The Quality of Basic Education 

in Senegal: A Review 

Final Report

14 April 2009

 

Prepared for USAID/Senegal by 

The Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling 

Authors: 

Joseph DeStefano 

Dr. Mark Robert Lynd 

Dr. Barbara Thornton 
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

i Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Acknowledgement 

The Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling and the authors of this report would like to 

extend our appreciation to USAID/Senegal for the support and input it provided to this review. In 

particular Pape Sow was an invaluable resource both in terms of his knowledge of the education sector, 

and in terms of his connections to all the key stakeholders we consulted. Pape Sow and Brandy Witthoft 

of USAID/Senegal helped conduct the field data collection portions of this review that occurred in the 

regions outside Dakar. Field data collection was further enhanced by the contributions of Ousamane 

Amadou Ndiaye and Charles Owens Ndiaye of the Directorate for Planning and Education Reform of the 

Ministry of Education. Their help in assessing, analyzing and understanding how education policies and 

institutional capacities play out on the ground was invaluable.
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

ii Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Acronyms list

APE Association of Parents and Students (Association des parents d’élève) 

AFD Agence française de développement 

AfDB African Development Bank 

CIDA Canadian International Development Agency 

CFEE End of primary exam (Certificat de fin des études élementaires) 

CGE School Management Committee (Conseil de gestion d’établissement) 

CNFC National Teacher Training Center (Centre national de formation continue) 

CNFIC National Initial and Teacher Training Center (Centre national de formation initiale et 

continue) 

CPI Itinerant Pedagogical Advisor (Conseilleur pédagogique itinérant) 

DEMG Directorate of Middle School Education (Direction de l’enseignement moyen général) 

DPRE Directorate of Planning and Education Reform (Direction de la planification et de la 

reforme en éducation) 

DRH Directorate of Human Resources (Direction des ressources humaines) 

EFA-FTI Education for All – Fast Track Initiative 

EFI Teacher Training Institute (École de formation d’instituteurs) 

EDB Basic Education Project (Projet éducation de base) 

EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment 

FAR Fixed Asset Reimbursement 

FASTEF Faculty of the Science and Technology of Education and Training (Faculté des sciences et 

technologie de l’éducation et de la formation) 

GOS Government of Senegal 

IA Regional Inspectorate (Inspection d’academie) 

ICT Information Communication Technology 

IDEN Deprartmental Inspectorate (Inspection départmentale d’éducation nationale) 

IGEN Curriculum Department (Inspecteur general de l’éducation nationale) 

INEADE (National Institute for Studies into Action for Educational Development (Institut national 

d’études d’action pour le développement de l’éducation) 

IRs Intermediate Results 

IS Subject Inspectors (Inspecteur de spécialité) 

IVS School Inspector (Inspecteur de la vie scolaire) 

JICA Japanese International Cooperation Agency 

MOE Ministry of Education 

OTL Opportunity to Learn 

PAEM Project to Support Middle-School Teaching (Projet d’appui à l’enseignement moyen) 

PE School Improvement Plan (Projet d’établissement ou d’école) 

PRF Regional Training Unit (Pole régional de formation) 

SELS Union of Free Educators in Senegal (Syndicat des enseignants libres du Sénégal) 

SNERS National System for the Evaluation of School Results (Système national d’evaluation du 

rendement scolaire) 

SOAG Strategic Objective Grant Agreement 

SUDES Democratic Union of Teachers in Senegal (Syndicat unique démocratique des enseignants 

du Sénégal) 

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund 

USAID United States Agency for International Development
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iii Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Executive Summary 

Introduction 

This report presents the findings of a review of education quality in Senegal conducted over the course 

of three weeks from February 17 through March 6, 2009. USAID commissioned the review to: 

1. Analyze key quality constraints in the primary education sub-sector and review middle school 

quality activities currently being supported by USAID/PAEM. 

2. Identify critical capacity gaps in the education system taking into consideration the following: 

broad capacity issues; implementation capacity; capacity to ensure quality; ability to support 

decentralization; and capacity to implement national plans. 

3. Develop a program description for a new education activity. 

The Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling’s methodology for this review places a 

premium on analyzing not only the technical, but also the institutional and political dimensions of the 

factors influencing the quality of teaching and learning in Senegalese schools. Our approach was to 

interview numerous ministry officials, education stakeholders and technical and financial partners of the 

GOS in Dakar, as well as visit regional and departmental education offices, training institutions, and 

schools, and interview stakeholders in Fatik, Djourbel, Kaolack, St. Louis and Tambacounda. Information 

from these interviews and visits, as well as data from a variety of available sources were compiled and 

analyzed as the basis for this review. 

Findings 

Is Quality an Issue? We found that Senegal has made progress expanding access to education over 

the last eight years, but during that time, quality has deteriorated. Results from the 2006 PASEC show 

that in Senegal, scores in math and French have declined from 1996 to 2006 for both second and fifth 

grades. Senegal’s own assessments of learning show that only 20% of students in sixth grade are 

achieving at desired levels in French and only 10% in math. Furthermore, drop out remains high in 

elementary school, with only about 50% of students who start out in first grade making it through to the 

end of the cycle. Senegal compares very poorly to other countries in the region and has one of the 

lowest rates of primary completion. 

Our review of technical issues related to quality also revealed that teacher quality is widely seen as 

inadequate. Also, mechanisms for ongoing support of teachers and schools appear unable to reach 

schools frequently enough and are not structured well enough to impact teaching practice More 

fundamentally, disruptions to the school year appear to have a major impact on the amount of available 

time for teaching and learning. 

What are the policy and institutional contexts and what forces are driving educational 

development? The Education and Training Development Program (PDEF) covers a period 

beginning in 2000 and carrying through to the realization of the Millennium Development and Education 

for All goals by 2015. It establishes a framework and specific plans for the education sector in Senegal 

and is driven primarily by a policy that gives priority to expansion across all sub-sectors and levels of 

education. The achievements of the first two phases of the PDEF are undeniable. Enrollment rates have 

increased dramatically in primary and middle schools, while also increasing in the pre-primary and 

general secondary sub-sectors. 

Pressure continues to mount on the public sector to expand access to middle schools. And the 

government remains committed to continuing to expand all of these levels of education. Draft 
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iv Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

projections for the period 2008 – 2015 envisage: increasing pre-school enrollment to 20% of the eligible 

population; increasing the elementary school gross enrollment rate (GER) to 113%; increasing primary 

completion to 100%; accommodating an 83% increase in the number of students in public middle 

schools; tripling the enrollment in professional middle school; increasing nine fold the enrollment in 

professional and technical secondary schools; and almost doubling general secondary enrollment. 

The Planning and Education Reform Department (DPRE) outlines a number of important challenges 

associated with meeting these goals, including: coordination across three ministries of education; the 

need to recruit, train, support and maintain teachers at a rate never before achieved; meeting the rising 

salary costs associated with expansion; the construction of increasing numbers of classrooms, also at a 

rate never before achieved in Senegal; the purchasing and distribution of millions of books and other 

pedagogical materials including those required by the introduction of a new elementary school 

curriculum. The government will be attempting to manage these demanding, implementation-intensive 

strategies and activities at the same time, during a period where expansion alone will continue to eat up 

many of the additional resources flowing to the sector. 

Resources for the implementation of the PDEF have increased dramatically during the first two phases, 

from the government’s own resources, as well as from families and external funders. The availability of 

resources has up to now not been a constraint on the development of the education sector in Senegal. 

Recent cash flow problems in the public sector, however, imply that the global economic crisis may slow 

the heretofore seen rates of growth in government spending on education. A greater concern is the 

capacity of the education system to more efficiently use the resources that are being made available. 

The management and coordination measures in place under the PDEF feature an open, collaborative 

and multi-partner roundtable approach. Substantial resources have been committed and are being 

invested in improved planning and management in the education sector. However the sector continues 

to suffer from the lack of key capacities, overlapping, uncoordinated and competing structures, and 

absence of purposeful management incentives or disincentives. The areas of weakest capacity are 

planning, communicating and monitoring and evaluation. Absent any institutional imperative for 

performance, management in the sector reverts to administering the day to day, and does not seek 

efficiency in the use of resources and fails to pursue maximum value for money. 

The need to improve quality is seen as a priority by all the actors we consulted. Teachers were almost 

unanimously cited as the biggest constraint on quality, in particular their lack of adequate pre-service 

training. Most stakeholders felt that while substantial investments are needed, they also affirmed that 

inefficient use of available resources is what most impedes improvements in quality. Most people, in 

an echo of official policy, define quality in terms of inputs – improving the school environment, 

improving curriculum, providing more and better teaching materials and textbooks, and providing 

training for teachers. Other issues that are seen as priorities include the need to: meet the training 

needs of teachers who were hired hastily and who are serving as “volontaires” or “vacataire;” provide 

training to teachers on classroom management and instruction; provide training for school directors 

and principals that enable them to act as on-site pedagogical supports; align the middle school 

curriculum with the new elementary curriculum; improve local governance; and increase the total 

number of hours in the school year and limit the number of disruptions. 

While the above issues are cited as priorities, there are other forces operating in the sector that 

influence decision making. First, like a snowball rolling downhill, the increased access to elementary 

education means the budget has to continue to grow to accommodate a much broader level of 
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v Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

operation – more teachers to be paid, more materials to be purchased, and all structured in ways that 

mean each year costs must go up. Second, the new curriculum for elementary grades will be rolled out 

beginning in 2009/10 in two grades, adding grades each year until the full cycle is up and running by 

2012/13. Materials requirements will increase each year and “consumable” portions of the materials 

will need to distributed each year to a growing number of students. All this will require a large infusion 

of resources over the next 4 to 5 years, and then maintenance of those levels afterwards. Third, given 

the new elementary curriculum, opportunities to innovate in this area, in particular concerning the 

language of instruction, are effectively cut off. Fourth, teachers’ unions continue to exert pressure on 

the education system as they seek redress for unpaid indemnities, negotiate for pay increases and 

continue to confront the ministry over the issue of volunteer and contractual teachers. The 

contentiousness of the existing relationship between the government and the unions leads almost 

inevitably to strikes that disrupt the school year. Fifth, a cabinet reshuffle in 2008 effectively divided 

responsibility for education among five ministries. The challenge of coordinating across five institutions 

is obvious and at question is whether the government can continue to manage the sector within the 

single framework of the PDEF. Sixth, and finally, the ministry does a poor job communicating. The 

public dialogue about education remains shaped by conventional wisdom, hearsay, rumor and the 

messages of those interest groups that have clear agendas to promote. Future support for and progress 

in implementing the PDEF will require a dedicated, skillfully communicated approach and set of 

strategies. In particular, if quality issues are to be addressed, then the need for well-funded 

communication efforts will be paramount. 

What technical and financial partners are active in the education sector? The 

international community is actively supporting the PDEF in Senegal. Most partners have agreed to work 

under the coordination of a lead agency, presently CIDA. The French, Canadians and Japanese provide 

budgetary support for the PDEF. AFD, JICA and the World Bank pool resources for investments in 

improving institutional capacity in the education sector. School construction and rehabilitation are 

included in several projects and there is a large, additional commitment of resources for construction 

from the EFA-FTI Catalytic Fund. Large scale projects addressing the quality of education include: a JICA 

project supporting math, science and technology teaching in elementary schools; CIDA projects 

providing teacher training for volunteer and contractual teachers, training in the new curriculum, and 

equipment and infrastructure for the EFIs; a French Cooperation project that is ending, but that had 

focused on improving teaching of French; an AFD project working with elementary schools and 

communities in the Dakar suburbs; USAID/PAEM which supported building and improving the quality of 

middle schools, including training for every middle school principal in the country; and most recently, 

USAID’s EDB which will work at the national level on middle school curriculum, and support local 

governance and teacher training. The Canadian projects supporting the new curriculum and the EDB 

middle school curriculum component are the only investments in quality that are national in scope. 

Where is the space for action and how can USAID add value? The PDEF places ongoing 

emphasis on expansion of the system, although improved quality and management are also noted as 

goals. The GOS has mobilized a significant amount of additional resources to allow the system to expand 

access, but the sector may have reached the ceiling of what can realistically be expected in terms of 

additional investments. However, the system must expand, particularly at the middle school level, just 

to accommodate the growing bulge of students moving through elementary schools. The temptation 

under these circumstances is to give priority to expansion first, then worry about investments that 

improve quality later. However, in Senegal, it is clear that poor quality means that resources are being 

eaten up because a higher degree of enrollment has to be maintained in order to achieve a given output 
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vi Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

of educated youth. Better management of time and more effective teaching and learning strategies 

would mean that the given levels of enrollment could be made to produce more “education.” 

In the time frame of a typical project, what may prove most promising for improving student outcomes 

is a strategy that focuses on basic skills acquisition, remediation and mastery. The system is currently 

failing to provide adequate skills development for the majority of students who therefore end up leaving 

school before reaching the goal of ten years of basic education. In a context where most of the 

government’s resources will be eaten up by the expanding system, projects may be the best vehicles for 

identifying improvements in how resources are used so that they can more effectively lead to 

educational outcomes. This is only true if projects are designed with that idea squarely in mind – i.e. 

helping model within the system more effective use of resources. One obvious way in which resources 

can be used more effectively is in assuring a greater opportunity to learn – i.e., that school is open as 

much as possible and that teachers and students attend school regularly. Given almost unanimous 

agreement among the stakeholders interviewed that monitoring and evaluation is a critical area of need 

in the sector, there is also scope for taking on the design and implementation of monitoring and 

evaluation systems that focus on student learning outcomes. There is also space to introduce a “whole 

school” approach, where school-level management and governance are supported within the context of 

a whole school community onboard with a shared vision, mission and set of specific goals. And if those 

goals are tied to learning outcomes, then the local actors could be not only involved in the efficient and 

effective use of resources as an imperative for improving quality, but may in fact lead it. 

The needs of teachers must be addressed within the current crowded landscape of institutions, policies 

and preoccupations dealing with training and certification. Training institutions, programs and 

approaches have been able neither to move teachers toward certification in a timely manner nor 

provide content that actually helps teachers obtain better learning outcomes in their classrooms. Most 

parties interviewed seem dissatisfied with the status quo, which provides space for addressing the need 

to i) provide adequate pre-service preparation through a flexible array of opportunities, ii) support 

teachers as they move toward certification and civil service status, iii) link certification to the acquisition 

of teaching competencies that are linked to improved outcomes for students, and iv) provide the 

ongoing, site-based support teachers will need to continue to improve. 

To conclude the findings of this review, we have identified seven areas where: 

• Stakeholders attach high priority to the actions that could address improving quality; 

• There is political and institutional space (or the space can be easily cleared) to work on the 

interventions that could address quality; 

• Actions undertaken would be complementary to the existing USAID and other projects or 

programs, and would draw on the lessons, in particular, of the USAID/PAEM; 

• There is a greater likelihood of obtaining measureable impacts on quality; and 

• There is also scope for contributing to lasting improvements in institutional capacity; 

The seven areas we have identified as being amenable to project interventions in the short to medium 

term include: 

• Opportunity to Learn: maximizing and 

making the best use of available time 

• Systems for Ongoing Teacher Professional 

Development and Support 

• Local Governance, Management, 

Improvement and School Support 

• The Structure & Management of the Teaching 

Profession 
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vii Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

• Improving School Environments • Sector Management 

• Instruction Targeting Basic Skills Acquisition 

Recommendations 

There is ample scope for a USAID investment to address some of the needs discussed in our findings. 

With issues covering everything from the school environment to disruptions to the school year, from 

teacher training to overall management of the sector, the challenge becomes one of how to best 

propose a specific set of activities that would (i) make for a coherent project, (ii) address the issues of 

highest priority in the sector, (iii) hold promise of delivering impact in a three to five year time frame, 

(iv) be implementable in Senegal’s current policy and institutional contexts, and (v) contribute to the 

long-term sustainability of improvements in quality. Analysis based on these points led to the 

identification of five recommended components for a new education sector program aimed at 

improving learning outcomes for students in Senegalese schools. These five areas are: 

• Assuring basic skills acquisition throughout elementary and middle school 

• Promoting a whole school approach to school governance management and improvement 

• Supporting an integrated approach to teacher development 

• Support assessment, learning and a culture of evaluation 

• Addressing the enabling conditions for system-wide impact and sustainability 

Conclusion 

Our sector review revealed a number of features of Senegal’s basic education system that merit careful 

consideration. First, teacher training is widely viewed as the primary impediment to educational quality. 

Of course, we do not understand this to mean that all, or even most, of Senegal’s teachers are doing a 

poor job; rather, “the concern behind the concern” is more likely that recruitment and training 

standards have been falling for years, and that a continued increase in the percentage of poorly trained, 

or untrained, teachers does not bode well for the future of Senegal’s education system. 

Secondly, we were not surprised to learn that teaching time ( or opportunities to learn) was such a 

concern in Senegal as well. What stood out to us was the extent to which opportunity to learn was 

impacted by the frequency and extensiveness of teacher strikes on the one hand, and the seeming nearabsence of a strategy on the part of the government to pre-empt these strikes or to manage 

communications and shape public opinion, on the other. 

Finally, as a subtext to nearly all we learned about untrained teachers, insufficient learning time, and 

poor learning outcomes, the concept of an enabling environment as a key factor in educational quality 

was reiterated again and again. Whether the subject was the conditions of schooling, weak support 

systems, weak management capacity, or an unclear policy environment, we learned that even the most 

promising interventions were at risk of failing, and in fact, many had over the years. As one respondent 

said, “Projects come here to die,” sadly, because a sufficiently enabling environment does not exist to 

nurture them into long-term health. 

It was on the basis of these observations that our research focused on seven key areas of interest, 

ultimately leading to five possible courses of action (“components”) for the mission to consider. These 

five components reflect our conclusion (1) that support for middle school should continue while support 

for elementary school is also initiated to improve quality, (2) that improved instruction in reading and 
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viii Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

mathematics should be an area of focus for interventions at the school level, and (3) that an enabling 

environment should be supported in order to increase the chances of making short-term interventions 

sustainable over the longer term. Key features of the enabling environment include school-level 

governance and management guided by a whole school approach; targeted, coordinated, and more 

accessible teacher training; and attention to assessment, use of learning outcomes data, and monitoring 

and evaluation broadly speaking at the school, department, region and national levels. 

In short, we believe that some combination of direct intervention and systems support would provide 

the mission with the greatest possibility of making an impact on the quality of teaching and learning 

while making long-term sustainability of these interventions possible. 
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ix Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Table of contents 

Acknowledgement.................................................................................................................................... i 

Acronyms list ........................................................................................................................................... ii 

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................ iii 

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... iii 

Findings .............................................................................................................................................. iii 

Is Quality an Issue? ......................................................................................................................... iii 

What are the policy and institutional contexts and what forces are driving educational 

development? ................................................................................................................................ iii 

What technical and financial partners are active in the education sector? ....................................... v 

Where is the space for action and how can USAID add value? .......................................................... v 

Recommendations ............................................................................................................................. vii 

Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... vii 

Table of contents.................................................................................................................................... ix 

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1 

2. Background ..................................................................................................................................... 1 

3. Purpose and Methodology of the Assessment ................................................................................. 2 

4. Findings ........................................................................................................................................... 3 

4.1. Is Quality an Issue in the Education Sector in Senegal? ............................................................. 3 

4.2. The Policy Context: PDEF .......................................................................................................... 6 

4.3. Overall Institutional Context..................................................................................................... 8 

4.4. Priority Needs and Driving Forces ............................................................................................. 9 

Priority Needs: ................................................................................................................................. 9 

Driving Forces: ............................................................................................................................... 10 

4.5. Technical and Financial Partner Activities in Education ........................................................... 13 

4.6. Where is the Space for Action and How Can USAID Add Value? .............................................. 14 

4.6.1. Opportunity to Learn ...................................................................................................... 17 

4.6.2. School-Level Governance, Decision-Making and Continuous Improvement..................... 19 

4.6.3. The School Environment ................................................................................................. 21 

4.6.4. Basic Skills Acquisition .................................................................................................... 22 

4.6.5. Teacher Professional Development and Ongoing Support ............................................... 25 

4.6.6. The Structure and Management of the Teaching Profession ........................................... 28 

4.6.7. Management of the Sector ............................................................................................. 29 

5. Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 33 

6. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 40 
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x Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Annex A: Detailed Analytical Framework for the Review ....................................................................... 43 

Annex B: Details of Stakeholder Interviews ........................................................................................... 48 

Annex C: Documents Consulted for the Review .................................................................................... 50 

Annex D: Education Projects in Senegal ................................................................................................ 52 

Annex E: Detail Descriptions of Recommended Components ................................................................ 55 

Annex F: USAID/PAEM – Some Lessons Learned ................................................................................... 67 
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1 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

1. Introduction 

Senegal has made great progress in expanding access to education over the last eight years. Basic 

education in Senegal is defined to include pre-school, a six-year elementary school cycle and a four-year 

middle school cycle1

. USAID/Senegal supports the government’s efforts to ensure that all children 

receive a formal basic education of ten years. The mission intends to both continue existing operations 

in the sector and add what could be a significant additional program or project during the coming year. 

However, USAID questions whether investment in the quality of education in Senegal has been 

neglected as the government has pressed to expand access. With that in mind, USAID called for a 

review of the quality of basic education in Senegal. 

This report presents the findings of that review of education quality in Senegal conducted by a three 

person team over the course of three weeks from February 17 through March 6, 2009. Following this 

brief introductory section, the report includes further background as to the purpose and objectives of 

the quality review (section 2). Section 3 provides information as to the methodology used to conduct 

the review. Section 4 presents the findings of the review. Section 5 recommends several options for 

how USAID investment in education in Senegal can best support improvements in educational quality. 

2. Background 

The U.S. Mission to Senegal’s FY 2010 strategic plan includes the goal of “investing in Senegalese citizens 

through improved health and education.” The education component of that goal is addressed through 

USAID’s current strategic objective grant agreement (SOAG) with the GOS, which commits USAID to 

supporting “better educated youth in Senegal.” More precisely stated, USAID’s strategic objective is “to 

promote equitable access to quality basic education and improve productivity-increasing job skills.” 

Under this existing SOAG, USAID supports two projects. The Middle School Support Project (Projet 

d’appui à l’enseignemant moyen – USAID/PAEM) has worked since FY 2003 to increase access to middle 

school education, and to improve the quality of middle schools and make them more accessible, 

especially for girls. USAID/PAEM is scheduled to end in April of 2010. In addition, in the current fiscal 

year, USAID has added the Basic Education Project (Projet éducation de base – EDB) which is designed to 

continue some of the USAID/PAEM work, in particular making internet services available in middle 

schools, helping revise and enrich the middle school curriculum and promoting local governance and 

private sector support for middle schools. Some more information about USAID/PAEM is included in 

Annex D, and a summary of the main lessons learned in USAID/PAEM is in Annex F. In addition, EDB will 

help address the education of vulnerable children in northern regions of the country through support to 

non-formal, Koranic schools. 

USAID’s funding estimates for the education sector in Senegal project a minimum OYB of $10 million per 

year and a possibility of as much as $16 million per year for the next four fiscal years. Given funds 

already in the pipeline, and commitments in place for PAEM and EDB, these estimated levels of OYB 

would permit an additional operation in the sector ranging from $1.5 to $9 million per year, with the 

most likely scenario being an additional project with a budget in the range of about $5 million per year 

 

1

Elementary school is divided into the following grades: CI – cours initial; CP – cours primaire; CE1, CE2 – cours élémentaire; 

and CM1, CM2 – cours moyen; Middle school is includes counts down from 6th to 5th, 4th and 3rd grades.. 
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

2 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

through 2013.2

 With that in mind, USAID commissioned a review of the quality of education in Senegal 

with the following specific objectives:3

4. Analyze key quality constraints in the primary education sub-sector and review middle 

school quality activities currently being supported by USAID/PAEM. 

5. Identify critical capacity gaps in the education system taking into consideration the 

following: broad capacity issues; implementation capacity; capacity to ensure quality; 

ability to support decentralization; and capacity to implement national plans. 

6. Develop a program description for a new education activity. 

3. Purpose and Methodology of the Assessment 

To meet the three objectives, the Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling adopted a 

methodology that not only identifies the issues that impact quality, but that also places a premium on 

generating a broader understanding of the context surrounding those issues. USAID’s eventual 

investment decision about how best to support quality improvements in basic education will require not 

just a sense of the technical requirements – better curriculum, better prepared and supported teachers, 

better availability and use of materials – but will also require an understanding of how the political, 

policy and institutional contexts within the country increase or decrease the likelihood that anything can 

be done about those issues in the near to medium term. 

The methodology we employed to conduct this review set out to answer three basic questions: 

• Is quality a critical issue in basic education in Senegal, and how has the emphasis on increasing 

access impacted quality? 

• Among the various issues impacting educational quality, which ones are politically and 

institutionally best situated to be addressed? 

• Among the issues where there appears to be a confluence of political will and climate for 

change, which ones hold the most promise for lasting impact on quality and equity? 

To answer the first question, we compiled and analyzed existing data on student outcomes as well as 

standard information about educational quality, such as the availability of key education inputs. In 

addition, we surveyed stakeholders to determine their perceptions of the quality of education in 

elementary and middle schools. To answer the second and third questions, we employed a three 

dimensional analysis that recognizes the interaction of the political, institutional and technical 

dimensions of education reform. In brief, education systems operate within a political-economic reality 

and are subject to political pressures, interest group agendas, public perceptions, and the variety of 

forces that drive how education issues are seen, thought about and acted upon. Furthermore, the 

institutional environments of the main organizations, agencies and offices involved in education also 

determine how actors within those institutions perceive their jobs, define what they can or cannot do, 

and determine which behaviors are directly or indirectly rewarded or punished within the system.4

 

Therefore, the technical questions related to quality of education need also to be examined through 

 

2

Based on conversations with and analysis conducted by USAID/Senegal’s program office

3

 USAID/Senegal, Statement of Work: Review of Basic Education Quality Issues

4

See Destefano and Crouch (2007), Education Reform Support Today, for a discussion of and examples of the interaction 

between the political, institutional and technical dimensions of education reform. Washington, DC, USAID, EQUIP2.
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

3 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

political and institutional lenses for a full appreciation of what kinds of strategies could lead to 

sustainable improvements in the sector. 

The analytical framework we employed is presented in Annex A to this report. To apply that framework, 

we used a partially structured interview process. We developed questionnaires specific to each 

category of stakeholder to be interviewed and used those questionnaires to guide data collection. 

Additional questions were added as circumstances warranted. Some stakeholders were interviewed 

individually, while others were consulted via a semi-structured focus group methodology. 

Over 180 stakeholders were interviewed in Dakar and 5 more of Senegal’s 11 regions: St. Louis, Fatik, 

Tambacounda, Djourbel and Kaolack. Stakeholders included ministry officials, representatives from 

non-governmental organizations, school directors, principals,teachers, private sector representatives, 

journalists, union leaders and others. Annex B contains details on all the stakeholders interviewed. In 

addition we consulted numerous documents made available by the Ministry of Education and the 

financial and technical partners of the GOS, as well as other research and compilations of information. 

Annex E contains a list of all the documents consulted and referenced for this review. Lastly, before 

leaving Senegal, preliminary findings from the review were shared with a group of ministry officials, 

project personnel and financial and technical partner representatives. Feedback from that debriefing is 

also taken into account in our analysis. 

 

4. Findings 

4.1. Is Quality an Issue in the Education Sector in Senegal? 

Senegal has made considerable progress over the last 8 years expanding access to basic education. 

Enrollment rates for pre-school, elementary and middle schools have all increased impressively since the 

advent of the country’s Education and Training Development Program (Programme de Développement 

de l’Éducation et de la Formation -PDEF) as seen in the chart to the left. The gender gap in elementary 

education has been reversed since 2000; now more girls enroll than boys. 

However, one object of this review is to determine 

whether increases in access to schooling in Senegal 

translate into a better educated population. As stated 

by UNESCO in a 2005 report, “The quantity of children 

who participate [in education] is by definition a 

secondary consideration: merely filling spaces called 

'schools' with children would not address even 

quantitative objectives if no real education occurred.”5

 

Recent research has shown that the basic human capital 

assumption – that investment in education leads to 

economic growth – is determined more by what 

students actually learn while in school, rather than the 

number of years of schooling.6

 

In the case of Senegal, far too many children are 

 

5

UNESCO (2005), Understanding Education Quality, pg 29.

6

 See Hanushek and Wobman (2007), Educational Quality and Economic Growth, World Bank. Their analysis shows that adding 

educational quality to a formulation that relates years of schooling to growth increases the share of variation in economic 

growth explained from 23% to 73% and renders years of schooling insignificant as an explanatory variable (pg 7).
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

4 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

dropping out before completing enough basic education to ensure they have the kind of skills that 

equate to human capital. The graph on the next page shows that while Senegal’s basic education 

system can admit all seven year olds into first grade (CI), average drop out from year to year of 11% in 

elementary, the bottleneck between elementary and middle school, and drop out from middle school 

lead to only the equivalent of 5% of those who enter first grade making it all the way to the end of basic 

education (the BFEM). 

A recent report from UNESCO’s regional office in Dakar showed that Senegal is near the bottom of the 

pack of countries in Africa in terms of the percentage of students who enroll in elementary school 

compared to those who complete the cycle. With a gross enrollment rate of 90%, but an achievement 

rate of only around 50%, Senegal fares considerably worse than neighboring countries, such as Guinea, 

Mali, Benin, Ghana, and Gambia. Countries that have worse ratios of access-to-achievement than 

Senegal are ones that are either much poorer or that have been impacted by conflict and instability 

(such as Burkina, Niger, Cote d’Ivoire, Sudan, or Central African Republic).7

Not only is the system doing a poor job ensuring that students persist through the ten years of basic 

education, the measures of student learning that are available indicate that students skills are below the 

levels of mastery required or desired. Based on the ministry’s national system for measuring school 

effectiveness (“Système national d’évaluation du rendement scolaire – SNERS), only 20% of students in 

 

7

 UNESCO-BREDA, Pöle de Dakar (200X), « La scolarisation primaire universelle en Afrique: le défi enseignant, »

Progression of Students through Basic Education

Capacity to accept 114% of 7 yr olds 

Loss from year-to-year given current drop out rates 

48% of those who start, arrive at he end of CM2

69% of those who make it to the end of CM2, pass the 

CFEE, and only 61% of hem enter middle school

Elementary School Middle School

About 5% of those who 

entered CI obtain the BFEM
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

5 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

CM2 (6th grade) are achieving at the desired level in French, and 40% are below the minimum level. In 

math, only 10% of CM2 students meet the desired level of performance. 

Student performance in middle schools has been captured most recently by subject area tests 

introduced by PAEM. The tests, for example in math, are based on the middle school curriculum, and 

must be interpreted with caution since neither items nor scoring have been standardized. Nevertheless, 

the mean score for math of 32 out of 100 indicates that student mastery of content in math is weak. 

Another measure of student learning introduced in Senegal is the Early Grade Reading Assessment 

(EGRA). Students learning to read in French were tested in 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade (CI, CP, CE1). Half of the 

students tested could not read more than 5 words in context. On average students read roughly only 5 

words per minute in context for grade 1, under 20 words per minute in second grade, and on average 

about 35 words per minute in grade 3. All levels are well below what is considered a necessary level of 

fluency to assure comprehension.8

 

Lastly, results from the 2006 

PASEC (“Programme 

d’analyse des système 

éducatifs de la CONFEMEN”), 

seen in the graph to the right, 

show that in Senegal, scores 

in math and French have 

declined from 1996 to 2006 

for both second (CP) and fifth 

(CM1) grades. In 2006, only 

41% of 2nd and 12% of 5th

graders met the MOE’s 

minimum standard of 50/100 

in French. And only 17% of 

2

nd and 2% of 5th graders met 

the higher, deisred MOE 

standard of 73/100 in math.9

 

In addition to the kinds of data available on student achievement, our review of technical issues related 

to quality indicated reasons for significant concern about many of the factors known to be important 

determinants of student learning. For example, teacher quality – in terms of their repertoires of 

instructional strategies and initial and ongoing training – is widely seen as inadequate. While 

mechanisms exist for ongoing support of teachers and schools, whether they are able to reach schools 

frequently enough, and whether support interventions are structured well enough to impact teaching 

practice are also important issues in the sector. And more fundamentally, disruptions to the school year 

appear to have a major impact on the amount of available time for teaching and learning. All of these 

factors will be discussed in detail in section 4.6 below. Available data and our review of these issues do 

lead us to conclude the quality of education is at present a major concern in Senegal, and it appears that 

 

8

 Liliane Sprenger-Charolles (2008), Senegal Early Grade Reading Assessment : Results from Senegalese Primary School 

Students Learning to Read in French and Wolof, World Bank.

9

 PASEC-CONFEMEN (2008), Resultats provisoires de l’evaluation diagnostique PASEC 2006/07. 

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

French Math French Math

1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006 1996 2006

>50/100 >73/100 >50/100 >73/100 >50/100 >73/100 >50/100 >73/100

Percents of students in Senegal meeting target thresholds on the PASEC

CP CM1
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6 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

expansion of the system exacerbates some of the factors contributing to poor quality, as the declining 

PASEC scores would seem to indicate. 

Before undertaking a detailed discussion of the factors we found most critical to improving education 

quality in the near to medium term, sections 4.2 through 4.5 below present an overview of some of the 

critical contextual factors that determine which, among all the issues that impact quality, are the ones 

amenable to future investment, support and action on the part of USAID. 

4.2. The Policy Context: PDEF 

USAID’s focus in Senegal will continue to be on basic education, which includes elementary and middle 

schools. However, those two subsectors operate within the broader education sector context in 

Senegal, which continues to be governed by the Education and Training Development Program - PDEF. 

The PDEF covers a period beginning in 2000 and carrying through to the realization of the Millennium 

Development and Education for All goals by 2015. The PDEF is driven primarily (if not exclusively) by a 

policy that gives priority to expansion across all sub-sectors and levels of education. Sector plans are 

developed based on the input requirements of a growing sector – in terms of classrooms, teachers, and 

learning materials. The financial requirements are estimated based on the costs associated with the 

increasing levels of inputs. This often is the case, and, like in most other countries, implies that the 

needs and costs of management, communication, and development of sustainable institutional capacity 

are likely to be either unaccounted for or underestimated. 

The achievements of the first two phases of the PDEF are undeniable. Enrollment rates have increased 

dramatically, in primary and middle schools, while also increasing in the other sub-sectors as well . The 

table below summarizes the government’s achievements in improving access: 

Level/Subsector Enrollment Rates

2000/01 2007/08 Growth

Pre-school 2% 9% 350%

Elementary 72% 90% 25%

Middle 20% 39% 95%

General Secondary 9% 16% 78%

[from: GOS, Rapport National - Situation Education 2008] 

In absolute terms, more children were accommodated by the growth in elementary schooling than in 

any other sub-sector, but the highest rates of growth in access where achieved in the pre-school and the 

middle school sub-sectors. Pressure continues to mount on the public sector to expand access to middle 

schools. And the government remains committed to continuing to expand all of these levels of 

education. 

The Planning and Education Reform Department (DPRE) shared the most recent projections for the next 

two phases of the PDEF, covering the period 2008 – 2015. The projections are not final. In fact, a work 

session is planned for mid-March during which technical and financial partners and ministry officials will 

have a chance to review and refine the projections. However, according to the DPRE, the major policy 

implications and areas of focus will not likely change, and the major orientation of the PDEF remains to 

manage the expansion of access across all levels of the system. Several key parameters are varied 

within the calculations – class size, repetition rates, dropout rates, percentage of students in the private 

sector, etc – but since no specific policies, strategies or activities are discussed in relation to these key 
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7 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

variables, this report will not treat them as tangible targets. When consulted, key technical partners of 

the ministry indicated that the projections are not necessarily based on a firm commitment to a specific 

policy framework (e.g. regarding class size). The projections do indicate the government’s estimations 

of how it can get to the access targets it has set for 2015. These include, for example:10

• Increase pre-school enrollment to 20% of the eligible population, with about 57% of the 

enrollment in public pre-schools 

• Increase elementary school enrollment to achieve a gross enrollment rate (GER) of 113% in 

2015, with 87% of the students served by public elementary schools 

• Increase the rate of achievement of the primary cycle to 100% 

• Increase the passage from elementary to middle school to 65% of students passing the middle 

school entry portion of the CFEE 

• Accommodate an 83% increase in the number of students in public middle schools 

• Almost triple the enrollment in professional middle school, with 81% of the growth in the public 

sector 

• Increase 9 fold the enrollment in professional and technical secondary schools, with just under 

half the students in public institutions 

• Almost double general secondary enrollment 

The DPRE outlines a number of important challenges associated with meeting these goals. First among 

the challenges cited is sector coordination and management. The challenge of sector management has 

been in fact increased by the ministerial shuffle that occurred in 2008. The government divided 

responsibility for education between five ministries: 1) pre-school and elementary and middle schools, 

2) secondary schools and universities, 3)technical and professional training centers; 4) adult literacy and 

non-formal education (now under the ministry of culture); and 5) school construction (handled by the 

ministry of public works). This obviously adds layers of complexity to the sector, without clarifying or 

establishing the means to coordinate across all the implicated policy and management jurisdictions. 

Another challenge the government will face is the need to continue to recruit, train, support and 

maintain growing numbers of teachers each year at a rate never before achieved. Linked to that 

challenge is the issue of rising salary costs within the sector. At least three factors are at play here: the 

pace of expansion of the system, pressure on the government to increase teacher indemnities, and the 

movement of contractual teachers into the civil service pay scales. Another obvious challenge that will 

also require growing commitments of resources is the construction of increasing numbers of classrooms, 

also at a rate never before achieved in Senegal. Millions of books and other pedagogical materials will 

also need to be procured and delivered to schools, and teachers will need to learn how to use them 

effectively, all, again, at rates yet to be achieved in the system. The implementation of the new 

curriculum in elementary grades by itself will require a massive infusion of materials and training.11

 

What all this means is that the government will be attempting to manage several demanding, 

implementation intensive strategies and activities at the same time, during a period where expansion 

alone will continue to eat up many of the additional resources flowing to the sector. This lowers the 

 

10 Taken from document produced by the DPRE and CRES, « Évaluation financière des phases de la période 2008-2015 du 

PDEF »

11 ibid
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8 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

probability of the implementation success of the more challenging activities associated with improving 

quality – changing teacher behavior, using resources more efficiently at decentralized levels, and 

supporting schools more consistently and effectively, to name a few. 

Resources available for the implementation of the PDEF have increased dramatically during the first two 

phases. Government has increased the allocation of its own resources to education from 160 billion 

FCFA in 2003 to 293 billion FCFA in 2008. This represents an increase from 4% to 4.9% of GNP being 

spent on education. After government, families are the next largest source of education spending, 

increasing their contributions to education from 49 billion FCFA in 2003 to 102 billion FCFA in 2008, 

equal in that year to 24% of sector financing. External support added another 23 billion in 2008, up 

from just over 8 billion FCFA in 2004.12

 

Across the board, resources are increasing, and the stakeholders interviewed for this report 

unanimously concurred that the availability of resources has up to now not been a constraint on the 

development of the education sector in Senegal. Certain interviewees did raise the caveat that the 

government’s recent cash flow problems stemming from lower than anticipated receipts and severe 

internal dept imply that the global economic crisis may slow the heretofore seen rates of growth in 

government spending on education. A greater concern expressed by everyone interviewed is the 

capacity within the education system to more efficiently use the resources that are being made available 

for the implementation of the PDEF. 

4.3. Overall Institutional Context 

The third phase of the PDEF (2008 – 2011) targets management as its key objective. To that end, the 

MOE has instituted measures to help improve sector management and coordination. Most impressive 

are the structures in place for managing the PDEF and for coordinating plans and reporting annual 

progress openly, through a collaborative, multi-partner roundtable approach. The DPRE plays a key role 

in coordinating this process and managing the relationships with the GOS’s technical and financial 

partners. Efforts to improve management within the ministry have also been advanced. These include 

attempts to clean up the MOE’s personnel files, enforce a 900 hours-per-year school calendar, and to 

institute practices for “harmonized progression” (curricula) and standardized evaluations. The 

education system in Senegal is “deconcentrated” with administrative, management and school support 

and training responsibilities located in offices at the regional level (Inspection d’academie – IA) and subregional or departmental level (Inspection départmentale d’éducation nationale – IDEN). 

The institutional context in the sector at all levels continues to suffer from lack of key capacities, 

overlapping, uncoordinated and/or competing structures, and absence of purposeful management 

incentives or disincentives. Areas where stakeholders themselves reported weak capacity are in 

planning, communicating and monitoring and evaluating the implementation of specific strategies. 

Examples of overlapping and uncoordinated structures are the CNFC, CNFIC, FASTEF, the EFI, PRF, and 

IDEN. All of these structures have roles to play in supporting teacher initial and ongoing training and 

development. Many of the actors in each of these institutions are playing similar if not the same roles, 

without attention to whether or not they are adhering to a consistent approach, training program or 

strategy. Teacher competencies have been developed as the basis for training, but the training 

institutions listed above for the most part do not share a common understanding of these competencies 

in relation to their training activities or programs. No system is in place for monitoring implementation 

progress or performance at the school, IDEN, IA or national level. There are no school report cards, no 

 

12 CRES (2007), Rapport financier sur l’exécution du PDEF
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9 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

regular performance evaluations for administrators, and no clearly defined rewards or sanctions for 

making or failing to make desired progress. While a national training policy does exist, few people know 

about it, and fewer still make decisions about training activities based on it. 

Absent any institutional imperative for performance, management in the sector reverts to administering 

the day to day, or trying to deal with the pressures and strains created by an accelerated pace of 

expansion. Management does not seek efficiency in the use of resources, nor does it appear driven to 

get maximum value for each investment of time, effort and money. 

One looming institutional challenge facing the education sector is dealing with the recruitment, training, 

deployment and management of teachers. The system has been using teachers recruited directly to 

work in elementary and secondary schools without having attended a teacher training institute. Those 

working in elementary schools are referred to collectively as “volunteers” even though they are paid, 

albeit at a rate lower than fully trained and certified teachers. Those working in middle and secondary 

schools are referred to as contractual teachers. These volunteers and contractors are too often 

deployed without adequate training and must wait several years before achieving full certification and 

civil service status. This creates several challenges for the sector. Teachers with “second class” status 

(e.g. volunteers or contractors) are often demotivated, and the training institutions designed to ensure 

their adequate development are overstretched by the large numbers of existing volunteer teachers, not 

to mention the new crop of recruits entering the field every year. Details of this are discussed in the 

section on the teaching profession below. 

4.4. Priority Needs and Driving Forces 

Priority Needs: In addition to the policy priorities inherent in the PDEF, ministry officials, 

technical and financial partners of the GOS and other key actors in civil society in Senegal were 

interviewed and asked to give their own assessments of the educational quality, identify the most 

pressing needs of the education system, and discuss forces at play in the education system and the 

broader society that are impacting what is happening in the education sector. 

The need to improve quality is seen as a priority by all the actors we consulted. However, most central 

ministry officials prefaced any conversation about improving quality with a reassertion of a priority for 

continuing to improve access. When asked about the quality of education in Senegal, stakeholders cite 

as evidence of low quality the high percentage of students unable to complete the elementary cycle and 

referred to a general perception that students have weak skills in critical areas such as French, math and 

science. The director of examinations stated that analysis of student results on the end of elementary 

and middle cycle exams showed very weak performance in French and math. Most stakeholders agreed 

that quality needs to improve, and by that they usually meant that the quality and quantity of inputs 

need to be addressed. Teachers were almost unanimously cited as the biggest constraint on quality, in 

particular their lack of adequate pre-service training. When pressed however, most stakeholders define 

the adequacy of training based on whether or not it leads to certification status. 

Most actors also felt that while substantial investments are needed to improve the quality of education, 

they also affirmed that inefficient use of available resources is what most impedes improvements in 

quality. When asked to discuss the priority interventions needed to improve quality, most people, in an 

echo of official policy, focus on inputs – improving the school environment (meaning the physical 

situation of a school, in particular schools that are functioning in temporary settings), improving 

curriculum (in particular implementing the new curriculum for elementary schools or reforming the 
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10 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

curriculum of middle schools), providing more and better teaching materials and textbooks, and 

providing training for teachers. 

Other issues that arose in discussions with various stakeholders include the need to: 

• Meet the training needs of teachers who were hired hastily and who are serving as “volontaires” 

or “vacataires,” in particular the large backlog of teachers waiting to get the equivalent of their 

basic pre-service training; 

• Provide training that works more closely and systematically with teachers on how they manage 

their classrooms and deliver instruction; 

• Provide training for school directors and principals that enable them to act as on-site 

pedagogical supports to teachers in their schools; 

• Improve the middle school curriculum, and eventually to make it aligned with the new 

elementary cycle curriculum which is competency-based; 

• Improve local governance and better define roles for parents and community members in 

managing school improvements that move beyond concerns for the physical plant; and 

• Improve the management of academic time, including increasing the total number of hours in 

the school year, limiting the number of school disruptions and closures, monitoring teacher 

attendance and maximizing teaching time in each school day. 

This last issue – the loss of teaching time – is one important factor influencing the quality of education in 

Senegal. Not only do the disruptions to the school year severely constrain teaching and therefore 

learning time, they also engender an atmosphere of poor management and weak school environments, 

contributing to the de-motivation of teachers and students. 

There is a consensus among diverse actors on the above issues, making them amenable to action. 

However, most discussion of these issues is limited to either recognition of the activities of different 

projects or indication, of declaration of general intentions to do something about them. Bottom line, 

the strategies that would be needed to address the above kinds of issues are not discussed within the 

education system in the same way as those needed to expand access or increase inputs. However, the 

fact that they are broadly accepted as priorities in the sector indicates that there is scope for 

investments that could target these areas and lead to impact. What will be needed are some creative 

approaches to how to tackle these issues. 

Driving Forces: While the above issues are talked about and recognized as areas that require 

ministry and/or partner interventions, other forces are operating in the sector, drawing resources and 

attention, and driving action. First among these is the momentum associated with the wave of 

expansion that has taken place and is planned in the next phase of the PDEF. Like a snowball rolling 

downhill, the increased access to elementary education means the budget has to continue to grow to 

accommodate a much broader level of operation – more teachers to be paid, more materials to be 

purchased, and all structured in ways that mean each year costs must go up. 

For example, teachers are recruited as volunteers and paid less than civil service scale rates, but as a 

matter of policy, they will all systematically move into the civil service pending positive evaluations. This 

means that an increase in the wage bill may be delayed but it will occur, thus raising the operating costs 
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11 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

of the system (even without further expansion). For example, in elementary education, only 32% of the 

teaching force in 2008 were civil service teachers. Therefore, the wage bill will increase significantly as 

the other 68% move progressively into the higher paying civil service salary scheme. This driving 

preoccupation with moving teachers from contractual status to full-time civil service status is also 

leading teacher training to focus almost exclusively on providing the diplomas and teacher certificates 

required to obtain that status. 

Another force that has been put in motion in the education sector is the new curriculum for elementary 

grades. It will be rolled out beginning the next school year in two grades, adding grades each year until 

the full cycle is up and running by 2012/13. Materials requirements will increase each year from two, to 

four, to all six grades. Each year “consumable” portions of the materials will also need to be 

redistributed to a growing number of students. All this will require a large infusion of resources over the 

next 4 to 5 years, and then maintenance of those levels afterwards. 

In addition to the resource demands created by the materials-intensive new curriculum, the fact that 

the country has just completed a curriculum reform means that curricular issues in elementary 

education are seen as taken care of and therefore not open to review or improvement. For example, 

the issue of language of instruction is effectively closed; the new curriculum is in French from grade one. 

Though a national policy exists requiring the use of national languages as the media of instruction in the 

first three years, in practice, national languages are only dealt with in the curricula for adult and youth 

literacy and in community schools (which, at present, serve only a small portion of students). The new 

curriculum implies that teachers will be expected to teach French and teach in French from grade one. 

Students will be expected to acquire the competencies associated with learning to read in French. What 

remains to be dealt with are the methods and specific teaching strategies teachers will use in the early 

grades that are (or are not) adapted to teaching children to read in a language they don’t speak and 

which may only be peripherally spoken in the milieus where they live and go to school. While the issue 

of language of instruction appears closed, the issue of how best to teach reading in Senegalese schools 

remains open. 

Two other political forces are at play currently in Senegal. Most obvious, and in the news throughout the 

time of this analysis, are the teachers’ unions. Currently they are seeking redress for several grievances, 

paramount among which is the issue of back payments for administration of exams last year, and a 

request to increase housing indemnities equally for all categories of teachers. This affects the sector in 

two possible ways. First, If the government accedes to the unions’ demands, then costs in the sector 

will increase across the board, using up resources that could have been invested in something else this 

year and in the future. Second, if the government does not deliver what the unions have asked for, then 

a strike could disrupt the school year and ministry and union relations will remain strained. 

Ministry officials recognize that the existing relationship with the unions lets loose forces that are a 

recurring source of uncertainty and instability in the sector. The government is trying to establish a 

mechanism for better anticipating and managing these kinds of confrontations, by, for example, working 

with the unions at the start of each year to identify objectives that could be achieved during the year, 

rather than waiting for dissatisfaction or lack of communication to create periodic disputes and the 

crises that accompany them. Union leaders who were interviewed also expressed a desire for a more 

direct, ongoing dialogue with the government. Unions are most concerned about the way teachers are 

recruited into the sector without adequate preparation and training. Symptomatic of that is the massive 

backlog of untrained teachers, especially in middle and secondary schools (estimated to be as many as 
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12 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

7,000), who are waiting almost 5 years to enter the pre-service training institution that can provide 

them the diploma they need to become certified and obtain civil service status. 

In general one could characterize the unions as activist, if not militant. Because teachers continue to 

receive their pay during short duration strikes, there is little disincentive to calling short strikes, and 

calling them often. Stakeholders across the board talk about how recurring strikes cause multiple 

disruptions to the school year and a substantial loss of potential teaching time. Add to the teachers 

unions student unions at the university and in secondary schools, and the atmosphere in the country is 

often contentious. Too often teachers and students use strikes as the only means through which to 

communicate dissatisfaction and ask for redress. Students in particular do not hesitate to demonstrate 

their dissatisfaction by taking to the streets and calling for a generalized student strike. Even 

elementary school students were observed striking to protest a teacher strike in one department during 

our field visits. In Ziguinchor, Lycee students and graduates recently took to the streets to protest the 

president’s arrival, stating “We want the president to understand that he is poorly managing all of 

education in Senegal.”13 The combative relationship between unions and education officials has taken 

on a life of its own in Senegal, becoming almost culturally engrained in the fabric of the education 

sector. Key stakeholders and the public at large expressed an exasperated frustration at the inevitable, 

regular occurrence of strikes. 

The other political force at play in the education sector is the recent ministerial reshuffle mentioned 

earlier. The challenge of coordinating across these institutions is obvious and the question is whether 

the government will remain committed to the PDEF, and whether it can continue to manage and govern 

the sector within that single framework. Pressure will arise from within the separate entities – the 

ministry for secondary schools and universities and the ministry for technical and professional training – 

to create and pursue their own agendas, plans and policy priorities. These would risk competing with 

the PDEF for resources and attention. In addition, the coordinating focal point for the PDEF has been 

the DPRE, which is now housed in the Ministry of pre, elementary and middle schools. It is not clear if 

that office can continue to coordinate across all education ministries. 

In addition to all the above, analysis of the local media and input from a leading local education 

journalist and regional journalists indicate that the ministry does a consistently poor job communicating. 

It is not doing a sufficient job communicating the goals or accomplishments of the PDEF, neither to 

internal audiences within the public sector, nor to external audiences at all levels in the country. The 

public dialogue about education therefore remains shaped by conventional wisdom, hearsay, rumor and 

the messages of those interest groups that have clear agendas to promote – i.e. unions and advocacy 

organizations. Under-investment in communication is a common, chronic mistake in implementing 

sector reform or development strategies, and most ministries of education are not known for their 

dynamic communication skills. Future support for and continued progress in implementing the PDEF 

will require a dedicated, skillfully communicated approach and set of strategies. In particular, if quality 

issues are to be addressed – requiring changed behaviors, relationships, and processes throughout the 

education system – then the need for sound, well-funded communication efforts will be paramount. In 

fact, the issues of coordination across ministries and improved relationships with the unions have 

essentially to do with communication. To successfully coordinate, the ministries must be able to 

communicate purposefully and regularly, to set objectives, devise strategies and coordinate plans and 

implementation. To improve union relationships and move away from a culture of strikes, the ministry 

must establish and animate regular communication channels with the teachers and students unions that 

 

13 Quote taken from an article in a newspaper, Le Quotidien, 28 February, 2009, pg 3 
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13 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

will help them have avenues other than striking for expressing their concerns. The importance of 

improved communications therefore cannot be overstated. 

4.5. Technical and Financial Partner Activities in Education 

The international community of organizations and agencies is very active in the education sector in 

Senegal. The PDEF, within the context of the government’s overall poverty reduction strategy, serves as 

the framing context for the sector, and all funders talk about their education operations as mechanisms 

for providing support to the implementation of the PDEF. The financial and technical partners active in 

the sector work together under the coordination of a lead agency, which for a long time was the French 

Agency for Development (AFD). Lead agency responsibilities were just handed over in February 2009 by 

the French to the Canadians (CIDA). Almost all the agencies active in the sector have also recently 

signed a letter of intent stipulating that they will work with the government in the spirit of 

harmonization as defined by the Paris declaration. A summary of funder activities is presented here. 

More details are provided in Annex D. 

Three partners provide budgetary support for education, the French (AFD), Canadians (CIDA) and the 

Japanese (Foreign Ministry). Three funding agencies, AFD, JICA, and the World Bank, also contribute to 

a pooled fund dedicated to investing in improvements in the institutional capacity of the central ministry 

(with pilot activities in two regional education offices). With this pooled fund, ample resources and 

effort appear to be available to support general investments in training and equipment to improve the 

capacity of ministry offices. Any additional investments in building capacity should work on devising 

operational systems that work from the ground up. 

School construction and rehabilitation are included in several projects, including those funded by the 

World Bank, the African Development Bank and the Islamic Development Bank , and there is a large, 

additional commitment of resources for construction from the EFA-FTI Catalytic Fund. USAID/PAEM was 

an important source of funding for middle school construction, and USAID has set aside almost $10 

million more for school construction, but through a fixed asset reimbursement (FAR) mechanism. 

Crucially, the FAR requires government to fully finance the completion of the first phase of school 

construction before being reimbursed, which the government so far has been unable to do; thus, the 

disbursement of those funds has been delayed. (Government funded construction activities have 

slowed down during the cash flow crisis of the past few months as contractors stop work pending 

payment.) The advisability of continuing to use FAR to fund school construction is called into question 

by these circumstances, as well as by the fact that the FAR approach fails to make use of many of the 

successful strategies used for school construction under USAID/PAEM. 

Large scale projects that have targeted or are targeting quality improvements in basic education include: 

• A JICA project supporting math, science and technology teaching in elementary schools, that 

works in three regions – Louga, Fatick, and Thies – and makes use of an extensive cascade 

training and support model. 

• CIDA projects supporting teacher training for volunteer and contractual teachers, supporting 

training for all elementary teachers in the new curriculum, and providing equipment and 

infrastructure for the EFIs. 

• A French Cooperation project that is ending, but that had focused on improving teaching of 

French. 
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14 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

• An AFD project working with elementary schools and communities in the Dakar suburbs through 

the intervention of Aide et Action, a large international NGO. 

• USAID/PAEM which supported building, organizing and improving the quality of middle schools 

and school governance in four regions. 

• USAID/PAEM work with middle school principals, including developing performance standards 

and delivering five training modules based on those standards to every middle school principal 

in the country. 

• USAID’s EDB which will work at the national level on middle school curriculum, support local 

governance and teacher training in the same regions as the USAID/PAEM and work with 

vulnerable youth in Dakar and three northern regions. 

The Canadian projects supporting the new curriculum and the EDB middle school curriculum component 

are the only investments in quality that are national in scope. This leaves substantial room to intervene 

to complement the curriculum work in both elementary and middle schools – i.e., working with teachers 

on specific strategies that can help students in their classes achieve the competencies defined in the 

new curriculum. The section below explores further how a future USAID investment could intervene to 

build on or complement these past and ongoing operations. 

4.6. Where is the Space for Action and How Can USAID Add Value? 

The education sector is governed by the PDEF and its accompanying policy letter. This places an ongoing 

emphasis on expansion of the system, although improved quality and management are also noted as 

goals of the most recent and present phases of the program. While the GOS has been able to mobilize a 

significant amount of additional resources to allow the system to expand access, at present, the sector 

may have reached the ceiling of what can realistically be expected in terms of additional investments 

beyond the recurring resources that will be needed to meet the growing wage bill, continued 

construction and rehabilitation of schools, and rising cost of operating an expanded system. However, 

the system must expand, particularly at the middle school level, just to accommodate the growing bulge 

of students moving through elementary schools. 

The temptation under these circumstances is to give priority to expansion first, then worry about 

investments that improve quality later. As pointed out by the World Bank’s 2007 review of education 

programs, “countries need to resist the temptation to first expand access, then improve learning 

outcomes afterwards; expanding access and improving quality are tasks that can be successfully 

undertaken simultaneously and that can have mutually reinforcing effects.”14 In the case of Senegal, it is 

clear that poor quality broadly defined is a contributing factor to the high rates of inefficiency in the 

system. Resources are being eaten up because a higher degree of enrollment has to be maintained in 

order to achieve a given output of educated youth. Better management of time and more effective 

teaching and learning strategies would mean that the given levels of enrollment could be made to 

produce more “education.” Most simply, school being open more days could constitute a major 

efficiency gain. In addition, if in the increased time teachers used proven strategies to build reading 

and math skills, the system could make great strides forward in terms of both efficiency and 

effectiveness. The arguments we heard from many stakeholders for improved management of 

resources can, with examples like this, be turned into space and opportunities for addressing quality. 

This is an area where project interventions can be very productive – helping recast the terms of the 

 

14 Independent Evaluation Group (2007), From schooling access to learning outcomes: an unfinished agenda, An 

Evaluation of World Bank Support to Primary Education, World Bank, Washington, D.C.
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15 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

debate by marshaling the evidence and the communication acumen that can help people reframe the 

problem and therefore think differently about solutions. For example, management of resources is not 

just an accountability or control question, but it actually has to do with whether outcomes, and, in 

particular, learning outcomes, are obtained for the level of resources invested. 

In the time frame of a typical project, what may prove most promising for improving student 

outcomes is a strategy that focuses on basic skills acquisition, remediation and mastery. As discussed 

earlier, the system is currently failing to provide adequate skills development for the majority of 

students who end up leaving school before reaching the goal of ten years of basic education. The 2007 

World Development Report emphasized the need for a focus on basic education that extends from 

primary school through to grade nine or ten. “Many children enter adolescence ill-prepared for work, 

further schooling or coping with life in a more connected and complex world. Literacy and numeracy [...] 

are often not in place by grade six.” The report goes on to argue that reinforcement of basic skills is 

needed all the way through middle school in order to “consolidate the gains, and in some cases 

remediate the missed opportunities, from earlier grades.” 15 There is scope in Senegal to focus on basic 

skills acquisition and remediation both at the elementary and middle school levels. 

In a context where most of the government’s resources will be eaten up by the expanding system, 

projects may be the best vehicles for identifying improvements in how resources are used so that they 

can more effectively lead to educational outcomes. This is only true if projects are designed with that 

idea squarely in mind – i.e. helping model within the system more effective use of resources, e.g. to 

support strategies that lead to measureable acquisition of basic skills. Given that there was almost 

unanimous agreement among the stakeholders interviewed that monitoring and evaluation is a 

critical area of need in the sector, there is scope for taking on the design and implementation of 

monitoring and evaluation systems that focus on student learning outcomes. Despite a proliferation 

of projects – some very successful on the very issues of most concern to the ministry, such as 

USAID/PAEM, the JICA in-service training, the work of Aide et Action in the Dakar suburbs, to name 

three – the absence of a well-defined system for measuring outcomes and evaluating the efficiency and 

effectiveness of different investment strategies makes it hard for the ministry to extract the lessons it 

needs to from those project successes. This constitutes another important opportunity for action at the 

project level, but also as part of a system-wide management reorientation towards a cost-effectiveness 

imperative. And projects may be the best vehicle for modeling how all the pieces of the puzzle can 

come together at the school level. We believe there is also space to introduce a “whole school” 

approach, where school-level management and governance are supported within the context of a 

whole school community onboard with a shared vision, mission and set of specific goals. And if those 

goals are tied to learning outcomes, then the local actors could be not only involved in the efficient and 

effective use of resources as an imperative for improving quality, but may in fact lead it. 

The needs of teachers cannot be ignored. The question for this review is how best to address those 

needs within the current crowded landscape of institutions, policies and preoccupations. Ministry 

officials and other stakeholders recognize that the existing arrangements – EFI, PRF, FASTEF, IDEN, CAP, 

etc – are not meeting the demand for pre- and in-service support for teachers. That recognition creates 

space for refocusing and improving teacher professional development and support. And the motivation 

of “volontaire” and “vacataire” teachers to obtain the training they need to obtain civil service status is a 

positive attribute. The problem has been that the training institutions, programs and approaches have 

been unable to respond to that demand, both in terms of moving teachers towards certification in a 

 

15 World Bank (2007), World Development Report, pg. 48-49
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16 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

timely manner and in terms of providing content that actually helps teachers obtain better learning 

outcomes in their classrooms. Most parties interviewed seem dissatisfied with the status quo, which in 

itself provides space for moving toward something that can meet the various agendas of i) providing 

adequate pre-service preparation through a flexible array of opportunities, ii) supporting teachers as 

they move towards certification and civil service status, iii) making that movement include acquisition 

of teaching competencies that are known to be linked to improved outcomes for students, and iv) 

providing the ongoing, site-based support teachers will need to continue to improve. 

What teachers do and how they do it are other critical areas where quality can be improved. However, 

as noted earlier, with support from CIDA, the Ministry has completely overhauled its curriculum for the 

pre-school and elementary stage, changing from a content/objectives-based approach to a competencybased approach. Curriculum has been interpreted broadly to encompass not only objectives and 

content, but also methodology, assessment strategies, manuals and support materials. Materials have 

been developed for each grade in the core subject areas of French (oral and written communication), 

Math, and “Education à la Science et la Vie Sociale.” Trainers are in the process of being trained, and 

selected school principals and teachers have also begun to receive training in the new curriculum. 

Furthermore, the USAID-funded basic education project is to work on a middle school curriculum and 

has recently agreed with the Ministry to take this on as a national effort. 

The new curriculum has a number of advantages. A common methodology is espoused across curricular 

areas focusing on student application of skills to solve real-life problems. Assessment criteria are clear 

and transparent. Remediation is proposed in the form of both direct and individualized instruction. 

Supporting materials for students are attractive and well-designed. Respondents who had undergone 

the training reported that it was of high quality, very clear and well-targeted. The present curriculum 

has been in development for a long time, so at this stage a period of curricular stability is necessary. 

Thus, we do not recommend curriculum as a priority intervention. However, given the breadth and 

depth of changes in teacher practice required by this new initiative, if a new project were to focus on 

any of the areas previously mentioned (teacher training, the whole school approach or basic skills), 

inevitably, it will involve supporting schools and teachers in their efforts to deliver the new curriculum. 

To conclude the findings of this review, we have identified seven areas where: 

• Stakeholders attach high priority to the actions that could address improving quality; 

• There is political and institutional space (or the space can be easily cleared) to work on the 

interventions that could address quality; 

• Actions undertaken would be complementary to the existing USAID and other projects or 

programs, and would draw on the lessons, in particular, of the USAID/PAEM; 

• There is a greater likelihood of obtaining measureable impacts on quality; and 

• There is also scope for contributing to lasting improvements in institutional capacity; 

The seven areas we have identified as being amenable to project interventions in the short to medium 

term are depicted in the figure below, and include: 

• Opportunity to Learn: maximizing and 

making the best use of available time 

• Systems for Ongoing Teacher Professional 

Development and Support 

• Local Governance, Management, 

Improvement and Support 

• The Structure and Management of the 

Teaching Profession 
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

17 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

• Improving School Environments • Sector Management 

• Instruction Targeting Basic Skills Acquisition 

The following section explains in detail, the status of the current situation (technical, institutional and 

political) in relation to each area. 

4.6.1. Opportunity to Learn 

The school year in Senegal is supposed to include 900 hours of instruction (roughly 180 days of school). 

Not one stakeholder interviewed believed the system came close to averaging that number of hours in 

any year. As mentioned earlier, numerous disruptions to the school calendar occur throughout the year 

and contribute to a loss of what could be as much as half of those hours. 

To begin with, our discussions with various stakeholders about the length of the school year and dates 

of the school calendar were strange. Policy in this area seems ill-defined, with little agreement about 

how the school calendar is actually set, and uncertainty as to whether the official start and end of the 

year and the various holidays are communicated and understood by everyone across the country. This 

in itself is telling. 

In addition to a general atmosphere of uncertainty about the school calendar, regular disruptions are 

commonplace. Strikes occur almost as an expected part of the school year. Strikes are called by both 

teachers and students, and occur at the national, region, local or even individual school level. Some 

stakeholders related how on a given day, students may come to school only to have the teachers inform 

them that school will not be in session on that day because they are on strike. Students may strike to 

protest a teacher strike, or to protest a teacher being absent too long. In addition to strikes, the 

opening of school at the beginning of the year is often delayed, usually because all the staff have yet to 

arrive at post. Additional days are lost when school closes a few days before or after a holiday. And the 

Quality is a serious issue

• Low levels of learning

• High dropout

• Poor school conditions

• Cuts across elementary &

middle schools

Teaching Profession

•Entry, training, deployment

•Status – volunteers, 

contractual, civil service

•Career structure & advancement

•Incentives/disincentives

Sector Management

•Need for planning within efficiency imperative

•Coordination (with & across ministries, across projects)

•Insufficient monitoring and evaluation

•Communication

Basic Skills Acquisition

•Poor basic skills –reading, math

•Teaching strategies for basic skill 

acquisition (reading, writing, math)

•Filling in the instructional space

within the outlines of the new

curriculum

•Language of instruction issues

Teacher Support

•Coherent pre & in-service

•Better use/structuring of ongoing support

•Competencies need to be tied to

instructional success

•Criteria /process for certification

Local Governance & Management

•Operationalization of decentralization

•Roles and skills of local structures

•Need for local monitoring and evaluation

•Need to improve school improvement

projects

•Clarification of roles CGE, APE, 

local authorities

Opportunity to Learn

•Loss of time in the school year due to

strikes, holidays, late start, early end

•Management of school day – start time, 

recess, end time

•Teacher attendance

•Student attendance

•Assignment, deployment and management

of teachers and teacher workloads

School Environment

•Draw on lessons from PAEM

•Need to support rehabilitation of 

elementary and middle schools

•Schools still lack materials,

libraries, ICT
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

18 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

school year often ends early, all students being released so that teachers can proctor the CFEE and 

BFEM. Days are also lost because teachers are away from school, having to travel to pick up their 

salaries, deal with personnel issues, or deal with their own or their families social problems. Many 

ministry officials lamented the lack of any norms or standards for management and accountability 

related to teacher attendance, meaning that individual school directors and teachers make decision 

about how many days a teacher can be away from school during a given month. 

Each day school is closed, or one or more teachers are away from school, possible hours of instruction 

are lost. The loss of hours of instruction may be the single greatest in-school factor contributing to low 

levels of learning. Gillies observes that levels of learning in too many developing countries are low 

because students lack adequate opportunities to learn. He defines opportunity to learn at its most basic 

level as school being open, the teacher and students being present, materials being available in 

adequate number and teachers and students spending time in class focused on tasks that promote 

learning. He argues that failure to focus on these basic elements of opportunity to learn undermines 

investments in higher level interventions.16 In Senegal for example, one could argue that all the 

implementation effort and resources being deployed to roll out the new competency-based curriculum 

will see little return if opportunities to learn continue to be constrained by school closings, teacher and 

student absenteeism, and poor management of the school day. 

The Director of Human Resources of the Ministry of Education led an attempt to measure the loss of 

opportunity to learn in Senegal. He examined teacher lesson plans in a handful of middle and high 

schools to see how far along they were in covering the curriculum in relationship to where, according to 

the school calendar and course program, they should have been at that point in time. In one school, he 

found that from October to March, 18 days had been lost. Five days were lost to extended holidays, and 

the other 13 were for teacher or student strikes. According to the DRH’s calculation, if the rest of the 

year from that point forward followed the same pattern, one could anticipate losing as much as 41 days 

of teaching to school being closed when it should be open. In a school year of roughly 180 days, this 

represents a loss of about 23% of the school year. In other cases studied by the DRH, he recorded 

teacher attendance rates of only 60 to 65 percent. Combining lost days and high rates of teacher 

absence means significant chunks of the school year are likely lost in Senegal.17

While the study referred to above is not representative, it is consistent with research done throughout 

the region. Kouak found that in Africa, effective teaching time is generally greatly reduced compared to 

the theoretical number of hours of instruction in the year, citing reasons similar to those encountered in 

Senegal, such as i) delayed start of the school year and teachers being assigned late or showing up late 

to post, ii) suspension of the school before the official end of the year, often to allow time to administer 

exams, iii) unjustified teacher absences, iv) strikes, v) mismatch between the hours of operation of 

school and the daily life demands placed on students and their families18. 

The above study shows that the situation in Senegal is not out of the ordinary. However, the problem in 

Senegal seems to have risen in importance among many stakeholders. This is both a negative and a 

positive sign. Negative, because it means the problem may be getting worse (anecdotal evidence on this 

 

16 Gillies (2008), Opportunity to Learn: A high impact strategy for improving educational outcomes in developing countries, 

USAID, EQUIP2 Working Paper.

17 Adama Diouf, Étude diagnostique et prospective sur la gestion du temps d’enseignement apprentissage a l’école, 

presentation shared by the human resources director. 

18 Kouak (2007), KOUAK B. T. (2007), L’abolition des frais d’écolage : planifier la qualité et la pérennité financière,

papier présenté à la conférence sur l’abolition des frais d’écolage, Bamako, juin 2007
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

19 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

is contradictory, some officials stating that the average number of hours of school has increased in 

recent years, others claiming that the number of strikes and other lost days is growing). And positive, 

because it means that enough people may be getting concerned and motivated enough to do something 

about this issue. 

The problems that underlie interruptions to the school year are linked to the other issues that will be 

talked about below. For example, if teachers are continually de-motivated because they are paid late or 

because the ministry does not follow through on promises, then they are likely to miss more days. 

Status, motivation, and good management are reasons given by teachers all over the world for why they 

may be dissatisfied with their jobs. The situation is further exacerbated in Senegal because many 

volontaire or vacataire teachers are thrust into classrooms without initial training, but equally 

important, without appropriate professional orientation. Codes of ethics and expectations regarding 

professional conduct are not transmitted, let alone reinforced by a teacher management and 

accountability system that rewards appropriate conduct and good performance, and sanctions the 

opposite. This is discussed in detail in the section on the teaching profession below. 

In addition to the issues of loss of time because of school being closed or teachers being absent, how 

teachers and students make use of time during the school day is equally important in determining how 

much and how well students will learn. How much of the time for teaching and learning is taken up by 

the teacher entering the room, leafing through his papers, filling in the attendance sheet, and then 

copying items onto the blackboard? Research on time on task over the years demonstrates the 

importance of students being frequently engaged in active (as opposed to passive) tasks that promote 

learning. Most of the research on time on task is from developed countries, but one study cited by 

Gillies in his paper showed that in a set of developing countries, on average only 63 percent of class time 

was used in teaching activities, and 83 percent of that time was lecture-based rather than interactive.19

 

How the school day is managed and the types of instructional strategies employed by teachers to make 

the best use of available time will be discussed respectively in the sections on the whole school 

approach and instruction targeting basic skills acquisition. 

4.6.2. School-Level Governance, Decision-Making and Continuous Improvement 

Like most other countries in the region, Senegal has been working to decentralize politically and 

administratively. Local, elected councils have been set up at the regional and sub-regional levels. And 

the administrative functions of the public sector, for example the MOE, have been “deconcentrated” to 

the regional, departmental, and school levels. Numerous new structures have been created at these 

levels and new working relationships are still being figured out among regional councils and IAs, local 

councils and IDENs, and school management committees and all of these. As discussed further in 

section 4.6.7 on sector management, municipalities, school management committees and parent 

associations all report that they understand the need to play their crucial roles in helping manage 

education, but all also report not receiving training to help them fulfill those roles. 

Furthermore, it is not clear these structures are in place at every school. For example, the ministry’s 

own data indicate that of the 7,705 elementary schools in the country, only 3,456 have a CGE and 762 

have an APE.20 Where these structures do exist, they complain of poor communication, lack of 

understanding of procedures and practices, inadequate resources, and the complete absence of skills in 

the areas for which they are responsible. It is reported that confusion exists about governance and 

management roles at the school level. What is CGE supposed to do? How does it interact with APE? 

 

19 Gillies (2008), pg 15

20 MOE, Annuaire Statistique National, année scolaire 2007/2008
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20 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

How are they supposed to handle the overlap among their roles and membership? Many stakeholders 

also stated that a lesson to date is that CGEs are too dominated by school personnel, often with only 

two parents/community members serving on the committee, and therefore do not serve as vehicles for 

genuine community participation. 

To its credit, the MOE is implementing a system for school improvement planning wherein local 

authorities are called on to develop plans for their schools and submit them for funding. However, 

many stakeholders indicated that the process for developing school plans (“projet d’école” for 

elementary schools or “projet d’établissement” for middle schools) is not well defined, with no clear 

parameters for planning, no specific improvement objectives or strategies to be included in plans, no 

criteria for evaluating plans, and no sense of how small or large an envelope is available for funding such 

plans. Stakeholders described many plans as being focused on revenue generating activities or 

improvements to school buildings and grounds. Little attention in plans appears to be paid to 

interventions that could impact the quality of teaching and learning. Furthermore, we were told that 

funds that are received, on numerous occasions, will end up being used for something other than what 

was stated in the plan. 

If a vision for decentralized, school-based management is to take hold in Senegal, then clearly significant 

work remains to be done. For starters, school directors do not necessarily have the skill and 

competency profiles that best meet the demands of a participatory approach to school-based 

governance and management (they are usually just senior teachers). The Minister himself stressed the 

importance of the need to develop appropriate recruitment criteria and training for school directors. 

Research in francophone countries conducted by PASEC sheds interesting light on the importance of 

school management in determining school effectiveness. Pierre Varly’s research21 reveals a “school” or 

“class” effect that explains much more of the variation in student performance than does the presence 

or absence of inputs or resources. In fact, for given levels of resources, schools vary considerably in how 

well their students perform. Such differences can only be explained by how well different schools are 

governed, managed, and organized to ensure effective teaching and learning. Research on communitybased schools also reveals the importance of school governance and management in determining how 

effectively schools promote completion and learning, especially for poor, rural populations.22 Varly 

concludes that “it is possible to reconcile equity and quality in education,” and that “opening school to 

all students does not necessarily mean a reduction in quality, but the risk is real if new forms of 

management and an adaptation of the school to the local realities are not envisaged.” Varly’s research 

identifies certain elements of the local school environment that do have positive effects on student 

outcomes in the majority of PASEC countries. These include: active parents associations, availability of 

textbooks, frequency of meetings among teachers, and whether teachers speak the local language of 

their students. Factors that had negative effects on student outcomes were teacher absenteeism and 

teacher professional dissatisfaction. These are the kinds of things that a school-based approach to 

school effectiveness can address, if implemented correctly 

Efforts are being put forward within the ministry and through projects such as USAID/PAEM, EDB and 

the French supported work of Aide et Action to address the challenges of improving local governance 

and management. What appears to be missing is a comprehensive view of not only how 

decentralization and deconcentration are supposed to work, but how they are supposed to lead to more 

effective schooling. What is required is a context for relating governance and management decisions to 

 

21 Pierre Varly, Coordonnateur du PASEC (2006), Gestion scolaire et réussite éducative : les analyses du PASEC.

22 DeStefano et al (2007), Reaching the Underserved : Complementary Models of Effective Schooling, USAID, EQUIP2
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21 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

school outcomes. School improvement planning is supposed to address this, but to date, this has not 

been the case. EDB will introduce to middle schools tools for looking at the outcomes of teaching and 

learning at the school level, for relating resources to outcomes, and for better coordinating and aligning 

actors at the local level. This kind of work should be built on and extended to include elementary 

schools as well. 

4.6.3. The School Environment23

There are 7,705 elementary and 1,006 middle schools in Senegal. These totals represent increases of 

over 2,400 elementary and 450 middle schools during the PDEF. The country is continuing to fund the 

construction of new schools at all levels and is attempting to rehabilitate many of the existing school 

buildings. Despite the massive efforts so far deployed to construct and rehabilitee schools, stakeholders 

report that the problem of schools operating in temporary facilities (either using existing structures or 

being housed in simply constructed shelters) is widespread and needs to be addressed. MOE data 

indicate that of the 33,761 elementary school classrooms in the country, 17% are in disrepair, but are 

still being used to house students. Overall, 16% of classrooms are classified as temporary structures 

(“abris provisoires”), with some regions reporting much higher use of temporary facilities: e.g. Kolda, 

35%; Ziguinchor, 27%; Matam, 24%. 

Another problem stakeholders often mentioned is the lack of appropriate facilities in schools, often with 

a wide disparity between urban and rural settings. For example: 

• Just over half the elementary schools in Senegal have latrines. In Tambacounda and Matam, 

less than 40% of elementary schools have latrines. 25% of middle schools do not have latrines. 

• 85% of urban elementary schools have a water source, while only 38% of rural elementary 

schools do. In Tambacounda, only 18% of elementary schools have water. Nationwide, 27% of 

middle schools do not have water. 

• Only 14% of rural elementary schools have electricity compared to 72% of urban elementary 

schools. Overall, 39% of middle schools lack electricity. 

• Only 370 schools have libraries, and there are only 187 schools with computer rooms 

Overcrowding is a problem in some areas were population density is highest. Country-wide 11% of 

schools operate on a double shift in order to accommodate large demand for places. Double shift 

schools have larger class sizes, 49 students per class, than normal shift (42) or multigrade schools (21). 

Class sizes in double shift schools in the region of Louga reach as high as 55. In general, there are 

seating places in classrooms for 93% of enrolled students, but only for 80% of students in Kolda. 

Materials are far from being available in the quantities envisioned by existing policy. In CI and CP there 

are on average only 1.5 books available per student, compared to the 5 per student called for in the 

PDEF. In CE and CM, there are only 2.3 and 2.5 books per student. In middle schools, students in 6ème 

and 5ème average less than 3 books each, and in 4ème and 3ème, less than 4 each. 

Despite the difficult conditions faced in some areas of the country, there are some positive experiences 

to be drawn on. For one, the USAID/PAEM was very successful not only in constructing middle schools 

(accounting for 16% of the increase in public middle schools), but in mobilizing local support for and 

 

23 All the statistics in this section are taken from MOE documents: Rapport National sur la Situation de l’Education 2008; and 

Annuaire Statistique National, année scolaire 2007/2008.
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22 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

commitment to the improvement and ongoing management of those schools. A lesson to take away 

from the USAID/PAEM experience is that the construction or rehabilitation of school infrastructure 

creates an easy point of entry from which local governance, school management, and school 

improvement issues can be addressed. 

The persistence of the problem of lack of teaching materials at too many schools in Senegal is 

discouraging. From 2000 to 2008, expenditure on materials has increased in absolute terms from 10 to 

60 billion FCFA, and as a share of the budget from 10% to 25% of total expenditures. Yet both anecdotal 

observations and national statistics indicate that many schools are operating without the necessary 

basic learning materials. The new curriculum which is to be rolled out in the coming school year 

(2009/10) will require an infusion of many documents – for trainers, for teachers and for students. The 

challenges of getting books out to schools, managing them well, and making sure they are used remain. 

Putting additional resources into acquiring and distributing materials should not be undertaken until one 

can obtain a clearer understanding of the breakdowns in the present processes or systems for materials 

procurement and distribution. 

While we would argue for attention to assuring the minimum conditions for quality – reasonable 

physical infrastructure, basic facilities such as latrines and water, books for students and teachers – we 

also caution against the over-reliance on physical inputs as the answer to improving quality. Pierre Varly 

in his paper on school management (2006) shows how resources in terms of expenditures per student 

and in terms of inputs available do not translate into higher educational outcomes. In fact, his analysis 

shows that for given levels of expenditures or resources, there are wide variations in student 

performance, indicating that some schools are able to get better results with either the same or less 

resources than others. For example, Varly’s research revealed that the type of school construction had 

no effect on student learning outcomes.24 Something to keep in mind when deciding how to allocate 

scarce resources. 

4.6.4. Basic Skills Acquisition 

As mentioned earlier in this report, the ministry has just completed the development of a new, 

competency-based curriculum for elementary schools. The curriculum provides an excellent framework 

for promoting a common methodology across subjects, and for focusing on student application of skills 

to solve real-life problems. The curriculum includes assessment criteria and recognizes the role of 

remediation when learning does not occur. The necessary accompanying materials have been designed 

and are in the process of being procured. Also, as mentioned earlier, CIDA has launched a project that 

will support the training of all elementary teachers in the new curriculum. 

A remaining challenge will be helping teachers address the needs of students within the context of the 

new curriculum. The curriculum recognizes that remediation may be necessary, but does not offer 

specific strategies to help students who do not have the skills they need to succeed. Nor does the 

curriculum provide teachers in the early grades with proven strategies and techniques for assuring 

acquisition of basic skills so that remediation will not be needed in later grades. 

For these reasons, the teaching of basic skills and in particular math and French are felt to be crucial 

parts of what is needed to improve quality. Key sources of information on current levels of achievement 

 

24 Pierre Varly, (2006), Gestion scolaire et réussite éducative : les analyses du PASEC.
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are the SNERS reports of 200725 which detail student performance in French and Math at CP, CE2, CM2, 

and Science at CM2. USAID/PAEM26 reports of student performance at 4ème in math and science were 

also taken into consideration. PASEC scores in the areas of French and Math at 5eme and 2eme27

further informed the current analysis and results from field research and document review helped to 

provide fuller information in this area. 

The SNERS report of 2007 summarizes levels of performance at CP, CE2 and CM2. Level of competency 

in Math is weak across all grade levels. 

Level 

Average

Score 

% of students 

below minimum level 

% of students at 

minimum level 

% of students at 

desired level 

CP LN 50.4 45% 55% 20%

CP 55.2 39% 61% 29%

CE2 LN 45.1 60% 40% 4%

CE2 48.7 54% 46% 8%

CM2 54.5 38% 62% 10%

Results of the math tests at CE2 show that 46% of students are reaching the minimum level, and only 8% 

are achieving the desired level. Overall, the SNERS report found that « Beaucoup d’élèves traînent 

encore des lacunes qui ont un effet cumulatif. Il faut que des mesures concrètes soient prises pour 

améliorer la situation ». Specifically, the report goes onto say, that the tests should be further exploited 

at IDEN level, to identify most common mistakes and embark on corrective measures. 

Results of the USAID/PAEM test in Math showed that mastery of the curriculum content at middle 

school level was also very weak with a mean score of 31.5%. And provisional results from the most 

recent PASEC show that there has been little improvement between 1996 and 2005 in the public 

schools. One stakeholder interviewed suggested that weaknesses in math may be attributable to 

teachers whose own skills are low and who have little confidence in their abilities to teach the subject. 

However, observations of classrooms during the field research phase of the present review found some 

examples of good practice in the very early years of mathematics teaching. Three classes were 

observed, two at CI and one at CM, which were extremely participatory in nature with students who 

were attentive and could clearly master the content. Interviewees generally felt that the teaching of 

math at elementary level was good or quite good. At middle school level, responses indicated that 

quality was much lower. 

While parents interviewed talked about problems of quality in all subject areas, searches in the media 

found that it was in particular the teaching of French which remained an area of concern. « Le 

 

25 Note that the USAID PAEM tests are based on whether the curriculum has been mastered. Poor scores may therefore be due 

to the fact that the curriculum was not taught because of strikes etc, rather than that it was badly taught or learned. The 

SNERS results do, however, report causality although it is not clear how variations in the number of hours of instruction or in 

teaching approaches are factored in across the different populations.

26 USAID / PAEM Rapport sur l’évaluation des acquis des élèves de quatrième en mathématiques, sciences physiques et 

sciences de la vie et de la terre.

27 Note also that PASEC tests are in the process of being reviewed and revised. CONFEM (2009) in a section entitled Les Limites 

des Testes PASEC, states that there are a number of drawbacks including issues of confidentiality when the same tests are used 

repeatedly, the small number of items, the fact that item response theory is not used in the analysis. The section avers, “Les 

procédures utilisés s’écartent quelque peu des standards internationaux.” CONFEM (2008) also points out that the analysis of 

the tests is extremely basic and that they are based on curricula which may no longer be in use.
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24 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

relèvement du niveau du français est aujourd’hui un défi. Nous devons améliorer le niveau des élèves. » 

(Le Soleil). It was the learning of French and in particular, literacy in the language which was the focus 

of many of the concerns raised during the field interviews. These concerns are echoed in the weak 

showings in a number of tests, such as the SNERS below. Scores in French on the SNERS show weak 

results but particularly at CE where only 17% of children in traditional classes and even fewer of those 

being taught in the national languages have achieved the minimum level. 

Level 

Average 

Score 

% of students 

below minimum level 

% of students at 

minimum level 

% of students at 

desired level 

CP 57.3 40% 60% 31%

CE2 (LN) 31.8 61% 39% 10%

CE2 51.4 47% 53% 17%

CM2 56.1 40% 60% 20%

Anecdotal evidence from field visits reinforces the sense that French achievement is low. In one 

6ème class observed in a middle school, the children clearly had difficulty reading simple sentences 

in French. One girl called to write on the board was unable to spell words such as “homme” and 

“feu” correctly. Some spelling and grammar mistakes on the board remained uncorrected (and 

possibly unnoticed) by the teacher. In addition, a focus group of students who had completed 

between six and eleven years of schooling could not be conducted in French since the respondents 

felt uncomfortable expressing their views in that language. Lastly, Interviews during which 

respondents were asked to rate the level of reading in French gave further indications that there 

were challenges in this area. Of nine school principals interviewed, not a single one felt that the 

teaching of reading in French was excellent or good. Parents, community members and other 

educators also agreed that the teaching of core skills was weak. 

No books were in evidence in any of the classrooms visited and the only reading observed was 

reading from the board. The one school which had a library did not make use of it despite the fact 

that there were usable materials, including dictionaries, in the collection. Again note should be 

taken of the positive actions of USAID / PAEM, which is currently supplying books to support the 

curriculum to schools in its regions and is training teachers and library support staff in their use. 

With only two exceptions, teachers and teacher trainers were unable to describe approaches to the 

teaching of reading and seemed on the whole unaware of more up-to-date approaches to the 

teaching of literacy. An examination of the teacher training curricula revealed a lack of attention to 

or consistency in approaches to the teaching of reading to children whose first language is not 

French. One such exception is the curriculum for pre-service training at the EFI which adopts a 

mixed method approach to the teaching of reading including whole word and decoding methods 

and which is based on learning to read from the board, rather than from books. 

While some attention has at least been paid to early reading at the level of decoding text, there 

appears to be little which has been done to help children to read fluently by recognizing phrases as 

wholes, little to help students read for information by extracting meaning from text and evaluate, 

analyze and synthesize what one reads. 28 The SNERS report tells us that the teaching of French “tel 

que pratique aujourd’hui dans les ecoles au jourd’hui ne repose pas sur le texte, receptacle de toutles 

les disciplines d’enseignement, mais plutot sur la phrase” (SERS, 2006). The EGRA study found that 

 

28 PAEM has developed a module on critical thinking which includes critical reading 
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25 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

children read at speeds well below those required to read with fluency. Almost one child out of two 

was unable to read more than five words of the 60-word text used for the reading comprehension 

section. Since later academic success depends to a major extent on the ability to derive meaning 

from written text, this skill is essential for study in later grades. 

Finally, although the issue of the language in which children learn to first read may be beyond the 

scope of this study, it should be noted that results of the EGRA tests found significant differences in 

reading tasks between those children who were exposed to French in the home and those who 

were not. The present practice of teaching reading in French rather than in the national languages 

clearly disadvantages some children. 

The fact that student achievement in numeracy and literacy is low remains a concern for all those in the 

system. Interviewees felt that it was reading achievement which was the more critical. Results of our 

research demonstrate low levels of reading in French both at elementary level and beyond, a lack of 

awareness of techniques for teaching early reading and little attention paid to the teaching of reading 

for comprehension or higher order reading skills. Large numbers of children are not learning to read or 

are not learning to read well. Since French is the vehicle through which content is delivered, an inability 

to read means that, inevitably, mastery of any other aspect of the curriculum will be affected. 

4.6.5. Teacher Professional Development and Ongoing Support 

There is widespread agreement in the research on the importance of the teacher in determining the 

quality of the learning experience. Just how quality teaching can be assured remains problematic. Key is 

the level of expertise of teachers, as well as their motivation to perform well in the classroom. “La 

motivation des enseignants apparaît des lors comme un enjeu majeur car elle influe directement sur la 

qualité des apprentissages.” 29 Interestingly enough, the literature shows that it is not necessarily 

financial incentives that are the most powerful factors affecting teacher motivation. Teacher support in 

the form of teacher training as well as school-based assistance, cooperation and collaboration can often 

be as significant.30

However, opportunities for practicing teachers to engage in ongoing formal teacher training are limited 

for the majority of Senegalese teachers. Only 20% of teachers surveyed during our field review reported 

that they had received any training at all during the previous year. These teachers were predominantly 

from the regions served by USAID/PAEM. One reason might be that most training currently on offer is 

very much of the traditional type where teachers leave their place of work to attend formal seminars, on 

occasions missing school to attend training. Such training is costly and inevitably discriminates against 

those least able to travel to attend training, notably women. More innovative methods of teacher 

training involving newer technologies were not seen. 

The regional training poles, (“Poles Régionales de Formation” - PRF) which are responsible for in-service 

training vary greatly in their ability to offer such a service. The training they offer is frequently of short 

duration in response to requirements of the system - e.g., the introduction of the new curriculum. 

Donors will also frequently make use of the PRFs to deliver training initiated by their programs. Ability 

to offer quality training varies. In one area, the PRF was fully staffed and functional, housed in 

accommodations fit for the purpose and was active in initiating training as well as responding to training 

needs. In another area, the PRF consisted of little more than the staff who were designated as PRF 

 

29 Pole de Dakar, La scolarisation primaire universelle en Afrique: le defi des enseignants 

30 World Bank Recruiting, Retaining and Retraining Teachers and Principals in Sub-Saharan Africa, 2005.
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26 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

personnel. With no building nor office space, they reported that the only training they had been 

involved in during the last three years was that initiated and funded through USAID/PAEM. 

The teacher training schools (“Ecoles de Formations des Instituteurs” – EFI) are supposed to provide inservice training as well as pre-service training to teachers in the elementary schools. An intensive inservice summer program for teachers is available which leads to certification although here again, the 

EFIs were constrained by the physical circumstances in which they operate. One EFI consisted of an 

office block with a library and computer room but with no toilets or training rooms to accommodate the 

teachers. 

Apart from these off-site training initiatives, there is little in the way of structured field-based delivery 

modes of training, although a number of school-based support structures do exist. The “cellules 

pédagogiques,” organized according to discipline area at middle school level, are designed to meet on a 

regular basis and allow teachers to discuss issues of interest and concern. While these work well, 

particularly in USAID/PAEM areas, in other schools, they are non-functional. In areas where they work 

well, teachers speak highly of their work with them. However, a number of respondents also reported 

that the cellules in their schools never meet; others said that while they did meet, they had little of 

practical use to offer. 

School-based support is also supposed to be provided by the itinerant advisors (“conseiller pédagogique 

Itinerant” - CPI) who offer training as well as individual guidance and support to teachers. Inspectors, 

organized by discipline level at middle school, fulfill a supervisory as well as inspectoral role. A number 

of the teachers surveyed also reported that they received excellent school-based support from their 

school principal. However, the intended support from inspectors and CPIs was reported less regularly 

due mainly to insufficient resources. Inspectors and CPIs were often responsible for a large number of 

schools spread over a geographically wide area without the means to travel to reach the schools. 

Pre-service training is provided by The Faculté des Sciences et Technologie de l’Education et de la 

Formation (FASTEF) for middle and secondary schools and by the EFIs for elementary schools. Training 

at FASTEF takes either two or three years depending on entry criteria and whether a middle or 

secondary school qualification is sought. The training is organized under thirteen departments by 

discipline. There is also a department of psycho-pedagogy and educational technology which supports 

all the disciplines. Although there is some talk of setting up satellite centers in the regions, currently 

FASTEF is struggling to accommodate the large numbers of teachers who are seeking qualifications. It 

does offer its courses in CD format and provides support and follow-up largely through print-based 

correspondence with the individual teacher. 

Pre-Service Training at elementary level is provided by the EFIs who offer a full-time intensive sevenmonth training course based on six key areas of competence: 1) Engage in long-term planning based on 

key texts 2) Construct a sequence of teaching / learning plans 3) Execute teaching / learning 4) Draft a 

project d’école 5) Manage a bilingual class and 6) Manage the class in conformity with requirements. 

The curriculum has much to recommend it, including the carefully staged school experience made 

available to the trainees beginning with opportunities for socialization into school cultures and 

culminating in individual teaching practice. However, a major issue is the lack of coordination between 

the different actors involved in teacher training and development. There is little coordination between 

the pre and in-service sectors in terms of approach, structure or content of training. Among the 

different EFIs, while the framework for pre-service training is common to all, the way in which that 

framework is translated into programs and courses is left up to the EFI at regional level to decide. This 
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27 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

has both advantages and disadvantages. On the plus side, it means that an EFI can tailor its program to 

the requirements of the region it is serving. However, without an adequate monitoring and evaluation 

program in place, there is a risk that training offered in one part of the country may diverge significantly 

from the training offered in another. 

As well as a lack of coordination between the pre and in-service training sectors, there is little 

harmonization between the various in-service initiatives. Communication between the PRF, IA, IDEN 

and EFIs with regard to teacher training remains weak. Even with the EFI, the pre and in-service 

programs are organized according to different competencies and use different materials. In terms of 

the NGOs, while the major players are generally well-coordinated in their efforts to support the ministry, 

there is some evidence that a minority are providing training which follows their own agendas rather 

than being based on the stated goals of the MOE. 

There are undeniably examples of good practice in teacher training and we did see a number of 

examples of high-quality teacher training materials including the USAID/PAEM modules and the EFI inservice materials. There was much talk about needs analysis and gaps in the knowledge of teachers. 

However, unlike many other countries, there is no shared understanding of what constitutes a good 

teacher in the Senegalese context in terms of the knowledge, skills and attitudes such a teacher needs 

to possess. USAID/PAEM had developed standards for teachers in the middle schools along with 

supporting performance indicators which form the basis of the training modules developed under that 

program. 17 unrelated competences had also been developed to guide the provision of training for 

teachers at elementary level, although only six of these were dealt with in the materials developed for 

the initial training . The EFIs used five different competency areas to organize the curricula of their inservice course. In the absence of a shared understanding based on a common written description of 

teacher standards or competences, needs-based curricula can only be established based on individuals’ 

views of what a practicing teacher needs. Furthermore, in the absence of any systematic evaluation or 

follow-up to the training, it is difficult to make judgments as to the quality of the training provided. 

While the learning of participants is frequently evaluated using tests and classroom observations, 

training programs, again with some notable exceptions, are not evaluated for levels of participant 

satisfaction nor more importantly to see whether the skills and knowledge presented during training are 

transferred to the classroom. Neither is there any evaluation at program level to determine the efficacy 

of the long two or three year university based program as against shorter modular style ins-service 

training.31

The trainers themselves have received little training for their role as “teachers of teachers”. Only one 

trainer out of eleven reported having received any training in working with teacher training curricula, 

and fewer than half had received training in how to teach adults. The training for trainers from FASTEF 

consisted of overseas study visits. USAID/PAEM along with other donor organizations was notable in not 

only providing training to its trainers but ensuring that school principals were involved. By offering 

complementary training on comparable instructional issues and on the role of an instructional 

leadership, it is possible for teacher learning to be enhanced and supported in an ongoing fashion by the 

principal. 

 

31 PASEC data from Guinea show little difference in classroom performance between teachers who had been trained for one 

year and those that had been trained for three (reported in Pole de Dakar (2008), La Scolarisation Primaire Universelle en 

Afrique: Le defi enseignant).
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4.6.6. The Structure and Management of the Teaching Profession 

Senegal has been a pioneer in the development of the teaching profession since 1995, when it became 

the first country in Africa to introduce the system of recruiting contractual teachers in order to help 

meet the needs of EFA within existing budget limitations. Since then, the contractual system has evolved 

to include an initial period of 2 years as a teacher receiving a stipend in primary school (“volontaire”) 

and middle school (“vacataire”), after which the teacher is eligible to enter the public service. (Teachers 

between initial and functionary status remain classified as contractual teachers.) “Volontaire” and 

contractual teachers comprise 65% of the elementary teacher force, and “vacataires” and contractual 

teachers comprise 61% of the middle and secondary force.32

Senegal has also made strides in the areas of defining teacher profiles, competencies, training programs, 

and assessment of training needs. A code of ethics has been developed, and projects such as 

USAID/PAEM have introduced “teacher profiles” encapsulating key teacher attributes. The DRH has 

developed a 3-part system for identifying teachers’ training needs, based on teachers’ self-reported 

needs, their supervisors’ recommendations, and the DRH’s own observations. And various services in 

the MOE have been discussing the possibility of creating a unified training center for all education 

personnel, both pre-service and in-service. 

Finally, Senegal has made significant strides in terms of teachers’ career structure and incentives. In 

response to requests from teachers and their unions, the MOE shortened the initial volunteer/vacataire 

period from four years to two, with a transition directly into the public service after that period (pending 

a positive evaluation), at least in principle. Once in the public service, teachers are treated as all public 

servants, eligible for promotion to the next level based on seniority – at first every two years, then later 

in their career, every three. 

As with the systems of management, there is no shortage of structures to provide training and support 

to teachers. The question is to what extent they actually function. For example, while middle and 

secondary schools require an additional 2,000 teachers this year, FASTEF, the sole pre-service institution 

for middle and secondary school teachers, can only accommodate 800 at a time at its Dakar campus. To 

close the gap, high school graduates are taken in directly as teachers. As a result, FASTEF is 5 years 

behind in providing pre-service training, with the 2003-04 cohort currently enrolled. There is reported to 

be a backlog of 7,500 teachers awaiting initial training. 

Maintaining teaching quality and morale has also proven difficult. When we asked “what is the biggest 

problem with educational quality in Senegalese schools?” the near-unanimous response was, “Teachers 

need training.” And there is another reason teachers are not performing: they are demoralized. With 

salaries, expenses, and indemnities often paid late, teachers frequently strike – at least once per year at 

the national level - and even students have now adopted “a culture of striking.” Reasons for 

dissatisfaction go beyond remuneration, however. Union representatives reported teacher discontent 

with conditions of work – for example, overcrowded classes, deplorable infrastructure (lack of latrines, 

water, even a desk for the teacher to sit at), and insufficient instructional materials. Teachers in our 

review also complained that training received by their school directors or principals often was not 

repeated in their schools. Teachers also noted that while school-based instructional sessions were 

worthwhile, they needed more support and materials. Importantly, as mentioned previously, all training 

received by teachers, except for the FASTEF distance pre-service program for middle school teachers, 

appears to be face-to-face only, with little or no school-based support outside of teacher peer meetings. 

 

32 Based on discussions with the director of human resources for the education ministry.
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Whatever the reason for their discontent, the degree of dissatisfaction is acute. When asked in a PASEC 

study “If you had the chance to choose again, which career would you choose?” only 40% of Senegalese 

teachers responded “teacher,” the lowest percentage of all 10 countries in the study. PASEC tests also 

show that Senegalese teachers are more absent than those in other countries surveyed, with the effect 

on enrolment being twice as high as in those countries (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire and 

Madagascar) (Niane 2004). 

Some of the problem can be found at the institutional level. Though profiles of “a competent teacher” 

have been developed, as previously mentioned, there is more than one set of competences in existence 

and furthermore, these profiles have not been shared more broadly, leaving open the question of what 

a competent teacher is expected to know or be able to do. 

Finally, the teaching profession suffers from an archaic system of promotion and incentives. 

Advancement is based solely on seniority, rather than combining time in the system with some measure 

of performance (competence), and no transparent system of selection with criteria was found for 

selecting school directors and principals (nominations are made at the IA/IDEN level based on criteria 

determined by those inspectorates). No incentives exist for teachers to improve their teaching 

performance; all teachers are paid the same whether their students perform well or not, and no systems 

of teacher recognition (e.g., teacher of the year) or opportunities for advancement (such as the Board 

Certification in the US) were found in our review. Leaders of two teachers unions expressed a strong 

interest in and support for introducing performance based rewards or sanctions in the teaching 

profession. Structured systems do exist, however, for teachers to be nominated and trained as 

inspectors. 

4.6.7. Management of the Sector 

“The quality of educational and administrative management is the main factor responsible for schools’ 

performance” (CREA report, 2004). 

From 2000-2009, Senegal’s progress in expanding access to the formal education system has been 

remarkable. Not only has the GER increased as shown earlier in this report, internal efficiency has also 

improved during that period, with, for example, the completion rate rising from 34% to 58% in 

elementary school. These gains are due, in part, to measures taken by the Ministry of Education (MOE) 

to improve educational efficiency. For example, to address problems related to losses in instructional 

time, the MOE published and has disseminated a circular called “Teaching Time,” defining the 

international standard of 900 hours as the required minimum teaching time, effective 2006-07. The 

MOE also created a single staff file personnel system in order to streamline management, resulting in a 

bold “salary domiciliation operation” to identify staff with unclear postings. The MOE has also created a 

variety of structures to facilitate decision making, coordination, and communication, including a PDEF 

steering committee in the DPRE, the DRH to coordinate the administration of personnel information and 

training, and a viable donors’ roundtable. 

Progress in the area of educational monitoring and evaluation has also been noteworthy since 2000. In 

2001, the MOE instituted a monitoring manual to be used in at least 6 regions in order to track progress 

against set of common indicators, which are now regularly reported to the MOE as well as technical and 

financial partners. In order to evaluate educational quality, the GOS adopted an education sector 

general policy letter in 2000 (updated 2006) establishing performance benchmarks, including both 

minimum standards (percentage of students receiving an overall score of 50% on the SNERS) and 

desired standards (the percentage of students obtaining 73% overall). In its annual review in 2006, the 
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30 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

MOE stipulated that a 5 point increase in these standards should be sought each year in both French and 

math, and that the success rate on the CFEE should increase by 5 percentage points each year as well. 

Throughout this period, regional inspectorates began harmonizing curricula, and developing and 

implementing standardized tests in schools. The School Head Teachers’ Associations were created to 

assist, among other things, with the distribution of monitoring and evaluation forms facilitating these 

standardized assessments. According to a review by CREA in 2004, these efforts contributed to greater 

decentralization of in-service training and of oversight of teaching behavior at the local level. 

In spite of these gains in education sector management, the quality of education in Senegal continues to 

lag behind other countries. Though several technical and financial partners (e.g., AFD, World Bank) have 

been providing pooled funds to assist the MOE in its management of the reform, the capacity to plan 

activities outlined in the PDEF and follow them to the regional, departmental and community levels 

remains weak. As the DPRE said in an interview, “a critical mass of planners is needed at every level.” 

Efforts to increase efficiency have been undercut by weak management practices, often owing to lack of 

training of key personnel. As a rule, educational leaders in Senegal, from the Minister to the School 

Director and Principal, are appointed on the basis of seniority or merit, then receive no training to 

prepare them for their new role. As a result, planning and budgeting tends to consist of making lists of 

inputs needed, seeking support from technical and financial partners for each item, then checking off 

lists as programs are carried out. 

Efforts to increase efficiency are also undercut by archaic procedures that continue to plague the 

system. More than half of teachers’ salaries go to non-teaching staff, and teachers who are paid must 

desert the classroom each month for several days in order to go to their provincial administrative 

centers to collect their salaries in cash. This system leads to frequent strike action and reduces the time 

available for teaching and the quality of the education provided. 

Our research found that administrative structures at the national level are relatively weak, with a 

pervasive concern expressed by leaders of all services and divisions that decisions are made within units, 

often without the input or knowledge of personnel from other divisions, and seldom with a mechanism 

for sharing results of meetings or collaborating in the execution of decisions taken. 

In contrast, we found administrative structures at the regional level to be relatively strong. IAs, IDENs 

and regional councils, though under-resourced, appeared to be functioning as intended, with clear roles 

and expected outputs. Concerns raised at this level tended to focus on the “top-down” nature of 

management coupled with a lack of information coming from the central ministry, as exemplified in the 

budgeting process, where IAs and IDENs are routinely asked to submit an annual budget, without 

parameters, then receive a small portion of their request without explanation. 

Unlike administrative structures, in general technical structures at the regional level fared poorly. The 

majority of the EFIs visited in our review were under-resourced, with only a small percentage of their 

requested budgets being received each year. Perhaps the “poor stepsister” in the system is the PRFs, 

which also reported being grossly under-resourced and whose staff were visibly demoralized. The PRF in 

Kaolack reported having 2 vehicles, both of which had been broken down for 10 months, an insufficient 

budget for fuel, a photocopier and risograph that had been unserviceable for a year, and 2 computers 

with no internet connection or printer – this for 19 CPIs, a director and support staff. 
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Perhaps the weakest institutional management capacity can be found at the local level, where 

respondents consistently expressed significant concerns about the ability of local management 

structures to manage the reform. Respondents from municipalities, School Management Committees 

and Councils (CGEs), and parent associations (APEs) reported that these structures play a crucial role in 

assisting with the educational effort, yet reported receiving little or no training to play their roles 

effectively (except in USAID/PAEM schools). If groups existed at all (in many cases, CGEs and APEs were 

dormant), they complained of infrequent communication with the MOE, lack of understanding of 

procedures, insufficient material and financial support, and crucially, the nonexistent skills needed to 

carry out their mandates. 

We were told on numerous occasions that groups making requests for School Improvement Plans often 

received funds for one purpose, then spent them on another. A representative of the NGO Partenariat

in St-Louis said that the Inspectorate and local groups were eager and willing participants in 

decentralization, but lacked the most basic skills in planning, management and monitoring of their 

activities, and Partenariat was just launching a modularized training series for that purpose. Distance 

and funding constraints have resulted in regional structures relying heavily on the resources of 

municipal and rural councils to finance and implement their responsibilities. A representative from the 

mayor’s office in Djourbel told us that the municipal government receives very little money or guidance, 

so provides a small amount of its own support and donates “le peu que nous avons” to basic school 

maintenance projects. Similarly, instruction materials, though ordered, often do not reach schools. 

While structures for coordinating educational activities have been created (cited above), procedures for 

collaborative planning and decision making, consulting key stakeholders, and weighing different policy 

and budget options, are often unknown or nonexistent. As one respondent noted, “Senegal is good at 

creating structures; we just have trouble making them work.” An example is the teaching time initiative 

for which no system has yet been put in place. The coordination of public-private partnerships could 

also be strengthened: representatives of the Chamber of Commerce in St-Louis reported that they 

currently assist with education within their organization, and could play more of vital role in the formal 

sector, but were rarely consulted. 

The recent decision to reorganize one MOE into three has not had an obvious immediate impact on preschool, elementary and middle school planning, as these cycles, which comprise basic education, all 

remained in the same ministry. But coordination between ministries to access common data, utilize 

personnel across services, and share resources, as well as to coordinate planning and decision making, 

will undoubtedly become more difficult. The confusion created by the division of the MOE could be 

mitigated by the formation of a body responsible for ensuring communication across ministries and, 

importantly, a mechanism for solving problems and reconciling differences. Yet no single structure 

exists to serve as a coordinating structure between ministries (though the DPRE informed us that that 

remains its role), and the current Ministry organigram has not been revised since 1986. 

If the creation of structures was intended to improve management, it has often had the opposite effect: 

the 2004 sector review and the FTI assessment found that the high number of national departments and 

services makes management and monitoring difficult (this is related to the previous point: 

coordination). One example is personnel information: the DRH informed us that they had not 

“mastered” personnel statistics, indicating that too many gaps in information existed in order to make a 

reliable judgment about the status of teachers, levels of training, qualification, and appropriate pay 

scales. Perhaps the biggest monitoring gap is at the local level: UNESCO (2007) points out that 

weaknesses in the daily monitoring of schools at the local level is the main quality concern in Senegal. 
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32 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

According to the report, weaknesses in monitoring, linked to shortcomings in allocation of resources, 

lead to a poor average level in Senegalese schools and to great disparities in performance.33

 

Many respondents in our review, from the central ministry to the local level, cited the need for a 

national system for tracking school, teacher and student performance. Both SNERS and PASEC are 

administered in Senegal every several years, and as noted above, inspectors have developed and 

administered their standardized tests in their regions. What seems lacking is a regular system that 

provides real-time results from these tests to education decision makers – at least at the national and 

regional levels - so they can address the biggest learning difficulties faced by students in their schools, 

and possible reasons for them. The SNERS tests, as they are currently administered, are not serving this 

function.34 Respondents also requested assistance so that central ministry officials, inspectors and 

teachers could learn to develop items and administer tests in reliable ways, and to use results for 

improving educational delivery. Some respondents also recommended the development of an item bank 

for use at national, regional, and school levels. 

Of the different facets of management we examined, this appeared to be the weakest. Of course, some 

efforts to develop communication systems and to communicate education priorities were found. The 

Soleil, the government newspaper, serves as a regular source of articles on educational initiatives and 

developments, both regionally and nationally. DRH personnel informed us of initiatives taken by the 

MOE to ensure regular contact and dialogue with teachers’ unions. The DRH had also initiated a 

program called “PencMe” (Plateforme d’ Échanges Numériques Collaborative du Ministère de 

l’Éducation) through which teachers can access information on the internet, inquire about post 

availability, apply for positions, and provide feedback in the event of problems in the process. The 

USAID-funded Basic Education Project (PEB) will support PencMe (though because Senegal does not yet 

have an electronic signature law, electronic application for posts or exchange of financial requests might 

not be possible.) The MOE also has its own portal designed to facilitate communication amongst 

education personnel; PEB is providing support for this as well. Finally, the MOE, with the support of PEB 

and other partners, will continue to work with Microsoft’s “Partners in learning” program, established in 

2003 to help the MOE train teachers in use of ICT, access Microsoft software, and participate in a virtual 

network of teachers for sharing experiences and preparing computerized teaching tools. 

These initiatives notwithstanding, no mechanism currently appears to exist to unify critical ministry 

information or make it accessible to key decision makers – a problem linked to M&E concerns raised 

above. And because of coordination problems also cited above, dialogue within and between Ministry 

sections is limited, with no clear channel for relaying messages or established procedures for archiving 

and accessing information. At the regional and local levels, communication tended to be “layered” at 

different levels. For example, inspectors received information from their superiors at the central 

ministry, school directors and principals from inspectors, and teachers from school directors and 

principals; school directors and teachers never received communications directly from the central 

 

33 Niane, Boubacar & Robert François (2007) Senegal Country Case Study, UNESCO.

34 We also found several problems with the SNERS tests: (1) The error rate for sampling was not given; thus, the level of 

generalizability of findings cannot be determined. (2) The 2-stage random sampling design used in the SNERS seems 

appropriate, though only 130 of 180 schools could be reached, leaving the question of representativity unanswered. (3) The 

only item characteristics provided were Cronbach Alpha; standard measure such as p values and point biserials were omitted 

(though the latter was referred to at the pilot stage). (4) Without p values, it is difficult to know what “less than 50%” means. 

How do we know that some tests were not too easy or too difficult? Did students perform better in SNERS IV than SNERS III? (5) 

Without reference to previous tests, and mechanisms for equating previous with current tests (e.g., use of anchor items), the 

opportunity to track system performance over time is lost.
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33 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

ministry. Moreover, except for training events, communication tended to be top-down and one-way, 

usually sharing information about ministerial decisions, policies, or decrees from one level to the next. 

Both IAs and Head Teachers complained about receiving plans, information, decrees from next level up, 

with no sign of dialogue or consultation: “policies descend from on high.” 

In summary, our research found that management of the education sector was marked by inefficient 

management practices, weak monitoring and evaluation systems, insufficient information, inadequate 

coordination mechanisms, and weak communication systems. The degree to which these problems 

existed varied from level to level. Within an IA, communication could be quite good, and management 

participatory (one IA had been trained in “transformational management”). At the same time, we found 

that the EFI or PRF in the one region might be lacking the most basic materials and infrastructure, while 

a middle school in that same region had 20 computers and internet connectivity. As the 2007 UNESCO 

report noted,35 “Weaknesses in monitoring, linked to shortcomings in allocation of resources, lead to a 

poor average level in Senegalese schools and to great disparities in performance. Owing to these 

extremely great disparities in Senegal, some of the schools that are well supplied in terms of inputs 

(teachers, premises, textbooks, etc.), produce good results and others produce disastrous results, and 

that the same is true for poorly supplied schools.... The poor quality of education in Senegal is due not 

primarily to the lack of inputs, or to inefficiency or inequality in the distribution of resources, but the 

existence of great weaknesses in the system and of schools from which children have very little to gain.” 

5. Recommendations 

Our review of the issues impacting the quality of teaching and learning in Senegalese elementary and 

middle schools leads us to conclude that there is ample scope for a USAID investment to address some 

of the needs discussed in our findings. With issues covering everything from the school environment, to 

disruptions to the school year, to teacher training, and overall management of the sector, the challenge 

becomes one of how to best propose a specific set of activities that would i) make for a coherent 

project, b) address the issues of highest priority in the sector, c) hold promise of delivering impact in a 

three to five year time frame, d) be implementable in Senegal’s current policy and institutional contexts, 

and e) contribute to the long-term sustainability of improvements in quality. The table below is a 

summary of our analysis of the strategic tradeoffs associated with the seven areas critical to improving 

quality and amenable to project interventions in the short to medium term. 

Potential for 

Impact 

Degree of 

Priority 

Ease of 

Implementation 

Contribution to 

Long Term 

Sustainability 

Improving OTL HIGH HIGH MEDIUM LOW 

Local Governance & Management LOW HIGH LOW HIGH 

School Environment LOW HIGH LOW LOW 

Basic Skills Acquisition HIGH HIGH MEDIUM LOW 

Teacher PD and Support MEDIUM HIGH LOW HIGH 

Teaching Profession LOW LOW LOW HIGH 

Sector Management LOW HIGH LOW HIGH 

 

35 Niane, Boubacar & Robert François (2007) Senegal Country Case Study, UNESCO.
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

34 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

As the table shows, school environment is a high priority, but otherwise is rated low. We therefore 

suggest it be addressed only as a contributing factor for success in the other areas (e.g. as a point of 

entry into school-based management for quality improvement). Improving opportunities to learn is 

rated high in two areas, but only if one thinks about addressing it at the school-level, where actions that 

deal with school being opened, teachers and students being present, and the day being managed to 

maximum instructional benefit can best be operationalized. For that reason, we propose that 

opportunity to learn be included in a whole school approach to school governance and management, as 

well as part of the enabling conditions for improved quality. The issues raised under system 

management, which are a high priority and are important for long-term sustainability, score low in 

terms of potential for impact and ease of implementation. To counter-balance that, we suggest 

addressing system management issues within the context of very specific operational challenges, such 

as monitoring and evaluating teacher professional development strategies, putting in place assessment 

and data systems that allow basic acquisition of skills to be monitored, communicating strategically to 

promote improved opportunities to learn, to name a few. 

In the end, we consolidate several of the elements discussed in the review of the seven areas into five 

possibilities for complementary program components contributing to an overall strategic objective of: 

Improved learning outcomes for students in basic education. The five areas are: 

• Assuring basic skills acquisition throughout elementary and middle school 

• Promoting a whole school approach to school governance management and improvement 

• Supporting an integrated approach to teacher development 

• Support assessment, learning and a culture of evaluation 

• Addressing the enabling conditions for system-wide impact and sustainability 

The diagram below summarizes the recommended strategic objective, components that could be 

included in a program to support that objective, and illustrative intermediate results (IRs) for each 

component. 

. 
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35 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

We recommend that the strategic objective cover elementary and middle schools. USAID has been 

working with middle schools under the USAID/PAEM, and the new EDB project also focuses primarily on 

continuing to support middle schools. USAID/ PAEM has become well-known, is appreciated and highly 

visible because of its accomplishments supporting middle schools. And quality remains a serious issue in 

middle schools. Interviewees in this review rated the quality of education in middle schools much lower 

than in elementary schools. However, EDB will be undertaking major efforts to improve middle school 

quality – namely helping revise the middle school curriculum, supporting teachers, and supporting 

improved local decision-making and school management. Quality issues in elementary schools are not 

addressed either by USAID/PAEM or EDB. Nor is the issue of transition from elementary to middle 

school currently addressed as a quality improvement challenge in the sector. It is also important to note 

that recent research on youth development underlines the importance of ten years of basic education.36

 

Most significantly for this exercise, that research indicates that young people need to acquire a 

foundation of basic skills – namely literacy and math – in elementary school, then consolidate those 

skills in lower secondary or middle school, as the basis for the further learning and skills development 

that will serve them as they enter society, the workforce, and make decisions that will impact the rest of 

their lives. The quality of education should be measured by whether it helps young people in this way. 

Additional USAID Investments in improving quality in Senegal should therefore focus on the acquisition, 

remediation and consolidation of the foundations of literacy and math skills for both elementary and 

middle school students. USAID can thus be at the forefront of the financial and technical partners 

 

36 See for example World Bank (2007), World Development Report 2007: Development and the Next Generation.

SO: Improved learning outcomes for 

students in basic education

Compon ent 1:

Students develop 

bette r literacy and 

math skills

Component 2:

Scho ol governan ce a nd 

manage me nt improved in 

a whole school approach

Compone nt 3:

In te gra ted approa ch to 

teacher training and 

de ve lopmen t promoted

Compone nt 4:

Assessme nt and 

M&E capacity 

reinforce d

C omponen t 5:

Enabling conditions 

for successful re form 

supported

Teachers trained in 

teac hing ba sic literacy 

and higher order 

reading skills

Capacity of teacher 

preparation and support 

institutions to promote 

and tea ching of rea ding 

improved

Remedia lreading and 

math programs 

developed for 

elementa ry and middle 

schools

More elementary and 

middle schools develop 

environments conducive 

to reading – e.g. more 

reading books in schools

School-community 

collabora tion improved

School-based training 

and support structures 

extended

Student attendance is 

improved, especially for 

girls

Opportunity to lea rn is 

improved

School environments 

improved

Collaboration between 

middle and elementary 

schools promoted in 

feeder patterns

More diverse models of 

teacher recruitment & 

initial training in pla ce

Teacher in-service 

delivery modes become 

more diverse

Teacher c areer 

advancement paths 

reformed and div ersified 

System for M&E of 

teacher development 

activities in pla ce

PPPs developed to 

support teacher 

upg ra ding and support

Nationa l M&E sy stem in 

pla ce that can track OTL 

and a chievement

Standardized continuous 

assessment developed 

and spread

Nation- wide system of 

school report cards 

using assessment data in 

pla ce

Incentive systems using 

assessment da ta is 

piloted for schools, 

teachers a nd students

OTL increases supported 

through national 

campaign a nd 

incentives

Reading fluency 

promoted as indicator of 

school performa nce

Integrated system of 

teacher development & 

evaluation linked to 

perf ormance monitoring 

and career path piloted

National tea cher 

tra ining policy finalized, 

communicated a nd 

implemented

recommended program components

Examples of intermediate res ults th at cou ld b e targ ete d in e ach component
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

36 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

supporting Senegal’s push towards a research-based, unified vision of ten years of basic education (a 

central element of the PDEF). 

Please note, however, that while we recommend working across the full basic education cycle, the 

components summarized above can be tailored to focus on elementary or middle schools 

independently. Furthermore, while the components are summarized here together, we intend them to 

be modular components that can be mixed and matched as funding levels and USAID priorities would 

indicate. Of course, we think there are synergies across the five components, but do not feel they need 

to be implemented as a full set. This will be explained further below. 

Annex E contains tables that present the elements of a detailed project description for each component. 

These include for each intermediate result under each component: 

• Examples of sub-IRs for each intermediate result 

• A rationale for targeting the intermediate result and set of sub-IRs 

• Illustrative activities that could be included in a program targeting the IR and sub-IRs 

• The resource implications of such a set of illustrative activities 

• An indication of the kinds of impacts that could be anticipated 

• The key assumptions underlying the program/project recommendations. 

Based on the analysis presented in this report, the quality of education in Senegal depends most on 

whether the system can ensure that students in elementary and middle schools are acquiring the 

foundation of basic skills they need to succeed, either in further education, in developing job skills, or in 

making decisions about their lives. 

Component One assembles a set of strategies to help schools better ensure that students acquire basic 

skills in reading and/or math. Since students rely on reading in French to access content in all the other 

subject areas, and since they are evaluated in French, they need to secure a solid foundation of reading 

French in order to succeed in school (and to keep open their options for life after school). We 

recommend focusing on reading; strong consideration should be given to math as a component as well. 

Strategies under Component One could include the following. 

• Providing teachers with specific instructional techniques tailored to the challenges they face in their 

classrooms, notably, students learning to read in a foreign language. 

• Assisting teacher education institutions to incorporate teaching of reading and math as target areas 

in which they work to develop teacher competencies, so that teachers enter the profession with a 

portfolio of specific instructional techniques that will help students learn to read. 

• Because many students are struggling to read, and understand math, teachers and schools need to 

be able to deploy strategies designed specifically to remediate the problems students are having. 

This could include differentiated instruction, but also simpler interventions like after school, 

weekend, and (as pioneered by USAID/PAEM) summer school opportunities for students to catch 

up. 

• Part of the reason reading ability is so low for too many Senegalese students is that there are not 

enough books or other materials for them to read. The ministry places an emphasis on distributing 
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37 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

textbooks and other materials; however, students need more. Schools need to create literate 

environments if we are to expect students to develop reading not only as a decoding skill, but also 

as a vehicle for accessing, processing and understanding all kinds of information. A strategy that 

would support this component could therefore include “flooding” schools with books for students to 

read. 

In addition to interventions that directly target the teaching of reading (and/or math), schools in Senegal 

are faced with the challenge of managing their staff, resources, time and relationships so as to maximize 

what they are able to accomplish. As referenced earlier in this report, rather than materials or other 

resources, there is a school effect that derives from the management of the school that is a more 

powerful correlate of student performance.37 Current policy in Senegal supports a move towards more 

local say over school governance and management, and projects are working to provide some of the 

training and support local authorities, IDEN, school directors, communities, and teachers need to 

successfully take on these new responsibilities. However, we contend that many of these efforts would 

be more effective if incorporated into a coherent approach of school-based management. 

Component Two focuses on promoting a “whole school” approach to school governance, management 

and continuous improvement efforts. Whole school development models have attempted to change 

the professional and organizational culture of schools, promoting a more collegial environment with 

emphasis on collaboration and professional relations among the staff and extended to the local 

community. They also give considerable attention to teacher development activities as a way to 

improve student behaviour, learning and achievement (Hopkins 2002).38 Change is sought at all levels of 

the school. Teachers engage in professional dialogue and development, and, with the support of 

external professional agencies, the school culture changes (Harris 2002).39 Thus the focus is on the 

school as the unit of change. Whole school approaches have been successfully used to bring synergy to 

multi-level initiatives within an educational system in a number of countries including Ghana, Benin and 

Guinea. Such an approach would build on the work conducted by USAID/PAEM at school level, but 

frame it more explicitly in the research and methods associated with whole school change and sitebased management. 

This component could include strategies such as the following. 

• Redefining CGEs to include more community members, engaging CGEs and the broader schoolcommunity in a visioning exercise, providing training to all the local actors in school improvement 

planning, with a focus on student outcomes as measures of school effectiveness/improvement (this 

could complement activities under component one focused on reading or math outcomes), 

introducing school report cards, and revitalizing school projects to focus more directly on teaching 

and learning. 

• Within the whole school approach, providing materials and training so that site-based professional 

development can be focused on specific learning outcome improvement objectives, including 

mentoring, peer-to-peer learning, and school director-led professional development. 

• Focus on simple issues like increasing attendance as one way to improve student opportunities to 

learn, with a special emphasis on barriers that may constrain the participation and success of girls. 

 

37 Valry (2008)

38 Hopkins (2002) Instructional Leadership and School Improvement, National College of School Leadership 

39 Harris, A. (2002) School Improvement, Routledge Falmer.
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38 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

• Train local actors in how to monitor opportunities to learn and analyze factors that impinge on 

opportunities to learn at the school level. School improvement plans can include specific OTL 

targets such as increasing the number of days school is open from month to month, improving 

teacher attendance, etc. The broader community, local authorities, and potential partners can be 

mobilized around helping teachers and schools address the problems that cause absence or school 

to be closed. 

• Investments in rehabilitating school infrastructure or in purchasing basis inputs could help motivate 

actors who, in turn, work to improve conditions of schooling – e.g., through sub-granting, 

involvement of the community in contributions to school renovation, etc. This was one big lesson 

from USAID/PAEM, and could be applied in how the “whole school” model is introduced and 

approached. 

• Exploiting the natural feeder patterns of schools that exist in Senegal. Elementary schools exist in 

clusters in relationship to a middle school and perhaps secondary school. A project could work on 

the issue of what students from elementary schools need to succeed in middle school, and bring 

school personnel, communities and local authorities together to examine which schools are doing a 

better job, how, and what can be done to ensure more children can successfully transition from 

elementary to middle school. 

In addition to the components addressing school-level needs, we also recommend components that 

address some of the broader system-level issues our review revealed. 

Component Three takes on the problems of coordination and alignment among the teacher 

preparation, training, and support activities and entities in Senegal. We propose strategies for this 

component such as the following. 

• To address the backlog of teachers needing basic training and support, and to remove the 

bottleneck in teacher initial training, provide support for decentralized mechanisms for recruiting 

teachers, as well as a diversity of channels, venues, and programs for assuring teacher initial 

training. 

• Diversify the channels through which continuous teacher professional development is delivered. 

Training programs can be modularized and linked to specific teaching competencies, and can be 

delivered through a variety of hard and soft technologies. Overall, the education sector seems 

mired in the existing administrative approach to the problem of teacher development. There is high 

demand for training and resources (either from government or projects) available to pay for 

training. The situation cries out for a market-based supply response to the unmet demand.. 

• Part of what Senegal is struggling with to improve the quality of teaching and learning is a teaching 

profession and career structure that are not designed to motivate and draw the best out of 

teachers. Many stakeholders talked about the need for better career paths for teachers and even 

the unions expressed interest in career advancement and promotions being tied to performance onthe-job. This component would include technical assistance to help develop and implement these 

kinds of reforms (perhaps initially on a pilot basis, with good monitoring and evaluation). 

• With monitoring and evaluation in mind, this component could also include strategies to design and 

help implement mechanisms to monitor and evaluate the impact of teacher training programs – in 

terms of changes in teacher behavior and changes in student learning outcomes. 
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39 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

• Public private partnerships are another strategy that can support this component. While the 

government is responsible for ensuring delivery of quality education, it cannot be the sole resource 

provider. Industry and other stakeholders with an interest in education can provide unconventional 

but nevertheless critical financial and material support to teacher training efforts. If the system is to 

expand and improve, these sources should be tapped. 

Our review revealed that system management, while good intentioned, lacks the basic tools that allow 

decisions to be made based on an imperative to maximize efficiency and effectiveness. Part of what 

teachers, schools, and managers up and down the administrative hierarchy need is a system for 

monitoring activities, measuring implementation effectiveness and evaluating impact in terms of 

improved educational effectiveness. The MOE at all levels currently lacks real-time data on system 

performance and suffers from the absence of a truly standardized way to assess student learning. 

Component Four recommends ways to address this issue by promoting and supporting tools for 

standardized continuous assessment, building monitoring and evaluation capacity, and creating the 

elements of system-wide accountability. We recommend strategies to do this such as the following. 

• The MOE needs a national monitoring and evaluation system. Given the old adage, “You manage to 

what you measure,” the ministry needs to move away from measuring inputs only and introduce 

tools and processes for tracking OTL and student achievement, including the development of an 

item bank, training for teachers and IDENs to use items in routine assessments, and training of 

central ministry staff in the ongoing development and administration of national standardized 

assessments. 

• Part of such a system will need to be good methods and tools for standardized continuous 

assessment (conducted by teachers in class throughout the year) to provide data to teachers, 

schools, communities and the system as to how teachers and students are doing throughout the 

school year, not just on exams. EGRA and EGMA are also examples of such tools that focus on basic 

skills. Curriculum-based continuous assessment tools will also need to be developed. 

• Accountability can be addressed if this component also includes a strategy to develop, implement 

and publicize a national report card system that would make use of the data on OTL and student 

achievement to rate school effectiveness. 

• Introducing incentives based on report cards would be one way to motivate schools and their 

communities to improve. Of course, the kinds of strategies referred to under components one and 

two would also be needed so that schools and communities could access specific strategies designed 

to help them improve learning outcomes. 

Lastly, we are also concerned that any effort to introduce the kinds of reforms and interventions 

described in the four preceding components be supported by attention to the enabling conditions that 

help increase the probability that these innovations would be sustained on a large scale. Chief among 

the enabling conditions we are concerned about are the need for much more dynamic communication, 

the better alignment, communication and implementation of policy relating to the teaching profession 

and teacher development. 

Component Five therefore suggests strategies such as the following. 

• Opportunity to learn, defined as the available hours for instruction, is already a hot issue in Senegal. 

While some work has been done to try to address lost teaching time, more needs to be done to 
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40 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

define this issue and publicize and promote efforts to do something about it. As mentioned under 

component two, the best way to address problems of school being closed and teachers and students 

being absent is locally. However, a national campaign that publicizes this issue, generates dialogue 

about it and investigation of it, and that incentivizes people to do something about it would provide 

an enabling environment for the schools and communities trying to address these problems. 

• The focus on student acquisition of basic skills could benefit from a national campaign to help 

promote understanding of what good reading and good math look and sound like. Since the 

Hewlett Foundation is considering doing work on EGRA/EGMA in Senegal, there may be an 

opportunity to partner with them, and to leverage local public-private ventures to produce radio, 

television, and print spots on how students are learning to read and the factors (in school and at 

home) that support reading. 

• National policy can also enable the kinds of strategies being promoted to diversify and better align 

teacher recruitment, training and development (component 3). As shown in our review, Senegal 

needs to define and implement a common vision of a competent teacher – what skills, attributes, 

and techniques he or she must have – and then use that definition to design training, development 

and support programs and interventions based on what it takes to develop those skills, attributes 

and techniques in every teacher. This would also include ways to measure teacher competency and 

to link it to student learning outcomes (and therefore validate, or invalidate some initial 

assumptions about what makes for a good teacher). 

• Finalize and disseminate a national teacher training and professional development policy. The DRH 

informed us that one exists, but outside of that office, it did not appear that anyone else knows 

about it, let alone designs and plans strategies based on it. A comprehensive review of the policy, 

and an updating that would address many of the issues raised in this review would help better 

frame and coordinate teacher development activities, as well as to authorize the actions needed to 

implement the types of reforms recommended in this paper . 

6. Conclusion 

Our sector review revealed a number of features of Senegal’s basic education system that merit careful 

consideration. First, though we assumed from the outset that teacher training would emerge as a 

concern in Senegal (as it does in most developing countries), we did not anticipate the extent to which it 

would be viewed as the primary impediment to educational quality. Of course, we do not understand 

this to mean that all, or even most, of Senegal’s teachers are doing a poor job; rather, “the concern 

behind the concern” is more likely that recruitment and training standards have been falling for years, 

and that a continued increase in the percentage of poorly trained, or untrained, teachers does not bode 

well for the future of Senegal’s education system. 

Secondly, we were not surprised to learn that teaching time (opportunities to learn - OTL) was such a 

concern in Senegal as well. What stood out to us was the extent to which OTL was impacted by the 

frequency and extensiveness of teacher strikes on the one hand, and the seeming near-absence of a 

strategy on the part of the government to pre-empt these strikes or to manage communications and 

shape public opinion, on the other. 

Finally, as a subtext to nearly all we learned about untrained teachers, insufficient learning time, and 

poor learning outcomes, the concept of an enabling environment as a key factor in educational quality 

was reiterated again and again. Whether the subject was the conditions of schooling (dilapidated 

infrastructure, insufficient materials), weak support systems (neglected PRFs, large inspector/teacher 

ratios), weak management capacity at the community, school, regional or national levels, and an unclear 
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41 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

policy environment, we learned that even the most promising interventions were at risk of failing, and in 

fact many had over the years. As one respondent said, “Projects come here to die,” sadly, because a 

sufficiently enabling environment does not exist to nurture them into long-term health. 

It was on the basis of these observations that our research focused on seven key areas of interest, 

ultimately leading to five possible courses of action (“components”) for the mission to consider. These 

five components reflect our conclusion (1) that support for middle school should continue while support 

for elementary school is also initiated to improve quality, (2) that basic skills in the areas of reading and, 

if possible, mathematics, should be an area of focus for interventions at the school level, and (3) that an 

enabling environment (i.e., improved school conditions, management, policy) should be supported in 

order to increase the chances of making short-term interventions sustainable over the longer term. 

In short, we believe that some combination of direct intervention and systems support would provide 

the mission with the greatest possibility of making an impact on the quality of teaching and learning 

while making long-term sustainability of these interventions possible. We also advise that systems 

support be conducted in a limited, focused way – not an effort to train everyone to do everything at 

every level, rather, a deliberate and focused program to develop capacity of personnel from the central 

ministry to the local levels, to effectively plan, manage, monitor and evaluate educational interventions 

targeting direct intervention included in this project as its “case study.” 

Of course, the mission must make strategic decisions about its investments and is unlikely to be able to 

support all 5 components proposed above in equal measure. If the mission has to choose a limited set of 

components, we believe that the above criteria of providing direct intervention and systems support 

could be achieved, for example, by focusing on Components 1 and 4, with the understanding that 

“subcomponents” are interchangeable and could be reconfigured or “customized” to meet the specific 

objectives that the mission develops for this procurement. For example, if the objective is to strengthen 

both teacher training and M&E capacity in the ministry, the subcomponent “System for M&E of teacher 

development activities in place” from Component 3 could be added to Component 4. 

Whichever components and subcomponents are selected, we believe that a balance of direct 

intervention and systems support, selected in light of their potential for impact, ease of implementation 

and sustainability, will prove to be a wise investment choice for USAID and will considerably enhance 

the chances of success of its forthcoming support for improving the quality of education in Senegal. 
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

42 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Annexes
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

43 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Annex A: Detailed Analytical Framework for the Review 

Quality Framework Political Dimension Institutional Dimension Techn

Policy Politics Institutional Env. Capacity National 

1. Curriculum allows for sufficient depth and identifies learning criteria (standards) in core subjects

What reforms or 

improvements are currently underway? In what direction are they moving the curriculum? Do national standards exist and, if so, how are they communicated? What lessons were learned in PAEM regarding middle school curriculum? 

What priority is 

attached to curriculum issues – inside MOE, among teachers, among other key stakeholders? What forces are driving curriculum issues (internal, external)? 

What are 

relationships – national, IA, local, school in relation to curriculum? What drives curriculum choices at school level? What institutional incentives are teachers responding to in implementing curriculum? 

Where does 

curriculum capacity reside? What capacity is there for supporting curriculum at different levels? What capacity is there at different levels for incorporating or dealing with curricular changes? 

How is curriculum 

currently structured - what weight (amount of time) is given to core subjects at different grade levels? 

Wha

play comand curri

2. Assessments 

that are aligned to core curriculum objectives are available and used to monitor student learning and to evaluate proficiency 

Is there any explicit 

policy framework regarding use of assessment to monitor student learning? What direction is the county moving in regarding assessment and examinations? 

What is status of 

existing examinations and how are they seen by different stakeholders? Are there any forces pushing for better use of assessment? To what extent is better assessment a priority for anyone? 

What forces drive 

use of assessment? Are assessment results used to 

judge schools or 

teachers? How is learning progress evaluated? How is assessment treated in teacher development? 

Where does 

assessment capacity reside? What capacities do teachers have for developing and using assessments? 

Are assessment 

approaches defined and communicated from the national level? If so, by whom? Outside the MOE, is there technical capacity for developing and supporting use of assessments to monitor learning? 

Do IA 

in prassesappr
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

44 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Quality Framework Political Dimension Institutional Dimension Techn

Policy Politics Institutional Env. Capacity National 

3. Teachers have 

the training, support, & knowledge they need to create sound instructional strategies and to use assessments 

What is policy re 

different classes of teachersfonctionnaires, contractuels, volontaires? What is current career and pay structure? What is policy regarding initial and ongoing training? How does training and level of certification or qualification effect deployment of teachers? 

To what extent is 

teacher quality a policy priority? For whom? What is the balance between forces pushing for certification v. forces pushing for qualification? What are politics associated with different classes of teachers? What is the labor market for teachers like? 

What incentives 

do teachers have to participate in ongoing training? How do TT institutions relate to rest of the system? What is focus of teacher preservice? Through what channels do people enter the teaching profession? 

Where does 

capacity for developing and implementing teacher training and support programs reside? Does gov’t have capacity to manage a nonfonctionnariate teaching profession? 

Are there 

professional standards for teachers? If so, how are they communicated, reinforced, monitored? What institutions at the national level are most important for teacher development, ongoing training and support? 

Wha

play and teacWhaplay teacstand

4. Schools & 

teachers receive support to implement changes and improvements 

What is national 

policy regarding provision of support to schools? How are resources for support determined and allocated? 

To what extent is 

school support seen as a priority? By whom? How flexible is the government in thinking about support arrangements? 

To whom do 

school support providers report and how is their performance evaluated? What role do schools play in defining their support needs? 

What capacity 

resides in the MOE and outside the MOE for school support services? What are lessons from PAEM and other projects re provision of school support? 

Do national 

institutions play role in defining support roles, functions or standards? 

Wha

betwand the I
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

45 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Quality Framework Political Dimension Institutional Dimension Techn

Policy Politics Institutional Env. Capacity National 

5. Schools & 

teachers have the materials they need and know how to use them appropriately 

What is policy 

regarding acquisition and distribution of materials? Are there existing norms for materials availability and use? Is so, how are norms communicated and reinforced? 

What drives the 

selection of materials? What besides budget determines availability of materials? 

Where does 

distribution of materials breakdown? How are materials perceived at different points in the system (as assets to be preserved, as commodities to be consumed, etc)? 

What capacity is 

there for developing or improving materials? What capacity issues most impact materials availability and use? 

Who oversees 

development of materials? How good are existing materials – alignment with curriculum, easy for teachers to use, etc.? 

Wha

play devedistruse? 

6. Class sizes are 

reasonable 

Is there national 

policy re class size? How do policies re teacher hiring, assignment and workload impact class size? 

Is class size an 

issue for anyone? What, if anything is driving class size? Does the system work towards desirable class sizes? 

What drives 

school-level decisions about class size? What drives teacher assignment? 

How well are 

analyses of teaching force (projected need, available supply, career advancement, etc) done? 

Who manages 

teacher hiring and deployment? What systems are used to identify additional posts, vacancies, needs for transfer and replacement, etc.? 

Do IA 

teacdeplman

7. Available time 

for school is maximized (days school is open) 

What is official 

school calendar and how flexible is it? What other issues are tied to the calendar? 

Who, if anyone 

supports changes in or changed approaches to school calendar? What drives the calendar? 

Are there any 

incentives for maximizing available days? Is implementation of the school calendar monitored? 

Can existing data 

systems monitor available days? What lessons have been learned by existing projects? 

What office is in 

charge of setting the calendar? What drives their decisions? 

Do IA 

in mavailDo IA actioavail
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46 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Quality Framework Political Dimension Institutional Dimension Techn

Policy Politics Institutional Env. Capacity National 

8. Teacher 

presence is maximized 

What is policy 

regarding teacher attendance? How do assignment and management policies and procedures effect attendance? 

Is teacher 

attendance an issue or priority for anyone? How is attendance treated for different classes of teachers? 

Who monitors and 

reports on teacher attendance? Are there any rewards or sanctions related to teacher attendance? 

Can existing data 

systems monitor teacher attendance? What data are available on this? 

Is there technical 

capacity at the national level to (inside or outside MOE) to evaluate and analyze teacher attendance? 

Do IA 

monattencan tattenissueDo IA capamonatten

9. Student 

attendance is maximized 

What policies most 

impact student attendance? 

Is student 

attendance an issue or priority for anyone? 

Is student 

attendance monitored? Must schools report on it? Are there any rewards or sanctions related to attendance? 

Can existing data 

systems monitor student attendance? What data are available on this? 

Is there technical 

capacity at the national level to (inside or outside MOE) to evaluate and analyze student attendance? 

Do IA 

studattenschohelp addrattenissueDo IA capamonatten
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

47 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Quality Framework Political Dimension Institutional Dimension Techn

Policy Politics Institutional Env. Capacity National 

10. The school day 

is organized and managed to reduce wasted time 

What is policy 

regarding school daily schedule? How rigorously is it adhered to? Has there been any innovation around the organization of the school day? 

What drives how 

schools manage their schedule on a day-to-day basis? Is this an issue for anyone? 

Are there rewards 

or sanctions for how well a school manages its schedule? Do director or school evaluations include organization and management of the school day? Are there any forces driving innovation in school organization? 

Can existing data 

systems monitor implementation of the schedule on a day-to-day basis? On a spot check basis? 

Is there technical 

capacity at the national level to (inside or outside MOE) to evaluate and analyze the organization and management of the school day? Have projects learned any lessons re improved organization of the school day? 

Do IA

the oand of th

11. Teachers and 

students spend as much time as possible engaged in instructional strategies in core subject areas 

What is policy 

regarding instructional time in core subjects? How is that communicated and reinforced? How rigid is the approach? 

What drives 

instructional time, in de jure terms and de facto terms? Are there any advocates for maximizing instructional time in core subjects? 

Are there rewards 

or sanctions related to instructional time? Do teacher evaluations include time on task-like data? What forces impact teacher decisions regarding use of time in class? 

Can existing data 

systems monitor time on task? 

Is there technical 

capacity at the national level (inside or outside MOE) to evaluate and analyze time on task? Have projects learned any lessons about how best to help teachers make good use of instructional time? 

Do IA 

time they capa
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48 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Annex B: Details of Stakeholder Interviews 

The CCFS consultant team interviewed 170 people in Dakar and in several regions and departments to 

the east, north and south of the capital. The following tables summarize the interviews conducted in 

Dakar and during the two field trips. 

Dakar

Category 

Agency/ 

Office Person Title 

Financial and 

Technical Partners 

CIDA Ibrahima Dione Education Specialist

AFD Gilles Chausse Assistant Director

World 

Bank 

Meskeram Mulatu Education Operations Officer

JICA Akaya Ito Education Project Development 

CF Gilles Thuaudet Education Specialist

Ministry Minister Kalidou Diallo Diarama Minister of Pre-, Elementary and Middle School

DEMSG Ibrahima Ndour Director

Papa Sene Coorindator

Lamine Sarr Head of Office for Pedagogical Innovations

DPRE Djibril Ndiaye Diouf Director

DEE Abdou Diao Director 

Maudione Mbengue

Celle Ndiaye

Aboubakry Ba

Mariama Cisse

STCRC Moustapha Touré General Secretary

Carolle Lévesque Education advisor (CIDA)

DAGE Mame Moussé Ndoye Director

INEADE Fatimata Ba Niang Director

DAENF Mamadou Mara Interim Director

Moussa Fall

Salim Hénaine

Ngor Sene

Division of 

Exams 

Moussé Narou 

Mbengue 

Director

DRH Adama Diouf Director

Masseyui HBiaye, Coordinator

Marie Siby Head of Social Promotion Division

Mamadou Seydu Ly Head of Employment and Competency Division

Massamba Wade Coordinator

Khady Diop Mbodjo Head of Training Office

CNFC Joseph Barr Former Director

CNFIC Abdou Sow Director
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49 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Dakar

Category 

Agency/ 

Office Person Title 

Other Aide et 

Action 

Hamidou Soukouna Access and Quality Director

CRES M. Diagne Director

ISM Abdrahmane Kane Director, External Relations

Le Sud 

Quotidien 

Mika Lom Journalist

EDB Jennifer Spratt Technical Specialist

SELS Souleymane Diallo General Secretary 

(Union of Free Educators in Senegal) 

SUDES Ahmet Coly General Secretary

(Unique Union of Democratic Teachers in Senegal) 

Field Data Collection: Summary of Two Field Trips

Agency, Office, or Group 

No. of 

People Men Woman Place 

CGE / APE 20 Djourbel, Tambacounda, 

Fattick 

Chef d’Etablissement 4 4 Kaolack, Tambacounda, 

Fattick 

Surveillants 2 2 Tambacounda, Djourbel

Chef d’Etablissement Adjoint 3 Tambacounda, Fattick

Collectivité 3 2 1 Tambacounda, Fattick, 

Kaolack, Djourbel 

Directeur, EFI 2 2 Kaolack, Tambacounda

Directeur Etudes, EFI 2 2 Djourbel, Tambacounda

Formateurs, EFI 2 2 Tambacounda

Enseignants 22 8 14 Kaolack, Djourbel, 

Tambacounda 

Inspecteur d’Academie 2 2 Tambacounda, Djourbel

Inspecteur d’Académie Adjoint 3 3 Fattick, Kaolack, 

Tambacounda 

Inspecteur Départemental 3 3 Fattick, Tambacounda, 

Koalack 

ONG 5 2 3 Fattick, Kaolack

Directeur, PRF 1 1 Kaolack

Formateurs, PRF 4 4 Fattick, Tambacounda

Syndicats, membres 9 8 1 Tambacounda, St Louis

Élèves 6 3 3 Tambacounda

Femmes Leaders 6 6 Tambacounda

IS, IVS, CPI 34 24 11 Fattick, Tambacounda, 

Kaolack 

Amis des Femmes Enseignantes 5 1 4

Total 134 75 43
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50 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Annex C: Documents Consulted for the Review 

ADEF (2006) Revue pédagogique. Association pour le développement de l’éducation et de la formation 

en Afrique, No. 5. Dakar : Sénégalaise de l’imprimerie. Mai. 

ADEF (2006) Revue pédagogique. Association pour le développement de l’éducation et de la formation 

en Afrique, No. 6. Dakar : Sénégalaise de l’imprimerie. Décembre. 

AED (2006) Expanded Program Description. Academy for Educational Development, Washington DC. 

Akyeampong (2004) Whole School Development in Ghana, UNESCO 

Caraquet (2008) Synthèse des résultats PASEC VII et VIII : Document de travail. 

Centre de recherches econommiques appliquées, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar (2003) Etude 

socio-culturelle sur la demande et l’offre d’éducation au Sénégal. Eléments d’analyse. Dakar : CREA. 

Conseil régional de Kaolack (2007) Joiurnee régionale de l’excellence : Investissements realisés par le 

Conseil régional dans le secteur de l’éducation. Edition 2007. 

Dept. of State (2009) FY 2010 Mission Strategic Plan. US Mission to Senegal. 

Dept. of State (2010) FY 2010 Mission Strategic Plan. US Mission to Senegal. 

DeStefano, Joseph et al (2007) Reaching the Underserved: Complementary Models of Effective 

Schooling, Washington, DC: USAID, EQUIP2 

DeStefano, Joseph & Luis Crouch (2007) Education Reform Support Today, Wash., DC: USAID, EQUIP2 

DPRE/MOE (2004) Extrait du rapport sur l’analyse du secteur de l’éducation. Dakar : Centre de 

recherches Economiques Appliquées, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar. 

Gilles, John and Jessica Jester Quijada (2008) Opportunity to Learn: A high impact strategy for improving 

educational outcomes in developing countries, Washington, DC: Education Quality Improvement 

Program 2, Academy for Educational Development. 

Hanushek, Eric A. and Ludger Wobman (2007) Education Quality and Economic Growth, Washington, 

DC : World Bank. 

Harris, A. (2002) School Improvement, Routledge Falmer. 

Hopkins (2002) Instructional Leadership and School Improvement, National College of School Leadership 

INEADE (2003) Resumé analytique : Etude sur les pratiques evaluatives des maitres dans l’enseignement 

elementaire au Sénégal. Dakar : MOE/PDEF. 

INEADE. (depliant). Dakar : Institut National d’étude et d’action pur le developement de l’éducation. 

JICA (xxx) Agence japonaise de coopération internationale. JICA. (brochure) 

MEN (2003) Programme de développement de l'education et de la formation (Education Pour Tous). 

Dakar : MEN. 

MOE (2005) Gestion de la qualité de l’éducation et de la formation dans la deuxieme phase du PDEF 

(Document d’orientation). Version provisoire. Dakar, MOE. 

MOE (2005) Gestion de la qualité de l’éducation et de la formation dans la deuxieme phase du Pdef. 

Dakar : Ministère de l’éducation. 
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

51 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

MOE (xxx) Etude diasgnostique et prospective sur la gestion du temps d’enseignement apprentissage à 

l’école. Adama Diouf, Dir., Ressources Humaine. PowerPoint presentation. 

MOE (2008) Annuaire Statistique National, année scolaire 2007/2008, MOE. 

MOE (2008) Rapport National sur la Situation de l’Education, MOE. 

MOE/DPRE (2003) Analyse socioculturelle de la demande d’éducation. Résultats préliminaires. 

Document PowerPoint. 

MOE/DPRE (2004) Extrait du raport sur l’analyse du secteur de l’éducation. Université Cheikh Anta Diop 

de Dakar : Centre de recherches economiques apppliques. 

Monde de l’éducation, No. 004, Oct. 2008. Bimensuel d’informations sur l’éducation. Special curriculum. 

Sponsorisé par l’ACDI. 

MOW, Rep. du Senegal (2002 ?) Diagnostic de la qualité. 

Niane Boubacar & Robert François (2007) Sénégal Country Case Study. Paris: UNESCO. 

Niane, Boubacar (2004) Innovation and reform to improve basic education quality in Senegal to achieve 

EFA goals. Unpublished paper. 

Pôle de Dakar (2008 ?) La scolarisation primaire universelle en Afrique : le défi enseignant. Dakar : Pôle 

de Dakar. 

Secteur de l’éducation et de la fomration, République du Sénégal (2007) Programme decennal de 

l’éducation et de la formation : Programme de renforcement des capacités. Dakar : DPRE. 

USAID (2006) Strategic Objective Grant Agreement, SOAG 685-013 

USAID (xxxx) PAEM Rapport sur l’évaluation des acquis des élèves de quatrième en mathématiques, 

sciences physiques et sciences de la vie et de la terre 

Varly, Pierre (2006) Gestion scolaire et réussite éducative : Les analyses du PASEC. Unpublished paper 

presented in Madagascar, 4-8 avril 2006 

World Bank (2005) Recruiting, Retaining and Retraining Teachers and Principals in Sub-Saharan Africa, 

Washington, DC: World Bank. 

World Bank (2007) World Development Report 2007: Development and the Next Generation, 

Washington, DC: World Bank. 
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52 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Annex D: Education Projects in Senegal 

Funding Agency Main Targets Funding Duration

CIDA Budgetary support 43.3 billion CFA Through 2012

Reinforcing EFI 6.5 billion CFA Ending 2009

Initial and in-service training for volunteer and 

contractual teachers 

2.7 billion CFA Ending 2009

Elementary education curriculum 

development 

2.0 billion CFA Ending 2009

Training for elementary teachers in new 

curriculum 

20 million CAN Through 2013

AFD Renovation and quality improvement in 

schools in the Dakar suburbs, including local 

governance and civil society collaboration 

8.3 billion FFA Ending 2009

Support to sector leadership and management 3.7 million EUR Ending 2009

Reinforcing ministry capacity 

(pooled fund w/WB, Japan) 

3.0 million EUR

Budgetary support 11.0 million EUR Through 2009

French Foreign Ministry University education 1.2 billion CFA Through 2010

French Cooperation Improving teaching 2.7 billion CFA Ending 2009

FTI Catalytic Fund School construction and rehabilitation 81.5 million USD Through 2011

World Bank Quality education and expanded access 30.0 million USD Ending 2009

Reinforcing ministry capacity 

(pooled fund w/AFD, Japan) 

62.3 billion CFA

AfDB Construction and quality improvements 14.2 billion CFA Ending 2009

Islamic Development Bank Construction of elementary, middle and 

secondary schools, materials, school projects, 

etc 

5.9 billion CFA Ending 2009

JICA Improving school environments: training and 

support for schools 

Through 2010

Reinforcing math, science and technology 

teaching 

Through ??

Budgetary support for school projects

Reinforcing ministry capacity 

(pooled fund w/WB, AFD) 

Through 2010

Nordic Development Fund Special education Ending 2008

Professional and technical education Through 2010

Teaching materials Ending 2008

UNFPA Family life education 80.0 million CFA Through 2011

Belgium Cooperation Professional training for woman 1.3 billion CFA Through 2011

USAID Support to middle schools: construction, 

training, quality improvements, ICT 

30.0 million USD Ending 2010

Basic Education project: middle school 

curriculum, ICT, teacher training, local 

governance, vulnerable children 

40.0 million USD Through 2014

Source: DPRE, BUREAU DE SUIVI DES PROJETS ET PROGRAMMES, Mercredi 04 mars 09 
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53 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Details of some funding agency projects: 

The biggest funding partners of the government in education are the Canadians. They are putting 120 

million CAD into sector budget support to help finance the PDEF. In addition, the Canadians have 

recently concluded a project that supported the multiyear process of curriculum reform for elementary 

education. The old curriculum has been completely rewritten and is now competency-based. The 

assigned technical committees have written materials for each grade in the elementary cycle and for X 

subject areas – language, math, physical and life sciences, X. Financing for the printing of the first set of 

materials (for the two grades in which the program will initially be implemented – CI and CE1) is in the 

GOS budget for this year. CIDA has launched a new 20 million CAD project to cover the training needs 

associated with introducing every elementary school teacher in the country to the new curriculum. The 

technical secretariat that has overseen the development of the materials is training the Inspectors from 

FASTEF and the EFI who are to provide the training to teachers. CIDA has also funded pedagogical kits 

and reference materials for approximately 2,000 schools and have provided 30,000 student and teacher 

desks through a project which is ending this year. The Canadians are also providing equipment, library 

materials and furniture for all the EFI in the country through another project. 

Like the Canadians, the French (AFD) provide both budgetary and project-based support. In addition to 

11 million euros of sector budgetary support, the AFD funds a project that is implemented in partnership 

with Action Aid and which works with schools in the suburbs of Dakar. In addition, AFD manages a fund 

that provides TA, training and equipment to help improve “pilotage” in ministry technical offices and on 

a pilot basis in two IA. AFD also contributes to a jointly funded capacity building project (with the Bank 

and XX) targeting improved management in the central ministry. The French Cooperation is ending its 

last project in the education sector, which focused on teacher training for French, math and science 

instruction in elementary, middle and secondary schools. 

JICA has financed approximately 1,500 elementary classrooms concentrated in Dakar, Thies, Falik, Louga 

and Kaoulack Two other JICA projects support improvements in school quality. One working in Louga 

focuses on local governance and management, working with communities and school management 

committees. They also provide school director training and for the schools where they are working, the 

Japanese foreign ministry also provides small grants for school improvement projects. Another project 

targets improved math, science and technology teaching in Louga, Fatik and Thies, providing teacher 

training in lesson planning and use of practical examples and materials from the school/community 

environment. Both of the JICA quality improvement projects rely on a decentralized, cascading school 

support structure that works with regional training teams that support IDEN-based training teams that 

work directly with the cellule d’animation pédagogique (CAP) in each school. The trainers from the IDEN 

are supposed to visit schools as frequently as once each month to work with teachers on instructional 

strategies in the target subjects. 

USAID’s current education SOAG is supported by two projects. There is one year remaining on the 

PAEM which has been an important vehicle of support for middle schools in Senegal. Over the past five 

years, PAEM’s major accomplishments have included: (i) building/renovating 58 middle schools in the 

targeted regions through the use of best practices, effective management and significant community 

contribution; (ii) increasing middle school enrollment rates by 28% in USAID-funded regions; (iii) 

increasing middle school enrollment of girls from 34% to 41%; (iv) providing high school scholarships to 

250 female middle school graduates; (v) developing teacher and principal performance standards for 

middle school teacher education, designing training modules for teachers and principals, and providing 

training to over 1900 teachers and 900 principals nationwide; and (vi) facilitating the organization and 
The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review USAID/Senegal

54 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

training of 58 CGE and working with them to develop their school improvement plans [from 2007-08 

annual report]. 

PAEM is cited by ministry officials, financial and technical partners and other actors in the education 

sector as a great model for expanding and improving middle school education. PAEM is in fact referred 

to as an example of how to more efficiently deploy teachers to expand access to middle school. 

Construction of additional middle schools following the PAEM model has been taking place through the 

FAR mechanism. As outlined in a memorandum of understanding, the GOS is supposed to finance an 

initial phase of XX middle schools, followed by two additional phases of XX and XX. When the first phase 

of construction was to be completed and the contractors completed paid off, USAID was to disburse 

$1.9 million, with $4 million to follow for each of the next two phases, equaling a total obligation of $9.9 

million. No FAR reimbursement has yet been made as the first phase construction sites have not been 

completed. The government has begun work on some of the second phase cites, but the FAR 

mechanism cannot reimburse the first phase sites until they are all completed. 

In addition to the PAEM, USAID has just officially launched the Basic Education Project (EDB). The EDB 

contractors have sketched out a work plan organized around five main components. These include: 

• Improving access for vulnerable children in the regions of Dakar, Louga, St. Louis, and Matam by 

working with daras (koranic schools); 

• Improving the quality of curriculum and instruction in middle school, picking up and building on 

many of the activities of PAEM, and adding to that support for the introduction of curriculum 

related to good governance and the world of work; 

• Supporting local governance beyond CGE, dealing with APE and their departmental and regional 

federations, working with regional and local elected councils and helping IA and IDEN function 

as technical services to these local authorities; 

• Completing the work begun under PAEM to support ICT in middle schools – assuring electricity, 

internet access, and school based wireless networks; 

• Promoting public private partnerships to support all of the above. 
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55 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Annex E: Detail Descriptions of Recommended Components 

COMPONENT 1 

Component 1: Assuring basic skills acquisition throughout elementary and middle school

IR 1.1: Teachers trained in teaching basic literacy skills and higher order reading skills

Sub-IRs: 

• Training modules incorporated into programs at EFI/used at school-level for school-based training 

• Teachers making use of a variety of techniques specifically designed to teach reading to children 

Rationale: Teachers do not have the knowledge or skills to teach early reading to children whose first 

language is not French; Little attention is currently paid to teaching students to read for information 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Develop training modules and provide training to train early years teachers in reading readiness 

activities, whole word, phonics and syllabic approaches to reading. Include specific strategies for 

teaching reading to children whose first language is not French e.g. Whole Language approach, 

language experience approach 

b. Develop training modules and provide training focusing on the development of reading 

comprehension skills in order to read with fluency for information across all subject areas 

c. Develop categories of specialist teachers in the teaching of reading 

Resource Implications: Development of materials = medium; Delivery of training --Dependent in part on 

delivery options selected

Impact: Potentially high if knowledge, skills and attitudes are targeted

Key Assumptions: (1) Although policy is clear on issue of instruction in national languages, this remains 

an area which evokes strong feelings and which is highly politically charged. This activity should focus on 

teaching reading rather than the teaching of French in order to avoid being drawn into this debate; (2) Interventions in 

this area will support the MOE in its implementation of the new curriculum which is highly text dependent; (3) Field-based 

training mechanisms can be rendered effective with appropriate degrees of project support

Component 1: Assuring basic skills acquisition throughout elementary and middle school

IR 1.2: Improve the capacity of teacher preparation institutions and teacher support structures to 

promote and support the teaching of reading and math. 

Sub IRs: 

• Curricula at initial training institutions reviewed and revised 

• Principals & other support staff offering help and advice to teachers to support literacy and numeracy 

Rationale: Teacher educators (including CPIs, IS, school principals) not up-to-date in terms of more 

recent approaches to the teaching of literacy; Curricula generally not balanced in terms of attention to 

reading comprehension skills. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Provide training to trainers and support personnel in teaching of literacy and numeracy 

b. Provide short participant training opportunities to familiarize key personnel with current approaches 

to the teaching of reading and math in the international arena 

Resource Implications: a = Low b = High

Impact: Potentially high if knowledge, skills and attitudes are targeted

Key Assumptions: (1) Teacher institutions are willing to revise/update curricula; (2) existing teacher 

support personnel can effectively impart specific teaching strategies linked to promoting literacy & 

numeracy
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56 Center for Collaboration and the Future of Schooling

Component 1: Assuring basic skills acquisition throughout elementary and middle school

IR 1.3: Introduce remedial programs to help children with challenges in reading and math throughout 

elementary and at middle schools in particular 

And Sub IRs: 

• Methodologies for identifying struggling students introduced 

• Learning gains of students who would otherwise be behind 

• Additional instructional time available during day, after school, at other times 

Rationale: If children do not learn to read in the early years, other aspects of the curriculum will be 

denied to them; there are currently few opportunities for students to “catch up”. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Assist administrators to track improvements in literacy rates at school, regional and district levels 

b. Help teachers to identify children who have reading and math difficulties, including dyslexia 

c. Equip teachers with strategies to students struggling in reader and math 

d. Explore complementary approaches e.g. peer mentoring, after-school clubs, summer camps 

Resource Implications: 

Impact: Potentially high in short term, as number of students who would otherwise fail are helped to 

succeed. 

Key Assumptions: (1) Mechanisms for organizing and paying supplemental instructional time can be 

developed and implemented; (2)teachers and their unions would not resist such mechanisms; (3) 

additional instructional time can be used to demonstrable effect – i.e. different techniques would be able 

to help student progress.

Component 1: Assuring basic skills acquisition throughout elementary and middle school

IR 1.4: Environment more conducive to reading at all levels in the basic education cycle

Sub IRs: 

• Increased print-rich / book-rich environment in schools 

• Increased numbers of children report engagement in regular reading activities 

Rationale: Children are generally learning to read by reading individual words or phrases from the board; 

few resources available; Little opportunity or awareness of reading for pleasure or information; libraries 

in disrepair. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Explore public / private partnership opportunities (e.g. Senegalese diaspora, local and international 

publishers) to support “book floods”, “library in a box” 

b. Strengthen MOE’s initiatives in “coin de lecture” 

c. Help teachers upgrade their own language and reading skills through the use of distance learning and 

innovative technologies 

d. Explore book clubs, child-led reading activities, reading competitions 

e. Train “specialist” reading staff in care and management of books 

Resource Implications: Low if significant amount of PPP resources are mobilized. Use of technology 

should piggy-back on other projects introducing ICT into schools.

Impact: Low impact in the short-term. High impact in medium to long term if coupled with other 

strategies to better equip teachers to teach reading. 

Key Assumptions: (1) PPP can be promoted; (2) lessons can be learned from the “coin de lecture” 

initiative of the MOE; (3) adequate quantities of reading books – i.e. story books and other interesting 

materials, distinct from textbooks, can be found.
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COMPONENT 2 

Component 2: Promoting a whole school approach to school governance, management & improvement

IR 2.1: Broader, more frequent and purposeful school community collaboration

Sub IRs: 

• Schools develop vision to inform school improvement planning and target interventions and vision is 

shared among community 

• Broader community participation in school decision-making 

• PEs focused on improvement of learning goals 

• All interventions at school level focused on overall vision 

Rationale: Builds on successes of PAEM at ensuring interventions at school level target a common goal; 

Most PEs are currently focused on resources as an end in themselves rather as a contribution to the 

improvement of learning; Strengthen and render more purposeful existing structures. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Provide opportunities for visioning exercises at school level making use of existing structures such as 

Amis de College in PAEM areas 

b. Providing training / training modules to school communities to foster the promotion of a more 

collaborative school culture 

c. Redefine CGE mandate to include more community membership/representation 

d. Revitalize the PE to focus on overall learning goals

e. Explore ways of making school accountable to parents and community e.g. extending PAEM-based 

fora, school report cards

Resource Implications: Low, unless includes funding for PEs

Impact: limited impact, but lays the groundwork for better school management

Key Assumptions: (1) There will continue to be at least some level of funding for the PEs; (2) existing 

approach to PEs can be modified/redirected to be more supportive of a whole school process and of 

activities geared to support improvements in teaching and learning.

Component 2: Promoting a whole school approach to school governance management & improvement

IR 2.2: School-based training and development structures are strengthened and extended

Sub IRs: 

• Teacher development sessions take place on a regular basis within the school 

• School principals and other educators provide ongoing support to teachers 

Rationale: A number of structures already exist but are not always functioning; addresses priority of 

using school directors and principals as on-site support for teachers. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Provide SBT materials to build on the work of the CAPs including cross-curricular training materials 

b. Train school principals and other educators in supervisory positions in mentoring and support skills 

c. Introduce peer observation and mentoring options building on a culture of learning within the school 

Resource Implications: Training costs will be a function of how wide-spread implementation is; Low 

material costs.

Impact: Medium-term impact as schools become better able to improve their own teaching; coupled 

with other initiatives, through which teaching skills and strategies enhanced, could have high impact on 

learning outcomes. 

Key Assumptions: (1) School staffs can be made to work productively together on improving teaching, (2) 

communities and local authorities will support – materially – teacher improvement efforts
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Component 2: Promoting a whole school approach to school governance management & improvement

IR 2.3: Attendance of children especially girls is maximized

Sub IRs: 

• Grants awarded to support attendance of vulnerable children, especially girls 

• Communities more aware of barriers to attendance 

• Schools making decisions to alter schedules in response to local needs 

Rationale: A number of structures already exist but are not always functioning; addresses priority of 

using school directors and principals as on-site support for teachers. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. System of grants for vulnerable children especially girls 

b. Community and parental awareness-raising activities 

c. Flexible school schedules based on appropriate calendar to suit community 

d. After-school clubs 

Resource Implications: Grants would be small, so not big project cost. Activities promoting the approach 

would piggy-back on other school level interventions

Impact: High impact on attendance, could have high medium-term impact on learning outcomes

Key Assumptions: (1) barriers to attendance are amenable to school/community level solutions, (2) 

system will support ideas developed and implemented at the school level (e.g. if schools chose to go to 

flexible hours, system will permit it).

Component 2: Promoting a whole school approach to school governance management & improvement

IR 2.4: Opportunity to learn is maximized

Sub IRs: 

• Increase number of days schools are open during the year 

• Decrease teacher absenteeism 

• Partnerships formed to address reasons for teacher absenteeism 

Rationale: Critical feature of improving teaching and learning at the school level is assuring more time for 

instruction; Problem of school closing and teacher attendance can best be addressed locally (within a 

national framework promoting these issues (see component 5). 

Illustrative Activities:

a. CPs and school directors/principals receive training in collecting information and facilitating dialogue 

around school being open 

b. CPs and school directors/principals receive training in collecting information and facilitating dialogue 

around teacher attendance 

c. Local authorities enlisted to find creative solutions to issues that impact teacher attendance (e.g. 

need to travel to collect pay, social problems faced by teachers and their families) 

d. PPP and union involvement promoted to provide support to teachers at the local level to deal with 

health and social problems 

Resource Implications: Low input costs, process costs will piggy back on other school level interventions

Impact: High impact as instructional time is increased

Key Assumptions: (1) schools/communities can devise interventions and strategies that will improve 

OTL, (2) schools will make use of additional days/hours for additional, effective instruction.
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Component 2: Promoting a whole school approach to school governance management & improvement

IR 2.5: More schools develop school environments more conducive to learning

Sub IRs: 

• Less schools operating in temporary facilities 

• Communities, school personnel and local authorities mobilized to support improvements in the 

school environment 

• Less overcrowded facilities and increased capacity to accept students into middle school 

Rationale: Minimum conditions need to be in place in order for learning to be maximized; Communities 

and school personnel can be rallied around visible improvements in school environments; Teachers and 

students can be more motivated in better environments. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Set up grant mechanism for funding improvements in school environments 

b. Launch process to establish minimum quality standards for school environments 

c. Train communities/school personnel to evaluate their schools with respect to minimum quality 

standards 

d. Continue to fund construction of middle schools in rural areas making use of improved FAR 

mechanism 

Resource Implications: 

Impact: 

Key Assumptions: Lessons from PAEM at mobilizing communities around school construction or 

rehabilitation can be generalized; Schools/communities will not become too focused on physical 

infrastructure to the neglect of interventions that directly impact teaching and learning; FAR mechanism 

for school construction can be modified to deal with government cash flow problems. 

Component 2: Promoting a whole school approach to school governance management & improvement

IR 2.6: A feeder pattern-based approach to school improvement is adopted and spread

Sub IRs: 

• Greater collaboration among elementary schools in a common geographic area 

• Greater collaboration among elementary schools and nearby middle school 

Rationale: Natural feeder patterns can be exploited to begin treating elementary and middle schools as 

parts of the basic education cycle; Middle schools can identify the specific problems students coming 

from elementaries are encountering and those problems can then be addressed through training and 

support to elementaries. 

Illustrative Activities:

e. Middle schools helped to conduct analysis of problems faced by incoming students 

a. Middle schools helped to track student performance by the elementary school they come from 

b. Teachers helped to work together to identify specific needs of students and to devise strategies for 

addressing them at elementaries and through remediation in middle schools 

Resource Implications: Low, mostly process oriented

Impact: Could have high impact on success rates of students transitioning from elementary to middle.

Key Assumptions: (1) school want to collaborate with each other; (2) middle schools would want to work 

with elementary schools on issues relating to students coming to them; (3) overcrowding does not 

become an issue.
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COMPONENT 3 

Component 3: Supporting an integrated approach to teacher development

IR 3.1: Modes of teacher recruitment and initial training become more diverse

Sub IRs: 

• Increased recruitment of primary school teachers, especially women 

• Increased teacher satisfaction resulting from being able to teach in own town/area 

• Increased rate of certification of teachers, reduced bottlenecks at FASTEF 

• More effective teacher training at lower cost 

Rationale: Bottleneck at FASTEF, delays in provision of certified teachers, demotivation of teachers, 

strikes, bias against women who cannot spend 6 months at regional EFI or 2 years at FASTEF in Dakar. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Explore alternative mechanisms for recruiting primary teachers locally, taking into account local 

language skills, willingness to stay in area, desire to work with children, and giving priority to women 

b. Explore mechanisms for recruiting middle school teachers locally and training in satellite centers 

c. Develop school-based model of initial training, with modules and short face-to-face sessions 

d. Develop accelerated training program for vacataires (could be combined with 1c) 

Resource Implications: Medium to high for options a, c, d during set-up period; once established, costs 

lower than institutional training model. Option b: high if satellite training centers established 

Impact: Options a, b, d: The more site-based support given, the higher the impact. Option c: higher than 

regional centers, especially for women 

Key Assumptions: (1) This activity would work in complement to FASTEF and EFIs, (2) Sensitization 

programs could ensure alternative programs are not viewed as second class.

Component 3: Supporting an integrated approach to teacher development

IR 3.2: Modes of teacher in-service training become more diverse

Sub IRs: 

• Increased number of teachers trained in shorter period and at reduced cost 

• Increased interest, learning 

Rationale: Improve the quality of training by delivering through different channels; Decrease cost; Make 

training more interesting and relevant 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Introduce modularized training that makes use of student teacher cluster/study groups, peer 

observation & on-site support visits by pedagogical supervisors, leading to certification or upgrading 

(could be linked with FASTEF distance education program) 

b. Introduce alternate technologies – e.g. PMP audio players to provide teachers with menu of content 

options to upgrade their content knowledge; Video cameras that can be used by teachers or CPs 

linked to projectors to share best practices & facilitate peer observation & micro-teaching; Use of cell 

phone and internet technologies for sending and receiving training data, setting up communities of 

learners and info sharing/chat opportunities, and providing feedback to MOE 

c. Local radio to support academic training and awareness raising

Resource Implications: Depending on model chosen, could be low or high. Low=more distance 

technologies such as PMP. High=greater face-to-face contact by mobile trainers 

Impact: The greater the mix, including face-to-face support, the greater the effect on teacher knowledge, 

attitudes and behavior change 

Key Assumptions: (1) Different approaches/ combinations developed for different contexts, needs; (2) 

Ideally, comparative pilots would be set up at equivalent costs to test effectiveness of each option.
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Component 3: Supporting an integrated approach to teacher development

IR 3.3: Different channels for career advancement put in place, including routes for teachers to become 

managers, especially for woman.

Sub IRs: 

• A substantial number of teachers each year are recognized for exceptional service 

• Increased recognition of teachers and their importance in society leads to increased recruitment of 

high quality candidates 

• More teachers, especially women, have access to leadership positions 

Rationale: At present, promising and ambitious teachers have no incentive to strive to be better 

teachers. Informal recognition programs and formal alternative programs give them options and access to 

positions they otherwise do not know about, or can only obtain by chance 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Create informal teacher public recognition programs and campaigns: e.g., school-based ceremonies, 

media, activated teacher and school support from communities 

b. Create formal alternate programs for teacher advancement – e.g., exercises leading to nomination as 

a head teacher or principal, advanced teacher training leading to some type of advanced certification 

(such as Board Certification in the US)

Resource Implications: Low to initiate, could be high for GOS in the long term, depending on conditions 

of teacher remuneration 

Impact: Medium to high, but longer term: Raising the visibility and esteem of teaching as a profession.

Key Assumptions: (1) GOS has financial resources to support teachers who achieve higher levels of 

training, (2) Advanced teacher development programs might be developed or managed by profit or 

nonprofit sector (Board Certification process in US is conducted by nonprofit), (3) Teachers would be 

prepared to make time and financial sacrifice for advanced training.

Component 3: Supporting an integrated approach to teacher development

IR 3.4: Monitoring and evaluation data on teacher education and development strategies and activities 

increasingly available

Sub IRs: 

• Increased availability of data on the performance of teacher education and support systems 

• Mechanisms in place for using teacher training M&E data to make decisions based on program and 

cost effectiveness 

Rationale: Concern widely shared that little is known about the effectiveness of teacher education 

programs, and the need to be able to monitor them and evaluate their impact. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Create an M&E system that examines the quality of training results in terms of teacher knowledge, 

skills and attitudes, student learning, and harmony with curricular priorities 

b. Train MOE M&E personnel, IA, IDEN, EFI, and PRF staff to implement M&E program 

c. Create mechanisms for the use of M&E data for decision making

Resource Implications: Medium if costs of implementation could be shared by decentralized personnel 

within existing budgets 

Impact: High, since program quality would increase and costs savings could be realized.

Key Assumptions: (1) MOE is prepared to adopt “a culture of evaluation” and data-driven decisionmaking, (2) Problems of reform management (“pilotage”) can be solved so that M&E system can be 

successfully implemented.
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Component 3: Supporting an integrated approach to teacher development

IR 3.5: More PPPs promoted and enacted designed to support teacher upgrading and assistance

Sub IRs: 

• Increased involvement of local industries and communities in teacher development 

• Additional resources available to support teachers and teacher development activities 

Rationale: While the government is responsible for ensuring delivery of quality education, it cannot be 

the sole resource provider. Industry has a strong stake, as well as stakeholders who can provide 

unconventional but nevertheless critical financial and material support to teacher training efforts. If the 

system is to expand and improve, these sources should be tapped. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Investigate employment needs of local industries and identify ways those industries can provide 

support for teacher training that can, in turn, lead to the development of employable skills amongst 

their students – e.g., IT training, hospitality industries, training and internships provided by local 

Chambers of Commerce, etc. 

b. Explore mechanisms for recruiting material support from local communities for teacher training: – 

e.g., preparing lunch for teachers clustered on training days, producing instructional materials such as 

posters out of local cloth, cardboard geometric shapes, science corners out of found objects, etc. 

c. Recruit local community members to assist with teacher training – e.g., retired teachers providing onsite support for teachers as classroom aids, observation of teachers, tutoring, English clubs, etc. 

d. Reward community contributions to teacher training – e.g., prizes, media recognition, etc.

Resource Implications: Low

Impact: Medium

Key Assumptions: (1) A willingness on the part of local communities to participate in voluntarism and 

cost-sharing of public education, (2) sustained support by the government to identify, foster and provide 

ongoing support for school-community linkages.

COMPONENT 4 

Component 4: Support assessment, learning and a culture of evaluation

IR 4.1: Develop national M&E system, including mechanisms for tracking OTL and student achievement

Sub IRs: 

• Availability of real-time data on system performance 

• Increase in data-driven decision making 

• System adjustments based on assessment findings – e.g., improved OTL indicators, modification of 

instructional programs, remediation programs launched, etc 

Rationale: Broad concern about the lack of real-time data on system performance and consequent 

inability to make data-driven decisions on program implementation or system improvement; Reported 

concerns about the reliability of OTL data. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Assess SNERS program and make recommendations re: its continuation or revision 

b. Develop test design, item bank and tests for annual system diagnosis 

c. Train education authorities and evaluation specialists in system and test development and use 

Resource Implications: Medium if SNERS is adaptable, high if not

Impact: Potentially high re: provision of actionable information and system improvement

Key Assumptions: (1) SNERS can be adapted to meet needs of regular evaluation system, (2) Resources 

exist to sustain evaluation program over time, (3) MOE committed to sharing results at regional and 

district levels in order to ensure change in educational practice. 
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Component 4: Support assessment, learning and a culture of evaluation

IR 4.2: Develop standardized continuous assessment methods

Sub IRs: 

• Standards, pacing guides, lesson plan books and assessment tools for teacher use 

• Formative assessment data that can be shared across districts or regions during the school year 

• Improved instructional decision making and practice 

• Improved readiness for national assessments 

Rationale: Other projects, such as PAEM and PEB, support informal continuous assessment efforts. 

Standardized (formal) continuous assessment complements these efforts by providing teachers with tools 

to assess learning in systematic way, facilitating analysis, comparisons & dialogue across districts/regions; 

As with more informal method, results can be used to improve instructional design and delivery; 

If all materials are developed, provides teachers with step-by-step subject- and grade-specific teaching 

and assessment strategies for the entire year. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Develop standards, pacing guides, and lesson plan books for teacher use. 

b. Train teachers, education managers and authorities, pedagogic supervisors and parents in the 

rationale and use of standardized continuous assessment to improve instruction 

c. Pilot standardized continuous assessment methods and compare results with control schools 

Resource Implications: Medium to high, depending on extent of materials to be developed

Impact: High: Noticeable changes in instructional planning and delivery can be anticipated

Key Assumptions: (1) Addition of standards to current curriculum reform will not overwhelm MOE or 

end users, (2) Curriculum experts and end users receptive to standards-based approach, (3) Items can be 

linked to national M&E system allowing for greater integration of curriculum with national assessments, 

(4) This activity could take the place of the development of standardized tests currently being conducted 

by IAs and IDENs, (5) Assessment approach would be harmonized with PAEM, PEB and other efforts. 

Component 4: Support assessment, learning and a culture of evaluation

IR 4.3: Link assessment results to nationwide implementation of school report cards

Sub IRs: 

• Assessment results incorporated into school report cards, thereby providing objective data on 

student (and therefore school) performance 

Rationale: School report cards as used by PEB and other projects, link school expenditures to learning 

outcomes in cost-benefit analysis. Formative and summative assessment results can be used for this 

purpose; Would facilitate nation-wide implementation of school report cards. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Where school report cards are being used, incorporate assessment results as one measure of school 

effectiveness. 

b. Incorporate interpretation of assessment results in training of School Management Committees. 

c. Provide training for School Management Committees, project personnel, and education stakeholders 

in purpose and use of incorporating assessment data into school report cards 

Resource Implications: Low: information on assessment data and how to interpret it can be added to 

already existing training programs 

Impact: Medium: Student achievement is one of several measures of school performance

Key Assumptions: (1) Achievement data can be rendered sufficiently simple and user-friendly, (2) Users 

of school report cards appreciate the value of standardized performance data. 
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Component 4: Support assessment, learning and a culture of evaluation

IR 4.4: Pilot incentive systems for schools, teachers and students who perform well according to 

assessment data 

Sub IRs: 

• Use of assessment results to improve teaching and learning becomes well-known and popular 

• Teachers and school communities become motivated to improve student learning outcomes 

Rationale: In addition to school report cards, numerous channels can be used to help end users learn 

more about using assessment to improve teaching and learning, as well as to share (“brag about”) results 

to a wider audience. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Make use of existing communication networks (e.g., MOE portal, PEB-supported electronic media) to 

publish results of assessment data and share items and tools 

b. Organize events (e.g., competitions, chat rooms) through which students, teachers and school 

managers can learn about assessment and post their achievements to a wider audience 

Resource Implications: Low to medium, depending on types of activities chosen

Impact: Medium, but could have longer-term impact if system of incentives catches on

Key Assumptions: End-users understand and appreciate the use of assessments for improving teaching 

and learning 

COMPONENT 5 

Component 5: Promote and help establish enabling conditions

IR 5.1: Opportunity to learn is increased as schools are open more days and teachers are absent less

Sub IRs: 

• Increase number of days schools are open during the year 

• Decrease teacher and student absenteeism 

• National system for monitoring OTL (school open, teacher present, students present) in place 

Rationale: Increased OTL takes place at school level, but national campaign would raise the profile and 

lend support to such efforts; Culture of accepting numerous disruptions to the school year needs to be 

counteracted by campaign to raise the importance of instructional time; Data on actual time spent in class 

(including student and teacher attendance) would help make the issue more concrete. 

Illustrative Activities:

a. Introduce national campaigns to promote school being open, teachers being present and students 

being present, including rewards for schools/communities that improve the most on these measures 

b. Provide support to local authorities and school management committees to discuss/address the factors 

that contribute to school being opened or closed, teachers being present, and students being present. 

c. Develop monitoring tools to be used by CGEs to track school being opened, teacher presence and 

student presence. 

d. Provide training to CGEs and IDEN in the use of these tools. 

e. Provide training and tools to IA and DPRE to track OTL as a key school-level indicator 

Resource Implications: Not high, but need resources to be used in different ways – e.g. employing 

advertising and media firms to design and carryout communication campaigns. 

Impact: Provides longer-term framework for immediate impacts achieved through school-level actions.

Key Assumptions: (1) Public frustration about disruptions to the school year could be channeled into 

supporting a campaign to address the problem; (2) unions would not resist attempts to appropriately 

monitor teacher attendance; (3) local authorities and communities would be able to monitor and deal with 

reasons school being closed and for teacher and student absence. 
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Component 5: Promote and help establish enabling conditions

IR 5.2: Reading fluency promoted as an accessible indicator of school performance

Sub IRs: 

• EGRA refined and introduced as national indicator of school performance 

• National campaign focused on reading ability launched 

• Media outlets providing more coverage of issues related to students demonstrating ability to read 

• School effectiveness increasingly judged by how well students can read/do math 

Rationale: School effectiveness needs to be promoted in a tangible way that addresses learning before 

CFEE or BFEM results; EGRA can provide easy to understand “images” of what reading skill is. 

Illustrative Activities: 

a. Partnership with Hewlett Foundation to refine EGRA methodology for Senegal 

b. Enlist support of media companies to produce radio and tv spots on reading fluency (see Peru example)

c. Data compiled to show relationship between reading and OTL, instruction, and other school factors 

d. Data used for national campaign promoting successful schools are ones in which students read 

Resource Implications: Medium – depends on nature of partnership with Hewlett and whether media 

companies would work for reduced rates as public service; would make use of tools and training being 

promoted through M&E component 

Impact: Raise visibility of reading as an issue, could have high medium term impact on what goes on in 

schools 

Key Assumptions: (1) Hewlett is going to promote EGRA in Senegal and would be willing to partner with 

USAID, (2) reading fluency measures can have meaning at both elementary and middle school levels. 

Component 5: Promote and help establish enabling conditions

IR 5.3: Develop & pilot integrated system of teacher development & evaluation linked to performance 

monitoring & career path 

Sub IRs: 

• A common vision/definition of a competent teacher, providing a basis upon which articulation of initial 

and ongoing training can be structured 

• A set of measures by which teacher competency can be assessed 

• A system of assessing teachers leading to systematic advancement in a career path 

Rationale: In response to the concern that pre- and in-service teacher education needs to be articulated, a 

shared vision of the competent teacher and mechanisms for assessing and rewarding competence can 

serve as the starting point for developing a coherent curriculum for producing such teachers. 

Illustrative Activities:

d. Build consensus among stakeholders concerning the profile of a competent elementary and middle 

school teacher, including a series of competencies (knowledge, skills, attitudes) 

e. Based on profile, develop a set of standards and procedures by which competencies can be measured, 

from initial training to CPD (e.g., via classroom observations, evaluations by supervisors, and student 

learning outcomes) 

f. Make proposals to MOE to enhance career path with an eye to continuous professional development 

Resource Implications: Low: can build on existing USAID efforts (e.g., PAEM-defined teacher competencies) 

and can be joined to PEB or other projects as part of teacher development activities 

Impact: Medium to high, but longer term, depending on the extent to which the system of assessing 

teacher competence and linking advancement to career structure is adopted 

Key Assumptions: (1) MOE willing to advance teachers’ careers on basis of performance, not just seniority

(unions support this), (2) Financial resources available to compensate teachers who advance through the 

career ladder, (3) Financial resources available for training and managing assessors and processing data. 
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Component 5: Promote and help establish enabling conditions

IR 5.4: National teacher training & continuing professional development communicated & implemented

Sub IRs: 

• Policy finalized 

• Strategies for communicating policy developed and implemented 

• Administrators throughout the system informed and monitoring the new policy 

Rationale: Policy currently exists in draft form, and needs to be finalized, disseminated, and implemented

Illustrative Activities:

a. Review and modify policy to reflect most recent developments in the sector 

b. Enlist communications specialists in developing dissemination strategies/tools 

c. Provide opportunities for administrators to learn about the new policy 

Resource Implications: Low investment for project

Impact: No immediate impact on learning, but solidifies profession for longer-term sustainability

Key Assumptions: One option is to ensure that the policy is worded in such a way that cost implications 

remain open, thereby enabling the policy to be enacted while further negotiations about cost can be 

carried out. 
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Annex F: USAID/PAEM – Some Lessons Learned 

The purpose of this section is not to evaluate PAEM but to assess which aspects might be worth building 

on for future projects. Our research found unanimous appreciation for the project both at central 

Ministry level and within the field. Below are some of the specific aspects of the project that 

contributed to its success. 

• Being housed within the MoE and having local offices with dedicated staff housed within the IAs 

created enormous advantages for the project.

• Beginning with school construction and an initial focus on the school environment proved an 

excellent, high visibility way to motivate and mobilize the school community to take ownership of 

improvements at the school level.

• The project has been successful in improving the climate for girls in middles schools and 

communities through multiple initiatives including:

o Providing incentives for girls to stay on in schools

o Giving women in communities and women teachers more voice 

o Raising community awareness to place more value on girls’ education and creating stronger 

bonds and shared values of community leaders, justice officials, religious leaders

o Promoting changes in male behavior through the Zero Tolerance campaign, amongst others

• Challenging and changing the way individual staff within the MoE view their jobs, their 

responsibilities and their need to be accountable to parents, communities etc. This was 

accomplished in part, by regularly getting ministry staff, many of whom rarely travel outside the big 

towns, into the schools in rural parts of the country. 

• Capacity-building of ministry staff through involvement with specific aspects of the project, e.g., 

materials design and development, testing and assessment. A register of staff and skills should be 

left behind in order to enable future projects to make use of and provide further opportunities, 

possibly in the form of participant training, to these individuals. 

• Strengthening the skills of ministry staff (e.g., IS, IVS, CPI, IDENs) in a range of skills including 

planning and training as well as in ways to create more community partners. 

• Helping schools understand and use performance data to improve learning. 

• Supporting ways of professionalizing school principals through providing five training modules to all 

principals in the country aimed at helping them deepen and improve their roles and responsibilities 

and geared towards a set of professional performance standards for principals. 

• Promoting school-based improvement through strengthening the school improvement planning 

process. Setting up “amis de colleges” to act as critical friends to schools to provide an external eye 

on school improvement. Beginning work on standards for effective schools. 

• Supporting cross-disciplinary teacher training including the promotion of critical thinking skills. 

• Targeting all aspects of the life of the school community to improve climate and results (although 

not within an explicit conceptual framework). 
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As well as the processes mentioned above, USAID/PAEM has developed a number of products which 

could be used and built on in future projects including: 

1. Training modules for teachers and school principals including worksheets, handouts and full 

trainer notes 

2. Three student performance tests in math, SVT and physical sciences which could be used 

annually to track student performance 

3. Training modules for CGE to aid in school improvement planning 

4. Instruments to track teacher performance 

One area in which USAID /PAEM could have done more is in the monitoring and evaluation of its 

initiatives. The student performance tests and the teacher performance study came relatively late in 

the life of the project. Future projects might wish to partner with US and Senegal institutions to 

carry out relevant research, e.g., looking at links between various trainings, on-the-job performance, 

and student learning outcomes. 
1 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Program Description: 

Technical Approach and Activity Components 

USAID’s new education program aims at improving the quality of education in primary and middle 

schools in Senegal. The improvements in quality supported by this program will help USAID and the 

Government of Senegal reach the goal of better educated youth by addressing four main components: 

(1) Acquisition of basic skills, (2) School governance and management, (3) Coordinated Teacher Training, 

and (4) Assessment and monitoring and evaluation. Details for the types of activities and results 

envisaged for each of these components are provided below. The levels of education to be targeted by 

each component are indicated in the component and sub-component descriptions. 

Geographically, the project is expected to begin in regions where the USAID/PAEM project has already 

established working relationships with governmental, administrative and technical offices, as well as 

with a variety of civil society organizations and stakeholders. USAID/PAEM is active in Fatick, 

Tambacounda, Kolda, and Ziguinchor. The strategy of this program will be to build off the relationships 

in two of those regions, Fatick and Tambacounda, in order to more rapidly advance the project’s 

objectives. However, activities in this program will target elementary schools as well as middle schools, 

so even in the regions where USAID/PAEM was active, new relationships will need to be forged with 

elementary schools and their communities. 

Fatick is included in this project because of its proximity to Dakar, which facilitates implementation start 

up, short visits, supervision, support, observation and evaluation of project activities. Fatick has 

approximately 127,000 students in 700 elementary schools and it is one of the regions with the lowest 

reading and math scores on the most recent PASEC tests. The recent preliminary PASEC report found 

that the poorest regions in Senegal had the lowest educational outcomes. Tambacounda, also with 

higher than average poverty, is furthest from Dakar, has the second highest number of elementary 

schools, 825, and one of the highest drop out rates in the country. In addition to these regions where 

USAID/PAEM was active, the project could spread from the work there to two other regions, Djourbel 

and Kaolack. Djourbel, like Fatick, is also close to Dakar, and being adjacent to Fatick, would make the 

spread of the project easier. Djourbel, with the fourth highest incidences of poverty, has the lowest 

enrollment rate of any region in Senegal, and has experienced the least amount of growth in enrollment 

during the PDEF. It also has one of the highest drop out rates; only 31% of students who enroll in CI, end 

up completing primary school. This presents an opportunity to see whether quality improvements can 

stimulate access through greater demand for and persistence through elementary school. The project 

could also move into Kaolack from Tambacounda. Kaolack, has almost 800 elementary schools and over 

145,000 students. It also has the third highest incidence of poverty in the country, higher than average 

drop out, and thus can also benefit from investments in improving the quality of education. CM2 

students in Kaolack have the second lowest average pass rate on the CFEE. 

The four components included in this program description derive from and are responses to the findings 

of “The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review,” conducted in late-February/early -March of 

2009. Several options were developed on the basis of that review, and the four components contained 

in this program description are believed to be the ones that are best suited for action at this point in 

time. Applicants are encouraged to refer to the quality review full report and, on the basis of that 

report and their own investigations, to verify and further develop the linkages between these program 

components and the challenges and opportunities present in the education sector in Senegal. 

Applicants should be explicit about the development assumptions and hypotheses upon which their 
2 USAID/Senegal April 2009

proposed approach, strategies, and activities are based, making clear links between problems and 

solutions. They should also include implementation milestones and targets in their monitoring and 

evaluation plans and explain how progress towards those milestones will be used to test their initial 

assumptions and hypotheses. 

The four components are conceived of as an integrated approach to addressing quality concerns and 

there will be considerable overlap across not only these components, but also between this project, 

USAID’s other activities and other projects in the education sector. Attention should be paid to 

maximizing the potential synergies within this program and between it and other projects in the sector. 

That being said, resources within the project must be parceled out to the different components and 

subcomponents according the applicants vision for how best to achieve the desired results. The table 

below shows how project resources could be distributed across the different elements of this program. 

Note that it is indicative, and not meant as an absolute requirement. Applicants should justify the 

distribution of resources they propose in terms of how the relative weight accorded different 

components and subcomponents relates to the expected implementation and impact of this program. 

Budget Breakdown By Components/Subcomponents % of 

Total 

1. Acquisition of Basic Skills 35% 

1.1 Elementary Teachers trained in reading and math instruction 13% 

1.2 Reading and math materials provided to target elementary schools/communities 7% 

1.3 EGRA & EGMA used in target elementary schools 5% 

1.4 Elementary and middle school students have access to remedial instruction 5% 

1.5 Promote policies and communications that support basic skills acquisition 5% 

 

2. Whole school approach 25% 

2.1 Collaborative school management promoted and supported 4% 

2.2 School-based staff development opportunities promoted and supported 4% 

2.3 OTL framework utilized to guide school improvement processes 5% 

2.4 Grants to schools provided to support OTL improvement plans and to address minimum conditions 5% 

2.5 OTL measures and student outcomes monitored at school level 4% 

2.6 Promote policies and communications that support the whole school approach and OTL framework 3% 

 

3. Coordinated Teacher Training 20% 

3.1 Improve coordination of and diversify pre-service and in-service delivery mechanisms 8% 

3.2 Support the definition of teacher competencies and the articulation of pre- and in-service curricula 7% 

3.3 Make career structure more rewarding/merit-based and develop and promulgate teacher training and 

professional development policy 5% 

 

4. Assessment and Monitoring and Evaluation 20% 

4.1 Reinforce monitoring and evaluation capacity at central and decentralized levels 5% 

4.2 Improve the use of assessment data in management decisions 5% 

4.3 Promulgate the use of report cards for tracking school improvement 5% 

4.4 Promote policies and communications that support the use of data for monitoring, evaluation and 

accountability 5% 

TOTAL 100% 
3 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Component 1: Acquisition of Basic Skills 

The true measure of the quality of an education system should be the extent to which it helps young 

people acquire a foundation of basic skills – namely literacy and math – in elementary school, then 

consolidate those skills in lower secondary or middle school as the basis for the further learning and 

skills development that will serve them as they enter society, the workforce, and make decisions that 

will impact the rest of their lives. Improving quality in Senegal should therefore focus on the acquisition, 

remediation and consolidation of the foundations of literacy and math skills as an essential feature of 

basic education. Component 1 assembles a set of strategies to help schools better ensure that students 

acquire basic skills in reading and math. Since students rely on reading in French to access content in all 

the other subject areas, and since they are evaluated in French, they need to secure a solid foundation 

of reading French in order to succeed in school (and to keep open their options for life after school). 

Basic math is equally important as a foundation skill and an approach to reasoning that serves as the 

basis for further education in the sciences and technology. In addition to promoting strategies aimed at 

improving reading and math instruction, this component will also include activities aimed at increasing 

the quantity and variety of materials available at schools to support students learning to read and apply 

math and will include introducing early grade assessments as tools for school-based feedback on 

student performance. This component also foresees introducing remediation as a deliberate strategy to 

support students who are below an expected level of reading or math skill for their grade. And lastly, 

Component 1 should include a communication campaign aimed at promoting reading and math as 

important basic skills, making these skills understandable to a wide array of stakeholders, and mobilizing 

a variety of stakeholders and constituents to demand and support improved basic skills acquisition in 

elementary schools. Applicants should develop an approach to this component that maximizes the 

synergistic interplay of each of the subcomponents described below. In particular, it will be important 

to articulate how the conjunction of these subcomponents will increase the likelihood of appreciable 

impact in terms of student learning outcomes in the short to medium term. Applicants should devise 

strategies for this component that over the life of the project reach 200 elementary schools, while also 

considering how some subcomponents can be drawn on and applied in as many as 25 middle schools 

previously supported by USAID/PAEM as well (in particular, subcomponent 1.4 dealing with remediation 

of reading and math skills). Proposals should explain a strategy for beginning with a reasonable number 

of schools, perhaps working in clusters, and then increasing within a region and across regions, or in 

whatever manner the applicant thinks is strategically justified. 

Subcomponent 1.1: Teachers trained in reading and math instruction 

Student achievement in reading and math in elementary schools in Senegal has been declining in recent 

years, and many teachers have not received sufficient training specifically targeting strategies for 

teaching reading and math. The new competency-based curriculum for elementary grades provides 

some structure and materials, but teachers will require additional support if the quality of teaching and 

learning in reading and math is to improve in the near term, particularly in a foreign language (French). 

Activities proposed for this subcomponent must ensure that elementary school teachers receive training 

in methodologies and instructional techniques specifically designed to help students learn to read and 

do math, when the instruction is in a language other than that spoken in the milieu of the school and 

community. The new curriculum assumes that students can both learn French and learn to read in 

French at the same time. Learning to read in a foreign language when one is already literate is quite a 

different task from learning both the language and the concepts of reading at the same time. The new 

curriculum is not adapted to address this particular challenge. Activities under this subcomponent 

should propose specific ways to better equip teachers in Senegalese elementary schools to respond to 

that challenge. 
4 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Desired result for Subcomponent 1.1

• Increased use by teachers of techniques specifically designed to better promote student acquisition 

of basic reading and math skills in grades CI through CM2 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 1.1

• Assessing current practices in the teaching of reading and math 

• Identifying specific teaching strategies that can be utilized by teachers to better promote reading 

and math skills in elementary grades, in particular strategies that respond to the language of 

instruction challenges present in most Senegalese schools 

• Designing and implementing a system of teacher training and support that can intervene at the 

school level or school cluster level to supplement existing teacher training plans, with a focus on 

strategies for teaching reading and math in French 

• Developing systems for recognizing teachers and students with exceptional performance in the 

teaching and learning of reading and math 

• Using the implementation of the teacher training in instructional strategies to identify a subset of 

teacher competencies related to instruction in reading and math and including those competencies 

in the work on teacher profiles envisioned in Component 3. 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 1.1

• Number of teachers trained with USG support 

• Number of students served by teachers receiving training with USAID support 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 1.1s

• Number and percentage of teachers using improved strategies for teaching reading and math 

• Frequency of use of improved strategies by teachers in target schools 

• Changes in student performance in reading and math in classrooms where teachers use improved 

strategies 

Subcomponent 1.2: Reading and math materials provided to target 

elementary schools and communities 

Even if the training activities result in improved teaching and learning of literacy and math, gains are 

unlikely to be significant or sustained without sufficient material support. Teaching and learning 

materials do exist in Senegalese schools, but are rarely articulated (e.g., series of readers), are seldom in 

sufficient supply, and when they do exist, often are not regularly used in the classroom. Yet learners in 

the initial stages of literacy and numeracy acquisition learn best when they are regularly exposed to 

print and examples of math in the real world. The persistence of the problem of lack of teaching 

materials at too many schools in Senegal is discouraging. Anecdotal observations and national statistics 

indicate that many schools are operating without the necessary basic learning materials. The new 

curriculum which is to be rolled out in the coming school year will require an infusion of many 

documents – for trainers, for teachers and for students. The challenges of getting books out to schools, 

managing them well, and making sure they are used remain. Applicants are encouraged to innovate in 

response to this persistent problem. This project should promote creative ways to get books, in 

particular, other than textbooks, out to schools, as well as encouraging and piloting innovative 

collaborations and partnerships for managing and maintaining school stocks of books. 
5 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Desired result for Subcomponent 1.2

• Greater number of reading and math materials available for teachers and learners in school and the 

surrounding community 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 1.2

• Analyzing areas in which additional literacy and numeracy materials can support the new curriculum 

• Procuring or developing instructional, resource and supplemental materials to support literacy and 

numeracy acquisition 

• Innovating and enterprising with approaches to the creation of literate environments at elementary 

schools and in their surrounding communities – e.g., book boxes, learning corners, “flooding” 

schools with materials, school libraries, community resource centers, etc. Emphasis should be 

placed in particular on making reading books available (i.e. story books, not textbooks) 

• Communicating about and promoting the value of literacy and the fun/importance of reading 

• Engaging with parents, communities, civil society organizations, the private sector, and 

philanthropic sector to assist in the development, provision, or fabrication of “low cost” 

instructional, resource and supplemental materials to support literacy and numeracy, such as flash 

cards, word cards or other simple materials 

• Developing policies for the management of instructional materials at the school level, including 

security procedures, arrangements for use by different teachers, and lending policies 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 1.2

• Number of textbooks and other teaching and learning materials provided with USG assistance 

• Number of learners enrolled in USG-supported primary schools 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 1.2

• Proportion of literacy and numeracy materials per student 

• Percentage of time teachers and students use instructional materials 

• Percentage of instructional materials provided through public/private partnerships 

• Quantity of resource and supplemental materials available at the school and in the community 

Subcomponent 1.3: EGRA & EGMA used in target elementary schools 

Providing quality instruction in reading and math depends, in part, on teachers’ ability to reliably 

measure student learning, identify the nature of problems they are experiencing, and modify instruction 

to address these problems. EGRA (Early Grade Reading Assessment) and EGMA (Early Grade Math 

Assessment) provide teachers and other local actors (e.g., pedagogical supervisors, inspectors) with 

tools to perform these diagnoses and improve instruction. EGRA and EGMA also empower local actors 

to conduct their own assessments and raise awareness about the importance of meeting reading and 

math standards at each grade level. The use of EGRA and EGMA thus provides increased likelihood that 

reading and math performance will increase. EGRA has been piloted in both French and Wolof by the 

Research Triangle Institute with World Bank support and the Hewlitt Foundation is interested in 

promoting the use of EGRA to support local language instruction in Senegal as part of its philanthropy in 

the region. Applicants are encouraged to draw on these efforts and to work in conjunction with these 

and other partners to formulate a strategy for introducing EGRA and EGMA as school-based tools used 

by teachers to assess student capacity and progress. Applicants are also encouraged to explore and 

propose ways in which the results of EGRA and EGMA can be used by schools, communities, and school 

support personnel to monitor and track school performance and improvement. Activities under this 
6 USAID/Senegal April 2009

subcomponent should also be coordinated with and fed into the actions proposed under Components 2 

and 4. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 1.3

• EGRA and EGMA used to evaluate student learning and the results used to animate school 

improvement planning and processes at the school level 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 1.3

• Training teachers, school directors, pedagogical supervisors and inspectors in the implementation 

and use of EGRA and EGMA 

• Training school directors and community members of the school management committees in the 

incorporation of EGRA and EGMA results in school improvement planning and the creation of 

“school report cards” at the local level (this would need to align with work being done under 

Component 2 on school improvement planning and on monitoring and tracking opportunity to learn 

indicators) 

• Using EGRA and EGMA within schools to monitor the effectiveness of strategies, methodologies and 

teaching techniques introduced to improve the effectiveness of reading and math instruction 

• Establishing mechanisms for sharing EGRA and EGMA results with teachers, parents, school 

directors and education authorities in a clear, understandable and actionable format in order to 

raise awareness around key instructional issues and ways partners can support improvements in 

reading and math instruction 

• Developing systems for feeding EGRA and EGMA results into district-level and regional planning and 

teacher training efforts 

• See also Assessment, Component 4 below 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 1.3

• Number of teachers trained with USG support 

• Number of learners enrolled in USG-supported primary schools 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 1.3

• Number of teachers and other education actors trained in the use of EGRA and EGMA 

• Number of School Improvement Plans incorporating EGRA or EGMA results into forward planning 

• Number of school communities producing and using “report cards” 

• Availability of data to correlate use of EGRA/EGMA and student achievement scores over time 

• Availability of data to correlate teaching techniques and EGRA/EGMA outcomes over time 

• Degrees of appreciation of importance of reading and math by teachers, school directors, parents 

and the wider community 

• Degrees of awareness by teachers, school directors, parents and the wider community of reading 

and math achievement levels in schools over time 

Sub-Component 1.4: Elementary and middle school students have access to 

remedial instruction in reading and math 

As mentioned in The Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review, the ministry has just completed 

the development of a new, competency-based curriculum for elementary schools. A remaining 

challenge will be helping teachers address the needs of students within the context of the new 

curriculum. In particular, the curriculum recognizes that remediation may be necessary, but does not 

offer specific strategies to help students who do not have the skills they need to succeed. Analysis of 
7 USAID/Senegal April 2009

the available student outcome data indicates that, for too many students throughout elementary and 

middle school, lack of basic skills is a serious constraint on their ability to succeed in school and further 

their education. Research and experience from around the world indicate that students who are behind 

in terms of basic skills, will not be able to catch up unless supplemental instruction – i.e. additional time 

and alternative strategies – is provided to them. Schools in Senegal, and in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, 

do not devote time and resources to supplemental instruction for remedial purposes. This 

subcomponent invites applicants to introduce and experiment with a variety of approaches to discern 

how best to meet the needs of students who are in different grades in target elementary schools and in 

nearby middle schools, but are struggling because of lack of basic skills in reading and math. Applicants 

should seek out creative approaches to the use of time, the roles of different staff and other adults in 

the community, mobilization and combination of in-school and community-based resources, and other 

ideas for how best to promote and successfully provide remedial instruction. The provision of remedial 

instruction also could be something that is directly promoted through the support to school 

improvement planning envisioned under Component 2. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 1.4

• Students whose performance in reading and math is below grade level are provided with 

supplemental, remedial learning opportunities at their schools 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 1.4

• Using EGRA/EGMA results from subcomponent 1.3, identify students in need of remedial instruction 

• Planning and carrying out an information/communication campaign aimed at building up 

recognition of the problem of students lacking basic skills, and building up awareness of and support 

for the provision of remedial services to those students 

• Facilitating discussions at the school level around possible strategies for providing remediation, 

including how to schedule remedial instruction during the school day, opportunities for 

supplemental hours of instruction, resources from the community that could be drawn on to 

support supplemental/remedial instruction, etc. 

• Implementing after school/weekend/summer opportunities for supplemental, alternative learning 

opportunities for students needing remediation 

• Collaborating with Peace Corps so that volunteers can support the provision of remedial instruction 

in elementary and middle schools (e.g. helping organize and run summer camps or after school 

programs) 

• Designing and implementing rigorous monitoring and evaluation of the costs and benefits of 

different approaches to the provision of remedial/supplemental instruction – i.e. in-school, after 

school, use of tutors, summer camps, community-based efforts, use of volunteers, etc. 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 1.4

• Number of learners enrolled in USG-supported primary schools 

• Number of learners enrolled in USG-supported secondary schools 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 1.4

• Number of students impacted by the remedial services supported by USAID funding 

• Hours of remedial instruction provided 

• Comparison of costs and benefits (in terms of improved student outcomes) of different approaches 

to remediation 

• Learning gains registered by students accessing remedial services 
8 USAID/Senegal April 2009

• Carry-over of different teaching techniques (i.e. individualized instruction, experience/service based 

approaches, etc) from remedial settings to regular classroom settings 

Sub-Component 1.5: Promote policies and communications that support 

acquisition of basic skills 

To enhance the effectiveness and increase the impact of Component 1, applicants will be expected to 

work on a broader level in two particular ways. First, as work progresses in the regions, departments 

and at the school level, the project will identify specific policy and/or operational constraints (or 

opportunities) that impact the ability of the project to introduce and support the innovations suggested 

above. For example, work with teachers to promote strategies for teaching reading in French in the 

early grades will need to dovetail with the training related to the new curriculum in which teachers will 

be participating. Work may need to be done with the managers of the curriculum-related training, as 

well as with the training providers in the regions (EFI, PRF) to identify institutional arrangements that 

will be mutually reinforcing for the curriculum training objectives and those of the project. At a policy 

level, the project should gain insight into how teacher management policies or school calendar and 

school day policies impact the ability of schools and their communities to organize supplemental, 

remedial instruction. Applicants are asked to define specific ways in which they propose to coordinate 

their work at the operational level with the need to work at the institutional and policy levels, most 

importantly, applying the operational lessons to inform policy dialogue, deliberation and decisionmaking. Second, this project is expected to take a proactive approach to communication, using social 

marketing, mobilization, constituency building, and other communication techniques to build 

awareness, rally support, promote innovation, inform stakeholders, engage potential partners and 

publicize successes and lessons learned. Applicants are required to bring innovative strategies to this 

dimension of project implementation. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 1.5

• Large groups of stakeholders recognize the need for and support the implementation of the 

strategies pursued in Component 1, as well as the policy and institutional reforms identified as 

necessary to support and sustain those strategies 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 1.5

• Identifying key policy and institutional issues related to the innovations and strategies pursued in 

this component 

• Analyzing the specific policy and institutional constraints related to the long-term sustainability of 

successful features of the activities and strategies piloted by this program 

• Identifying key stakeholders at the local, departmental, regional and national levels and mapping 

their affiliations, connections, and points of view vis-à-vis the approach to basic skills acquisition 

inherent in this component 

• Designing and implementing communication campaigns aimed at raising awareness about the 

importance of basic skills acquisition, in particular designing communication activities targeting 

teachers as a key audience 

• Designing and implementing information and communication activities that publicize information 

about acquisition of basic skills in ways that engage stakeholders in understanding the issue and 

devising solutions for it 

• Designing and implementing mobilization campaigns that target education system actors, civil 

society actors, private sector interests, and other stakeholders to garner support for innovations 

designed to address improved acquisition of basic skills 
9 USAID/Senegal April 2009

• Fostering the growth of constituencies willing to politically and/or materially support innovations 

designed to improve acquisition of basic skills 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 1.5

• Does your program support education systems/policy reform? If yes, please describe the 

contributions of your program, including progress against any mission-level outcome or impact 

indicators. 

• Number of laws, policies, regulations, or guidelines developed or modified to improve equitable 

access to or the quality of education services 

• Number of local organizations provided with technical assistance for strategic information activities 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 1.5

• Numbers of stakeholders reached through communication/mobilization campaigns 

• Amount of material, financial support mobilized for activities under this component 

• Number of volunteers mobilized to support remedial activities in schools 

Component 2: Whole school approach 

Like most other countries in the region, Senegal has been working to decentralize politically and 

administratively. Local, elected councils have been set up at the regional and sub-regional levels. And 

the administrative functions of the MOE have been “deconcentrated” to the regional, departmental, 

and school levels. Numerous new structures have been created at these levels, most notably, school 

management committees (CGE) to support school governance and management. Where these 

structures do exist, they complain of poor communication, lack of understanding of procedures and 

practices, inadequate resources, and the complete absence of skills in the areas for which they are 

responsible. It is reported that confusion exists about governance and management roles at the school 

level. In addition, the MOE is implementing a system for school improvement planning wherein local 

authorities are called on to develop plans for their schools and submit them for funding. However, 

many stakeholders indicated that the process for developing school plans is not well defined, with no 

clear parameters for planning, no specific improvement objectives or strategies to be included in plans, 

no criteria for evaluating plans, and no sense of how small or large an envelope is available for funding 

such plans. Little attention in plans appears to be paid to interventions that could impact the quality of 

teaching and learning. 

If a vision for decentralized, school-based management is to take hold in Senegal, then clearly significant 

work remains to be done. For starters, school directors do not necessarily have the skill and 

competency profiles that best meet the demands of a participatory approach to school-based 

governance and management (they are usually just senior teachers). Efforts are being put forward 

within the ministry and through projects such as USAID/PAEM, EDB and the French supported work of 

Aide et Action to address the challenges of improving local governance and management. What is 

required is a context for relating governance and management decisions to school outcomes. School 

improvement planning is supposed to address this, but to date, this has not been the case. EDB will 

introduce to middle schools tools for looking at the outcomes of teaching and learning at the school 

level, for relating resources to outcomes, and for better coordinating and aligning actors at the local 

level. This kind of work should be built on and extended to include elementary schools as well. 
10 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Component 2 therefore focuses on promoting a “whole school” approach to school governance, 

management and continuous improvement efforts. Whole school development models have attempted 

to change the professional and organizational culture of schools, promoting a more collegial 

environment with emphasis on collaboration and professional relations among the staff and extended 

to the local community. They also give considerable attention to teacher development activities as a 

way to improve student behaviour, learning and achievement (Hopkins 2002). Change is sought at all 

levels of the school. Teachers engage in professional dialogue and development, and, with the support 

of external professional agencies, the school culture changes (Harris 2002). Thus the focus is on the 

school as the unit of change. Whole school approaches have been successfully used to bring synergy to 

multi-level initiatives within an educational system in a number of countries including Ghana, Benin and 

Guinea. Such an approach would build on the work conducted by USAID/PAEM at the school level, but 

frame it more explicitly in the research and methods associated with whole school change and sitebased management. 

This component should target the same 200 elementary schools included in component 1, as well as 

support the whole school approach in all the USAID/PAEM middle schools in the regions where the 

project will be starting out. Applicants should consider how to build on the experience of USAID/PAEM 

in working with parents, communities and schools to garner support for and participate in decisionmaking at the school level. Applicants should also indicate how they intend to coordinate and draw 

lessons from the work of the Basic Education Project, which is working with schools and local authorities 

on similar issues. Proposals should demonstrate the value-added of the “whole school approach” and 

indicate how the tenants of such an approach will be operationalized systematically in Senegal. 

Sub-Component 2.1: Collaborative school management promoted and 

supported 

Situating proposed strategies and activities squarely within the context of a whole school approach, 

applicants should indicate how they will use the tenets of that approach to promote and support more 

collaborative and more effective school-based governance and management. Given that structures exist 

for school-based management (CGE), and for parental involvement (APE), and that processes for 

developing school improvement plans are, to varying degrees, being utilized, proposals need to explain 

how intended strategies and activities will respond to, build on, reorient, or otherwise take account of 

these existing entities and processes. It is assumed that the whole school approach will provide a 

framing philosophy, set of principles, and strategies that can help schools get more value from 

developing school improvement plans, as well as develop and implement plans that are more directly 

related to improving the quality of teaching and learning. Applicants should demonstrate how research 

and experience inform how best to operationalize this assumption in Senegal. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 2.1

• School management committees function more collaboratively and understand their role in 

promoting and supporting a whole school approach to school improvement 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 2.1

• Developing strategies for introducing, promoting and training school staffs and their communities in 

the essential concepts of the “whole school approach” 

• Implementing visioning exercises at school level making use of existing structures such as Amis de 

College in PAEM areas 

• Engaging school communities in defining the school mission and setting specific targets for what 

they would like their school to do better 
11 USAID/Senegal April 2009

• Building on the USAID/PAEM defined competencies for principals to include skills in the areas of 

promoting, facilitating and supporting collaboration and participatory decision-making 

• Providing training /training modules to school communities to foster the promotion of a more 

collaborative school culture 

• Redefining CGE mandate to include more community membership/representation 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 2.1

• Number of school governance structures supported 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 2.1

• Changes in composition of school management committees (CGE) in schools targeted by the project 

• Number/percentage of schools producing vision and mission statements 

• Number/percentage of school management committee members indicating that planning and 

decision-making have improved and become more collaborative 

Subcomponent 2.2: School-based staff development opportunities promoted 

and supported 

Teachers must continue to learn and develop professionally throughout their careers. In Senegal, where 

a large number of teachers are recruited directly into classrooms with inadequate pre-service 

preparation, ongoing learning and support are even more important. Apart from in-service training, 

learning from colleagues is proven to be a powerful vehicle for teacher development. Once teachers are 

in the classroom, often colleagues and the school principal are the only means of professional 

development available to them. School-based training and peer-to-peer introduction of pedagogical 

innovation have been shown to transfer much more easily to the classroom. The report, “The Quality of 

Basic Education in Senegal: A Review,” found that the cellules pédagogiques, which are meant to 

provide ongoing professional development opportunities at school level, are largely non-functional 

apart from in USAID/PAEM schools. Where functional, their work is not linked into broader issues. 

Meetings tend to be held about discrete issues with little continuity from one meeting to the other. 

Furthermore, schools in Senegal are increasingly assuming responsibilities for tasks which were 

previously carried out at central level. Notably, the role of the school principal is expanding to include 

more quality control and professional leadership; roles for which they have not been trained, with the 

exception of in USAID/PAEM schools. USAID/PAEM was successful in producing standards-based 

training modules for teachers and school principals. This component will build on this, making use of 

and expanding on existing modules and drawing on the experience of USAID/PAEM’s modular provision 

of training for school principals and teachers. Applicants are expected to demonstrate how their 

proposals build on the work of USAID/PAEM and develop school-based approaches and strategies for 

professional development that are applicable in both elementary and middle schools. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 2.2

• Staff are actively involved in professional development opportunities at their schools on an ongoing 

basis 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 2.2

• Expanding on the USAID PAEM teacher and school principal modules, adapting existing modules for 

school-based follow on activities and creating additional modules to serve the interests of the whole 

school 

• Introducing peer observation and mentoring and building a culture of learning within the school 
12 USAID/Senegal April 2009

• Training school principals and other educators in supervisory positions in mentoring, coaching and 

other critical support skills 

• Supporting and refining the work of the cellules pédagogiques and exploring more cross-curricular 

site-based training activities at the school level 

• Introducing action planning as a means of professional development within the school 

• Exploring joint events between clusters of feeder elementary schools and middle schools. 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 2.2

• Number of teachers trained with USG support 

• Number of students served by teachers receiving training with USAID support 

• Number of administrators and officials trained 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 2.2

• Number of site-based training modules produced 

• Number and frequency of teacher-to-teacher observations occurring in schools 

• Number and frequency of principal observations of teachers occurring in schools 

• Frequency and regularity of outside support visits and facilitated on-site training sessions 

Sub-Component 2.3: Opportunity to learn (OTL) framework utilized to guide 

school improvement planning 

The amount of time available for instruction is a critical issue in Senegal. The school year is disrupted by 

strikes and by too frequent teacher absence. Poor student attendance can also limit the amount of 

instructional time through which students are expected to gain basic skills. Each day school is closed, or 

one or more teachers are away from school, possible hours of instruction are lost. The loss of hours of 

instruction may be the single greatest in-school factor contributing to low levels of learning. Gillies 

defines opportunity to learn (OTL) at its most basic level as school being open, the teacher and students 

being present, materials being available in adequate number and teachers and students spending time 

in class focused on tasks that promote learning. He argues that failure to focus on these basic elements 

of opportunity to learn undermines investments in higher level interventions. In Senegal for example, 

one could argue that all the implementation effort and resources being deployed to roll out the new 

competency-based curriculum will see little return if opportunities to learn continue to be constrained 

by school closings, teacher and student absenteeism, and poor management of the school day. 

The issue of adequate time for teaching and learning seems to have risen in importance among many 

stakeholders in Senegal. This is both a negative and a positive sign. Negative, because it means the 

problem may be getting worse (anecdotal evidence on this is contradictory, some officials stating that 

the average number of hours of school has increased in recent years, others claiming that the number of 

strikes and other lost days is growing). And positive, because it means that enough people may be 

getting concerned and motivated enough to do something about this issue. While some of the factors 

that contribute to loss of instructional time are national in scope – i.e. some teacher strikes – experience 

from other countries indicates that improvements in teacher and student attendance and the number of 

days school is open can best be brought about through action at the local level. In addition, these kinds 

of obvious opportunity to learn factors are concrete, measureable and easy to understand, thus 

providing a specific set of factors school staff, parents, students, the wider community, and local 

authorities can all focus on as the basis for thinking about school improvement. Rather than defaulting 

to physical infrastructure or revenue generation ideas, the opportunity to learn framework makes it 
13 USAID/Senegal April 2009

possible for school improvement planning to zero in on factors that actually impact the quality of 

education and the amount of learning that occurs at the school. 

Nevertheless, while emphasis is being placed on opportunity to learn, many schools in Senegal lack the 

basic conditions that would be considered minimal requirements for quality education. For example, 

the problem of schools operating in temporary facilities (either using existing structures or being housed 

in simply constructed shelters) is widespread and needs to be addressed. MOE data indicate that of the 

33,761 elementary school classrooms in the country, 17% are in disrepair, but are still being used to 

house students. Overall, 16% of classrooms are classified as temporary structures, with some regions 

reporting much higher use of temporary facilities. Lack of appropriate facilities, such as latrines, access 

to potable water, electricity and libraries, is another problem in too many schools in Senegal, especially 

in rural areas. An opportunity to learn approach in Senegal needs to also account for the physical 

setting within which teaching and learning is to take place and must help define, promote and help 

schools work towards meeting a minimum standard for the conditions of schooling. 

Applicants are expected to put forward strategies that will raise awareness about the impact of school 

closing and teacher and student attendance on the available opportunity or time to learn. Applicants 

are encouraged to make use of the framework developed by the EQUIP2, and presented in “Opportunity 

to Learn: A high impact strategy for improving educational outcomes in developing countries,” by John 

Gillies and Jessica Quijada. Strategies proposed should indicate how school improvement planning will 

be guided by that or a similar framework, and how it will incorporate attention to minimum standards 

for school conditions. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 2.3

• Schools develop and implement improvement plans that contribute to yearly increases from 

baselines at the start of the project for the number of days schools are open and the rates of 

teacher and student attendance 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 2.3

• Introducing school management committees and staffs to the opportunity to learn concept and 

framework 

• Enlisting and training local actors in collecting baseline data on key OTL indicators (number of days 

school is open; teacher and student attendance, minimum school conditions) 

• Building on existing procedures and practices, providing a school improvement planning framework, 

process, and tools that specifically incorporate OTL factors 

• Supporting school improvement planning exercises that take into account key OTL factors 

• Promoting and supporting the enlistment of various and diverse actors in finding creative solutions 

to issues that impact school being open and teacher and student attendance 

• Providing training on maximizing use of existing resources 

• Mobilizing communities to aid in supporting the establishment of minimum conditions for schooling 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 2.3

• Number of school governance structures supported 

• Number of people trained in monitoring and evaluation 

• Number of information gathering or research activities 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 2.3
14 USAID/Senegal April 2009

• Baseline measures on key OTL indicators (days open; teacher and student attendance, minimum 

school conditions) 

• Extent to which school improvement plans incorporate and address OTL factors 

• Number of creative partnerships formed to address issues impacting school being open, teacher and 

student attendance, and the establishment of minimum conditions 

Sub-Component 2.4: Grants to schools provided to support OTL-based school 

improvement plans and to address minimum conditions 

To motivate schools and their communities to produce better school improvement plans, give the 

school community resources to manage and real operational issues to resolve, and provide resources 

that schools can use to put their plans into action, the project will make available grants to schools. 

Criteria for these grants will need to be defined in such a way that they communicate clearly to school 

communities and local authorities the expectations for the improvement planning process and plan 

content (i.e. whole school approach, collaboration, attention to OTL factors – including establishment of 

minimum conditions, collection of baseline data, etc.) as well as expectations for mobilization of local or 

other resources to complement grant funding. Mechanisms for evaluating school improvement plans to 

determine grant-worthiness will need to be developed by the project, and applicants are encouraged to 

indicate how they will do this, and to propose some likely criteria and processes based on experience in 

similar efforts. Effective communication related to this approach to improvement planning, for 

example, the definition and targeting of key OTL factors, and the explanation of grant request processes 

will be vital to the success of this effort. Applicants are encouraged to propose creative, innovative 

approaches to communication as well as indicate how they will monitor and evaluate the effectiveness 

of different communication strategies. Using grants to support investments in rehabilitating school 

infrastructure or purchasing of pedagogical materials would also help motivate actors who, in turn, then 

work to improve the opportunity to learn conditions of their schools. This was one big lesson from 

USAID/PAEM, and could be applied in how the “whole school” model is introduced and approached. 

Applicants are encouraged to discuss and explore how they will support a balanced approach to 

investments in physical infrastructure and basic inputs to establish minimum conditions for schooling, 

and attention to other opportunity to learn factors. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 2.4

• Schools receive grants to support improvement plans that meet specific criteria and that target 

improvements in basic opportunity to learn factors and establishment of minimum conditions for 

schooling 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 2.4

• Developing procedures and criteria for awarding grants that create incentives for the collaborative, 

whole school approach to addressing opportunities to learn 

• Defining and putting in place mechanisms for grant management and reporting that are not overly 

onerous for local communities 

• Awarding grants to schools and publicizing the activities and improvements schools are able to 

accomplish 

• Developing and implementing innovative, multi-channeled communication strategies and activities 

designed to inform school communities and other actors about the grant program while promoting 

the whole school approach, collaborative governance and management and the opportunity to 

learn framework 
15 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 2.4

• Number of administrators and officials trained 

• Number of school governance structures supported 

• Amount of private financing mobilized 

• Number of people trained in monitoring and evaluation 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 2.4

• Quality of school improvement plans (process and content) 

• Number and value of grants awarded 

• Categories of strategies promoted/supported through grants for addressing key OTL factors 

• Impact of grants 

Sub-Component 2.5: Opportunity to learn measures and student outcomes 

monitored at the school level 

If target schools are going to work to identify and implement strategies to improve opportunities to 

learn as one facet of their improvement plans and efforts, then they will need help in establishing the 

means to monitor improvements in opportunities to learn, and eventual improvements in student 

outcomes. Essential to being able to address school being open and teacher and student attendance is 

first being able to consistently measure and monitor them. At the school level, the project will be able 

to experiment in developing the processes and instruments best suited to local environments in 

Senegal. In may make sense to have different approaches to this challenge depending on the local 

context – i.e. the extent to which key community actors are literate or not, the levels of trust in the local 

community, the preferred forms and media of communication, etc. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 2.5

• Target schools and their communities able to monitor and share information about the number of 

days school is open, teacher and student attendance, and establishment of minimum conditions 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 2.5

• Developing and testing out Innovative processes and instruments for collecting data on the key OTL 

factors of school being open, teacher and student attendance and minimum conditions for schooling 

• Designing curricula for and providing training to CPs, school directors/principals and community 

members in collecting information and facilitating dialogue around school being open 

• Designing curricula for and providing training to CPs, school directors/principals and community 

members in collecting information and facilitating dialogue around teacher attendance 

• Designing curricula for and providing training to CPs, school directors/principals and community 

members in collecting information and facilitating dialogue around student attendance 

• Designing curricula for and providing training to CPs, school directors/principals and community 

members in collecting information and facilitating dialogue around minimum conditions 

• Developing and managing a database to monitor the key OTL factors across all project schools 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 2.5

• Number of administrators and officials trained 

• Number of school governance structures supported 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 2.5

• Changes in OTL indicators in target schools 
16 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Sub-Component 2.6: Promote policies and communications that support the 

whole school approach and OTL framework 

Component 2 pursues a school-level approach to governance and management, and assumes that many 

of the issues impacting school quality, in particular those associated with the key OTL factors discussed 

above, are best dealt with at the local level. This point of view was shared by many stakeholders in 

Senegal. Schools and their communities can work to address many of the issues that impact whether 

school is open, whether teachers attend regularly and, especially, whether students attend school 

regularly. However, there are policies and institutional arrangements within the sector that will impact 

whether schools can and if they are encouraged to work collaboratively with their communities. And 

there are other system-level factors that impact whether schools can deal with the OTL factors assumed 

to be amenable to local action. For example, if teachers are forced to wait months to receive their 

salaries, then they may be de-motivated and more inclined to miss days of school. Or if the union 

continues to find grievances in how teachers are treated by the ministry, then they are more likely to 

call for strikes. These are factors that may be beyond the control of the local actors, and for which the 

project will need to also devise broader, system-level strategies. In particular, under this 

subcomponent, applicants are encouraged to propose ways to use the work and activity at the schoolcommunity level to identify policy and institutional issues on which they can promote or take action on a 

broader level. In addition, applicants are expected to propose communication strategies that 

disseminate the successes at the local level, that draw attention to specific ways in which schools and 

their communities are addressing issues, and that extract valuable lessons that can be communicated 

throughout the country. Creative thinking about how to use the local experience to inform national 

level policy discussions will be particularly valued. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 2.6

• National policies, decisions and actions promoting and supporting collaborative school governance 

and improvements in key OTL factors will be taken 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 2.6

• Supporting nation-wide communication regarding minimum conditions for schooling and setting 

targets for improvements in key opportunity to learn variables 

• Identifying constraints at the departmental, regional and national levels that impact school-based 

decision-making 

• Identifying constraints at the departmental, regional and national levels that impact schools and 

their communities being able to address key OTL factors 

• Devising diverse communication strategies for sharing local experiences at collaborative planning 

and decision-making 

• Devising diverse communication strategies for sharing experiences at improving key OTL factors 

• Facilitating policy dialogue at the departmental, regional and national levels 

• Informing policy dialogue with the tangible experience and measured impact from target schools 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 2.6

• Does your program support education systems/policy reform? If yes, please describe the 

contributions of your program, including progress against any mission-level outcome or impact 

indicators. 

• Number of laws, policies, regulations, or guidelines developed or modified to improve equitable 

access to or the quality of education services 

• Number of local organizations provided with technical assistance for strategic information activities 
17 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 2.6

• Numbers of stakeholders reached through communication/mobilization campaigns 

• Use of information disseminated by the project by other actors and in different media and venues 

• Number of policy dialogue sessions facilitated 

Component 3: Coordinated Teacher Training 

Component three takes on the problems of coordination and alignment among the teacher preparation, 

training, and support activities and entities in Senegal. Pre- and in-service teacher training curricula 

need to be better aligned, both need to be explicitly tied to well-defined teacher competencies, and the 

demonstration of those competencies should be tied to the structure and criteria for advancement in 

the teaching profession. 

Furthermore, to address the backlog of teachers needing basic training and support, and to remove the 

bottleneck in teacher initial training, proposals should consider how best to provide support for 

decentralized mechanisms for recruiting teachers and how to help diversify the channels, venues, and 

programs available for assuring teacher initial training, in particular at regional or departmental levels. 

Likewise, it will be important to support the diversification of the channels through which continuous 

teacher professional development is delivered. Applicants may wish to consider how training programs 

can be modularized and linked to specific teaching competencies, and then delivered through a variety 

of hard and soft technologies. Overall, the education sector seems mired in the existing administrative 

approach to the problem of teacher development. There is high demand for training and resources are 

available to pay for training (either from government or projects). The situation cries out for a marketbased supply response to the unmet demand. Public-private partnerships may be one means through 

which to support this component. Industry and other stakeholders with an interest in education can 

provide unconventional but nevertheless critical financial and material support to teacher training 

efforts. If the system is to expand and improve, these sources should be tapped. Applicants may wish to 

consider how to promote and/or experiment with a market-like system or public-private partnerships 

for teacher training. 

In addition, part of what Senegal is struggling with to improve the quality of teaching and learning is a 

teaching profession and career structure that are not designed to motivate and draw the best out of 

teachers. Many stakeholders talked about the need for better career paths for teachers and even the 

unions expressed interest in career advancement and promotions being tied to performance on-the-job. 

Therefore, this component should include support to the development and implementation of these 

kinds of reforms. 

Applicants are expected to propose ways to work on these broad, systemic teacher training issues as 

they relate to the training and professional development of both elementary and middle school 

teachers. Activities and innovation can be piloted, tested and evaluated in the regions where the 

project will be working, but broader policy issues will need to be tackled on a national level – i.e. 

working with national offices, agencies and institutions responsible and implicated in teacher training 

(e.g. DRH, FASTEF, CNFC, CNFIC, INEADE). 
18 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Subcomponent 3.1: Improve coordination of and diversify pre-service and 

in-service delivery mechanisms 

Pre-service training is provided by The Faculté des Sciences et Technologie de l’Education et de la 

Formation (FASTEF) for middle and secondary schools and by the EFIs for elementary schools. EFI are 

supposed to provide in-service training as well as pre-service training to teachers in the elementary 

schools. An intensive in-service summer program for teachers is available which leads to certification 

although the EFIs are constrained in terms of how many teachers they can serve by the physical 

circumstances in which they operate. Training at FASTEF takes either two or three years depending on 

entry criteria and whether a middle or secondary school qualification is sought. Although there is some 

talk of setting up satellite centers in the regions, currently FASTEF is struggling to accommodate the 

large numbers of teachers who are seeking qualifications. It does offer its courses in CD format and 

provides support and follow-up largely through print-based correspondence with the individual teacher. 

Apart from these off-site training initiatives, there is little in the way of structured field-based delivery 

modes of training, although a number of school-based support structures do exist. The “cellules 

pédagogiques,” organized according to discipline area at middle school level, are designed to meet on a 

regular basis and allow teachers to discuss issues of interest and concern. While these work well, 

particularly in USAID/PAEM areas, in other schools, they are non-functional. In areas where they work 

well, teachers speak highly of their work with them. However, a number of respondents also reported 

that the cellules in their schools never meet; others said that while they did meet, they had little of 

practical use to offer. 

This subcomponent is intended to address the problems inherent in the current approaches to preservice training, in particular the bottleneck at FASTEF and the constraints faced in the EFIs. Applicants 

are asked to envisage how distance education modalities can help address these limitations. 

Furthermore, current in-service approaches rely heavily on face-to-face training. Applicants therefore 

should consider alternative delivery mechanisms for in-service training as well, in particular how to 

support and promulgate school-based teacher development approaches. It will be important to address 

the issue of ongoing teacher professional development and support as a dimension of the whole school 

approach and local management strategies being promoted through Component 2. 

Desired results for Subcomponent 3.1

• Increased options for delivery of pre- and in-service teacher training at elementary and middle 

school levels 

• Increased efficiency of in-service teacher education 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 3.1

• Analyzing alternatives to pre-service and in-service teacher training 

• Piloting a model for providing pre-service teacher training for middle school professors on a 

decentralized basis (e.g., FASTEF satellite campuses, alternative routes to distance certification such 

as school-based models) 

• Piloting models for providing in-service continuous professional development (CPD) at both primary 

and middle school levels, including use of outreach support personnel, cluster study groups, and 

innovative technologies such as video, radio, PMPs, etc. 

• Conducting a study that compares different approaches to in-service teacher education across 2-3 

regions in order to study the relative cost-effectiveness of each approach 
19 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 3.1

• Number of educators trained with USG support 

• Amount of Private Financing Mobilized with a DCA Guarantee 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 3.1

• Number of trainers/professors trained in alternative pre-service teacher education delivery models 

• Number of hours of training received by primary and middle school instructors via alternative 

training approaches 

• Cost-effectiveness of in-service teacher education approaches relative to each other 

Subcomponent 3.2: Support the definition of teacher competencies and the 

articulation of pre-service and in-service curricula 

The EFI are supposed to provide in-service training as well as pre-service training to teachers in the 

elementary schools. However, there is little coordination between the pre and in-service sectors in 

terms of approach, structure or content of training. Among the different EFIs, while the framework for 

pre-service training is common to all, the way in which that framework is translated into programs and 

courses is left up to the EFI at the regional level to decide. On the plus side, this means that an EFI can 

tailor its program to the requirements of the region it is serving. On the minus side, it means that 

without an adequate monitoring and evaluation program in place, there is a risk that training offered in 

one part of the country may diverge significantly from the training offered in another. As well as a lack 

of coordination between the pre and in-service training sectors, there is little harmonization between 

the various in-service initiatives. Communication between the PRF, IA, IDEN and EFIs with regard to 

teacher training remains weak. Even with the EFI, the pre and in-service programs are organized 

according to different competencies and use different materials. In terms of the NGOs, while the major 

players are generally well-coordinated in their efforts to support the ministry, there is some evidence 

that a minority are providing training which follows their own agendas rather than being based on the 

stated goals of the MOE. Applicants are expected to introduce practical, operational means to 

coordinate among the teacher training institutions and agencies at the regional and departmental levels, 

but also to propose ways to facilitate and broker coordination in terms of national policies and 

institutional arrangements. 

There are undeniably examples of good practice in teacher training and we did see a number of 

examples of high-quality teacher training materials including the USAID/PAEM modules and the EFI inservice materials. There was much talk about needs analysis and gaps in the knowledge of teachers. 

However, unlike many other countries, there is no shared understanding of what constitutes a good 

teacher in the Senegalese context in terms of the knowledge, skills and attitudes such a teacher needs 

to possess. USAID/PAEM had developed standards for teachers in the middle schools along with 

supporting performance indicators which form the basis of the training modules developed under that 

program. 17 unrelated competences had also been developed to guide the provision of training for 

teachers at elementary level, although only six of these were dealt with in the materials developed for 

the initial training. The EFIs used five different competency areas to organize the curricula of their inservice course. In the absence of a shared understanding based on a common written description of 

teacher standards or competences, needs-based curricula can only be established based on individuals’ 

views of what a practicing teacher needs. Furthermore, in the absence of any systematic evaluation or 

follow-up to the training, it is difficult to make judgments as to the quality of the training provided. The 

development of clearly defined competencies, based on instructional and classroom management 

practices that related to improved outcomes for students should feature prominently in what applicants 

propose. 
20 USAID/Senegal April 2009

Desired result for Subcomponent 3.2

• Increased linkages between pre-service and in-service teacher education curricula and 

accompanying systems for assessing teacher performance 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 3.2

• Surveying existing teacher profiles and competencies 

• With MOE and education partners, reaching consensus on profiles and core competencies to be 

attained by primary and middle school teachers 

• With MOE and education partners, reaching consensus on progression of content and competencies 

to be included in pre-service and in-service curriculum, and mechanisms for incorporating these 

elements into pre-service and in-service curricula (e.g., curriculum review, review/revision of 

existing teacher training programs and policies, etc.) 

• Developing simple, user-friendly tools and procedures for observing and assessing teacher 

competencies, particularly ones related to teaching basic reading and math skills, and training 

education partners in their use 

• Designing and helping implement the means to evaluate the relationships between specific 

competencies and student learning outcomes 

• Using the results of evaluations to further refine competency profiles and teacher training curricula 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 3.2

• Number of local organizations provided with technical assistance for strategic information activities 

• Does your program support education systems/policy reform? If yes, please describe the 

contributions of your program, including progress against any mission-level outcome or impact 

indicators 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 3.2

• Existence of approved, articulated teacher education curriculum specifying core curriculum 

elements and teacher profiles, to be used as a framework for pre-service and in-service teacher 

training 

• Number of teacher education programs following articulated curriculum 

• Number of education partners using teacher observation and assessment tools 

Sub-Component 3.3: Make career structure more rewarding/merit-based and 

develop and promulgate teacher training & professional development policy 

The teaching profession suffers from an archaic system of promotion and incentives. Advancement is 

based solely on seniority, rather than combining time in the system with some measure of performance 

(competence), and no transparent set of criteria was found for selecting school directors and principals 

(nominations are made at the IA/IDEN level based on criteria determined by those inspectorates). No 

incentives exist for teachers to improve their teaching performance; all teachers are paid the same 

whether their students perform well or not, and no systems of teacher recognition (e.g., teacher of the 

year) or opportunities for advancement (such as the Board Certification in the US) were found in our 

review. Leaders of two teachers’ unions expressed a strong interest in and support for introducing 

performance based rewards or sanctions in the teaching profession. The MOE reports that a teacher 

training policy exists but outside the walls of the DRH, it is relatively unknown. The objective of this 

subcomponent is to aid the MOE in fully articulated policies that guide the structure of the teaching 
21 USAID/Senegal April 2009

profession, that incorporate reforms aimed at introducing performance-based incentives and criteria for 

advancement, and that link all these to specific competencies desirable in teachers and proven to relate 

to effective instruction and learning outcomes. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 3.3

• Career structure linking teacher seniority, training and performance to clear paths for advancement 

and incentives 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 3.3

• Assessing existing teacher education and advancement policies (career structure) and identifying 

avenues for advancement on the basis of training (e.g., number of hours of CPD) and performance 

(classroom instructional skills, service, involvement in extracurricular programs, student learning 

outcomes, etc.) 

• Piloting methods for assessing teacher performance (e.g., observation, peer and supervisor 

recommendations, review panels, student achievement testing, EGRA, EGMA, etc.) and making 

recommendations for developing systems that can accompany the career structure 

• Developing a roll-out plan for a revised career structure that takes into account policy and legal 

frameworks, professional training needs, incentives, and financial implications to be considered for 

implementation 

• Assisting MOE and partners with revision of career structure and relevant policies 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 3.3

• Does your program support education systems/policy reform? If yes, please describe the 

contributions of your program, including progress against any mission-level outcome or impact 

indicators 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 3.3

• Existence of revised career structure that includes performance indicators along with academic 

background and seniority as a basis for teacher advancement 

• Number of methods adopted by MOE for assessing teacher performance 

Component 4: Assessment and monitoring and evaluation 

The “Quality of Basic Education in Senegal: A Review” revealed that system management, while wellintentioned, lacks the basic tools that allow decisions to be made based on an imperative to maximize 

efficiency and effectiveness. Part of what teachers, schools, and managers up and down the 

administrative hierarchy need is a system for monitoring activities, measuring implementation 

effectiveness and evaluating impact in terms of improved educational effectiveness. The MOE at all 

levels currently lacks real-time data on system performance and suffers from the absence of a truly 

standardized way to assess student learning. Component 4 therefore promotes and supports the 

development and use of tools for standardized continuous assessment, the building of monitoring and 

evaluation capacity, and the creation of the elements of system-wide accountability. 

For example, the MOE needs a national monitoring and evaluation system. Given the old adage, “You 

manage to what you measure,” the ministry needs to move away from measuring inputs only and 

introduce tools and processes for tracking OTL and student achievement, including the development of 
22 USAID/Senegal April 2009

an item bank, training for teachers and IDENs to use items in routine assessments, and training of 

central ministry staff in the ongoing development and administration of national standardized 

assessments. Part of such a system will need to be good methods and tools for standardized continuous 

assessment (conducted by teachers in class throughout the year) to provide data to teachers, schools, 

communities and the system as to how teachers and students are doing throughout the school year, not 

just on exams. The EGRA and EGMA methodologies pursued under Component 1 are examples of such 

tools that focus on basic skills. Curriculum-based continuous assessment tools will also need to be 

developed. Accountability can be addressed if this component also includes a strategy to develop, 

implement and publicize a national report card system that would make use of the data on student 

achievement (as per Component 1) and OTL (as per Component 2) to rate school effectiveness. While 

Component 2 envisages working at the school level to develop and use report cards – i.e. as instruments 

facilitating school-community dialogue about school quality and as inputs to the school improvement 

planning process – this component aims to support the development of a system-wide use of report 

cards. Applicants are strongly encouraged to stipulate the actions necessary to ensure that these two 

approaches can be mutually reinforcing and beneficial. In order to benefit from the work being done 

under Components 1 and 2, this component will also focus on monitoring and assessment of elementary 

schools. 

Subcomponent 4.1: Reinforce monitoring and evaluation capacity at central 

and decentralized levels 

While significant documentation and mechanisms exist to guide the reform (e.g., PDEF, partners’ 

roundtable), personnel responsible for its implementation often lack the skills needed to manage 

activities from the central ministry to regional and local structures. In particular, personnel express their 

need to reinforce their skills in planning, coordination, monitoring and evaluation. Planners and 

managers throughout the system need support in developing the tools, techniques and skills associated 

with regular monitoring and evaluation within a framework of improved efficiency and effectiveness. 

Currently, planning and management are for the most part pre-occupied with day-to-day management 

and implementation. Little attention is paid to evaluating the quality of implementation, the outputs 

and outcomes of activities, and the degree to which outputs and outcomes are obtained efficiently and 

effectively. Applicants are therefore expected to not only describe how they would provide training and 

technical assistance in relation to these areas of need, but also how they will encourage an 

organizational culture that promotes monitoring, evaluation and management to an efficiency 

imperative. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 4.1

• Increased capacity to plan, manage, monitor and evaluate educational improvements at the central, 

regional and local levels 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 4.1

• Conducting an institutional assessment at central, regional and local levels of capacity to manage, 

coordinate, monitor and evaluate educational reform activities, especially ones related to improving 

the teaching and learning of basic skills 

• Training educational managers from the central, regional and local levels in planning, coordination, 

monitoring and evaluation of educational activities with an eye to decision-making based on system 

performance data and cost-benefit analysis 

• Identifying ways in which coordination and communication amongst ministries, ministry units and 

levels within ministries can be streamlined and improved 
23 USAID/Senegal April 2009

• Assisting with rationalizing the information data base within the ministry (e.g., improving the 

accessibility of achievement data, streamlining the updating of personnel records, etc.) 

• Helping produce cost-effectiveness analyses of key activities involving central, regional, 

departmental and local administrators/managers 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 4.1

• Number of administrators and officials trained 

• Number of people trained in monitoring and evaluation 

• Number of institutions with improved management information systems as a result of USG 

assistance 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 4.1

• Measure of availability of monitoring data, in particular data on student achievement 

• Time from planning to execution of activities reduced (evidence of increased efficiency) 

• Number of cost-effectiveness or cost-benefit analyses conducted 

• Increased number of management decisions made involving cost-benefit analysis 

Subcomponent 4.2: Improve the use of assessment data in management 

Over the last 13 years, assessments such as PASEC and SNERS have revealed declining levels of student 

achievement in Senegal; however, this information is rarely communicated in an understandable format 

to the people who need it most – teachers, parents, school directors and local education authorities and 

supervisors. Promising assessment trends are emerging, such as the development of standardized tests 

at the regional level and standards of achievement in language and math (as established in processes 

such as EGRA and EGMA). Yet data from these types of assessments are still not routinely used for 

decision making in Senegal. Instead, decisions tend to be made on the basis of immediate availability of 

resources and relative urgency. Greater use of assessment data can allow education partners at the 

decentralized level to speak a common language about instructional expectations – e.g., desired student 

proficiency levels by grade and subject – thereby making it possible to share information on instruction 

and management strategies across schools and regions. Greater use of assessment data can also enable 

education managers at the central level to judge the merit of different educational approaches on the 

basis of their effectiveness (or impact), not just on the basis of inputs such as numbers of teachers 

trained or materials distributed. Impact assessments combined with cost information make costeffectiveness analyses possible – a powerful tool for identifying waste, redundancies, and underperforming systems that, once corrected, can result in the provision of higher quality education to a 

larger part of the population. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 4.2

• Increased use of assessment data for educational decision making 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 4.2

• Developing banks of test items by grade and subject area that can be used by the MOE for national 

assessments, by inspectors for regional assessments, and by teachers as formative evaluation tools 

• Reinforcing the capacity at the regional level to develop and implement assessments according to 

internationally recognized standards of validity and reliability 

• Creating networks for communicating assessment processes, results, and decisions taken 

throughout ministry structures (e.g., across IAs, between the central ministry and the school level, 

etc.) 
24 USAID/Senegal April 2009

• Assisting the MOE in the development and implementation of diagnostic assessments (student 

achievement testing) and analysis and reporting of results in simple, user-friendly formats 

• Training educational managers at the central, regional, and local levels to use assessment as a 

measure of educational effectiveness and efficiency 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 4.2

• Number of administrators and officials trained 

• Number of people trained in strategic information management 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 4.2

• Existence of item bank 

• Frequency of use of item bank by national assessment personnel, inspectors and teachers 

• Existence of networks for communicating assessment processes and results 

• Number of education managers trained in assessment and data use for management and decision 

making 

• Increased frequency of use of assessment data in management and decision making (e.g., analysis of 

reports, discourse analysis) 

Sub-Component 4.3: Promulgate the use of report cards for tracking school 

improvement 

Components 1 and 2 will contribute to the use of report cards at the local level, helping schools and 

their communities, and local education authorities, learn how to incorporate opportunity to learn and 

student outcome data into reports that are understandable within the local context. These tools, at the 

local level, are meant to promote school improvement planning and efforts linked more explicitly to 

better assurance of opportunity to learn (i.e., school being open more regularly and teachers and 

students having improved attendance) and achievement of better student learning outcomes, especially 

in reading and math. The objective here is to work at departmental, regional and, eventually, national 

levels on the use of these same data to establish a report card system. Departments and regions can be 

supported in experimenting with monitoring individual school effectiveness, as well as aggregate 

effectiveness at different levels of the system. The project will need to assess the climate within the 

regions where it will be working to determine how best to promote and introduce these kind of 

accountability tools, and work with a broad range of stakeholders to determine the best procedures, 

indicators, formats, media, etc. for sharing report card-like information so that it can be widely 

understood and be used to promote improvement. Applicants should discuss how they would 

safeguard against the use of accountability data to punish poor performers. Proposals should stipulate 

the features of such a system that could be developed to ensure equitable treatment of schools across 

the variety of socio-economic and socio-cultural settings that exist within regions in Senegal (the most 

obvious example being the differences between urban and rural environments). 

Desired result for Subcomponent 4.3

• Use of report cards to monitor elementary school effectiveness at the departmental and regional 

levels 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 4.3

• Surveying stakeholders at the local, departmental and regional levels to determine their a priori 

knowledge, attitudes and perceptions on the measures of school effectiveness and the use of 

information for accountability 
25 USAID/Senegal April 2009

• Using examples of successful school level use of data (i.e. as support under components 1 and 2) to 

promote wider use of information and accountability 

• Designing, testing and evaluating various pilot versions of report cards – information, indicators, 

formats, etc. 

• Producing report cards for elementary schools in target departments and regions 

• Developing and helping implement school effectiveness accountability systems at the departmental 

and regional levels 

• Training and supporting education officials at the departmental and regional level to manage and 

make use of the accountability system 

• Training and supporting a variety of stakeholders at the departmental and regional level to 

participate in and support the management and use of the accountability system 

• Informing dialogue at the national level regarding school effectiveness accountability (based on 

experiences on the ground at the departmental and regional levels) 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 4.3

• Number of administrators and officials trained 

• Number of people trained in strategic information management 

• Number of institutions with improved management information systems as a result of USG 

assistance 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 4.3

• Existence of school report cards at the departmental level 

• Existence of school report cards at the regional level 

• Use of report cards for an annual review of school effectiveness at the departmental and regional 

levels 

• Number of stakeholders at the local, departmental and regional levels aware of report cards and 

able to discuss the information contained in them 

Sub-Component 4.4: Promote policies and communications that support the 

use of data for monitoring, evaluation and accountability 

For the success of the activities under Component 4’s other subcomponents, it will be necessary to 

engage and understand the points of view of a variety of stakeholders. Part of the reason monitoring, 

evaluation, assessment and accountability systems are weak in most developing education systems is 

that many stakeholders perceive them as threatening. Rare are the bureaucrats and administrators who 

volunteer to be held accountable. Ministries of education rarely exemplify cultures of accountability for 

results. Much of the work under Component 4 is therefore about understanding the various points of 

view of key stakeholders, both inside and outside the ministry, at national and sub-national levels. And 

perhaps more importantly, then adroitly communicating with those stakeholders in order to promote 

improved understanding, acceptance and even enthusiastic engagement in the proposed systems for 

use of information, monitoring and evaluation and accountability. Applicants are therefore expected to 

not only address the technical challenges associated with improved monitoring and evaluation, greater 

use of assessment data in management decision making, and use of report cards and a system-level 

approach to accountability, but also to address the political, institutional and personal preconceptions 

and reactions to these kinds of reforms. This subcomponent therefore envisages the development and 

implementation of sophisticated communication, mobilization and dialogue strategies and activities. 

Desired result for Subcomponent 4.4
26 USAID/Senegal April 2009

• Large groups of stakeholders recognize the need for and support the implementation of the school 

report cards and departmental and regional systems of accountability for school effectiveness 

Illustrative activities for Subcomponent 4.4

• Assessing existing monitoring and evaluation and accountability systems – how they function, are 

used, perceived and reacted to 

• Assessing existing assessment approaches, methodologies and related information systems – in 

particular how they are used, perceived and reacted to 

• Surveying stakeholders to determine existing attitudes regarding measuring school effectiveness 

and holding the system accountable for school-level outcomes 

• Analyzing the specific policy and institutional constraints related to the long-term sustainability of 

use of assessment data, system monitoring and evaluation, and a report card-based approach to 

system accountability 

• Working at the national level to support policy and/or institutional reforms that are identified as 

necessary to remove constraints, create incentives and support the use of report cards in 

departmental and regional systems of accountability 

• Identifying key stakeholders at the local, departmental, regional and national levels and mapping 

their affiliations, connections, and points of view vis-à-vis school report cards and a schooleffectiveness oriented system of accountability 

• Designing and implementing communication campaigns aimed at raising awareness about school 

effectiveness measures and the utility of departmental and regional systems of accountability 

• Designing and implementing mobilization campaigns that target education system actors, civil 

society actors, private sector interests, and other stakeholders to support the use of school report 

cards and a system of accountability for school effectiveness 

• Fostering the growth of constituencies willing to politically and/or materially support the 

implementation of school report cards and departmental and regional systems of accountability 

• Informing, promoting and facilitating national dialogue regarding school report cards and 

accountability for school effectiveness 

Standard indicators for Subcomponent 4.4

• Does your program support education systems/policy reform? If yes, please describe the 

contributions of your program, including progress against any mission-level outcome or impact 

indicators. 

• Number of laws, policies, regulations, or guidelines developed or modified to improve equitable 

access to or the quality of education services 

• Number of local organizations provided with technical assistance for strategic information activities 

• Number of people trained in other strategic information management 

Possible custom indicators for Subcomponent 4.4

• Numbers of stakeholders reached through communication/mobilization campaigns 

• Changes in knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of key stakeholders regarding assessment, 

monitoring and evaluation and accountability 

• Amount of material, financial support mobilized for activities under this component