U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5042

Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals 

for Aquaculture in the United States, 2005
Blank Page
Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals

for Aquaculture in the United States, 2005

By John K. Lovelace

Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5042

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2009

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Suggested citation:

Lovelace, John K., 2009, Methods for estimating water withdrawals for aquaculture in the United States, 2005: U.S. 

Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5042, 13 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................1

Purpose and Scope .............................................................................................................................2

Acknowledgments ...............................................................................................................................2

Water Requirements for Aquaculture in the United States ...................................................................3

Ponds .....................................................................................................................................................3

Raceways ..............................................................................................................................................3

Recirculating and Nonrecirculating Tank Systems ........................................................................4

Pens and Cages ....................................................................................................................................4

Egg Incubators .....................................................................................................................................4

Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Aquaculture ..............................................................4

Commercial Operations ......................................................................................................................5

Ponds ............................................................................................................................................5

Cropland Used for Crayfish Production ..................................................................................5

Raceways .....................................................................................................................................5

Recirculating Tank Systems ......................................................................................................6

Nonrecirculating Tank Systems ...............................................................................................6

Ground-Water and Surface-Water Withdrawals ..................................................................6

Noncommercial Operations ...............................................................................................................7

Ponds ............................................................................................................................................7

Raceways .....................................................................................................................................8

Egg Incubators ............................................................................................................................8

Pens and Cages Used for Alligators ........................................................................................8

Ground-Water and Surface-Water Withdrawals ..................................................................8

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands ...........................................................................................9

Summary .........................................................................................................................................................9

References Cited .........................................................................................................................................10
iv

Converion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

acre 43,560 square foot (ft2

)

acre 4,047 square meter (m2

) 

acre 0.001562 square mile (mi2

)

pound (lbs) 0.4536 kilogram (kg)

gallon (gal) 3. 785 liter (L)

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s)

gallon per day (gal/d) 3.785 liter per day

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 1.121 thousand acre-feet per year

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.001547 thousand cubic feet per second

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.6944 thousand gallons per minute

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.003785 million cubic meters per day

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 1.3815 million cubic meters per year

acre-foot per year (acre-ft/yr) 1,233 cubic meter per year (m3

/yr)

acre-foot per year (acre-ft/yr) 0.001233 cubic hectometer per year (hm3

/yr)
Abstract

Aquaculture water use is associated with raising organisms that live in water—such as finfish and shellfish—for 

food, restoration, conservation, or sport. Aquaculture production occurs under controlled feeding, sanitation, and harvesting procedures primarily in ponds, flow-through raceways, 

and, to a lesser extent, cages, net pens, and tanks. Aquaculture 

ponds, raceways, and tanks usually require the withdrawal 

or diversion of water from a ground or surface source. Most 

water withdrawn or diverted for aquaculture production is used 

to maintain pond levels and/or water quality. Water typically 

is added for maintenance of levels, oxygenation, temperature 

control, and flushing of wastes. 

This report documents methods used to estimate withdrawals of fresh ground water and surface water for aquaculture in 2005 for each county and county-equivalent in 

the United States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands 

by using aquaculture statistics and estimated water-use 

coefficients and water-replacement rates. County-level data for 

commercial and noncommercial operations compiled for the 

2005 Census of Aquaculture were obtained from the National 

Agricultural Statistics Service. Withdrawals of water used at 

commercial and noncommercial operations for aquaculture 

ponds, raceways, tanks, egg incubators, and pens and cages 

for alligators were estimated and totaled by ground-water or 

surface-water source for each county and county equivalent.

Use of the methods described in this report, when measured or reported data are unavailable, could result in more 

consistent water-withdrawal estimates for aquaculture that can 

be used by water managers and planners to determine water 

needs and trends across the United States. The results of this 

study were distributed to U.S. Geological Survey water-use 

personnel in each State during 2007. Water-use personnel are 

required to submit estimated withdrawals for all categories 

of use in their State to the U.S. Geological Survey National 

Water-Use Information Program for inclusion in a national 

report describing water use in the United States during 2005. 

Water-use personnel had the option of submitting the estimates 

determined by using the methods described in this report, 

a modified version of these estimates, their own set of estimates, or reported data for the aquaculture category. Estimated 

withdrawals resulting from the method described in this report 

are not presented herein to avoid potential inconsistencies with 

estimated withdrawals for aquaculture that will be presented 

in the national report, as different methods used by water-use 

personnel may result in different withdrawal estimates. Estimated withdrawals also are not presented to avoid potential 

disclosure of confidential information for individual aquaculture operations.

Introduction

Aquaculture water use is associated with raising organisms that live in water—such as finfish and shellfish—for 

food, restoration, conservation, or sport. Aquaculture production occurs under controlled feeding, sanitation, and harvesting 

procedures primarily in ponds, flow-through raceways, and, to 

a lesser extent, cages, net pens, and tanks (Hutson and others, 

2004). Aquaculture ponds, raceways, and tanks usually require 

the withdrawal or diversion of water from a ground or surface 

source. Cages and pens for finfish and shellfish generally are 

placed in a water body, such as a lake, stream, or ocean that 

does not require withdrawal or diversion of water; however, 

cages and pens for alligators generally require withdrawals 

of water. Most water withdrawn for aquaculture production 

is used to maintain pond levels and/or water quality. Water 

typically is added for maintenance of levels, oxygenation, 

temperature control, and flushing of wastes. 

Aquaculture operations using freshwater ponds, raceways, and tanks in the United States typically raise catfish, 

trout, bass, perch, tilapia, bait fish, sport fish, ornamental fish, 

crayfish, shrimp, alligators, and turtles. Of the 4,300 aquaculture operations in the United States in 2005, the percentage 

of operations using each method was as follows: ponds, 54 

percent; raceways, 10 percent; tanks, 17 percent; and other 

methods, 19 percent. The number of aquaculture operations 

included the following: catfish, 1,160; crayfish, 650; trout 410; 

ornamental fish, 360; and baitfish, 260 (National Agricultural 

Statistics Service, 2006).

Estimates of water withdrawn for aquaculture have been 

included in U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) reports describing 

water withdrawals for all categories of use in the United States 

since 1960. However, from 1960 to 1995, water withdrawn 

for fish hatcheries, fish farms, and other aquaculture was 

Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals

for Aquaculture in the United States, 2005

By John K. Lovelace
2 Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Aquaculture in the United States, 2005

included in other water-use categories including commercial 

(Solley and others, 1993; Solley and others, 1998), selfsupplied industrial (MacKichan and Kammerer, 1961; Murray, 

1968; Murray and Reeves, 1972; Murray and Reeves, 1977), 

rural (Solley and others, 1983), livestock (Solley and others, 

1983; Solley and others, 1988), and animal specialties (Solley 

and others, 1993; Solley and others, 1998). In 2000, water 

used for aquaculture was presented as an independent category 

(Hutson and others, 2004). Aquaculture withdrawals typically 

are less than one percent of total national water use (Hutson 

and others, 2004, p. 26) and are relatively minor in most 

States when compared to withdrawals for other categories of 

use, such as public supply, irrigation, self-supplied industrial, 

and power generation. Estimated withdrawals for aquaculture 

also are often published in reports of water-use estimates for 

individual States. 

Estimates of water withdrawals for various categories of 

use are needed for water planning and management. Water-use 

data also are needed to evaluate the effects of human activity 

on the quantity and quality of the Nation’s water resources. 

Aquaculture operations in some States may be required to 

maintain water-use records and report this usage to a regulatory agency; however, much of the water used for aquaculture 

in the United States is not reported. Where water withdrawals 

for aquaculture are unknown, they usually have been estimated 

by using aquaculture statistics, such as pond acreage, and a 

water-use coefficient or water-replacement rate (Solley and 

others, 1998, p. 36). Aquaculture statistics are available from 

sources such as State agricultural agencies, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Cooperative Extension Service, or the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). Withdrawal coefficients for aquaculture 

often are available from Cooperative Extension Service agents, 

local experts, and various aquaculture management publications. Coefficients often vary from State to State depending on 

livestock management practices, water availability, climatic 

conditions, and local knowledge of how these factors affect 

water needs. Use of a consistent method for estimation of 

withdrawals could help improve the accuracy and consistency 

of results.

Purpose and Scope

This report documents methods used to estimate withdrawals of fresh ground water and surface water for aquaculture in 2005 for each county and county-equivalent in 

the United States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands 

by using aquaculture statistics and estimated water-use 

coefficients and water-replacement rates. Withdrawals of 

water used at commercial and noncommercial operations1 for 

1

 Commercial aquaculture operations produce and sell aquaculture products. 

Noncommercial aquaculture operations produce and distribute, rather than 

sell, aquaculture products (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2006). 

Noncommercial operations are often owned and operated by State or Federal 

government agencies.

aquaculture ponds, raceways, tanks, egg incubators, and 

pens and cages for alligators were estimated and totaled 

by ground-water or surface-water source for each county 

and county equivalent. Off-farm water2 and saltwater3 used 

for aquaculture were not included in this study. Use of the 

methods described in this report, when measured or reported 

data are unavailable, could result in more consistent waterwithdrawal estimates for aquaculture that can be used by water 

managers and planners to determine water needs and trends 

across the United States.

Estimates of water withdrawals for aquaculture during 2005 in each county and county-equivalent in the United 

States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands were prepared 

by using the methods described herein as an alternative to 

USGS water-use personnel in each State preparing estimates 

for their State. The estimates were distributed to USGS wateruse personnel in each State during 2007. Water-use program 

personnel are required to submit estimated withdrawals for 

all categories of use in their State to the USGS National 

Water-Use Information Program for inclusion in a national 

report describing water use in the United States during 2005. 

Water-use program personnel had the option of submitting the 

water-use estimates determined using the methods described 

in this report, a modified version of these estimates, their own 

set of estimates, or reported data for the aquaculture category. 

Estimated withdrawals resulting from the method described in 

this report are not presented herein to avoid potential inconsistencies with estimated withdrawals for aquaculture that will 

be presented in the national report, as different methods used 

by water-use personnel may result in different withdrawal estimates. Estimated withdrawals also are not presented to avoid 

potential disclosure of confidential information for individual 

aquaculture operations. Some water-use coefficients used to 

estimate withdrawals, such as water-replacement rates for 

ponds and tanks, also are not presented for this reason.

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance and 

cooperation of U.S. Geological Survey hydrologists in each 

State who provided aquaculture coefficients and other pertinent water-use data for their State. Thanks also to William 

Alley, Susan Hutson, Kristin Linsey, Joan Kenny, Molly 

Maupin, and Nancy Barber of the USGS for their guidance 

and input. Special thanks are given to Brad Summa, Robert 

Hood, Nathan Crisp, and Matt Guilbeau of the National 

Agricultural Statistics Service for providing access to and 

assistance with aquaculture data and statistics.

2

 Off-farm water is water supplied to an aquaculture operation by a public 

or private water supplier (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2006). 

Withdrawals for off-farm water would be reported under another water-use 

category, such as public supply.

3

 Saltwater is water from a sea or ocean (National Agricultural Statistics 

Service, 2006).
Water Requirements for Aquaculture in the United States 3

Water Requirements for Aquaculture in 

the United States

The amounts of water required for aquaculture vary 

depending on the methods used. Common methods used for 

culturing freshwater aquatic animals in the United States 

include ponds, raceways, tanks, pens, and cages (Buttner and 

others, 1992; Beem, 1998). Many aquacultured species are 

raised from eggs in commercial or noncommercial hatcheries.

Ponds

Ponds are used to culture catfish, bass, yellow perch, 

tilapia, and a variety of other bait, ornamental, or sport fish 

(Rakocy and McGinty, 1989; Morris, 1993; Riepe, 1997; 

Morris and others, 1999; Auburn University and Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, 2004a). More than 60 percent of the 280,000 acres of aquaculture ponds in the United 

States in 2005 were used to raise catfish. Ponds also are 

used to raise crayfish, shrimp, prawns, alligators, and turtles 

(Masser, 1993a; Lutz, 2000; Auburn University and Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, 2004b; Auburn University 

and Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2004c). Many 

crayfish are cultured in shallow ponds, often on cropland also 

used to grow rice. In 2005, 77,000 acres of cropland ponds 

were used to raise crayfish (National Agricultural Statistics 

Service, 2006).

Ponds used for aquaculture vary in size and depth and 

depend on various factors including species and type of pond. 

Levee ponds are created by excavating the pond area to a 

shallow depth and by using the excavated soil to build a perimeter of levees or dikes. Watershed ponds are created by damming ravines or small valleys (Beem, 1998). Recommended 

pond depths for most fish range from 2 to 8 ft (Rakocy and 

McGinty, 1989; Welborn and Brunson, 1997; Knud-Hansen, 

1998; Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2004). Recommended pond depths for crayfish range from 1 to 2 ft (Lutz 

and others, 2003; Auburn University and Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, 2004b).

The amount of water added to aquaculture ponds during 

the year is highly variable and dependent on several factors 

including precipitation, evaporation, leakage rates, species 

needs, and pond management techniques. Some ponds are 

drained at least once during the year for harvest or water 

change; some ponds are drained about once every 6 years to 

renovate fish stocks; whereas others are only drained every 

15 to 20 years for repairs and earthwork (Auburn University 

and Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2002). Some 

ponds are continuously or regularly flushed (partially drained 

and refilled) to improve water quality, primarily by adding 

oxygen and removing wastes. In most ponds used to raise fish, 

water is added throughout the year to maintain water levels 

and improve water quality. Rates of water replacement generally range from 0.7 to 9 ft per year (Welborn, 1987; Kidd and 

Lambeth, 1995; Auburn University and Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, 2002; Lutz and others, 2003). Waterreplacement rates previously used by USGS hydrologists to 

estimate water withdrawals for aquaculture ponds, primarily 

catfish ponds, range from 2.7 to 4.5 ft/yr (Holland, 1992; 

D.E. Burt, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 2000; 

W.S. Mooty, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 

2005; B.P. Sargent, U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., 

2005). Crayfish ponds generally are filled in early fall and 

drained in the late spring, then left dry until the following 

fall (Auburn University and Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, 2004b). Water-replacement rates for crayfish ponds 

previously used by USGS hydrologists (B.P. Sargent, U.S. 

Geological Survey, oral commun., 2006) and suggested for 

best management practices (Auburn University and Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, 2004b) range from 1.75 to 

2.36 ft/yr.

Stocking rates for pond-raised catfish generally range 

from 3,250 to 7,000 lbs/ac (Welborn, 1987; Beem, 1998; 

Morris, 1993; Posadas, 2000; Lutz and others, 2003; Auburn 

University and Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

2004a; Brune and others, 2004). Stocking rates for other pond 

fish generally range from 1,100 to 11,400 lbs/ac (Rakocy 

and McGinty, 1989; Riepe, 1997; Kentucky State University, 

1998; Morris and others, 1999; Auburn University and Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, 2004a; Engle and Neira, 

2005). Stocking rates for adult turtles generally range from 

7,500 to 15,000 turtles per acre (Lutz, 2000).

Raceways

Raceways are used to culture a variety of fish, including 

trout, salmon, bass, and catfish, but the most common is rainbow trout (Hinshaw and others, 2004). Raceways are earthen 

or concrete linear channels into which water is diverted as a 

continuous stream from an adjacent spring or stream. Raceway 

dimensions typically range from 50 to 100 ft long, 10 to 30 

ft wide, and 3 to 6 ft deep. Raceways are often constructed in 

pairs and in series so that water will flow from one tank to the 

next by gravity. Raceways are typically single-pass or flowthrough systems. Water is rarely recirculated, but is reused 

serially with aeration or oxygenation between tanks (Kentucky 

Aquaculture Task Force, 1998; Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001; Auburn University and Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, 2004d).

Constant water movement is needed to maintain 

dissolved-oxygen concentrations, control temperature, and 

remove wastes. Rates of water flow through raceways are 

highly variable and dependent on the water source, species 

needs, and stocking rates, but they typically are adequate 

to provide three or more water exchanges per hour with a 

minimum velocity of about 0.1 ft/sec or 500 gal/min (Cain and 

Garling, 1993; Shelton, 1993; Beem, 1998; Auburn University 

and Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2004d; Hinshaw 

and others, 2004). In 2005, there were about 9,200 raceways 

with an average flow rate of 632 gal/min in the United States 

(National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2006).
4 Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Aquaculture in the United States, 2005

Stocking rates in raceways are dependant on flow rates 

and fish species and size. Stocking rates for salmon and trout 

typically range from 2.5 to 100 lbs/(gal/min of flow) (Rakocy, 

1989; Kentucky Aquaculture Task Force, 1998; Dunning and 

Sloan, 2001; San and others, 2001; Wynne, 2003; Hinshaw 

and others, 2004).

Recirculating and Nonrecirculating Tank 

Systems

Aquaculture tanks often are used to culture trout, salmon, 

hybrid striped bass, tilapia, yellow perch, sturgeon, walleye, 

and red drum. Tanks, like raceways, may be arranged in parallel or series. Tanks are often circular or elongated with water 

velocities sufficient (6 to 12 in/s) to move settleable solids to 

center drains. Circular tanks used for trout and salmon typically range from 40 to 140 ft in diameter, with diameter-todepth ratios ranging from 3:1 to 10:1 (Stickney, 2000).

Tanks may be on recirculating or nonrecirculating 

systems. In recirculating tank systems, water quality is 

maintained by pumping tank water through special filtration 

and aeration or oxygenation equipment. Between 85 and 97 

percent of the water is recycled and water-replacement rates 

range from 0.03 to 0.15 percent of the tank volume per day 

(Rakocy and others, 1989; Valenti, 1997; Masser and others, 

1999; Asano and others, 2000; Coffey and Bowser, 2002). 

Some water is removed from the system during waste removal 

and cleaning, and water also is lost to evaporation. Nonrecirculating tank systems, like raceways, are single-pass systems 

that discharge water after its use and require a steady supply of 

new water. Water-replacement rates for nonrecirculating tank 

systems range from 16 to 108 percent of the tank volume per 

day (Allen, 1974; Losordo and others, 1998; San and others, 

2001). 

Pens and Cages

Pens and cages used for finfish and shellfish typically 

are wire or net enclosures placed in a water body, such as an 

ocean, bay, inlet, lake, or stream. Because no water is withdrawn or diverted for these types of pens and cages, they are 

considered to be supplied by in-stream flow and were not 

included in this study.

However, alligators generally are raised in indoor concrete pens or cages, which include land and water areas. The 

water area typically is a shallow pool at one end of the enclosure. Recommended pen and pool sizes vary depending on the 

length of the alligators. Pool depths typically range from 10 

to 12 inches for grown-out facilities, where young alligators 

are grown to marketable size, but depths of 6 ft or greater are 

recommended for breeding. Water is used for waste removal, 

sanitation, and water exchanges in the pools (Masser, 1993a; 

Masser, 1993b). Water requirements for alligators generally 

range from 2 to 3 gal/d per alligator (L. de la Bretonne, Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, oral commun., 1990; 

L. McNease, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, 

oral commun., 1990). Estimated water withdrawals for pens 

and cages used for alligators are included in the total withdrawal estimates in this study.

Egg Incubators

Most fish hatcheries incubate eggs in incubators consisting of horizontal trays, vertical trays, or upwell jars (Hinshaw, 

1990). Each incubator unit holds between 4 and 16 trays or 

jars. The number of eggs in each incubation unit depends on 

the number of trays or jars and the species of fish but generally ranges from about 30,000 eggs in a small (4-tray) unit to 

192,000 eggs in a large (16-tray) unit. Water flows over the 

eggs at rates that generally range from about 1 to 2 gal/min for 

walleye and yellow perch and about 4 to 7 gal/min for trout 

and salmon (Hinshaw, 1990; Wynne, 1997). After hatching, 

the small fish are placed in start tanks or troughs, then later 

moved to ponds, raceways, or tanks. The majority of fish egg 

production in the United States is for striped bass, salmon, 

trout, and walleye (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 

2006).

Methods for Estimating Water 

Withdrawals for Aquaculture

Ground-water, surface-water, and total withdrawals by 

commercial and noncommercial operations in each county 

were estimated by using county-level data for commercial and 

noncommercial aquaculture operations provided by NASS 

and water-use coefficients. County-level data for commercial 

and noncommercial operations compiled for the 2005 Census 

of Aquaculture were obtained from the NASS (Brad Summa, 

National Agricultural Statistics Service, written commun., 

2007). The data included information that was not released in 

National Agricultural Statistics Service (2006) to avoid disclosure of confidential information for individual operations.

Total withdrawals were estimated for commercial and 

noncommercial aquaculture operations and subdivided into 

withdrawals from ground-water and surface-water sources. 

All withdrawals were considered self-supplied. Only freshwater withdrawals were compiled as part of the total. Data 

obtained from NASS for commercial and noncommercial 

operations were compiled and presented differently and 

required different estimation methods. Estimated withdrawals 

from ground-water and surface-water sources for commercial 

and noncommercial operations in each county were combined 

to produce county totals. The following equation was used:

Wt = Wcgw + Wcsw + Wncgw + Wncsw (1)

where

Wt = total water withdrawals, in million gallons per day;
Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Aquaculture 5

Wcgw = total ground-water withdrawals for commercial 

operations, in million gallons per day;

Wcsw = total surface-water withdrawals for commercial 

operations, in million gallons per day;

Wncgw = total ground-water withdrawals for noncommercial 

operations, in million gallons per day; and

Wncsw = total surface-water withdrawals for noncommercial 

operations, in million gallons per day.

Other methods, discussed later in this report, were used to 

estimate water withdrawals for aquaculture in Puerto Rico and 

the U.S. Virgin Islands because these areas were not included 

in the 2005 Census of Aquaculture (National Agricultural 

Statistics Service, 2006).

Commercial Operations

Commercial aquaculture operations produce and sell 

aquaculture products. To qualify for the NASS survey, an 

operation had to have sales greater than or equal to $1,000 

during 2005 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2006, 

p. vi). Data obtained from NASS for each county included the 

number of farms using ground water, surface water, off-farm 

water, and saltwater; pond acreage; cropland acreage used 

for crayfish production; number of raceways and average 

raceway flow rate; and the total volumes of recirculating and 

nonrecirculating tank systems. Volumes of water used for egg 

incubators at commercial operations were not specified in the 

data obtained from NASS and were assumed to be included 

in volumes used for tank systems. Area or volume of pools in 

alligator pens and cages at commercial operations also was 

not specified and was assumed to be included in pond acreage or tank systems. Total withdrawals at commercial operations were estimated by combining estimated withdrawals 

for ponds, cropland used for crayfish, raceways, recirculating 

tanks, and nonrecirculating tanks. The following equation was 

used:

Wc = Wcp + Wcc + Wcr + Wcrt + Wcnrt (2)

where

Wc = withdrawals by commercial operations, in million 

gallons per day;

Wcp = withdrawals for ponds at commercial operations, in 

million gallons per day;

Wcc = withdrawals for cropland used for crayfish at 

commercial operations, in million gallons 

per day;

Wcr = withdrawals for raceways at commercial operations, 

in million gallons per day;

Wcrt = withdrawals for recirculating tanks at commercial 

operations, in million gallons per day; and

Wcnrt = withdrawals for nonrecirculating tanks at 

commercial operations, in million gallons 

per day.

Ponds

Water withdrawals for ponds at commercial operations 

in each county were calculated by multiplying the total pond 

acreage in the county by a water-replacement rate. The total 

pond acreage at commercial operations in each county was 

provided by NASS. The water-replacement rates used in 

this study for aquaculture ponds are not presented to avoid 

potential disclosure of confidential information for individual 

aquaculture operations. The following equation was used:

Wcp = Acp * Rcp * Ca (3)

where

Wcp = withdrawals for ponds at commercial operations, in 

million gallons per day;

Acp = commercial pond acreage;

Rcp = water-replacement rate for ponds, in feet per year; 

and

Ca = 0.00089 (to convert from acre-feet per year to million 

gallons per day).

Cropland Used for Crayfish Production

Water withdrawals for crayfish production in each county 

were calculated by multiplying the total cropland acreage used 

for crayfish in each county by a water-replacement rate. The 

total cropland acreage used for crayfish production at commercial operations in each county was provided by NASS. 

The water-replacement rates used in this study for crayfish 

production are not presented to avoid potential disclosure of 

confidential information for individual aquaculture operations. 

The following equation was used: 

Wcc = Acc * Rcc * Ca (4)

where

Wcc = withdrawals for cropland used for crayfish production 

at commercial operations, in million gallons per 

day;

Acc = cropland used for crayfish production at commercial 

operations, in acres;

Rcc = water-replacement rate for crawfish ponds, in feet per 

year; and

Ca = 0.00089 (to convert from acre-feet per year to million 

gallons per day).

Raceways

Water withdrawals for raceways at commercial operations were calculated by multiplying the number of raceways 

by the average raceway flow rate in each county. The numbers 

of raceways and average raceway flow rates at commercial 
6 Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Aquaculture in the United States, 2005

operations in each county were provided by NASS. Average 

raceway flow rates ranged from 1 to 7,600 gal/min. The following equation was used:

Wcr = Ncr * Rcr * Cr (5)

where

Wcr = withdrawals for raceways at commercial operations, 

in million gallons per day;

Ncr = number of raceways at commercial operations;

Rcr = average raceway flow rate, in gallons per minute; and

Cr = 0.00144 (to convert from gallons per minute to 

million gallons per day).

Recirculating Tank Systems

Water withdrawals for recirculating tank systems at commercial operations in each county were calculated by multiplying the total volume of recirculating tanks in a county by 

a daily water replacement rate. The water-replacement rates 

used in this study for recirculating tank systems are not presented to avoid potential disclosure of confidential information 

for individual aquaculture operations. The following equation 

was used:

Wcrt = Vcrt * Rcrt * Crt (6)

where

Wcrt = withdrawals for recirculating tank systems at 

commercial operations, in million gallons per day;

Vcrt = volume of recirculating tank systems at commercial 

operations, in gallons;

Rcrt = water-replacement rate, in percent volume per day; 

and

Crt = 0.000001 (to convert from gallons per day to million 

gallons per day).

Nonrecirculating Tank Systems

Water withdrawals for nonrecirculating tank systems at 

commercial operations in each county were calculated by multiplying the total volume of nonrecirculating tanks in a county 

and a daily water replacement rate. The water-replacement 

rates used in this study for nonrecirculating tank systems are 

not presented to avoid potential disclosure of confidential 

information for individual aquaculture operations. The following equation was used:

Wcnrt = Vcnrt * Rcnrt * Crt (7)

where

Wcnrt = withdrawals for nonrecirculating tank systems at 

commercial operations, in million gallons per 

day;

Vcnrt = volume of nonrecirculating tank systems at 

commercial operations, in gallons;

Rcnrt = water-replacement rate, in percent volume per day; 

and

Crt = 0.000001 (to convert from gallons per day to million 

gallons per day).

Ground-Water and Surface-Water Withdrawals

Estimates of ground-water and surface-water withdrawals for ponds, cropland used for crayfish, recirculating tank 

systems, and nonrecirculating tank systems at commercial 

operations were determined based on the percentage of farms 

that reported using ground water and surface water in each 

county. The NASS provided the number of aquaculture operations using each water source in each county. The percentage 

of operations using ground-water or surface-water sources in 

each county was determined by dividing the number of operations using each source (ground water or surface water) in a 

county by the sum of operations using ground water, surface 

water, off-farm water, or saltwater. This sum was greater 

than the total number of farms in some counties because 

some farms use water from multiple sources and are counted 

for each water source. Withdrawals of ground water in each 

county were estimated by using the following equation:

Wcgw = (Wcp + Wcc + Wcrt + Wcnrt) 

* (Ngw/(Ngw + Nsw + No + Ns)) (8)

where

Wcgw = ground-water withdrawals by commercial 

operations, in million gallons per day;

Wcp = withdrawals for commercial ponds, in million 

gallons per day;

Wcc = withdrawals for cropland used for crayfish, in 

million gallons per day;

Wcrt = withdrawals for commercial recirculating tanks, in 

million gallons per day;

Wcnrt = withdrawals for commercial nonrecirculating tanks, 

in million gallons per day;

Ngw = number of commercial operations using ground 

water;

Nsw = number of commercial operations using surface 

water;

No = number of commercial operations using off-farm 

water; and

Ns = number of commercial operations using saltwater.

All raceways at commercial operations were assumed 

to be supplied by surface water or saltwater. Estimates of 

surface-water withdrawals for raceways in each county were 

determined by dividing the number of operations using surface water by the sum of operation using surface water and 

saltwater. Withdrawals of surface water in each county were 

estimated by using the following equation:
Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Aquaculture 7

Wcsw = ((Wcp + Wcc + Wcrt + Wcnrt) * (Nsw/(Ngw

+ Nsw + No + Ns))) + (Wcr * (Nsw/(Nsw + Ns))) (9)

where

Wcsw = surface-water withdrawals at commercial operations, 

in million gallons per day;

Wcp = withdrawals for ponds at commercial operations, in 

million gallons per day;

Wcc = withdrawals for cropland used for crayfish at 

commercial operations, in million gallons per day;

Wcr = withdrawals for raceways at commercial operations, 

in million gallons per day;

Wcrt = withdrawals for recirculating tanks at commercial 

operations, in million gallons per day;

Wcnrt = withdrawals for nonrecirculating tanks at 

commercial operations, in million gallons per day;

Nsw = number of commercial operations using surface 

water;

Ngw = number of commercial operations using ground 

water;

No = number of commercial operations using off-farm 

water; and

Ns = number of commercial operations using saltwater.

Noncommercial Operations

Noncommercial operations produced and distributed, 

rather than sold, aquaculture products during 2005. To qualify 

for the NASS survey, noncommercial operations had to 

produce an estimated value of $1,000 or more of aquaculture 

products which were released or distributed for restoration, 

conservation, or recreation during 2005 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2006, p. vi). Noncommercial operations include Federal, State, and tribal fish hatcheries. Data 

provided by NASS for each county included the number, live 

weight, and the number of eggs or seed stock for alligators, 

largemouth bass, striped bass, catfish, crappie, fathead minnow, muskellunge, northern pike, perch, salmon, shad, sunfish, 

trout, turtles, and walleye. All fish produced were assumed to 

be raised in ponds or raceways. All largemouth bass, striped 

bass, catfish, crappie, fathead minnows, muskellunge, northern 

pike, perch, shad, sunfish, and walleye were assumed to be 

pond raised. All salmon and trout were assumed to be raised in 

raceways. All turtles were assumed to be raised in ponds. All 

eggs were assumed to be hatched in incubators. Pond acreage, 

raceway flow rates, and incubator flow rates were not available 

from NASS and were estimated based on average stocking 

rates and flow rates previously used by USGS hydrologists or 

presented in aquaculture literature. Withdrawals from groundwater and surface-water sources for noncommercial operations 

in each county were estimated by summing estimated water 

withdrawals for ponds, raceways, egg incubators, and pens or 

cages for alligators. The following equation was used:

Wnc = Wncp + Wncr + Wnce + Wnca (10)

where

Wnc = withdrawals at noncommercial operations, in 

million gallons per day;

Wncp = withdrawals for ponds at noncommercial operations, 

in million gallons per day;

Wncr = withdrawals for raceways at noncommercial 

operations, in million gallons per day;

Wnce = withdrawals for egg production at noncommercial 

operations, in million gallons per day; and

Wnca = withdrawals for pens and cages for alligators at 

noncommercial operations, in million gallons per 

day.

Ponds

Total pond acreage used by noncommercial operations in 

each county was estimated by dividing the weight of pondraised fish and the number of turtles produced in each county 

by stocking rates. Stocking rates used in this study were 5,000 

lbs/ac for catfish, 3,500 lbs/ac for all other pond-raised fish, 

and 11,250 turtles/ac for turtles. These rates are about the averages of values published in literature (Welborn, 1978; Rackocy 

and McGinty, 1989; Morris, 1993; Riepe, 1997; Beem, 1998; 

Morris and others, 1999; Lutz, 2000; Posadas, 2000; Engle 

and Stone, 2002; Lutz and others, 2003; Auburn University 

and Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2004a; Engle 

and Neira, 2005). The following equation was used:

Ancp = (Pc/Sc) + (Pof/Sof) + (Nt/St) (11)

where

Ancp = estimated pond acreage at noncommercial 

operations;

Pc = weight of catfish produced at noncommercial 

operations, in pounds;

Sc = stocking rate for catfish, in pounds per acre;

Pof = weight of all other pond-raised fish produced at 

noncommercial operations, in pounds;

Sof = stocking rate for all other pond-raised fish, in 

pounds per acre;

Nt = number of turtles produced at noncommercial 

operations; and

St = stocking rate for turtles, in number of turtles per 

acre.

Water withdrawals for ponds at noncommercial 

operations in each county were calculated by multiplying the 

estimated pond acreage at noncommercial operations by a 

water-replacement rate. The water-replacement rates used in 

this study for aquaculture ponds are not presented to avoid 

potential disclosure of confidential information for individual 

aquaculture operations. The following equation was used:

Wncp = Ancp * Rncp * Ca (12)
8 Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Aquaculture in the United States, 2005

where

Wncp = withdrawals for ponds at noncommercial operations, 

in million gallons per day;

Ancp = estimated pond acreage at noncommercial 

operations;

Rncp = water-replacement rate for ponds in feet per year; 

and

Ca = 0.00089 (to convert from acre-feet per year to 

million gallons per day).

Raceways

Water withdrawals for raceways at noncommercial operations in each county were estimated by dividing the pounds of 

fish produced in raceways at noncommercial operations in a 

county by a stocking rate. The stocking rate used in this study 

for raceways was 37.5 lbs/(gal/min of flow) for all raceway 

fish and is about the average of values published in literature 

(Rakocy, 1989; Kentucky Aquaculture Task Force; 1998; 

Kentucky State University, 1998; Dunning and Sloan, 2001; 

San and others, 2001; Wynne, 2003; Hinshaw and others, 

2004). The following equation was used:

Wncr = (Pts / Sncr) * Cr (13)

where

Wncr = withdrawals for raceways at noncommercial 

operations, in million gallons per day;

Pts = weight of fish produced in raceways at 

noncommercial operations, in pounds;

Sncr = stocking rate for fish produced in raceways, in 

pounds per gallon per minute of flow; and

Cr = 0.00144 (to convert from gallons per minute to 

million gallons per day).

Egg Incubators

Water withdrawals for fish egg incubators at noncommercial operations in each county were estimated by multiplying the estimated number of incubators in each county by a 

flow rate. The flow rate used in this study for incubators was 

4 gal/min, which is about the average of values published in 

literature (Beers, 1985; Hinshaw, 1990; Tucker, 1991; Shelton, 

1993; Wynne, 1997). The following equation was used:

Wnce = Ni * Ri * Cr (14)

where

Wnce = withdrawals for egg incubators at noncommercial 

operations, million gallons per day;

Ni = number of egg incubators at noncommercial 

operations ;

Ri = incubator flow rate, in gallons per minute; and

Cr = 0.00144 (to convert from gallons per minute to 

million gallons per day).

The total number of fish egg incubators used by noncommercial operations in each county was estimated by dividing 

the number of eggs produced in the county by a stocking 

rate. The stocking rate used in this study for incubators was 

100,000 eggs per incubator, which is about the average of values published in literature (South Santiam Fish Hatchery, [no 

date]; Beers, 1985; McDaniel and others, 1994; Wynne, 1997; 

Socorro, 2004). The following equation was used:

Ni = Ne / Se (15)

where

Ni= number of egg incubators at noncommercial 

operations;

Ne= number of eggs produced at noncommercial operations; 

and

Se= stocking rate for eggs, in eggs per incubator.

Pens and Cages Used for Alligators

Water withdrawals for pens and cages used for alligators 

at noncommercial operations in each county were estimated by 

multiplying the number of alligators produced by a water-use 

rate. The water-use rate used in this study for alligators was 

2.5 gal/d per alligator, which was based on a rate previously 

used by USGS hydrologists to estimate water withdrawals for 

alligators (B.P. Sargent, oral commun., 2005). The following 

equation was used:

Wnca = Na * Ra * Crt (16)

where

Wnca = withdrawals for alligators at noncommercial 

operations, million gallons per day;

Na = number of alligators at noncommercial operations;

Ri = water-use rate for alligators, gallons per day per 

alligator; and

Crt = 0.000001 (to convert from gallons per day to million 

gallons per day).

Ground-Water and Surface-Water Withdrawals

No data on the sources of water were available from 

NASS for noncommercial operations. Because of this lack of 

data, water sources used for noncommercial operations in a 

county were assumed to be similar to water sources used by 

commercial operations in the same county. Total water 

withdrawals for noncommercial aquaculture operations in 

each county were divided into withdrawals from groundwater and surface-water sources by using the percentage of 

estimated withdrawals from ground-water and surface-water 

sources for commercial operations in the county. If there were 
Summary 9

no estimated withdrawals for commercial operations in a 

county for 2005, the percentage of ground-water and surfacewater withdrawals for aquaculture or animal specialties 

previously estimated by the USGS for (in order of preference) 

2000, 1995, or 1990 were used. Estimated ground-water and 

surface-water withdrawals for aquaculture or animal specialties in each county for 2000, 1995, and 1990 were accessed 

April 19, 2006 at http://water.usgs.gov/wateruse/. If no withdrawals for aquaculture or animal specialties were available 

for a county for 2000, 1995, or 1990, water withdrawals for 

noncommercial operations were divided based on the percentage of total ground-water and surface-water withdrawals for 

all categories of use in the county in 2000. The following 

equations were used:

Wncgw = Wnc * (Wgwx/Wtx) (17)

Wncsw = Wnc * (Wswx/Wtx) (18)

where

Wncgw= total ground-water withdrawals for noncommercial 

operations, in million gallons per day;

Wnc= withdrawals by noncommercial operations, in 

million gallons per day;

Wgwx= (in order of preference) ground-water withdrawals 

for commercial aquaculture in 2005, groundwater withdrawals for aquaculture in 2000, 

ground-water withdrawals for animal specialties 

in 1995, ground-water withdrawals for animal 

specialties in 1990, or total ground-water 

withdrawals for all categories of use in 2000, in 

million gallons per

Wtx= (in order of preference) total withdrawals 

for commercial aquaculture in 2005, total 

withdrawals for aquaculture in 2000, total 

withdrawals for animal specialties in 1995, total 

withdrawals for animal specialties in 1990, or 

total withdrawals for all categories of use in 

2000, in million gallons per day;

Wncsw= total surface-water withdrawals for noncommercial 

operations, in million gallons per day; and

Wswx= (in order of preference) surface-water withdrawals 

for commercial aquaculture in 2005, surfacewater withdrawals for aquaculture in 2000, 

surface-water withdrawals for animal specialties 

in 1995, surface-water withdrawals for animal 

specialties in 1990, or total surface-water 

withdrawals for all categories of use in 2000, in 

million gallons per day.

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were not included 

in the 2005 NASS Census of Aquaculture, and limited data 

on aquaculture in these areas were available from NASS. 

The 2002 Census of Agriculture in Puerto Rico (National 

Agricultural Statistics Service, 2004) indicated that there were 

50 aquaculture operations in Puerto Rico in 2002. The operations produced fish in 192 cuerdas (1 cuerda equals 0.971212 

acres) of ponds. Total water withdrawals for aquaculture in 

Puerto Rico were determined by multiplying the total pond 

acreage by a water-replacement rate, then converting the result 

to million gallons per day. The water-replacement rates used 

in this study for aquaculture ponds in Puerto Rico are not 

presented to avoid potential disclosure of data for individual 

aquaculture operations. 

Withdrawals in each municipio (county equivalent) were 

determined by multiplying the total water withdrawals for 

aquaculture in Puerto Rico by the percentages of aquaculture 

farms in each municipio. The following equation was used:

Tm = Tpr * (Nm/Npr) (19)

where

Tm= total water withdrawals for aquaculture in a municipio, 

in million gallons per day;

Tpr= total water withdrawals for aquaculture in Puerto Rico, 

in million gallons per day;

Nm= number of aquaculture operations in a municipio; 

and

Npr= number of aquaculture operations in Puerto Rico.

The 2002 Census of Agriculture in the U.S. Virgin 

Islands (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2005) 

indicated that there was only one aquaculture operation in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands, on the island of St. Croix, during 2002. 

No other information about this operation was available from 

NASS. However, the operation could have been the University 

of Virgin Islands Aquaculture Experiment Station at St. Croix, 

which has four recirculating tank systems used to culture tilapia and hydroponic vegetables. Approximately 20 gallons per 

day are replaced in each tank system (University of the Virgin 

Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, 2007).

No data on the sources of water were available from 

NASS for aquaculture operations in Puerto Rico and the U.S. 

Virgin Islands. Because of this lack of data, water withdrawals for aquaculture in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands 

were divided into ground-water and surface-water withdrawals 

by using the methods described for noncommercial aquaculture operations. 

Summary

Aquaculture water use is associated with raising organisms that live in water—such as finfish and shellfish—for 

food, restoration, conservation, or sport. Aquaculture production occurs under controlled feeding, sanitation, and harvesting procedures primarily in ponds, flow-through raceways, 

and, to a lesser extent, cages, net pens, and tanks. Aquaculture 
10 Methods for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Aquaculture in the United States, 2005

ponds, raceways, and tanks usually require the withdrawal 

or diversion of water from a ground or surface source. Most 

water withdrawn or diverted for aquaculture production is used 

to maintain pond levels and/or water quality. Water typically 

is added for maintenance of levels, oxygenation, temperature 

control, and flushing of wastes. 

Aquaculture operations using freshwater ponds, raceways, and tanks in the United States typically raise catfish, 

trout, bass, perch, tilapia, bait fish, sport fish, ornamental fish, 

crayfish, shrimp, alligators, and turtles. Of the 4,300 aquaculture operations in the United States in 2005, the percentage of 

operations using each method is as follows: ponds, 54 percent; 

raceways, 10 percent; tanks, 17 percent; and other methods 

19 percent. The number of aquaculture operations included the 

following: catfish, 1,160; crayfish, 650; trout 410; ornamental 

fish, 360; and baitfish, 260.

Estimates of water withdrawals for aquaculture are 

needed for water planning and management; however, much 

of the water used for aquaculture in the United States is 

not reported. Where water withdrawals for aquaculture are 

unknown, they usually have been estimated by using aquaculture statistics, such as pond acreage, and a water-use coefficient or water-replacement rate. Use of consistent methods 

for estimation of withdrawals could help improve the accuracy 

and consistency of results.

This report documents methods used to estimate withdrawals of fresh ground water and surface water for aquaculture in 2005 for each county and county-equivalent in 

the United States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands 

by using aquaculture statistics and estimated water-use 

coefficients and water-replacement rates. County-level data 

for commercial and noncommercial operations compiled 

for the 2005 Census of Aquaculture were obtained from 

the National Agricultural Statistics Service. Withdrawals of 

water used at commercial and noncommercial operations for 

aquaculture ponds, raceways, tanks, egg incubators, and pens 

and cages for alligators were estimated and totaled by groundwater or surface-water source for each county and county 

equivalent.

The results of this study were distributed to USGS wateruse personnel in each State during 2007. Water-use personnel 

are required to submit estimated withdrawals for all categories 

of use in their State to the National Water-Use Information 

Program for inclusion in a national report describing water use 

in the United States during 2005. Water-use personnel had the 

option of submitting the water-use estimates determined by 

using the methods described in this report, a modified version 

of these estimates, their own set of estimates, or reported data 

for the aquaculture category. Estimated withdrawals resulting from the method described in this report are not presented 

herein to avoid potential inconsistencies with estimated withdrawals for aquaculture that will be presented in the national 

report, as different methods used by water-use personnel may 

result in different withdrawal estimates. Estimated withdrawals also are not presented to avoid potential disclosure of data 

for individual aquaculture operations.

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