fetch) as well as boat 

wakes, tidal ranges, and currents. This will help to 

verify that it is a low to medium energy environment. 

Identify projected changes to the shore dynamics 

to ensure the site will continue to be an effective 

candidate for this measure, in terms of wave energy. 

Consult with knowledgeable persons in fields of 

agronomy, and landscape architecture. Assess the 

correct balance of vegetation, considering current and 

future changing conditions related to temperature 

(land and water), precipitation, salinity, and tidal 

conditions.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Assess whether vegetation (upland, intertidal, 

subtidal) alone can address the problem, or if 

structural components (sand, stone) must be added 

in order to dampen wave energy and exposure to the 

shore. 

Where feasible, employ an ecosystem approach—one 

that links subtidal, intertidal and upland protection 

and restoration initiatives. Consider the potential for 

landward transgression of vegetation with sea level 

rise. 

It may take years to realize the full benefits from steps 

taken to prevent erosion (some erosion-controlling 

vegetation have very slow growth rates). It may be 

necessary to take interim measures that involve the 

use of sand and stone or organic materials.

Involve community stakeholders from the very 

beginning in planning for and actions to protect 

and restore the natural shoreline. Educate property 

owners and other stakeholders on how to maintain 

the living shorelines. Provide incentives for property 

owners to participate.

Ensure either the property owner(s) or government 

officials monitor its effectiveness in preventing 

erosion. This will help determine if the current 

strategy is working to control erosion or if the 

strategy needs to be adjusted to address changes in 

conditions.

Enact ordinances or develop voluntary agreements 

that prohibit activities that reduce or alter beach/

barrier configuration and dune height (e.g., removal 

of vegetation or construction of groins and jetties 

that prevent sediment transport).

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

The primary benefit of a living shoreline strategy is 

erosion control in sheltered coastal environments. 

In turn, improved natural habitats provide benefits 

by providing ecosystem services. This includes, for 

example, nurseries for fish spawning and feeding areas 

for migratory bird. Plants from these habitats also serve 

as natural filters that absorb nutrients from upland 

sources that typically pollute water bodies with excess 

nitrogen and phosphorous.

In lower energy areas, people tend to “over-stabilize” 

their shorelines in an effort to get what they consider 

to be the most protection for their money. They may 

discount some of the softer solutions of a living shoreline 

approach as they are less confident in their effectiveness. 

Implementing demonstration (pilot) projects in areas 

visible to the public can help raise understanding of 

these approaches, and awareness that they can be as 

highly technical as a structural stabilization treatment 

or can include “softer” treatments such as vegetative 

planting. 

The longevity and success of living shoreline treatments 

are limited by two factors—sea level rise and the level 

of maintenance required by the particular treatment. 

For example, extreme rises in sea level may inundate 

the vegetation that is planted as part of the living 

shoreline and cause it to die out leaving the sand fill 

exposed and vulnerable to erosion. If die-out occurs, the 

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104 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED

problem must be assessed and quickly mitigated and the 

vegetation replanted. Climate change may also increase 

wave action, which could reduce the effectiveness of 

living shoreline treatments as a management option for 

higher energy areas.

Finally, it may be appropriate for the local authority 

to enact policy and/or ordinances that promote living 

shorelines as a priority measure where appropriate. 

They can do this by means of regulations or voluntary 

agreements. Either way, the authority may prohibit 

activities that impact natural shoreline processes and 

sediment flow (such as sand mining or large groins), 

which is critical to maintaining an equilibrium 

shoreline.

For a medium energy environment, a hybrid solution may be required, and would include both a vegetated shoreline, with 

a constructed “living breakwater”, sill or toe at the edge of shoreline, created to reduce wave energy to the shore. 

Source: Burke Environmental Associates: http://www.burkeassociates.biz/LivingShorelinesP.php
LIVING SHORELINES

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). March 2007. Technical Guidelines 

for the Establishment of a Coastal Greenbelt. Sri Lanka Country Office.

http://global.wetlands.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=pzipyYafZHQ%3d&language=en-US

Parish, F. 2006. Coastal Greenbelt Initiative: Development of green belts to protect 

coastal communities and resources. Global Environment Centre.

http://www.fao.org/forestry/media/12692/1/0/

WEBSITES

Center for Coastal Resources Management. Living Shorelines, Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences.

http://ccrm.vims.edu/livingshorelines/index.html

Jefferson Patterson Park Living Shoreline Restoration Project. Shore Erosion Control: Living Shorelines and Other Approaches

http://www.jefpat.org/Living%20Shorelines/lsmainpage.htm

Maryland Shorelines Online. Living Shorelines: Frequently Asked Questions About Living Shorelines.

http://shorelines.dnr.state.md.us/living.asp

Shore Erosion Control Guidelines and associated documents.

http://www.mde.state.md.us/Programs/WaterPrograms/Wetlands_Waterways/documents_information/technicaldocuments.asp 

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 105
106 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

built environment is less exposed

5. STRUCTURAL SHORELINE

STABILIZATION

Constructing shoreline stabilization structures, often 

referred to as shoreline hardening or armoring, is an 

approach taken to “defend” the shoreline from erosion 

or flooding. 

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Structural shoreline stabilization techniques provide 

property owners with the ability to minimize the 

destructive effects of flooding, erosion, and land loss 

to their property that results from sea-level rise or 

increased storm activity. Long term planning to relocate 

infrastructure or consolidate essential services in a less 

hazardous area could eliminate the need to stabilize the 

shoreline. However, island communities or dense urban 

areas that have no place to retreat, the only acceptable 

long term solution may be to stabilize and fill in order 

to raise the elevation of the land. 

Engineered and structural responses to shoreline 

hazards are commonplace throughout the world. 

Structural stabilization runs the technical spectrum 

from highly engineered designs to the simple placement 

of construction debris to quickly abate the erosion 

risk. Regardless the level of sophistication, structural 

approaches should be viewed as an option of last 

response. They should be used only to buy the time 

needed to plan, relocate, or identify a more suitable 

management strategy to address current and future 

climate-based risks.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Hardened structures are often used to protect property 

from further erosion—especially when infrastructure 

loss is imminent or where space is limited (as in 

urban areas). Common shoreline structures include 

bulkheads, revetments and seawalls. Structures to 

improve navigation channels include jetties, groins 

and breakwaters. Climate change will exacerbate shore 

erosion through increased coastal inundation (flooding). 

This can occur as result of permanent changes in 

condition (sea level rise) and/or through episodic events 

(storm surge and wave attacks associated with storm 

events). As climate change causes sea levels to rise, the 

social and political pressures to stabilize the shore and 

protect property tend to increase significantly. 

The structures identified above are typically made 

of concrete or stone. Such structures are particularly 

effective in high energy environments. If properly 

designed, they can reduce landward flooding or slow 

erosion rates landward of the structure. Such structures 

are designed to either deflect the wave energy from 

the shore, thus reducing erosion to the land or, they 

reduce wave energy behind the structure (e.g., with 

a breakwater). Structural shoreline stabilization is 

expensive. While it may deflect wave energy at one 

site, it may lead to erosion problems on adjacent 

shorelines or to the sub-aqueous environment. In such 

cases, if the decision is still to go with a hard solution, 

the recommendation is to choose a sloped revetment 

structure versus a vertical seawall to reduce wave 

refraction and associated erosion.

When selecting a strategy of stabilization, consider 

the choices in structural design. Carefully assess 

the tradeoffs between environmental impacts and 

infrastructure performance. There are several drawbacks 

to a stabilization strategy. One is the exacerbation of 

erosion seaward or to adjacent areas. Another is the 

loss of beach and intertidal habitat. Others include 

the possibility of alterations to the shoreline and 

water circulation; a potential short life-span before 

the structure fails; and ineffective use in low energy 

environments. Shoreline stabilization structures must be 

maintained . Even then, they will eventually fail or need 

replacement. Uncertain marine conditions resulting 

from climate change will only add to these challenges.
STRUCTURAL SHORELINE STABILIZATION

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 107

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

Some of the information needed to help design other 

measures/options such as living shorelines and setbacks 

are also useful when considering stabilization as an 

adaptation measure. Given the expense of constructing 

shoreline stabilization, and the potential for adverse 

environmental impacts, it is important to also gather 

and analyze additional data.

Identify the historic erosion rates and records for the 

area to help estimate the level of design needed—

the traditional knowledge of community elders may 

provide important information on past events or 

trends.

Estimate future erosion rates and sedimentation 

patterns to assess potential consistency with historic 

trends.

Identify studies on local coastal hydrodynamics, 

sediment processes, and coastal geology to understand 

the seasonal and inter-annual dynamics of the 

targeted coastline, as well as the sand budget (i.e. the 

volume and transport of sediment within the area) .

Evaluate designs of shoreline structures that already 

exist in the region to determine the types of structures 

most effective in similar conditions.

Identify a benchmark to determine the mean high 

water level and access the best climate projections to 

estimate them 50 years from now as a result of sea 

level rise. Where there are no definitive sea level rise 

projections, employ the precautionary principle in 

design and decision-making.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Identify the threat to infrastructure and property 

and prioritize the site based on other areas at risk 

to ensure capital resources are being wisely allocated.

Determine if other adaptation strategies could be put 

in place of or in conjunction with the structure to 

further address the hazard risk.

Determine how future climate change scenarios or 

projections will be incorporated into the structural 

design (i.e., the life-of-the-design, wave energy, 

rainfall, flooding inundation levels).

Assess the site conditions and the regional coastal 

processes and identify the potential impacts of the 

structure on natural and public resources.

Analyze the benefits and costs of structures in light of 

existing and future coastal conditions.

Identify procedures for monitoring and maintenance 

programs. Assess the structural integrity and 

environmental conditions to ensure that changing 

factors (e.g., mean sea level, actual wave heights) do 

not impact the effectiveness of the structure or the 

adjacent shoreline.

Ensure contingency plans to protect human lives 

during failure of the structure.

When addressing shore erosion, managers and decisionmakers are in a continual struggle to balance the tradeoffs between protection of property and potential loss 

of landscapes, public access, recreational opportunities, 

and environmental impacts. They need to consider how 

structures might alter the economic, recreational, and 

esthetic properties of the shoreline and the impact on 

the public use of and private business activities along 

that valuable shoreline. Sand mining and coral mining 

may provoke additional concerns if they are occurring 

within the same sand supply system. 

In general, most regulatory/permitting systems foster 

a reactive response to immediate-term situations of 

erosion and flooding. This means, decision-making is 

often made parcel-by-parcel and based on relatively 

little environmental or climate-related information or 

analysis. Moving forward, agencies may need to revise 

the criteria by which they permit the use of stabilization 

structures to include consideration of the longer term 

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Design of shoreline structures must consider the adjacent 

shorelines to insure that the erosion is not exacerbated.
108 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED

cumulative impacts of such structures. This would 

include consideration of climate variability and sea 

level, and impacts on the larger ecosystem. 

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

Shoreline stabilization projects are costly. Thus, it is 

important to prioritize the areas for which specific 

measures will be implemented as part of an overall 

adaptation strategy. Coastal managers and engineers 

need to consider the characteristics of the broader 

coastal system and the potential cumulative impacts of 

individual site-by-site decisions. 

It is difficult to predict how shorelines will respond 

to accelerated sea level rise and determine the extent 

of erosion. Although armoring a few properties along 

the shoreline has little impact on an ecosystem, a 

proliferation of structures along a shoreline can 

inadvertently change coastal environments and 

ecosystems. This can lead to a reduction in the 

benefits that coastal ecosystems can provide for coastal 

communities (including flood protection). 

Determining the construction costs of a structure 

and the infrastructure it protects is a relatively 

straightforward engineering calculation. Assessing the 

tradeoffs and the value of lost habitat or other services, 

however, is harder to estimate. The cost of “other” 

services include those for ongoing maintenance and 

the potential future replacement or retrofit, should 

changing conditions make this necessary. 

Little is known about the cumulative effects of shore 

stabilization. However, an understanding of them is 

necessary to ensure the impacts of individual projects 

on the environment are not underestimated. Too often, 

information on the causes of erosion at specific sites 

and the overall patterns of erosion, accretion, and 

inundation in the broader region are unavailable or 

insufficient to support the development of an integrated 

plan for managing shore erosion (NAS, 2006). However, 

creating a proactive “regional approach” to shoreline 

management could address some of the unintended 

consequences that result from a case-by-case approach 

and reactive decisions on permits. A regional approach 

also provides for a more efficient allocation of limited 

capital resources.

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Cambers, G. 1998. Coping with Coastal Erosion. Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. UNESCO.

http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/source/ero1.htm (entire publication)

http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/source/ero18.htm (Case Study 4: Assessing the Impact of Coastal Structures)

The National Academy of Sciences. 2006. Mitigating Shore Erosion on Sheltered Coasts.

http://dels.nas.edu/dels/rpt_briefs/shore_erosion_final.pdf

The Shoreline Stabilization Handbook for Lake Champlain and Other Inland Lakes. Northwest Regional Planning Commission.

http://nsgd.gso.uri.edu/lcsg/lcsgh04001.pdf

US Army Corps of Engineers. Coastal Engineering Manual, Report EM 1110-2-1100.

http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/cem 

WEBSITES

USAID/OAS/UWI Coastal Infrastructure Design, Construction and Maintenance Training.

http://www.oas.org/cdcm_train/
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS

1. FISHERIES SECTOR GOOD PRACTICES

2. MARICULTURE BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

3. TOURISM BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 110

diversified livelihoods

1. FISHERIES SECTOR GOOD PRACTICES

Fisheries is an important sector that supports rural 

livelihoods, food security and marine bio-diversity. 

Good practices in fisheries management, including 

production, infrastructure, operations, and ecosystem 

protection can be used or adapted to help address 

the likely impacts of climate change on this vitally 

important sector. 

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Fisheries managers have long dealt with climate 

variability and its impacts on the ecosystem, the industry 

and the communities that depend on it. For example, 

the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and other 

phenomenon demonstrate that climate directly affects 

marine ecosystem structure and function. For example, 

changes in atmospheric temperature affect ocean 

temperature; changes in strength and direction of winds 

alter currents and mixing; and changes in precipitation 

affect salinity. 

Historically, strategies and government support for 

fisheries have focused largely on short-term variability 

in the sector. As climate change accelerates, however, 

this must change. There need to be major investments 

in adapting fisheries management to address the 

predicted long-term, climate-induced shifts in fisheriesdependent habitat and ecological systems. Climate 

change will impact many aspects of community life and 

well-being—employment, food security, and nutrition. 

It will also directly affect infrastructure, including but 

not limited to port facilities. 

There are regional differences in both the significance 

of the biophysical change that is happening and the 

nature of its impacts. Impacts will be both positive and 

negative and will be influenced by local circumstances, 

vulnerabilities and communities’ adaptive capacity. 

For example, fish stocks may relocate to other areas 

where habitat conditions are more suitable. This creates 

a situation where fishers in one area may “lose” some 

stocks to another area, but “gain” different stocks 

that have moved in from outside the area and vice 

versa. Meanwhile, changes in water temperature and 

precipitation in estuaries could affect the recruitment 

levels, productivity, and susceptibility to disease of 

important economic species such as shrimp. This may 

in turn impact the fishery, the processing, and export of 

local products.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Fisheries and related industries employ over 155 million 

people worldwide. Ninety-eight percent of these are 

from developing countries (FAO, 2006). Fishing is 

important for economic growth and exports, and is an 

important source of domestically produced protein.

Fisheries ecosystems—including its human 

dimensions—are increasingly vulnerable to the 

impacts of climate change. To build resilience, fisheries 

managers need to build their capacity to adapt to the 

changes underway and still to come. One way to do 

this is to adopt an ecosystem-based management 

(EBM) approach for the sector. In the face of increasing 

uncertainty and inability to accurately predict effects of 

climate change on fisheries in any given location, EBM 

allows for the timely adjustment that will be needed. 

Many of the core principles of ecosystem-based fisheries 

management, as listed below, will help address impacts 

from critical alterations of fisheries resulting from 

climate change and variability. 

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

In order for fisheries management to incorporate good 

practices that will address the major shifts caused by 

climate change, there are several types of specialized 

information needed. This includes information on the 
111 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS

Examples of Climate Impact Pathways on Fisheries

Potential Outcomes Types of Changes Climate Variable Impacts for Fisheries

•	 Effects on calciferous animals, 

e.g. mollusks, crustaceans, Potential declines in production Changes in pH corals, echinoderms and some for calciferous marine resources

phytoplankton

•	 Warm water species replacing Shifts in distribution of plankton, cold water species invertebrates, fishes and birds, •	 Plankton species moving to towards the north or south poles

Physical Environment higher latitudes Warming upper layers of the ocean •	 Timing of phytoplankton blooms Potential mismatch between 

changing prey (plankton) and predator 

•	 Changing zooplankton (fish populations) and 

composition declines in production

•	 Loss of coastal habitats e.g. Reduced production of coastal Sea level rise mangroves, Coral bleaching reefs and related fisheries and breeding habitats

•	 Changes in sex ratios

Timing and levels of productivity •	 Altered time of spawning across marine and fresh water •	 Altered time of migrations systems possibly affected 

Highwater temperatures •	 Altered time of peak abundance

Fish Stocks •	 Increased invasive species, Reduced production of target species Changes in ocean currents diseases and algal blooms in marine and fresh water systems

Abundance of juvenile fish 

•	 Affects fish recruitment success affected and therefore production 

in marine and fresh water

•	 Changes in lake water levels Reduced water flows & Reduced lake productivity •	 Changes in dry water flows in increased droughts Reduced river productivity rivers

Ecosystems Changes in pelagic •	 Changes in timing and latitude of fisheries distribution upwelling Increased frequency of ENSO events Reduced coral-reef •	 Coral bleaching and die off fisheries productivity

Costs of adaptation make fishing •	 Coastal profile changes, loss of less profitable, risk of storm damage harbors and homes

Sea level rise increases costs of insurance and/ •	 Increased exposure of coastal or rebuilding, coastal households’ areas to storm damage vulnerability increased

Coastal infrastructure •	 More days at sea lost to bad and fishing operations Increased risks of both fishing and weather, risks of accidents coastal fish-farming, making these less increased

Increased frequency of storms viable livelihood options for the poor; •	 Aquaculture installations (coastal reduced profitability of larger-scale ponds, sea cages) more likely to enterprises, insurance premiums rise be damaged or destroyed

•	 Where rainfall decreases, reduced Reduced diversity of rural livelihoods; opportunities for farming, fishing Changing levels of precipitation greater risks in agriculture; greater and aquaculture as part of rural reliance on non-farm income livelihood systems

Inland fishing operations •	 Damage to productive assets 

and livelihoods More droughts or floods (fish ponds, weirs, rice fields etc) Increased vulnerability of and homes.

riparian and floodplain •	 Decreased ability to plan households and communities

Less predictable rain/dry seasons livelihood activities - e.g. farming 

and fishing seasonality

This table is not intended to be comprehensive but to give examples of potential impact pathways that can affect the distribution and production 

of fish stocks, the risk and viability of fishing operations and livelihoods, and the economic contribution of fisheries to poverty reduction.

Source: FAO, 2006 Building Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change http://www.sflp.org/briefs/eng/policybriefs.htm

Modified from Allision, E.H. et. al. (2005)
FISHERIES SECTOR GOOD PRACTICES

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 112

existing geographic and spatial scale of the fishery of 

concern. It also includes data on predictions of climate 

change and how that change might alter the distribution 

of stocks within the region and adjacent waters. If 

available, also collect and analyze information related 

to ecosystem dynamics over time—e.g., temperature 

structure, salinity, currents and phytoplankton.

Understanding trends is critical for managing under 

changing conditions, so it is important to collect 

baseline (and historic, if available) information on 

fisheries efforts, stocks and harvests to determine catchover-time. This is the basis against which to assess the 

results of future monitoring of industry changes. It may 

also help in identifying relationships between fisheries 

and climate variability. 

It is also essential to understand the existing capacity 

of the fishers and their community to adapt to climate 

change impacts. The more quickly they can adapt 

to changes in the types of species caught and their 

geographic locations due to biophysical changes to 

the fisheries ecosystem (e.g., water temperature, shifts 

in currents, etc), the more resilient they will be to 

negative impacts of these changes. This includes the 

need for changes in vessel design and rigging, types of 

gear being used, and other fishing methods. A further 

adaptive measure would be for fishers to diversify their 

livelihoods so fishing was not their sole source of income 

and food protein. Again, the more easily and readily 

fishers and their communities can adapt to these and 

other changing conditions, the greater their resilience 

and ability to minimize the negative impacts of these 

changes on their lives. 

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING GOOD PRACTICES

Fisheries management is complex and often fraught 

with conflict. Incorporating a climate change 

adaptation perspective may work best when associated 

with an ecosystem-based fisheries management policy 

that addresses key components such as management 

structure, livelihoods diversification and retrofitting 

infrastructure. 

Climate Ready Management Structures

Incorporate climate change issues into fisheries planning 

efforts. An important starting point is to identify risks. 

Another is to discuss with the community different 

scenarios on how climate change may affect the fisheries 

and associated aspects of community life. Develop 

strategies for adapting management approaches that 

seek to avoid overfishing and that promote ecosystem 

health. This encourages a more sustainable fishery. 

Emphasize management under uncertainty—i.e., where 

adaptive approaches and adaptive capacities are key 

features. Identify ways to introduce flexibility in terms 

of the gear that is used, the species that are fished, the 

fishing areas to be managed, and the allocations that 

are harvested.

To increase the resilience of fisheries stocks to replenish 

themselves, identify linkages with programs that 

address habitats and ecosystems. This includes coastal 

management programs or wetlands policies. Engage in 

restoration initiatives for areas of critical habitat. 

THE 10 COMMANDMENTS OF ECOSYSTEM-BASED FISHERIES 

MANAGEMENT 

Keep a perspective that is holistic, risk-adverse, and adaptive. 

Question key assumptions, no matter how basic. 

Maintain old-growth age structure in fish populations. 

Characterize and maintain the natural spatial structure of fish stocks. 

Characterize and maintain viable fish habitats. 

Characterize and maintain ecosystem resilience. 

Identify and maintain critical food-web connections. 

Account for ecosystem change through time. 

Account for evolutionary change caused by fishing. 

Implement an approach that is integrated, interdisciplinary and inclusive.

Hixon, et al. 2007
113 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS

Promote the use of Codes of Conducts and incorporate 

adaptation strategies into local fisheries practices. 

The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 

provides a foundation for good management that would 

benefit the fisheries sector in this time of uncertainty. 

The Code promotes relevant approaches such as the 

participatory approach, capacity building, the use 

of traditional knowledge, and the application of the 

precautionary principle. The precautionary principle 

posits that when the information is not available 

or sufficient, take action that “does no harm”—as 

uninformed decisions can inhibit future options for 

adaptation.. 

Strengthening and Diversifying Livelihoods

Be proactive in incorporating a sustainable coastal 

livelihoods framework—an integrated, multi-sectoral 

approach—into fisheries policies and programs. Such 

approaches help to diversify fishers’ livelihoods, making 

them less dependent on fisheries as the sole income 

source and more resilient to natural shocks and changes 

resulting from climate change.

Consider diversification through Integrated Aquaculture 

and Agriculture (IAA) strategies. This approach 

increases the adaptive capacity of coastal households 

and communities. By integrating aquaculture and 

agriculture, the farmer and/or fisher addresses climate 

variability that affects each livelihood in different ways. 

It may impact the farmer through drought that makes 

the land unsuitable for growing its traditional land 

crops. It could impact fishers through increased storm 

activity that might limit their days at sea. An example of 

an adaptive IAA approach for the fisher (or the farmer) 

to address these impacts would be the use of saline lands 

for aquaculture of species such as milkfish or shrimps.

As climate change alters the biophysical conditions, 

different species may populate the waters. Research 

the feasibility of marketing and selling these potential 

new species. Further, encourage fishers to consider 

expanding the market for existing and new product(s) 

by value-added processing. For example, salted or 

canned fish might generate additional profits over the 

sale of the raw fish alone. 

Protecting Infrastructure and Operations

When designing new or renovating existing 

infrastructure or shore-side facilities, consider the 

impact of changing conditions related to sea level 

rise and storm intensity. Infrastructure may need to 

be elevated or relocated to accommodate rising seas 

or flooding. Fishing practices may need to adapt to 

changes in stocks and target species. This, in turn, may 

require another consideration—a change in vessels and 

gear design. 

Identify risks to boats and coastal facilities from extreme 

storms, flooding events and long term sea level rise. 

Implement actions to reduce vulnerability and future 

damage (i.e. elevate and secure shore-side machinery or 

fuel storage tanks). Develop a preparedness plans for 

storms (i.e. securing or relocating boats). 

To increase safety levels of people and property from the 

impacts of storms, fishers must access weather forecasts 

via radio or by short message service (SMS) and 

understand the local implications of different forecasts. 

They should also have basic training related to fishing 

practices during extreme weather events, including 

the use of survival equipment, personal flotation, and 

deployment of life rafts. Fishers and other community 

members should be taught to swim. This skill increases 

an individual’s safety while at sea and inland during 

times of flooding. 

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

The challenges in integrating climate change adaptation 

into fisheries management are largely the same as 

those faced by sustainable fisheries management 

overall. However, as climate change alters waters and 

the species they contain, fisheries regulation becomes 

more complicated. Various species are managed and/

or regulated at different levels—local, regional, 

international. Changes in species distribution have 

implications for management/regulation of the 

species—i.e., management and regulation structures 

may need to change and incorporate analysis and 

cooperation that extend beyond traditional boundaries. 

Another issue to address is the element of uncertainty 

that accompanies climate change. This includes periodic 

shocks to the ecosystem and its associated human 

dimensions—a reality best addressed by a decentralized 

and co-managed fishery that can adapt quickly to the 

changes.

Resistance to behavior change occurs at all levels. A 

historical lack of trust between fishers and regulators 

will make it difficult to address new management issues 

on top of those that already exist. Fishing communities 
FISHERIES SECTOR GOOD PRACTICES

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 114

often have few other economic opportunities, and 

fisheries may be the employment of last resort. As such, 

locals may perceive management measures that curtail 

fishing as a threat.

There is strong evidence, however, that local 

communities or groups that are given the responsibility, 

authority, and incentives to manage their natural 

resources, feel a sense of ownership and do manage 

them well. Incentives for long-term sustainable use of 

resources can include rights-based approaches. This 

includes territorial use rights, community quotas, or 

long term exclusive rights to certain fisheries. Organized 

cooperatives and community groups with strong 

leadership can be effective in planning and managing 

the resources, integrating across community needs, 

developing scenarios for the future, and engaging in 

risk-averse techniques that increase their adaptive 

capacity. In communities that are dependent on fish 

for their food protein and/or livelihood, this includes 

seeking other protein sources or engaging in other 

activities such as mariculture. 

The above said, it is essential to ensure the community 

has the capacity to succeed in managing the fishing 

effort. In cases where that capacity is lacking or weak, 

it is essential to build that capacity before proceeding 

with a decentralization of fisheries and other natural 

resources management. Again, however, given the 

opportunity and armed with the right skills, fishers and 

fishing communities can serve as effective stewards and 

managers of the resource.

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Allison, E. H. et. al. 2005. Effects of climate change on the sustainability of capture and enhancement fisheries important 

to the poor: analysis of the vulnerability and adaptability of fisherfolk living in poverty. Summary Report Project 

No. R4778J. Fisheries Management Science Programme Department for International Development.

http://www.fmsp.org.uk/Documents/r4778j/r4778j_1.pdf

Daw, T., N. Adger, K. Brown and M. Badjeck. Paper 2: Climate Change and Capture Fisheries – impacts, 

adaptation, mitigation, and the way forward. University of Newcastle upon Tyne, WorldFish Centre.

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/foodclimate/presentations/fish/Daw.pdf

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2006. Building Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change – Policies to sustain livelihoods 

and fisheries. New Directions in Fisheries – A Series of Policy Briefs on Development Issues, No. 08. Rome. 12 pp.

ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1115e/a1115e00.pdf

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). April 2008. Climate Change For Fisheries And 

Aquaculture Technical Background Document From The Expert Consultation.

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/foodclimate/HLCdocs/HLC08-bak-6-E.pdf

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). April 2008. Workshop on Climate Change and Fisheries 

and Aquaculture. FAO Headquarters, Rome, 07-09 Options for Decision Makers.

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/foodclimate/presentations/fish/OptionsEM7.pdf

Hixon, M., R. C. Francis, M. E. Clarke, S. A. Murawski and S. Ralston. 2007. Ten commandments for ecosystembased fisheries scientists. Proceedings of Coastal Zone 07Portland, Oregon July 22 to 26, 2007.

http://www.csc.noaa.gov/cz/2007/Coastal_Zone_07_Proceedings/PDFs/Tuesday_Abstracts/0000.Hixon.pdf

Mahon, Robin. 2002. Adaptation of Fisheries and Fishing Communities to the Impacts of Climate 

Change in the CARICOM Region. Caribbean Centre for Climate Change (CCCC).

http://www.oas.org/macc/Docs/FisheriesIssues.doc

WEBSITES

New Direction in Fisheries – A Series of Policy Briefs on Development Issues. 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

http://www.sflp.org/briefs/eng/policybriefs.html

The Worldfish Center. Adapting to Climate Change.

http://www.worldfishcenter.org/
115 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

diversified livelihoods

2. MARICULTURE BEST

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Mariculture Best Management Practices (BMP) are 

recommendations developed to improve production 

efficiency and cost for the mariculture sector, while 

reducing environmental impacts. BMPs related to 

cultured fish, shellfish or seaweed can enhance the 

benefits of mariculture and contribute to sustainable 

development objectives through acceptance and 

voluntary adoption from the sector, and where 

appropriate, incorporation into formal policy. 

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Mariculture production is practiced in coastal countries 

worldwide, but is largely concentrated in tropical and 

sub-tropical areas. Temperate areas often are where highvalued species are fattened and raised. For example, 

the salmon culture industry—the largest component 

of marine fish culture—is located in temperate areas. 

Throughout the world, mariculture will be directly and 

indirectly affected by climate change impacts affecting 

critical variables, including water temperature, salinity, 

and current patterns (see text box below). Adaptation 

opportunities and strategies will vary by region and 

species. 

Changes in temperature and precipitation (affecting 

salinity) may affect mariculture-related feed sources 

(e.g., fishmeal products). Sea level rise and extreme 

weather events can also pose a problem to facilities 

and infrastructure. Climate change is likely to increase 

these and other uncertainties inherent in cultured fish 

production. This is all at a time when the growing 

pressure on capture fisheries is driving the increasing 

demand for aquaculture production. This poses new 

challenges for the development and adoption of 

mariculture best practices.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Mariculture is the culture of marine organisms (in 

saline aquatic habitat) in coastal, marine, and estuarine 

environments. Finfish, shellfish, and seaweed are 

cultured in these environments— either through direct 

seeding or with techniques involving cages, ponds 

or net-pens. Effective, comprehensive government 

regulation of mariculture operations is not common, 

however, especially in developing countries. 

Meanwhile, there is growing demand for the mariculture 

industry to ensure: 1) its production methods protect 

the environment, and 2) its products are safe to eat. 

In response, the industry is developing standards 

and guidelines reflecting best practices that address 

environmental, operational and sanitary issues. Since 

there is little or no government regulation, the emphasis 

is on self-enforcement of best practices to ensure 

quality. The rationale behind this approach to behavior 

change is that self-enforcement is in the individual’s 

self-interest—i.e., a higher quality, environmentally 

friendly product has greater sales potential. 

Seaweed Farming in Tanzania 
MARICULTURE BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 116

Adaptation to climate change in the mariculture sector 

is aimed at reducing the negative impacts in order 

to promote further growth in this sector which is so 

critical in supplying the world with food security and 

livelihoods. 

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

Mariculture operations cover a wide range of species 

and culture techniques. As such, it is difficult to 

generalize about information requirements. Some of 

the data requirements are similar to those for fisheries 

management.

•	

•	

•	

•	

Identify appropriate species (including native species) 

for changed climate conditions, including water 

temperature, salinity, water circulation patterns. 

Generate models to determine more accurately 

the potential impacts on spawning migrations and 

changes in availability of larvae and juveniles for 

subsistence cage and pond farming.

Study likely invasive species and diseases with 

different climate conditions.

Evaluate potential increases in the virulence of 

dormant pathogens due to climate change impacts.

•

•

Assess cage culture carrying capacity and conduct 

regular monitoring of biophysical parameters.

Assess availability of food resources for mariculture, 

in particular finfish.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Best practices related to climate change issues in 

mariculture are similar to those for good operational 

practices in mariculture in general. The key is to 

apply sound outreach and extension activities that 

keep mariculture facility operators engaged in the 

formulation, testing and adoption of new or revised 

practices that can enhance the industry and the 

environment with conditions changing.

Following are examples of current best practices to 

address climate change in mariculture: 

Reduce water use in pond culture.

Identify practices that reduce pumping, aeration, 

transportation and other practices that require fuel, 

as fuel is increasingly expensive and contributes to 

greenhouse gases.

Enhance feed management practices, especially as fish 

meal and fish oil becomes more scarce and expensive; 

•	

•	

•	

SUMMARY OF POTENTIAL CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON 

MARICULTURE

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

All cultured aquatic organisms are affected by water temperature changes, with greatest impacts on 

temperate species.

Increased rate of eutrophication, increased stratification and associated harmful algal blooms cause shell 

fish poisoning and harmful effects on the productivity of cage culture operations, especially in static 

waters.

Overall decline in ocean productivity reduces supplies of traditionally underutilized species used for fish 

meal for mariculture sector.

Changes in weather patterns and extreme weather events reduce productivity and damage operations 

(loss of infrastructure and stock).

Decreased freshwater availability in major estuaries or river deltas where there is intense mariculture 

activity (e.g. deltaic areas like the Mekong and the Meghna-Brahamaputra in Bangladesh).

Increased sea temperature results in spread of pathogens and parasites of cultured organisms to new 

areas.
117 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS

and reduce dependence on practices that rely on lowvalue fish as feed.

Alter cage culture practices to accommodate carrying 

capacity in waters of low circulation.

Adjust best management practices to address an 

increased likelihood of the spread of disease and 

greater costs of water, electricity and fuel.

There is an interaction between best practices (typically 

implemented on a voluntary basis by the private 

sector) and public policy on mariculture operations. 

This interaction is driven by a public interest in 

both the economic success of the sector and concern 

about environmental and social problems that may be 

generated. 

It is essential to build adaptive capacity for the 

governance mechanisms that address mariculture: 

Review and adjust, if necessary, existing management 

plans for mariculture to ensure they assess potential 

climate change impacts and adaptation responses.

Encourage industry-led good practices and 

government incentives to promote adaptive measures.

Identify information gaps and capacity-building 

requirements and address these gaps through 

networks of research, training and academic agencies.

Create—and nurture— international networks 

that encourage regional or global exchanges of 

information, data and research and that link 

mariculture issues with those of other sectors such as 

water management, trade and food security.

Identify and establish financial instruments that 

can promote risk reduction practices. This includes 

incentives such as providing monetary allowances 

for those who agree to relocate from areas that 

might be inundated by sea level rise or flooded more 

frequently. It also includes disincentives for those 

working in mariculture that impact wetlands or 

maintain practices that contaminate adjacent waters. 

Strengthen insurance and emergency funds to 

increase self protection of producers, distributors and 

processors.

•	

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

Perhaps the key to the development and widespread 

adoption of best practices lies in appreciating why the 

public sector, together with the private sector, needs to 

act. Aquaculture (mariculture and freshwater culture) is 

the fastest growing primary production industry. It now 

contributes approximately 35% of total fish supplies 

and nearly 50% to global seafood consumption. This 

contribution continues to increase, with mariculture 

having the greater potential for further growth. 

Aquaculture is expected to play a critical role in meeting 

the future demand for food fish supplies (reaching 

50-60%). This demand makes planned and proactive 

adaptation to climate change essential if mariculture 

is to continue to play its role in providing the world, 

especially the world’s rural poor, with livelihoods and 

food protein. Research and extension programs need to 

include climate change related trends as part of their 

ongoing efforts in the larger process of promoting and 

managing this sector.

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•

•

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

De Silva, S. 2008. Climate change and aquaculture. Presentation to Experts Meeting, April 2008. 

Workshop on Climate Change and Fisheries and Aquaculture, FAO Headquarters: Rome.

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/foodclimate/presentations/fish/De-Silva.pdf

WEBSITES

Codes of Practice, Global Aquaculture Alliance 

http://www.gaalliance.org/

General Approaches to Addressing Mariculture as an Element of Integrated Coastal Management Programs

http://www.crc.uri.edu/index.php?themeid=1

Pacific Aquaculture and Coastal Resources Center, University of Hawaii

http://pacrc.uhh.hawaii.edu/
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 118

diversified livelihoods

3. TOURISM BEST MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICES

Best management practices are specific actions that 

businesses, tourists, and government authorities can 

implement to improve their operations and contribute 

to the sustainability of the tourism sector.

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Tourism development best management practices 

(BMPs) provide the tourism sector with practical tools 

for both adapting to climate change conditions and 

mitigating greenhouse emissions. Climate change will 

directly impact many tourism-dependent economies. It 

will also have more indirect environmental and social 

consequences—e.g., resulting from beach erosion, 

inundation, ecosystem degradation, and public health 

issues (aquifer contamination, vector borne disease). In 

addition, frequent severe weather presents safety issues 

for visitors, affects insurance premiums for businesses, 

and increases the cost of maintaining public and private 

infrastructure. The tourism industry also contributes 

to climate change through emissions from buildings, 

vehicles, planes and vessels. In 2005, these contributions 

amounted to an estimated 5% of global greenhouse 

gases for the sector as a whole (Simpson et.al, 2008).

There are, however, many BMPs for the tourism 

industry to use in addressing climate change concerns. 

The International Ecotourism Society reports there are 

nearly 80 environmental certification programs in the 

travel industry. Meanwhile, additional new programs 

are being developed in countries in Latin America, 

Asia, and to a lesser extent, Africa. Most are nationally 

based efforts with a major focus on accommodations. 

In these programs, there has been significant success in 

reducing demands on energy and water. As well, there 

has been an increase in the number of programs focused 

on climate change impacts on parks, beaches, guides, 

tour operators, transportation, and destinations, etc. 

Worldwide numerous guidebooks and programs exist 

to explain how businesses, municipalities, tourism 

authorities, and non-profit organizations can use 

BMPs—as part of a voluntary or mandatory effort to 

address climate change impacts.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Tourism—business or leisure travel and related 

services—is one of the largest and most dynamically 

growing sectors of the world economy. It generates 

foreign exchange, investment and jobs for all countries 

in the world. It will continue to be a vital component 

of the global economy and an important contributor 

to the Millennium Development Goals. BMPs aim 

to improve the quality and image of the service and 

business while having the least possible negative impact 

on the environment and the local communities. BMPs 

are often divided into environmental, socio-cultural and 

economic actions. 

BMPs can be used at multiple entry points (policy, 

projects, site-based activities), which may complement 

each other and enhance their effectiveness. Voluntary 

guidelines can be used to promote sustainable practices. 

There are numerous organizations that develop and 

implement BMPs and associated codes of conducts 

as a requirement for certifying sustainable tourism 

enterprises. Non-profits and industry often compile 

and use guidelines for building the professional capacity 

of designers and practitioners engaged in community 

development. Governments often utilize BMPs within 

their environmental assessment procedures or zoning 

regulations. Businesses might prefer applying voluntary, 

industry-vetted practices rather than a regulatory 

approach.

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

• Identify key stakeholders and inventory current 

knowledge of tourism impacts related to climate 
119 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS

concerns (coastal hazards, safety, water, health). 

Consider current and future potential impacts at a 

national and/or destination scale. Collect information 

from a number of sources, including local knowledge, 

research findings, or industry studies. 

Determine where impacts to structures and adjacent 

environment (beach erosion, flooding, wind or storm 

damage) have occurred from improper construction 

or siting of tourist facilities. Identify the corrective 

measures that have been taken. Assess their 

effectiveness, individually and collectively, to reduce 

damages. This will help determine which adaptations 

may be the most effective options for this region.

Identify existing good practices, certification 

programs and associated initiatives being used in the 

region. These may be related to tourism providers, 

activities (e.g., diving or marinas), natural resources 

(e.g., beaches or mangroves), hotels, or destinations. 

They also might address coastal construction 

techniques used by developers and policy makers. 

Determine if and how these good practices address 

climate change concerns and the extent to which they 

may be used to mitigate and adapt to future change.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Expand upon corporate social responsibility related to 

the triple bottom line (economic, environmental and 

social values) and incorporate climate as a business 

value and measure for organizational success. The 

2007 United Nations Davos Declaration calls for 

“sustainable tourism that reflects a ‘quadruple bottom 

line’ of environmental, social, economic and climate 

responsiveness.” 

Incorporate climate change adaptation awareness 

within coastal stewardship programs aimed at 

tourism developers and government policy makers. 

Use climate change impacts as an added incentive 

to enforce building setbacks, discourage filling of 

mangroves, or prohibit the filling of wetlands or the 

mining of sand. 

Promote good practices within government policies 

that support mitigation and adaptation—e.g., 

in 2007 Sri Lanka’s Tourism Authority launched 

“Towards a Carbon Clean Sri Lanka: A Tourism Earth 

Lung”. This initiative promotes various mitigation 

measures to reduce CO2 emissions.

Determine the extent to which best management 

practices that reduce impacts from coastal hazards 

can be incorporated into development policy. For 

example, in Mexico’s Caribbean coast, the Costa 

Maya tourism corridor adopted a regional ordinance 

that incorporates building practices that protect 

dunes and beaches—promoting dune growth as 

a natural barrier to reduce impacts to shoreline 

development. 

Identify how to undertake mitigation and adaptation 

actions at different scales—i.e., from the tourist 

destination resort to the state or national government 

scale. 

Promote incentives for “green tourism”. Green 

tourism provides alternatives that help reduce 

impacts on natural resources, health and safety and 

that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. An example 

alternative is to use solar vs. traditional energy sources 

to heat water or generate electricity. Another is to use 

low flush toilets, harvesting rainwater, and recycled 

grey water as ways to conserve water. Sustainable 

building designs should incorporate local building 

techniques that may be suited for natural ventilation, 

flood prevention, or renewable materials. 

Incorporate good practices as voluntary or mandatory 

measures within national adaptation plans as a 

“no-regrets” approach. Effectively applying these, 

together with building codes, environmental impact 

assessments, sustainable building design, wetlands 

protection policies, tourism incentive awards, annual 

outreach events, and standards for tourism providers 

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

Mexico’s environmental certification program, 

supported by the National government, includes 

a voluntary clean beaches program.
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 120

TOURISM BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

will benefit the tourism product with existing climate 

variability concerns. 

EXAMPLES OF BEST PRACTICES AND CERTIFICATION INITIATIVES

Blue Flag certifies beaches and marinas. With coastal stewardship at its core, the program includes 

monitoring water quality and beach conditions, education, and safety—all of which can support tourism 

industry activities. 

Green Globe certifies hotels and destinations through business audit and management systems. 

Recommendations for retrofitting infrastructure and establishing practices to enhance environmental 

stewardship often result in long-term economic benefit as well.

Country-based programs, such as Costa Rica’s Certificate for Sustainable Tourism (CST), certify tourist 

hotels and their sustainability practices. CST promotes good practices that focus on the natural, cultural, 

and social resources of the country. 

Sustainable Tourism Certification Network of the Americas recognizes the benefits of promoting 

good practices through certification programs. The Network links partners throughout the region to 

strengthen tourism initiatives based on mutual respect and recognition, to harmonize systems, and to share 

information and experience. Good practices have been used to identify criteria for sustainable tourism.

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

Within the tourism industry, there are poor to 

moderate levels of knowledge of the potential affects 

of climate change on the sector (by region). The lack 

of practical information at the local or destination scale 

is a challenge for businesses that want to do the right 

thing but are unsure of what really works. Non-profit 

organizations or universities are often a good source of 

information. They often welcome the opportunity to 

work with the private sector to research, monitor or 

disseminate existing information. Promoting leadership 

and partnerships within the tourism sector will enhance 

efforts to implement practices that are realistic and 

that benefit the industry, the environment, and the 

community.

It is difficult to overcome the frustrations of the climate 

divide—i.e., small tourism businesses in developing 

countries contribute little to climate emissions but are 

affected heavily by the impacts of climate change. At 

the same time, the costs to mitigate green house gas 

emissions and make adaptations for responding to 

climate change are often prohibitive for small businesses 

and community-based organizations. The same may be 

true for those with a great amount of infrastructure in 

place. 

While these are real challenges, tourism is also a 

development investment and is vital to many developing 

countries and small island economies. The United 

Nations World Tourism Organization statistics show 

that tourism represents over 70% of Least Developed 

Countries (LDC) exports of services and is the main 

foreign exchange source of 46 of the 49 LDCs. Good 

tourism practices are currently used as a key tool to 

promote sustainable development and offer multiple 

benefits. These benefits range from helping to conserve 

biodiversity and traditional culture to helping diversify 

livelihoods—factors that can also help strengthen a 

community’s overall resilience to the impacts of climate 

change. 

In the tourism sector, it is especially relevant to note 

that adaptation actions could reduce the costs of 

climate change impacts and thus reduce the needs 

for mitigation both globally and at the destination 

site itself. Subsectors of the tourism industry have 

significantly different ability levels for adapting to 

climate change. Consistently, however, individuals, 

corporations, communities and government authorities 

all need to improve their capacities.
121 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Bien, A. 2007. A Simple User’s Guide to Certification for Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism. 

Center for Ecotourism and Sustainable Development. 3rd Edition.

http://www.iadb.org/IDBDocs.cfm?docnum=1028822

Deutsche Bank Research. 2008. Climate Change and Tourism: Where Will the Journey Lead?

http://www.dbresearch.com/PROD/DBR_INTERNET_EN-PROD/PROD0000000000222943.pdf

McPhee, E. B. 2007. Climate Change and Tourism: A Caribbean Perspective.

http://www.blueflag.ca/bwt/resourses/presentations/McPhee.pdf

Molina, C., P. Rubinoff and J. Carranza. 2001. Guidelines for Low-Impact Tourism Along the Coast of Quintana Roo, México. Integrated 

Coastal Resources Management Program, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island. English and Spanish.

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/Normas_Eng_FullDocument.pdf

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/FullDocument_NormasPracticas.pdf (Spanish)

Rainforest Alliance. 2008. Sustainable Tourism: Toolkit for Small and Medium Enterprises: Guide for Sustainable 

Tourism Practices and Guide for Sustainable Tourism in Marine-Coastal Ecosystems. Rainforest Alliance.

http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/tourism.cfm?id=toolkit

Simpson, M. C., S. Gössling, D. Scott, C. M. Hall and E. Gladin. 2008. Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the 

Tourism Sector: Frameworks, Tools and Practices. UNEP, University of Oxford, UNWTO, WMO: Paris, France.

http://www.unep.fr/scp/publications/details.asp?id=DTI/1047/PA

South Africa Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. 2002. South Africa’s Responsible Tourism Guidelines.

http://www.satis.co.za/responsible_tourism_handbook/index.htm

UN World Tourism Organization. 2007. Davos Declaration.

http://www.unwto.org/pdf/pr071046.pdf

UNWTO, UNEP and WMO. 2008. Climate Change and Tourism: Responding to Global Challenges.

http://www.unwto.org/frameset/frame_sustainable.html

WEBSITES

Blue Flag Programme

http://www.blueflag.org

Climate Solutions.travel, UN World Tourism Organization

http://www.climatesolutions.travel/

Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL). Guidelines for tourists: Diving (pdf Spanish/English)

http://www.coralreefalliance.org

Costa Rica’s Certification for Sustainable Tourism

http://www.turismo-sostenible.co.cr/EN/home.shtml

Green Globe International

http://www.greenglobeint.com/

Rainforest Alliance. Sustainable Tourism Certification Network of the Americas

http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/tourism.cfm?id=network
Annex A – AdAptAtion meAsures

humAn heAlth And 

sAfety enhAnced

1. community-based disaster risk reduction

2. flood hazard mapping
human health and safety enhanced

1. community-based disaster 

risk reduction

Community-based disaster risk management is an 

overarching strategy comprised of structural and nonstructural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit 

(mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects of natural 

hazards. Communities engage in a systematic process 

of administrative decisions, apply organizational and 

operational skills, and implement policies and strategies 

to enhance their coping capacities to the impacts of 

hazards and related disasters.

relevance to climate change

With increased frequency of storms and climate 

variability due to global climate change, local level 

preparedness is increasingly important as a key adaptive 

capacity and an essential component to community 

resilience.

Community-based disaster risk reduction (CBDRR) 

is practiced and applied worldwide, especially as the 

number of people affected by coastal hazard events has 

grown in the last decade. Due to recent deadly disasters 

such as the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and the U.S. 

Hurricane Katrina, there is a heightened recognition of 

the need to reduce vulnerability and risk before an event 

happens.

As global experience repeatedly shows, the net benefits 

of preparedness are positive and the net costs of a lack 

of preparedness can be devastating. The United Nations 

has estimated that globally on average of 100,000 lives 

are lost and properties worth $300 billion are damaged 

each year due to natural disasters. These damage 

estimates do not take into account the many indirect 

and secondary effects on economic activities.

purpose and application

CBDRR ensures that communities vulnerable to 

natural hazards are ready and able to take precautionary 

measures in advance of an imminent threat and are 

prepared to respond to and cope with the effects of a 

disaster once it has hit. Over recent years, there has been 

growing realization that the top-down, specialist-driven 

approaches to disaster management of the past fail to 

address the localized needs of vulnerable communities. 

It is the communities themselves that are on the 

“disaster front”. It is they who must be able to prepare 

and respond to events that threaten their well being.

information and data 

requirements

CBDRR requires careful attention to the process of 

combining local knowledge with technical studies and 

scientific data.

Identify national databases, university professionals, 

and government agencies that have information on 

natural hazards, climate, meteorology, and disaster 

management. Determine if there are trends related to 

specific hazards and their impacts.

Compile existing community flood inundation and 

hazard maps, together with maps on existing land use, 

natural resources, census, and infrastructure. Determine 

how future projections (climate-related or land-use) will 

further impact these hazards.

Assess the root social, economic and environmental 

causes of a community’s vulnerability to natural hazards, 

such as access to education or transportation options.

Gather information and assess community capacity 

(past, present, future) for reducing risk. Identify 

vulnerable groups and determine their capacities and 

coping mechanisms.

Interview local elders, business leaders, fishers, and 

others to gather local knowledge about past hazards. 
124 AdApting to coAstAl climAte chAnge

humAn heAlth And sAfety enhAnced

This will provide valuable information on the risks as 

well as the community capacity to respond and recover.

This last point is especially important as most indigenous 

people have detailed knowledge of local natural hazards 

as a result of their long and close associations with the 

land and its resources. This may include oral histories 

and traditions that record past catastrophic hazard 

events, place names that designate areas that are high 

risk, and environmental indicators that inform about 

the safety and viability of activities linked to changes 

in the environment. This environmental knowledge 

can provide a valuable source of information that 

can contribute to contemporary hazard management 

and mitigation. It can become a valuable resource 

for community education and involvement in hazard 

preparedness.

design considerations for 

developing the measure

Preparedness involves developing and regularly testing 

warning systems, evacuation plans and other measures 

used during a disaster alert period to minimize loss of life 

and property. It also involves the education and training 

of officials and the population at risk; the establishment 

of policies, standards, committees and operational plans 

to be applied following a natural hazard event; and the 

securing of resources (possibly including the stockpiling 

of supplies and the earmarking of funds). The strategy 

needs to take into full consideration the special aspects 

of directly working with citizens as well as a broad array 

of professionals.

Steps in CBDRR include:

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

Form local coalitions of committed local stakeholders.

Undertake community risk assessment with the 

direct involvement of community members and 

other stakeholders. Community mapping and other 

participatory rural appraisal techniques are effective 

approaches.

Confirm local level mechanisms and procedures, 

including standard operating procedures (SOP) for 

each hazard to which the community is exposed.

Establish a system for issuing early warning to the 

community about impending hazards linking to 

national or regional systems where available.

Conduct periodic drills to test early warning 

systems, evacuation, first aid, and search and rescue 

mechanisms.

Formulate a disaster risk reduction and response plan 

at the community level.

Design and implement mechanisms to monitor 

risks and note changing hazards, vulnerabilities and 

capacities. 

CBDRR strategies should be tailored to a specific place, 

the capacities of the communities, the availability of 

information and the technical analysis of vulnerability, 

This highlights the need to incorporate local knowledge 

to complement and validate other information sources. 

When engaging in this process it is also important 

to realize that coastal hazards have repeatedly had a 

disproportionate impact on women, children, and the 

elderly—regardless of cultural setting. CBDRR plans 

should provide special consideration for these groups.

Since CBDRR incorporates a bottom-up process, it 

requires local stakeholders to initiate and maintain 

pressure on their government. It cannot be expected that 

institutionalization will naturally evolve from the top 

down. That said, central government must play a key 

role in developing legislation, allocating resources such 

as technical expertise and financing, and developing 

uniform standards for the country. This includes explicit 

linkages between national efforts and the local CBDRR 

programs. It is also important to clearly define the 

responsibilities of non-governmental organizations, of 

government agencies from the central to the regional 

level, and of communities. Then each of these groups 

can be held accountable for their actions or inactions.
and programs and prompt the integration of new 

information on climate vulnerabilities. It may also 

make it easier to mobilize new volunteers and establish 

partnerships with governments, donors and other 

stakeholders.

A lack of coordination and integration between levels 

of government often inhibits disaster risk reduction 

efforts. Poor coordination is often exacerbated by poor 

communication between governments and their local 

communities. It is therefore important for local leaders 

to build constituencies at the village and community 

levels, and to help ensure that there are redundant 

(cross-level supportive) systems in place. 

When communities have taken action to reduce risk 

from disasters, they stand to protect human safety, 

reduce property losses, and protect high risk vulnerable 

communities and groups. They do this by clarifying 

for the community the steps, procedures and measures 

necessary to reduce damage and respond to disaster, and 

by putting in place the communication systems needed 

to provide early warning of impending disasters.

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA VIDEO ON ClImATE CHANGE 

recognizing that preparedness is essential to reducing impacts of disasters, the red cross/red crescent 

society has engaged numerous countries in their climate change and disaster preparedness program. 

Acknowledging that local understanding of risks is key to the community Vulnerability Assessment, climate 

has become a part of the local dialogue. As part of their red cross community service project, Antigua 

and Barbuda completed a community disaster program with the residents of pigotts, Bath lodge, yorks and 

Barbuda—areas prone to environmental disasters. 

As part of the project, a video on climate change was produced and featured the voices of several officials 

who deal closely with the climate change effects—e.g., the chief environment officer, the chief fisheries 

officer, Barbuda residents and others. the video also features the island feeling the effects of hurricanes, 

droughts, and provides other snippets of daily life. Approximately four minutes long, the video was 

submitted to red cross international and chosen to be added to youtube.com. At the time, Antigua and 

Barbuda was the only country this medium spotlighted on the topic of climate change. 

the short video on climate change in Antigua and Barbuda can be 

viewed on youtube at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-zpbeyfrnu

community-BAsed disAster risk reduction
humAn heAlth And sAfety enhAnced

sources for more informAtion

Bethke, l., J. good and p. thompson. 1997. Building capacities for risk reduction. disaster management 

training programme. united nations department of humanitarian Affairs.

http://www.unisdr.org/cadri/documents/english/All%20english%20modules/Building-capacities-for-risk-reduction.pdf

u.s. indian ocean tsunami Warning system program. 2007. How Resilient is Your Coastal Community? A Guide for Evaluating 

Coastal Community Resilience to Tsunamis and Other Coastal Hazards. u.s. indian ocean tsunami Warning system 

program supported by the united states Agency for international development and partners, Bangkok, thailand.

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/ccrguide_lowres.pdf

WeBsites

Asian disaster prevention center (Adpc). critical guidelines of communityBased disaster risk management and other cBdrm publications.

http://www.adpc.net/cbdrm06/sub_cbdrmpubs.php

climate Witness programme, World Wildlife fund.

www.panda.org/climatewitness

red cross/red crescent climate centre.

http://www.climatecentre.org/

126 AdApting to coAstAl climAte chAnge
human health and safety enhanced

2. flood hazard mapping

Flood hazard maps are prepared for areas adjacent 

to water bodies to provide land owners, insurers and 

regulators with information on their risks of flooding 

from a variety of environmental conditions.

relevance to climate change

Understanding risks is the first step to identifying the 

capacities of institutions, individuals, and communities 

needed to address the effects of flooding due to climate 

change. In general, if an increase in sea level and the 

frequency and/or intensity of storms is expected to 

occur, then the vulnerability to flooding would increase. 

Creating a map of those areas most exposed to flood 

hazards as a result of these changes will also help in 

designing adaptation or hazard reduction techniques. 

Developed and developing nations alike create flood 

maps. These most often are created by national or local 

agencies, universities and private company initiatives. 

However, the mapping is typically part of a larger 

national data and map program. As such, the maps 

must meet national standards— as they are used to 

carry out policies supported by a central government 

charged with disaster prevention.

A complementary information gathering technique is 

what is called community-based participatory mapping. 

It provides an opportunity to not only provide local 

leaders with risk information about flood hazards, but 

to educate these and other groups about flood and 

climate change issues. 

purpose and application

maps and other information on inundation (flooding) 

are essential to any efforts to reduce risks from flooding 

and related hazards. local communities, governments, 

and private companies use accurate, detailed hazard 

maps to:

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

prevent loss of life; 

identify evacuation procedures; 

guide development to low hazard areas;

prepare plans for a community’s economic growth 

and infrastructure;

maintain the natural and beneficial function of 

floodplains;

protect public lands; and

protect private and public investments. 

Flood hazard maps are used to plan for and reduce 

impacts from the riverine and coastal flooding that 

would likely result from cyclones, heavy rains, storm 

surges, extreme tides, and tsunamis. A range of 

techniques are used to map the hazard risks associated 

with these events. These range from the use of highly 

complex computer models to the use of simple fieldbased techniques—e.g., beach profiling, marking flood 

heights on buildings, and identifying areas of historic 

flooding using community informants. Once the maps 

are generated, the information can be incorporated into 

risk reduction (including evacuation and communitybased disaster risk reduction plans) procedures or 

adaptation measures (e.g., construction of flood 

control structures; establishment of warning systems; 

formulation of development policies and standards 

such as setbacks, zoning, building codes, etc.). As 

multi-hazard risk reduction strategies become more 

widely used, mapping should be expanded to include 

other natural risks including erosion, landslides, and fire 

prone areas. 
128 AdApting to coAstAl climAte chAnge

humAn heAlth And sAfety enhAnced

Historical information such as personal accounts and 

records on stream flows or tide can help identify the 

magnitude and impacts of previous events.

Computer simulations can be used to predict the 

extent of different flood events using data inputs such 

as topography, bathymetry, slope, surface roughness, 

and precipitation. 

Beach profile monitoring programs can help 

determine erosion rates (although long term data sets 

will be more accurate to characterize past and present 

shoreline dynamics). 

Information that comes from understanding seasonal 

changes resulting from recent and current climate 

variability events (e.g., El Niño) is another useful 

information source.

•

•

•

•

When determining flood hazards, consider historic 

events, current conditions, and a range of future 

scenarios. In some places, residents will have a strong 

memory of the impacts of prior events. However, 

in places where most of the population is recently 

arrived, the absence of these memories itself is a 

danger. 

Before mapping flood hazards, determine how 

the information will be used by communities and 

governments. This will determine the technical 

requirements of the mapping activity and help 

make a match between budget and the scope of the 

mapping effort. 

Examine how flood hazard maps have been used in 

other communities and countries to determine an 

appropriate use.

Use maps and the map-making activity as a 

community education and outreach strategy.

Flood hazard mapping is often supported through 

local and/or national policy. Provincial and/or national 

authorities may allocate resources to undertake mapping 

activities in support of water resource management, 

coastal resource management, and disaster risk reduction 

goals. However, the priorities of these authorities may 

not coincide with local needs. Further, when national or 

provincial government programs are not in place, local 

leaders are the ones who must identify and map flood 

prone areas in order to influence development decisions. 

To do this, they must draw upon any available source 

of technical assistance. Regardless of which level—

local, provincial, or national —is responsible, it should 

be aware that in locations where land use or building 

controls are not in place or enforced, there are likely to 

be unregulated settlements in flood prone areas. This 

can exacerbate loss of life and property in floods.

•	

•	

•	

•	
flood hAzArd mApping

to model and project precisely the impacts of sea level 

rise or increased storm activity, as the dynamic coastal 

processes that determine these impacts are highly 

variable. Developing a partnership with university and 

government agencies to create new flood hazard maps 

can be useful for good scientific data and appropriate 

modeling techniques. 

A persuasive argument for investing in mapping is that 

flood hazard maps provide critical information needed 

for a variety of short and long-term decision-making 

at the community as well as national levels. This is 

especially true in regard to public safety and security. 

Flood hazard maps are often used to identify evacuation 

zones, which can save lives in cases of tropical cyclones, 

heavy rains, and tsunamis. Flood hazard maps can also 

contribute to the development of policies and standards 

that help reduce damage due to natural resources and 

infrastructure. 

As with all measures, there are costs to flood hazard 

mapping. The offsetting benefits are significant, 

however. mapping identifies the must vulnerable risk 

areas, providing the community with the opportunity to 

take informed action to eliminate or minimize that risk. 

In so doing, it is possible to avoid huge costs related 

to future damage to and/or loss of lives, structures, 

and livelihoods that might result if no mapping were 

conducted or corrective action taken. The argument 

for mapping can be even more persuasive when it is 

made clear that information from the mapping is useful 

for decision-making on a breadth of additional issues. 

For example, flood hazard maps can also be used to 

guide development away from sensitive habitats in 

flood plains, maintain critical ecosystem services (such 

as flood storage in wetlands), and reduce impacts to 

development.
130 AdApting to coAstAl climAte chAnge

humAn heAlth And sAfety enhAnced
flood hAzArd mApping

sources for more informAtion

American Association of floodplain managers. 2007. chapter 2: flood hazard 

identification and mapping. No Adverse Impact in the Coastal Zone.

http://www.floods.org/cnAi/resources/cnAi_handbook_chapter2.pdf

rambaldi, g., m. l. fernan and s. V. siar. 1998. Participatory Methods in Community-based Coastal Resource Management: 

Volume 2 Tools and Methods/ international institute of rural reconstruction (iirr), silang, cavite, philippines.

http://www.iapad.org/cbcrm.htm

united nations international strategy for disaster reduction. Community-Based Flood 

Hazard Mapping: A Simple and Easy-to-Understand Tool for Public Awareness.

http://www.unisdr.org/eng/public_aware/world_camp/2003/english/8_Article_Adrc_eng.pdf

WeBsites

Asian disaster preparedness center

http://www.adpc.net/v2007/

national oceanic and Atmospheric Association (noAA). hazard Assessment tool – Build it for your community

http://www.csc.noaa.gov/hat/

serVir regional Visualization & monitoring system. regional modeling and visualization for latin America, caribbean, and Africa

http://www.servir.net/index.php?lang=en

Annex A – AdAptAtion meAsures 131
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

OVERARCHING PLANNING 

AND GOVERNANCE

1. COASTAL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

2. INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

3. SPECIAL AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 133

overarching planning and governance

1. COASTAL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) 

within a coastal region integrates river and catchment 

(watershed) management with estuary management, 

taking into account “the coordinated development and 

management of water, land and related resources, in 

order to maximize the resultant economic and social 

welfare in an equitable manner without compromising 

the sustainability of vital ecosystems.”

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change impacts on water resource availability 

and flow will take many forms. The variability of 

climate is already posing profound challenges for 

the management of water resources in developing 

countries. This will be exacerbated by expected increases 

or decreases in rainfall in different locations and by 

the increased intensity or duration of flooding and 

droughts. Integrated water management for a river 

system examines variability in past and current water 

flows and the role that climate has and continues to 

play in that variability. It does this as part of a process to 

allocate water among economic sectors, people and the 

environment. Many countries that depend on glaciers 

or snow covered mountains for fresh water (e.g., Mt. 

Kilimanjaro and the Pangani River Basin in Tanzania) 

are increasingly concerned about the impacts of global 

warming. Changes in precipitation, flow, land use and 

conflicts over water allocation that occur upstream have 

direct implications for coastal areas in terms of water 

supply, coastal agriculture, industry, coastal ecosystem 

productivity, wildlife, sedimentation and fisheries.

Watershed assessments in many coastal regions have 

begun to “downscale” global climate scenarios for basinspecific implications—generating valuable data for 

coastal adaptation as well. From a coastal management 

perspective, the future of fresh water flows to estuaries, 

tidal mega-deltas and coastal waters are key issues—

issues that may, in turn, be linked to salinization of 

groundwater and soils and changes in habitats and 

fisheries. It is important to recognize that coastal issues 

alone are not likely to be the drivers of improved 

watershed governance. Other resource allocation issues 

at stake in watershed management often take priority. 

This includes issues driven by the interests of agriculture, 

industrial production, energy generation and flood 

protection for riparian cities. National water law is also 

at the core of water allocation issues. Precisely because 

of the scale and scope of watershed issues, however, 

many watershed plans and institutions are starting to 

incorporate climate change adaptation considerations.

Agriculture is one of the key uses of water in the 

Usumacinta Watershed in Southern Mexico and 

has implications for the estuary’s fisheries.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Within coastal regions, the Integrated Water Resources 

Management approach recognizes that catchments, 

coastlines, estuaries and near-shore tidal waters are all 

elements of discrete, but closely coupled ecosystems 

(USAID, 2006). Estuaries provide important 

environmental services to people, and freshwater is an 

estuary’s lifeblood. The high-protein output of estuary-
134

OVERARCHING PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

based fisheries is the product of the inflow and mixing of 

freshwater in a unique combination of physical, chemical 

and biological functions. These work in unison to make 

estuaries extremely productive of plant and animal 

life. Healthy, functioning estuaries and their associated 

wetlands also serve as storm buffers that absorb wave 

energy and rising tidal waters during storms. Intact 

watershed landscapes combined with limits on water 

allocations can help guarantee environmental flows, 

protect against coastal groundwater salinization, and 

reduce downstream erosion and sedimentation damage 

from flooding.

A key IWRM concept is the cross-sectoral integration 

of the management of different water uses. This 

includes water used for people, food, nature, industry, 

hydropower and navigation. IWRM is an expression of 

ecosystem-based management. It is rooted in principles 

such as the practice of decentralized democratic 

governance and the application of sound science to the 

planning and decision-making process.

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

In coastal situations, IWRM can be triggered in a 

variety ways. It can start at the local level in response to 

the degrading qualities of an estuary. Or, it may also get 

started from the top—for example, when responsible 

government agencies note changes of concern in 

the watershed and catchment. As a result, new types 

of information are needed to fully utilize IWRM as 

a complementary tool for coastal communities and 

watersheds. This includes information on:

•	 The meteorological, hydrological, biophysical, and 

socioeconomic aspects of water, coastal aquaculture, 

or fisheries resources, through inventories, surveys, 

and other approaches;

•	 The local context (boundaries of geographic area of 

concern, identity and interests of stakeholders, and 

strategic opportunities for addressing climate change 

adaptation);

•	 Natural hazards, potable water and sanitation issues; 

the impacts of flow changes (volume, timing and flow 

pattern) on environment and downstream uses; risks 

of salinization of soils and fresh water supplies; and 

issues associated with different agricultural irrigation 

practices;

•	 Stakeholders’ values and how these affect adaptation 

decisions (planned and responsive), and the 

consequent barriers to mainstreaming adaptation;

•	 Legal and institutional analysis that focus on 

the capacity of and the quality of procedures, 

administrative functions and laws that control the 

allocation, supply, infrastructure, maintenance and 

monitoring of water use;

•	 Perceptions among water users of their legal or 

traditional access and use rights;

•	 Vulnerability and coping strategies for addressing 

water quantity variability, as well as flooding, storms, 

erosion and changes, within watershed and coastal 

systems;

•	 Climate projections and predictions, provided in a 

way that can be used to assess impacts and adaptation 

strategies such as at the sub-basin level;

•	 Demographic and economic trends and forecasts of 

the watershed and the adjacent coastal areas;

•	 Economic costs, benefits and feasibility of alternative 

adaptation measures for water supply, wastewater 

treatment, water conservation, health, land use and 

development, wetlands and watershed protection.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Water resource planning usually involves national level 

stakeholders and policy interests that might be far better 

organized and prepared to argue for their allocations 

than small holders, villages or downstream users who 

often have little or no contact with water management 

authorities. The organizational framework of regional 

or watershed-based policy may be weak and primarily 

driven by large scale economic interests. In many 

countries, water planning and policy-making is being 

decentralized, creating opportunities for a greater local 

voice in decisions. However, participants in water boards 

and water use committees may have little knowledge or 

interest in collaborative approaches to policy-making 

that take environmental and downstream user interests 

into account. 

Countries developing National Adaptation Plans of 

Action are frequently proposing coastal and watershed 

actions for climate change adaptation. Australia, for 

example, is urgently concerned about likely reduced 

rainfall in its southern and eastern regions, salinization 
135

COASTAL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

of coastal ground water from sea level rise and 

increased flooding in lowland fresh water wetlands 

(Pittock, 2003). Bangladesh squarely links climate 

change impacts on water resources and its coastal 

zone: “The combined effect of higher sea water levels, 

land subsidence, siltation of estuary branches, higher 

riverbed levels and reduced sedimentation in floodprotected areas will impede drainage and gradually 

increase water logging problems. This effect will be 

particularly strong in the coastal zone.” (Ministry of 

Environment, 2005). The larger challenges include: 1) 

getting the attention of a water board or authority to 

recognize downstream coastal issues, and 2) having the 

technical ability to address sophisticated environmental 

questions. There are other design considerations as well. 

•	 Build IWRM around issues identified through a 

participatory process and make explicit the linkages 

between the downstream (estuary) and upstream 

riverine and watershed areas. 

•	 Work at both the national and local levels with 

strong linkages between the levels (the “two-track” 

approach).

•	 Develop an open, participatory and democratic 

process, involving all stakeholders in planning and 

implementation. Link watershed and estuaries 

through issues, stakeholders and policies.

•	 Build constituencies and political support for 

resource management through public education and 

identify incentives for collaboration.

•	 Strengthen or introduce mechanisms for crosssectoral action.

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

The adoption and implementation of IWRM 

measures are made difficult by two factors: 1) the 

upstream demand for water, and 2) the infrequent 

consideration of impacts on the coast. The entry 

point for addressing coastal climate change adaptation 

concerns in watershed management may be linked to 

downstream impacts. This includes downstream issues 

regarding water allocation, landscape management or 

water contamination. Increasingly, water managers are 

considering environmental flow or water-for-nature 

allocations. Globally, there are many pilot projects that 

are looking explicitly at environmental flow questions 

tied to climate change. This is creating opportunities 

for a broader understanding of coastal area concerns 

at regional scales and is increasing the support for 

implementing helpful measures throughout the 

watershed. 

There are varied constraints to designing adaptation 

measures within the coastal IWRM context. Institutional 

and legal frameworks for water resources management 

sometimes may make basin-specific planning difficult 

or even impossible to account for environmental flows, 

coastal estuarine freshwater needs, or other downstream 

impacts of water management decisions. Planning cycles 

for a basin-focused approach may not coincide with 

the time frame for a key decision or initiative related 

to climate change adaptation. Institutions may lack 

readiness for the regional planning, technical studies, 

and political decisions that are needed to address water 

allocation and capacity development for communities. 

What might be warranted in these cases is a pilot project 

that emphasizes building capacity in basic watershed 

planning in addition to adaptation. Basin planning 

may focus on large scale structural investments in flood 

control, energy generation and irrigation. As such, basin 

planning might be an excellent target for adaptation, 

but may also have weak environmental reviews or may 

not require consideration of downstream impacts. 

Therefore, it is critical to engage relevant stakeholders 

from different parts of the watershed to help ensure that 

environmental flows for the watershed and estuary are 

incorporated into the water allocation equation.

IWRM responses to climate change, when not 

coordinated through an intersectoral approach, 

can have both positive and negative impacts. These 

may sometimes even counteract each other. The 

Pantabangan-Carranglan Watershed is “one of the most 

important watersheds in the Philippines.” It supplies 

water for irrigation and power generation, with a dam 

constructed in 1974 that destroyed communities and 

displaced population. This disturbed watershed provides 

the background for a study of the cross-sectoral impacts 

of adaptation measures proposed by sectoral institutions 

on the environment and communities of the watershed. 

In examining likely impacts on flooding and landscape 

change, researchers have found that “adaptation 

strategies for forests/agriculture have mixed effect on 

the various institutions in the watershed. Most of the 

adaptation strategies recommended require additional 

investments.” In addition, “adaptation strategies are 

not neutral; that is, they could affect other sectors both 
136 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

OVERARCHING PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE

positively and negatively. Thus, a cross-sectoral analysis 

should be done at the watershed scale to ensure that 

negative effects are anticipated and mitigated before the 

implementation of adaptation strategies.” (Lasco et al., 

2006)

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCE AND SUSTAINABLE 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAN JUAN RIVER BASIN AND ITS COASTAL 

ZONE (NICARAGUA AND COSTA RICA)

An early example of basin planning that incorporates coastal zone and climate change was sponsored 

beginning in 1994 by the Organization of American States for the San Juan Basin. The program continued 

through funding from the Global Environment Facility. A bi-national conference held in 2002 led to 

recommendations on incorporating climate change considerations such as flooding, droughts, and 

hurricanes into basin planning. In 2003, the San Juan Biosphere Reserve was created. The International 

Union for the Conservation of Nature initiated a follow-up program in 2004, focusing on local 

stakeholders. In 2008, a consortium of civil society groups released the Carta del Río San Juan, which calls 

for supporting protected areas and strengthening government watershed conservation efforts in the binational area, especially in light of the expected impacts of climate change on worsening flooding and other 

impacts. The Meso-American Biological Corridor is an important component of the watershed. A number 

of institutional and policy conflicts remain over priority uses, decision making, and navigation access to the 

river. 

For more information: http://www.oas.org/sanjuan

CLIMATE CHANGE SCIENCE FOR BASIN PLANNING

“The Murray-Darling Basin Sustainable Yields Project provides the science to underpin the sustainable 

planning and management of the Basin’s water resources, which currently supplies at least 40 percent of 

Australia’s agricultural production and covers a seventh of the area of the continent. The project is likely 

the first water resource assessment at this scale in the world that is taking into account climate change 

and surface and groundwater interactions. The assessment of current and future water availability takes 

into account future climate and development, and informs stakeholders of the overall impact on the Basin’s 

water. The predicted water availability and water use is assessed, synthesized and accounted for under 

current water sharing arrangements, with regional reports being progressively released by the Australian 

Government over 2007 and 2008. By considering the hydrological implications of an integrated modeling 

system, water management agencies can assess the potential consequences of their management policies 

and decisions at a regional or Basin scale.”

For more information: http://www.csiro.au/partnerships/MDBSY.html
137

COASTAL WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Agrawala, S., T. Ota, A. U. Ahmed, J. Smith and M. van Aalst. 2003. Development And Climate Change In Bangladesh: Focus 

On Coastal Flooding And The Sundarbans. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Paris.

http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/55/21055658.pdf

Biemans, H., H. van Schaik and P. Kabat. 2006. Water And Climate Risks: A Plea For Climate Proofing Of Water Development Strategies 

And Measures 4th World Water Forum, March 2006 Co-operative Programme on Water and Climate Research Partnership, Wageningen.

http://www.waterandclimate.org/UserFiles/File/manifest.pdf

Lasco, R. D., R. V. O. Cruz, J. M. Pulhin and F. B. Pulhin. 2006. Tradeoff Analysis of Adaptation Strategies 

for Natural Resources, Water Resources, and Local Institutions in the Philippines. Working Paper 

No. 32 June 2006. Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to Climate Change (AIACC), Washington, D.C.

http://www.aiaccproject.org/working_papers/Working%20Papers/AIACC_WP32_Lasco.pdf

Global Water Partnership, Technical Advisory Committee (TAC). 2000. Integrated Water 

Resources Management. TAC Background Paper No. 4. Stockholm.

http://www.gwpforum.org/gwp/library/TACNO4.PDF

Grubin, E., A. Hardy, R. Lyons, A. Schmale and T. Sugii. 2007. Conserving Freshwater and Coastal Resources in a Changing 

Climate. Department of Urban and Environmental Policy and Planning, Tufts University & The Nature Conservancy.

http://ase.tufts.edu/UEP/Degrees/field_project_reports/2007/Team10_TNC_Report.pdf

Medellín-Azuara, J., J. J. Harou, M. A. Olivares, K. Madani, J. R. Lund, R. E. Howitt, S. K. Tanaka, M. W. Jenkins and T. Zhu. 2008. Adaptability 

and adaptations of California’s water supply system to dry climate warming. Climatic Change (2008) 87 (Suppl 1):S75–S90.

http://meteora.ucsd.edu/cap/pdffiles/Medellin_adaptation_jan2008.pdf

Olsen, S. B., T. V. Padma, and B. D. Richter. 2006. Managing Freshwater Inflows to Estuaries: A Methods Guide. USAID, 

The Nature Conservancy, and the Coastal Resources Center at the University of Rhode Island.

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/methodsguidev61a.pdf

WEBSITES

Global Water Partnership (GWP). ToolBox for Integrated Water Resources Management.

http://www.gwptoolbox.org/

Environment Directorate, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).

http://www.oecd.org/env
138 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

overarching planning and governance

2. INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

“Integrated coastal management (ICM) can be defined 

as a continuous and dynamic process by which decisions 

are taken for the sustainable use, development, and 

protection of coastal and marine areas and resources. 

ICM is multi-purpose oriented, it analyzes and 

addresses implications of development, conflicting 

uses, and interrelationships between physical processes 

and human activities, and it promotes linkages and 

harmonization among sectoral coastal and ocean 

activities” (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998).

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Integrated coastal management (ICM) involves 

planning and decision-making that is specifically 

designed to improve economic opportunities and 

environmental conditions for coastal people. It typically 

already incorporates considerations of such issues as 

natural hazards and climate variability. ICM programs 

often address erosion, storms, and variable water levels 

as well as water quality, sanitation, fisheries and habitat, 

tourism, ports and infrastructure. They will also often 

seek to develop hazard resilience through the use of tools 

such as floodplain management, building standards, 

and conservation of ecosystems. 

Many international conferences, declarations and 

agreements call for all coastal countries to have ICM 

programs. This has resulted in a spectrum of coastal 

management frameworks applied differently throughout 

the world. Those coastal programs that already exist are 

gathering new information and considering modifying 

their policies to galvanize attention on the need for 

dramatic new policies to address current and future 

challenges of climate change. 

Until recently, many coastal programs have viewed sea 

level rise as an historic trend occurring at a constant 

rate. Today, it is increasingly recognized that this and 

other coastal changes are accelerating at a more rapid 

pace. This will require revising local and state policies 

and adapting new management priorities. This will 

require increased cooperation among the multiple 

agencies and stakeholders already working to formulate 

and implement ICM plans and policies. 

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

For decades, ICM has been recognized and practiced 

globally as a strategy for the conservation and 

sustainable development of the coastal zone. It is widely 

promoted as an appropriate policy framework to deal 

with current and long-term coastal challenges that cut 

across traditional departments (the sectoral approach). 

The distinguishing feature of ICM is multiple use 

management and inter-organizational activities in 

which success depends on coordination of effort and 

effective linkages among the actors involved. ICM is 

organized through a participatory and collaborative 

process that is tailored to the needs and context of 

individual places. A limited number of management 

issues are selected strategically with attention to the 

nature of the problem, and dimensions of capacity 

and complexity. ICM may be initiated at the national, 

provincial or local level, with the aim of harmonizing 

policy and implementation among different levels of 

government to ensure effectiveness and efficiency.

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

Over time, a coastal management program can address 

numerous issues. However, it is not advisable to set out 

to collect all available and possibly relevant information 

about the coast when establishing a program. The 

compilation of past information and the commissioning 

of new studies needs to be purposeful and constrained 

to its relevance in addressing the issues that are spurring 
139

INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

the formulation of a coastal policy or program in the 

first place. 

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

Compile information on the environmental, social 

and economic context (boundaries, stakeholders, 

threats) focusing on key issues in the area of coast;

Assess past events, current natural hazards, and 

potential future natural hazard risks;

Analyze existing governance capacities to implement 

a coastal program. Include an evaluation of 

vulnerabilities and coping strategies to address 

natural hazards;

Obtain climate projections and predictions provided 

in a way that can be used in impact and adaptation 

studies;

Estimate costs, benefits and feasibility of alternative 

measures for key policy issues; and

Conduct a range of activities to understand 

stakeholders’ values and their effects on adaptation 

decisions, and the consequent barriers to adaptation.

Even in the U.S, where relevant scientific information is 

relatively abundant, coastal states have tended to focus 

on flood plain management as well as historic sea level 

rise. They are now struggling to obtain accurate and 

integrated inundation and shore change information 

that would allow for scientific justification of needed 

policy changes, as well as to understand the implications 

of other climate change impacts. (Coastal States 

Organization, 2007) 

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

The process of developing climate change adaptation 

measures within an ICM context follows the same 

model as the cycle for developing any public policy. 

Step 1: Identify and analyze the issues relevant to 

specific coastal areas.

Step 2: Set objectives and prepare options for policies 

and actions.

Step 3: Make decisions on both policy as well as the 

need for new laws, decrees, projects or interagency 

agreements to support implementation.

Step 4: Use the mandate, policies, funds and 

administrative arrangements to forge an operational 

program that generates tangible results, such as case-bycase permit decisions on coastal development, conflict 

resolution, enforcement, and the building of physical 

infrastructure.

Step 5: Compare the results of the process against the 

desired outcome(s) and make necessary adjustments on 

a periodic basis.

Other ICM program design considerations include: 

•	

•

•

•

•

Maintain an open, participatory and democratic 

process, involving all stakeholders in issue 

identification, planning and implementation;

Build ICM around those issues highlighted in the 

above process;

Work at and develop strong linkages among layers 

of government—national, provincial or state, and 

municipal;

Build constituencies and political support for 

resource management through public education to 

avoid plans getting derailed at the implementation 

stage;

Strengthen or introduce mechanisms for crosssectoral action, especially when the legal and 

institutional framework keeps policy fragmented 

within traditional sectors.

In some cases, coastal management is concerned 

primarily with bringing greater order and predictability 

to the process of shorefront development. Such 

programs usually have a strong focus on environmental 

protection and heavy reliance on regulatory procedures 

to achieve management objectives. Integrated coastal 

management strives to go beyond the shorefront and 

adopt an ecosystem-based approach to planning and 

decision-making in more broadly defined coastal 

watersheds and the adjoining coastal ocean. ICM 

programs give attention to protection of important 

coastal features, while democratically defining and 

achieving socially and environmentally sustainable 

forms of development. 

The legal and institutional settings for ICM vary widely. 

Many countries reserve decisions about marine and 

coastal uses to the national government since these areas 

are considered national patrimony. Other countries 

have weak or limited national policy, relying instead on 

a combination of sectoral policies and decision-making 

at the regional and local levels. Disaster preparedness 

and response, hazard mitigation, research and coastal 
140 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

OVERARCHING PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE

planning functions are frequently carried out by 

different agencies without the benefit of coordinating 

mechanisms or back up from the judicial system. For 

ICM to be successful in addressing climate change, 

these functions clearly need to be integrated. 

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

Given the scale of the problem of climate change, and the 

wide range of overlapping and inter-connected coastal 

impacts it will have, an inter-sectoral and issue based 

approach to coastal adaptation is most appropriate. 

Responses to coastal climate change impacts need to 

be implemented in the broader context and the wider 

objectives of coastal planning and management. The 

window of opportunity for incorporating climate 

change adaptation policy into ICM is cyclical, requiring 

many years for technical information and policy studies 

to find their way through the decision-making process.

The causal relationship between the impacts of climate 

change and existing societal forces acting on coastal 

systems may not be widely appreciated by policy 

makers, managers and the public. The uncertainty 

over the nature of climate change and its implications 

contributes to this knowledge gap. Additionally, failure 

to include the true economic, social and environmental 

costs of present policies, may even subsidize risky 

coastal development. This makes it difficult to build 

constituencies for ICM planning and policy for coastal 

adaptation.

The costs and benefits of ICM strategies, policies and 

plans depend on the interventions undertaken. Costs 

are easier to quantify. Benefits are typically measured 

in terms of avoided climate impacts, (e.g. avoided loss 

of property, infrastructure and reduced exposure of 

population to risk) and can be difficult to quantify. 

ICM is an inclusive process that balances multiple 

objectives and priority issues of coastal planning and 

management—one of which is to generate equitably 

distributed social and environmental benefits for society. 

Typical institutional obstacles to ICM include:

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

The planning and management of human activities 

is organized and justified sector by sector and cannot 

respond to the complex interrelationships within 

coastal regions.

Sectoral emphasis creates overlapping areas of 

jurisdiction in government entities and can prompt 

interagency conflicts.

In other instances, particular activities/uses may not 

fall under the legal responsibility of any agency—

such gaps and overlaps in authority and responsibility 

complicate management.

Weak leadership and policy direction at many levels 

may delay the response to the accelerating changes in 

coastal conditions.

Untrained staff lack the skills and human capacity 

needed to effectively manage institutions.

Conflicts arise from the centralized decision-making 

process, which is slow to respond to concerns of local 

stakeholders that are the ones most affected by the 

decisions.

There are inadequate funds and/or capabilities to 

implement existing procedures and regulations.

There is a lack of public support for environmental 

management initiatives.

Procedures and laws for public disclosure of 

governmental decisions are lacking.

Better coordination and enforcement of existing 

legislation is required, but missing.

Overcoming obstacles requires addressing governance 

bottlenecks and constraints. Therefore, it may be 

necessary to create new institutional mechanisms to 

support increased interagency and intergovernmental 

coordination. Such mechanisms might include 
141

INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

interagency memoranda of agreement for managing 

specific resources or activities (e.g. aquaculture), 

interagency task forces or commissions, routine 

information sharing, joint hearings, coordination 

meetings, interagency plans, etc. These provide 

structures for developing mutually beneficial working 

relations and exchanging views on coastal climate 

change issues. Interagency coordination can also 

facilitate more efficient information gathering, analysis 

and planning, and regulatory decision-making needed 

in coastal adaptation.

Information limitations and capacity issues can be 

addressed in a number of creative ways. Develop 

handbooks, websites and other educational materials to 

clarify each agency’s legal jurisdiction and authority in 

coastal areas—and possible jurisdictional conflicts and 

overlaps. Coordinated databases—on coastal resources, 

uses (e.g. farming, fishing, and industry), geo-spatial 

data, including property lines, and demographic 

data on coastal residents—are needed both for more 

effective coastal adaptation planning and can inform 

the improved allocation of resources in a post-hazard 

situation. 

Building capacity of government and private sector 

professionals is key to incorporating climate adaptation. 

For instance, training for land use professionals in 

hazard risk assessment and the physical identification 

of hazard areas will help them plan and regulate 

development differently.

Comparison of ICM Programs in Five Tropical Countries

Attribute Country

Ecuador Tanzania Indonesia Sri Lanka Philippines

Primary level 

of government 

concerned 

with ICM

National, local National, local National, provincial National National, local

Overall approach Top-down, 

bottom-up

Top-down, 

bottom-up

Top-down, 

bottom-up Top-down First top-down, then bottom-up

National policy No National strategy Yes Coast Conservation 

Act

Yes, national 

policy for local 

governments to 

adopt ICM

National agency

Programa de 

Manejo de Recursos 

Costeros

Nascent body 

formally created 

in National 

Environment 

Management 

Council (NEMC)

Marine and Coast 

Directorate

Coast Conservation 

Division

Department of 

Environment and 

Natural Resources, 

Department of 

Interior and Local 

Government

Type of approach

Planning, educational, 

monitoring, municipal 

projects, sustainable 

development, 

coordinated 

enforcement

Regulatory, planning, 

consensus-building, 

district projects 

for sustainable 

development, 

enforcement

National policy 

and decentralized 

planning and 

management 

at regional and 

local levels

Regulatory, permit 

system, special area 

management strategy

Decentralized 

regulatory, 

area planning, 

participatory, 

sustainable 

development

Extent of 

implementation

Partial 

implementation

Partial 

implementation

Partial 

implementation Full implementation Partial implementation

Climate change 

or hazards 

management 

measures?

Focus on water 

through Ministry 

of Environment

National Adaptation 

Program of Action National action plan

Core issues for 

policy, regulation 

and investments

Inter-agency working 

committee
142 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

OVERARCHING PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE

Integrated Coastal Management is being adopted by Philippine Local Governments as a means to address 

their mandate to manage coastal and marine resources.

The Philippines has a long coastline bordered by 832 municipal and city government units that have full 

jurisdiction over the protection and management of their shoreline and marine resources to 15 kilometers 

off shore. This mandate vested to local governments based on laws of 1991 and 1997 has encouraged 

them to develop integrated management plans for their jurisdictional areas based on a nationally devised 

coastal resource management benchmark system that was adopted by national and local governments 

in 2005. The coastal resource management benchmarks (i.e indicators for advancement) provide basic 

guidance for each local government to develop their plans and to provide support for implementation. 

The broad benchmarks include: participatory plan developed and implemented, budget allocated, ICM 

coordination body formed and active; foreshore setbacks implemented; and a set of ICM best practices 

being implemented. Typical best practices include: marine protected area, fisheries management, mangrove 

restoration, alternative livelihood program in place and others as appropriate. This system is being adopted 

by increasing numbers of local governments with technical guidance provided by the national agencies and 

several foreign supported projects (White et al 2006).

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Chua, T-E. 2006. The Dynamics of Integrated Coastal Management: Practical Applications in the Sustainable Coastal Development in East 

Asia. 468 pp. Global Environment Facility/United Nations Development Programme/International Maritime Organization Regional 

Programme on Building Partnerships in Environmental Mangement for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), Quezon City, Philippines.

http://www.pemsea.org/publications/integrated-coastal-management/integrated-coastal-management

Cicin-Sain, B. and R. Knecht 1998, Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management: 

Concepts and Practices. 517 pp. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

http://www.islandpress.com/bookstore/details.php?prod_id=665

Coastal Resources Management Project. 2001. Philippine Coastal Resource Management 

Guidebook Series. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines.

http://oneocean.org/search/search_db.php?q=Philippine+Coastal+Resource+Manage

ment+Guidebook&submit2=GO&searchmode=title&doctype=all

Coastal States Organization Climate Change Working Group. 2007. The role of coastal zone management 

programs in adaptation to climate change. Coastal States Organization, Washington, D.C.

http://www.coastalstates.org/uploads/PDFs/CSO%202008%20Climate%20Change%20Report.pdf

McConney, P., R. Pomeroy and R. Mahon. 2003. Guidelines for coastal resource co-management in the 

Caribbean: Communicating the concepts and conditions that favour success. Caribbean Coastal Comanagement Guidelines Project. Caribbean Conservation Association, Barbados. 56 pp.

http://infobridge.org/asp/documents/1152.pdf

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007a, Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and 

Vulnerability, Chapter 6: Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas, Contribution of Working Group II 

to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press, UK.

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm

Nicholls, R.J., P.P. Wong, V.R. Burkett, J.O. Codignotto, J.E. Hay, R.F. McLean, S. Ragoonaden and C.D. Woodroffe, 2007: 

Coastal systems and low-lying areas. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working 

Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, 

J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 315-356.

http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter6.pdf
143

INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

Olsen, S. ed. 2003. Crafting Coastal Governance in a Changing World. Coastal 

Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, R.I.

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/Crafting_Coastal_Governance.pdf

Olsen, S., K. Lowry and J. Tobey. 1999. The Common Methodology for Learning: A Manual for Assessing Progress 

in Coastal Management. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, R.I

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/SEL_003F.PDF

Pielke, R., G. Prins, S. Rayner, and D. Sarewitz. 2007. Lifting the taboo on adaptation: Renewed attention to policies 

for adapting to climate change cannot come too soon. NATURE, Vol 445: pp. 597-98, 8 February 2007.

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v445/n7128/full/445597a.html

White, A. T., E. Deguit, W. Jatulan and L. Eisma-Osorio. 2006. Integrated Coastal Management in 

Philippine Local Governance: Evolution and Benefits. Coastal Management, 34: 287-302

http://www.oneocean.org/download/db_files/White%20et%20al.2006.ICM%20governance.pdf

WEBSITES

Encora. 2008. Coastal and Marine Wiki. Internet encyclopedia of 1,130 information pages for and by 

coastal professionals providing up-to-date high quality Coastal and Marine information

http://www.encora.eu/coastalwiki/Category:Coastal_management

Sustainable development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands. UNESCO. 2007

http://www.unesco.org/csi/index.htm

The Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts and Islands.

http://www.globaloceans.org/

The Philippines Coastal and Fisheries Management Information Center.

http://www.oneocean.org/
144 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

overarching planning and governance

3. SPECIAL AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN

The term “special area management plan” (SAMP) refers 

to a relatively comprehensive plan for a geographic 

area of critical concern, usually within the context of 

a national, state or municipal level coastal resources 

management program. This plan typically incorporates 

an overarching strategy that bundles together many 

different coastal management measures to address 

environmental, social and economic issues.

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Some climate change adaptation measures require 

coordinated action that cuts across policy sectors 

and government jurisdictions, which in turn requires 

considerable public and private sector support. The 

special area management plan (SAMP) process fosters 

an integrated perspective by addressing interrelated 

issues of concern for a variety of groups. Climate change 

could serve as a unifying theme since it impacts multiple 

aspects of the coastal ecosystem and its critical areas.

As of 2008, several countries are using SAMPs to address 

ecosystem problems that cut across jurisdictions. This 

includes Sri Lanka, the U.S., Mexico, Ecuador, and the 

Philippines. Other countries employ a related approach 

that is usually limited to an administrative boundary 

such as a district, province or municipal level. In all 

cases, the SAMP effort supplements national policies 

and programs.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

SAMP strategies create a comprehensive plan for a 

geographic area of critical concern. It usually involves 

addressing more than one issue. It pursues multiple 

objectives as a way to balance different needs within 

a geographic area—i.e., the need to protect natural 

resources with the need for growth in coastal-dependent 

economic activities. A stakeholder participation 

process is combined with technical studies to prepare a 

detailed analysis of environmental, social and economic 

conditions and a comprehensive statement of policies, 

standards and criteria to guide the use of public and 

private lands and waters in the critical area. 

Timely implementation of a SAMP often requires 

adapting existing or creating new administrative 

mechanisms. For example, this might involve working 

with existing authorities but assigning a lead agency 

to provide coordination of the process. Or, it might 

involve testing a totally new arrangement. SAMPs 

are encouraged as part of the U.S. Coastal Zone 

Management Act and are used by several U.S. coastal 

states. They are also a key strategy in countries such 

as Sri Lanka, which uses the SAMP as a way to link 

sectoral government agency authorities with issues 

that span ecosystem boundaries. Methods for creating 

and implementing a SAMP share much in common 

with the local ecosystem-based and provincial coastal 

management planning used in the Philippines and 

Indonesia or the district action planning that is used in 

Tanzania. SAMPs can also be compared to larger scale 

ecosystem-based approaches such as regional scale lake 

or estuary management efforts. For example, the U.S. 

Chesapeake Bay Program requires consensus among five 

states and the U.S. Great Lakes Program also involves 

negotiations between two countries.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

(IPCC) notes challenges to adaptation in specific areas. 

“Identifying the optimal policy mix is problematic as it 

requires consensus on many issues.” SAMPs combine 

participatory procedures with technical analysis to 

attain such a consensus.

INFORMATION AND DATA 

REQUIREMENTS

Special area management plans typically cover several 

issues and require an understanding of the dynamics 
ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES 145

SPECIAL AREA MANAGEMENT PLAN

and interactions of components of the ecosystem and 

resource use activities. Since the SAMP strategy bundles 

together many different management initiatives, 

the information that is collected needs to address 

several issues. This information is gleaned from the 

combination of available studies plus targeted short 

term research that seeks the answers to key questions 

related to one or more of the issues. 

A SAMP site might be large enough in geographic scope 

to allow for downscaling of regional climate scenarios. 

Other information that could be useful includes 

sector-specific information (e.g., future river flow from 

anticipated changes in land cover or upstream glacier 

melting; or basin-wide rainfall pattern shifts, which 

could help in understanding likely scenarios with 

sediment supply or estuary salinity gradients).

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR 

DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

There are a variety of ways to approach detailed 

planning for a special area. A national coastal program 

might survey all coastal sites and choose those at 

greatest economic and/or ecological risk or of high 

national significance. This is what Sri Lanka has done. 

In other cases, the SAMP starts with local leaders who 

care deeply about the future of the ecosystem they 

depend upon. These leaders work to gain the attention 

of stakeholders and scientists in order to prompt a 

response from government agencies. For a SAMP to 

become adopted as public policy it is necessary to:

•	

•	

•	

•	

•	

prepare a proposal for review by government and 

stakeholders that sets the geographic scope of and 

issues to be addressed in the SAMP;

develop a terms of reference and funding proposal 

to initiate and sustain what typically is a multi-year 

process;

confirm funding and a workplan for preparing the 

SAMP—multiple funding sources are needed to 

cover costs of meetings, technical studies, research 

and stakeholder participation;

appoint one or more committees, boards, or 

commissions to oversee preparation of the plan;

organize the project team, and incorporate scientific 

knowledge and technical expertise;

•	

•	

create mechanisms to engage the participation of 

key actors and ensure a full range of opinions and 

concerns; and

sustain this participation throughout all phases of the 

SAMP—issue identification, analysis, consideration 

of options, and adoption—as SAMPs need to tap into 

a wide policy network in order to attain consensus 

and carry out adopted measures.

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD 

OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING 

THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE 

CHANGE ADAPTATION

The need for climate change adaptation is not sufficient 

reason alone to initiate a SAMP. Rather, a SAMP is 

part of an integrated approach that addresses multiple 

issues and objectives. That said, climate change will 

likely cut across these issues. Scenarios on how climate 

change might affect a special area may call into question 

the existing rules for controlling development in that 

area. Or, it may question key assumptions used by 

coastal investors and authorities to make decisions 

about coastal infrastructure. Special area planning can 

be time consuming. It requires high quality technical 

support and sustained facilitation of committees, 

including stakeholder groups and agency staff not 

always accustomed to interacting. The concerted and 

coordinated action of many public and private entities 

is necessary in order to carry out the specific, sometimes 

costly measures involved in implementing a SAMP. For 

this reason, a national or regional government may 

prefer to adopt simpler, more focused and uniform 

policies such as setbacks, designated hazard zones and 

construction standards.

All elements and phases of a SAMP—from its design, to 

its guidelines, and its adoption into regulation—must 

be incorporated into the policies and work agenda of 

multiple institutions as few legal structures (national 

or regional) specifically recognize this form of plan. 

It is also essential to establish unified leadership and 

advocacy for the SAMP; secure appropriations; raise 

additional funds; and establish permanent budgeting 

within agencies, advocacy groups or special government 

funds.

The cost of mobilizing stakeholder involvement 

combined with the cost of conducting scientific and 

technical studies for a special coastal area or ecosystem 

varies. In rare cases—depending on the scale of the 
146 ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

OVERARCHING PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE

special area, the number and severity of issues, the 

extent of discord and the outcomes at stake—it can 

cost as much as a few million dollars. Raising a portion 

of such funds is generally feasible when: 1) the area 

faces severe threats, 2) a number of people and groups 

are affected, 3) there is an international dimension, and 

4) potential solutions can serve as a model for other 

locations.

SRI LANKA RELIES ON SPECIAL AREA MANAGEMENT PLANS AS A 

‘SECOND GENERATION’ COASTAL MANAGEMENT APPROACH. 

"Special area management projects study in detail the problems relating to specific areas under 

severe development pressure. Management strategies must consider critical issues and impacts 

arising from their interactions. Climate change issues facing Sri Lanka include: (a) inundation of 

low-lying areas, including coastal settlements and coastal wetlands; (b) coastal erosion; (c) flooding and storm damage; (d) quality of surface and groundwater; (e) salinisation of estuaries and 

freshwater aquifers; ( f ) degradation of marine ecosystems—coral reefs; (g) changes in the hydraulic force regimes of sea-defense structures and breakwaters leading to greater vulnerability 

to impacts of increased erosion and extreme events. SAMs can address these issues in the context 

of national policies related to erosion management and disaster preparedness." (S.S.Hettiarachchi 

and S.P. Samarawickrama, 2005) SAMP sites are noted for the economic and livelihoods value of 

the resources they hold. Together the SAMP sites, Ramsar sites, and marine protected areas help 

protect ecosystem services for conservation and/or use, while also addressing hazards of low lying 

coastal areas, erosion, and other damaging affects of extreme weather events including tropical 

storms and tsunamis. ( IUCN, Sri Lanka)
SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Aeron-Thomas, M. 2000. Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Sri Lanka, A Policy 

Review: Livelihood-Policy Relationships in South Asia. Working Paper 4.

http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/sei/prp/pdfdocs/slpolicy.pdf

Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. 2002. Santa Maria Bay Management.

http://www.crc.uri.edu/index.php?actid=9

Davis, B. C. 2004. Regional planning in the US coastal zone: a comparative analysis 

of 15 special area plans. Ocean & Coastal Management 2004.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VG5-4CB09CM-2&_user=657938&_

coverDate=12%2F31%2F2004&_alid=848985868&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_

cdi=6029&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=3&_acct=C000035679&_version=1&_

urlVersion=0&_userid=657938&md5=77e01ed3a44931de26bca1df474f2838

Ecuador Coastal Resources Management Program. Atacames Special Area Management Plan.

www.crc.uri.edu/download/Atacames_English_1.pdf

(Excerpted from: Hettiarachchi, S. S. L and S. Samarawickrama, 2005. Planning and implementing coastal management in Sri 

Lanka. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Maritime Engineering 158 March 2005 Issue MA1Pages 25–32.)

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Series on Best Practice Guidelines. (Sri Lanka) After the Tsunami: 

Safeguarding Special Area Management sites, Ramsar Sites and Marine Protected Areas. Information Paper No. 14

http://www.securinglivelihoods.org/en/nodes/Disasters-Tsunami/1991%20-%201995/2974

Lowry, K. and H. Wickremeratne. 1988. Coastal Management in Sri Lanka.

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/SLKemICM.pdf

Ochoa, E. 1995. The Special Area Management Process in Ecuador. Published in Eight Years in Ecuador: The Road to 

Integrated Coastal Management. Robadue, D. Jr., ed. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island.

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/8YRSTO_1s7.pdf

WEBSITES

Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council.

http://www.crmc.ri.gov/samp/

Sri Lanka Coast Conservation Department. Special Area Management Programs.

http://www.coastal.gov.lk

U.S. Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management. Special Area Management Plans.

http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/special.html 
U .S . Agency for International Development

1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20523

Tel: (202)712-0000

Fax: (202) 216-3230

www .usaid .gov

http://www .usaid .gov/our_work/environment/climate/