In Cooperation with the University of Arizona, School of Natural Resources

Vascular Plant and Vertebrate Inventory of 

Tonto National Monument

Open-File Report 2007-1295

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

National Park Service
This page left intentionally blank.
In cooperation with the University of Arizona, School of Natural Resources 

Vascular Plant and Vertebrate Inventory of

Tonto National Monument

By Eric W. Albrecht, Brian F. Powell, William L. Halvorson, and Cecilia A. Schmidt

Open-File Report 2007-1295

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

National Park Service

U.S. Geological Survey 

Southwest Biological Science Center

Sonoran Desert Research Station

University of Arizona

School of Natural Resources

125 Biological Sciences East

Tucson, Arizona 85721
ii

U.S. Department of the Interior

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Mark Myers, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2007

For product and ordering information:

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

For more information on the USGS—the federal source for science about the Earth, 

its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment:

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

Suggested Citation

Albrecht, E.W., Powell, B.F., Halvorson, W.L., and Schmidt, C.A., 2007, Vascular plant and vertebrate

inventory of Tonto National Monument: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-1295, 57 p. 

[http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1295/].

Cover photo: Jeff Balmat, National Park Service 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by

the U.S. Government.
iii

Editors and Authors 

Brian F. Powell and Cecilia A. Schmidt 

School of Natural Resources

125 Biological Sciences East, Building 43

The University of Arizona

Tucson, AZ 85721

William L. Halvorson

USGS SBSC Sonoran Desert Research Station

125 Biological Sciences East, Building 43

The University of Arizona

Tucson, AZ 85721

U.S. Geological Survey SBSC Sonoran Desert Research Station Personnel 

Charles van Riper III, Station Leader

William L. Halvorson, Research Ecologist

Cecil R. Schwalbe, Ecologist

Michael R. Kunzmann, Ecologist (Emeritus)

Kathryn Thomas, Ecologist

Pamela Nagler, Physical Scientist

Phil Rosen, Ecologist

Program and Expertise Areas of USGS and UA Personnel

Administration & Outreach Fire Management

Laura Opalka Dennis Suhre

Wendy Parrish Cori Dolan

Emily Sherbrooke Bill Halvorson

Charles van Riper III Invasive Species Research

Avian Ecology Patricia Guertin

Claire Crow Jim Malusa

Glenn Johnson Phil Rosen

Chris O’Brien Cecil Schwalbe

Brian Powell Brent Sigafus

Charles van Riper III Dennis Suhre

Kathryn Thomas Data Management 

Brent Sigafus Inventory & Monitoring

Patricia Guertin

Ecology of Amphibians & Reptiles Bill Halvorson

Kevin Baker Pamela Nagler Cristina Jones Brian Powell

Dave Prival Cecilia Schmidt

Phil Rosen

Cecil Schwalbe Vegetation Mapping & Ecology

Brent Sigafus Patricia Guertin

Bill Halvorson

Jim Malusa

Kathryn Thomas

USGS Southwest Biological Science Center http://sbsc.wr.usgs.gov

USGS Southwest Biological Science Center, Sonoran Desert Research Station http://sbsc.wr.usgs.gov/sdrs
iv
v

Table of Contents

List of Tables............................................................................................................................................vi

List of Figures .........................................................................................................................................vii

List of Appendices...................................................................................................................................vii

Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................................ix

Executive Summary..................................................................................................................................xi

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Biological Inventories................................................................................1

Project Overview.................................................................................................................................1

Report Format and Data Organization ...................................................................................................1

Verification and Assessment of Results .................................................................................................2

Chapter 2: Introduction to Tonto National Monument ..............................................................................5

Monument Overview ...........................................................................................................................5

Geology and Soils ...............................................................................................................................5

Vegetation...........................................................................................................................................6

Management Concerns.........................................................................................................................7

Previous Biological Inventories............................................................................................................8

Chapter 3: Plant Inventory........................................................................................................................9

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................9

Methods..............................................................................................................................................9

Results..............................................................................................................................................12

Discussion ........................................................................................................................................13

Chapter 4: Reptile and Amphibian Inventory..........................................................................................15

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................15

Methods............................................................................................................................................15

Results and Discussion ......................................................................................................................16

Chapter 5: Bird Inventory.......................................................................................................................17

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................17

Methods............................................................................................................................................17

Results..............................................................................................................................................21

Discussion ........................................................................................................................................25

Chapter 6: Mammal Inventory................................................................................................................29

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................29

Methods............................................................................................................................................29

Results and Discussion ......................................................................................................................31

Chapter 7: Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................................33

Chapter 8: Literature Cited.....................................................................................................................35
vi

List of Tables

Table 1. Summary results of vascular plant and vertebrate inventories at Tonto NM, 2001–2003. ..................xi

Table 1.1. Museums that were queried in 1998 for vertebrate voucher specimens with “Arizona”

and “Tonto National Monument” in the collection location. .................................................................3

Table 2.1. Climate data from Roosevelt Lake weather station (675 m elevation), 1905 to 2003

(Western Regional Climate Center 2004)...............................................................................................5

Table 4.1. Number (n) and relative abundance of reptiles and amphibians recorded per person-hour of

surveys at Tonto NM, 2001 and 2002, and additional species recorded incidentally (X). ..................16

Table 5.1. Total number of individuals recorded (sum) and relative abundance (RA) of birds

recorded along riparian transect, Tonto NM, 2001 to 2003. ................................................................22

Table 5.2. Number of observations at each station of the riparian transect, Tonto NM, 2001 to 2003................23

Table 5.3. Total number of individuals recorded (sum) and relative abundance of birds recorded

along the uplands transect (n = 15), Tonto NM, 2002..........................................................................24

Table 5.4. Relative abundance of nocturnal birds recorded along the owl transect (n = 36), Tonto

NM, 2002. .............................................................................................................................................24

Table 5.5. Observations of breeding activity by birds, Tonto NM, 2001–2003....................................................26

Table 5.6. Summary of vegetation volume and percent ground cover near stations of the riparian

transect, Tonto NM, 2002. ....................................................................................................................27

Table 5.7. Summary of number of individual plants in the vicinity of riparian transect stations,

Tonto NM, 2002....................................................................................................................................27

Table 6.1. Relative abundance of nocturnal small mammals (Order Rodentia) trapped at Tonto

NM, Arizona 2001 and 2002. ...............................................................................................................31

Table 6.2. Summary of the number of medium and large mammals observed incidentally at Tonto

NM, Arizona, 2001 to 2003. .................................................................................................................31
vii

List of Figures

Figure 2.1. Cave Canyon watershed and stream system, AZ..................................................................................6

Figure 3.1. Location of general botanizing surveys, Tonto NM, 2001 and 2003. ................................................10

Figure 3.2. Location of modular plots for plants, Tonto NM, 2003......................................................................11

Figure 3.3. Modular plot arrangement of four 10 x 10 m modules, eight 1 x 1 m quadrats,

and four 10 m point-intercept transects, Tonto NM, 2003.. ...............................................................12

Figure 5.1. Location of diurnal survey stations for birds, Tonto NM, 2001–2003...............................................18

Figure 5.2. Location of nocturnal survey stations for birds, Tonto NM, 2001–2003. ..........................................20

Figure 6.1. Location of small mammal trapping plots, Tonto NM, 2001–2002. ..................................................30

List of Appendices

Appendix A. Plants observed (O) and collected (X) at Tonto NM. .....................................................................39

Appendix B. List of amphibians and reptiles found at Tonto NM by University of Arizona

inventory personnel and Swann et al. (SWN; 1996).......................................................................52

Appendix C. Bird species recorded by University of Arizona Inventory personnel (UA), Tonto

NM, 2001–2003 or that were reported in Hiett and Halvorson (H&H;1995). ...............................53

Appendix D. List of mammals observed at Tonto NM by University of Arizona Inventory

personnel (UA), Swann et al. (SWN;1996), and Bucci and Petryszyn (B&P;2004)......................57
viii
ix

Acknowledgements

Thanks to Shirley Hoh, park Superintendents Lee Baiza and Brad Traver, and all the staff at Tonto National

Monument (NM) for financial and logistical support. This project resulted from the collaboration of

National Park Service staff with many people at the University of Arizona (UA), and was facilitated by the

Desert Southwest Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit (CESU). Andy Hubbard and the Board of Directors

at the Sonoran Desert Network (SDN) Vital Signs Inventory and Monitoring (I&M) program, and Larry

Norris at the Desert Southwest CESU provided encouragement and support, and Matt Goode, Don Swann,

and Dale Turner provided early planning for this project. Eric Albrecht was an outstanding spokesperson

and leader of the program; he was an invaluable member of the team and his contributions are sorely

missed. 

We thank a group of dedicated field biologists who collected data at Tonto NM for this project:

Greta Anderson, Sky Jacobs, James MacAdam, Meg Quinn, Patty West, and Emily Willard (plants); Dan

Bell, Kevin Bonine, James Borgmeyer, Dave Prival, and Mike Wall (amphibians and reptiles); Gavin

Beiber, Chris Kirkpatrick, and Gabe Martinez (birds); Melanie Bucci, Ryan Gann, Wendy Kramer, Neil

Perry, Jason Schmidt, and Ronnie Sidner (mammals). We are appreciative of the following people, many of

whom never ventured into the field, but whose office tasks made the field effort possible: Debbie Angell,

Pam Anning, Jennifer Brodsky, Lisa Carder, Brian Cornelius, Kathleen Docherty, Carianne Funicelli,

Colleen McClain, Heather McClaren, Lindsay Norpel, Jill Rubio, Brent Sigafus, Taffy Sterpka, Patina

Thompson, Jenny Treiber, and Alesha Williams. We thank Philip Guertin for his information on the Cave

Springs riparian area and watershed. 

Additional administrative support was provided by Valery Catt at the U.S. Geological Survey,

Sonoran Desert Research Station and Terri Rice, Andy Honaman, Jenny Ferry, and especially Cecily

Westphal of the School of Natural Resources at the UA. Technical support was graciously given by the

following experts: Yar Petryszyn and Melanie Bucci of the UA Mammal Collection; Dan Austin, Michael

Chamberland, Phil Jenkins, and Charlotte and John Reeder at the UA Herbarium. Thanks to Peter

Wierenga, Sharon Megdal, and all the staff at the UA Water Resources Research Center, especially Terry

Sprouse and colleagues (Sprouse et al. 2002) for background information on Tonto NM. Phil Guertin

provided maps and information on hydrology and geology for this report.
x
xi

Executive Summary

This report summarizes the results of the first

biological inventory of plants and vertebrates at

Tonto National Monument (NM). From 2001 to

2003, we surveyed for vascular plants and

vertebrates (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and

mammals) at Tonto NM to record species

presence. We focused most of our efforts along

the Cave Springs riparian area, but surveyed other

areas as well. We recorded 149 species in the

riparian area, and 369 species overall in the

monument, including 65 plant species and four

bird species that were previously unrecorded for

the monument (Table 1). We recorded 78 plant

species in the riparian area that previous studies

had not indicated were present there.

Several species of each taxonomic group

were found only in the riparian area, suggesting

that because of their concentration in this small

area these populations are vulnerable to

disturbance and may be of management concern.

Four of the bird species that we recorded (Bell’s

vireo, yellow warbler, summer tanager, and

Abert’s towhee) have been identified as riparian

“obligate” species by other sources. Bird species

that are obligated to riparian areas are targets of

conservation concern due to widespread

degradation of riparian areas in the desert

southwest over the last century.

The flora and fauna of the riparian area

would benefit from continued limited public

access. The dependence of the riparian area on the

spring and surface flow suggests monitoring of this

resource per se would benefit management of the

riparian area’s flora and fauna as well. The

monument would benefit from incorporating

monitoring protocols developed by the Sonoran

Desert Network Inventory and Monitoring program

rather than initiating a separate program for the

riparian area. Park managers can encourage the

Inventory and Monitoring program to address the

unique monitoring challenges presented by small

spatial areas such as this riparian area, and can

request specific monitoring recommendations. We

suggest that repeat inventories for vertebrates, and

census (rather than sampling) of perennial

vegetation may be the most effective long-term

monitoring strategies in the riparian area to verify

species persistence through time in this unique and

spatially limited environment. 

This report supersedes Albrecht et al.

(2005).

Table 1. Summary results of vascular plant and vertebrate inventories at Tonto NM, 2001–2003. 

Number of species Number of species Number of new species

Taxon group recorded in riparian area recorded in the monument added to monument lista

Plants 90 240 65

Amphibians and Reptiles 18 21 0

Birds 36 97 4

Mammals 5 11 0

Totals 149 369 69

a Species that had not been observed or documented in previous studies.
xii
1

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Biological Inventories

Project Overview

Inventory: A point-in-time effort to document the

resources present in an area. 

In the early 1990s, responding to criticism that it

lacked basic knowledge of natural resources

within park units, the National Park Service (NPS)

initiated the Inventory and Monitoring Program

(I&M; NPS 1992). The purpose of the program is

to detect long-term changes in biological

resources (NPS 1992). At the time of the

program’s inception, basic biological information,

including lists of plants and animals, was absent

or incomplete for many park units. In fact, as of

1994, more than 80% of national park units did

not have complete inventories of major taxonomic

groups (Stohlgren et al. 1995). 

Species inventories have both direct and

indirect value for management of the monument

and are an important first step in long-term

monitoring. Species lists are not only useful in

resource interpretation and facilitating visitor

appreciation of natural resources, but are also

critical for making management decisions.

Knowledge of which species are present,

particularly sensitive species, and where they

occur provides for informed planning and

decision-making (e.g., locating new facilities).

Thorough biological inventories provide a basis

for choosing parameters to monitor and can

provide baseline data for monitoring ecological

populations and communities. Inventories can also

test sampling strategies, field methods, and data

collection protocols, and provide estimates of

variation that are essential in prospective power

analyses. In some cases, inventories may identify

or provide data related to critical resources such

as riparian areas that are valuable both

intrinsically and as habitat for species of

management interest. 

Purpose and Goals

The purpose of this study was to complete basic

inventories for vascular plants and vertebrates at

Tonto NM. This effort was related to a larger

biological inventory of effort in eight NPS units in

southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico

(Davis and Halvorson 2000; e.g., Powell et al.

2005), though separate funding was secured

from the monument to carry out this project. The

results presented in this report supersede those

reported by Powell et al. (2002, 2003) and Albrecht

et al. (2005). 

The goals of our biological inventory of

Tonto NM were to: 

1. Conduct field surveys to document at least

90% of all species of vascular plants and

vertebrates that occur within and near the

monument, with particular emphasis on the

riparian area near Cave Springs. 

2. Use repeatable sampling designs and survey

methods (when appropriate) that allow

estimation of parameters of interest (e.g.,

relative abundance) with associated

estimates of precision.

3. Compile historic occurrence data for all

species of vascular plants and vertebrates

from three sources: museum records

(voucher specimens), previous studies, and

monument records. 

4. Create resources useful to monument

managers, including detailed species lists,

maps of study sites, and high-quality digital

images for use in resource interpretation and

education. 

The bulk of our effort addressed the first

two goals. To maximize efficiency (i.e., the number

of species recorded by effort) we used field

techniques designed to detect multiple species. We

did not undertake single-species surveys for

threatened or endangered species. 

Report Format and Data Organization

This report is intended to be useful for internal

planning and outreach and education. We report

only common names unless we reference a species

that is not listed later in an appendix; in this case we

present both common and scientific names. For each

taxonomic group we include an appendix of all

species that we recorded in the monument

(Appendices A–D). Animal species lists are in

phylogenetic sequence and include taxonomic order,

family, genus, species, subspecies or variety (if
2

applicable) and common name. Scientific and

common names used throughout this document

are current according to accepted authorities for

each taxonomic group: Integrated Taxonomic

Information System (ITIS 2004) and the PLANTS

database (USDA 2004) for plants; Stebbins (2003)

for amphibians and reptiles; American

Ornithologists' Union (AOU 1998, 2003) for

birds; and Baker et al. (2003) for mammals. Units

of measurement are presented in accordance with

the International System of Units. 

Spatial Data

Most spatial data are geographically referenced to

facilitate mapping of study plots and locations of

plants or animals. Coordinates were stored in the

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection

(Zone 12), using the North American Datum of

1983 (NAD 83). We recorded most UTM

coordinates using hand-held Garmin E-Map®

Global Positioning System (GPS) units (Garmin

International Incorporated, Olathe, KS; horizontal

accuracy about 10–30 m) because of their

convenience and relative simplicity. We obtained

some plot or station locations by using more

accurate Trimble Pathfinder® GPS units (Trimble

Navigation Limited, Sunnyvale, CA; horizontal

accuracy about 1 m). It should be noted that not

all UTM coordinates reported are accurate

representations of the plant or animal location. For

example, UTM coordinates associated with plotbased detections are for the plot corners. Bird

sightings are an exception; the UTM coordinates

are reported for survey stations or transects, but

the animals we detected were typically up to 150

m distant (in rare cases as far away as 300 m). All

study-site coordinates are stored at the same

locations as for data archiving (below). 

Databases and Data Archiving

We entered field data into taxon-specific databases

(Microsoft Access version 97) and checked all

data for transcription errors. From these databases

we reproduced copies of the original field

datasheets using the “Report” function in Access.

The output looks similar to the original datasheets

but data are easier to read. The databases, Access

datasheet printouts, and other data such as digital

photographs will be distributed to Special

Collections at the University of Arizona, Main

Library in Tucson.

Original copies of all datasheets are

currently housed at the NPS SDN I&M program

office in Tucson and may be archived at another

location. This redundancy in data archiving is to

ensure that these valuable data are never lost. Along

with the archived data we will include UTM

coordinates and copies of the original datasheets

with a guide to filling them out. This information, in

conjunction with the text of this report, should

enable future researchers to repeat our work. 

Verification and Assessment of Results 

Photograph Vouchers

Whenever possible we documented vertebrate

species with analog color photographs. Many of

these photographs show detail on coloration or other

characteristics of visual appearance, and they may

serve as educational tools for the monument staff

and visitors. We archived photographs with other

data (as described above) and provided the

monument with digital copies.

Voucher Specimens

With proper documentation, voucher specimens

become an indisputable form of evidence of a

species occurrence. For plants, we searched the

University of Arizona Herbarium for existing

specimens from Tonto NM (see Appendix A for

results).We also collected herbarium specimens

whenever flowers or fruit were present on plants in

the field. All specimens that we collected were

accessioned into the University of Arizona

Herbarium. We searched for existing vouchers from

Tonto NM in records from 23 natural history

museums (Table 1.1). 
Table 1.1. Museums that were queried in 1998 for vertebrate voucher specimens with “Arizona” and “Tonto National

Monument” in the collection location. 

Collection Collection cont.

Chicago Academy of Sciences Peabody Museum, Yale University

Cincinnati Museum of Natural History & Science Saguaro National Park

Cornell Vertebrate Collections, Cornell University Strecker Museum, Baylor University, Waco

George Mason University (Fairfax, VA) Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection

Marjorie Barrick Museum, University of Nevada-Las Vegas University of Arizona

Michigan State University Museum (East Lansing) University of Texas, Arlington 

Milwaukee Public Museum University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana

Museum of Texas Tech University University of Colorado Museum

Museum of Vertebrate Zoology , University of California, Berkeley Walnut Canyon National Monument, Arizona

Museum of Life Sciences, Louisiana State University, Shreveport Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, Tucson

North Carolina State Museum of Natural Sciences Wupatki National Monument, Arizona

Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, Norman

3
4
5

Chapter 2: Introduction to Tonto National Monument 

Monument Overview

Tonto National Monument (NM) was established

by presidential proclamation in 1907 to protect

unique cliff dwellings and associated

archaeological sites. This 453-ha monument is

located in east-central Arizona, about 8 km south

of Roosevelt Dam near the shores of Theodore

Roosevelt Lake, a 7,015-ha reservoir. Monument

elevations range from 700 to 1200 meters. People

of the Salado culture inhabited the cliff dwellings

for approximately 300 years, abandoning the site

around 1450 AD. As many as 83,000 visitors tour

the monument each year (NPS 2003). 

Climate

Measurements at a nearby weather station on the

edge of Roosevelt Lake indicate that average

temperatures at the lower elevations of Tonto NM

may vary from a minimum of 12.8°C to a

maximum of 27.2°C, with daily average high

temperatures above 40°C in summer and daily

average low temperatures slightly above freezing

in the winter (Table 1.1). The monument averages

40.6 cm of precipitation a year, approximately 55%

of which falls between November and March and

37% of which falls between July and October.

April, May, and June are dry months averaging

approximately 9% of the annual precipitation

(Table 2.1). 

Based on Prism annual precipitation data

(NRCS 2004) there is an elevation influence on

precipitation distribution, with the lower elevations

receiving approximately 38 cm of annual

precipitation while the higher elevations of the

Cave Canyon Watershed receive approximately 50

cm of annual precipitation. Summer monsoon

precipitation is typically produced by convection

thunderstorms that are characterized by short

duration, high intensity rainfall. In Arizona’s

semiarid environments most of the runoff occurs

during the monsoon season (Renard 1970). Winter

precipitation is typically produced by frontal

systems that are characterized as longer-duration,

low-intensity rainfall that seeps into the soil and

produces less runoff. During monsoon

thunderstorms, locally heavy rains or longerlasting, widespread frontal weather systems can

cause sheet or flash flooding (Halvorson 2000).

Three times in the past ten years, significant

flooding has changed the configuration of the

stream in Cave Canyon. 

Geology and Soils

Tonto NM is located in the Basin and Range

Physiographic Province. The northeastern one-third

of the monument is characterized by alluvial fans

and bajada slopes, which skirt the mountains. The

mountains drop down northward to the Salt River

valley floor. The monument is also characterized

by Precambrian rocks, whose origin began a little

more than one billion years ago with deposition of

Apache Group sediments. Uplift created basins and

mountains, and then erosion began filling those

basins with rock from the surrounding mountains.

This basin-fill was cemented in place, forming Gila

Conglomerate. Renewed uplift entrenched the

course of the Salt River, which downcut through

the conglomerate. 

There are two primary geology formations

of hydrologic consequence in the Tonto area. The

northwest-southeast trending Two Bar Fault

delineates Tertiary sediments to the northwest, and

Precambrian sedimentary (and metasedimentary)

rocks of the Apache Group to the southeast (Martin

2001). The Tertiary alluvial sediments,

predominantly mudstone and fine-grain sand with

Table 2.1. Climate data from Roosevelt Lake weather station (675 m elevation), 1905 to 2003 (Western Regional Climate

Center 2004). 

Characteristic

Month 

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual

Average max. temperature (°C) 15 18 21 26 31 37 39 37 35 28 21 15 27.0

Average min. temperature (°C) 3 4 7 10 15 20 24 22 20 13 7 3 13.0

Average total precipitation (cm) 4.8 4.6 4.6 1.8 0.8 0.8 3.6 5.1 3.3 3.0 3.3 5.1 40.6
6

some gypsum, are found in the lower elevations

near the old Salt River streambed. They do not

have significant water-holding capacity (Martin

2001). Soils associated with these deposits will be

deep and have a sandy texture with high infiltration

capacities and low water-holding capacities

(STATSGO soil type AZ286). In the higher

elevations, the area is dominated by Precambrian

rocks, including Mescal Limestone and Dripping

Springs Quartzite with basalt and diabase

intrusions. The Precambrian Apache Group rocks

are crosscut by a diabase intrusion, capped by

basalt, and fractured and faulted because of the

mountain-building process. These rocks are

impermeable, except for the many faults and

fractures that serve as conduits for localized

groundwater flow (Martin 2001). In some areas, a

facade of the much younger Gila conglomerate

covers much of, and belies the thickness of, the

Dripping Springs Quartzite, in which both the

upper and lower cave dwellings are sheltered. Soils

associated with these deposits are typically

shallow, with a high percentage of rock fragments

and surface bedrock (STATSGO soil type AZ246).

The texture is relatively fine with low infiltration

and water-holding capacities. The Cave Canyon

Watershed is dominated by STATSGO soil type

AZ246. Cave formation in the monument is the

result of spalling, differential weathering caused by

frost and water weakening layers within the

Dripping Springs Quartzite. Once the lower layers

are weathered out, the unsupported layers above

begin to weaken and drop thin pieces of rock.

Vegetation

Tonto NM has five dominant vegetation

communities (from Jenkins et al. 1995): 

Figure 2.1. Cave Canyon watershed and stream system, AZ.
7

Interior southwestern riparian deciduous forest and

woodland dominated by Arizona sycamore,

Arizona walnut, blue wildrye and netleaf

hackberry. This vegetation community is the

most unique biological feature of the

monument and results from the spring in Cave

Canyon (Halvorson 2000); this community is

referred to as “the riparian area” in this report.

Sonoran riparian woodland dominated by jojoba,

velvet mesquite and catclaw acacia; this

community is referred to as “the xeric riparian

area” in this report.

Interior chaparral dominated by alderleaf mountain

mahogany, Sonoran scrub oak, desert

needlegrass, and crucifixion thorn.

Semi-desert grassland dominated by Emory’s

globemallow, brownplume wirelettuce, desert

needlegrass, Lehmann lovegrass, jojoba,

common sotol, broom snakeweed, and

sideoats grama.

Sonoran desertscrub dominated by jojoba, broom

snakeweed, Fremont’s desert-thorn, yellow

paloverde, goldenhills, Eastern Mojave

buckwheat, Parish’s threeawn, and Arizona

spike-moss.

Management Concerns

Riparian Vegetation

The small riparian area at Tonto NM is the most

important biological resource in the monument and

the preservation of that resource and its constituent

species are important management concerns. To put

this resource in a regional perspective, riparian

plant communities in the southwestern United

States account for less than 1% of the landscape

cover (Skagen et al. 1998), yet it is estimated that

greater than 50% of southwestern bird species

(Knopf and Samson 1994) and up to 80% of all

wildlife species in the southwest are dependant on

riparian areas (Chaney et al. 1990). Riparian areas

in arid regions support high bird species diversity

due to their structural and floristic diversity

(Thomas et al. 1979, Lee et al. 1989, Strong and

Bock 1990), which results in insects for foraging

and large trees for nesting (Powell and Steidl

2000). Riparian vegetation, such as that found at

Tonto NM, has been found to decrease levels of

heavy metals in water and soil, decrease water

temperatures, and provide a source of organic

matter for stabilization of stream banks (Karpiscak

et al. 2001, Karpiscak et al. 1996, Osborne and

Kovacic 1993).

Visitor Use

Annual visitor use at Tonto NM has increased from

7,005 in 1934 to over 60,000 today (NPS 2003).

On average, February and March have the highest

visitation (combined 14,045 in 2003) followed by

January and April (combined 12,804 in 2003) (NPS

2003). It is also in March and April that resident

and some neo-tropical migrant birds nest and raise

their first broods of the season (Hiett and

Halvorson 1999). The only access to the Upper

Cliff Dwellings is a trail that goes directly through

the Cave Canyon riparian area. Although access to

this trail is limited to guided tours, it is unknown

whether visitor and maintenance activities in the

area affect avian reproductive success or other

essential wildlife behavior in this area. Researchers

in other locations have found that continual

disturbances, even from nearby recreational hiking,

may cause some species to alter their activity and

feeding patterns, and may lead birds to abandon

their nests or fail to defend the nest against

predators (Hockin et al. 1992, Theobald et al.

1997). The presence of humans can alter activity

patterns of other wildlife as well, especially

medium- and large-sized mammals. Visitors may

also trample vegetation and increase soil erosion if

walking off-trail, and may introduce non-native

species by dispersing seed attached to clothing. 

Adjacent Land Use

Grazing

Cattle have been excluded from the monument

since 1981 but grazing continues on surrounding

lands (managed by the U.S. Forest Service), most

notably in the headwaters of Cave Canyon. Cattle

grazing can cause loss of vegetative cover, soil

compaction, stream bank destabilization, increased

runoff and soil erosion (Wohl and Carline 1996).

Sedimentation of Cave Canyon during flood events

(such as in 2003) may be associated with erosion in

the surrounding uplands of the watershed.

Recreation

Tonto NM is located near the Roosevelt Lake

Recreation Area, which is managed by the U.S.

Forest Service. Recently, the Forest Service added
8

new recreation areas in close proximity to the

monument which include campgrounds, boatlaunch ramps, and parking areas. These facilities

may bring additional visitors to the monument. 

Changing Fire Regimes

Due to grazing and the introduction of non-native

grasses, vegetation composition of the dominant

Sonoran desertscrub community at the monument

has changed dramatically; the current community

can provide fuel for higher-frequency fires that,

although typically of low-intensity, can be

detrimental to cacti (Jenkins et al. 1995).

Conversely, in the higher-elevation semidesert

grassland areas of the monument, fire suppression

will likely lead to invasion of woody shrubs, which

sustain less frequent but more intense fires than

were historically present in the area (Jenkins et al.

1995). 

Previous Biological Inventories

Baseline inventories of the monument’s flora and

fauna are nearly complete. Previous inventories

recorded 297 plant species (Burgess 1965, Brian

1991, Phillips 1992, Jenkins et al. 1995, and

Phillips 1996), 229 vertebrate species (Swann et al.

1996, Hiett and Halvorson 1995) and over 340

invertebrate species (Price and Fondriest 1995).

Each of these efforts produced reports that included

species lists and summaries of prior research. We

summarize previous vertebrate and plant

inventories in appendices A-D and we refer the

reader there for additional details.

Plants

There have been two inventories of plants at the

monument (Burgess 1965, Jenkins et al. 1995) and

three additional studies of note: one that mapped

the distribution of 13 non-native species (Phillips

1992), one that investigated the effects of fire on

plants (Phillips 1996), and one that revisited lineintercept plots after 25 years (Brian 1991). In

addition, there have been numerous specimen

collections, dating back to 1912. In addition to

producing the first and only vegetation map of the

monument, Jenkins et al. (1995) provided an

annotated plant list that included records from

previous studies and collections. 

Birds 

Hiett and Halvorson (1995) wrote an excellent

annotated species list for the monument in which

they reviewed prior studies and existing specimens,

and evaluated the seasonal status of 159 species.

These authors also wrote a bird-monitoring manual

for the monument and surveyed 10 stations during

the breeding season in 1994 and 1995 (Hiett and

Halvorson 1999). Unfortunately, field data from

that project have been lost (K. Hiett, pers. comm.). 

Reptiles, Amphibians, and Mammals

Swann et al. (1996) inventoried for reptiles,

amphibians, and mammals at Tonto NM. Their

work included collection of field data and summary

of existing voucher specimens. They wrote

excellent annotated lists for species that had been

confirmed or were suspected to occur in the

monument. Melanie Bucci, a graduate student at

the University of Arizona School of Natural

Resources, surveyed for bats in the riparian area

and other locations in the monument from 2001 to

2003 (Bucci and Petryzsyn 2004).
9

Chapter 3: Plant Inventory

Introduction

Jenkins et al. (1995) reviewed previous vegetation

surveys at Tonto National Monument and presented

this summary with results from their own work. In

this document, we correct transcription errors and

update that review with records from Halvorson

and Guertin (2003) and our surveys (Appendix A).

This report builds on previous studies by adding

information on the distribution of plant resources,

particularly in the riparian area. We achieved this

by combining two different, yet complementary

approaches, described below. 

Methods

Our surveys included both qualitative and

quantitative methods: qualitative “general

botanizing” surveys during which we

opportunistically collected and recorded plants in

the riparian area or over the remainder of the

monument, and quantitative “modular plot”

sampling in which we used two methods (pointintercept transects and a form of Braun-Blanquet

plots) to estimate abundance, percent cover, and

species composition of all plants in a small area. 

For all summary statistics in this report

(e.g., percentage of non-native species), we

excluded records that were not identified to species

unless there were no other specimens identified to

species for that genus (Appendix A). We recorded

11 species (and report records of 29 additional

species) with >2 subspecies and/or varieties

(Appendix A) and we included all subspecies

and/or varieties in our summary statistics of the

number of “species” recorded. We excluded

records that were not identified to species (n = 23;

e.g., Lotus spp.) in our work or that of previous

studies, unless there were no other records

identified to species for that genus (n = 3; e.g.,

Stipa spp.) (Appendix A). 

Spatial Sampling Designs

General botanizing surveys were non-random and

were used to search intensively for species in the

riparian area or search extensively for species in

other areas of the monument. We located modular

plots by subjectively choosing areas that we felt

were representative of the mesic riparian area (two

plots) and xeric riparian area (two plots).

General Botanizing

Field Methods 

We surveyed vegetation in 2001 and 2003 during

both spring and summer, and attempted to

document as many species as possible both in the

riparian area and across the monument as a whole

(Fig. 3.1). We collected one representative

specimen (with reproductive structures) for each

plant species (whenever possible), and maintained

a list of species observed but not collected (usually

because reproductive structures were not present).

These lists contribute to the “flora” for the

monument, and provide detailed information about

species present in the riparian area (Appendix A).

When we collected a specimen, we assigned it a

collection number and recorded the flower color,

associated dominant vegetation, date, collector

names, and UTM coordinates. We pressed and

processed the specimens on site, and after two to

three weeks froze them for 48 hours or more to

prevent infestation by insects and pathogens. We

accessioned mounted specimens to the herbarium

at the University of Arizona.

Effort 

We completed general botanizing surveys at Tonto

NM on three days in July 2001, two days in March

2003, three days in April 2003, and two days in

May 2003.

Analysis

We listed all species that we recorded (Appendix

A).

Modular Plots

We completed modular plot work in cooperation

with the Sonoran Desert Network Vital Signs

Inventory and Monitoring program, which

developed the methods and protocol for use in

multiple National Park Service units. These data

also may serve as a baseline for monitoring

changes in the riparian area where survey effort

was high in proportion to total area covered by

mesic riparian vegetation; in fact, modular plots

covered >15% of the total area of the riparian area

(Fig. 3.2). However, because plots were not
10

Figure 3.1. Location of general botanizing surveys, Tonto NM, 2001 and 2003.

selected at random, statistical inference to the total

area is not possible. Lack of random placement in

the xeric riparian plots also prevents statistical

inference, but changes can still be measured and

compared among plots and over time.

Field Methods

We used a standardized, plot-based approach to

quantify vegetation structure and species

composition at four locations in April 2003. The

basic unit was the 10 x 10 m module, four of which

were joined to create a plot, the dimensions of

which were either 20 x 20 m (Fig. 3.3; n = 3) or 10

x 40 m (n = 1). 

We used two types of sampling at modular

plots, each with different objectives: 1) pointintercept transects to estimate frequency of species

and ground cover types, and 2) nested plots, similar

to Braun-Blanquet plots (Braun-Blanquet 1965), to

estimate percent cover for all plants and basal area

measurements for large woody plants. We marked

the corners of each modular plot with a permanent,

rubber-capped rebar stake, used a Pathfinder GPS

unit to obtain accurate UTM coordinates for the

point, and used a compass and tape measure to

define the remaining plot corners. Plot boundaries
11

were aligned in cardinal directions (e.g., the west

boundary was a north-south line). 

Point-intercept Transects

We bisected each module with a north-south

transect (Fig. 3.3) that was measured using a 10-m

tape measure marked at 10-cm increments. In each

of three height categories (<0.5 m, 0.5–2 m and >2

m) we recorded the species of the first plant

intercepted by a vertical line every 10 cm along the

transect line (100 points per transect). We created

the vertical line with a laser pointer as often as

possible, and otherwise visually estimated its

position. If no plant was intercepted, we recorded

“no plant.” We classified ground cover at each

point according to the following categories: bare

soil, loose rock, bedrock, litter (senescent plant

material that was detached from plants).

Braun-Blanquet Plots

We used a form of the Braun-Blanquet method

(Braun-Blanquet 1965) to estimate percent cover

Figure 3.2. Location of modular plots, Tonto NM, 2003.
12

(spatial area of each plant species as viewed from

above) for each species on all modules and

quadrats (Fig. 3.3) in each of the height categories

used for point-intercept transects. We estimated

coverage at two scales: large (10 x 10 m; covering

the entire module; n = 4 per plot) and small (1 x 1

m quadrats at opposite corners of the module; n =

8 per plot) (Fig. 3.3). 

To estimate percent cover by height

category for each plant species in the modules and

quadrats, we assigned the total coverage by each

species to one of six cover classes based on visual

estimation: “trace” (<1%), “1” (1–5%), “2”

(6–25%), “3” (26–50%), “4” (51–75%), or “5”

(76–100%). Because quadrats were nested within

modules (Fig. 3.1), modules always contained all

the plant species that were recorded in the

quadrats. We recorded tree species in each module

if the majority of the trunk was inside the module,

and recorded basal diameter if it was >15 cm. For

stems <15 cm basal diameter, we counted the

number of stems but did not record basal diameter.

Effort

We measured vegetation on two plots in the xeric

riparian area and on two plots in the mesic riparian

area at Tonto NM during three field days from 15

to 17 April 2003. Three plots had four modules in a

20 m x 20 m arrangement, and one plot had four

modules in a 10 m x 40 m arrangement.

Analysis

We report summary statistics for all plots.

Results 

We observed or collected 240 species including 65

species that had not previously been found at the

monument (Appendix A). We also recorded: 142

species that had not been recorded in more than ten

years, 45 species not recorded in more than 30

years, five species not recorded in more than 60

years, and one species not recorded in more than

70 years. 

General Botanizing

We recorded 181 species during general botanizing

surveys that we did not record during modular plot

Figure 3.3. Modular plot arrangement of four 10 x 10 m modules, eight 1 x 1 m quadrats, and four 10 m point-intercept 

transects, Tonto NM, 2003.
13

surveys. We recorded 54 species in the riparian

area.

Modular Plots

We recorded 34 species during modular plot

surveys that we did not record during general

botanizing surveys. We recorded 13 species in the

riparian area.

Discussion

The number of non-native plant species that we

recorded in the monument (n = 40, 16% of all

species we recorded) and in the riparian area

specifically (n = 14, also 16%) was somewhat

high. Grasses (Family Poaceae) accounted for onehalf of all non-native species in the monument (n =

20) and for one-half of all non-native species in the

riparian area (n = 7). In fact, more than half of the

grass species that we recorded in the riparian area

(n = 12) were non-native. 

Some non-native plants alter ecosystem

function and processes (Naeem et al. 1996,

D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992), reduce abundance

of native species, and cause potentially permanent

changes in diversity and species composition

(Bock et al. 1986, D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992,

OTA 1993), but some species have stronger

impacts on the ecological community than others.

In assessing the potential threat posed by nonnative species, it is important to consider the

spatial extent of species, particularly those species

that have been identified as “invasive” or of

management concern. The extent of these species

may be more relevant than total number of nonnative species present, though such an investigation

was beyond the scope of this project.
14
15

Chapter 4: Reptiles and Amphibians Inventory

Introduction

Swann et al. (1996) completed a thorough

inventory of the amphibians and reptiles

(“herpetofauna”) of Tonto NM. Those authors also

reviewed previous records of herpetofauna species

at Tonto NM, and provided annotated species

accounts for all species that have been documented

at the monument; readers are referred to that

document for detailed information on all terrestrial

vertebrates of the monument. This document

updates their work and provides information

specific to the riparian area.

Methods

We surveyed for herpetofauna in 2001 and 2002

using non-plot-based methods because of our

limited time and our priority of detecting the

highest number of species possible. We considered

amphibians and reptiles together in this report

because we used the same search methods for both

groups. During our surveys for all taxonomic

groups (i.e., including observations from bird,

mammal, and plant survey crews), however, we

detected only one individual toad. We pooled

results from surveys in both years, and scaled total

number of individuals seen by search effort

(number of person-hours) to provide an index to

abundance for each species. 

Field Methods

We used a type of visual encounter survey (Crump

and Scott 1994) to search for amphibians and

reptiles in areas that we felt would yield the most

species. Surveys were not constrained by area or

time. In general, we completed surveys during the

cooler morning and evening periods to maximize

our chances of encountering snakes and

amphibians that would be active during these times

(Ivanyi et al. 2000). Three crew members in 2001

and two in 2002 participated in these surveys. We

recorded weather information (temperature, relative

humidity, % cloud cover, wind speed, and an

overall description of the conditions) before and

after each survey. For each animal observed we

recorded species, sex and age class when this

information could be determined with certainty. 

Effort

Two observers searched for amphibians and

reptiles in the riparian area at Tonto NM during

each of two visits: 17 and 18 September 2001 (total

of 20 person-hours) and 26 July 2002 (four personhours). During the 2002 visit, two observers also

searched the area between the Visitor Center and

the Lower Cliff Dwellings (five person-hours), and

a small area north of Route 88 (two person-hours),

which in some years supports a small pond that

provides breeding habitat for amphibians (Swann

et al. 1996). In this document, we report

“incidental sightings” of uncommon species made

by observers surveying for other taxonomic groups

(e.g., birds).

Analysis

We calculated the number of animals seen per

person-hour for each species during surveys in the

riparian area, and in all other areas of the

monument combined. We included incidental

observations from observers surveying for other

taxonomic groups. We considered species richness

to be the number of species observed in each area

by all observers and search methods. We did not

scale our estimate of richness by search effort as

we did with our index to abundance because

although number of individuals increases in a fairly

linear relationship to search effort, number of

species recorded quickly decreases after common

and conspicuous species are recorded. This pattern

results in shorter search periods often producing a

relatively higher number of (easily detected)

species compared with longer search times; simply

scaling number of species recorded by number of

search hours does not yield comparable results.

Incidental Observations

When observers surveying for taxonomic groups

other than herpetofauna encountered one of these

animals and could identify it definitively (e.g., Gila

monster, but not whiptail lizard species), they

recorded the species, sex and age class (if known),

time of observation, and UTM coordinates.
16

Results and Discussion

The herpetofauna crew recorded no amphibian

species and 12 reptile species during 31 personhours of searching in 2001 and 2002. Observers

surveying for other taxonomic groups recorded one

amphibian and an additional four reptile species

(Table 4.1). We did not add any species to the list

produced by Swann et al. (1996). 

Species richness during the years of our

surveys was much higher in the riparian area (15

species during surveys, 18 species including

incidentals) than in other areas (four species during

surveys, seven species including incidentals),

though search effort was higher in the riparian

area. The relatively high number of reptile species

recorded in the riparian area is notable given its

small size and our limited search effort. After

accounting for differences in the amount of search

effort in the riparian area versus other locations in

the monument, we found two species that were

more commonly detected in the riparian area. We

recorded only the Sonoran coral snake and

Woodhouse’s toad outside of the riparian area. 

Of the species that Swann et al. (1996)

reported as present either in the riparian area or in

all major vegetation types of the monument

(presumably including the riparian area), seven

were species we did not record. They also

concluded, based on 30 months of surveys, that

four species were associated only with the riparian

area and/or permanent water. Based on our findings

and those of Swann et al., there are at least 25

species of amphibians or reptiles that may occur in

the riparian area, and at least four of these are

obligated or are highly associated with riparian

areas.

Records of several rare species (e.g.,

western lyre snake) from observers who were

surveying for other taxonomic groups, illustrate the

opportunistic nature of such encounters. This

emphasizes the important contribution that all

researchers and trained staff can make in

documenting the persistence of species through

time.

Table 4.1. Number (n) and relative abundance of reptiles and amphibians recorded per person-hour of surveys at Tonto

NM, 2001 and 2002, and additional species recorded incidentally (X).

Species n

Year

2001 2002 2003

Woodhouse’s toad 1 X

western banded gecko 1 0.05

greater earless lizard 3 0.15

zebra-tailed lizard 1 0.25

desert spiny lizard 1 0.25

common side-blotched lizard 51 1.75 3.8

ornate tree lizard 38 1.75 0.75

Sonoran spotted whiptail 2 0.5

western whiptail 31 0.4 5.6

Madrean alligator lizard 1 0.05

Gila monster X X

Sonoran whipsnake X

gopher snake 2 0.1

common kingsnake X

western lyre snake X

Sonoran coral snake 1 0.25

western diamond-backed rattlesnake 1 0.25

black-tailed rattlesnake 1 X 0.25
17

Chapter 5: Bird Inventory

Introduction

Hiett and Halvorson (1995) produced a summary

of bird observations and specimen collections at

Tonto NM, which included observations made by

Hiett in 1993 and 1994 (Appendix C). Hiett and

Halvorson (1995) also summarize historical

observations. 

We spent most of our field effort on bird

surveys in the riparian area. We surveyed the

riparian area for diurnal and nocturnal species

during three consecutive breeding seasons from

2001 to 2003 with the goal of recording as many

species as possible and determining indices of

relative abundance for the most common species.

By calculating relative abundance, this is the first

study at Tonto NM to standardize the collection of

bird data and provide estimates of abundance (see

Introduction chapter). 

We established one survey transect in the

highest elevation area of the monument (uplands

transect) because this information provides a basis

for comparison with the riparian transect results,

and because no previous bird surveys had taken

place there. We suspected that this area might

provide habitat for birds not recorded in other areas

of the monument.

Methods

We surveyed for birds using three field methods:

variable circular-plot counts for diurnal breeding

birds, nocturnal surveys for nightjars (e.g.,

poorwills) and owls, and incidental observations

for all birds. We concentrated our survey effort

during the breeding season because bird

distribution is relatively uniform during that time

due to territoriality among birds (Bibby et al.

2002), which increases our precision in estimating

relative abundance, and enables us to document

breeding activity. It is important to note, however,

that our survey period included the peak spring

migration period for most species, which added

many passive migrant species to our list.

We also sampled vegetation around

breeding-bird survey stations along the riparian

transect because vegetation structure and plant

species composition are important predictors of

presence of particular species or of high species

richness (MacArthur and MacArthur 1961, Rice et

al. 1984, Strong and Bock 1990, Powell and Steidl

2000). 

Spatial Sampling Design

All survey stations were subjectively located along

the road, riparian area, and uplands. Therefore, no

inference can be made to areas not surveyed;

however, our surveys provided complete coverage

of the riparian area.

Diurnal Surveys

Field Methods

We used the variable circular-plot method

(Reynolds et al. 1980) to survey for diurnally

active birds during the breeding season.

Conceptually, these surveys are similar to

traditional “point counts” (Ralph et. al 1995)

during which an observer spends a standardized

period of time at one location and records all birds

seen or heard. Variable circular-plot counts

incorporate estimation of distance to each bird or

group of birds, and this “distance sampling”

strategy facilitates accurate estimates of density

(Buckland et al. 1993). This survey method has

become the standard for many studies and

collecting data in this manner may facilitate

comparisons through time at this location, or

comparisons with other areas.

We established two transects at Tonto NM

(see “Effort” section below) (Fig 5.1). Stations

along each transect were located a minimum of 250

m apart to maintain spatial independence among

observations at different stations. Each year we

surveyed from April through July, the period of

peak breeding activity for most species in the area.

We maintained a minimum of ten days between

surveys. On each visit, we alternated observers and

alternated the order in which we surveyed stations

(along a transect) to minimize bias by observer,

time of day, and direction of travel. We began bird

surveys approximately 30 minutes before sunrise

and concluded no later than four hours after

sunrise, or when bird activity decreased markedly.

We did not survey during winds that exceeded 15

kph or when precipitation exceeded an intermittent

drizzle. 
18

We recorded a number of environmental

variables at the beginning of each transect: wind

speed category (Beaufort scale), presence and

severity of rain (qualitative assessment), air

temperature (oF), relative humidity (%), and cloud

cover (%). After arriving at a station, we waited

one minute before beginning the count to allow

birds to resume their normal activities. We

identified to species all birds seen or heard during

an eight-minute “active” survey period. For each

detection we recorded distance in meters from the

observer (measured with laser range finder when

possible), time of detection (measured in oneminute intervals beginning at the start of the active

period), and the sex and/or age class (adult or

juvenile) if known. We did not measure distances

to birds that were flying overhead, nor did we use

techniques to attract birds (e.g., “pishing”). We

made an effort to avoid double-counting

individuals that had been recorded at previous

Figure 5.1. Location of diurnal survey stations for birds, Tonto NM, 2001–2003. Stations numbers 1–6 are the riparian

transect and the U1–U4 are the upland transect. 
19

stations. If we recorded a species during the

“passive” count period, (between the eight-minute

counts) we considered it as an “incidental”

detection and recorded distance from the bird to the

nearest station. We recorded breeding behavior

when observed (see “Breeding Behavior” section

below).

Effort

The riparian transect (six stations) included most of

the length of Cave Canyon within monument

boundaries. One station was centered in the

riparian area, and the other five stations were

located in the xeric riparian area. We surveyed the

riparian transect 14 times from 2001 to 2003 (four

times in 2001 and five times each in 2002 and

2003). The four stations in the upland transect

(above the Upper Ruins) were in the Interior

Chaparral vegetation community, but included

components of the Semidesert Grassland

vegetation community (as delineated by Jenkins et

al. [1995]). We visited the uplands transect four

times in 2002 only.

Analysis 

We calculated relative abundance of each bird

species (by transect and year) as the total number

of detections across all stations and visits divided

by effort (the number of stations multiplied by the

number of visits). We reduced our full collection of

observations (n = 1,313) to a subset of data (n =

712) by truncating all detections >75 m from each

station. Truncating observations increases the

validity of comparisons through space and time

because the probability of detection of species and

individuals is, in part, a function of the

conspicuousness of species; ranging from loud and

highly visible (e.g., Gila woodpecker) to quiet

(e.g., verdin) (Verner and Ritter 1983). We

excluded additional observations to further

standardize data for comparative purposes: birds

flying over the station (123 observations), birds

observed outside of the eight-minute count period

(141 observations), and unknown species (26

observations). Some observations met more than

one of these criteria. 

Nocturnal Surveys

Field Methods

To survey for owls we broadcast commercially

available owl vocalizations (Colver et al. 1999)

using a compact disc player and broadcaster (Bibby

et al. 2002), and we recorded other nocturnal

species (nighthawks and poorwills) when observed.

We established one nocturnal survey transect along

the road and riparian area. The numbers of stations

varied from six in 2001 to three in 2002 and 2003.

All stations were a minimum of 300 m apart (Fig

5.2). As with other survey methods, we varied

observers and direction of travel along transects

and did not survey during periods of excessive rain

or wind. We began surveys 45 minutes after sunset.

At each station, we began with a threeminute “passive” listening period during which we

did not broadcast calls. We then broadcast

recordings for a series of two-minute “active”

periods. We used recordings of species that we

thought, based on habitat requirements and

geographic range, might be present: elf owl,

western screech owl, and barn owl. We broadcast

recordings of owls in sequence from smallest to

largest-size species so that smaller species would

not be inhibited by the “presence” of larger

predators or competitors (Fuller and Mosher 1987).

During active periods, we broadcast owl calls for

30 seconds followed by a 30-second listening

period. This pattern was repeated two times for

each species. Though they were likely present, we

excluded great horned owl from the broadcast

sequence because of their aggressive behavior

toward other owls. We did not survey for species

listed as threatened or endangered (cactusferruginous pygmy owls [Glaucidium brasilianum

cactorum] or Mexican spotted owls [Strix

occidentalis lucida]) because precise protocols are

required by law for those species, and speciesspecific surveys are generally an inefficient use of

inventory effort. However, monument personnel

surveyed for Mexican spotted owls during the time

of our study (S. Hoh, pers. comm.). 

During the count period we used a

flashlight to scan nearby vegetation for visual

detections. If we observed a bird during the threeminute passive period, we recorded the minute in

which the bird was first observed, the type of

detection (aural, visual or both), and the distance to

the bird. If a bird was observed during any of the

two-minute active periods, we recorded in which

interval(s) it was detected and the type of detection

(aural, visual or both). As with other survey types

we attempted to avoid double-counting individuals

recorded at previous stations. We also used
20

multiple observers, alternated direction of travel,

and did not survey in inclement weather. 

Effort

We established one transect along the road and

riparian area. In 2001, we surveyed at six stations

on three visits. In 2002 and 2003, we surveyed at

three stations for two and four visits, respectively. 

Analysis

We used all detections of nocturnal species in our

analysis of relative abundance. When calculating

relative abundance, we used a sample size (n) of 36

(number of stations multiplied by number of

visits). 

Incidental Observations 

Field Methods

When we were not conducting formal surveys and

we encountered a species of interest (as determined

by the observer), a species in an unusual location,

or an individual displaying breeding behavior, we

recorded UTM coordinates, time of detection, and

(if known) the sex and age class of the bird. We

recorded all observations that confirmed breeding

Figure 5.2. Location of nocturnal survey stations for birds, Tonto NM, 2001–2003.
21

using a standardized classification system

(NAOAC 1990). We based confirmation on

observations of behavior or evidence that

conformed to at least one of nine categories: adult

carrying nesting material, nest building, adult

performing distraction display, used nest, fledged

young, occupied nest, adult carrying food, adult

feeding young, or adult carrying a fecal sac. We

also included incidental observations from

monument staff (Shirley Hoh) during the time of

the study 

Analysis

We provide frequency counts for species observed

incidentally but did not calculate relative

abundance because it was not possible to quantify

survey effort for this method. 

Vegetation Sampling at Diurnal Breeding-Season

Stations

We sampled vegetation near each diurnal survey

station to characterize vegetation. These data can

be used to help determine habitat associations for

specific bird species and to identify important

features of species-rich communities at the

monument. We sampled vegetation at five subplots

located at a modified random direction and

distance from each station. Each plot was located

within a 72° range of the compass from the station

(e.g., Plot 3 was located between 145° and 216°) to

reduce clustering of plots. We randomly placed

plots 0–75 m from the station to correspond with

truncation of data used in estimating relative

abundance. On rare occasions when plots

overlapped, we randomly selected another location

for the second plot.

At each plot we used the point-quarter

method (Krebs 1998) to sample vegetation by

dividing the plot into four quadrants along cardinal

directions. We applied this method to plants in four

size categories: sub-shrubs (0.5–1.0 m), shrubs

(>1.0–2.0 m), trees (>2.0 m), and potential cavitybearing vegetation (>20 cm diameter at breast

height [dbh]). If there was no vegetation for a

given category within 25 m, we indicated this in

the species column. For each individual plant, we

recorded distance from the plot center, species,

height, and maximum canopy diameter (excluding

errant branches). Association of a plant to a

quadrant was determined by the location of its

trunk, regardless of which quadrant the majority of

the plant was in; no plant was recorded in more

than one quadrant. Standing dead vegetation was

only recorded in the “potential cavity-bearing tree”

category. 

We also visually estimated percent ground

cover, by type, at each plot: bare ground, litter, or

rock (loose rocks or stones). We estimated percent

aerial cover of vegetation, within a 5-m-radius

around the center of the plot, in each quadrant

using three height categories: <0.5 m, 0.5–2 m, and

>2 m. For each estimate we used one of six

categories for percent cover: “0” (0%), “1”

(1–20%), “2” (21–40%), “3” (41–60%), “4”

(61–80%), and “5” (81–100%). 

Analysis

These data represent gross vegetation

characteristics around each survey station. In the

event that future bird surveys detect changes of

interest in ecological populations or communities,

the vegetation data reported in Tables 5.7 and 5.8

can form the basis for repeat vegetation

measurements which may provide potential

explanatory variables for analysis. 

Results 

We recorded 1,898 observations representing 97

species during the three-year study 

(Appendix C). The most common diurnal species

were the Bell’s vireo and northern cardinal along

the riparian transect (Tables 5.1, 5.2) and the

canyon towhee along the upland transect (Table

5.1). The most common nocturnal species was the

elf owl (Table 5.4). We observed nineteen species

only once during the study, including the yellowheaded blackbird, scarlet tanager, and yellowthroated vireo.

Diurnal Surveys

Riparian Transect

We observed 71 species during diurnal surveys

along the riparian transect and calculated relative

abundance for 52 species (Table 5.1). We observed

26 species in all years and 18 species in only one

year. Bell’s vireo and northern cardinal were the

two most abundant species across all years. We

recorded only one individual for each of 12 species

(Tables 5.1, 5.2). Phainopepla abundance increased

between 2002 and 2003 (t = 2.0, P = 0.05) and

verdin abundance decreased between 2001 and
22

2003 (t = 1.98, P = 0.048); however, statistical

power to reliably detect change was likely low. We

observed apparent changes in abundance of other

species (ladder-backed woodpecker, hooded oriole,

Lucy’s warbler, and Abert’s towhee; Table 5.1), but

these were not statistically significant (P >0.10,

two-tailed t-tests). 

Table 5.1. Total number of individuals recorded (sum) and relative abundance (RA) of birds recorded along riparian

transect, Tonto NM, 2001 to 2003. Sample sizes (n) are number of stations multiplied by number of visits. 

2001 2002 2003 All years

Species

 (n = 24) (n = 30) (n = 30) (n = 84) 

Sum

 RA

Sum

 RA

Mean SE Sum

 RA

Sum

 RA

Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE

Gambel’s quail 9 0.38 0.157 12 0.40 0.189 8 0.27 0.106 29 0.35 0.089

turkey vulture 1 0.04 0.042 1 0.01 0.012

Cooper’s hawk 2 0.07 0.067 2 0.02 0.024

American kestrel 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

white-winged dove 2 0.08 0.058 6 0.20 0.088 1 0.03 0.033 9 0.11 0.038

mourning dove 14 0.58 0.133 8 0.27 0.095 10 0.33 0.121 32 0.38 0.068

black-chinned hummingbird 1 0.04 0.042 4 0.13 0.063 4 0.13 0.079 9 0.11 0.038

Costa’s hummingbird 2 0.08 0.083 2 0.07 0.046 5 0.17 0.069 9 0.11 0.038

Gila woodpecker 3 0.13 0.092 2 0.07 0.046 2 0.07 0.046 7 0.08 0.035

ladder-backed woodpecker 4 0.17 0.078 3 0.10 0.056 1 0.03 0.033 8 0.10 0.032

pacific-slope flycatcher 2 0.07 0.046 2 0.02 0.017

Say’s phoebe 2 0.07 0.046 2 0.07 0.046 4 0.05 0.023

ash-throated flycatcher 10 0.42 0.133 14 0.47 0.124 8 0.27 0.082 32 0.38 0.065

brown-crested flycatcher 2 0.08 0.058 4 0.13 0.063 6 0.20 0.139 12 0.14 0.057

Bell’s vireo 35 1.46 0.225 40 1.33 0.161 35 1.17 0.192 110 1.31 0.110

plumbeous vireo 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

warbling vireo 1 0.04 0.042 1 0.01 0.012

western scrub-jay 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

verdin 20 0.83 0.167 15 0.50 0.115 8 0.27 0.095 43 0.51 0.075

cactus wren 10 0.42 0.119 14 0.47 0.124 12 0.40 0.103 36 0.43 0.066

rock wren 7 0.29 0.095 6 0.20 0.074 7 0.23 0.092 20 0.24 0.050

canyon wren 4 0.17 0.078 8 0.27 0.106 7 0.23 0.079 19 0.23 0.052

Bewick’s wren 6 0.25 0.090 5 0.17 0.069 4 0.13 0.063 15 0.18 0.042

house wren 2 0.07 0.046 2 0.07 0.046 4 0.05 0.023

blue-gray gnatcatcher 5 0.21 0.120 5 0.17 0.069 10 0.12 0.043

black-tailed gnatcatcher 10 0.42 0.133 13 0.43 0.114 5 0.17 0.069 28 0.33 0.062

hermit thrush 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

northern mockingbird 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

curve-billed thrasher 2 0.08 0.058 2 0.02 0.017

phainopepla 1 0.03 0.033 14 0.47 0.178 15 0.18 0.068

Virginia’s warbler 2 0.07 0.046 2 0.02 0.017

Lucy’s warbler 3 0.13 0.092 6 0.20 0.088 10 0.33 0.100 19 0.23 0.054

yellow warbler 2 0.08 0.058 4 0.13 0.063 2 0.07 0.046 8 0.10 0.032

Wilson’s warbler 2 0.07 0.046 1 0.03 0.033 3 0.04 0.020

summer tanager 2 0.07 0.046 2 0.07 0.067 4 0.05 0.029

western tanager 5 0.17 0.097 5 0.06 0.035

green-tailed towhee 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

canyon towhee 11 0.46 0.199 16 0.53 0.133 11 0.37 0.122 38 0.45 0.085

Abert’s towhee 7 0.29 0.112 2 0.07 0.046 1 0.03 0.033 10 0.12 0.039

rufous-crowned sparrow 2 0.08 0.058 1 0.03 0.033 6 0.20 0.088 9 0.11 0.038

Brewer’s sparrow 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

black-throated sparrow 4 0.17 0.078 13 0.43 0.124 7 0.23 0.092 24 0.29 0.060

white-crowned sparrow 12 0.40 0.218 12 0.14 0.080
23

2001 2002 2003 All years

Species Sum

 (n = 24) (n = 30) (n = 30) (n = 84) 

 RA

Sum

 RA

Sum

 RA

Sum

 RA

Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE

northern cardinal 28 1.17 0.231 20 0.67 0.154 22 0.73 0.143 70 0.83 0.101

black-headed grosbeak 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

lazuli bunting 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

indigo bunting 2 0.08 0.083 2 0.02 0.024

brown-headed cowbird 8 0.27 0.106 9 0.30 0.167 17 0.20 0.071

hooded oriole 7 0.29 0.112 9 0.30 0.109 4 0.13 0.063 20 0.24 0.055

Scott’s oriole 1 0.03 0.033 1 0.01 0.012

house finch 5 0.21 0.104 1 0.03 0.033 5 0.17 0.069 11 0.13 0.041

lesser goldfinch 7 0.23 0.092 7 0.08 0.035

Total number of detections 219 266 245 730

Total number of species 30 42 37 52

Table 5.2. Number of observations at each station of the riparian transect, Tonto NM, 2001 to 2003. Station

number 4 was in the center of the riparian area south of the Visitor Center.

Station number

Species 1 2 3 4 5

Gambel’s quail 6 4 6 4 1

turkey vulture 1

Cooper’s hawk 1

American kestrel 1

white-winged dove 1 1 1 1

mourning dove 4 3 4 7 4

black-chinned hummingbird 1 1 6

Costa’s hummingbird 1 1 7

Gila woodpecker 2 2 3

ladder-backed woodpecker 3 1 2 2

pacific-slope flycatcher 2

Say’s phoebe 2 2

ash-throated flycatcher 5 7 7 2 6

brown-crested flycatcher 2 3 3

Bell’s vireo 11 21 20 36 5 16

plumbeous vireo 1

warbling vireo 1

western scrub-jay 1

verdin 14 9 10 4 1

cactus wren 5 8 13 1 6

rock wren 2 3 9 6

canyon wren 1 5 2 5 1

Bewick’s wren 2 4 5 1

house wren 1 1 1 1

blue-gray gnatcatcher 2 1 2 2 1

black-tailed gnatcatcher 7 3 5 1 5

hermit thrush 1

northern mockingbird 1

curve-billed thrasher 1 1

phainopepla 1 2 1 2

Virginia’s warbler 1 1

Lucy’s warbler 1 4 8 4 1

yellow warbler 2 6

Wilson’s warbler 2 1

6

4

5

8

2

2

4

5

3

5

5
24

Species

Station number

1 2 3 4 5 6

summer tanager 1 3

western tanager 2 1 1

green-tailed towhee 1

canyon towhee 10 6 6 1 5 3

Abert’s towhee 1 2 5 1 1

rufous-crowned sparrow 6 3

Brewer’s sparrow 1

black-throated sparrow 7 4 1 2 7

white-crowned sparrow 3 2 2

northern cardinal 8 10 15 14 5 10

black-headed grosbeak 1

lazuli bunting 1

indigo bunting 2

brown-headed cowbird 1 1 3 2 1 4

hooded oriole 2 5 6 4

Scott’s oriole 1

house finch 2 4 3 1 1

lesser goldfinch 1 3 1 1

Table 5.3. Total number of individuals recorded (sum) and relative abundance of birds recorded along the uplands

transect (n = 15), Tonto NM, 2002. 

Relative abundance

Species Sum Mean SE

mourning dove 1 0.07 0.067

olive-sided flycatcher 1 0.07 0.067

ash-throated flycatcher 2 0.13 0.091

gray vireo 2 0.13 0.091

western scrub-jay 2 0.13 0.091

cactus wren 6 0.40 0.131

rock wren 4 0.27 0.153

canyon wren 1 0.07 0.067

black-tailed gnatcatcher 4 0.27 0.153

northern mockingbird 1 0.07 0.067

Townsend’s warbler 2 0.13 0.133

western tanager 2 0.13 0.091

canyon towhee 8 0.53 0.215

rufous-crowned sparrow 5 0.33 0.159

black-throated sparrow 6 0.40 0.163

Table 5.4. Relative abundance of nocturnal birds recorded along the owl transect (n = 36), Tonto NM, 2002. See Methods

for details on estimation of relative abundance and effort. 

Relative abundance

Species Sum Mean SE

barn owl 1 0.03 0.028

western screech-owl 1 0.03 0.028

great horned owl 1 0.03 0.028

elf owl 50 1.39 0.161

common poorwill 15 0.42 0.140
25

Upland transect

We recorded 33 species during diurnal surveys

along the upland transect in 2002, and we

calculated relative abundance for 15 species (Table

5.3). The canyon towhee was the most abundant

species, and the cactus wren and black-throated

sparrow were also common. We recorded three

species in the upland transect that we did not find

in the riparian transect: olive-sided flycatcher, gray

vireo, and Townsend’s warbler. Although we did

not observe breeding behavior for the gray vireo,

our consistent observations of a singing male

throughout the survey period indicated that this

species likely nested in the upland area. 

Nocturnal Surveys

We recorded five species of nocturnal birds (four

owls and one common poorwill) during nocturnal

surveys from 2001 to 2003 (Table 5.4). Of the four

species of owls that we detected, the elf owl was

the most abundant and was the only species that we

recorded more than once. Although the elf owl

appears to be the most abundant of all species in all

survey types (Tables 5.1, 5.2, 5.4), this is because

we did not truncate observations for nocturnal

species as we did for diurnal species, resulting in

differing (and incomparable) effective search areas.

Abundance of elf owls appears to have been

consistent across the three years of this study (1.3

to 1.5 detections per station-visit; Table 5.4). 

Incidental Observations

Inventory staff recorded 12 species only on

incidental surveys and monument staff added an

additional two species. The number of individuals

detected for each of these species was low (n ≤ 2

for 11 species, and four yellow-eyed juncos in one

group), indicating that they are simply uncommon.

The addition of 14 species outside of formal

surveys (accounting for almost 15% of all species

recorded in 3 years) highlights the importance of

using this method in completing the inventory.

Breeding Observations

We recorded 57 observations of breeding behavior

(including 26 nest records) in 29 species from 2001

to 2003 (Table 5.5). We recorded the highest

number of breeding observations for the Bell’s

vireo (n = 11). Perhaps the most notable

observation was for the turkey vulture for which

we found a nest in a cave in the southwest portion

of the monument. 

Vegetation

Bare ground was the most frequently occurring

cover-type near most stations (Table 5.6). As might

be expected, vegetation volume at all stations was

higher in the understory (<0.5 m height category)

than in the overstory (>2.0 m). Some stations,

however, had noticeably lower vegetation volume

in the overstory (stations 1 and 5) than did others,

indicating a lack of trees in the vicinity (Table 5.6).

The number of tree species in the overstory around

stations ranged from five (station 1) to ten (station

3) (Table 5.7). Using the “potential cavity nesting”

category to indicate presence of large trees (>20

cm dbh [diameter at breast height]), only station 4

had large Arizona sycamore and Arizona black

walnut trees (Table 5.7), which are characteristic

riparian vegetation. 

Discussion

Our study was the first to use standardized

protocols to inventory birds at Tonto NM. We

focused most of our effort on the riparian area and,

as a result, these data can be used to compare

species richness and (in some cases) relative

abundance of species through time in that area.

We found high species turnover among

years in the riparian area (Tables 5.1, 5.2), which

points to the importance of completing surveys in

more than one year. In addition, we found several

species that are considered riparian obligates,

including Bell’s vireo, yellow warbler, summer

tanager, and Abert’s towhee (Rosenberg et al.

1991). Among these, the Bell’s vireo was the most

abundant species along the riparian transect, and

we were able to document breeding for this species

on numerous occasions (Table 5.5). Although we

did not document breeding by yellow warbler,

summer tanager, or Abert’s towhee, these species

are less common and less conspicuous than the

Bell’s vireo, and (based on consistent presence of

singing males) they likely nested in the monument.

These three species were more abundant at station

4 (in the center of the riparian area) than at all

other stations combined (Table 5.2). 

The mesic riparian vegetation around

station number 4 of the riparian transect clearly

plays an important role in the bird community in
26

Table 5.5. Observations of breeding activity by birds, Tonto NM, 2001–2003. Breeding codes follow standards set by NAOAC

(1990). 

Bird Adults

Adults seen feeding Total

Nest Nest Adults seen carrying Recently recently number

Nest with with on carrying nesting fledged fledged Distraction of

Species building eggs young nest food material young young display observations

Gambel’s quail 1 1

turkey vulture 1 1

Cooper’s hawk 1 2 3

mourning dove 3 3

common poorwill 1 1

white-throated swift 1 1

black-chinned hummingbird 1 1 2 4

Costa’s hummingbird 1 1

Gila woodpecker 1 1

ladder-backed woodpecker 1 1

Say’s phoebe 1 1 2

ash-throated flycatcher 1 1 2

brown-crested flycatcher 1 1

Bell’s vireo 4 1 2 1 1 9

verdin 1 1 2

bushtit 1 1 2

rock wren 1 1

canyon wren 1 1 2

blue-gray gnatcatcher 1 1

black-tailed gnatcatcher 1 1 1 3

curve-billed thrasher 1 1

phainopepla 1 1

Lucy’s warbler 1 1 2

canyon towhee 2 1 3

rufous-crowned sparrow 1 1

black-throated sparrow 1 1 2

northern cardinal 1 1 1 3

hooded oriole 3 3

Total number of 

observations by category 10 2 4 11 7 5 12 6 1 30

that area. In general, birds are strongly influenced

by plant species and because trees such as Arizona

sycamore and netleaf hackberry are rare in the

southwest, these resources can play a key role in

determining which species nest in and around an

area (Bock and Bock 1984, Powell and Steidl

2000). These trees, with their large volume and

structure, provide more places for foraging and

nesting than do other tree species in this region

(Bock and Bock 1984). Although this study was

not designed to investigate characteristics of nest

habitat by individual species, it is important to note

that hooded oriole and Cooper’s hawk nested only

in the sycamore trees (near station number 4) and

that Bell’s vireos consistently nested in netleaf

hackberry along the riparian corridor (E. Albrecht,

pers. obs.). Similar patterns for Bell’s vireo and

hooded orioles were found by Powell and Steidl

(2000) in southern Arizona. 

Although we documented an apparent

decline in abundance of verdin, we do not suggest

that these differences should be cause for concern;

the verdin is a common species of the Sonoran

riparian woodland and desertscrub, and short-term

fluctuations in population size are to be expected. 

We recorded presence of four species that

had not been previously recorded at Tonto NM

(Hiett and Halvorson 1995, 1999): bushtit, blackchinned sparrow, yellow-eyed junco, and yellowbreasted chat. Among these, we found evidence of
27

Table 5.6. Summary of vegetation volume and percent ground cover near stations of the riparian transect, Tonto NM,

2002.

Station

 Percent vegetation volume 

SE

 Percent ground cover 

 <0.5 m 0.5-2.0m 

Mean SE

 >2.0 m Litter Bare ground 

Mean SE

 Rock 

Mean SE Mean Mean SE Mean SE

1 14 3.7 12 3.0 5 1.7 8 2.0 65 6.0 28 5.0

2 24 5.2 23 4.2 14 4.1 17 4.0 57 5.9 30 5.0

3 38 7.1 29 5.8 13 4.9 35 6.5 51 8.2 13 3.4

4 43 5.1 21 2.9 15 6.7 28 6.6 36 4.7 39 4.6

5 37 4.4 9 1.4 1 0.7 15 2.1 42 4.4 49 4.5

6 32 5.2 25 5.6 14 5.4 21 3.2 39 3.4 44 5.3

Table 5.7. Summary of number of individual plants in the vicinity of riparian transect stations, Tonto NM, 2002.

“Category” relates to the criteria outlined in the Methods section. 

Category Scientific name Species

 Station 

1 2 3 4 5

>2.0 m Acacia constricta white-thorn acacia 1 1

Acacia greggii catclaw acacia 2 1 4 1 3

Agave sp. Agave species 1

Bacaris sarothroides desert broom 1

Canotia holacantha crucifixion thorn 1 1 1

Carnegia gigantus saguaro 1 1 2 3

Celtis laevigata var. reticulata netleaf hackberry 3 3

Parkinsonia florida blue paloverde 7 8 1 1

Parkinsonia microphylla little leaf paloverde 7 5 2

Dodonaea viscosa Florida hopbush 1

Fouqieria splendens ocotillo 1 1 1 2

Juglans major Arizona black walnut 2

Juniperus monosperma one seed juniper 1 2 2

Prosopis velutina velvet mesquite 3 4 6 8 7

Simmondsia chinensis jojoba 1

Yucca sp. Yucca species 2

Ziziphus obtusifolia greythorn 1

Potential cavity- Carnegia gigantus saguaro 19 20 17 8 20 14

bearing trees Juglans major Arizona black walnut 4

Platinus wrightii Arizona sycamore 3

Prosopis velutina velvet mesquite 1 1

6

5

2

6

nesting for the bushtit (Table 5.5) and a crew

member recorded a singing male yellow-breasted

chat in 2002 in the dense mesquite patch north of

Highway 188, west of the monument entrance

road. It is possible that the bird nested in that area.

It is unlikely that bushtit and black-chinned

sparrow are recent arrivals to the monument;

Interior Chaparral, a vegetation type that these

species are often associated with, was mapped by

Jenkins et al. (1995). We also recorded the

presence of at least one singing male gray vireo

(another species commonly associated with Interior

Chaparral) throughout the 2002 breeding season.

Hiett and Halvorson (1995) suggested removing

the gray vireo from the monument list, but the

absence of these Interior Chaparral-associated

species from the monument species list was likely

a result of incomplete surveys; Interior Chaparral

occurs only at the highest elevation in the

monument, where Hiett did not survey (Hiett and

Halvorson 1995). 

Two additional new species for the

monument, yellow-headed blackbird and scarlet

tanager, were seen by Shirley Hoh, Tonto NM

Resource Manager. These observations also

highlight the importance of continued reliable (and,

ideally, verifiable) observations by monument staff
28

and visitors to develop the most complete bird

species list. 

Cavity-nesting Species

The elf owl was the most abundant nocturnal

species during our surveys (Table 5.4). Elf owls

prefer to nest in saguaros (Hardy and Morrison

2001) and the decline in the number of saguaros in

the monument due to of altered fire regimes and an

increase in spatial extent of non-native species

(Phillips 1996) could mean that abundance of this

species will also decline, or perhaps already has.

Other cavity-nesting species that may be affected

include: American kestrel, Gila woodpecker, and

ash-throated and brown-crested flycatchers. 
29

Chapter 6: Mammal Inventory

Introduction

A thorough inventory of terrestrial mammals at

Tonto NM (including the riparian area) was

completed by Don Swann and colleagues between

1993 and 1995 (Swann et al. 1996). These authors

reviewed historical records for all mammals,

including bats, and provided species accounts for

all species that have been recorded at the

monument; readers are referred to that document

for detailed information. 

We trapped nocturnal rodents to provide

recent information on this group of animals

(specifically in the riparian area), and we recorded

incidental observations of all mammal species. We

have included reports of species from other

research projects since the Swann et al. inventory

(1996) to update that work and indicate which

species are still present. We also provide a list of

bat species reported by Melanie Bucci, a graduate

student at the University of Arizona who trapped

bats at the monument from 2001 to 2003 (Bucci

and Petryszyn 2004). 

Methods 

We surveyed for mammals using three field

methods: trapping for small, terrestrial nocturnal

mammals (primarily rodents, herein referred to as

small mammals), investigation of roost sites and

trapping for bats, and incidental observations for

all mammals. 

Spatial Sampling Design

We subjectively placed grids or groupings of small

mammal traps in or adjacent to the riparian area.

This non-random placement eliminates the

possibility of inference of our results to a larger

area, but we often achieved complete trap coverage

for the entire riparian area. We searched for bats

and bat sign at both the Upper and Lower Ruins

sites, and subjectively chose locations in the

riparian area for netting. 

Small Mammals

Field Methods

We trapped small mammals in 2001 and 2002 in

and adjacent to the riparian area (Fig. 6.1). We

used Sherman® live traps (folding aluminum or

folding steel, 3 x 3.5 x 9”; H. B. Sherman, Inc.,

Tallahassee, FL) in grids (White et al. 1983) or

placed preferentially in groupings, with 10- to 

20-m spacing among traps. We opened and baited

traps in the evening then checked and closed each

trap the following morning. For bait, we used one

teaspoon of a mixture that was 16 parts dry

oatmeal to one part peanut butter. We placed a

small amount of polyester batting in each trap to

prevent mortality from the cold. We marked each

captured animal with a semi-permanent marker to

enable us to identify previously captured animals if

they were recaptured; these “batch marks”

appeared to last for the duration of the sample

period (two to three nights). For each captured

animal, we recorded species, sex, age class (adult,

subadult, or juvenile), reproductive condition,

weight, and measurements for right hindfoot, tail, 

ear, and head and body. For males, we recorded

reproductive condition as either scrotal or nonreproductive. For females we recorded

reproductive condition as one or more of the

following: non-reproducing, open pubis, closed

pubis, enlarged nipples, small or non-present

nipples, lactating, post lactating, or not lactating. 

Effort

In October 2001, we set single traps for two nights

at stations placed preferentially along the entire

stretch of riparian area (n = 60 stations with 5 –15

m spacing between traps), and set traps placed in

two grids (n = 48 stations in two 10 x 2

arrangements, with 12.5 m spacing among traps) in

adjacent upland sites. In September 2002, we set

single traps for one night and double traps (two

traps per station) for two nights in the riparian area

in two grids (n = 34 stations in one 12 x 2

arrangement and one 5 x 2 arrangement, with 15 m

among traps). In September 2002 we set single

traps for one night at two clusters of stations (n =

10 stations in two 10-m-diameter clusters of 5

stations each) in adjacent upland sites. 

In summary, we sampled for nocturnal

rodents in fall of 2001 and 2002 using 290 trapnights on three plots in the riparian area and 106

trap nights on four plots in adjacent upland areas.
30

Analysis

We calculated relative abundance for each species

by dividing the number of captures by the number

of trap nights (number of traps multiplied by

number of nights they were open) after accounting

for sprung traps (Beauvais and Buskirk 1999).

Sprung traps are those that either misfired (n = 22)

or were occupied. Sprung traps reduce trap effort

because they are no longer “available” to capture

animals; we account for this by multiplying the

number of sprung traps by 0.5 (lacking specific

information, we estimate sprung traps were

available for half of the night) (Nelson and Clark

1973). After scaling results by trap effort, we

pooled results from multiple plots in the same year

for riparian and uplands areas; we did not have >2

plots for either category in either year.

Medium and Large-sized Mammals

As with other taxa, we recorded UTM coordinates

of mammal sightings. Observers from all field

crews (e.g., bird crew as well as mammal crew)

Figure 6.1. Location of small mammal trapping plots, Tonto NM, 2001–2002.
31

recorded sightings and signs such as identifiable

tracks or scat, and took photo vouchers if the sign

was definitive. These records were made by

observers from all field crews and we tabulated

them to provide a record of their presence during

the period of our surveys. 

Bats

Because insectivorous bats congregate at water

sites in the desert, we established three netting sites

(one site with a single 5-m-long mist net, and two

sites with two stacked 5-m-long mist nets) over

water in Cave Canyon. We set and checked these

nets on the night of 5 October and morning of 6

October 2001 between 1815 and 0530. On 6

October, we checked the rooms of the Lower Ruins

and the Upper Ruins for sign of roosting bats.

Results and Discussion

Small Mammals

We captured 177 individuals (excluding recaptures)

of at least four species of rodents (primarily

nocturnal species) during 396 trap-nights in 2001

and 2002 (Table 6.1). Trap effort was greater in the

riparian area (157 trap-nights) than in the uplands

(56 trap-nights), but relative abundance was equal

or higher for each species in upland areas than it

was in the riparian area. The same four species

were found in both upland and riparian areas. All

of these species (and two others) were reported by

Swann et al. and were described as present in the

riparian area (Swann et al. 1996; 7.1). 

We submitted one specimen of a whitefooted mouse (Peromyscus spp.) to the University

of Arizona mammal collection for identification

because we believed that it was brush mouse (P.

boylii). Unfortunately the specimen was misplaced.

If confirmed as a brush mouse it would have

increased the number of species captured, and

more importantly added a species to the monument

list; it has not previously been documented in the

monument. Erika Nowak has completed small

mammal trapping at Tonto NM in conjunction with

reptile studies, and in 2002 trapped a house mouse

(Mus musculus); this was the first record of this

species at Tonto NM, and she has continued to trap

them around the maintenance area since that time

(E. Nowak, pers. comm.).

Medium- and Large-sized mammals

We recorded six species of medium/large-sized

terrestrial mammals in the monument (Table 6.2).

All of these species were recorded by Swann et al.

(1996; Appendix D). Those authors also indicated

that one species, the Eastern cottontail, was likely

present in the monument only because of the

riparian area and its permanent water (Swann et al.

Table 6.1. Relative abundance of nocturnal small mammals (Order Rodentia) trapped at Tonto NM, 2001 and 2002. An

incidental sighting is noted with X.

 Within riparian area Outside riparian area 

Species n 2001 2002 2001 2002

rock squirrel X

cliff chipmunk 2 0.01 0.02

Bailey’s pocket mouse 79 0.21 0.15 0.32 1.08

cactus mouse 88 0.38 0.14 0.38

unknown white-footed mouse 3 0.01 0.04

western white-throated woodrat 4 0.01 0.06

Table 6.2. Summary of the number of observations of medium and large mammals observed incidentally at Tonto NM,

2001 to 2003.

Species n 2001 2002 2003

ringtail 1 1

common gray fox 1 1

desert cottontail 1 1

collared peccary 3 2 1

mule deer 2 2

white-tailed deer 1 1
32

1996). Although we did not observe any non-native

mammals, Swann et al. reported seeing a feral cat,

and also noted that reports of this species in the

monument date back to 1948 (Swann et al. 1996).

Bats

We did not capture any bats at Cave Canyon, and

found only minor accumulations of guano on the

floor of two main rooms in the Lower Ruins. We

were unable to determine from the guano which

species of bats were using the area. Bucci and

Petryszyn (2004) documented several species of

bats in the riparian area and other locations since

the report by Swann et al. (1996) was prepared,

and readers are referred to her reports for details; a

species list is presented in Appendix D.
33

Chapter 7: Conclusions and Implications

No species list is ever truly complete; species

distributions expand and contract, particularly in

locations as small as the riparian area in Cave

Canyon, but even in management areas the size of

Tonto NM. In addition, many inconspicuous

species are difficult to detect, as exemplified by the

desert night lizard (Xantusia vigilis),which was

recorded only once during the extensive study

conducted by Swann, et al. (1996) at Tonto NM; a

single juvenile was captured in the men’s room of

the visitor center by a seasonal maintenance

employee (Swann et al. 1996). Rare communities

such as the riparian area at Tonto are also used

periodically as “stopover habitat” by a number of

regionally rare bird species such as the yellowthroated vireo and scarlet tanager. Despite the

relatively large amount of effort that has been

invested in biological inventories at Tonto NM

compared with other national park areas in the

region, our effort recorded species that others had

not — as, no doubt, will future studies. To continue

developing the list of species that occur at the

monument, it is important that all researchers be

encouraged to report reliable or (preferably)

verifiable sightings to natural resource staff.

Biological inventories are a point-in-time

effort, and although we did not observe and record

all species present in the riparian area during the

time of the inventory, we feel that the inventories

in the monument have now recorded at least ninety

percent of species that regularly occur in the

monument, including the riparian area (annual

plant species may be an exception). Our effort

established that this ecological community hosts a

portion of the monument’s natural resources that is

disproportionate to its small size.

These resources, however, include some

non-native species. Awareness of non-native

species as a management issue has risen

dramatically in recent years; ecologists have ranked

the issue with habitat loss as one of the most

significant causes of species endangerment (Brooks

and Pyke 2001). Although we did not record nonnative vertebrate species in the monument, Nowak

has trapped house mouse consistently since 2002

(E. Nowak, pers. comm.) and Swann et al. (1996)

reported observing a feral cat. Neither of these

species has been reported from the riparian area,

but it is likely for either to occur there. More

remarkable than the presence of these species is the

absence of additional non-native species; there are

no records of house sparrow (Passer domesticus)

or brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), or of

the riparian-associated bullfrog (Rana catesbiana).

Non-native plant species are more prevalent; 40

species are known to occur in the monument

(Appendix A). Although some of these plants (e.g.,

some non-native lovegrasses) are known to

displace native vegetation, vertebrates, and

invertebrates in some environments (Bock et al.

1986), others are not as well studied. It is

especially important that the monument track the

presence and extent of non-native plant species

through time, particularly in the riparian area.

Future efforts that document presence of species

within the monument would benefit from having

spatially referenced data so that presence can be

attributed to areas of present or future management

interest (e.g., the riparian area). 

Our surveys were meant to complement

existing research, particularly that done for plants,

herpetofauna, and mammals, and to establish

species presence in the riparian area. We put

considerably more effort into the bird inventory, in

part to compensate for the loss of data that was

collected by Hiett. As such, our bird inventory

could be considered a baseline for monitoring

avian resources at Tonto NM. There is a unique

opportunity, however, to repeat (in precise detail)

the work by Swann et al. (1996) and evaluate the

use of repeat inventories as a monitoring tool. Such

an effort is clearly beyond the scope of this project,

but would be unprecedented and would be useful to

the developing National Park Service (NPS) Vital

Signs monitoring program and other monitoring

efforts.

Biological Management Implications

We recommend that Tonto NM resource

management staff coordinate all monitoring

activities, including those specific to the riparian

area, with efforts of the NPS Sonoran Desert

Network Vital Signs Inventory and Monitoring

Program. Data that we collected at Tonto NM are

being used in development of that program. If

monument staff desires more intensive monitoring
34

in the riparian area than in other areas of the

monument, we recommend increasing the

frequency or intensity of Vital Signs monitoring

protocols for that area. It is inadvisable to maintain

multiple monitoring programs at a single land

management unit, because this strategy produces

incompatible data and is at minimum an inefficient

use of resources. Another data management issue

that needs to be addressed is paper and electronic

copies of raw data from both monitoring and

research activities. Archiving of these data by the

NPS will reduce the likelihood of the irreplaceable

information being lost 

We anticipate that the Sonoran Desert

Network Vital Signs program will provide protocol

recommendations for biological monitoring in

small areas such as this, but it is advisable for

monument staff to encourage development of those

recommendations while the Vital Signs program is

still in the development phase.

Ultimately, managers should realize that

small areas such as the riparian area at Tonto NM

(approximately 200m by 20m) present unique

challenges to resource monitoring. Wide-ranging

species such as birds and many larger-bodied

reptiles and mammals require larger study areas to

provide space for multiple (spatially independent)

sampling units. Multiple sampling units (and

groupings of sampling units; replicates) provide

increased precision in estimating parameters of

interest and provide an increased ability to detect

trends in those parameters with a reasonable degree

of accuracy. It is possible that some characteristics

of the vegetation community could be monitored in

the riparian area if the entire area was censused

(total count) rather than sampled; sampling is most

practical in areas that are too large to census. 

Many of the plant and animal species

found in the riparian area and not other parts of the

monument are responding, directly or indirectly, to

the presence of water. Surface water quantity and,

to a lesser extent, quality are primary management

concerns associated with the riparian area, and

these characteristics should be measured carefully

through time, particularly given the sediment

deposition that may occur in flood events such as

that of 2003. Monitoring protocols for water

quantity and quality will also likely be

recommended by the Vital Signs program

(Hubbard et al. 2003).

The relatively high number of species that

we recorded only in the riparian area suggests that

this location, though small in spatial area, provides

habitat not found in other parts of the monument.

This unique area and its constituent species are

thus vulnerable to disturbance. It will continue to

benefit from restriction of unguided recreational

activities in the area. Any development (e.g., trail

improvements) would be best done in the winter

months when most vertebrates are less active and

are not engaged in reproductive activities (which

are typically sensitive to disturbance). Further

study of the riparian resources would benefit from

coordination with the Vital Signs monitoring

program.
35

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39

Appendix A. Plants observed (O) and collected (X) at Tonto NM. Species reported 2001 to 2003 are from the study of Halvorson and Guertin (2003), from Jenkins et al. (1995) unless otherwise indicated. Records from 1910 to 1989 are specimens, now located at Western Archaeological Conservation CDecade of species documentation determined by the year results were published if from a multiple-year study. Non-native species are in bold-faced type.

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Acanthaceae Carlowrightia arizonica Gray Arizona wrightwort OAgavaceae Agave chrysantha Peebles goldenflower century plant X O X

Yucca baccata Torr. banana yucca X O XYucca elata (Engelm.) Engelm. soaptree yucca X

Amaranthaceae Amaranthus albus L. prostrate pigweed X

Amaranthus blitoides S. Wats. mat amaranth 

Amaranthus fimbriatus (Torr.) Benth. ex S. Wats. fringed amaranth X XAmaranthus palmeri S. Wats. carelessweed XAmaranthus powellii S. Wats. Powell’s amaranth X

Anacardiaceae Rhus ovata S. Wats. sugar sumac O X X

Rhus trilobata Nutt. skunkbush sumac XRhus trilobata var. pilosissima Engelm. pubescent squawbush X

Apiaceae Bowlesia incana Ruiz & Pavón hoary bowlesia X X 

Daucus pusillus Michx. American wild carrot X X X

Lomatium nevadense (S. Wats.) Coult. & Rose Nevada biscuitroot XLomatium nevadense var. parishii (Coult. & Rose) Jepson Parish’s biscuitroot 

Pseudocymopterus montanus (Gray) Coult. & Rose alpine false springparsley O XSpermolepis echinata (Nutt. ex DC.) Heller bristly scaleseed XYabea microcarpa (Hook. & Arn.) K.-Pol. false carrot X X 

Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia watsonii Woot. & Standl. Watson’s dutchman’s pipe XAsclepiadaceae Asclepias asperula ssp. capricornu (Woods.) Woods. antelopehorns X

Asclepias subulata Dcne. rush milkweed 

Funastrum cynanchoides (Dcne.) Schlechter fringed twinevine OFunastrum cynanchoides ssp. heterophyllum

(Vail) Kartesz, comb. nov. ined. Hartweg’s twinevine X X

Matelea parvifolia (Torr.) Woods. spearleaf XMatelea producta (Torr.) Woods. Texas milkvine O X

Asteraceae Acourtia wrightii (Gray) Reveal & King brownfoot X O X 

Adenophyllum porophylloides (Gray) Strother San Felipe dogweed O X

Ambrosia confertiflora DC. weakleaf burr ragweed X XAmbrosia psilostachya DC. Cuman ragweed OArtemisia dracunculus L. tarragon X O XArtemisia ludoviciana Nutt. white sagebrush X O X

Artemisia ludoviciana ssp. mexicana (Willd. ex Spreng.) Keck white sagebrush Xb
40

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Asteraceae Baccharis brachyphylla Gray shortleaf baccharis

X

Baccharis pteronioides DC. yerba de pasmo

Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pavón) Pers. mule’s fat

X

Baccharis sarothroides Gray desertbroom

X

O

X

Bahia absinthifolia Benth. hairyseed bahia

X

Bahia biternata Gray slimlobe bahia

X

Baileya multiradiata Harvey & Gray ex Gray desert marigold

X

O

X

Bebbia juncea (Benth.) Greene sweetbush

O

X

X

Brickellia atractyloides Gray spearleaf brickellbush

X

O

X

Brickellia californica (Torr. & Gray) Gray California brickellbush

X

Brickellia coulteri Gray Coulter’s brickellbush

X

Brickellia floribunda Gray Chihuahuan brickellbush

X

Centaurea melitensis L. Maltese star-thistle

X

O

Cirsium neomexicanum Gray New Mexico thistle

O

X

X

Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq. Canadian horseweed

Xd X

Coreopsis californica (Nutt.) H.K. Sharsmith California tickseed

Coreopsis douglasii (DC.) Hall Douglas’ tickseedEncelia farinosa Gray ex Torr. goldenhills

X

O

Encelia frutescens (Gray) Gray button brittlebush

X

Encelia virginensis A. Nels. Virgin River brittlebush

X

Ericameria laricifolia (Gray) Shinners turpentine bush

X

O

X

Erigeron bellidiastrum var. arenarius (Greene) Nesom sandwort daisy fleabane

Erigeron divergens Torr. & Gray spreading fleabane

X

X

X

Filago arizonica Gray Arizona cottonrose

X

X

Filago californica Nutt. California cottonrose

X

Gnaphalium sp. L. cudweed

O

Gutierrezia microcephala (DC.) Gray threadleaf snakeweed

X

Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britt. & Rusby broom snakeweed

O

X

Gymnosperma glutinosum (Spreng.) Less. gumhead

O

Helianthus annuus L. common sunflower

X

Heterotheca subaxillaris (Lam.) Britt. & Rusby camphorweed

Xd

Heterotheca villosa (Pursh) Shinners hairy false goldenaster

O

Hymenoclea monogyra Torr. & Gray ex Gray singlewhorl burrobrush

O

Hymenoclea salsola Torr. & Gray ex Gray burrobrush

O

X

Isocoma acradenia (Greene) Greene var. acradenia alkali goldenbush

X

Isocoma coronopifolia (Gray) Greene common goldenbush

X

Lactuca ludoviciana (Nutt.) Riddell biannual lettuce

X
41

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Asteraceae Lactuca serriola L. prickly lettuce Xd

Lasthenia californica DC. ex Lindl. California goldfields X X XLayia glandulosa (Hook.) Hook. & Arn. whitedaisy tidytips X 

Machaeranthera bigelovii (Gray) Greene var. bigelovii Bigelow’s tansyaster X

Machaeranthera gracilis (Nutt.) Shinners slender goldenweed X X X Machaeranthera pinnatifida var. pinnatifida (Hook.) Shinners lacy tansyaster X Machaeranthera tanacetifolia (Kunth) Nees tanseyleaf tansyaster XMelampodium leucanthum Torr. & Gray plains blackfoot X O X Packera neomexicana var. neomexicana 

(Gray) W.A. Weber & A. Löve New Mexico groundsel X

Pectis papposa Harvey & Gray manybristle cinchweed XPerityle coronopifolia Gray crowfoot rockdaisy XPerityle saxicola (Eastw.) Shinners Roosevelt Dam rockdaisy X O X 

Porophyllum gracile Benth. slender poreleaf X O XPsilactis asteroides Gray New Mexico tansyaster X XPsilostrophe cooperi (Gray) Greene whitestem paperflower X XRafinesquia californica Nutt. California plumseed X

Rafinesquia neomexicana Gray New Mexico plumseed X X X 

Senecio flaccidus var. monoensis (Greene) B.L. Turner & T.M. Barkl. Mono ragwort X Senecio lemmonii Gray Lemmon’s ragwort X X X Sonchus asper (L.) Hill spiny sowthistle O X XSonchus oleraceus L. common sowthistle XcStephanomeria minor var. minor (Hook.) Nutt. narrowleaf wirelettuce XStephanomeria pauciflora (Torr.) A. Nels. brownplume wirelettuce O X X

Stylocline micropoides Gray woollyhead neststraw X Trixis californica Kellogg American threefold X X

Uropappus lindleyi (DC.) Nutt. Lindley’s silverpuffs X X X

Viguiera deltoidea Gray Parish’s goldeneye X 

Viguiera parishii Greene Parish’s goldeneye O 

Xanthium strumarium L. rough cockleburr X

Bignoniaceae Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet desert willow X 

Boraginaceae Amsinckia menziesii (Lehm.) A. Nels. & J.F. Macbr. Menzies’ fiddleneck O

Amsinckia menziesii var. intermedia (Fisch & C.A. Mey.) Ganders common fiddleneck O X X Amsinckia tessellata Gray bristly fiddleneck X

Cryptantha barbigera (Gray) Greene bearded cryptantha X X XCryptantha confertiflora (Greene) basin yellow cryptantha Cryptantha micrantha (Torr.) I.M. Johnston redroot cryptantha X
42

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Boraginaceae Cryptantha muricata (Hook. & Arn.) A. Nels. & J.F. Macbr pointed cryptantha X X

Cryptantha nevadensis A. Nels. & Kennedy Nevada cryptantha X X X XCryptantha pterocarya (Torr.) Greene wingnut cryptantha X XHarpagonella palmeri Gray Palmer’s grapplinghook XLappula occidentalis (S. Wats.) Greene flatspine stickseed X

Pectocarya platycarpa (Munz & Johnston) Munz & Johnston broadfruit combseed X

Boraginaceae Pectocarya recurvata I.M. Johnston curvenut combseed X X

Plagiobothrys arizonicus (Gray) Greene ex Gray Arizona popcornflower X X X Plagiobothrys collinus var. californicus (Gray) Higgins Cooper’s popcornflower X

Brassicaceae Arabis perennans S. Wats. perennial rockcress X O X 

Brassica tournefortii Gouan Asian mustard XCapsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. shepherd’s purse X X X Descurainia obtusa (Greene) O.E. Schulz blunt tansymustard X

Descurainia pinnata (Walt.) Britt. western tansymustard O X X

Draba cuneifolia Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray wedgeleaf draba X XErysimum capitatum (Dougl. ex Hook.) Greene sanddune wallflower X XGuillenia lasiophylla (Hook. & Arn.) Greene California mustard X X

Lepidium lasiocarpum Nutt. shaggyfruit pepperweed X XLepidium lasiocarpum Nutt. var. lasiocarpum shaggyfruit pepperweed Lepidium lasiocarpum var. wrightii (Gray) C.L. Hitchc. Wright’s pepperweed Xb

Lepidium virginicum var. medium (Greene) C.L. Hitchc. medium pepperweed X X X

Lepidium virginicum var. pubescens (Greene) Thellung hairy pepperweed Xb

Lesquerella gordonii (Gray) S. Wats. gordon bladderpod X XLesquerella purpurea (Gray) S. Wats. rose bladderpod X X Sisymbrium altissimum L. tall tumblemustard XSisymbrium irio L. London rocket X X XSisymbrium orientale L. Indian hedgemustard X

Thysanocarpus curvipes Hook. sand fringepod X X X 

Cactaceae Carnegia gigantea (Engelm.) Britt. & Rose saguaro X O X

Echinocereus engelmannii (Parry ex Engelm.) Lem. Engelmann’s hedgehog cactus X X Xb

Echinocereus fendleri var. boyce-thompsonii (Orcutt) L. Benson Boyce Thompson hedgehog cactus O XbFerocactus cylindraceus (Engelm.) Orcutt California barrel cactus OFerocactus cylindraceus (Engelm.) Orcutt var. cylindraceus California barrel cactus XFerocactus wislizeni (Engelm.) Britt. & Rose candy barrelcactus XMammillaria grahamii Engelm. Graham’s nipple cactus O

Mammillaria grahamii var. grahamii Engelm. Graham’s nipple cactus X

Mammillaria viridiflora (Britt. & Rose) Bödecker greenflower nipple cactus X
43

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Cactaceae Opuntia acanthocarpa Engelm. & Bigelow buckhorn cholla X O X

Opuntia bigelovii Engelm. teddybear cholla X O X XbOpuntia chlorotica Engelm. & Bigelow dollarjoint pricklypear OOpuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck cactus apple X O XOpuntia fulgida Engelm. jumping cholla XbOpuntia leptocaulis DC. Christmas cactus O O X Opuntia macrocentra Engelm. purple pricklypear X

Campanulaceae Nemacladus glanduliferus var. orientalis McVaugh glandular threadplant XCapparaceae Cleome lutea var. jonesii J.F. Macbr. Jones spiderflower X X

Polanisia dodecandra ssp. trachysperma (Torr. & Gray) Iltis sandyseed clammyweed X X X

Caprifoliaceae Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis (L.) R. Bolli common elderberry X 

Sambucus nigra ssp. cerulea (Raf.) R. Bolli blue elderberry X X 

Sambucus racemosa L. red elderberry X

Caryophyllaceae Arenaria macradenia ssp. ferrisiae Abrams Ferris’ sandwort X

Herniaria hirsuta ssp. cinerea (DC.) Coutinho hairy rupturewort XMinuartia douglasii (Fenzl ex Torr. & Gray) Mattf. Douglas’ stitchwort X X

Silene antirrhina L. sleepy silene X X XSilene laciniata Cav. cardinal catchfly XStellaria media (L.) Vill. common chickweed X

Stellaria nitens Nutt. shiny chickweed X

Celastraceae Canotia holacantha Torr. crucifixion thorn X O XChenopodiaceae Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt. fourwing saltbush X

Atriplex elegans (Moq.) D. Dietr. wheelscale saltbush XAtriplex polycarpa (Torr.) S. Wats. cattle saltbush XChenopodium berlandieri Moq. pitseed goosefoot XSalsola kali L. Russian thistle X X

Commelinaceae Tradescantia occidentalis (Britt.) Smyth prairie spiderwort X X X X

Tradescantia occidentalis var. scopulorum

(Rose) E.S. Anderson & Woods. prairie spiderwort 

Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis L. field bindweed X

Convolvulus equitans Benth. Texas bindweed X

Crassulaceae Crassula connata var. connata (Ruiz & Pavón) Berger sand pygmyweed X

Dudleya collomiae Rose ex Morton Gila County liveforever X X XDudleya saxosa (M.E. Jones) Britt. & Rose Panamint liveforever O

Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita digitata Gray fingerleaf gourd X

Marah gilensis Greene Gila manroot X O X

Cupressaceae Juniperus coahuilensis (Martinez) Gaussen ex R.P. Adams redberry juniper X X

Juniperus monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg. oneseed juniper X
44

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Cuscutaceae Cuscuta indecora Choisy bigseed alfalfa dodder X O X X

Ephedraceae Ephedra trifurca Torr. ex S. Wats. longleaf jointfir 

Ephedra aspera Engelm. ex S. Wats. rough jointfir X O

Euphorbiaceae Argythamnia neomexicana Muell.-Arg. New Mexico silverbush X

Chamaesyce arizonica (Engelm.) Arthur Arizona sandmat X XChamaesyce capitellata (Engelm.) Millsp. head sandmat X XChamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp. pillpod sandmat XChamaesyce maculata (L.) Small spotted sandmat XChamaesyce melanadenia (Torr.) Millsp. squaw sandmat X X

Chamaesyce polycarpa (Benth.) Millsp. ex Parish smallseed sandmat X XChamaesyce revoluta (Engelm.) Small threadstem sandmat XCroton texensis (Klotzsch) Muell.-Arg. Texas croton X

Fabaceae Acacia constricta Benth. whitethorn acacia X O X 

Acacia greggii Gray catclaw acacia X O X 

Astragalus lentiginosus var. palans (M.E. Jones) M.E. Jonese freckled milkvetch

Astragalus nuttallianus DC. smallflowered milkvetch X X Calliandra eriophylla Benth. fairyduster Calliandra humilis Benth.e dwarf stickpeaDalea formosa Torr. featherplume O X

Lotus humistratus Greene foothill deervetch X X 

Lotus plebeius (Brand) Barneby New Mexico bird’s-foot trefoil XLotus rigidus (Benth.) Greene shrubby deervetch X O XLupinus arizonicus (S. Wats.) S. Wats. Arizona lupine XLupinus concinnus J.G. Agardh scarlet lupine X X X

Lupinus sparsiflorus Benth. Mojave lupine O X X 

Lupinus succulentus Dougl. ex K. Koch hollowleaf annual lupine X XMedicago polymorpha L. burclover X Melilotus indicus (L.) All. annual yellow sweetclover X Xc XbParkinsonia florida (Benth. ex Gray) S. Wats. blue paloverde O X Parkinsonia microphylla Torr. yellow paloverde X O XProsopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. mesquite XProsopis velutina Woot. velvet mesquite X O Senna covesii (Gray) Irwin & Barneby Coves’ cassia X O X Vicia ludoviciana ssp. ludoviciana Nutt. Louisiana vetch X

Fagaceae Quercus turbinella Greene Sonoran scrub oak X O X 

Fouquieriaceae Fouquieria splendens Engelm. ocotillo X O XFumariaceae Corydalis aurea Willd. scrambled eggs O X X
45

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Geraniaceae Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Ait. redstem stork’s bill X Xc X 

Erodium texanum Gray Texas stork’s bill X XGeranium carolinianum L. Carolina geranium X X

Hydrophyllaceae Emmenanthe penduliflora Benth. whisperingbells O X

Eucrypta chrysanthemifolia (Benth.) Greene spotted hideseed X

Nama demissum Gray purplemat XPhacelia affinis Gray limestone phacelia XPhacelia crenulata Torr. ex S. Wats. cleftleaf wildheliotrope O X Xb

Phacelia cryptantha Greene hiddenflower phacelia XPhacelia distans Benth. distant phacelia O X X Phacelia fremontii Torr. Fremont’s phacelia Xb

Hydrophyllaceae Phacelia ivesiana Torr. Ives’ phacelia X

Phacelia ramosissima Dougl. ex Lehm. branching phacelia X Phacelia rupestris Greene rock phacelia Pholistoma auritum (Lindl.) Lilja blue fiestaflower X X X

Pholistoma auritum var. arizonicum (M.E. Jones) Constance Arizona fiestaflower X

Juglandaceae Juglans major (Torr.) Heller Arizona walnut X O X

Krameriaceae Krameria erecta Willd. ex J.A. Schultes littleleaf ratany X X X 

Krameria grayi Rose & Painter white ratany X

Lamiaceae Hedeoma nana ssp. macrocalyx W.S. Stewart dwarf false pennyroyal X

Hedeoma oblongifolia (Gray) Heller oblongleaf false pennyroyal X O? XHyptis emoryi Torr. desert lavender O? XMarrubium vulgare L. horehound X O X 

Lamiaceae Salvia columbariae Benth. chia O X X 

Salvia pinguifolia (Fern.) Woot. & Standl. rock sage X

Liliaceae Calochortus ambiguus (M.E. Jones) Ownbey doubting mariposa lily 

Calochortus flexuosus S. Wats. winding mariposa lily X XCalochortus kennedyi Porter desert mariposa lily X Calochortus nuttallii Torr. & Gray sego lily X Dasylirion wheeleri S. Wats. common sotol X O XDichelostemma capitatum (Benth.) Wood ssp. capitatum bluedicks X O X XNolina microcarpa S. Wats. sacahuista X

Loasaceae Mentzelia multiflora var. integra M.E. Jones Adonis blazingstar Xb

Mentzelia multiflora (Nutt.) Gray var. multiflora Adonis blazingstar XbMentzelia pumila Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray dwarf mentzelia X X X

Malpighiaceae Janusia gracilis Gray slender janusia X O X Malvaceae Abutilon incanum (Link) Sweet pelotazo X
46

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Malvaceae Abutilon parvulum Gray dwarf Indian mallow X X

Gossypium thurberi Todaro Thurber’s cotton X

Hibiscus coulteri Harvey ex Gray desert rosemallow X O X 

Malva parviflora L cheeseweed mallow Xd 

Sphaeralcea ambigua Gray desert globemallow X X Sphaeralcea coccinea (Nutt.) Rydb. scarlet globemallow X

Sphaeralcea coulteri (S. Wats.) Gray Coulter’s globemallow X

Sphaeralcea emoryi Torr. ex Gray Emory’s globemallow X X X Sphaeralcea rusbyi Gray Rusby’s globemallow X 

Marchantiaceae Marchantia polymorpha L. XMoraceae Morus microphylla Buckl. Texas mulberry XNyctaginaceae Allionia incarnata L. trailing windmills X O X X 

Boerhavia coccinea P. Mill. scarlet spiderling Xd X XBoerhavia intermedia M.E. Jones fivewing spiderling X

Boerhavia scandens L. climbing wartclub O

Boerhavia spicata Choisy creeping spiderling Mirabilis bigelovii Gray wishbone-bush O O XMirabilis californica var. californica Gray California four o’clock X

Mirabilis coccinea (Torr.) Benth. & Hook. f. scarlet four o’clock O X X

Mirabilis linearis (Pursh) Heimerl narrowleaf four o’clock X

Mirabilis multiflora (Torr.) Gray Colorado four o’clock X

Oleaceae Fraxinus anomala Torr. ex S. Wats. singleleaf ash X

Menodora scabra Gray rough menodora X O X 

Onagraceae Camissonia californica (Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray) Raven California suncup O

Camissonia contorta (Dougl. ex Lehm.) Kearney plains evening-primrose XCamissonia micrantha (Hornem. ex Spreng.) Raven miniature suncup Xb

Clarkia epilobioides (Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray) A. Nels. & J.F. Macbr. canyon clarkia X

Clarkia purpurea ssp. quadrivulnera 

(Dougl. ex Lindl.) H.F. & M.E. Lewis winecup clarkia X

Epilobium minutum Lindl. ex Lehm. chaparral willowherb X

Oenothera caespitosa Nutt. tufted evening-primrose X X

Oenothera primiveris Gray desert evening-primrose X X

Orobanchaceae Orobanche cooperi (Gray) Heller desert broomrape 

Orobanche fasciculata Nutt. clustered broomrape X

Papaveraceae Eschscholzia californica ssp. mexicana (Greene) C. Clark California poppy X X X 

Platystemon californicus Benth. creamcups X X 

Plantaginaceae Plantago ovata Forsk. desert Indianwheat X X
47

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Plantaginaceae Plantago patagonica Jacq. woolly plantain X X X

Plantago rhodosperma Dcne. redseed plantain X

Platanaceae Platanus wrightii S. Wats. Arizona sycamore X O XPoaceae Achnatherum speciosum (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth desert needlegrass X X X

Aristida adscensionis L. sixweeks threeawn X XAristida havardii Vasey Havard’s threeawn XAristida oligantha Michx. prairie threeawn XAristida purpurea Nutt. purple threeawn X Aristida purpurea var. nealleyi (Vasey) Allred blue threeawn XAristida purpurea var. parishii (A.S. Hitchc.) Allred Parish’s threeawn X X

Aristida purpurea var. purpurea Nutt. purple threeawn 

Aristida ternipes Cav. spidergrass Aristida ternipes var. gentilis (Henr.) Allred spidergrass X XAvena fatua L. wild oat X Xc X

Bothriochloa barbinodis (Lag.) Herter cane bluestem OBothriochloa saccharoides (Sw.) Rydb. silver bluestem Bouteloua aristidoides (Kunth) Griseb. needle grama X X Bouteloua barbata Lag. sixweeks grama X Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr. sideoats grama X O XBouteloua repens (Kunth) Scribn. & Merr. slender grama O XBouteloua rothrockii Vasey Rothrock’s grama Bromus berterianus Colla Chilean chess Xd XBromus diandrus Roth ripgut brome X XBromus rigidus Roth ripgut brome Xd Xc

Bromus rubens L. red brome O Xa X

Bromus tectorum L. cheatgrass OCynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Bermudagrass XDasyochloa pulchella (Kunth) Willd. ex Rydb. low woollygrass X O X X

Digitaria californica (Benth.) Henr. Arizona cottontop O Elymus elymoides (Raf.) Swezey squirreltail OElymus glaucus Buckl. blue wildrye X Xa X

Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vign. ex Janchen stinkgrass Xd X

Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees weeping lovegrass X XEragrostis intermedia A.S. Hitchc. plains lovegrass XEragrostis lehmanniana Nees Lehmann lovegrass X XEragrostis pectinacea var. miserrima (Fourn.) J. Reeder desert lovegrass X

Heteropogon contortus (L.) Beauv. ex Roemer & J.A. Schultes tanglehead O Xb
48

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Poaceae Hilaria belangeri (Steud.) Nash curly-mesquite X

Hordeum murinum L. mouse barley Xd

Hordeum murinum ssp. glaucum (Steud.) Tzvelev smooth barley X XHordeum murinum ssp. leporinum (Link) Arcang. leporinum barley Xc X 

Hordeum pusillum Nutt. little barley X Xa

Hordeum vulgare L. common barley XdLamarckia aurea (L.) Moench goldentop grass X XLeptochloa dubia (Kunth) Nees green sprangletop X O Leptochloa panicea ssp. brachiata (Steudl.) N. Snow mucronate sprangeltop X X 

Muhlenbergia appressa C.O. Goodding Devils Canyon muhly XMuhlenbergia dumosa Scribn. ex Vasey bamboo muhly Muhlenbergia microsperma (DC.) Trin. littleseed muhly 

Muhlenbergia porteri Scribn. ex Beal bush muhly ONassella tenuissima (Trin.) Barkworth finestem tussockgrass XPennisetum setaceum (Forsk.) Chiov. crimson fountaingrass XdPhalaris canariensis L. annual canarygrass XPhalaris minor Retz. littleseed canarygrass XdPhalaris paradoxa L. hood canarygrass XPleuraphis mutica Buckl. tobosagrass XbPoa bigelovii Vasey & Scribn. Bigelow’s bluegrass X XPoa fendleriana (Steud.) Vasey muttongrass OPoa fendleriana ssp. longiligula (Scribn. & Williams) Soreng muttongrass XPolypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. annual rabbitsfoot grass X XSchismus barbatus (Loefl. ex L.) Thellung common Mediterranean grass Xd Xc X

Schizachyrium sp. Nees little bluestem OSorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Johnsongrass Xd X

Sporobolus contractus A.S. Hitchc. spike dropseed OSporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray sand dropseed O X XStipa L. needlegrass X

Tridens muticus (Torr.) Nash slim tridens X X Tridens muticus var. elongatus (Buckl.) Shinners slim tridens 

Tridens muticus var. muticus (Torr.) Nash slim tridens X

Triticum aestivum L. common wheat X

Vulpia microstachys var. ciliata (Beal) Lonard & Gould Eastwood fescue X

Vulpia microstachys var. pauciflora 

(Scribn. ex Beal) Lonard & Gould Pacific fescue X Xa 
49

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Poaceae Vulpia myuros (L.) K.C. Gmel. rat-tail fescue X

Vulpia octoflora var. octoflora (Walt.) Rydb. sixweeks fescue Vulpia octoflora (Walt.) Rydb. sixweeks fescue X

Polemoniaceae Allophyllum gilioides (Benth.) A.& V. Grant ssp. gilioides dense false gilyflower X

Eriastrum diffusum (Gray) Mason miniature woollystar X X 

Gilia flavocincta A. Nels. lesser yellowthroat gilia X 

Gilia scopulorum M.E. Jones rock gilia XGilia sinuata Dougl. ex Benth. rosy gilia X XbGilia tenuiflora Benth. greater yellowthroat gilia Gilia tenuiflora ssp. arenaria (Benth.) A.& V. Grant greater yellowthroat gilia 

Linanthus bigelovii (Gray) Greene Bigelow’s linanthus XPhlox austromontana Coville mountain phlox Phlox gracilis (Hook.) Greene slender phlox X

Phlox gracilis ssp. gracilis (Hook.) Greene slender phlox XPhlox tenuifolia E. Nels. Santa Catalina Mountain phlox O X X 

Polygalaceae Polygala macradenia Gray glandleaf milkwort X Polygonaceae Chorizanthe brevicornu Torr. brittle spineflower X X

Eriogonum fasciculatum Benth. Eastern Mojave buckwheat X O X 

Eriogonum fasciculatum var. polifolium (Benth.) Torr. & Gray Eastern Mojave buckwheat 

Eriogonum inflatum Torr. & Frém.e desert trumpet XEriogonum polycladon Benth. sorrel buckwheat O XEriogonum trichopes Torr. little deserttrumpet XEriogonum vimineum Dougl. ex Benth. wickerstem buckwheat 

Eriogonum wrightii Torr. ex Benth. bastardsage X O X Pterostegia drymarioides Fisch. & C.A. Mey. woodland pterostegia X

Rumex hymenosepalus Torr. canaigre dock X

Rumex violascens Rech. f. violet dock X

Portulacaceae Calandrinia ciliata (Ruiz & Pavón) DC. fringed redmaids X X

Claytonia parviflora ssp. parviflora Dougl. ex Hook. streambank springbeauty O

Claytonia perfoliata Donn ex Willd. miner’s lettuce X XClaytonia perfoliata ssp. perfoliata Donn ex Willd. miner’s lettuce O X 

Primulaceae Androsace occidentalis Pursh western rockjasmine X

Androsace septentrionalis L. pygmyflower rockjasmine X

Pteridaceae Astrolepis cochisensis ssp. cochisensis 

(Goodding) Benham & Windham Cochise scaly cloakfern O Xb

Astrolepis sinuata (Lag. ex Sw.) Benham & Windham ssp. sinuata wavy scaly cloakfern X XCheilanthes fendleri Hook. Fendler’s lipfern X X X X
50

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Pteridaceae Cheilanthes parryi (D.C. Eat.) Domin Parry’s lipfern X

Cheilanthes wootonii Maxon beaded lipfern XNotholaena standleyi Maxon star cloak fern X O X XPellaea mucronata (D.C. Eat.) D.C. Eat. birdfoot cliffbrake Pellaea truncata Goodding spiny cliffbrake X O X

Ranunculaceae Anemone tuberosa Rydb. tuber anemone X X 

Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt. western white clematis X ODelphinium parishii Gray desert larkspur X X

Delphinium parishii Gray ssp. parishii Parish’s larkspur X Myosurus cupulatus S. Wats. Arizona mousetail X

Myosurus nitidus Eastw. western mousetail X

Rhamnaceae Rhamnus crocea Nutt. redberry buckthorn X

Rhamnus ilicifolia Kellogg hollyleaf redberry X

Ziziphus obtusifolia var. canescens (Gray) M.C. Johnston lotebush Xb

Ziziphus obtusifolia (Hook. ex Torr. & Gray) Gray lotebush X O

Ziziphus obtusifolia var. obtusifolia (Hook. ex Torr. & Gray) Gray lotebush X 

Rosaceae Cercocarpus montanus Raf. alderleaf mountain mahogany X

Cercocarpus montanus var. glaber (S. Wats.) F.L. Martin birchleaf mountain mahogany XRubus arizonensis Focke Arizona dewberry X X

Rubiaceae Galium aparine L. stickywilly X X X

Galium stellatum Kellogg starry bedstraw X O X 

Galium triflorum Michx. fragrant bedstraw X

Salicaceae Populus fremontii S. Wats. Fremont cottonwood Xb

Sapindaceae Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Florida hopbush X O X Scrophulariaceae Castilleja applegatei ssp. martinii (Abrams) Chuang & Heckard wavyleaf Indian paintbrush X X X 

Castilleja exserta (Heller) Chuang & Heckard exserted Indian paintbrush O

Castilleja exserta ssp. exserta (Heller) Chuang & Heckard exserted Indian paintbrush X X X Keckiella antirrhinoides (Benth.) Straw snapdragon penstemon XKeckiella antirrhinoides ssp. microphylla (Gray) Straw snapdragon penstemon X O X Maurandella antirrhiniflora (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Rothm. roving sailor X X XMimulus rubellus Gray little redstem monkeyflower XNuttallanthus texanus (Scheele) D.A. Sutton Texas toadflax XPenstemon eatonii Gray Eaton’s penstemon O X XPenstemon eatonii ssp. exsertus (A. Nels.) Keck Eaton’s penstemon X

Penstemon subulatus M.E. Jones hackberry beardtongue XSairocarpus nuttallianus (Benth. ex A. DC.) D.A. Sutton violet snapdragon X

Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. water speedwell X
51

2000- 1990- 1980- 1970- 1960- 1950- 19

Family Scientific name Common name 2003 1999 1989 1979 1969 1959 19Selaginellaceae Selaginella arizonica Maxon Arizona spikemoss X O X Simmondsiaceae Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneid. jojoba X O X 

Chamaesaracha coronopus (Dunal) Gray greenleaf five eyes Xb

Datura wrightii Regel sacred thorn-apple X

Solanaceae Lycium fremontii Gray Fremont’s desert-thorn O X

Lycium pallidum Miers pale desert-thorn XNicotiana attenuata Torr. ex S. Wats. coyote tobacco XNicotiana glauca Graham tree tobacco Xd X

Nicotiana obtusifolia Mertens & Galeotti desert tobacco X

Nicotiana obtusifolia var. obtusifolia Mertens & Galeotti desert tobacco X X 

Physalis crassifolia Benth. yellow nightshade groundcherry X XSolanum elaeagnifolium Cav. silverleaf nightshade X

Solanum triflorum Nutt. cutleaf nightshade XSolanum xanti Gray chaparral nightshade 

Sterculiaceae Ayenia filiformis S. Wats. TransPecos ayenia O

Ulmaceae Celtis laevigata Willd. sugarberry X

Celtis laevigata var. reticulata (Torr.) L. Benson netleaf hackberry X O X

Celtis pallida Torr. spiny hackberry X O X

Urticaceae Parietaria pensylvanica Muhl. ex Willd. Pennsylvania pellitory X X

Verbenaceae Aloysia wrightii Heller ex Abrams Wright’s beebrush X O X

Glandularia bipinnatifida (Nutt.) Nutt. Dakota mock vervain XGlandularia gooddingii (Briq.) Solbrig southwestern mock vervain X X

Violaceae Hybanthus verticillatus (Ortega) Baill. babyslippers XViscaceae Phoradendron bolleanum (Seem.) Eichl. Bollean mistletoe X

Phoradendron californicum Nutt. mesquite mistletoe X X

Zygophyllaceae Kallstroemia californica (S. Wats.) Vail California caltrop X

Kallstroemia parviflora J.B.S. Norton warty caltrop X

Larrea tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Coville creosote bush X X XbLarrea tridentata var. tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Coville creosote bush O

a Specimens found at the University of Arizona Herbarium.b Burgess (1965).c Phillips (1992).d Halvorson and Guertin (2003).e Specimen has no date.

? Species identification questionable.
52

Appendix B. List of amphibians and reptiles found at Tonto NM by University of Arizona inventory personnel and Swann

et al. (SWN; 1996). 

Order Family Scientific name Common name UA SWN

Anura Bufonidae Bufo alvarius Sonoran desert toad X

Bufo punctatus red-spotted toad X

Bufo woodhousii Woodhouse’s toad X X

Bufo cognatus Great plains toad X

Hyla arenicolor canyon treefrog X

Scaphiogus couchii Couch’s spadefoot X

Testudines Kinosternidae Kinosternon sonoriense Sonoran mud turtle X

Squamata Gekkonidae Coleonyx variegatus western banded gecko X X

Scincidae Eumeces obsoletus Great Plains skink X

Phrynosomatidae Cophosaurus texanus greater earless lizard X X

Crotaphytus collaris common collared lizard X

Eumeces obsoletus Great plains skink X

Callisaurus draconoides zebra-tailed lizard X X

Phrynosoma solare regal horned lizard X

Sceloporus clarkia Clark’s spiny lizard X

Sceloporus magister desert spiny lizard X X

Uta stansburiana common side-blotched lizard X X

Urosaurus ornatus ornate tree lizard X X

Xantusia vigilis desert night lizard X

Teiidae Cnemidophorus sonorae Sonoran spotted whiptail X X

Cnemidophorus flagellicaudus Gila spotted whiptail X

Cnemidophorus tigris western whiptail X X

Anguidae Elgaria kingii Madrean alligator lizard X X

Helodermatidae Heloderma suspectum Gila monster X

Colubridae Diadophis punctatus ring-necked snake X X

Hypsiglena torquata night snake X

Masticophis bilineatus Sonoran whipsnake X

Masticophis flagellum coachwhip X

Pituophis catenifer gopher snake X X

Rhinocheilus lecontei long-nosed snake X

Salvadora hexalepis western patch-nosed snake X

Sonora semiannulata ground snake X

Tantilla hobartsmithi southwestern black-nosed snake X

Lampropeltis getula common kingsnake X X

Thamnophis cyrtopsis black-necked garter snake X

Trimorphodon biscutatus western lyre snake X X

Elapidae Micruroides euryxanthus Sonoran coral snake X X

Viperidae Crotalus viridus cerberus Arizona black rattlesnakes X

Crotalus atrox western diamond-backed rattlesnake X X

Crotalus molossus black-tailed rattlesnake X X
53

Appendix C. Bird species recorded by University of Arizona Inventory personnel (UA), Tonto NM, 2001–2003 or that were

reported in Hiett and Halvorson (H&H;1995). Hiett and Halvorson summarized historical observations. 

Order Family Scientific name Common name UA H&H

Anseriformes Anatidae Branta canadensis Canada goose X

Anas platyrhynchos mallard X

Galliformes Phasianidae Meleagris gallopavo wild turkey X

Odontophoridae Callipepla gambelii Gambel’s quail X

Pelecaniformes Pelecanidae Pelecanus erythrorhynchos American white pelican X

Ciconiiformes Ardeidae Ardea herodias great blue heron X

Cathartidae Cathartes aura turkey vulture X

Falconiformes Accipitridae Pandion haliaetus osprey X

Haliaeetus leucocephalus bald eagle X

Circus cyaneus northern harrier X

Accipiter striatus sharp-shinned hawk X

Accipiter cooperii Cooper’s hawk X

Accipiter gentilis northern goshawk X

Parabuteo unicinctus Harris’s hawk X

Buteo swainsoni Swainson’s hawk X

Buteo albonotatus zone-tailed hawk X

Buteo jamaicensis red-tailed hawk X

Buteo regalis ferruginous hawk X

Aquila chrysaetos golden eagle X

Falconidae Falco sparverius American kestrel X

Falco columbarius merlin X

Falco peregrinus peregrine falcon X

Falco mexicanus prairie falcon X

Columbiformes Columbidae Patagioenas fasciata band-tailed pigeon X

Zenaida asiatica white-winged dove X

Zenaida macroura mourning dove X

Columbina passerina common ground-dove X

Cuculiformes Cuculidae Coccyzus americanus occidentalis yellow-billed cuckoo X

Geococcyx californianus greater roadrunner X

Strigiformes Tytonidae Tyto alba barn owl X

Strigidae Megascops kennicottii western screech-owl X

Glaucidium brasilianum cactorum cactus ferruginous pygmy-owl X

Bubo virginianus great horned owl X

Micrathene whitneyi elf owl X

Strix occidentalis lucida Mexican spotted owl X

Caprimulgiformes Caprimulgidae Chordeiles acutipennis lesser nighthawk X

Chordeiles minor common nighthawk X

Phalaenoptilus nuttallii common poorwill X

Apodiformes Apodidae Aeronautes saxatalis white-throated swift X

Trochilidae Archilochus alexandri black-chinned hummingbird X

Calypte anna Anna’s hummingbird X

Calypte costae Costa’s hummingbird X

Selasphorus platycercus broad-tailed hummingbird X

Selasphorus rufus rufous hummingbird X

Piciformes Picidae Melanerpes formicivorus acorn woodpecker X

Melanerpes uropygialis Gila woodpecker X

Sphyrapicus varius yellow-bellied sapsucker X

Sphyrapicus nuchalis red-naped sapsucker X

Picoides scalaris ladder-backed woodpecker X

Colaptes auratus northern flicker X

Colaptes chrysoides gilded flicker X
54

Order Family Scientific name Common name UA H&H

Passeriformes Tyrannidae Contopus cooperi olive-sided flycatcher X

Contopus sordidulus western wood-pewee X

Empidonax hammondii Hammond’s flycatcher X

Empidonax wrightii gray flycatcher X

Empidonax oberholseri dusky flycatcher X

Empidonax difficilis pacific-slope flycatcher X

Empidonax occidentalis cordilleran flycatcher X

Sayornis nigricans black phoebe X

Sayornis saya Say’s phoebe X

Pyrocephalus rubinus vermilion flycatcher X

Myiarchus cinerascens ash-throated flycatcher X

Myiarchus tyrannulus brown-crested flycatcher X

Tyrannus vociferans Cassin’s kingbird X

Tyrannus verticalis western kingbird X

Laniidae Lanius ludovicianus loggerhead shrike X

Vireonidae Vireo bellii Bell’s vireo X

Vireo vicinior gray vireo X

Vireo flavifrons yellow-throated vireo X

Vireo cassinii Cassin’s vireo X

Vireo huttoni Hutton’s vireo X

Vireo gilvus warbling vireo X

Vireo olivaceus red-eyed vireo X

Corvidae Cyanocitta stelleri Steller’s jay X

Aphelocoma californica western scrub-jay X

Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus pinyon jay X

Nucifraga columbiana Clark’s nutcracker X

Corvus corax common raven X

Hirundinidae Progne subis purple martin X

Tachycineta thalassina violet-green swallow X

Stelgidopteryx serripennis northern rough-winged swallow X

Petrochelidon pyrrhonota cliff swallow X

Hirundo rustica barn swallow X

Paridae Poecile gambeli mountain chickadee X

Baeolophus wollweberi bridled titmouse X

Remizidae Auriparus flaviceps verdin X

Aegithalidae Psaltriparus minimus bushtit X

Sittidae Sitta carolinensis white-breasted nuthatch X

Certhiidae Certhia americana brown creeper X

Troglodytidae Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus cactus wren X

Salpinctes obsoletus rock wren X

Catherpes mexicanus canyon wren X

Thryomanes bewickii Bewick’s wren X

Troglodytes aedon house wren X

Regulidae Regulus calendula ruby-crowned kinglet X

Sylviidae Polioptila caerulea blue-gray gnatcatcher X

Polioptila melanura black-tailed gnatcatcher X

Turdidae Sialia mexicana western bluebird X

Sialia currucoides mountain bluebird X

Myadestes townsendi Townsend’s solitaire X

Catharus guttatus hermit thrush X

Turdus migratorius American robin X

Mimidae Mimus polyglottos northern mockingbird X

Oreoscoptes montanus sage thrasher X

Toxostoma curvirostre curve-billed thrasher X
55

Order Family Scientific name Common name UA H&H

Passeriformes Mimidae Toxostoma crissale crissal thrasherX

Toxostoma crissale crissal thrasherX

Sturnidae Sturnus vulgaris European starlingX

Ptilogonatidae Phainopepla nitens phainopeplaX

Phainopepla nitens phainopeplaX

Parulidae Vermivora celata orange-crowned warblerX

Vermivora ruficapilla Nashville warblerX

Vermivora virginiae Virginia’s warblerX

Vermivora luciae Lucy’s warblerX

Dendroica petechia yellow warblerX

Dendroica coronata yellow-rumped warblerX

Dendroica nigrescens black-throated gray warblerX

Dendroica townsendi Townsend’s warblerX

Dendroica graciae Grace’s warblerX

Oporornis tolmiei MacGillivray’s warblerX

Oporornis tolmiei MacGillivray’s warblerX

Wilsonia pusilla Wilson’s warblerX

Cardellina rubrifrons red-faced warblerX

Myioborus pictus painted redstartX

Icteria virens yellow-breasted chatX

Thraupidae Piranga rubra summer tanagerX

Piranga olivacea scarlet tanagerX

Piranga ludoviciana western tanagerX

Emberizidae Pipilo chlorurus green-tailed towheeX

Pipilo maculatus spotted towheeX

Pipilo fuscus canyon towheeX

Pipilo aberti Abert’s towheeX

Aimophila ruficeps rufous-crowned sparrowX

Spizella passerina chipping sparrowX

Spizella breweri Brewer’s sparrowX

Spizella atrogularis black-chinned sparrowX

Chondestes grammacus lark sparrowX

Melospiza lincolnii Lincoln’s sparrowX

Amphispiza bilineata black-throated sparrowX

Melospiza melodia song sparrowX

Zonotrichia albicollis white-throated sparrowX

Zonotrichia leucophrys white-crowned sparrowX

Junco hyemalis dark-eyed juncoX

Junco phaeonotus yellow-eyed juncoX

Cardinalidae Cardinalis cardinalis northern cardinalX

Pheucticus melanocephalus black-headed grosbeakX

Passerina amoena lazuli buntingX

Passerina cyanea indigo buntingX

Icteridae Agelaius phoeniceus red-winged blackbirdX

Sturnella neglecta western meadowlarkX

Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus yellow-headed blackbirdX

Euphagus cyanocephalus Brewer’s blackbirdX

Quiscalus mexicanus great-tailed grackleX

Molothrus aeneus bronzed cowbirdX

Molothrus ater brown-headed cowbirdX

Icterus cucullatus hooded orioleX

Icterus bullockii Bullock’s orioleX

Icterus parisorum Scott’s orioleX
56

Order Family Scientific name Common name UA H&H

Passeriformes Fringillidae Carpodacus purpureus purple finch X

Carpodacus cassinii Cassin’s finch X

Carpodacus mexicanus house finch X

Carduelis pinus pine siskin X

Carduelis psaltria lesser goldfinch X

Carduelis lawrencei Lawrence’s goldfinch X

Carduelis tristis American goldfinch X

Coccothraustes vespertinus evening grosbeak X

Passeridae Passer domesticus house sparrow X
57

Appendix D. List of mammals observed at Tonto NM by University of Arizona Inventory personnel (UA), Swann et al.

(SWN;1996), and Bucci and Petryszyn (B&P;2004). Non-native species are in bold-faced type.

Order Family Scientific name Common name UA SWN B&P

Chiroptera Vespertilionidae Myotis lucifugus little brown myotis X

Myotis auriculus southwestern myotis X

Myotis yumanensis Yuma myotis X X

Myotis velifer cave myotis X X

Myotis californicus California myotis X

Myotis ciliolabrum western small-footed myotis X

Pipistrellus hesperus western pipistrelle X X

Eptesicus fuscus big brown bat X

Corynorhinus townsendii Townsend’s big-eared bat X

Antrozous pallidus pallid bat X X

Molossidae Tadarida brasiliensis Mexican freetail bat X

Nyctinomops femorosaccus pocketed freetail bat X

Nyctinomops macrotis big freetail bat X

Eumops perotis western bonneted bat X X

Rodentia Soricidae Notiosorex crawfordi desert shrew

Sciuridae Spermophilus variegatus rock squirrel X

Neotamias dorsalis cliff chipmunk X

Ammospermophilus harrisii Harris’ antelope ground squirrel X

Heteromyidae Chaetodipus baileyi Bailey’s pocket mouse X

Dipodomys merriami Merriam’s kangaroo rat X

Muridae Peromyscus eremicus cactus mouse X

Onychomys torridus southern grasshopper mouse X

Neotoma albigula western white-throated woodrat X

Mus musculus house mousea

Erethizontidae Erethizon dorsatum porcupine X

Carnivora Procyonidae Nasua narica white-nosed coati X

Bassariscus astutus ringtail X

Procyon lotor common raccoon

Mustelidae Conepatus mesoleucus common hog-nosed skunk

Mephitis macroura hooded skunk

Mephitis mephitis striped skunk

Spilogale gracilis western spotted skunk X

Taxidea taxus American badger X

Canidae Urocyon cinereoargenteus common gray fox X

Canis latrans coyote X

Felidae Felis catus feral cat X

Felis concolor mountain lion

Lynx rufous bobcat

Ursidae Ursus americanus American black bear X

Lagomorpha Leporidae Sylvilagus audubonii desert cottontail X

Sylvilagus floridanus Eastern cottontail

Lepus californicus black-tailed jack rabbit X

Artiodactyla Tayassuidae Pecari tajacu collared peccary X

Cervidae Odocoileus hemionus mule deer X

Odocoileus virginianus white-tailed deer X a Trapped by Erika Nowak (pers. comm.).