A MANUAL FOR MANAGING 

INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER 

PROGRAMS

March 9, 2005

This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was based 

on the Farmer to Farmer experience of ACDI/VOCA, Citizens Network for Foreign Affairs, Florida A&M University, 

Land O’ Lakes, Opportunities Industrialization Centers International, Partners of the Americas, Virginia State 

University, and Winrock International. It was compiled and edited by: Elon Gilbert, Robert Navin, Gary Alex, Eric 

Benschoter, Anne Cullen, and Ronni Flannery.

MANAGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER

PROGRAMS

A Farmer-to-Farmer Program Manual
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ANNEXES ..............................................................................................................V

DEFINITIONS AND ACRONYMS ...........................................................................................VI

PREFACE........................................................................................................................ VIII

SECTION 1: UNDERTAKING VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS.............................................. 1

1.1 COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE OF VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS ............................................. 2

Key considerations for volunteer programs......................................................... 2

Balancing objectives............................................................................................. 3

Key recommendations.......................................................................................... 6

1.2 PHASES OF THE VOLUNTEER PROGRAM CYCLE .......................................................... 7

Considerations at each phase of the project cycle.............................................. 7

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 10

1.3 PROCUREMENT AND IMPLEMENTING AGENCY SELECTION ......................................... 11

Why are procedures for partner selection and funding important? ................... 11

Issues in selecting implementing agencies........................................................ 11

Current practices in procurement and partner selection ................................... 12

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 14

SECTION 2: DEVELOPING STRATEGIES AND PLANS FOR INTERNATIONAL 

VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS.................................................................................... 15

2.1 ALLOCATING VOLUNTEERS AMONG COUNTRIES FOR INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER 

PROGRAMS ........................................................................................................... 16

Why is country selection important?.................................................................. 16

Major issues related to allocating volunteers among countries......................... 16

Current practices in allocating volunteers among countries.............................. 18

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 19

2.2 TARGETING VOLUNTEER PROGRAM ACTIVITIES: SELECTING AND ANALYZING 

COMMODITY AND SERVICE SUBSECTORS .............................................................. 21

Why is the selection and analysis of subsectors important?............................. 21

Major issues in selecting and analyzing subsectors.......................................... 21

Current practices for selecting subsectors......................................................... 22

Tools for use in subsector assessments............................................................ 24

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 25

2.3 DEVELOPING SUBSECTOR PLANS ............................................................................. 27

Why is a subsector plan important?................................................................... 27

Issues in preparation of subsector plans ........................................................... 27

Current practices in volunteer program subsector project planning.................. 32

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 33

2.4 EX ANTE IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS ...................................... 34

Why is ex ante impact assessment useful?....................................................... 34

Issues with ex ante impact assessment for volunteer programs....................... 34

Current practices in ex ante impact assessment of volunteer programs.......... 37

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 38

2.5 SELECTING PARTNERS FOR VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS ................................................ 40

Why is the selection of partners important?....................................................... 40

Major issues in partner selection........................................................................ 40
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS iii

Current practices for the selecting partner organizations.................................. 41

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 42

2.6 SELECTING HOST ORGANIZATIONS ........................................................................... 43

Why is selection of host organizations important? ............................................ 43

Major issues in host organization selection ....................................................... 43

Current practices in volunteer host selection..................................................... 44

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 47

2.7 PLANNING HOST PROJECTS: THE HOST STRATEGIC PLAN ........................................ 48

Why are host strategic plans so important?....................................................... 49

Important issues related to project planning...................................................... 49

Current practices in host strategic planning....................................................... 50

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 51

SECTION 3: DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING VOLUNTEER ASSIGNMENTS... 52

3.1 PREPARING VOLUNTEER SCOPES OF WORK............................................................. 53

Why is the preparation of SOWs important? ..................................................... 53

Major issues in preparing SOWs........................................................................ 53

Current practices in preparing volunteer SOWs................................................ 54

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 56

3.2 VOLUNTEER RECRUITMENT....................................................................................... 57

Why is volunteer recruitment important? ........................................................... 57

Major issues in volunteer recruitment................................................................ 57

Current practices in recruiting volunteers .......................................................... 59

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 61

3.3 VOLUNTEER ORIENTATION ........................................................................................ 62

Why is volunteer orientation important?............................................................. 62

Major issues in volunteer orientation ................................................................. 62

Current practices in orienting volunteers ........................................................... 62

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 66

3.4 VOLUNTEER LOGISTICAL AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT.................................................. 67

Why are logistical and technical support services important?........................... 67

Major issues relating to technical support and complementary services.......... 67

Current practices in arranging logistical and technical support services .......... 68

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 71

3.5 PROVIDING COMPLEMENTARY SUPPORT SERVICES TO HOSTS.................................. 72

Why are complementary services important?.................................................... 72

Major issues relating to complementary services.............................................. 72

Current practices in arranging complementary services ................................... 73

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 74

3.6 PROGRAM STRUCTURE AND STAFFING ..................................................................... 75

Why are structure and staffing important?......................................................... 75

Major issues in program structure and staffing.................................................. 75

Current practices in volunteer program structure and staffing .......................... 77

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 79
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS iv

SECTION 4: ADDRESSING ADDITIONAL OBJECTIVES IN VOLUNTEER 

PROGRAMS FOCUSED ON ECONOMIC GROWTH........................................... 80

4.1 VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS AND POVERTY REDUCTION, FOOD SECURITY, AND SOCIAL 

EQUITY ................................................................................................................. 81

Why are social equity issues important? ........................................................... 81

Major issues relating to poverty reduction, food security and social equity ...... 81

Current practices in addressing poverty issues in volunteer programs ............ 83

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 85

4.2 ADDRESSING GENDER CONSIDERATIONS.................................................................. 86

Why are gender considerations important?....................................................... 86

Major issues related to gender........................................................................... 86

Current practices in considering gender in volunteer programs........................ 87

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 87

4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ISSUES .......................... 88

Why are environmental and natural resource considerations important?......... 88

Major environmental issues in volunteer programs........................................... 88

Current practices for environmental considerations in volunteer programs...... 89

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 92

Information sources on environmental health and safety.................................. 93

4.4 OUTREACH AND PUBLIC AWARENESS ....................................................................... 94

Why is outreach important? ............................................................................... 94

Major issues in outreach.................................................................................... 94

Current practices in performing public outreach................................................ 95

Key recommendations........................................................................................ 98

SECTION 5: MONITORING, EVALUATION AND IMPACT ASSESSMENT................. 99

5.1 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS

........................................................................................................................... 100

Why is an MIS important for volunteer programs?.......................................... 100

Issues in development of an MIS for international volunteer programs.......... 100

Current practices in use of MIS for volunteer programs.................................. 101

Key recommendations...................................................................................... 105

5.2 REPORTING ON VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS ................................................................ 106

Why is reporting important? ............................................................................. 106

Issues in reporting on volunteer programs ...................................................... 106

Current good practice in reporting on volunteer programs.............................. 106

Key recommendations...................................................................................... 108

5.3 VOLUNTEER PROGRAM EVALUATION ....................................................................... 109

Issues in evaluating volunteer programs......................................................... 109

Current practices in evaluating volunteer programs........................................ 109

Key recommendations...................................................................................... 111

SECTION 6: ADDITIONAL REFERENCES.................................................................. 112
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS v

LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex A: Example of Country Plan (WI-Nicaragua, ACDI/VOCA-Kenya)

Annex B: Example of Project Plan (CNFA-Moldova)

Annex C: Example of Scope of Work (ACDI/VOCA – Kenya)

Annex D: Recruiting Database (ACDI/VOCA)

Annex E: Example of Orientation Materials (ACDI/VOCA – Kenya, list of LOL orientation 

materials)

Annex F: Example of Assignment Report (WI – Nigeria)

Annex G: Public Outreach Approaches and Materials (POA)

Annex H: FtF Program Standard Indicator Reporting Tables
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS vi

DEFINITIONS AND ACRONYMS

KEY DEFINITIONS: 

Direct beneficiary An individual that benefits (usually economically) as a result of working directly 

with a volunteer. Usually as a host or member of a host organization. Also 

called a customer or a client.

Client/Customer USAID lexicon for a beneficiary, with emphasis on making sure that the 

beneficiary actually wants what the volunteer seeks to provide. 

ADS Automated Directives System. USAID’s operating manual. 

Donor The individual or organization, public or private, providing funding for the 

volunteer program. Also termed the “funding agency”.

Field staff

Focus Area

Staff of implementing agencies located in developing countries receiving 

volunteers.

Term used in the FtF Program for a subsector project receiving FtF volunteers.

Funding agency The individual or organization, public or private, providing funding for the 

volunteer program. Also termed the “donor”.

Host An individual or organization that receives technical assistance services and 

serves as the focus of the volunteer’s work. Examples include an individual 

farmer, a cooperative, a bank, an agribusiness, or a department in the ministry 

of agriculture. 

Host’s strategic plan The project or plan of activities and objectives for volunteer work with one host.

Implementer, 

Implementing Agency, 

Implementing Partner

The organization that provides volunteers for economic growth programs 

overseas, using funding from donors provided under a grant or a contract.

Indirect beneficiary An individual that benefits (usually economically) as a result of volunteer 

assignments, but does not work directly with the volunteer.

Intermediary A local organization that helps the volunteer program connect with a host and 

with local organizations/individuals that can benefit from the volunteer. They 

may or may not have a sub-contract with the Implementing Agency.

Partner Same as Intermediary.

Subsector Under the FtF program, a program area for work by volunteers, including 

commodity subsectors (e.g., dairy, horticulture, wheat, etc.) or services (e.g., 

financial services, extension, certification, input supply, etc.)

Subsector project A development activity focused on a subsector and that has defined goals, 

objectives, strategy, and budget. Also called Focus Area within the current FtF 

Program.

Volunteer An individual who provides technical assistance under a volunteer program, 

receiving no direct salary from the assignment.

Volunteer program An implementing agency’s subsector plan and budget for volunteers in a 

specific country or region that has been approved by the funding agency.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS vii

ACRONYMS:

ACDI/VOCA Agricultural Cooperative Development International/Volunteers in Overseas 

Cooperative Assistance (an FtF implementing partner)

CAFTA Central America Free Trade Agreement

CNFA Citizens Network for Foreign Affairs (an FtF implementing partner)

FAMU Florida A&M University (an FtF implementing partner)

FtF Farmer-to-Farmer Volunteer Program

HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point

ISO International Organization for Standardization

LOL Land O’Lakes, Inc. (an FtF implementing partner)

NGO Non-governmental organization

POA Partners of the Americas (an FtF implementing partner)

PVO Private voluntary organization (a USAID registered NGO)

Q/C Quality control

RFA Request for Assistance (USAID procurement document)

SOW Scope of Work

SPS Sanitary and phytosanitary

SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats analysis 

USAID U.S. Agency for International Development

VSU Virginia State University (an FtF implementing partner)

WI Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development (an FtF 

implementing partner)
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS viii

PREFACE

Purpose of the manual: The purpose of this manual is to serve as a reference for those 

who are new to setting up or managing an international volunteer program. It draws from 

a review of the 20 years of experience of the Farmer-to-Farmer (FtF) Volunteer 

Program. Since 1986, FtF has used short-term volunteer technical assistance to 

promote agricultural sector development, people-to-people exchanges, and wider public 

understanding of development issues and objectives. The FtF programs have been 

implemented through grants to various private, voluntary organizations and universities, 

including ACDI/VOCA, Land O’Lakes (LOL), Partners of the Americas (POA), Winrock 

International (WI), and Citizens Network for Foreign Affairs (CNFA). Grants were usually 

competitively awarded for five-year projects. 

This manual describes many of the good practices developed by these organizations. 

While it generally answers the question, “What should the implementing agency do?” it 

does not necessarily explain how the agency should do it. Such information is often 

codified in an organization’s operations manual (containing form letters, pay and benefit 

scales, insurance policies, travel policies, communication policies, etc.). Clearly a new 

organization can learn from an operation manual of an established organization. 

However, it must recognize that many of the policies are unique to the culture of that 

organization. The authors of this manual welcome feedback so that we can produce a 

revised version in a year or so. For questions that cannot be answered in a generic 

manual for old and new, big and small implementing organizations, we recommend that 

consultants be used to develop management systems tailored to the unique 

characteristics and objectives of the organization.

The Farmer-to-Farmer Program: The FtF Program was first authorized by the U.S. 

Congress in 1985 to provide for the transfer of knowledge and expertise from U.S. 

agricultural producers and businesses on a voluntary basis to middle-income countries 

and emerging democracies. Since then, the program has earned respect for the highquality technical services it provides to developing country host institutions. The U.S. 

Congress re-authorized the FtF Program in the 2002 Farm Bill, designating it the John 

Ogonowski FtF Program in honor of one of the pilots killed September 11, 2001. 

Evaluations have consistently found that the program provides high quality technical 

services. To date, volunteers have contributed over $34 million worth of their time. 

Approximately one million farm families (representing about five million people) have 

been direct beneficiaries of the FtF Program, and approximately 10,000 volunteer 

assignments have been completed in over 80 countries. 

Approach: In preparing this Manual, the FtF implementing organizations provided 

detailed information on their established procedures and practices. Consultants Elon 

Gilbert, Anne Cullen, and Ronni Flannery prepared a first draft of the Manual, 

synthesizing the best practices of the various organizations. This final version reflects 

additional reviews and edits by the implementing organizations and by USAID staff. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS ix

Scope and structure of manual: The Manual focuses on program management 

practices for international volunteer programs promoting economic growth objectives. 

Section 1 discusses key concepts and trade-offs common in the management of 

volunteer programs. Section 2 covers those activities that normally precede a volunteer 

assignment, notably the development of program and project strategies and plans as 

well as the selection of country program themes, partners, and host organizations. 

Project implementation and management of the volunteer assignments themselves is 

the focus of Section 3. Section 4 examines ways in which economic growth oriented 

volunteer programs can address other objectives of poverty reduction and food security, 

gender and social equity, environmental conservation, and outreach to further public 

understanding of international development issues. Section 5 discusses monitoring, 

evaluation, and impact assessment for volunteer programs. 

Each section is divided into separate topical notes addressing particular issues in the 

management of volunteer programs. The topical notes begin with an introduction of why 

the topic is important to efficient and effective volunteer program management followed 

by major issues relating to the topic, current practices that have proven successful in FtF 

programs, and key recommendations. 

While many lessons from FtF programs are thought to be valid for international volunteer 

programs in general, this guidebook has not attempted to draw extensively on the 

lessons learned from other volunteer programs, such at those run by the U.S. Peace 

Corps, the United Nations, or religious groups. We defer to those more familiar with 

these other programs to decide how valuable it would be to review their experiences 

also. Ultimately the best structures and operations of volunteer organizations must be 

tailored to the specific context of each program. This Manual is therefore a guide, not a 

cookbook.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 1

SECTION 1: UNDERTAKING VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS

"Volunteerism is an important part of America's response to 

problems in the developing world. From the Peace Corps to 

today's Farmer-to-Farmer programs, American volunteers 

have been making a difference in these countries for 50 

years."

-USAID Administrator Andrew Natsios upon presenting the Presidential Call 

to Service Award to 11 volunteers on May 18, 2004

As the opening quotation suggests, the people-to-people nature of the FtF Program is one 

of its principal assets. Over the years, thousands of dedicated U.S. citizen volunteers 

have had rewarding experiences in international development activities. These successes 

have been met with increased expectations as the needs of developing nations have 

become better understood and have grown more acute. Organizations that run 

international volunteer programs are increasingly responsible for not simply doing good 

works, but making sure that they efficiently and effectively achieve positive impacts for 

clients. 

What are the strengths and weaknesses of programs using volunteers? These are 

covered in the following sections: 

• Exploiting the Comparative Advantages and Balancing Objectives in Volunteer 

Programs

• Phases of the Volunteer Program Cycle

• Procurement and Implementing Agency Selection
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 2

1.1 COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE OF VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS

Many international volunteer programs, like FtF, were originally designed to promote 

better understandings between the people of different countries. Yet the costs involved 

and the developmental needs and opportunities dictate that volunteer programs also 

address a broader set of developmental objectives. 

Key considerations for volunteer programs

Comparative advantage of volunteer programs: Promoting economic development 

with only short-term voluntary technical assistance is a bit like trying to build a house with 

only a hammer. On their own, volunteer programs are limited in what they can 

accomplish. However, the services of highly qualified and motivated volunteers with 

specialized expertise can be quite effective where legal and pricing policies are favorable, 

and when volunteers are coupled with other resources such as paid consultants, loan 

guarantees, and investments in infrastructure. 

Volunteer program management increasingly must strive to exploit the flexibility and 

specialized skills available from volunteer programs by developing relations with other 

organizations and projects that provide the range of complementary inputs needed to 

produce sustainable impacts. While it may be impossible to transform a hammer into a 

saw, one might arrange to borrow a neighbor’s (partner’s) saw and together complete 

construction of a house. 

Program efficiency: Program efficiency is all about the bottom line. One proxy for 

efficiency is how many volunteer assignments (or volunteer weeks) can be squeezed out 

of the allocated budget. A quick scan of FtF reports suggests that implementers are 

routinely able to meet their targets in terms of volunteer assignments, a tribute to their 

budgeting and targeting skills. 

Travel and logistical requirements make international volunteer programs costly. When 

including all overhead, planning, and support costs, the cost per volunteer-day for shortterm specialist assignments can range from US$ 600 to US$ 1200. Longer-term 

assignments, where appropriate, can substantially lower the cost per day. Resources from 

donors are made to go further through cost sharing arrangements with implementing 

agencies, in country host organizations, contributions arranged by volunteers, and 

leveraged funds from a variety of other sources to provide complementary inputs. 

But the program with the lowest cost per volunteer day is not necessarily the best. 

Different volunteers have different levels of skills. Some countries are more expensive to 

work in than others, and some programs devote more time than others to program 

planning, monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment. As the cost gap between fielding 

volunteers and regular technical assistance narrows and the skill requirements for 

volunteers increase, the rationale for maintaining international volunteer programs as 

distinct entities may rest increasingly on U.S. public and political perceptions that these 

programs are special. In this context, it seems neither probable nor desirable that 

development objectives alone should drive volunteer program decisions and management 

systems. A balance is needed. That said, it is still necessary to monitor program 

efficiencies—cost per volunteer assignment and cost per volunteer day—to maximize the 

numbers of volunteers involved consistent with needs for adequate support and program 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 3

effectiveness.

Program effectiveness: FtF did not always emphasize development impact to the extent 

it does today. In the early years, the focus was on greater understanding and appreciation 

between American farmers and their counterparts in developing countries. Volunteer 

assignments provided an opportunity for this to happen when host organizations 

requested assistance from volunteers. If sustainable economic and other tangible benefits 

flowed from these services, all the better, but this consideration was secondary. 

These “secondary” considerations are now front-and-center in the consciousness of most 

international volunteer programs. Both USAID and the implementing agencies are 

devoting increased efforts to quantifying developmental impacts when volunteer 

assignments are designed, monitored, and evaluated (see Section 5). Impact is commonly 

expressed in economic terms such as growth in production, sales, and income at the level 

of individual farms, firms, agricultural associations, and occasionally the subsector. 

However, volunteer programs can also be associated with a broader range of 

development objectives relating to environmental conservation, social/gender equity, 

poverty reduction, building civil society, reforming policies and legal frameworks, 

strengthening institutions, and improving a range of quality of life indicators. Yet, there are 

formidable challenges associated with measuring and attributing impacts from short-term 

volunteer assignments. 

The increased emphasis on results and impacts has made volunteer program 

management much more complicated. Cost effectiveness, a term that explicitly relates 

expenditures to impact, is now more appropriate than simply cost efficiency in placing 

volunteers. While it remains important to meet targets for numbers of volunteer 

assignments, the quality of what happens as a result of those assignments increases in 

importance, as do costs associated with ensuring that the right things happen. More skills, 

time, and effort are required up front to plan for volunteer assignments; greater attention 

to monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment is needed to provide evidence of results 

and to guide future activities; and more attention must be given to follow-up and longerterm innovation. All of this adds to the cost of placing volunteers. 

Thus, while there is considerable scope for greater precision in targeting volunteer 

programs on economic growth impacts, this may or may not be desirable, given the costs 

involved and the overall character of volunteer programs. There are concerns that a focus 

on impacts might fundamentally change the character of a volunteer program and the 

ability to recruit volunteers. Some people will be attracted to a program that has major 

impacts, while others may shy away from programs that have greater demands for results. 

Balancing objectives

Development objectives shape the planning, monitoring, evaluation, and impact 

assessment of volunteer programs. In other words, the selection of regions, countries, 

subsectors, partners and host organizations is largely driven by objectives previously 

identified, and typically established in the funding agency’s strategic plan.

Measurable impacts vs. the “volunteer experience”: The current emphasis in FtF 

programs—reflecting a general trend in government introduced in the Government 

Performance and Results Act (GPRA)—is that of focusing more and more on impacts and 

measurable results. This shift from the people-to-people orientation prominent in the initial 

phase of the program is a continuing evolution that remains a subject of debate among 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 4

concerned parties. Some feel that volunteer programs should remain in their essence 

people-to-people programs, while staying open to contributing to broader development 

objectives. Others see volunteer programs principally as a means of furthering 

developmental objectives, notably those relating to economic growth, poverty reduction, 

food security, and concern for the environment. There are compelling arguments against 

going to the extreme in either direction, and if there is any consensus, it is that 

international volunteer programs should reflect both of these orientations and retain a 

degree of flexibility to respond to new opportunities. 

Immediate vs. longer-term impacts: Volunteers are well known for solving specific 

problems, thereby generating an immediate impact. Examples might be the introduction of 

a technology that produces higher yields, or a management system that identifies 

opportunities to increase profits or cut losses. Yet short-term volunteers can effectively 

address many problems in the developing world that do not lend themselves to quick 

fixes. Examples include environmental conservation and aspects of poverty reduction. 

Organizational strengthening is a common theme in development programs, as is working 

to make a regulatory and economic framework more conducive for private sector led 

economic growth. Volunteers often have valuable training and experience in improving the 

operations of organizations, or in training people to be better managers. Yet the timeframe 

for such activities to realize measurable impacts in terms of growth indicators may be 

several years, often well beyond the completion dates for contracts for volunteer 

programs. The trick is to come up with proxies for long-term development that can be 

measured in the short-term. One possibility is to conduct pre- and post- sample surveys of 

a group’s knowledge, attitudes, or practices. Ideally a survey design would include a 

control group that allows for the effects of the volunteer’s efforts to be isolated from other 

influences on the behavior of the beneficiaries. Since such surveys can be expensive, the 

implementing organization must make sure that the benefit of such surveys is worth the 

cost.

Poverty reduction vs. economic growth: A sole focus on economic growth could lead 

to assisting large-scale commercial enterprises that are best equipped to drive the 

economy in subsectors with greatest growth potential. Some economists argue that 

poverty reduction will then occur via the “trickle down” effects of such growth in 

employment and incomes. However, assessments of the trickle down effects of economic 

growth suggest that key connections are often missing. Economic growth in the 21st

century is strongly associated with a highly skilled and productive workforce (among other 

things) and there is a serious disconnect with the capacities of the majority of rural poor 

throughout the developing world. Poverty is perhaps best addressed by giving poor 

people access to the skills that will improve their chances of success in pursuing more 

remunerative livelihoods.

Do international volunteer programs have a role here? Or is the reduction of rural poverty 

so complex that program resources are unlikely to produce significant sustainable 

change? Clearly, where large-scale commercial enterprises are able to hire consultants, 

volunteers should be placed elsewhere. A positive view is that international volunteers 

may, in fact, be well suited to provide the sort of training/skills enhancement that poor 

people require to successfully transition from dependence on low productivity traditional 

occupations to engagement in higher value added productive activities or other 

employment in the services or other sectors. However, in order to maximize the benefits 

gained from a volunteer's time, volunteers should work with intermediaries serving groups 

of beneficiaries rather than with individuals. This may include small and medium scale 

private enterprises, or local organizations, that offer employment opportunities and 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 5

services for the poor (See Section 4.1).

Country objectives vs. volunteer program objectives: Volunteer program agreements 

may call for greater attention to and convergence with objectives of donor country 

missions than in the past. This has been true for the FtF program, in which implementers 

have been asked to develop regional and country programs and select partners and host 

organizations in order to meet USAID country objectives. At first glance, this appears to 

simplify planning– one need only follow the lead of the country missions. However, 

occasionally this is not the case. Timing may be a problem. Implementers may have to 

select country program themes prior to finalization of country mission objectives. Since the 

list of possible objectives and priorities commonly exceeds volunteer program resources 

by a considerable margin, prioritizing is still necessary. Finally, it is often important to 

preserve the special identity of long standing volunteer programs, such as FtF, which 

have the support of Congress and the American public. This can be done by reporting 

achievements against both a broad set of objectives as well as against the specific 

objectives of the volunteer program. Also, volunteer programs can play an important role 

in donor country programs by exploring new sectors for development. Their high degree of 

flexibility allows volunteer programs to experiment with new activities, partners, and 

subsectors that may warrant broader donor investment in the future.

Implementers’ vs. donors’ objectives: The interests of the volunteer program 

implementers also need to be considered, as these vary and may differ from donor 

objectives. The current set of FtF implementers includes private voluntary organizations 

(PVOs), international cooperatives, universities, and minority serving institutions (MSIs) 

with considerable variety within each category of institutions. The manner in which 

individual implementers manage their volunteer programs is a reflection of their respective 

organizational cultures and objectives. Some implementers place varying degrees of 

emphasis on economic growth, poverty reduction, food security, or issues of 

environmental and social equity.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 6

Key recommendations

♦ Ensure that volunteer programs complement existing programs. This will ensure that 

that the benefits reach a broad audience and there is continued support after the 

volunteer’s departure.

♦ Balance the twin program goals of assuring a "good experience” for volunteers with 

the need to show results against the objectives of the donor and the host country. 

♦ Design volunteer assignments so they work with intermediaries serving groups of 

beneficiaries rather than with individuals. This will maximize the benefits gained from a 

volunteer's time and have the greatest impact. Such assignments might include work 

with small and medium scale private enterprises or local organizations that offer 

employment opportunities and services for the poor.

♦ Report results and impacts against both a broad set of objectives as well as against 

the specific objectives of the volunteer program. This is often important to preserve the 

special identity of long standing volunteer programs, such as FtF, which have the 

support of Congress and the American public. 

♦ Monitor program efficiencies—cost per volunteer assignment and cost per volunteer 

day—to maximize the numbers of volunteers involved consistent with needs for 

support and program effectiveness. While the lowest cost volunteer per day is not 

necessarily the best, such monitoring can reveal opportunities to expand the number 

of volunteer assignments within a given budget. 

♦ Consider potential impacts on poverty reduction, equity, and environmental conditions.

Volunteer programs should pursue programs that further both poverty reduction and 

economic growth. Volunteer programs can help poor people acquire the necessary 

information and skills to pursue the livelihoods of their choice successfully.

♦ For general information on how to conduct foreign assistance, refer to USAID’s Core 

Values at http://www.usaid.gov/policy/ads/200/. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 7

1.2 PHASES OF THE VOLUNTEER PROGRAM CYCLE 

Developing a quality international volunteer program requires attention to management of 

four phases of program development and implementation. The best organizations foster 

the sharing of lessons learned, such that lessons from one phase of the cycle feed back to 

the other phases, even before the final evaluation phase. 

Considerations at each phase of the project cycle

Although country projects and plans vary, the program cycle does not. As such, it is 

important that implementing organizations develop a cohesive management system that 

meets the needs for each country program.

Contracting: The contracting phase encompasses everything that happens in the 

process of obtaining funding for the program up to and including the formal project 

agreements, notably the preparation of the requests for applications/proposals (RFAs), 

preparation and submission of proposals, the award of contracts, and the formalization of 

the project agreements. The contracting process defines the general character and 

potential impacts of the program to an important extent. The determination of objectives, 

scope (selection of regions/countries) and scale (numbers of volunteer assignments) of 

operations and budgets are normally specified by the donor in the RFAs. 

Prospective implementers are generally required to develop a provisional series of 

regional, country, and thematic plans related to a proposed deployment of volunteers and 

to define the prospective results and impacts from these activities. These plans, activities, 

and expected results are meant to be indications rather than specific promises, and can 

usually be modified during the planning and implementation phases that follow. 

The FtF program encourages its implementing organizations to be creative in selecting 

countries, as well as in planning volunteer assignments. Implementing organizations need 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 8

to analyze country economic trends and policies as well as the strategies and programs of 

the donor. Proposal preparation normally involves country visits and consultations with 

donor country missions, local governments, and potential partners and host organizations. 

All of this is required for the identification of country program themes as well as the 

preparation of project strategies and plans. The implementing organizations must propose 

not only how they will identify in-country assignments, but also how they will find good 

volunteers.

Contracting is normally carried out by the home offices of prospective implementers, some 

of whom may already have field offices in the regions and/or countries designated for the 

volunteer program. While understandably constrained by lack of time and resources prior 

to the formal award of contracts, the quality of effort that goes into the preparation of the 

proposals greatly influences what is required during the planning phase that follows (as 

well as presumably affecting decisions on the proposals). Thus, while development of 

proposals often requires services of an external consultant or a home office staff person, 

field staff and those who will implement the program should participate to the extent 

possible.

Planning: Planning encompasses the preparation of strategies and plans for countries, 

programs and projects (see Section 2). As noted, the preparation of proposals during the 

contracting phase provides at least the broad outlines of the set of strategies and plans. 

FtF program implementers generally feel that a focus on impacts has increased the rigor 

of the planning processes and welcome this, despite the additional time and skill 

requirements. 

A major task during the planning phase is the refinement of regional, country, subsector, 

and project strategies and plans. Regional and country offices must be established and 

field staff must be recruited to play leading roles in this process as well as to facilitate the 

participation of partners and host organizations. Field staff will need to review the 

selection of country themes, partners and hosts as a first order of business since 

conditions, including donor and partner programs and priorities, may have changed since 

the proposals were submitted. 

An important part of the planning phase is giving attention to the provision of 

complementary services. In general, realization of sustainable impacts requires various 

inputs—such as capital and equipment—in addition to volunteers’ services. While 

volunteer programs generally cannot provide these complementary inputs directly, 

implementers and volunteers are frequently involved in efforts to arrange for them, via 

government and private sector agencies and projects in the host countries, as well as 

through networks and associations that volunteers are able to access in the U.S. 

The selection of partners and host organizations is a critical part of the planning phase, as 

the partners and hosts commonly participate in the planning. As one FtF implementer 

observed, with careful selection of partners and hosts, much of the in-country program 

implementation can take care of itself, both in terms of planning and implementation of 

volunteer assignments as well as arranging for critical complementary inputs and 

services.

The thoroughness of planning is influenced by the availability of resources (skills and 

budgets) as well as by time. There are pressures to get on with implementation, meaning 

the actual fielding of volunteers, but there is appreciation on all sides that greater concern 

for results and impacts requires a deeper understanding of the country institutions, 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 9

markets, and economic subsector and more attention to planning than in the past.

Implementation: Implementation encompasses everything associated with fielding a 

specified number of volunteers, including the development of scopes of work (SOWs) for 

volunteers, recruitment, orientation, implementation of assignments, monitoring of 

performance and results, and periodic revision of strategies and plans, as required (see 

Section 3). Field staff, in collaboration with partners and host organizations, initiate 

implementation by developing SOWs. Implementer staffs in the U.S. are normally 

responsible for recruiting, orienting, and making necessary arrangements for volunteers 

prior to their departures. Field staffs receive volunteers in the host countries and arrange 

technical and logistical support (translation and transport) necessary for their 

assignments. Field staffs maintain regular contact with partners and host organizations, 

before, during and after volunteer assignments, both to facilitate volunteer assignments 

and to ensure that—to the extent possible—volunteer recommendations and activities 

essential to achieve impact are being implemented. 

Implementation systems must be sufficiently flexible to adjust to changing conditions, 

including shifts in priorities among objectives, changes in country themes and even 

changes in the selection of countries themselves. In the FtF program, much more 

prominence is now accorded to monitoring and associated data collection and analysis, 

both for purposes of reporting to USAID on progress, as well as for adjusting strategies 

and plans. This activity consumes a considerable amount of the time of field staff and 

requires skills that were often in short supply among the field staffs of volunteer programs 

in the past. 

Evaluation and ex post impact assessment: Final evaluations and assessments of 

impacts after conclusion of a project/program are generally required for accountability and 

planning purposes. However, information required for evaluations and ex post impact 

assessments depends on the collection of data before, during, and after implementation of 

volunteer assignments. Work on monitoring and evaluation therefore must begin with 

program planning (see Section 5).

Evaluations and impact assessments are receiving considerably more attention as a 

consequence of the increased emphasis on performance and impacts. Ideally, evaluations 

and ex post impact assessments are carried out by teams or agencies other than the 

implementers themselves to avoid the perception of a conflict of interest.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 10

Key recommendations

♦ Develop a draft monitoring and evaluation system during the planning process and 

make these operational early in program implementation.

♦ Develop systems for feedback and continuous learning that will strengthen all aspects 

of the project cycle.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 11

1.3 PROCUREMENT AND IMPLEMENTING AGENCY SELECTION 

The mechanism for identifying and selecting implementing agencies to manage an 

international volunteer program is a critical program component for any funding agency. 

This is true whether the funding is from public or private sources or for a prime 

implementer or a sub-contractor/grantee to participate in defined areas of program 

implementation.

Why are procedures for partner selection and funding important?

Selecting the right implementing agency for international volunteer programs can, among 

other things: (1) increase the number and variety of volunteers participating in program 

activities; (2) increase program impact; (3) lower costs; and (4) provide important outreach 

and education to the U.S. public. A sound funding mechanism based on a competitive 

selection process helps to ensure that all of the above elements are inherent in any 

agreement.

Issues in selecting implementing agencies

New volunteers: In order to increase overall participation in a volunteer program, it is 

important to consider the volunteer pool available to an implementing agency. Having a 

large database of potential volunteers available to a recruiter is valuable and shows a high 

capacity for volunteer recruitment. However, beyond size, volunteer programs should also 

strive to maintain a balance of gender, a variety of experience in different sectors and 

fields, both academic and technical, and a recruitment outreach strategy that continuously 

strives to access new constituencies in the U.S. 

Increase linkages to new organizations: An important factor in finding new volunteers is 

reaching out to new implementing agency organizations. Partnerships with a variety of 

organizations help to expand the boundaries of volunteer programming, both 

internationally and in the U.S. constituency base. Organizations’ geographic foci or 

established programs that can be augmented with volunteer inputs are important 

considerations in partner selection. However, there can be a steep learning curve to 

overcome when new implementing agencies establish international volunteer programs, 

and it is important to consider trade offs with program efficiency.

Increase minority participation: Increasing the number of minority volunteers and 

minority institution participation overall is important to draw on all resources the U.S. has 

to offer. This participation can be promoted by increasing ties with implementing agencies 

that are minority owned or operated. Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs) include

Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic Serving Institutions, American 

Indian Tribal Colleges and Alaska Native or Native Hawaiian Serving Institutions. 

Programs can reach beyond academia through partnerships with non-profit Minority 

Controlled PVOs and for-profit small and disadvantaged businesses. Some capacity 

building may be necessary in order to bring new partners to the table. In these instances, 

it can be helpful to build a mentoring program into agreements to enable the new partner 

to work with more experienced partners.

Funding and contracting mechanisms: Consideration of various competitive 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 12

mechanisms for funding will help to determine the appropriate level of management 

oversight and operational flexibility in the program. Options available through USAID 

include:

• Grants: Grants are considered “gifts” by the U.S. government. The procurement 

process is therefore less strict and oversight of the funds, including reporting 

requirements is often reduced. This makes management less intensive and reduces 

the donor’s involvement in program operations.

• Cooperative Agreements: Cooperative Agreements are similar to grants, with the 

exception of increased oversight by agreement officers. Competition must therefore be 

more regulated. This can result in a longer competitive procurement process, more 

reporting requirements, and a higher level of involvement by the donor’s technical 

officer.

• Contracts: This offers the highest level of oversight by the donor’s management team. 

This mechanism could also open competition up to for-profit entities.

• Leader with Associate Grants: Awarding a “leader” grant to an organization that can 

then negotiate separate country or regional level “associate” grants offers the 

opportunity for buy-in capability without lengthy procurement delays. This allows a 

program to quickly expand operations technically and geographically, while 

maintaining a degree of central oversight. One possible draw back can result if the 

multiple funding sources through buy-ins complicate reporting requirements and dilute 

the focus on program objectives.

Current practices in procurement and partner selection

The U.S. Congressional mandate for selection and funding implementing agencies for the 

FtF Program is quite broad. The Program is authorized by Congress to, “make grants to or 

enter into contracts or other cooperative agreements with private voluntary organizations, 

cooperatives, land grant universities, private agribusiness, or nonprofit farm 

organizations...using...United States agricultural producers, agriculturalists, colleges and 

universities (including historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), land grant 

colleges or universities, and foundations maintained by colleges or universities), private 

agribusinesses, private organizations (including grassroots organizations with an 

established and demonstrated capacity to carry out such a bilateral exchange program), 

private corporations, and nonprofit farm organizations.” 

The Program has traditionally funded volunteer activities through cooperative agreements 

with the U.S. based community of non-governmental, not-for-profit Private Voluntary 

Organizations (PVOs). In fiscal year 2000, the FtF Program began an effort to include 

more Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs), including HBCUs, in the Program. Initially, the 

program funded special mentorship subgrants between experienced implementing 

agencies and a number of HBCUs and Minority Controlled PVOs. The intent of this 

initiative was to bring new organizations into the program and attempt to increase future 

competition and participation by MSIs. In an FY 2003 Request for Applications (RFA), the 

program set aside two programs for competition restricted to MSIs.

The FtF Program currently operates under 11 cooperative agreements, funding 12 

programs. Ten of these were awarded on the basis of regional competition, with the two 

additional agreements set aside and competed only among Minority Serving Institutions. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 13

Criteria used in selection and award of agreements to implementing agencies are shown

in the accompanying box.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES FROM THE FY 2003 FTF RFA:

Program Planning

• Potential for impact in terms of rationale, innovativeness, strategic approach including use of 

appropriate volunteer specialists, subrecipients/MSIs, and host implementation partners;

• Rationale and feasibility of program approach as related to country selection, selection of sector, 

subsector, or commodity chain. 

• Evidence of understanding and responsiveness to program objectives and sector results for each 

proposed country and/or region;

• Capability to clearly define approaches for identification of viable, innovative host partners and 

evidence of relevant past developmental experience with such organizations; and 

• Capability to utilize data from the monitoring and evaluation system to impact program planning 

decisions as related to overall program results.

Institutional and Management Capacity

• Evidence of ability to manage and organize program resources, and provide quality control for 

products and services; and 

• Evidence to provide key personnel with appropriate level of education and experience for 

proposed program work.

Past Performance

• Demonstrated success in achieving results in technical programs; 

• Ability to comply with terms and conditions of the award (technical, business, cost controls, and 

administrative); 

• Capacity for problem solving; and 

• Sound ethical standards in business relations (ethics, integrity, honesty, and fair dealings).

Program Costs

• Evidence of cost effectiveness, evidence of innovative cost savings approaches; and

• Cost realism with respect to technical approach and achieving results within funding levels.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 14

Key recommendations

♦ Support expansion of volunteer recruitment through partnerships with new 

organizations that open windows to new sources of volunteers, including minorities.

♦ To overcome the learning curve associated with managing a volunteer program, new 

partners should be encouraged to team up with an experienced organization, or hire 

experienced managers.

♦ Select an appropriate procurement mechanism by considering various factors such as 

the desired level of management oversight, reporting requirements, ability to access 

new markets, ease of the competitive process, and ability for outside funding sources 

to buy-in to existing programs.

♦ Recognize the complexity of establishing and managing international volunteer 

programs and allocate adequate resources to establish all needed procedures and 

structures. Hire part-time consultants or other organization for skills that are not 

available in house.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 15

SECTION 2: DEVELOPING STRATEGIES AND PLANS 

FOR INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS

Strategies and plans for volunteer programs should balance needs in the field with 

available resources. Not all needs in the field are top priority, nor is any one implementing 

organization an expert in all areas of development. The choices made in the planning 

process are reflected in the volunteer program strategies and plans and should be 

consistent with the organization’s overall strategy. 

Implementers typically have considerable latitude in areas such as the definition of 

strategies and plans for country programs, subsectors, and activities, as well as the 

selection of partners and host organizations. All of these decisions bear upon the 

effectiveness of the volunteer programs and are discussed in the following sections:

• Regional Planning: Allocating Volunteers Among Countries for International 

Volunteer Programs

• Targeting Volunteer Program Activities: Selecting and Analyzing Commodity and 

Service Subsectors

• Developing Country Projects 

• Ex ante Impact Assessment

• Selecting Partners for Volunteer Program Implementation

• Selecting Host Organizations

• Planning Host Projects
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 16

2.1 ALLOCATING VOLUNTEERS AMONG COUNTRIES FOR 

INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 

Donors commonly specify the allocation of resources across selected geographic regions 

and countries before contracts or grants are signed. However, allocations and priorities 

may evolve as conditions change and new opportunities emerge. 

Why is country selection important?

By selecting countries and allocating the number of volunteers to them early in the 

planning process, it sets the stage for defining potential impacts from a volunteer program. 

The allocation of volunteers among countries is at least as important as decisions on 

priority sub-sectors, partners, and hosts. The decision process at this level need not be 

arduous, but it is important that it take into account the comparative advantages of the

program, country receptivity, potential for impacts, funding availability, donor interests, 

and the proposed implementing agency’s capacity and objectives.

Major issues related to allocating volunteers among countries

To the extent that implementers have scope for decision making on the allocation of 

volunteers across countries and regions, the following issues need be considered.

Criteria for country selection: A wide range of criteria need to be considered when 

deciding how to allocate volunteers. The security of volunteers is a first concern. While 

there will always be people who will volunteer to go into dangerous situations, recruiting 

organizations have a difficult time coping with the effects of any harm done to volunteers. 

The most hostile environments should probably be left to the military or people who are on 

contracts that compensate the employee for accepting the heightened risks. The policy 

and economic environment is also important. Volunteers are not likely to leave behind 

sustainable impacts if their success is based on the availability of subsidies or tariff or 

other forms of artificial protection for the program with which the volunteer works. 

Existence of complementary activities and programs in a country is a plus, as these can 

help assure that a volunteer’s work is shared widely and that impact reaches a scale that 

justifies the expense of the volunteer program.

Participants in the decision-making: The allocation of volunteers is ultimately decided 

by the implementing organization, although the decision should be reached after 

consultations with field-based partners who have insights on the local situation. 

Discussions with potential local partners, local government officials and businesspeople, 

and donors can elicit useful insights on the potential for volunteer programs. 

Available resources and skills: Both donors and implementers are constrained by 

budget considerations and staff limitations. While the implementers’ staff in the U.S. and 

in the host country can manage recruitment of volunteers quite ably, launching a country 

volunteer program requires more resources. Not only must the program be able to identify 

good opportunities for placement of volunteers, but these placements must be monitored, 

evaluated, and impact of the assignment assessed. The implementer must ensure 

adequate staff resources and skills in country to manage an efficient and effective 

volunteer program. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 17

Regional vs. country planning: When conditions and needs are similar in countries 

throughout a region, it may make sense to program at the regional rather than at the 

country level. Regional planning can provide some economies of scale and opportunities 

for sharing resources between countries. However, provision must be made for adapting 

activities to target country-specific needs (see Annex A for examples of simplified country 

program plans).

Country environment: Conditions vary considerably, with some countries providing 

much better environments for successful volunteer assignments. Country environments 

for volunteer programs can be categorized as follows:

1. Potential for early impact: Good prospects for economic growth and a facilitating 

regulatory environment; ample supply of host organizations that are experienced, well 

managed, and financially sound. 

2. Organizational strengthening required: Good environment for growth and potential 

for impact, as above, but potential host organizations require significant strengthening 

in order to implement project strategies effectively (e.g., diversify production or expand 

marketing and processing).

3. Host organization creation required: Good environment for growth and potential for 

impact, but with few, if any, suitable host organizations in selected subsectors. This 

situation may occur where a subsector is just beginning to emerge as important or 

where negative political, security, or natural conditions have disrupted a subsector. 

Prospects may be excellent (e.g., good agro-ecological conditions and market 

possibilities), but there are few if any existing enterprises that produce, process, or 

market the specific commodities. Alternatively, there may be many producers that 

operate on a small scale, are unorganized, and produce largely for home/local 

consumption.

4. Regulatory framework required: Lack of viable host organizations due to lack of a 

satisfactory regulatory framework for such organizations to emerge and prosper. 

5. Civil society required: Lack of the basic conditions required for progress on any 

large scale or consistent basis. These countries may be “failed states,” if indeed, civil 

society, was ever present to any extent. Regulatory frameworks may exist, but are not 

enforced or are seriously corrupted. Macro economic policies and conditions may be 

blocking broad-based economic growth. Opportunities and potential partner and host 

organizations may exist, but require major strengthening efforts and a more facilitating 

environment to operate effectively. 

Because subsectors of the same country can fall into different categories, it may not be 

accurate to affix one of the labels above to an entire country. More institutions and 

organizations of civil society are needed in virtually all countries, but “islands” of civil 

society exist in nearly every developing country. Volunteer programs have made valuable 

contributions in all these situations. However, the probability of successful outcomes and 

impacts increases the closer one gets to the conditions described under the first category. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 18

 Post-conflict situations: Development activities active in many post-conflict situations 

around the world can make good use of volunteer technical services. In such post-conflict 

situations, security for volunteers is a critical criterion for a volunteer program. The 

development of civil society organizations is frequently proceeding concurrently with and 

in support of the restoration of stability. Volunteer activities can make important 

contributions to civil society development and people’s confidence in the future. In 

implementation, the more practical issues are important. Can logistics be arranged and 

ensured? Can volunteers’ security be guaranteed? Winrock managed an effective 

volunteer program in Haiti where civil society was actually breaking down, but volunteers 

were very effective in helping villages to produce badly needed protein sources (meat and 

eggs) at a time when markets, legal structures and civil society were becoming more 

chaotic (Demetria Arvanitis, Personal Communication, 2004).

Current practices in allocating volunteers 

among countries

 Country selection: For the most recent award 

of grants under the FtF program, USAID 

developed a list of countries eligible for FtF 

programs based on USAID country strategy 

objectives that showed an interest in agricultural 

development. With this list, USAID solicited 

proposals from potential implementing agencies 

(see box). With program grants awarded by 

geographic region, the FtF programs are 

administered regionally, but country level staffs 

within the regions play a key role in program 

planning and implementation1. Individual 

volunteer assignments may provide assistance to 

hosts in more than one country in the same 

region, although it is more common for 

volunteers with multiple assignments to work with 

two or more hosts in the same country.

How FtF implementers allocate volunteers 

among countries is illustrated below by an

example from Winrock (see box). This box 

provides a useful checklist to guide selection of 

countries within a region. Since there are often 

more candidate countries than a program can 

service, difficult choices must be made.

Regional vs. worldwide programming: 

Volunteer programs can be developed by country, region, or on a global basis. Single 

country programs may allow clearer focus on local needs and a deeper understanding of 

the development challenges. Programs that cover a geographic region or even the globe 

can achieve economies of scale. Such programming may allow the implementer to 

provide volunteers in countries in which it has on-going activities, special capabilities, or 

 

1

 Russia is a notable exception, as was Nigeria for the period prior to 2003. 

CURRENT FTF PROGRAMS:

ACDI/VOCA/Caucasus: Armenia, 

Azerbaijan, Georgia

ACDI/VOCA/Eastern Africa: Kenya, 

Uganda

ACDI/VOCA/Russia: Russia

CNFA/Western NIS: Belarus, Moldova, 

Ukraine

Florida A&M University/Southern Africa: 

South Africa

Land O’Lakes/Southern Africa: Angola, 

Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, 

Zambia

OIC International/Western Africa: Ghana, 

Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal

Partners of the Americas/Caribbean: 

Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica

Virginia State University/Eastern Africa: 

Eritrea, Ethiopia

Winrock/Asia: Bangladesh, India, 

Indonesia, Nepal, Sri Lanka

Winrock/Central Asia: Kazakhstan, 

Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, 

Uzbekistan

Winrock/Latin America: El Salvador, 

Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 19

longer term interests, or allow the implementer to focus on a specific commodity subsector 

in which it has expertise (e.g., dairy or horticulture) or on a particular service subsector 

(e.g., financial services or extension).2 

On a continuum, global programming would achieve the greatest economies of scales, but 

the tradeoff is generally a lack of country-level specificity. In a global program, field 

operations might require special arrangements with partners and hosts, since it may be 

difficult to employ country or even regional level staff on a full time basis. A combination of 

country, regional, and global programming might make sense using a consortium or 

prime/sub arrangements. One implementer might take the lead at the regional and country 

level, but accommodate other implementers fielding volunteers under a worldwide 

program with a commodity or service subsector focus. Land 'O Lakes’ earlier participation 

in FtF was of this character since it has operated in several regions as a subgrantee or 

consortium member specifically to provide volunteers in the livestock/dairy areas. 

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING COUNTRIES FOR VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS

With FtF country selection driven by USAID, implementers still have some choice on volunteer 

resource allocation within a region. However, the scoring criteria for project proposals and 

competition usually drive implementers towards working in as many countries of a region as 

funding allows. The result is a large number of country programs with relatively few volunteers 

per country. In choosing between countries, the key decision factor is often what countries have 

greatest potential for impact or where is there a particular interest on the part of USAID or the 

implementer. Criteria that Winrock uses for selecting countries include:

• Does the grant have funds to support working in a given country; 

• Are there specific needs in a country that can be met through volunteer activity; 

• Is there a sector or sectors that volunteers can target where they can have measurable 

impact; 

• Are there host organizations in country with the capacity and interest to host volunteers; 

• Can the logistics for transport, hosting, and translation for volunteers be easily managed; 

• Is there USAID mission interest in having volunteers in country; and

• Are there other programs that are compatible with volunteer assignments?

Key recommendations

♦ Design the volunteer program to conform to the operating environment and stage of 

development of the country concerned. There is a trade-off between operating in 

countries with environments supportive of successful volunteer interventions, and 

countries that lack such environments, but where the greatest needs exist. As in other 

development programs, volunteer programs should avoid countries where risks of 

program failure are too high.

♦ Within the constraints imposed by donors and funding availability, volunteer programs 

can often benefit from focusing activities within a specific region or on a specific 

thematic area (e.g., financial services, dairy) in a country, across a region, or 

worldwide.

 

2

 Roughly analogous to the set of Cooperative Research Support Programs (CRSPs) supported by USAID.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 20

♦ Design volunteer programs to achieve a balance between specified targets and 

flexibility. Having specified targets and objectives allows for better accountability, 

planning, and results. Having sufficient flexibility allows a small program to be more 

useful as conditions and needs change. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 21

2.2 TARGETING VOLUNTEER PROGRAM ACTIVITIES: 

SELECTING AND ANALYZING COMMODITY AND SERVICE 

SUBSECTORS

Should the programming of volunteers simply respond to targets of opportunity, or should 

there be more direction, wherein the programs have specific objectives other than just the 

number of volunteers placed abroad? As volunteer programs seek greater development 

impact, in addition to the rewarding people-to-people exchanges, there has been a shift 

towards greater specificity in the expectations for impact. Implementing organizations 

usually focus on providing voluntary technical assistance services in areas where they 

have a comparative advantage, concentrating volunteer services within a subsector. The 

commodity subsector is an example, referring to firms involved with a specific agricultural 

good or product. Another example is support service subsectors that include the financial, 

educational, research and extension services vital to functioning of a competitive 

agricultural sector. 

Why is the selection and analysis of subsectors important?

Early generations of FtF programs assigned volunteers wherever good hosts were found. 

As a result, volunteers worked in a wide range of areas and capacities. Evaluations 

indicated that greater impact was achieved when activities were focused geographically 

and on targeted commodity and service subsectors. As the FtF strategy evolved to place 

increased emphasis on economic impact and measurable results, the identification of 

appropriate and viable country projects has become more critical to volunteer program 

success. Analysis of commodity and service subsectors (see value chain analysis at 

http://www.quickmba.com/strategy/value-chain/) now provides a framework for 

programming volunteers. Which subsectors have the most potential for broad and 

sustainable impacts from volunteer services? What geographic areas or commodities 

have the greatest potential to produce for the local, national, or export markets? Can 

forward and backward linkages of enterprises be strengthened to create more income and 

employment? What activities of a firm or a group of firms (subsector) are the most efficient 

or have the greatest potential for creating competitive advantages?

Major issues in selecting and analyzing subsectors 

Criteria to be applied in subsector selection: A subsector analysis should at a 

minimum demonstrate the potential of volunteer assistance to have impact (perhaps 

affecting a large population), growth prospects (a change now will have ripple effects in 

the future), and the ability to affect the target population. Typical questions might include: 

How many of the country’s workers are employed through the subsector? What is the 

share of income spent on these activities? Is there an export market? Will exports 

compete with U.S. exports, and thus be ineligible for USAID funded assistance? What 

level of participation do specific target groups, such as women and minority groups, have 

in the selected subsectors? 

Availability of partners and host organizations: If partners and potential hosts do not 

exist or are very thin, the subsector may not be a good choice even if growth prospects 

are significant. However, it may be important to take a longer-term view. If there is 

considerable potential in the subsector but hosts are weak, organizational development 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 22

and strengthening could be considered a priority. This involves definite tradeoffs: 

organizational strengthening has potential for significant long-term impact, but may offer 

limited impact in the near to medium term.

Donor restrictions: Donor policies and restrictions are an important consideration in 

selecting subsectors in which to work. Some USAID restrictions that have implications for 

the FtF program are listed in the box below.

Level of resources to devote to subsector 

analysis: Much time and energy can be 

expended with such analyses, even if it is limited 

to reading existing documentation and meeting 

with potential hosts and partners. In the case of 

FtF, implementers provide this initial analysis 

and select subsectors as part of their proposals 

when initially seeking funding. Contract-seekers 

are understandably reluctant to invest major 

resources in analytical efforts for which there is no guarantee of future funding. Subsector 

selections may be modified during the planning phase after the contracts have been 

awarded, but again there are pressures to limit the resources and time devoted to this 

effort. As such, major reliance is usually placed on the guidance provided by donor sector 

studies and strategies. The trick is to reduce the number of options to a limited and 

manageable “short list” and focus analytical efforts on those remaining candidates.

Current practices for selecting subsectors

Aligning volunteer program and donor country objectives: Currently, most FtF 

implementers align program objectives with local USAID mission objectives. They then 

conduct a value chain analysis such as Winrock International's that is outlined in the box 

below. Volunteers can use this to prioritize interventions. 

Weighing objectives: With a clear set of objectives, a volunteer program can be more 

focused and efficient, and can develop baseline data at the outset that will help document 

progress and impacts. Common objectives include economic growth, poverty reduction, 

gender/social equity, and conservation of natural resources. Some programs feature 

objectives that have the potential to realize measurable impacts in the near term while 

others focus on building capacities for future impacts through strengthening institutions 

(civil society) and building organizational and human capital. Before beginning a process 

of selecting and analyzing subsectors, implementers need to determine the relative 

importance of their various program objectives and develop criteria in order to select the 

most appropriate subsector(s). 

USAID RESTRICTS ASSISTANCE 

RELATED TO:

• Tobacco production and processing

• Luxury goods

• Export of U.S. jobs

• Agricultural products that compete 

with U.S. products in international 

markets
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 23

Winrock’s Commodity Flow Diagram for Supply Chain Analysis

 

Pre-production

Market information Buyer Standards

Commodity Chain Analysis SPS requirements

Production Scheduling Variety Validation

Access Finance and Inputs Economic Decision Making

Production

On-farm Diversification Organic Production

Operational Planning Input Chain Management 

Alliances Enhanced Competitiveness

Producer Clusters Technical Assistance

Harvest

Scheduling

Harvest practices

Sorting & 

Packing

Field Auditing

Producer Organizations

Administrative Strengthening

Leadership Training

Financing & Financial Management

Provision of Services – Revenue Sources

Strategic, Business, Marketing Planning

Q/C, HACCP, ISO, etc.

Price Setting & Promotion 

Negotiation\Financing

Inter-institutional Linkages

Legal issues

Quality control

Supply Chain Management

Individual Commercial 

Producer

Market Planning & Logistics

Negotiating Volumes

Market Intermediaries

Direct Marketing

Pricing Strategies

Q/C, HACCP, ISO, etc.

Post-harvest Value-added Activities

Fermentation Classification Branding

Drying Amassing volumes Market Information

Storage Branding and Labeling 

Bulk Packaging Ready-to-use Packaging

Domestic Up-scale, Local and 

Processing Markets

CAFTA and Trade 

Partner Markets

Non-CAFTA Trade 

Markets (EU, Asia, etc.)

Marketing

(Organization – Direct Marketing; Export Marketing Firms)

Trade Promotion Strategic Business Relationships 

Quality control Market Intelligence

Export Formalities Transportation Alternatives

Niche and Ethnic Markets 

Backward Linkages to Producers and Producers’ Organizations

“Green Markets” and Certification

Farm-gate & Local 

Markets

Market Planning & 

Logistics

Negotiating Volumes

Market Intermediaries

Direct Marketing

Processed Food Market for 

“seconds” or low quality

Participation of partners and other organizations: The existence of strong partner 

organizations is an important criterion for selecting a subsector, and vice versa. Most 

volunteer program implementers work with local partner organizations to help find hosts, 

develop SOWs, provide logistics support for volunteers, and provide follow-up with the 

hosts after the volunteer departs. The absence of these services could negatively affect 

program success. Thus, although the level of collaboration with partners varies among 

implementers, the need to plan carefully for that collaboration does not. It is very useful to 

have clear program objectives and criteria for selection of volunteer assignments in order 

to avoid pressures from local partners to provide assistance for their pet projects. Broad 

participation and collaboration during subsector planning is key to developing an effective 

program. All participants—implementers and partner organizations alike—need to be 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 24

aware of their responsibilities and duties. Garnering feedback from the local USAID 

mission and other on the ground implementers is also essential.

Level of intervention: Volunteer programs do not need to work at all levels in a country 

subsector, although this certainly is possible and at times necessary. Rather, value chain 

analysis can reveal constraints (policy, technology, organizations, etc.) and opportunities 

that provide focus for volunteer efforts within a subsector. The generic levels that need to 

be analyzed in order to program a volunteer’s time efficiently are: input supply (land, 

labor, capital, seed, and equipment), production, post-production cleaning, grading, 

packaging, labeling, transport, storage, processing, and marketing (pricing, advertising, 

and customer support). Another way of looking at the possible interventions for volunteers 

is to focus on one or more of the following: 

• System nodes: points where large volumes of product pass through the hands of 

only a few key players. These are often times input suppliers and output 

distributors.

• Clusters: areas where micro- and small-scale enterprises cluster together to 

ensure access to key inputs and market output or because of zoning regulations, 

ethnic segregation, or historical happenstance. 

• Policy level: where thousands of farmers, firms, and agribusinesses could be 

affected as the result of a policy reform.

Tools for use in subsector assessments 

FtF program implementers utilize several analytical tools to identify and evaluate potential

FtF subsectors. Each analytical tool has its advantages and disadvantages and none are 

appropriate in all circumstances; rather, the nature of the problem dictates what analytical 

tool would be most appropriate. Some are particularly data intensive and might not be 

practical in countries where statistical information is not readily available. Furthermore 

some are somewhat sophisticated for the typical volunteer program. Terms for these tools 

(e.g., subsector analysis and value chain analysis) are often used synonymously, even 

though the approaches are slightly different. The point here is to make the reader aware 

of the concepts, so that he/she may seek further information elsewhere or hire a 

specialist. 

Subsector analysis: Subsector analysis provides a framework through which the 

dynamics of key players in the network can be understood and effective interventions can 

be realized.3 Subsector analysis is a way of viewing complex issues to identify key 

constraints and areas of opportunity for interventions. Subsector analysis should enable 

implementers to target volunteer assignments effectively in order to generate impact. The 

analysis concentrates on how public policy can improve coordination and looks beyond 

firm profitability to a larger set of performance dimensions. It is based upon the analysis of 

 

3

 Steven Haggblade and Matthew Gamser of the USAID/MSU GEMINI Project developed 

the methodology and background for subsector analysis. For more detailed information on 

subsector analysis, refer to “GEMINI: A Field Manual for Subsector Practitioners.” 

http://www.msu.edu/course/aec/841/Discussion/Gemini_Nov1991.pdf.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 25

vertical coordination and is geared to improve coordination. In conducting a subsector 

analysis, implementers answer the following types of questions: What is the 

sector/industry structure? Is it dominated by small or large firms (or farms)? Is it exportoriented or domestic market-oriented? Is it traditional or modernizing and commercial? 

What are the subsector strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and constraints?

Supply chain analysis: The term supply or market chain has emerged to describe the 

collaborative arrangement that a specific firm establishes within the buying and selling 

process. As such, a firm’s supply chain reflects its individual strategy with respect to 

purchasing sources and distributive agents. Supply chain relationships take place within, 

and are technically a subset of, the overall institutions that make up the marketing 

channel. Supply chain analysis focuses on business, marketing, and logistics strategies 

that can be developed and adopted to increase coordination within the system and 

increase firm profitability. Supply chain analysis also assesses vertical coordination and is 

geared to improve coordination to gain a competitive advantage. 

Industrial organization: As opposed to analyzing vertical linkages, industrial organization 

focuses on horizontal linkages between firms. Industrial organization analyzes the 

structure, conduct, and performance of firms for a given market. While the objectives of 

industrial organization and subsector analysis are the same: to identify needs and 

constraints, the methodologies are quite different. Industrial organization relies heavily on 

statistical and data analysis to identify the nature and the performance of the market. 

Given the limited availability and the difficulty of accessing such data in many countries, 

the industrial organization approach may not be suited to international volunteer 

programs. Implementers can use rapid reconnaissance to understand the dynamics of a 

system quickly for planning volunteer interventions. Formal industrial organization analysis 

tends to be more of an instrument for affecting policy change.

Food systems framework: A food system framework incorporates both the vertical and 

horizontal examination of subsector analysis and industrial organization. 

SWOT analysis: SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) is a 

framework for analysis of sectors, industries, or enterprises. SWOT is not a comparative 

analysis in itself, as different sectors cannot be analyzed together to determine which is 

best. Rather, a SWOT analysis is conducted for any given sector to determine its 

potential. Ideally, strengths will be matched against market opportunities and opportunities 

to overcome weaknesses and counter potential threats. Although SWOT analysis is 

common in strategic planning by companies, implementers of development projects can 

use it as well and can even devise numerical scores to help in choosing between 

candidate subsectors.

Key recommendations

♦ Be clear on objectives: Selection of subsectors is best done with a clear 

understanding of overall program objectives. This will help avoid otherwise "good 

projects” that meet someone's objectives, just not those of the program.

♦ Analyze the whole sector/market chain: When selecting subsectors, it is important 

to first look at the entire sector. Focusing on individual segments can result in either 

the selection of an inappropriate country project or the discarding of a project that has 

serious potential to meet the program's objectives.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 26

♦ Invest in technically qualified and business oriented staff: Much can be gained by 

investing in in-country project managers that have both relevant technical and 

business experience. Project managers with significant in-country experience can 

provide much of the background information needed for technical analyses. 

♦ Select subsectors with substantial potential for impacts: While choices may be 

numerous, the potential for impact is the most compelling. Impact potential should be 

weighted heavily in both SWOT and subsector analysis.

♦ Pick subsectors in which volunteers can be recruited: Although it is possible to 

find volunteers with expertise in almost anything, recruitment is greatly facilitated 

through the selection of subsectors for which there is a significant pool of potential 

volunteers. (For example, it may be quite difficult to get volunteers from the U.S. for 

animal traction programs.) There needs to be a dynamic interaction between 

implementers in the field and home office recruiters, who must identify volunteers with 

particular skills and expertise. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 27

2.3 DEVELOPING SUBSECTOR PLANS 

After a subsector has been identified, a plan for work in the subsector must then be 

developed. This subsector project plan5 details the approach to volunteer assignments. 

The plans typically discuss collaboration with partner and host country organizations, the 

amount and sequencing of volunteer assignments, and time frames for implementation. 

The subsector plan also clarifies the objectives for work in the subsector and the expected 

impacts.

Why is a subsector plan important?

FtF program evaluations and final reports generally conclude that focusing volunteer 

activities in specific subsectors and geographic areas enhances impact. When volunteer 

programs are focused on specific subsectors, it is important to specify the strategy for the 

subsector and the expected results from volunteer inputs. An explicit subsector plan also 

helps implementers orient staff and volunteers to the tasks at hand, and set priorities for 

their work. 

Issues in preparation of subsector plans

Level of effort for subsector plan preparation: Volunteer programs generally operate 

on limited budgets and cannot afford extensive analysis and planning efforts. That said, 

volunteer resources are valuable and deserve to be used effectively within a strategy that 

responds to the constraints and opportunities identified through subsector analysis. 

Flexibility: Subsector plans must be modified in response to changing conditions in the 

country, the subsector, and skill sets of the volunteers. Implementer staff that design a 

volunteer program are often not specialists in the technical areas in which volunteers will 

work. Thus, the initial volunteer assignment or series of assignments may indicate that 

significant changes are needed in the subsector strategy.

Size and number of subsector projects: The size of a subsector project—that is the 

number and length of volunteer assignments allocated to that subsector project—depends 

on what is needed to accomplish the stated objectives. There is, however, generally some 

minimal number of volunteers needed to make it worthwhile in defining a separate 

subsector project with a reasonable expectation of achieving measurable impacts.

Market chain interventions: Volunteer programs that focus on a specific commodity, 

service, or industry might need to focus volunteer services on multiple levels of the 

commodity chain (input supply, production, processing, marketing, and regulation). This is 

particularly true for new industries. 

 

5

 Terminology for such subsector projects varies. These may be called “projects,” “activities”, or 

“subprojects” within an overall country program. The current FtF program uses the term “Focus Area”, of 

which there are 94 Focus Areas (or subsector projects) across the 40+ countries in which the FtF program is 

active. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 28

Number of hosts: What is the optimal number of hosts with which a volunteer program 

should work within a subsector? FtF program experience indicates that better results are 

often obtained with repeat assignments to a single host. This is logical, as is the fact that 

this results in higher cost per host with fewer hosts directly impacted. Working with 

multiple hosts is often desirable, and volunteers can often assist several hosts in 

addressing the same types of problems. Subsector project strategies need to assess the 

number of hosts that must be assisted in order to introduce an innovation successfully, as 

it is not realistic to expect volunteers to assist all firms within a subsector. Strategies need 

to promote wide dissemination of volunteer recommendations to expand the number of 

indirect beneficiaries4. One option for doing this is for volunteers to work with local 

associations, or at least have end-of-assignment meetings with larger audiences to share 

lessons and recommendations. Economic growth volunteer programs focused on 

enterprise development need to develop strategies to maximize impact on enterprises 

(see box).

 

4

 Dissemination of volunteer recommendations often must recognize the proprietary interests of the host, as 

some business information cannot be made publicly available. However, it is often possible to publicize some 

volunteer recommendations while still maintaining confidentiality with hosts.

ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable growth of private enterprises is the basis for increasing per capita incomes, 

creating jobs, and reducing poverty. Enterprises operate in a competitive market 

environment in which growth is shaped by: (1) demand for their products and services; (2) 

the quality of the business environment (policies, regulations, and incentives); and (3) their 

competitive responses to market demand. Volunteer programs can address constraints in 

all of these areas, but especially in the latter two—improving the business environment and 

strengthening the individual firm. 

Enterprise development activities have greater impact when larger numbers of enterprises 

are affected by the activity. The level of impact increases progressively as activities move 

from direct firm-level technical assistance to work with industry clusters to sector wide 

initiatives to policy reform and finally to global market integration. Good practice in 

enterprise development work is reviewed in a recent USAID publication: Snodgrass, D. and 

J. Winkler. 2004. Enterprise Growth Initiatives: Strategy, Direction and Options: Final 

Report. Development Alternatives, Inc. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 29

Monitoring & evaluation indicators: Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) can be 

expensive. The scope, scale, and specific indicators in monitoring and evaluation need to 

be commensurate with the benefits. While some volunteers and program managers may 

see M&E expenses cutting into the program implementation budget, they must 

understand the utility of learning lessons for the next generation of development activities.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 30

TABLE A: LAND O’LAKES LIFE-OF-PROJECT PLANNING MATRIX FOR SOUTH AFRICA AGRIBUSINESS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS AREA

SECTORAL OBJECTIVES TARGETS INDICATORS MEANS OF VERIFICATION INPUTS/ACTIVITIES

South Africa: Improving 

emerging agribusiness’ 

access to the commercial 

market through out-grower 

schemes and improved 

business skills

1 Agribusiness capacity to 

respond to market opportunities 

enhanced

2 Agribusiness access to 

capital resources increased

1.a. 500 emerging 

agribusiness people trained 

in business skills 

1. b. 25 agribusinesses with 

increased profits of $5,000 

or more due to improved 

business skills and market 

linkages

1.c. 200 emerging farmers 

with increased annual 

incomes of $500 or more 

due to increased market 

linkages 

1.d. 20 Agribusinesses 

marketing products 

cooperatively

2.a. 25 emerging 

agribusinesses with 

business plan to access 

credit for capital 

improvements 

2.b. 25 agribusinesses with 

credit lines to access inputs

2.c. 10 agribusinesses with 

increased value adding 

capacity due to access to 

credit for capital equipment

2.d. 20 Agribusinesses 

accessing inputs or credit 

cooperatively

1.a. Number trained

1.b. Net incremental 

profit of client firms 

(Incremental revenues 

minus incremental 

costs)

1.c. Average income of 

participating farmers

1.d. Number of client 

firms marketing 

products cooperatively

2.a. Number of 

business plans written 

to access credit

2.b. Inputs accessed 

through credit by 

targeted emerging 

agribusinesses

2.c. Number of client 

firms obtaining capital 

equipment through 

access to credit

1.d. Number of client 

firms accessing inputs 

or credit cooperatively 

Data analysis between baseline 

surveys, impact surveys and a annual 

survey among hosts that track:

• Name, address, and business of 

emerging agribusiness people 

participating in training;

• Volume and value of sales made 

by targeted agribusiness;

• Costs of targeted emerging 

agribusiness; and

• Type, volume, and value of 

inputs accessed by targeted 

agribusinesses.

Information will be gathered from 

targeted groups as part of every 

intervention, direct interviews by 

program staff and shared project 

results between Land O’Lakes and 

collaborating programs.

Twenty 21-day assignments over 5 years 

will focus on agribusiness skills training 

and applying this training directly to 

issues facing targeted agribusiness:

• Business Planning/Management;

• Marketing;

• Financial management/accounting; 

and

• Cooperative development.

Nineteen 21-day assignments over 5 

years will focus on technical agriculture 

needs:

• Production and post harvest 

technology;

• Grading and standards; and

• Value added processing technology.

Annually, a three-volunteer team will 

conduct a 21-day assignment to:

• Provide group training and direct 

technical assistance focusing on 

accessing inputs, including capital, 

for agribusinesses;

• Research and educate emerging 

agribusinesses on methods to 

access high value markets; and

• Develop credit and out-grower 

schemes with suppliers and buyers 

to increase access to inputs and 

finance for targeted agribusinesses.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 31

Suggested Outline for Subsector Planning:

1. Objective (approx one sentence) 

2. Description of subsector (what is being targeted for assistance?)

3. General description (why is this subsector being targeted?) 

a. Policy, regulatory, human resources, financial, and physical infrastructure environments

b. Key problems/constraints to be addressed

c. Opportunities to impact on target clients (possibly use market chain analysis)

4. Strategic approach 

a. What the FtF program can do and how (what is the comparative advantage of the FtF 

program?); 

b. How would FtF volunteers fit into programs/objectives of the local government, the local 

private sector, the local civil society, USAID, or other organizations that affect the subsector? 

c. Is there a sequencing of assignments wherein one assignment will build off of other ones? 

d. How can the advice/technology of the volunteers that are given to one group be shared more 

broadly across the subsector so as to raise the benefit/cost ratio of the assignment? 

5. Key partners (if any) and their roles 

6. Target hosts 

a. Number and type of expected hosts; names of those identified; criteria for identifying others 

b. Numbers and types of volunteer assignments 

7. Target clients (beneficiaries, both direct and indirect) 

a. Numbers and location 

b. How they will be impacted 

c. Expected benefits 

8. Timeframe and phasing 

a. Priorities for this year 

b. List of planned volunteer assignments 

c. Other key actions by field staff to follow up and reinforce the results of the volunteer 

assignment 

9. Monitoring and Evaluation Plan 

a. What indicators/proxies will be used 

b. Who will collect the data and how 

Complementary inputs: Subsector plans must take account of complementary inputs 

needed to achieve desired outcomes. Lack of credit, infrastructure, training, and markets 

have often constrained FtF program hosts from implementing recommendations of 

volunteers. Subsector projects must identify critical inputs and assess their likely 

availability, making provision for them from the volunteer program, from partners or from 

related projects5.

An outline for subsector plans: The following outline can be filled out in two or three 

pages. This plan captures the key factors affecting a volunteer program.

 

5

 There is some disagreement over the advisability of providing additional inputs through volunteer 

programs. Some note that such inputs (operating cost grants, training, R&D costs, etc.) greatly enhance 

volunteers’ impact. Others note that such resources distort incentives for a volunteer program, with hosts 

requesting volunteers mainly to gain access to the complementary inputs.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 32

Current practices in volunteer program subsector project planning

USAID uses the Strategic Objective and Intermediate Result (SO/IR) framework as a 

planning tool for its programs (see ADS Section 200)6. Subsector plans are generally 

summarized in a Planning Matrix that sets out the subsector strategy, expected results, 

benchmarks along the way to results, and specific activities that will be undertaken to 

achieve those results. An example of a Planning Matrix for an LOL Subsector Plan 

(Focus Area) is presented in Table A. 

Formerly USAID used the logframe, a planning tool that remains widely used by donor 

agencies and can be useful in project planning. The logical framework (logframe) relates 

indicators and targets in a more logical hierarchical order based on the expected causeand-effect relationship between project activities, outputs, outcomes, and goals (see 

Table B). This provides a concise conceptual framework for how the project will lead to 

expected impacts and is best developed in a participatory manner to ensure broad 

understanding and agreement on the project concept. 

The logframe is a standard project-planning tool, although specific formats vary 

somewhat from agency to agency. Many references are available describing the use of 

this tool in project planning and evaluation7. Key elements of a project plan set out in the 

logframe are:

• Impacts (or goal, overall objective, development objective): The long-term 

objective, change of state or improved situation towards which the project is making 

a contribution.

• Outcomes (or results, purpose, or project objective): The immediate project 

objective, the overall observable changes in performance, behavior, or resource 

status that should occur as a result of the project.

• Outputs: The products, services, or results that must be delivered by the project for 

the component outcomes to be achieved.

• Inputs: The resources required to achieve the outputs through project activities.

Logframes may include—in addition to or in place of “inputs”—a line for “activities”, the 

actions taken by the project employing inputs to produce required outputs.

 

6

http://www.usaid.gov/policy/ads/200

7

 See for example: http://www.kar-dht.org/logframe.html#matrix
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 33

Table B: The Logical Framework

Narrative Summary Key Performance Indicators Source of 

Data

Critical 

Assumptions

Impacts:

Outcomes:

Outputs:

Inputs:

The logframe and the planning matrix are useful to summarize on one page the project 

concept and rationale. This helps to clarify what the project intends to accomplish and 

how it is to be achieved. As a concise summary of the project strategy, these planning 

tools then become the basis for evaluation and assessment of success. 

Key recommendations

♦ Define subsector projects (volunteer assignments) at the start of a volunteer 

program, drawing on subsector analysis to identify constraints and opportunities to 

improve subsector performance and competitive advantage.

♦ Develop a planning matrix and a Strategic Objective/Intermediate Result (SO/IR) 

structure or logical framework to help clarify what needs to be done and how it is to 

be accomplished.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 34

2.4 EX ANTE IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN VOLUNTEER 

PROGRAMS8

An ex ante impact assessment is a tool for designing projects to make sure that the 

benefits of the volunteers’ assistance justify the costs9. Ex ante analysis therefore 

compares the value of expected benefits or impacts (positive or negative) between a 

“with project” situation and a “without project” situation, before the project has been 

undertaken. The difference in revenues between the two situations is known as 

incremental benefits or program impacts.

Why is ex ante impact assessment useful?

Ex ante impact estimates serve as supporting analysis for a proposed course of action in 

use of volunteer resources. Implementers are not held to these projections, nor indeed 

are they held to the revised projections made during construction of work plans. The ex

ante impact assessment provides an opportunity for the program designer to consider 

other options that may yield higher economic returns to the volunteer’s efforts.

Although important, economic analysis is only one of several considerations in making 

decisions on programs, projects, and hosts. Impact assessment should also consider 

other factors, such as impacts on social equity, poverty reduction, environment, and 

people-to-people dimensions. All development programs face questions of balancing 

these issues.

Issues with ex ante impact assessment for volunteer programs

Appropriate indicators: The impact of an economic development project can mean 

different things to different people. Some are convinced that the impact of a project 

should be limited to easily quantified measures, such as the numbers of people trained, 

numbers of people adopting a new technique, increases in total physical production or 

unit rates of production such as yield per hectare, or numbers of hectares under a new 

crop or soil conservation system. Nevertheless, the use of physical measures for a 

volunteer program often is not adequate because of the problem of aggregation. How 

much are fourteen people trained plus an additional 1.5 tons of mustard seed per 

hectare worth? The solution is to translate these physical measures into monetary 

values. Then economists can, “compare the incremental change in the value of net 

income or revenue of an enterprise ‘with’ project situation (recommended new technique 

adopted) to the ‘without’ project situation (recommended new technique not adopted).”

 

8

 Based on a “Review of Farmer-to-Farmer Impact Assessment” by Roger Montgomery (8/17/04).

9

 Ex ante assessments are estimates made before a project or activity is undertaken. Ex post assessments are 

actual measurements or estimates made after a project or activity has been implemented.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 35

Alternatives to economic analysis: For certain types of projects, it is virtually 

impossible to estimate changes in net revenue. With environmental projects it is often 

only possible to evaluate alternative methods of achieving the same objective (such as 

measurable increase in biological oxygen in polluted waters, or certain maximum limits 

on pollutants in air or water supplies). In these cases, the method used is to determine 

the least cost of achieving the desired physical indicator, e.g., a new, more severe 

pollution standard.

Problems with baseline data: Baseline data on production, income, and other 

indicators is seldom readily available and costly to obtain. However, ex ante impact 

assessments need only a reasonable estimate of current indicators and a reasonable 

estimate of potential impact: ex post assessments are much more demanding of data 

quality. 

Measuring incomes: It is often not possible to measure incomes of participants in 

development programs. Household or business income is a very personal and private 

matter, not likely to be disclosed to outsiders. Therefore data is sought instead on the 

incremental change in net income or revenue of an enterprise. Since most volunteer 

program hosts are profit-oriented enterprises that are themselves interested in their net 

income, the volunteer program appropriately tracks changes in incremental net incomes. 

In other cases, where the host is an association or group of individual enterprises, 

assumptions must be made about the “typical” enterprise, say one hectare of mustard 

seed, or one box of honeycombs. The net revenue for the entire host (club, association) 

is then this unit-revenue multiplied times the number of hectares or number of 

honeycomb boxes operated by all members. 

Role and importance of time: Because investments occur now, but benefits or impacts 

take some time to develop, a benefit/cost analysis must calculate present, capitalized 

values in order to resolve the issue of time. A promise to pay $100 this afternoon is more 

important, more valuable than a promise to pay $100 one year from now. All of us 

unconsciously “discount” future values back to the present. Economists have formalized 

a system of discounting future values back to the present, in order to compare costs 

(incurred now or very soon) with benefits (likely to occur farther off into the future). 

Discounting typically uses a 12 percent discount rate for future values of costs and

benefits (although this is really a function of inflation rates), such that an expected $7 

next year is worth $6.25 this year. The longer the time period for discounting, the less is 

the present value of a similarly sum - a commitment to pay $7 in year 3 is worth only 

$4.98 now. And finally, a commitment to pay $7 each year for the next 10 years is worth 

a total of $37.30 now. Electronic spreadsheets compute these values for users under the 

function =NPV (net present values). The discount rate commonly adopted for use in 

project evaluation is called the social discount rate. Discounting cost and benefits from a 

program gives the following indicators:
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 36

• The net present value is the capitalized value today of a future value or series of 

annual values (income stream), calculated using the social discount rate.

• The benefit/cost ratio is the ratio between the net present value of all identified 

incremental net revenues (benefits), divided by the net present value of all identified 

incremental costs, all discounted back to the present using the social discount rate.

• The internal rate of return does not assume a social discount rate, but instead 

calculates the rate that makes the present value of all benefits exactly equal to the 

present value of all costs (investments). 

Complexity of economic analysis: Economic analysis of simple subsector projects is 

not difficult, but calculation of Net Present Value of Investments and Costs, Net Present 

Value of Benefits, Benefit Cost Ratio, Internal Rate of Return is a task for an economist, 

and is a specialized skill. Volunteer program field staffs typically do not have these skills, 

nor is there a routine need for such calculations. Programs should however establish 

monitoring systems that yield all of the information required for such analyses to be 

undertaken by the journeyman economist who periodically spot-checks volunteer 

programs to make sure they are on track.

Financial prices vis-à-vis economic prices: Existing market prices are often distorted 

by subsidies and taxes. These prices, called “financial prices,” are distinct from the 

“economic” prices that reflect true international values that should be used in economic 

analyses. While correcting for such price distortions is important when a country is 

considering expansions of imports and exports, for example, it is beyond the scope for 

most volunteer program needs. 

Income distribution: Economic growth projects are typically measured by the 

incremental change in revenue that they generate. Yet because a fundamental reason

for foreign assistance is poverty reduction, there is concern about how this increased 

income is spread across income groups. Unfortunately, the tools commonly used for 

impact assessment (benefit/cost, internal rates of return) are blind to income distribution 

aspects and are not sensitive to the initial income or wealth status of the recipient. A 

number of tools exist for assessing poverty focus (by targeting geographic areas with a 

relative high incidence of poverty, or targeting products generally produced or consumed 

by the poor). Although detailed poverty analyses are beyond their scope, volunteer 

programs should at least comment on the expected effects of the volunteer program on 

poverty reduction. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 37

EX ANTE ECONOMIC ANALYSIS FOR THE FTF PROGRAM:

The FtF program calculated rough estimates of cost/benefit for subsector projects by including 

five identified elements of investment cost (program costs, value of volunteer time, additional 

resources obtained by the volunteers, value of host contributions, and value of resources 

mobilized by hosts from other sources). Expected Net Revenue or Net Income Benefits were 

estimated based on increased net income or revenue from improved business operations, 

organizational capacity, and productivity. 

Economic analysis showed that overall the FtF program was projected to have an IRR of 18 

percent. While many projects had non-economic impacts or lacked adequate data to estimate 

rates of return, 30 of the 94 FtF subsector projects had positive IRRs. This analysis showed that 

while it is difficult to conduct cost/benefit analysis of volunteer programs, the effort is worthwhile 

because it can show if a program is heading in the right direction. The FtF program was found to 

be heading in the right direction and the program should not shy away from striving for 

development impact as well as simple goodwill and cultural exchanges. 

Current practices in ex ante impact assessment of volunteer programs

FtF volunteer programs typically have several small subsector projects. Extensive 

analysis is neither practical nor warranted. Benefits of some element of simple feasibility 

analysis are often available, by relying on analyses conducted by larger programs with 

which the volunteer program is associated. 

Net vs. gross income increases: Net income is used for impact assessment, not gross 

income or revenue. Gross values (total value of production or sales) are relatively 

meaningless, unless costs of achieving that production or sale have been subtracted. 

For example, the cost of feed consumed in producing broiler chickens is about 65% of 

the value of the chickens. Were the feed cost not subtracted, the gross value of chicken 

production would dramatically overstate the value-added in converting feed into 

chickens. Net income means that all associated incremental costs of production, 

transportation, storage, and marketing have been identified, accounted for, and 

subtracted.

In estimating net income changes, full total enterprise budgets are not required. Instead, 

partial budgets that represent the changes in costs associated with a new practice are all 

that are required. Incremental means the “with project” (or technical change) net benefits 

minus the “without project” (farmer/enterprise continues on current trend) net benefits. 

For example, a farmer switches from low valued oats to higher valued wheat. The 

incremental income is therefore the value of the wheat produced, less the value of the 

oats now foregone. 

Ex ante assessment of a subsector project normally requires the estimation of potential 

incremental benefits and costs, based on a minimal feasibility analysis that constructs 

simple enterprise budgets for both the “without project” and “with project” cases. Partial 

budgets will suffice, as illustrated in the simple example from a fertilizer-on-rice 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 38

demonstration presented in the Table below. The partial budget accounts only for those 

inputs and outputs that change due to adoption of a new technology. Thus, it is not 

necessary to have a full budget for rice production (for all costs, land, labor, machinery, 

pesticides, etc.) in order to estimate the incremental change.

Table: Example of a Partial Budget, Agronomic Demonstration of Fertilizer on Rice

Input/Output Without Adoption of Fertilizer With Adoption of Fertilizer

Physical 

Units (kgs, 

days)

Unit Costs, 

Values 

(Rupees/unit)

Values, 

Without 

Adoption 

Physical 

Units (kgs, 

days)

Unit Costs, 

Values 

(Rupees/unit)

Values, With 

Adoption

Fertilizer (kg) 0 75 0 100 75 7,500

Extra labor for fertilizer 

application (labor days)

0 100 0 3 100 300

Yield of Paddy Rice 

(kg/ha)

3000 20 60,000 4,000 20 80,000

Net Income (minus 

variable inputs above)

60,000 72,200

Incremental Net 

Income

12,200

The individual undertaking the feasibility estimation must know the relevant technologies 

(existing vis-à-vis proposed new) and the related physical changes in inputs and outputs 

that might be expected. But it is not reasonable to expect existing volunteer project 

managers and office staff to have sufficient technical information to assess feasibility. 

Preparing a feasibility study for a volunteer program design will often require assistance 

from a consultant or from partner and host organizations. Later, the task of refining 

simple partial budgets for a host or subsector can be made part of the assignment of the 

volunteer, as the person best suited to do simple tabular comparisons of current practice 

and new practice and to estimate costs and returns.

Key recommendations

♦ Prepare simple ex ante feasibility studies to assess whether a subsector project will 

be financially viable. The studies should calculate discounted present values to 

compare benefits with costs. A major utility of ex ante analysis is as an aid in 

deciding among subsector projects and allocating volunteers. Assume that all 

candidates are potentially viable, but some are more promising than others.

♦ For subsector projects without direct economic benefits (e.g., environmental or 

organizational strengthening projects), develop other impact indicators using—where 

possible—cost efficiency measures, such as least cost per beneficiary or per unit of 

impact.

♦ Develop simple partial budgets for individual enterprises, based upon changes 

expected as a result of a host adopting volunteers’ recommendations and on 

estimates of incremental net income and incremental costs associated with adopting 

the recommendation. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 39

♦ Use “with project” numbers to compare to “without project” numbers, isolating only 

those inputs and outputs that will change. Avoid using “before” and “after” estimates 

of net incomes of enterprises, as too many other things change over time and it is 

notoriously difficult to get many enterprises to disclose their true net income.

♦ Do not try to estimate incomes of each individual household or each individual small 

enterprise with which the program is working, as there are too many. Instead, model 

their activities into “typical” production units, such as a one-hectare crop input-output 

budget, a one-beehive budget, or a one-vat cheese-making budget.

♦ Rely on analyses conducted by complementary programs so as to minimize the cost 

of ex-ante analyses. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 40

2.5 SELECTING PARTNERS FOR VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS

Projects and volunteer assignments are commonly developed and implemented with 

“partners,” a term that can carry a range of connotations among implementers.10 The 

term ‘partners’ is used herein to refer to in-country organizations that collaborate with 

U.S. volunteer program implementers in the development and implementation of 

program and project strategies and plans.11 Partners can be both public and private 

agencies and can include trade associations, NGOs, commercial firms, projects, 

government departments and programs (e.g., Peace Corps) and educational institutions. 

Partners are commonly involved in providing goods and services to agricultural 

producers and/or other agribusinesses. These clients of partners include public and 

private organizations that are potential hosts for volunteers. Roles of partners vary, but 

commonly include serving as: (1) local representative for the implementer; (2) retailer of 

volunteer services; (2) link to clients (hosts); and (4) technical backstop.

Why is the selection of partners important?

Partners are usually critical to the identification of suitable hosts and to arranging 

complementary inputs required to achieve impacts. Partners are often larger 

organizations or projects than are host organizations. They typically work with multiple 

potential hosts to whom they provide various services. In some cases, volunteers may 

work with partners to strengthen the partner’s own capacity to provide goods and 

services to their clients (in which case the partner also serves as a host organization). 

Generally, good partners have an interest in seeing that the specific knowledge or skills 

that volunteers bring to host organizations are spread to others. This is important as this 

can strongly influence the extent of impact, but volunteer program implementers alone 

are often ill equipped and under-resourced to achieve this. 

Major issues in partner selection

The major question with respect to partners is whether the anticipated advantages of 

working with and through them sufficiently outweigh the costs and potential problems 

inherent in partnerships. In theory, partnerships are very attractive and vital to achieving 

sustainable impacts. However, there can be major transactions costs in establishing and 

 

10 At the extreme, the term can be quite inclusive and refer to virtually all program participants, including 

the range of participating organizations, hosts, networks, as well as current and former volunteers.

11 The term partner can also be used to refer to U.S. based organizations that have formal sub-contract 

agreements with the primary implementer. While these sub-contract partners may play vital roles in 

volunteer programs, the focus of this section is on host country partners. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 41

maintaining partnerships. Further, partner organizations and projects can dominate 

relationships, when they are large operations with in-country presence, a broad range of 

responsibilities and relationships, and their own agendas. A volunteer program may see 

a partnership as a way of leveraging the resources of the partner. The partner on the 

other hand is likely to see the volunteer program as a set of resources to be captured to 

further its own program. There is always a risk of a volunteer program being co-opted by 

a larger, more assertive partner. Effective, lasting partnerships require a fair degree of 

convergence (or at least compatibility) in objectives and organizational philosophies. 

Current practices for selecting partner organizations

Three general approaches to partnering are currently used by FtF implementers. 

Partners of the Americas (POA) embraces partnerships as a cornerstone of its 

programs, with networks and partnering embedded in the organization’s philosophy and 

history. Virtually every POA FtF project has support from one or more networks of 

organizations, projects, and volunteers (current and former). POA’s organizational profile 

notes “networking and building linkages is one of Partners' core competencies.” POA 

fosters long-term institutional linkages between Latin American and Caribbean 

agricultural organizations and counterpart institutions in the U.S. These relationships, 

sustained through the POA network, endure beyond the length of a specific subsector 

project and help ensure sustainability of program objectives. These long-term 

partnerships can leverage resources and result in unexpected benefits for both 

organizations.

Land O’Lakes Strategic Partnering in Southern Africa

LOL’s FtF program in Southern Africa is based on a variety of partnership arrangements. In 

Zambia, the FtF Office is located in the Zambian Agricultural Commodity Agency, where an LOL 

country manager works closely with FtF staff in programming volunteer activities. In Malawi, the 

FtF program works in concert with the LOL Malawi Dairy Business Development Program that 

provides a broad range of complementary inputs. In Angola, LOL is partnered with the 

Cooperative League of the USA (CLUSA) in support of a Rural Group Enterprise and Agricultural 

Marketing Project that seeks to increase the market linkages of high-value crops to premium 

markets. And in South Africa, LOL works with Ebony Consulting International and IDEAA 

(Initiative for Development and Equity in African Agriculture) to improve emerging farmer’s access 

to commercial markets through out-grower schemes and links to agribusinesses. 

LOL utilizes a three-tiered approach with each of its implementation partners. The three tiers 

involve: (1) identifying and strengthening suitable farmer associations with the organization, 

willingness, and capacity to respond to market demands; (2) locating high-value market linkages 

for these farmer associations and determining the requirements of these markets; and (3) 

sourcing critical inputs needed by farmers and developing schemes to source these important 

inputs.

POA makes a special effort to create networks and linkages that bring together public 

and private sector organizations, including universities, research institutes, local NGOs, 

agribusinesses, processors, and community associations. These link poor producers to 

networks that provide access to information and technology, marketing know-how and 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 42

new opportunities. Benefits can include: (1) access to reliable and timely information on 

market and weather conditions; (2) assistance with marketing, including branding; (3) 

access to improved plant varieties and technologies; and (4) learning and sharing best 

practices among hosts either through seminars or virtual networks.

CNFAworks with some partners in the implementation of its FtF program, but it has 

found that reconciliation of corporate objectives is often very difficult and that great care 

and effort is often required to make such partnerships successful. For CNFA, 

partnerships are an option, not an imperative, and are to be approached with caution. 

LOL and ACDI/VOCA enter into partnerships on a case-by-case basis where it seems 

to make sense in achieving the objectives of specific programs. Partnerships are often 

logical connections between their pre-existing agricultural projects abroad and FtF. 

Current activities of LOL and ACDI/VOCA in Eastern and Southern Africa are illustrative 

of this approach (see boxes).

ACDI/VOCA Partnerships in Eastern Africa

The ACDI/VOCA Eastern Africa FtF program works closely with a Land O’Lakes dairy project in 

Uganda. An agreement between LOL and ACDI/VOCA provides for about 50% of the FtF 

volunteer slots to be used in the LOL dairy development program. This collaboration fosters links 

to other organizations and individuals working with LOL in the sector. This is an example of a 

large country project requesting volunteer technical assistance on behalf of smaller scattered 

organizations in its wide partnership base spanning a larger geographical area. 

Given the short-term nature of volunteer assignments, partnerships and collaborative 

approaches with in-country organizations are often critical to the sustainability and 

spread effect of volunteer programs.

Key recommendations

♦ Select partners on the basis of mutually shared objectives, and on their ability to 

provide critical complementary inputs, such as infrastructure, credit, longer-term 

training, and technical assistance. 

♦ Nurture partnerships by developing close personal relations. 

♦ Integrate volunteer programs and assignments with complementary programs in a 

particular geographic area. Taking the time to design assignments that build off of 

these synergies will result in more sustainable results and impact.

♦ Select country managers and host country staff that have the skills, knowledge, and 

network of contacts that can enable them to identify and sustain partnerships, where 

appropriate, or provide the services one might otherwise seek through partnerships. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 43

2.6 SELECTING HOST ORGANIZATIONS

Hosts are organizations or individuals that request volunteer services and work most 

directly with the volunteers. Host organizations commonly include private businesses, 

community groups, trade or business associations, local government offices, 

cooperatives, or public or private service providers (inputs, credit, information, 

marketing, processing, storage, etc.). Identifying potential host organizations and 

selecting specific organizations to receive volunteers is the first step towards 

implementing the subsector project plan. 

Why is selection of host organizations important?

The ability of host organizations to absorb, utilize, and disseminate information provided 

by volunteers is a critical consideration in determining the impact of a volunteer’s 

assignment. Host organizations should be involved early on in developing the FtF 

program strategies and plans. They should also contribute to the costs of fielding 

volunteers and facilitate an assessment of the impact of the volunteer’s efforts. The 

impacts of a volunteer program are primarily a function of what host organizations do as 

a result of the information and training provided by volunteers.

Major issues in host organization selection

Number of hosts: Should volunteer assignments be focused on a few hosts (clustering) 

in hopes of improving chances of positive outcomes for that host? Or should volunteers 

be spread around to enable as many as possible to benefit? Impact considerations 

generally favor the clustering of volunteers to work with a limited number of hosts, rather 

than spreading the volunteers too thinly. Still, broad impact requires innovation to spread 

beyond individual hosts. The FtF implementer must also guard against providing an 

unfair competitive advantage to one business over another. Hosts should be 

organizations that are able or willing to share what they have learned from a volunteer 

with others, including competitors. 

Potential for impact: Strategies for spreading program impact beyond the initial host 

include: working with trade groups or business associations, widely disseminating 

training materials and reports prepared by volunteers, and publicizing volunteer activities 

and recommendations. Holding a workshop open to all in the industry at the end of a 

volunteer’s assignment is one means of reducing unfair advantage and spreading 

benefit beyond the specific host with which the volunteer has worked. 

Upstream or downstream: Where in the market chain should volunteers work? Should 

they focus primarily on input suppliers and producer groups, or downstream with 

processing and marketing organizations that have the potential to affect larger numbers 

of beneficiaries? Decisions here should be guided by the prospects for impact as 

revealed by the analysis of the market chain.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 44

Focus groups: Should host organizations be largely those serving resource poor and 

disadvantaged groups or are volunteers more effective in working with the not so poor 

who are more likely to be able to act on the information and training provided? Donor 

concern with poverty reduction strongly suggests a focus on work with resource-poor 

groups, directly or indirectly, where possible. Still, many resource-poor groups are ill 

equipped to work with or benefit from volunteer services (See Section 4.1).

Forming new groups: When development programs form new organizations, they 

frequently disappear when program support is withdrawn. This results because the 

impetus for group formation is that of accessing resources from the development 

program. In most cases, FtF implementers prefer to work with existing host 

organizations that have a measure of established capacity and some track record in 

operations. However, where a country has few, if any, suitable host candidates, a 

volunteer program may have no option other than getting involved in their formation.

In Southern Africa, LOL and FAMU assist small farmers form associations that allow 

members to create market linkages to access inputs and markets for their products. 

These linkages allow farmers to move from traditional subsistence farming to 

commercial operations. While this logic is compelling and there are examples of 

successful efforts to establish producer and related service associations involving 

volunteers, the progress and sustainability of such efforts normally requires more 

support than an individual or series of short-term volunteers can provide.

Volunteers can be effective in strengthening existing organizations and businesses and 

the many examples of volunteer program success in these efforts suggest that the 

hands-on training that volunteers provide gives them a comparative advantage for work 

in this area. Still, organizational strengthening takes time and its results are hard to 

quantify. Short-term volunteer assignments are most effective when there are periodic 

repeat assignments to assist in strengthening the same organization or firm.

Termination/graduation: What are the criteria for terminating or graduating a project 

with a host organization? How long should implementers work with hosts? This 

determination is greatly facilitated if the objectives of the assignment are clear before the 

assignment begins. A program needs to guard against proposed assignments that 

merely continue a comfortable relationship with a good host, without sufficient regard for 

the benefits of the volunteer’s assignments. Periodic reviews of host performance are 

useful to re-evaluate plans for use of volunteer resources when conditions of a host have 

changed significantly either for better or for worse.

Current practices in volunteer host selection

FtF host organizations include individual producers (in some cases), producer groups 

and associations, local NGOs, cooperatives agribusinesses, large producers and agroindustries, trade associations, processors, marketing organizations, and farm produce 

buyers. Other hosts are service providers—extension agencies, training institutions, rural 

financial service providers, input suppliers, and research programs. Some country 

programs work with multiple types of hosts within a subsector in order to address varied 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 45

constraints within the commodity chain, for example linking the poor with the non-poor to 

achieve a subsector-wide impact. 

Selection criteria: Hosts are typically selected based on their potential to show results. 

Criteria may include minimum eligibility requirements, internal capacity and interest, and 

suitability of the business environment in which they operate (availability of markets, 

inputs, comparative advantage). Where demand for volunteer services is high, 

transparent selection procedures are important. Where potential host organizations are 

weak, country staff or partner organizations may need to provide advice and training to 

help potential hosts reach the point at which they can benefit from volunteer services. 

Checklists of criteria utilized by POA and CNFA (see boxes) can be effective in 

screening and ranking potential host organizations.

POA Criteria for Host Selection

Criteria used by POA to identify counterpart host organizations includes their ability to:

ß Utilize technical assistance and adopt technical recommendations;

ß Identify and clearly state their technical assistance needs;

ß Participate in the design of a multi year action plan with specific goals;

ß Support the active participation of women and operate using democratic principles;

ß Share and disseminate information that reaches large numbers of producers;

ß Demonstrate value placed on the program by supporting program activities either by paying a 

fee for technical assistance provided (based on a sliding scale according to ability to pay) or 

through in-kind contributions valued at an equivalent amount (e.g., local transportation, room 

and board for volunteers); and 

ß Relate the volunteer program to broader sectoral needs.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 46

CNFA Checklist for Host Selection

ß Markets are available and there is strong interest in doing business/selling/increasing income;

ß The number of participants is sufficiently large to achieve a reasonable impact;

ß Hosts have the interest and energy to innovate, and training will translate into impact when 

the hosts apply their training to improve performance and increase incomes;

ß Strong leadership demonstrates sincere dedication to serving the group. It is essential to 

evaluate the strength of the group, and the extent of transparency in its financial affairs. 

Hosts must not be engaged in dishonest activities. Leaders should be strong and effective, 

but not so strong that they can appropriate resources in their own interests at the expense of 

other members;

ß Clearly identified training needs linked to increasing sales and income. Hosts should 

participate in development of a training plan and “own” it. Most importantly, they must see a 

clear linkage between the training they are to receive and how it will benefit them;

ß Prospective hosts should understand the potential to increase income through their own 

efforts and be willing to work for that without expecting any assistance other than training;

ß At least some members of the host group are fully literate and numerate; and

ß Logistics are as easy and inexpensive as possible.

Knowledge of subsectors: Personal networking by country staff of volunteer program 

implementers or their local partners is probably the most effective means of identifying 

hosts, but does risk missing some potentially good hosts. It requires local staff to be 

knowledgeable about the subsectors in which they are working and to develop a wide 

network of contacts. Formal advertising of the volunteer program in trade publications, 

and with business groups, and even in the mass media may be a good complement to 

personal networking and can help to avoid charges of cronyism or favoritism. But such 

advertising might require a large increase in staff time to review the applications.

Assessing host capabilities: Some implementing agencies make an effort to assess 

systematically the capacities of potential hosts via formal interviews. Winrock employs a 

version of SWOT analysis to assess potential partners, the internal strengths and 

weaknesses of their organizations and the opportunities and threats to their market and 

from other external factors. Concurrently, an effort is made to distinguish between 

weaknesses that can addressed (e.g., inadequate planning, weakness in management, 

lack of necessary skills and market specific experience, etc) and those that are more 

problematic (e.g., extent of motivation, honesty).

In East Africa, the ACDI/VOCA staff assesses the suitability of a host organization using 

the Organizational Capacity Assessment Tool (OCAT) developed by USAID and its 

partners. This tool is particularly useful in the preparation of association strengthening 

assignments, but it is also used in developing other scopes of work in order to determine 

the organization’s ability to host a volunteer and make effective use of the resources. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 47

OCAT measures capacity in critical operational areas such as governance, leadership 

and management practices, financial and assets management, and business capacity, 

among others. OCAT is then supplemented by sector-specific questions designed to 

gather baseline data on indicators on which the program will be reporting12. 

Using partners: While there is widespread agreement on the attributes of a good host 

organization, these are still not easy to find. Formal search procedures might assist, but 

can be costly and skill intensive to administer correctly. In general, it is preferable to 

have a local partner do this work, as opposed to having a U.S.-based organization do it 

on its own. At the same time, local partners have their own biases and agendas and it is 

essential for the U.S. implementer to periodically review host organization selections.

Key recommendations

♦ Have local implementer’s staff develop a thorough knowledge of the strengths, 

weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in the subsectors targeted by volunteer 

programs.

♦ Maintain a demand-driven approach to identifying hosts. If a volunteer’s assignment 

is driven by a host wanting to work with certain volunteers, as opposed to an 

organization’s desire to place a volunteer overseas, the results tend to be better. 

♦ Maintain transparency in host selection procedures. Advertise the volunteer program, 

if appropriate, but weigh the staff implications against the potential gains of 

publicizing the availability of volunteer services programs in order to develop a good 

pool of potential hosts.

♦ Develop checklists of criteria for evaluating potential hosts as to their eligibility and 

potential for impact.

♦ Develop linkages with local partners to assist in identifying and working with hosts, 

but ensure that partners’ interests are compatible with the objectives of the volunteer 

program.

♦ Ensure that hosts are interested and able to address those issues identified as 

critical in subsector assessments. 

♦ Require some resource contribution from the host to ensure commitment to the 

project and to help defray program costs.

 

12 For a description of OCAT, see the appendix to TIPS #15, “Measuring Institutional Capacity”. USAID, 

2000. http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACG624.pdf.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 48

2.7 PLANNING HOST PROJECTS: THE HOST STRATEGIC PLAN

Volunteer program planning occurs at various levels, but for the volunteer’s host, the 

“project” is largely limited to the activities that they undertake jointly with the volunteer. 

The specific services provided and activities undertaken in conjunction with a specific 

host represents the “host project”13. The following diagram illustrates different levels in 

the FtF program planning system.

Scope of Work

for Volunteer

Host A1

Host Strategic Plan

Scope of Work

for Volunteer

Host A2

Host Strategic Plan

Sub Sector "A"

Scope of Work

for Volunteer

Host B1

Host Strategic Plan

Scope of Work

for Volunteer

Host B2

Host Strategic Plan

Sub Sector "B"

Implementing Agency

Program Plan

The term “program” in this Guidebook is associated with a broader country, regional, or 

global volunteer initiative. Each implementing agency should have a program plan and 

descriptions of subsector projects that, when implemented, result in the achievement of 

the program objectives. Each subsector project typically involves a number of host 

organizations—local service providers, NGOs, associations, and private sector firms. 

The Subsector Project Plan specifies a subsector strategy (the FtF refers to these as 

Focus Areas) and usually includes a corresponding set of illustrative activities. For work 

with each host, a Host Strategic Plan identifies the goals and objectives, and a specific 

set of activities (volunteer assignments) for work with that host. Host Strategic Plans 

provide the basis for the volunteer assignment. 

A Scope of Work (SOW) is prepared for each volunteer assignment, detailing the tasks 

and anticipated results in relation to the objectives of the host organization. Where a 

Subsector Project includes only a single host organization and one volunteer assignment 

(as might well be the case for exploratory type assignments), subsector and host project 

strategies and plans might all be telescoped into a single SOW (complemented by the 

reports emanating from the assignment). Alternatively, a single volunteer assignment 

might encompass service for two or more hosts in which case the volunteer’s would 

have more than one SOW. 

The Host Strategic Plan is normally a short statement that indicates the objectives and 

anticipated impact of the host organization/firm/association. This usually provides a 

 

13 Terminology differs considerably. Host projects can also be called sub-projects or activities. Some 

implementers use the terms project, program, and activity interchangeably. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 49

basis for describing how volunteers would contribute. The formal agreement between 

the host and the program implementer specifies the contributions of both parties in the 

implementation of volunteer assignments. It also provides the Scope of Work (SOW) for 

the volunteer. A Host Strategic Plan must be congruent with the implementing agency's 

Program Plan and usually features some of the following elements: 

• Objectives that will be addressed by volunteers;

• Type and sequencing of volunteer assignments;

• Complementary inputs from partner organizations;

• Costs of fielding the volunteers and/or how the costs will be shared 

(contributions from hosts and partners); and 

• Anticipated results/impact. 

The time frame covered by the plan is usually between 1 and 3 years. Typically the Host 

Strategic Plans are revised quite often in anticipation of new opportunities. 

Why are host strategic plans so important?

Host Strategic Plans provide the basis for volunteer Scopes of Work (SOW) that 

articulate how the host, local volunteer program staff, and partner organizations will work 

together. Essentially they constitute an informal agreement among the parties involved –

the hosts, the volunteer program and partner organizations – delineating the 

responsibilities of each participant in the project. 

Important issues related to project planning

Partner participation in host project planning: Broad participation in planning 

generally leads to better results. However, it is time consuming. Furthermore, there is 

some question as to when and how to arrange for effective participation of intended 

beneficiaries. FtF implementers often rely to a large extent on partners to identify hosts 

and plan projects. Prior to the start of volunteer assignments, implementing agencies 

and hosts should have already been involved in participatory discussions to delineate 

the essential features of their proposed projects and activities. Volunteer program staff 

must have the skills and authority to critically review proposals from partners and hosts 

and make adjustments, as required. 

Host participation in the design of a volunteer's assignment: As a rule, a volunteer's 

assignment should be bottom-up, responding to a need of a specific host. In practice, a 

combination of bottom-up and top-down is most practical with volunteer program field 

staff coordinating the process of developing an assignment to ensure that the results 

conform to the realities of what the volunteer program can provide and includes the 

information required by the program. If there are a few identifiable weaknesses, an initial 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 50

volunteer assignment or assignments might remedy these, prior to providing additional 

volunteer support to that host. This kind of organizational strengthening is a comparative 

advantage of volunteer programs and can establish the basis for a close and productive 

longer-term relationship. 

Reviewing host strategic plans: Host strategic plans should be revisited at least once 

a year, particularly if serious consideration is being given to adjusting allocations of 

volunteer slots among projects, programs, or countries. The debriefing of volunteers at 

the conclusion of their assignments is a good opportunity for all parties to review the 

Host Strategic Plans and make adjustments, as required.

Current practices in host strategic planning

Currently, all FtF programs operate under cooperative agreements between 

implementing agencies and USAID. Cooperative agreements, grants, and contracts 

imply a different relationship between USAID and the implementing agency, but 

generally the implementing agency must be responsive to USAID objectives in the target 

country. This top-down planning is complemented by consultations with potential hosts 

in planning subsector projects and strategies. FtF implementing agencies generally must 

complete some subsector and host strategic planning prior to being awarded funding for 

a volunteer program14. 

All implementers employ some variation of the approach used by POA for host strategic 

planning (see box). WI does not prepare host strategic plans, per se, in an effort to 

reduce the paper flow. Rather, the host strategic plans are incorporated into the SOW of 

each volunteer assignment. Where there are multiple volunteer assignments for the 

same host, WI uses annual action plans for the host that serve the same purpose as 

host strategic plans. LOL works through local partners who play major roles in the 

selection of hosts and in the development of their hosts’ strategic plans. 

CNFA has integrated its Planning Matrix into an FtF Integrated Project Design and 

Evaluation System (IPDES) to ensure consideration of strategic issues (such as 

alignment with USAID Country Strategies) all the way down to management and 

evaluation of individual hosts and volunteer assignments. Working closely with the 

proposed hosts, CNFA develops a Host Profile and Project Strategy for each proposed 

volunteer assignment. Because of the importance of host commitment to work with 

volunteers, if positive impacts are to be achieved, CNFA requires hosts—all participating 

members, not just one or two leaders—to confirm commitment and buy in to the 

proposed Project Strategy. An example of a CNFA Host Project Profile for Moldova is 

found in Annex B.

 

14 This may have the undesirable side effect of discouraging organizations from submitting proposals, 

because of the time and expense associated with preparing proposals (unless they are confident of 

winning).
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 51

Key recommendations

The POA host strategic planning process (see box above) illustrates the basic 

elements of good practice in planning host projects. These generally require that the 

host strategic plan:

♦ Be developed through participatory planning processes in full collaboration with 

partners and host organizations.

♦ Describe the context for work with the host, notably the characteristics of the host 

organizations, its objectives/prospects, and how volunteers will assist in the 

realization of those objectives.

♦ Specify the tasks for which volunteers are required, the skills needed, timing, and 

any other inputs or resources to be provided by the volunteer or the implementer.

♦ Indicate the contributions of resources expected from partners and hosts for the 

realization of the host organization plans and the success of the volunteer 

assignments.

POA: The Host Strategic Planning Process

The planning process begins with a dialogue between Field Coordinators, the producers desiring 

assistance, and any other key stakeholders. Needs are analyzed, problems defined, and steps to 

solve the problems are spelled out. The host strategic plan is a guide for all involved in 

implementation of the project and serves as the basis for monitoring and evaluating the activity. 

The plan covers host background and a host project design. As volunteer assignments are 

defined and negotiated, they become a part of the plan, as do ongoing monitoring and evaluation 

reports. The plan is maintained during the life of the host project and becomes the most important 

source of information about the project. The host strategic plans are structured as follows:

• Background Information. Agro ecological conditions.

• Participant Group (Host) Information. Who they are, what they grow, and the type of 

assistance they need.

• Special Conditions. Local organizations providing complementary support.

• Host Project Design. FtF projects are designed using a logical framework model that clearly 

states what the project wants to achieve and how it plans to do so. All involved in the project 

must agree upon the host project design. This document, like a contract, specifies what is to 

be done and what conditions will exist when the project is completed. Elements of the 

logframe are described earlier.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 52

SECTION 3: DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING 

VOLUNTEER ASSIGNMENTS

This Section focuses on the core element of an international volunteer program—

developing good scopes of work (SOWs) and finding the right volunteers to fill these 

assignments. The preceding chapter explains how planning at many levels and by many 

organizations are a precursor to good SOWs. If the SOWS are not clear and with 

sufficient detail, the recruiters cannot seek the appropriate volunteers. With good SOWs 

in hand, the recruiters seek U.S. volunteers who have appropriate skills and a 

willingness to serve at the desired time. Emphasizing not only the importance of peopleto-people exchanges, but measurable development impact, increases the burdens on 

the volunteer program implementing agency. This burden is more than justified by better 

assignments, for both the volunteers and the clients.

To achieve greater impact, FtF program implementers increasingly encourage past 

volunteers to volunteer again for new assignments, thus making use of ”master” 

volunteers with established track records, experience in international travel and work, 

and familiarity with specific subjects, commodities, and/or geographic areas. In addition, 

implementing agencies must give greater attention to providing technical information and 

other complementary inputs before, during, and after volunteer assignments to help 

ensure impact. Finally, debriefing and reporting at the conclusion of volunteer 

assignments are more than just formalities as the results may require adjustments in 

program and project plans as well as providing a basis for monitoring impacts. This 

section discusses:

• Preparing volunteer scopes of work (SOWs) 

• Volunteer recruitment

• Volunteer orientation

• Volunteer logistics and technical support

• Providing complementary support services to hosts 

• Volunteer program structure and staffing 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 53

3.1 PREPARING VOLUNTEER SCOPES OF WORK

The SOW is a description of the services that will be required by the host organization 

and the skills and experience that volunteers will need for the assignment15. The SOWs 

may also include background on the subsector and host project, relating the specific 

volunteer assignment to the project strategy and plan. Some implementers combine host 

strategic plans with SOWs to provide a more complete context for the assignment. The 

SOW may also identify complementary inputs that are forthcoming from the host and 

other partners. Finally, the SOW identifies the results anticipated from the assignment. 

Implementers use various terms to refer to the SOW, including “terms of reference” and 

“volunteer assignment form.”

Why is the preparation of SOWs important?

SOWs translate program and project plans into specific tasks for volunteers. Ideally, as 

with project planning, there should be a high degree of participation by both the 

implementing agency and host organizations in the preparation of SOWs.

The SOWs document the understandings reached among the parties involved, namely 

the host organization, partners, and the program implementer. The clearer the SOW can 

be in terms of specifying who, what, where, when, why, and how, the easier it will be to 

recruit for the volunteer assignment, guide the volunteer once on the job, and finally 

assess the success of the volunteer assignment. The process of approving a SOW also 

clarifies the roles of the funding agency, the implementing agency, partners (both local 

and in the U.S.), and the hosts in making the assignment a success. 

Major issues in preparing SOWs

Participation: To what extent should partners, hosts, donors, volunteers (current, 

former and prospective), and home office recruiters be involved in the preparation of 

SOWs? There is general agreement that there should be broad consultation on SOWs, 

but the extent of participation varies significantly. Hosts in particular should be involved 

in the preparation of SOWs, and virtually all implementers at a minimum should consult 

with hosts and partners in this process. In general the implementer’s field staff are in the 

best position to determine who needs to participate and how extensively. Most FtF 

implementers feel strongly that field staff should take the lead and facilitate reaching a 

consensus on each SOW. Hosts should be involved in the development of the SOW, but 

should not write them on their own because of the tendency to include too many tasks 

and expectations. Above all, it is important to limit SOWs to a do-able set of tasks and 

avoid unrealistic expectations. Home office recruiters need not be involved in the drafting 

of the SOW if their inputs are reflected already in the subsector plan. 

 

15 An example of a SOW is included as Annex C.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 54

Scope of the SOW: How much information should be included in the SOWs? 

Experience from FtF programs suggests that good SOWs are clear, informative about 

the host, and provide structure to the assignment. In addition to providing basic 

information about the country, the community, the problem to be solved (or opportunity 

to be seized), the SOWs should clearly specify what is expected from both the host 

organization and any partners whose inputs are critical to the success of the mission. 

This includes host contributions of staff time, transport, accommodation, translators, and 

financial assistance to the mission. Further, the SOWs can indicate sources of 

information that might significantly enhance the effectiveness of an assignment. Most 

importantly, the SOW should not ask for superman or superwoman. The recruiter will not 

know where to begin and end the search. The qualities of the “perfect” volunteer should 

be prioritized so that the recruiter knows what qualities are essential, what are important, 

and what would be nice but not required. 

Current practices in preparing volunteer SOWs

All implementers use variations of a fairly standard procedure for preparing SOWs in 

country (see box). Assuming a proposed assignment falls within a subsector project 

plan, SOW preparation should not be a complex process. Ideally, a request for a 

volunteer should be at the initiative of the host, perhaps in the form of a draft SOW. 

Volunteer program country staff might provide hosts with the required format (possibly 

as a form to be completed) and samples of SOWs. Program country staff might have a 

workshop on SOW preparation for host organizations at the initiation of a new phase of 

the volunteer program in a country; and provide briefings for new hosts that are added 

as time goes on. 

 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 55

PREPARING SCOPES OF WORK (CNFA)

CNFA field staff, in consultation with hosts and any partner organizations, produces a SOW for 

each volunteer assignment. The SOW confirms the objectives of the assignment (originally listed 

in the Project Strategy), summarizes how the assignment is expected to translate into an increase 

in income, specifies the volunteer qualifications desired for the assignment, and reviews the 

anticipated itinerary and logistical arrangements (volunteer lodging and transportation, etc.) for 

the assignment: 

1. Title of Assignment, with proposed dates and objectives.

2. Desired Qualifications of Volunteer.

3. Issue Description (detailed description of the problems that the volunteer will address). 

4. Desired Impacts (usually copied from the Project Strategy). 

5. Background Update (information supplemental to that contained in the Project Strategy 

that will be valuable to the volunteer in executing the assignment, e.g., a summary of the 

results of previous assignments on the project since the PS was written). 

6. Assignment Itinerary (day-by-day work plan for the volunteer’s time in country). 

7. Lodging (where the volunteer will be staying during the assignment, including address, 

phone numbers and e-mail addresses as appropriate; if the volunteer will be staying with 

a host family, relevant information about the family). 

8. Recommended Preparations (any preparations the volunteer should make in order to 

maximize effectiveness during the assignment, including preparation of training materials 

or familiarization with training materials available from and recommended for use by the 

field office; describes equipment available for the volunteer’s use, such as copiers, 

laptops, projection equipment).

9. Project Contacts (contact information for Washington and in-country program staff, 

project hosts, and previous volunteers who have worked on the project). 

After SOWs are prepared and cleared by a field office, they go to the implementer’s 

head office for further review. ACDI/VOCA allows up to three working days for review of 

SOWs and fine-tuning between Field Representatives and Project Coordinator at 

headquarters. Approved SOWs are then sent to recruiters for action. Once one or more 

suitable volunteers are located, they are provided with copies of the SOW, which serve 

to initiate a dialogue between the volunteer and the implementing agency—or even 

directly with host and partner organizations—in preparation for the assignment. 

Draft SOWs should be reviewed in an expeditious manner by all levels of the volunteer 

program implementing organization to make sure that they are complete and conform to 

project planning documents. In the rare instances that a SOW is outside of the priority 

areas specified in planning documents, the SOW needs to give reference to documents 

that support such a deviation. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 56

Key recommendations

♦ Develop draft SOWs in consultation with hosts, partners, and the recruiter. Have 

implementer country staff finalize the SOW to ensure that it is clear, informative 

about the host’s strengths, weaknesses, and context, and reasonable.

♦ Include in the SOW the expected or promised contributions from host and partner 

organizations.

♦ Prepare weekly schedules of activities that the volunteer should accomplish.

♦ Use a checklist to ensure that SOWs include all the background and logistical 

information needed by the volunteer.

♦ Establish guidelines for prompt review and approvals of SOWs by the implementing 

organization (including the recruiters) to facilitate recruiting and timely fielding of 

volunteers.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 57

3.2 VOLUNTEER RECRUITMENT

Volunteers form the centerpiece of international volunteer programs, providing the high 

quality services and specialized skills that, in turn, directly translate into measurable 

improvements in the lives of millions of people across the globe. Volunteers have 

contributed an estimated $34 million worth of time and services toward development 

efforts over the life of the FtF program. 

Databases 

The electronic database is the primary tool used by recruiters to fill a position described 

in a SOW that comes in from the field. All implementers maintain large and sophisticated 

computerized inventories of contact information on potential volunteers. Such databases 

typically include names of technical specialists proficient in various fields, individuals 

who have expressed an interest in volunteering, and past and current volunteers. 

Databases are searchable by specific skills or other criteria. Recruiters that maintain the 

volunteer databases verify information with employers and other references. Some 

implementing agencies have databases that include information on the status of 

volunteers’ travel vouchers and impact from the volunteers’ assignments. An 

organization must budget for sufficient resources to make sure that the database is 

diverse, extensive, and has purged outdated entries. An example of the data found in 

the ACDI/VOCA volunteer database is found in Annex D.

Why is volunteer recruitment important?

The success of any given assignment is largely a function of the quality of the volunteer. 

Building institutional capacity or influencing overall subsector development typically 

requires the aggregate efforts of a series of effective volunteers working in tandem with 

local partners and other development programs. 

Major issues in volunteer recruitment

Balancing the use of new volunteers with "experienced" volunteers: USAID's 

increased emphasis on impacts makes recruiting volunteers with established track 

records much more attractive, since they can be counted on to “deliver” for the host. 

However, it is neither desirable nor possible to rely primarily on “master’ volunteers. This 

detracts from the objective of exposing significant numbers of Americans to other 

countries, cultures, and development issues. It also limits the range of skills and ideas 

brought to a volunteer program. 

Recruiting specialized skills: Finding volunteers with some types of skills is very 

challenging and requires creativity. For example, it is difficult to recruit volunteers with 

expertise in seed certification. Apparently the few qualified people in the U.S. are in 

great demand domestically and therefore are generally not available for volunteering 

abroad. Successful recruiters put themselves in the shoes of the volunteers, and make 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 58

appeals to things that would be of interest to them, such as travel to new countries to 

gain new insights related to their fields of expertise and interest. Recruiting tools are 

discussed below. 

Increasing participation of women and minorities: Women and minorities are 

underrepresented in most international volunteer programs (about 30 percent of FtF 

volunteers have been women). While there are several reasons for this, efforts can and 

should be made to increase their participation. Targeted recruitment may help to reach 

larger numbers of potential women and minority volunteers. The inclusion of minorityserving institutions (MSIs) as either lead- or sub-contractors is one way to increase 

access to potential volunteers from minority communities.

Using volunteers from third countries: While most U.S. volunteer programs are 

intended to provide opportunities for U.S. citizens to volunteer, FtF and other programs 

have had quite positive experiences with third country volunteers. U.S. volunteers can 

be hard to find in some skill areas, such as those involving labor intensive technologies 

or language skills that are difficult to find in the U.S. In the later case, it may make 

sense, for example, to have French-speaking Africans volunteer in Guinea, for example. 

Having at least a limited provision for use of third country volunteers can be useful. Even 

the FtF Program can use non-U.S. volunteers on an exceptional basis, with prior 

approval from USAID. 

Targeting types of volunteers: Should recruiters target retired persons? Young, recent 

graduates? Business people? Scientists? Government and university staff? Recruiters 

are always seeking volunteers who can produce results and are current in their areas of 

specialization. In the past, most volunteers were retired people, but this is changing with 

more professionally active and younger people participating in volunteer programs. 

Professionally active people see the benefits for themselves in participating in volunteer 

programs. Sometimes their employers encourage them to do volunteer work. Other 

times the volunteers realize that they can broaden their own experience and knowledge 

base by volunteering. Some volunteers are professional consultants who take a 

volunteer assignment to develop new experience and contacts for future paid 

consultancies. Volunteers come from business, government, and educational 

institutions. The relative suitability of these as sources depends very much on the 

requirements of the specific assignments. 

Who make the best volunteers? Experience has shown that the most effective 

volunteers typically have at least several years of experience in their respective fields, 

are still practicing in such areas, and have some overseas experience. Active private 

sector business people are highly sought after as volunteers. Recruiters usually check 

several references for each volunteer. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 59

Current practices in recruiting volunteers

The set of recruiting practices utilized by FtF implementers is impressive. As noted in the 

2003 FtF Evaluation, "from the perspective of the PVO field staff and the host 

organizations, the recruitment process for volunteers is a stunning success." 

The recruiter is the key link to the volunteer before and after the assignment. Following 

the assignment the recruiter maintains contact with volunteers to get them to complete 

reports, as required, and facilitates their involvement in post-assignment outreach 

activities. Most, if not all, implementing agencies utilize in-house recruiters. The 

advantage of this is that in-house recruiters with ongoing responsibilities for individual 

projects will usually have considerable experience with projects and may have visited 

the field site for the assignment. This adds up to better understanding of the history, 

needs, and details of assignments and results in the in-house recruiter being better 

equipped and motivated to identify and place suitable volunteer candidates.

Recruiters use a wide variety of methods, depending on their locations in the U.S., the 

type of expertise needed, and the nature of the assignment for which they are recruiting. 

If an assignment requires highly specialized skills, a good way to identify a suitable 

volunteer is to contact other known experts in the field and seek their recommendations. 

Use of former volunteers who are connected to professional networks in the U.S. to 

recruit colleagues is particularly cost effective. More generic recruiting methods, on the 

other hand, are effective for less specialized assignments. 

Experienced recruiters can recruit simultaneously for many diverse assignments. New 

recruiters usually work best by initially being focused on just a few fields of expertise. 

Over the years, FtF implementing agencies have refined approaches to volunteer 

recruitment and tailored these to their individual needs. Recruitment actions fall into two 

key categories: 1) identification of potential volunteers; and 2) final selection.

Identifying potential volunteers: Implementers employ a variety of methods to identify 

qualified candidates for volunteer assignments, and add their information to the 

database. Such methods include: 

• Targeted recruitment. All implementing agencies draw on their extensive networks of 

business and professional relationships and seek assistance with volunteer 

recruitment through contacts with a variety of organizations—business groups, 

volunteer organizations, colleges and universities, professional associations and 

clubs, cooperatives, and scientific organizations. Specific targeting for recruitment of 

women and minorities is pursued through collaborative arrangements with MSIs.

• In-house recruitment. When possible, implementers utilize their own resources –

employees, retirees, and other affiliated persons – to fill volunteer positions.

• Repeat volunteers. Implementers often recruit past volunteers and, through them 

solicit additional references and recommendations. Volunteers who have completed 

multiple assignments seem to enjoy the work and do well in their assignments. They 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 60

are often a fruitful source of recommendations for recruiters, as they understand 

program needs and can recommend colleagues with relevant expertise for future 

assignments. Implementers need to make special efforts to maintain contacts with 

effective volunteers. Likewise, prudence dictates the need to flag files of volunteers 

that have not performed well. 

• World Wide Web. Implementers advertise volunteer opportunities on their own web 

sites (with links to online application forms), as well as on-line newsletters, and 

general volunteer recruitment websites (e.g., Volunteers for Prosperity, USA 

Freedom Corps, Idealist, VolunteerMatch, ServeNet). When appropriate, 

implementers advertise volunteer positions on specialized (i.e., agricultural and 

agribusiness-related) email list serves. 

• Special events, conferences, and fairs. Implementers occasionally attend various 

conferences, fairs, and other special events to publicize volunteer program 

opportunities and to collect resumes of interested candidates.

• Economies of scale in recruiting volunteers. An experienced recruiter with a good 

database can be expected to recruit 40-60 volunteers per year. One recruiter finds 

and processes about 80 people per year. A new recruiter without a good database 

may have trouble recruiting more than ten the first year. To foster the success of 

such new recruiters, recruiting organizations should help them to focus on finalizing 

the recruitment of just a few volunteers. 

Final selection: Implementers typically screen all prospective volunteers by having a 

recruiter interview them prior to assignment nomination. The recruiter generally submits 

several volunteer nominations to the field representative and host organization to allow 

them to assess how well candidates’ expertise and availability match the needs and 

objectives of the project and host. Often three to four volunteer resumes are provided for 

each proposed assignment. The reaction of local staff and the host to the resumes is a 

key factor in the final selection decision. 

Close communication and coordination is essential during the final selection process to 

ensure that all questions and concerns about scopes of work and specific needs of 

assignments are addressed. Occasionally there is a clear trade-off between finding the 

perfect volunteer and fielding a volunteer on a timely basis to meet needs of the host. 

This is particularly true if a planting season cannot be missed, or a deadline for filling an 

export order looms. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 61

Key recommendations

♦ Develop an extensive network of contacts in organizations, trade groups, and 

communities relevant to recruitment of volunteers with qualifications needed for the 

programs. 

♦ Maintain a good database and network of returned volunteers to assist in developing 

additional contacts in relevant technical areas and in planning future programs and 

assignments.

♦ Consider supply as well as demand when planning volunteer programs. Selection of 

subsector program areas must take into account the availability of volunteers in 

relevant fields. Experienced recruiters can provide feedback on the availability of 

volunteers in different areas fairly quickly and consultation with them should be part 

of the program planning process.

♦ Set targets for increased participation of women and minorities. Inclusion of MSIs, as 

sub-contractors increases access to potential volunteers from minority communities. 

♦ Maintain a mix of experienced and new volunteers.

♦ Develop linkages with other volunteer program implementers to share information 

and contacts for volunteer recruitment. While this is a challenge because 

organizations usually guard closely their list of contacts, most organizations are 

happy to cooperate once a relationship of trust and reciprocity is established. 

♦ Where funding criteria permits, consider accessing some specialized volunteers 

services from non-U.S. countries. U.S. volunteer programs might explore partnership 

arrangements with volunteer programs and organizations in other countries. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 62

3.3 VOLUNTEER ORIENTATION

Volunteer orientation encompasses a range of activities that facilitate a successful 

assignment, including information about travel, the country, and the organizations and 

individuals with whom the volunteer will work, as well as the specific tasks of the 

assignment. The orientation process begins as part of volunteer recruitment and extends 

through the initial days of their arrival in the host country. 

Why is volunteer orientation important?

The more informed volunteers are about what they are getting themselves into, the 

better equipped they will be to make their assignment successful both for the host as 

well as for themselves. 

Major issues in volunteer orientation

What and how much information to supply: Some volunteers desire large amounts of 

information while others have difficulty absorbing even modest amounts. Some 

information, including that related to health and travel safety, is essential for all 

volunteers. Volunteers also must be aware of the basic requirements of their 

assignments so that they can adequately prepare themselves. Beyond that, the supply 

of information becomes progressively “demand driven”, depending on the time and 

interest of individual volunteers. A flexible response capacity that links volunteers directly 

to partners and hosts early on can be very effective, although this may not be 

appropriate in some cases, as with inexperienced hosts or very complex situations 

where the volunteer will need time to understand the operating environment.

Who should orient new volunteers: Some implementing agencies have their recruiters 

do the orientations. This provides a personal touch to the experience. The alternative is 

to have a specialist in logistics take over after the person has been recruited. This is 

seen as being a more efficient division of labor and expertise. Former volunteers who 

have worked with the same host organizations can be particularly helpful to the new 

volunteer. Once the volunteer is ready to find out about the specifics of the assignment, 

then the recruiter should put the new volunteer into direct contact with local partners and 

host organizations 

Current practices in orienting volunteers

Even though people learn in different ways and at different rates, it is more efficient for 

the implementing agency to have a comprehensive set of orientation materials to cover 

as many of the volunteers’ potential questions as is possible.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 63

Orientation coverage: 

In the FtF program, implementing agencies generally provide the volunteer with an 

orientation package that contains information relating to living conditions in the host 

country, health, safety, and travel. The briefing also reminds the volunteer that while they 

can do what they want in their free time, they must make sure that their activities are 

perceived as being a good reflection on their funding agency—the U.S. government. 

Therefore, the volunteer must be aware of restrictions on religious proselytizing, political 

activities, illegal activities, and the appearance of professional conflicts of interest. 

However, beyond this essential information, the orientation process should become 

progressively demand-driven and should avoid information overload.

Volunteer orientation materials may be categorized as project materials and country and 

travel materials (see table). Some implementers provide the orientation information in 

stages, with the more general material preceding the more specific documentation on 

the assignment. Others provide the information all at once. The orientation materials 

come from a variety of sources, including the recruiter, the home office, and in-country 

staff upon the volunteer’s arrival.

Table: Orientation Materials Provided to FtF Volunteers by Current Program Implementers

Project Materials Country and Travel Materials

 ̧ Letter of Agreement

 ̧ Confirmation of dates of assignments

 ̧ Overview of the agricultural sector in the 

country

 ̧ Scope of Work and related details 

concerning the assignment

 ̧ Final report guidelines

 ̧ Expense report instructions

 ̧ Information on the implementing agency

 ̧ Information about the Farmer-to-Farmer 

program, background and goals

 ̧ Host organization profile

 ̧ Specific project information, including 

strategy, background, and trip reports from 

past exchanges

 ̧ An explanation of the specific outputs 

expected from the assignment

 ̧ Project Impact Assessments from previous 

years

 ̧ Media kits

 ̧ Donor materials to explain the overall 

program and the role of volunteers in 

development of the host country

 ̧ Information on visas, as necessary

 ̧ Information on required immunizations

 ̧ IRS tax forms

 ̧ Medical clearance documentation

 ̧ Information on the country in which the 

assignment will take place (geography, 

history, government and political structure, 

culture, etc.)

 ̧ Information on entry and exit requirements, 

as well as safety and security

 ̧ Area maps 

 ̧ Contact information and staff list (both D.C. 

and in-country)

 ̧ Business card information

 ̧ Evacuation insurance information

 ̧ Hotel or other lodging contacts

 ̧ A language primer
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 64

Examples of orientation materials used by LOL (Zambia) and ACDI/VOCA (Kenya) are 

found in Annex E.

Pre-recruitment orientation: Orientation really begins during the recruitment process, 

since all potential candidates require information about the assignment prior to reaching 

a decision on participation. Recruiters often supply potential volunteers with copies of 

the SOWs, which contain a fair amount of information about the program, project 

strategies and objectives, and the host organization as well as the specific requirements 

of the assignment. 

Pre-departure orientation: To ensure that volunteers fully understand the orientation 

materials, some implementers provide personal briefings with volunteers prior to their 

departure. Others place follow-up telephone calls with volunteers to discuss 

administration, logistics, or technical aspects of the assignments. Some organizations 

put volunteers in direct contact with field offices and returned volunteers. New volunteers 

are normally provided with copies of past assignment completion reports that can serve 

as starting points for communications with former participants. Frequent correspondence 

by telephone, email, and fax increases the overall comfort level of the volunteer and 

ultimately makes the assignment more productive.

Networks of individual volunteers: Connecting volunteers with those who have “been 

there” have proven to be a valuable tool in preparing volunteers for assignments, 

especially when returned volunteers have worked with the same or similar hosts. FtF 

implementers frequently provide new volunteers with trip reports and encourage them to 

get in touch with previous volunteers for additional information about the host 

organizations, their needs, and progress to date. 

Pre-departure contacts with hosts: The implementing agency may relay questions 

from the volunteer through its recruiter or project coordinator to the host organization or 

put the volunteer in direct contact with program field staff for any additional 

communication prior to departure. Where appropriate, FtF implementers may also 

encourage direct communication between the volunteer and the host organization via 

the project coordinator and in-country manager. 

Encouraging self-orientation: Volunteers can be provided with a list of references in 

case they would like to acquire more information relevant to their assignment. Excellent 

web-based search engines have lessened the need for implementing partners to provide 

references. Implementing agencies should encourage self-orientation, and monitor this 

to make sure that the volunteers are getting accurate and complete information.

Maintaining a 'frequently-asked-questions' list: Implementers may be well served by 

keeping track of commonly asked questions and ensure that these are adequately 

addressed in standard orientation materials. 

In country orientation: New volunteers should be met at the airport by the local 

representative of the implementing agency, and possibly the host. They might also meet 

with donor agency staff, appropriate government officials, and others who can provide a 

useful context to the assignment. Volunteers and hosts who have been previously 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 65

involved in the FtF program might be able to hook up immediately upon arrival in country 

and get to work. 

Since the ACDI/VOCA Russia program has a large volume of volunteer assignments, 

the in-country office generally tries to schedule volunteer travel so that joint in-briefings 

for new volunteers can be held on Mondays and exit briefings can be held on Fridays. 

This saves time for the country office and provides for more thorough briefings, as well 

as giving the volunteers an opportunity to share experiences and understanding of the 

larger country context.

Preparing the host organizations: Volunteers are routinely briefed on how the host 

country conducts business and on local culture. Volunteers have also requested that 

host organizations be given a clear understanding of the role of the volunteer. Briefing 

hosts on the culture and expectations of the U.S. volunteer can help make assignments 

much more fruitful. Volunteers that have completed their assignments can be enlisted to 

help develop new SOWs for future volunteers, and even work with future hosts to make 

sure they are prepared to make effective use of a volunteer. This might include 

confirming arrangements for adequate lodging and transportation, as well as for 

developing a plan to orient the new volunteer.

Debriefing volunteers and sharing information: All SOWs should require volunteers 

to prepare reports, at least in draft form, prior to their departures. Volunteers should be 

debriefed by program field staff on the basis of these draft assignment reports. In 

addition to recording the specifics of their accomplishments, volunteers should comment 

on the host's strategic plans and provide specific recommendations for SOWs for any 

future volunteers to work with the same hosts (or hosts in related areas). This is an 

opportunity for field staff and hosts to make adjustments to host strategic plans and 

subsector projects, as required. 

Such debriefings and final reports from volunteers are an effective means of ensuring 

that the lessons from each volunteer assignment are shared with the program 

implementer and available for use by partners, hosts, and future volunteers.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 66

Key recommendations

♦ Develop a set of orientation materials for volunteers covering the implementer's 

policies and logistical arrangements, project information, country conditions, and host 

needs. Update this material regularly based on experience with commonly asked 

questions and problems that volunteers experience.

♦ Provide volunteers with a packet of basic orientation materials covering issues of 

safety, logistics, policies, and the intended scope of work. 

♦ Make orientations demand driven. Provide supplemental orientation materials—

beyond the critical minimum information— as requested by the volunteer, thus 

minimizing paper and information over-load.

♦ Put potential volunteers in direct contact with country staff, country partners, returned 

volunteers, and hosts, where this is possible, to encourage a free flow of information.

♦ Keep volunteers informed of developments with regular communications to build 

their comfort level in knowing what is going on.

♦ Arrange pre-departure meetings or phone calls with volunteers to confirm key 

logistical information and answer last minute questions.

♦ Brief host organizations on the culture and expectations of American volunteers.

♦ Provide briefings in the host country after the arrival of a volunteer in collaboration 

with host organizations and partners.

♦ Conduct thorough exit briefings and use feedback from these to improve orientation 

sessions and project plans.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 67

3.4 VOLUNTEER LOGISTICAL AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

Implementing agencies and host organizations provide various services that greatly 

impact the effectiveness of volunteers. Logistical support includes transport, housing, 

translators, secretarial assistance, compensation arrangements, and other services. 

Technical support includes information, links to local technology programs, teaching 

aids, and equipment. 

Why are logistical and technical support services important?

Volunteers that are appropriately supported will have more time to focus on their 

assignments and will develop a better understanding of the host’s operating environment 

and constraints. Technical support can help volunteers adapt their technical knowledge 

and skills to local conditions and develop appropriate linkages to local technical support 

institutions. Such support is particularly important given the relatively short duration of 

many volunteer assignments. 

Major issues relating to technical support and complementary services

Volunteer perks: Most volunteer programs have eliminated “special perks” due to the 

poor image that it presents. This is true even for people who are accustomed to 

luxurious standards of travel. Most use the U.S. government travel regulations as their 

guide, and only pay a fraction of the lodging and expenses line items. Volunteer 

assignments are made attractive in other ways.

Nevertheless, short-term volunteers need adequate support to be productive and find 

enjoyment in their assignments. They are not interns and should not waste their valuable 

time arranging logistics and learning to survive “on the local economy.” Productivity 

depends on their staying healthy, feeling secure, being able to get adequate rest, and 

being shown respect. Failure to meet these needs risks success of the assignment and 

is likely to affect an agency’s ability to recruit volunteers in the future.

Lead responsibility for volunteer support: A major issue is what services should be 

provided by hosts and what should (must) come from the implementing agencies. 

Leaving aside cost considerations, hosts should contribute something to show interest 

and ownership in the volunteers’ efforts. Contributions from local partner and host 

organizations towards basic costs of fielding volunteers (cost sharing) should be 

welcomed, but in a form that allows field staff and volunteers to have effective control 

over the support services provided. While host organizations frequently arrange 

accommodations for the volunteers, some FtF implementing agencies have found that it 

is best not to make hosts responsible for either interpretation or transportation for 

volunteers, as assignments run more smoothly if the implementer and the volunteer 

retain control of these resources. Cash, rather than in-kind support is definitely preferred, 

although cash may be more difficult for hosts and partners to provide.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 68

Health and safety: A volunteer’s health and safety are the paramount concern. The 

implementing agency should make sure that it has a written set of procedures to handle 

emergency medical and other situations seven days a week, 24 hours per day. The 

volunteer should provide a set of emergency contact numbers that the implementing 

agency keeps secure but accessible. Back-up staff should be trained to handle 

emergencies when the primary contacts for the volunteers are not available. Upon arrival 

in country, a volunteer should receive a thorough briefing on health, security, and safety 

issues. Implementers must ensure that in-country staff, hosts, interpreters, and hotel 

staff avoid putting the volunteers in potentially dangerous situations—political rallies, 

high crime areas, war zones, etc. 

Implementers’ country offices must have ready contacts with hospitals and medical 

personnel to respond to any emergencies or health issues that arise. Traffic accidents 

are perhaps the greatest threat, requiring that implementers ensure that volunteers use 

safe vehicles with good drivers. Implementing agencies must also provide emergency 

health and evacuation insurance coverage for all volunteers.

Volunteer remuneration: Arrangements for covering volunteer’s costs vary with country 

conditions and implementer’s policies. The basic premise of FtF programs is that the 

program will cover all volunteer’s basic costs so that a volunteer does not have to use 

personal funds to accomplish the assignment. Some programs provide cash advances 

that are liquidated upon presentation of receipts. Others simply reimburse documented 

and approved expenses. Some programs simply provide a per diem. Others have the 

host or implementer’s local office provide food, lodging, and transportation. Common 

support costs for volunteers are listed in the accompanying box.

Encouraging spread of impact: Volunteer 

assignments often result in preparation of technical 

and training materials and recommendations for 

hosts. Getting them translated into the local 

languages can be expensive but worthwhile. 

Volunteer programs might well consider making 

such materials widely available to other entities in 

the subsector or industry as a means of enhancing 

the impacts of the volunteer program. This can 

become problematic in cases of proprietary 

information, requiring strategies to be worked out 

on a case-by-case basis.

Current practices in arranging logistical and technical support services

The guiding principle is that volunteers are provided with support that allows the 

volunteer to focus on accomplishing the assignment, not on logistics. However, 

volunteers assigned to places that need their services cannot expect to find all of the 

conveniences that they might find in the U.S. Even running water, continuous electricity, 

and air conditioning may be periodic or absent altogether. Current policies of the 

established FtF implementing agencies are shown in the Table.

Volunteer support costs:

• Pre-departure medical check-up, 

inoculations, malaria medication 

• Visa and passport

• Transportation

• Training materials, with versions 

in the local languages

• Computer and Internet access

• Translation services

• Food and lodging

• Health and emergency 

evacuation insurance
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 69

Table: FtF Implementers’ Policies on Per Diem and Other Volunteer Expenses

Per Diem: Meals/Incidentals (M&IE) and 

Lodging*

Other Expenses: Transport, Translation, 

Materials, etc.

ACDI/VOCA

ß Modified per diems rates average approximately 50% 

of USG maximum allowance. Lodging is reimbursed 

according to actual expenses.

ß M&IE is a flat rate and covers meals, laundry, and 

other incidentals. 

ß Volunteers receive M&IE for travel days; generally at 

the capital city rate plus $10 for meals (since airlines 

now make passengers pay for meals on planes). 

ß On occasion when a host family provides food and 

lodging, the volunteer will give a set amount to this 

family. 

ß Volunteers also receive a weekly 

telephone allowance -- $16/week for 

Kenya and Uganda. 

ß Other assignment-related expenses 

(such as printing/photocopying, 

equipment, work-related internet/phone 

usage, medicines, etc.) are reimbursed, 

if they allowable and reasonable. 

ß Expenses must be justified by receipts 

and pre-approval is generally required 

for large expenses (such as 

equipment). 

CNFA

ß Reimbursement to volunteers on actual cost basis. 

No firm rates are given, but volunteers are asked to 

stay within USG rates. 

ß For lodging, volunteers log the actual amounts spent.

ß Reimbursement to volunteers on an 

actual cost basis.

ß For M&IE costs, volunteer must keep 

records of expenses and submit them 

as part of their travel voucher. 

(Volunteers are not required to keep 

receipts.) 

Land O'Lakes

ß Per diem is different for all countries, but on average 

per diem is about 70% of the USG rate with a 

percentage of that subtracted (15% Breakfast, 25% 

Lunch, 40% Dinner) for meals provided by hosts.

ß About 90% of hosts cover lunch and most hotels 

include free breakfasts.

ß In Angola, the in-country partner covers all costs.

POA

ß Actual expenses are reimbursed up to maximum 

USG rate. However, host organizations and incountry collaborators cover many of these expenses. 

ß Volunteers turn in expense forms at the 

end of their trip (or Field Staff cover 

costs and submit these with their 

financial reports).

Winrock

ß Per diem is provided at a lower rate than USG 

maximum. The discount varies across countries and 

regions, but in the Central Asian Republics for 

example, the average is about 79% of the USG rates. 

ß Per diem levels are based on feedback from field 

staff and HQ staff experience during travels to the 

field. Rates are reassessed yearly, or when there are 

changes to the USG rates. 

 

* U.S. government (USG) per diem rates are found at: 

http://www.state.gov/m/a/als/prdm/.

Upon arrival in country, volunteers are briefed by the local staff and partner organization 

staff on logistical arrangements, country conditions, project background, assignment 

objectives, and (if applicable) what previous volunteers have accomplished. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 70

Implementers stay in touch with the volunteers throughout the assignment to monitor the 

assignment’s progress and address any problems.

Housing is a major logistical issue. “Home stays” in which the volunteer lives with a local 

host family are often great for providing opportunity for cross-cultural experience and 

learning, but can be difficult for both the volunteer and the host, as some hosts cannot 

afford the additional expense involved. Home stays should be arranged only if facilities 

and food arrangements are adequate and both parties are agreeable—or if there are no 

other alternatives. Hosts can frequently provide lodging in a local guesthouse or hotel, 

but again implementing agency field staff must ensure that facilities are safe and 

suitable. More up-scale hotels may be relatively expensive, but worth the price if they 

facilitate a productive and rewarding volunteer assignment.

Volunteers are provided with equipment necessary to carry out their assignment. 

Wherever possible, field offices offer volunteers the use of laptop computers, projectors, 

and VCRs for use on assignment, to do research over the Internet, and to write their final 

report. If at all possible, implementers arrange for the volunteers to have access to the 

Internet and e-mail services throughout their assignment. For security purposes, they 

may also be provided with a cell phone.

Volunteers are provided with interpreters, as necessary. Trained interpreters might 

escort the volunteers throughout the assignment and work with the volunteers and hosts 

in managing the assignment and reporting any problems back to the field office. 

Interviews with past FtF volunteers indicate that in most cases interpreters are very 

good. However, interpreters are often limited in their capability in technical vocabulary 

needed for specific projects (e.g., a banker and food technologist said they were 

hampered because interpreters were not familiar with terms), and arrangements must be 

made to help them develop necessary technical vocabulary. In their Russia program, 

ACDI/VOCA has found it important for its in-country office to check with volunteers after 

the first few days on assignment to see if translators, hosts, and volunteers are working 

well together. If problems are caught early, they can be rectified before the outcome of 

the assignment is jeopardized.

New information and communications technologies provide opportunities for better 

technical support of volunteer assignments. Resources include cell phones, web sites, 

CD ROMs, Research Centers, DVDs, and videos of lectures. Some implementers make 

training materials available to the volunteers for use on their assignments. Volunteers 

are also encouraged to develop or provide their own training materials (e.g., handouts, 

questionnaires, transparencies) early in their assignment to allow country staff adequate 

time for necessary translation and printing/preparation of materials for use by the 

volunteers. PowerPoint presentations, photographs, and educational videos are also 

encouraged. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 71

Key recommendations

♦ Be clear for volunteers what logistical and technical support they can expect to 

receive, and what they will need to provide. 

♦ Hold down costs where possible, but ensure adequate support to allow volunteers to 

be productive. On short-term assignments services of highly qualified volunteers can 

be wasted if they are not able to rest or work comfortably. 

♦ Obtain host and partner organization contributions to logistical and technical support 

for volunteers to the extent possible, but ensure that critical support (interpreters and 

transportation) is under the control of the volunteer and implementing agency.

♦ Ensure access to health and medical services for emergency and non-emergency 

needs of the volunteers. Obtain health and emergency evacuation insurance for 

volunteers.

♦ Provide email, internet, and computer support services to the extent possible.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 72

3.5 PROVIDING COMPLEMENTARY SUPPORT SERVICES TO 

HOSTS

Complementary services include such things as financial services (especially credit), 

equipment and infrastructure, input supply, database services (e.g. marketing and 

pricing information), marketing, and processing arrangements that make up the 

environment in which the host must operate. These services are important, but not within 

the scope or budget of the individual volunteer. 

Why are complementary services important?

Complementary support services encompass the range of resources host organizations 

need to operate effectively. A volunteer often recommends implicitly or explicitly that a 

host draw on such resources to implement the volunteer’s recommendations. Volunteers 

may be able to complete their assignments satisfactorily without these services, but they 

are often critical determinants of the level of impact from the volunteer assignment. For 

example, a volunteer in Ethiopia found that coffee cooperatives could dramatically 

increase their revenues and profits by selling through alternative marketing channels, but 

there was no impact from the volunteer’s work until external resources became available 

to put in place the new marketing arrangements.

Major issues relating to complementary services

Incentives: Volunteer programs often provide only a single input – short term, technical 

assistance – even though other inputs or complementary services may be the limiting 

factor for host innovation. Still, many argue that volunteer programs should scrupulously 

avoid direct involvement with providing or facilitating host access to other inputs (loans, 

inputs, grants, government programs), as this distorts the incentives for hosts requesting 

volunteer assignments. There is some concern that the demand for volunteers could 

increase to unmanageable and unproductive levels if volunteers are sought for their 

dollars, and not their brains. While the FtF legislation does not prohibit the financing of 

some materials in addition to technical assistance, the managers of the program 

generally find that extreme discretion should be used. 

Costs of additional support: Volunteer programs commonly have neither the mandate 

nor the resources to provide many complementary services. However, there is clearly 

value in helping the host obtain these complementary services and inputs, if they are 

part of the volunteer’s recommendations and essential to the achievement of the 

objectives of the assignment. If a volunteer program provides these complementary 

services, there will be fewer resources for new volunteer assignments. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 73

Current practices in arranging complementary services 

Providing more comprehensive support: With increased emphasis on impacts, 

implementers are spending more time arranging for complementary services as well as 

more creatively using their single input (volunteer assignments). Clustering of volunteers 

on one host and a selected subsector provides more comprehensive support for that 

subsector or host project. Subsector and host project planning must often commit 

partners or hosts to arrange for complementary services so that the objectives of the 

assignment can be met. If such services are not provided, then the implementing agency 

must be prepared to suspend or even terminate a project and shift volunteer slots to 

other projects. 

Field staff: Staff of the implementing agency stay in contact with host organizations 

before, during, and after assignments to encourage these agencies to make the 

necessary arrangements for complementary services necessary to the effectiveness of a 

volunteer assignment. Some key requirements may only be identified during the course 

of a volunteer assignment. These requirements help define future volunteer assignments 

as well as follow up actions required of the partner and host organizations.

Sustainable support services: Volunteers, with their fresh set of unbiased eyes, often 

identify individuals or groups with whom the host might work more closely, possibly 

providing access to needed complementary services.

Reverse volunteer program: Earlier FtF programs included funding for host 

organization staff to visit the U.S. (termed “reverse volunteer” travel). Such host travel 

often involved visits to the volunteer’s home institution (farm, cooperative, or business) 

and an opportunity to see volunteer recommendations put in practice. Even though 

reverse volunteer travel is often a very good idea and is not prohibited by the FtF 

legislation, it is not encouraged and current programs do not fund such travel. In part this 

is because the costs would reduce funding for sending U.S. volunteers abroad, and in 

part because USDA’s Cochran Program is available (in many countries) to provide 

agricultural visits in the U.S. Volunteer programs can often make arrangements for host 

visits to the U.S. by seeking funding from other sources.

Small grants: Some volunteers would like to have the ability to provide small grants 

(either in cash or in kind) to hosts to test or implement their recommendations (e.g., 

obtaining improved seeds, fertilized embryos, computer software, soil test kits, etc.).

While compelling arguments have been made in favor of such an arrangement, 

administering such a program must ensure that it does not turn into a grants program 

with volunteers as the afterthought. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 74

Key recommendations

♦ Consider the need for and sources of critical complementary services (financial, 

technical, infrastructure, seeds, measuring instruments, markets, software) when 

planning projects.

♦ Encourage partners and host organizations to obtain the necessary complementary 

support services and, where possible, include flexible funding in volunteer programs 

to provide complementary services when there is a clear case for them.

♦ Recruit in-country staff with the ability to provide follow up advice to hosts and to 

develop networks of hosts, partners, and service providers that can facilitate access 

to needed complementary services. 

♦ Provide volunteers with information on possible sources of funding for hosts to visit 

the U.S. as a complement to the U.S. volunteer travel abroad.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 75

3.6 PROGRAM STRUCTURE AND STAFFING

For a volunteer program to be efficient and effective, the implementing agency must 

have adequate capacity to handle the four stages of the volunteer program cycle—

notably contracting, planning, implementation, and evaluation. This requires the 

implementing agency to have an appropriate organizational structure and the right staff, 

both in the U.S. and abroad.

Why are structure and staffing important?

Good staff, good procedures, good systems, and a good chain of command increase the 

chances that volunteers will achieve results. The trick is to keep the cost of this 

overhead to the minimum necessary to accomplish the job. 

Major issues in program structure and staffing

Structure: What functions are most effectively carried out by staff in the U.S. and what 

can best be done by offices at the regional and country levels? The basic requirements 

for recruiting and sending volunteers to work in other countries for short periods of time 

dictates that implementers maintain offices and staff in both the U.S. and the 

regions/countries to which volunteers are going. Recruiting and predeparture orientation 

must be done in the U.S. Nearly all other volunteer program tasks can be decentralized 

to the regions and host countries16. 

Economies of scale suggest that it makes sense to have regional offices coordinate and 

support country offices where programs supply relatively small numbers of volunteers to 

several countries in the region. At least one staff person is necessary in every country 

(at least at the time volunteers are present), but regional offices can provide much of the 

planning, monitoring, and reporting support services required for the country programs. 

U.S. based program staff can be small, geographically dispersed and part time, but the 

different character of the tasks and skills needed (proposal development, recruiting, 

orientation, reporting, and public outreach) suggests that more than one individual is 

required, particularly if the implementer is operating in more than one region.

Staff skill mix: What is the appropriate mix of skills and number of staff required to 

manage volunteer programs at all levels (U.S., regional, country)? A combination, of 

technical, managerial, and people-to-people skills are required. As managers of 

resources, the staff need to be able to prepare annual plans, define interim targets, and 

 

16 The preparation of proposals and interactions with donor offices are qualified exceptions. U.S. staff 

typically does these with inputs from field staff.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 76

measure for results. In addition, given that many volunteer programs are increasingly 

emphasizing impacts, staff must have training in development theory and practice.

Some of the required tasks can (and should, as in the case of impact assessment) be 

contracted out to third parties, notably consultants and university staff. Implementers and 

donors are aware that increased efforts to monitor and report come at the expense of 

time and funding for fielding more volunteers. This trade-off needs to be monitored to 

make sure that the assumption remains valid, namely that a fewer number of fully 

successful volunteers is better than a greater number of more marginally successful 

volunteers.

FtF implementers indicate that they could best manage their programs with staff 

“possessing graduate degrees and experience in agriculture, economic development, 

and business education, as well as English language and highly-developed interpersonal 

skills.” However, practicalities and budgetary constraints dictate that implementers hire 

highly motivated college graduates with degrees in a single field relevant to the volunteer 

program and then provide them with on-the-job training required to design, manage, and 

assess projects. Few such people – foreign or American – start out with the analytical 

skills to perform rigorous technical analyses of projects. Implementers’ project document 

templates and management systems must be refined to provide step-by-step 

instructions that allow employees with little professional training to execute them 

effectively.

Division of labor with partners: What responsibilities can safely and effectively be 

undertaken by partners or host organizations? Participation by hosts and partners can 

improve the quality of a volunteer program and economize on the costs of fielding 

volunteers. There have been mixed results from use of local partners, host 

organizations, and volunteers (current and former) to perform functions normally the 

responsibility of the implementing agency. Some local partners, including international 

NGOs and development projects, are able to provide effective volunteer support 

services (e.g., transportation, translation, in-country orientations, etc.). However, 

services critical to success of volunteer assignments, especially travel, country logistics, 

and translation services, should not be left to chance. The implementing agency should 

do this itself or set up a formal contract to make sure that these services are performed 

well by a third party. 

Role of current and former volunteers: Former volunteers are often quite effective in 

assisting with recruitment, orientation, and public outreach activities. Current volunteers 

should be used very selectively and sparingly in performing staff functions, with the 

qualified exception of reviewing project and program plans as part of debriefing after 

their assignments. Expanding their role in other program management functions may 

detract from their ability to assist hosts and may place them in roles in which they are not 

qualified or where longer-term staff attention is needed.

Contracting out selected services: What functions are best contracted out to third 

parties (not assigned to implementers, hosts, partners, or volunteers)? In general, 

evaluations and ex post impact assessments should be contracted out to third parties, 

such as consultancy firms and research institutes in host countries to engage individuals 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 77

with the requisite expertise, ensure objectivity, and reduce even the appearance of a 

conflict of interest. 

Current practices in volunteer program structure and staffing

The basic organizational structure for FtF programs is similar for most implementers. 

The character of the program, namely the recruitment of volunteers from the U.S. to 

spend two or more weeks with carefully selected host organizations in developing 

countries largely defines the organizational structure as well as the staffing patterns. The 

U.S. based staff typically do not work full time on FtF. This reflects the fact that only a 

few recruiters produce 70-90 volunteers per year. The rest have smaller quotas that do 

not justify full time employment. 

Preparation of proposals and the initiation (or restarting) of field activities usually require 

the full time attention of one or more U.S. based staff for a relatively brief period of time. 

Other interactions with donors, including reporting, work plan approvals, and 

evaluations, can also consume significant amounts of staff time. Outside of those 

events, most of the stateside staff time is focused on fielding volunteers (recruiting and 

orientation) and to a lesser extent public outreach. In the FtF program, overhead cost of 

U.S. based staffed is relatively modest given the scope of their responsibilities.

Although there is considerable interaction between U.S. and field offices related to 

fielding volunteers, regional offices have, in varying degrees, a fair degree of autonomy 

to implement program plans. This makes sense from both financial and management 

perspectives. Country offices vary considerably depending on the size of the country 

program. ACDI/VOCA in Russia and the former WI program in Nigeria were both quite 

large and required full time staffs of several people. In contrast, countries hosting a 

dozen or fewer volunteers per year may rely on a single full time staff person. 

Winrock International’s Program in Central America

A regional manager based in Nicaragua supervises four FtF country offices to ensure a regional 

approach, to develop alliances, and to serve as country manager for Nicaragua. The Regional Manager 

assists in hiring and training regional field staff and assembles field reports for submission to USAID. 

The incumbent, a skilled project manager with 20 years experience in agricultural development, private 

business, and trade, also serves as Manager for a Nicaragua Technical Services to Small Farmers 

Project. He has developed business relationships and alliances with project organizations and 

international fresh fruit and vegetable buyers, has an MBA, and is well qualified to manage 

agribusiness trade capacity building activities.

FtF country managers in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras identify baselines, develop country 

work plans and performance targets, identify partners, host organizations, and other collaborators, 

assist in implementing volunteer assignments, monitor assignment and sector level results, validate 

sector and commodity chain assessments, and coordinate complementary resources and follow-up 

assistance to hosts. Country managers also identify and train key partner organizations to manage FtF 

field operations and prepare country reports. Country managers typically have degrees in technical 

agricultural fields and prior agribusiness experience.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 78

Regional and country offices are overwhelmingly staffed by host country nationals or 

people resident in the region. This makes sense given the high cost of having U.S. staff 

abroad, and the fact that local staff in most countries have the required skills, and can be 

trained in the paperwork processes. The accompanying examples (see boxes) illustrate 

two different models. WI’s program in Central America is a regional program that fields a 

relatively small numbers of volunteers for several countries. The second model is for a 

large program in a single country (Russia), implemented by a consortium of 

ACDI/VOCA, WI, and LOL17.

ACDI/VOCA, WI, and LOL Joint Program in Russia

The FtF Russia Consortium was formed to provide more responsibility and authority to the key program staff in 

Russia. Two Deputy Project Directors based in Moscow oversee regional field offices, client identification, scope 

of work development, volunteer selection, program logistics, and monitoring and evaluation. One works directly 

with the Novosibirsk office and one with a Saratov office. Each has specific technical expertise with one taking 

the lead on financial, educational, and association development projects and the other on agricultural production, 

processing, and technology transfer. 

Each Consortium member has staff with specialist knowledge of the agricultural sector, experience with donor 

programs, and/or project management. Many of these individuals have grown with the program over the last ten 

years and have been promoted into higher-level positions after demonstrating the ability to accept greater 

responsibility. Technical staffs in Moscow, Saratov, and Novosibirsk have responsibility for SOW development. 

Because of the time it takes to traverse Russia’s vast landmass to visit project sites, the consortium opened 

project offices in Saratov and Novosibirsk. Each has a regional program manager and five staff. A Moscow 

regional program manager is responsible for project implementation around Moscow. The regional offices 

coordinate daily through email and telephone with the Moscow office, which serves the central office for FtF 

Russia operations.

The Project Director and Deputy Project Directors provide strategic guidance on sector focus, client identification, 

feasibility of assignment tasks, and monitoring and evaluation. All SOWs are sent to Moscow for review, 

comment, revision, and approval. Most assignments are discussed with Deputy Project Directors prior to the 

drafting of a SOW. Regional field offices consult with Moscow on review of resumes for potential volunteers and 

provide volunteer assessments and other monitoring data to a Monitoring and Evaluation Coordinator in Moscow. 

The Moscow and regional offices coordinate extensively to ensure efficient volunteer logistics. All volunteers 

typically travel to Moscow first for a program briefing prior to travel to hosts in the various program regions. While 

coordinating with Moscow on all project planning, consultant selection, and logistics, the regional offices act 

independently to seek identify and develop host organizations and subsector opportunities in the region. 

The only expatriate staff member is the Project Director (PD), who serves as ACDI/VOCA’s Country 

Representative. The PD provides overall program coordination, develops program strategy, maintains liaison with 

donors, conducts selected de-briefings of volunteers, prepares program reports, and has signing authority for 

financial documents. The PD has final approval for all volunteer assignments and monitors performance of 

volunteers. The PD reviews all volunteer evaluations and scopes of work and handles unforeseen problems that 

may arise. (From ACDI/VOCA “Guide to Using Volunteers Effectively”.)

 

17 The WI and Russia Consortium descriptions are modified versions of documentation provided by WI and 

ACDI/VOCA respectively.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 79

Most ongoing FtF programs are regional in character and use management 

arrangements similar to those of the WI program in Central America. The notably 

exception is POA, which until recently operated almost exclusively through networks of 

volunteer-based partner organizations in the U.S. and throughout Latin America and the 

Caribbean. Cost is a major advantage of this model. Although POA continues to rely on 

networks of chapters in the U.S. for recruitment and outreach, the more demanding 

character of planning for and reporting on impacts has necessitated the engagement of 

professional staff in host countries.

Staffing: Significant economies of scale can be achieved in the staffing of programs 

both in the U.S. and in the field. The marginal costs in terms of staff time of fielding 

additional volunteers in a given country are low. Country field offices can generally be 

small and focus on facilitating volunteer assignments. Regional staff can perform key 

functions on behalf of various countries in a region, including most of those associated 

with planning as well as assembling and analyzing information needed for reporting. 

In order to avoid spreading themselves too thinly across several countries, some FtF 

implementers stagger activation of country programs. The implementers plan to send 

most volunteers to country A for the first two years and then shift the focus to country B 

for the final period. This makes sense from the perspective of the costs of operating 

country field offices. However, some program and project strategies require a flow of 

volunteers to selected hosts over a longer period of time for significant impact. Another 

approach is to have one volunteer work in a number of countries while out on 

assignment since problems tend to be similar in neighboring countries. Such trade-offs 

need to considered.

Key recommendations

♦ Ensure adequate U.S.-based staff to launch a volunteer program and put in place all 

necessary management systems—program design, recruiting, program support, and 

reporting. After home office systems are in place, home office staffing levels can be 

relatively modest. 

♦ Delegate responsibilities to country program offices to the extent possible. Provide 

training to country staff, especially in the area of reporting and documentation. 

♦ Recruit staff with the interpersonal and intercultural skills that are essential for 

working with volunteers and hosts and the technical and business skills needed for 

planning subsector and host projects and networking with partners and hosts. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 80

SECTION 4: ADDRESSING ADDITIONAL OBJECTIVES IN 

VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS FOCUSED ON ECONOMIC 

GROWTH

International volunteer programs invariably have multiple objectives. For FtF, these 

objectives include economic growth, poverty reduction, food security, gender, social 

equity, and environmental conservation. Further, all volunteer programs have major 

people-to-people exchange and public education dimensions. 

This section examines ways in which volunteer programs focused on economic growth 

can enhance their impacts on social and other objectives through careful selection of 

strategies, countries, subsectors, partners, and host organizations. In this section, the 

tradeoffs and implications for planning and implementing volunteer programs are 

discussed around the following topics: 

• Volunteer programs and poverty reduction, food security, and social equity

• Incorporating gender issues in volunteer programs

• Addressing environmental considerations 

• Public outreach activities in volunteer programs
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 81

4.1 VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS AND POVERTY REDUCTION, 

FOOD SECURITY, AND SOCIAL EQUITY

The challenge in running a volunteer program is to plan and implement so that 

disadvantaged groups with high rates of relative and absolute poverty and food 

insecurity share in the benefits of economic growth.

Why are social equity issues important?

Poverty reduction features prominently in the strategies of most development agencies 

and in the developing countries where volunteer programs operate. Poverty reduction is 

central to achieving the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations and the 

World Bank. Economic growth is generally regarded as the essential component of 

sustainable solutions to poverty and food security, but can either contribute to wider 

income inequalities or promote balanced development with wide participation in the 

benefits from growth. 

Proponents of economic growth-led solutions to poverty argue that there are major 

“trickle down” benefits for the poor in the form of employment and improvements in food 

availability. However, history suggests that these benefits are often highly skewed 

toward the less poor and may serve to increase social tensions, particularly in societies 

where poverty is endemic and civil society weak or nonexistent. Hence, an explicit 

concern for poverty reduction, food security, and social equity within the context of 

economic growth strategies (and by extension, in international volunteer programs) is 

generally recognized as desirable.

An additional consideration is the fact that volunteers and volunteer providing 

organizations—motivated by humanitarian goals—are usually oriented toward poverty 

reduction with the volunteers commonly donating their time specifically to help address 

problems of poverty. Donors too find it difficult to justify support for programs, including 

volunteer programs, if benefits accrue only to the wealthy (or relatively wealthy) or 

worsen the status of the poor.

Major issues relating to poverty reduction, food security and social equity

Since poverty reduction features prominently in most development strategies and in the 

motivation of volunteers, volunteer programs must explore options for contributing to 

poverty reduction.

Potential for impacts on poverty reduction: Three difficulties illustrate the challenges 

of having volunteers attempt to reduce acute poverty when their main focus is on 

economic growth. First, the poor tend to live on the edge and cannot afford to take on 

new risks inherent in many innovations. Second, the poor do not have the capital to take 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 82

on new investments. Lastly, suitable host organizations serving the very poor are often 

in short supply18. In the early days of FtF, volunteers often worked with small groups of 

resource-poor farmers. The experience was memorable for all concerned, but the lasting 

impacts on the host farmer groups were often limited or nonexistent. Farm families at 

this level are often unable to make good use of information and skills without 

complementary inputs, including capital and access to such things as improved seed 

and fertilizer. Impacts on poverty reduction, therefore, often require volunteer programs 

to arrange for access to complementary inputs (see Section 3.5 above), to strengthen 

intermediaries, or to target the not-so-poor. Building social capital to facilitate access to 

services for the poor is an important strategy for volunteer programs.

Ability to work with the poor: Volunteers are usually more successful with not-so-poor 

hosts (as distinct from both the relatively well-to-do and the poorest of the poor). The 

poor often have less education, less language ability, and less of the confidence needed 

to work with a foreign adviser. Direct contact between a volunteer and poor farmers may 

make for heart-warming stories and photo opportunities, but may not be the most 

efficient way to improve the lives of more than a handful of people. Except for those who 

are underemployed, many poor people are too busy working multiple jobs to attend 

training sessions conducted by a volunteer, especially those that cannot promise an 

immediate tangible increase in income. Not-so-poor hosts are in a position to listen, 

experiment, and invest some capital in new ideas. When volunteers work directly with 

the poor, the role of host and partner organizations and implementing agency field staff 

are critical to effectiveness.

Indirect impacts: Development programs can benefit the poor even without working 

with them directly. Work with financial institutions, input supply systems, extension 

services, and market systems improve services and markets for the poor. Work with 

private businesses can increase employment opportunities. These are often the most 

important impacts on poverty reduction.

Scaling up: How can a volunteer quickly get an in depth understanding of a given 

problem so that his/her recommendations are useful and can benefit a significant 

number of needy people? Reaching large numbers of beneficiaries is key to achieving 

significant impacts among these groups. The solution lies in the careful selection of 

partners and hosts, as well as in the identification of subsectors where the poor feature 

prominently. Strategies for wide dissemination of volunteer-induced innovation are 

particularly important. One such strategy is to work with hosts that are intermediaries 

providing services to the poor. Another strategy is for a volunteer to end an assignment 

with a host by holding a public seminar or workshop in which the recommendations can 

be shared with other businesses and organizations that can utilize the recommendations 

and reach more beneficiaries. 

 

18 The key word here is “suitable”. There are certainly many organizations serving the very poor, but it is 

often difficult for these organizations to utilize U.S. volunteers effectively. They often lack adequate 

resources to provide complementary inputs critical to the successful utilization of short-term training and 

advisory assistance of the type that volunteer programs can most readily provide. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 83

Impact of donor restrictions such as the Bumpers Amendment: How can programs 

maximize developmental effects of funding that is limited in its flexibility due to 

Congressional earmarks or Executive Branch directives? For example, the Bumpers 

Amendment requires that U.S. foreign assistance dollars not promote the production of 

commodities that directly and significantly compete with U.S. production in world trade. 

This issue is less of a problem than it might at first appear. While many of the 

commodities upon which poor people depend are the same ones that the U.S. exports 

(notably grains, fiber, and vegetables), the overwhelming bulk of production by resourcepoor farmers in developing countries does not enter international trade and, when it 

does, does not constitute significant competition with U.S. producers.

Volunteer program implementers should become familiar with all such restrictions on use 

of funds. As volunteer assignments are developed in the field, the implementers should 

review them through the optic of these restrictions and seek advice from donor offices if 

there are any questions.

Current practices in addressing poverty issues in volunteer programs

FtF implementers commonly make some reference to poverty reduction in their general 

strategies, but do not uniformly reflect the concern in selection of subsectors, partners, 

and host organizations. While poverty reduction, food security, and social equity are not 

explicit foci of most of the current set of FtF activities, two exceptions are described in 

the boxes below: 

FAMU/CNFA: South African Agricultural Development Project

The South African Agricultural Development Project (SAADP) provides business skills and farm 

management training to selected new owners of commercial farms in South Africa. The project 

goal is to increase income for new farm owners, generate additional employment, and promote 

general economic progress and reduced levels of food insecurity.

FAMU/CNFA SAADP will work with 28 farm groups over five years. Farmers in SAADP must be 

willing to contribute financially to their training by either buying some of the basic classroom 

supplies, providing housing for volunteers, or providing meals for participants. FAMU estimates 

that contributions will average US$ 100 per participating farm. Direct beneficiaries of training are 

expected to transfer their newly gained knowledge and skills to other farmers in their area. 

Large commercial enterprises have considerable potential to provide employment and 

other benefits for poor people (e.g. lower prices for goods and services as a result of 

improved efficiency and competition). Despite this potential, most FtF implementers 

avoid working with such firms, because they can afford to pay for any technical 

assistance they may require. But where these firms may not understand how their selfinterest can be served by providing services to the poor, sourcing goods or services from 

them, or using more environmentally sound technologies, FtF volunteers can provide 

useful insights and impact significantly on poverty. 

The experience of FtF programs over the years suggests that it is possible to incorporate 

poverty reduction concerns effectively into volunteer programs. Poverty and social 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 84

inequity are associated with a complex set of factors that are not easily overcome, 

particularly by a volunteer program. More time and effort (expense) is involved in 

selecting appropriate partners and hosts and the chances of success are commonly less 

than with programs that work primarily with the not-so-poor. Furthermore, an emphasis 

on measurable impacts and economic growth as the prime objective for volunteer 

programs tends to reduce interest among implementers in trying to incorporate poverty 

reduction concerns and objectives systematically in their programs.

Targeting poverty reduction usually involves working with associations or projects that 

are serving large numbers of resource-poor farmers (as illustrated by ACDI/VOCA’s 

work with cooperatives in Ethiopia). Even though volunteers providing training to the 

staff of the Cooperative Improvement Bureau in Ethiopia may have had little direct 

contact with poor farmers during their assignments, the benefits to those farmers were 

significant. The assistance helped transform inefficient socialist cooperatives into 

commercial operations that could function effectively in a free economy (see box). 

Generally, even when not working with the ultimate program beneficiaries, it is advisable 

for volunteers to visit some of this client group (e.g., small farmers) to better understand 

their needs and how intermediaries (e.g., credit, input supply, business development 

services, etc.) can best work with them.`

ACDI/VOCA: COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT IN ETHIOPIA

The FtF program in Ethiopia has been instrumental in developing primary cooperatives and 

cooperative unions based on free-market economic principles. Since 1994, ACDI/VOCA has seen 

the development of 2,068 primary societies that are professionally managed, economically viable, 

transparent, and sustainable rural businesses. Volunteers worked directly in Cooperative 

Promotion Bureaus established to facilitate cooperative development throughout Ethiopia.

The FtF program integrated into two USAID financed projects covering four regions of Ethiopia 

taught basic training-of-trainer courses to Ethiopian cooperative promoters on cooperative 

organization and management, book keeping and accounting; marketing, and cooperative credit. 

These promoters trained other cooperative promoters who in turn trained cooperative members. 

As the cooperative unions developed, farmers were able to realize higher prices for outputs and 

lower prices for inputs. Some benefits were passed on to members in the form of dividends, the 

first time in the history of cooperatives in the country that dividends have been paid to members.

Some implementers, notably POA, give priority attention to food production, processing, 

and marketing in their selection of programs and projects. Active participation of women 

and adherence to democratic principles are explicit criteria used by POA in selecting 

host organizations. 

The FtF program implementers generally use poverty reduction, food security, and social 

equity criteria (in addition to economic growth criteria) in the selection of subsector 

projects, local partners, and hosts. While it is not always possible to work directly with 

the poor on economic growth activities, at minimum, volunteer programs need to ensure 

that they are not subsidizing selected hosts at the expense of the poor and a competitive 

marketplace.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 85

Key recommendations

♦ Review government or donor strategy papers on poverty reduction for information 

priority on subsectors and partners that target poverty reduction. 

♦ Identify a short list of strong and effective partners and hosts that are directly 

associated with poverty reduction, food security, and/or social equity and that can 

use volunteers. Since effective poverty reduction commonly requires a range of 

complementary inputs, volunteer programs generally find it essential to partner with 

other organizations or projects that supply these services and have a strong record 

of accomplishment. 

♦ Identify projects and activities that effectively reach large numbers of beneficiaries 

indirectly. Often this will involve work with cooperatives and local organizations that 

are controlled by and serve large numbers of members.

♦ Identify projects that empower the poor through forming and strengthening 

associations and cooperative unions that serve the poor. Developing sustainable 

markets and market linkages—for input and output markets—is particularly important 

to empowering the poor. 

♦ Make volunteers aware, at least in a general sense, of poverty reduction objectives 

of their work, even if their assignments focus primarily on economic growth. At the 

end of an assignment, have the volunteers share their recommendations in a 

workshop that reaches beyond the immediate host.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 86

4.2 ADDRESSING GENDER CONSIDERATIONS

Gender issues and impacts need to be considered in volunteer programs, as in all 

economic growth programs. Although gender analysis considers impacts on both men 

and women, in practice, the concern is nearly always ensuring equitable participation 

and access to benefits by women. 

Why are gender considerations important?

Development programs must systematically consider the implications of gender for 

program impacts. Biases against women are pervasive in much of the world, as are 

differentiated roles between the sexes. Programs can have unintended negative impacts 

on women. For example, economic development has occasionally increased the gap 

between the status of women and men by introducing technologies and crops that 

require more labor (e.g. weeding, watering) from women while men control the profits 

from the increased yields. Benefit distribution is a key consideration for ensuring gender 

equity in development. Furthermore, it is not uncommon for development programs to 

fall short of their goals (e.g., improvements in health and education) specifically because 

women have not been permitted to participate fully in program design and 

implementation. 

Major issues related to gender

Gender analyses: Gender issues of social equity vary over time and place. Most but 

not all gender issues involve promoting equitable access by women and girls to program 

benefits. In the highlands of Nepal, the critical issues may relate to the inability of young 

girls to attend school due to their responsibilities at home and in agriculture, while in the 

UK, issues of unequal pay and conditions for women and men working in the same 

situation may predominate. Issues of gender can also be made more complex by related 

issues of ethnicity, caste, and class. Gender analyses are used to understand gender 

roles and potential differential impacts of development activities.

Partner and host commitment: Most partner and host organizations are willing to 

include women in program activities and employ some women. However, if a gender 

analysis indicates that participation and employment opportunities are not equitable, the 

implementing agency and volunteers should encourage local partners and hosts to take 

corrective action. This might be a concerted effort to recruit more women to attend 

training sessions, or it might require training directed at men to “give women permission” 

to be more actively involved in activities from which they were traditionally excluded. For 

example, women in West Africa were able to acquire the right to earn their own income 

for the first time when they began producing marketable surpluses of home garden 

vegetables. Since women are the primary care-givers to children, a larger proportion of 

their income went to improving the health and welfare of their children than did the men’s 

income. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 87

Equitable access to services: A major challenge is to make program services available 

to women. Men’s traditional roles seem to position them to participate in most 

development activities or programs. Women have traditional household and reproductive 

roles that limit their ability to participate in other activities. Gender analyses can help 

identify ways to make services more accessible to women. 

Current practices in considering gender in volunteer programs

A starting point for promoting gender equity in volunteer programs is the collection of 

gender-differentiated data, both on volunteers and hosts and beneficiaries. In the FtF 

program, data on volunteers and beneficiaries are broken down by gender. Most 

implementers consciously make an effort to consider gender and income levels in their 

selection of host organizations, giving preference to organizations where women occupy 

positions of authority and/or to those that are disproportionately serving or employing 

women.

CNFA Commitment to Gender Equity

CNFA accepts the promotion of equal opportunity and equal treatment of women as a high 

priority and works towards this goal in four ways in the FtF program:

• Employing women throughout the organization as program managers and coordinators

• Recruiting as many women volunteers as possible

• Favoring women owned or led host organizations 

• Actively encouraging host organizations to increase the number of women in training 

sessions, reaching 26 percent in FY 2002

Key recommendations

♦ Conduct an analysis of gender issues as part of planning for each subsector project, 

both as input to selecting subsectors and to identifying how training programs are to 

be structured (e.g. women with men in the same sessions, or in separate sessions). 

♦ Where women have been historically disadvantaged, set up activities that would help 

rectify the inequity. 

♦ Collect and report gender disaggregated data on program participation and benefits.

♦ Consider gender equity in recruiting and fielding volunteers and in selection of 

countries, subsectors, partner organizations, and host organizations.

♦ Arrange training and other programs for women at appropriate times and in 

appropriate places to facilitate their participation. For example, women may need 

childcare services, whereas men might not. Women may not be able to travel away 

from the community for training; and women may not be able to participate in 

program activities at certain times of the day or year.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 88

4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND NATURAL RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT ISSUES

Environmental and natural resource considerations feature in the policies of most 

developing countries and in the objectives of funding agencies. Economic 

activities impact on these resources and—as in the case of agriculture—may be 

completely dependent on and potentially deplete them.

Why are environmental and natural resource considerations important?

A healthy environment and the sustainable use of natural resources are essential 

to long-term economic growth. All U.S. government financed programs, including 

the FtF program, are obligated to comply with U.S. environmental regulations 

stipulating that the environment is to be safeguarded from adverse 

consequences in the implementation of all program activities. Volunteers are 

expected to consider the potential environmental consequences of their work and 

to promote active environmental stewardship. USAID's environmental guidelines 

require programs that it funds to:

• Ensure that the environmental consequences of USAID-financed activities 

are identified and considered by USAID and the host country prior to a final 

decision to proceed and that appropriate environmental safeguards are 

adopted;

• Assist developing countries to strengthen their capabilities to appreciate and 

effectively evaluate the potential environmental effects of proposed 

development strategies and projects, and to select, implement, and manage 

effective environmental programs;

• Identify impacts resulting from USAID's actions upon the environment, 

including those aspects of the biosphere which are the common and cultural 

heritage of all mankind; and

• Define environmental limiting factors that constrain development and 

identify and carry out activities that assist in restoring the renewable 

resource base on which sustained development depends.

Major environmental issues in volunteer programs

Relative priority for environmental activities: To what extent should implementing 

agencies be required to incorporate environmental and natural resource considerations 

into economic growth oriented volunteer projects and assignments? Increasing attention 

to environmental issues might lessen economic impacts on hosts and subsectors. 

However, environmental and natural resource conservation is often critical to long-term 

sustainability of most industries. Thus, many projects and assignments naturally address 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 89

these issues, although generally as a secondary objective. Natural resource 

management and environmental protection considerations can be appropriate as explicit 

criteria for selection of subsectors, partners, and hosts, and will likely yield positive 

results. Furthermore, sustainable conservation practices generally must also meet 

criteria of producing positive economic benefits, if they are to be adopted by hosts.

Monitoring environmental and NRM impacts: Implementing agencies must be able to 

identify how volunteer assignments benefit the environment and sustainable natural 

resource management and must be able to quantify project impacts on the environment. 

This necessitates more attention to environmental impacts in the design of subsector 

and host projects. However, these impacts are quite variable, particularly with regards to 

water and air pollution, soil and water conservation, biodiversity, and food safety. Many 

of these impacts are a challenge to measure and to aggregate for reporting (as can be 

done in dollar terms for economic growth impacts). These challenges plus the long-term 

nature of many environmental and NRM impacts makes planning and reporting quite 

difficult.

Current practices for environmental considerations in volunteer programs

Environmental protection and natural resource considerations have not been a major 

focus in the FtF Program, but FtF implementing agencies have been effective and 

creative in serving environment and natural resource management goals, while targeting 

economic development as their main program objectives.

Environmental impact assessment: A USAID-commissioned examination of the 

environmental effects of the FtF Program in the Newly Independent States concluded 

that, because the scope of FtF activities consisted principally of “technical assistance in 

the form of recommendations, advisements, and training”, no adverse impacts on the 

environment were anticipated. Consequently, the report recommended no further 

environmental review. Such environmental determinations are updated periodically.

Environmental guidelines: Two sets of environmental guidelines have been developed 

for the FtF program – one specific to the NIS program and one more broadly applicable. 

The environmental guidelines are set out in a six-column folded brochure that focuses 

on protecting the health and safety of volunteers and on encouraging volunteers to think 

about how their recommendations, advice, and efforts might affect the environment. 

Most, but not all, implementers provide volunteers with a copy of the FtF environmental 

guidelines and provide more detailed advice on necessary environmental precautions if 

a particular region or activity warrants it.

Environmental volunteer assignments: Some implementers specifically incorporate 

natural resource management and environmental themes into volunteer assignments, 

while others do not. Many assignments do have noteworthy secondary environmental 

benefits (see box). Projects focused on recycling and composting, water management, 

environmental and health-sensitive disposal of pesticides, integrated pest management, 

organic agriculture, and forest management may be undertaken for economic growth 

objectives, but in practice contribute to environmentally responsible and sustainable 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 90

practices. The FtF subsector projects promoting horticultural exports into the demanding 

markets of Western Europe and North America require that volunteers assist hosts in 

complying with trade standards that are in part “environmentally friendly”.

EXAMPLES OF “ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY” VOLUNTEER ASSIGNMENTS. 

Honduras sugar cane production: FtF volunteers in Honduras worked with small sugar cane producers 

in the Taulabe area of Siguatepeque who make rapadura, a hard brown sugar that is sold in the local 

market. Rapadura producers traditionally boil the juice from sugar cane in primitive pans using wood, 

sugar cane waste, and old tires as fuel. The burning of tires causes environmental pollution and health 

hazards to those who tend the fires. Contaminants from this process also get into the rapadura and are 

passed on to the consumer. The project has helped producers improve processing and reduce 

contaminants using techniques similar to those used by Vermont Maple sugar makers. Simple flue pan 

technology that was introduced to reduce fuel consumption, reduce boiling time, and improve quality 

also eliminates the need to use tires as fuel and improves the quality of the brown sugar in an 

environmentally sustainable way. 

Haiti FtF projects: Organizations working in the Cap Haitian region have adopted technologies that help 

conserve soil and water. These include planting bamboo beside riverbeds to prevent soil erosion and 

diminish flooding, use of compost to increase soil fertility and water retention, and contour planting to 

avoid erosion and increase water retention in the dry season. This has been a focus of the FtF program 

in this region due to Haiti’s severe environmental problems.

Ghana bamboo project: Bamboo can be transformed into hundreds of products, including furniture and 

household decoration and tools. When sold for these uses, bamboo demands a much higher price than 

when sold as poles. Bamboo cultivation is good for the environment, helping to alleviate soil erosion 

and requiring little treatment. 

Organic agriculture: Organic agriculture is a huge industry in the U.S. and Europe, growing at 22-25% a 

year and worth about $15 billion in the U.S. alone. This presents a significant financial opportunity for 

African farmers to export or sell to the fledgling but growing organic market within Africa. Farming 

organically reduces input costs for African farmers and impacts positively on soil erosion, soil health, 

desertification, plant health, farmer health and welfare, and consumer nutrition.

POA reports that sustainability at all levels – economic, social, cultural, and 

environmental – is considered in all of its projects, and that environmental sustainability 

is particularly relevant in its FtF Program. POA has found “substantial impact regarding 

host adoption of environmentally oriented practices, particularly in the adoption of 

practices to improve natural resource management.” Throughout the life of its program, 

POA volunteers have worked to increase knowledge about – and help farmer and 

ranchers adopt – practices that are economically viable and environmentally sound. 

LOL's experience with FtF programs has shown that it is important that there be an 

economic incentive for producers to adopt environmentally friendly practices, as the 

short-term demands of daily life make it difficult for them to devote resources to longterm objectives, such as environmental protection and natural resource management. At 

the same time, experience has shown that when these long-term goals are connected to 

economic benefits in the short- or medium-term, producers readily adopt new practices.

Role of field staff: Field staffs are key to a volunteer program’s positive impacts on the 

environment and should always be on the look out for negative impacts, avoiding work 

with hosts that have a poor environmental record or little interest in changing their 

practices. Ideally, a senior staff member with environmental expertise might review 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 91

subsector and host project plans and volunteer scopes of work to advise on how 

environmental considerations can be appropriately incorporated.

Checklists for volunteers: The following checklist of questions can help volunteers 

incorporate environmental considerations into their work. Will the volunteers’ 

recommendations and efforts promote:

1. soil and water conservation?

2. protection of water, soil, air, and food from contamination?

3. ecologically sound management and disposal of wastes?

4. integrated pest management and best management practices?

5. the importance of occupational health and safety both on the farm and in 

industry?

6. alternatives to chemical inputs when feasible?

7. awareness of environmental health risks?

8. income generating activities that can be used to finance the costs of proenvironment technologies and practices?

9. reform of government policies and regulations to better manage and protect 

natural resources? 

10. reform of government policies and regulations that better protect farmers and 

other agricultural industry workers from environmental hazards?

11. procedures for measuring, assessing, monitoring, and mitigating the 

environmental impact of unsound practices currently in use?

12. the emergence of an indigenous agricultural research capacity committed to 

developing environmentally sustainable practices, processes, and environmentfriendly technologies?

13. the concept of pollution prevention?

Protecting a volunteer's health: Implementing agencies need to be especially 

concerned with protecting volunteers’ own health while they are working abroad. 

Severe environmental pollution problems and health risks may be local or regional in 

magnitude. These conditions exist or can arise due to a lack of training, poor 

regulations, poor enforcement, and a lack of financial resources. Volunteers should be 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 92

alert for antiquated and defective equipment and machinery and improperly stored or 

mislabeled containers of pesticides and chemicals. In some locations, particularly in 

the former Soviet Union, radioactive materials and heavy metals have contaminated 

soil, air, and water. General guidelines for all volunteers during their assignments are 

to:

• Be familiar with major pollution issues in the region/locale you are visiting;

• Avoid demonstrating the operation of machinery and equipment that you are 

unfamiliar with or for purposes for which its use is not intended;

• Avoid exposing yourself to chemicals and pesticides that are unlabeled or not 

in proper containers; and

• Make health and safety issues a part of the information and advice you leave 

behind. By raising these issues, you can help to educate your hosts on the 

importance of a safe working environment and dangers that should not be 

passed on to others.

Key recommendations

Those designing assignments for volunteers can enhance positive impacts on the 

environment by:

♦ Reviewing available documentation related to environmental conditions and the 

extent to which natural resource depletion limits economic growth. Many countries 

have environmental plans or national plans that provide basic information on the 

subject. 

♦ Targeting work on subsectors with an environmental and natural resource 

management focus, where possible. Soil erosion, biodiversity conservation, air and 

water pollution, forest management, water use, and other environmental 

technologies are all areas in which the U.S. possesses significant experience and 

many potential volunteers.

♦ Ranking the short list of candidate subsector projects, as part of the subsector 

selection process, on the basis of the severity of environmental issues involved and 

the potential for volunteers to contribute significantly to mitigating actual and potential 

adverse environmental consequences of subsector expansion.

♦ Identify potential partners and hosts that understand the connections between 

sustainable productivity and sustainable use of natural resources. Host organizations 

that may be polluters should at a minimum have a willingness to explore alternative 

approaches.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 93

♦ Include questions relating specifically to environmental and natural resource 

management issues as a routine part of the preparation of project plans with partners 

and host organizations, even where these do not feature in the proposed set of 

volunteer assignments. 

♦ Tap the large pool of potential U.S. volunteers in the environmental and natural 

resource management areas. 

♦ Incorporate environmental and natural resource management considerations into 

volunteer orientation and reporting, even when these are not the primary focus of the 

assignment. 

♦ Make all volunteers aware of conditions in the host countries and communities that 

might affect their personal health.

Information sources on environmental health and safety

USAID's general launching point for information relating to environmental assessments 

and guidelines are at: 

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/compliance/index.html.

USAID's list of key contacts (Environmental Officers) in Bureaus and

Missions at http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/compliance/officers.html#aec.

USAID's Environmental Training Course Materials, including Title 22 of the Code of 

Federal Regulations, Part 216 that governs the U.S. government’s environmental impact 

abroad. The site also contains various forms and templates relating to Initial 

Environmental Examinations. http://www.encapafrica.org/EPTM.htm.

Feshbach, Murray and Friendly, Alfred, Jr. Ecocide in the USSR: Health and Nature 

Under Siege. 1992. Basic Books, New York, N.Y. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 94

4.4 OUTREACH AND PUBLIC AWARENESS

Outreach encompasses the full set of activities designed to inform both the general 

public and particular interested parties of the character and accomplishments of a 

volunteer program. Outreach is an important aspect of virtually all current international 

volunteer programs. 

Why is outreach important?

Volunteer program outreach has three principle benefits: 1) educating the public on 

global development issues and market opportunities; 2) building public support for U.S. 

foreign development efforts; and 3) recruiting new volunteers. 

Public education: Community outreach is an effective tool for educating members of 

the public on development needs abroad and demonstrating how U.S. foreign 

assistance can effectively and efficiently respond to these needs. Through public 

outreach, Americans learn about the lives and struggles of people in other countries, and 

how U.S. policies and actions can make a difference. Public outreach helps people 

understand how markets for goods and services, food supply, employment, and 

migration issues in other countries are all relevant to the life of the average U.S. citizen. 

Public education through sharing of volunteer experiences also serves to disseminate 

information about opportunities for U.S. businesses to sell goods and services. 

Public support: Citizens with a better awareness and understanding of the 

development needs of other countries are more likely to support U.S. involvement in 

international development in the future. 

Volunteer recruitment: Some of the best recruiters for new volunteers are volunteers 

who have recently completed their assignments. They know intimately what the needs 

are, and their contacts with friends and colleagues often lead to good matches between 

prospective volunteers and volunteer assignments.

 Major issues in outreach

Purpose of outreach: Should outreach focus principally on informing the public about 

the volunteer program and recruiting future volunteers or should it attempt to educate 

public opinion on important issues involving global trade and foreign aid? In contrast to 

many more complex foreign assistance programs, volunteer programs are a “feel good” 

activity that many Americans can relate to and support. Furthermore, volunteers are 

generally most comfortable in relating their personal experiences in a host country rather 

than commenting on broader foreign policies issues. Thus, in practice, the volunteer 

program itself is usually the best topic for outreach and the audience is largely defined 

by whom the volunteers are willing and able to reach. As a result, most outreach 

activities target the general public in the volunteers’ home communities and professional 

colleagues of the volunteers. Reaching an additional priority target group— decision 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 95

makers in government and the private/voluntary sectors— requires implementing 

agencies to develop more specific action plans. 

Outreach in host countries: Volunteer program publicity in host countries can garner 

goodwill for the U.S. and the volunteer program and help promote the spread of the 

innovations introduced by volunteers. This outreach can also help identify new hosts and 

partners for the volunteer program. Still, time and budget realities dictate that country 

outreach activities complement core responsibilities of the volunteers and field staff and 

not become a major consumer of time and resources. Country programs should, to the 

extent possible, be proactive in outreach activities and involve the local media, wherever 

appropriate. 

Effectiveness of outreach: How effective are different outreach approaches? As 

increased time and resources are devoted to public outreach, it would be appropriate 

that there be some assessment of their effectiveness, possibly as a component of 

program evaluations and impact assessments. One technique is to administer pre- and 

post- questionnaires that measure changes in knowledge and/or attitudes (see Section 

5.3).

Current practices in performing public outreach

Role of volunteers: FtF implementers strongly encourage returned volunteers to 

perform public outreach activities to share their overseas experience and demonstrate 

the benefits of international assistance. For example, one implementer asks each 

volunteer to undertake eight hours of public outreach following each assignment. While 

individual approaches differ, all implementers have developed materials to support 

outreach activities, including information on crafting messages, targeting audiences, 

communicating with the media, making presentations, and answering difficult questions 

about foreign assistance and international development. 

Volunteers are usually provided with considerable information on outreach before they 

begin their in-country assignments. Specialized media kits can provide specific 

instructions for contacting local newspapers, radio or television stations, or appropriate 

magazines or newsletters and encouraging them to cover upcoming assignments. 

Before volunteers depart on assignment, implementers can provide media kits with blank 

progress reports that volunteers can fill out during their assignments and send home to 

various media outlets. Implementers may provide additional outreach information during 

“exit interviews” held on completion of the volunteer assignment but before the volunteer 

returns home. 

After returning from their assignments, volunteers are provided with outreach training 

kits that may include press release templates, background information on the FtF 

Program and the implementing agency, slides that can be used for public presentations, 

a list of upcoming assignments in the event the volunteer attracts inquiries from new 

people interested in volunteering, and postcards for reporting back to the implementer 

on each outreach activity.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 96

Types of outreach activities: Volunteers who do not like public speaking may opt to 

prepare written accounts of their assignments for newsletters or web sites. Taking 

advantage of the wide array of outreach options increases the odds that outreach 

actually takes place and the word effectively gets out. Examples of the impressively 

diverse variety of outreach activities 

performed by volunteers include:

ÿ Making presentations about 

volunteer assignments to local 

schools and universities, 

professional, civic groups, and 

religious organizations;

ÿ Obtaining media coverage; 

ÿ Contacting local Congressional 

representatives about 

experiences in the program;

ÿ Writing assignment summaries for newsletters and other relevant publications; 

and

ÿ Posting assignment highlights on the web. Some volunteers have created their 

own websites that provide an overview of their assignment, photos, and other 

items.

Volunteers generate a great deal of media coverage in their respective states and 

communities. This, in turn, may fill a void in the media of many rural communities. For 

example, the POA FtF coordinator in Wisconsin reports that in northern Wisconsin, 

where the population is 99 percent Caucasian, media and news articles are a way of 

introducing different cultures to their communities. 

Role of implementers: FtF implementing agencies track volunteer outreach activities by 

recording specific outreach events and by collecting copies of published articles, 

interview transcripts, or other outreach records. One implementer reports that twice per 

year it phones volunteers who have returned from assignments within the past 12 

months to inquire about outreach activities. Such phoning is said to improve data on 

volunteer outreach and encourage more of it.

Implementing agencies themselves carry out significant volunteer program outreach 

activities. In addition to promotional work directed at volunteer recruitment, implementers 

must be prepared to respond to requests for information generated through volunteer 

outreach activities. Major outreach activities by implementers include:

ÿ Disseminating information about development activities, opportunities for 

involvement, and U.S. foreign assistance in newsletters, e-newsletters, annual 

reports, and related publications; 

 “TALK RADIO”

As part of its outreach program, ACDI/VOCA has 

arranged to supply occasional guests to a top 

rural talk radio program. Seven ACDI/VOCA 

volunteers have been featured on AgriTalk, a 

nationally syndicated hour-long show produced 

by Doane Broadcasting, St. Louis, and broadcast 

on 115 stations in 22 states. With a potential 

audience of 750,000, it has the largest reach of 

any U.S. farm or rural radio show. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 97

ÿ Arranging trips for returned volunteers to Washington D.C. to meet with their 

congressional representatives, and with embassy officials of the countries in 

which they worked;

ÿ Attending agricultural fairs, conferences, and seminars to disseminate 

information about the FtF program and encourage interest in volunteer 

participation;

ÿ Maintaining web sites from which the general public can learn about the FtF 

Program, and about available volunteer assignments, volunteer success 

stories, and links to related sources of information; and

ÿ Providing information on the FtF Program at board meetings, membership 

meetings, and other events. 

“Community Pride through Public Outreach”

As part of its Farmer-to-Farmer outreach, the North Carolina Chapter of Partners of the 

Americas has put together an effective educational display board highlighting projects of the 

North Carolina-Cochabamba Partnership in Bolivia. The board has been displayed at 

meetings, fairs, and conventions of many different organizations throughout North Carolina. 

In addition, the chapter publishes a newsletter that is distributed to members throughout the 

state. Farmer-to-Farmer activities are featured in almost every issue of the newsletter, 

examples of which can be found on their web page: http://www.ncboliviapartners.org. This 

outreach has strengthened the North Carolina-Cochabamba, Bolivia Partnership and 

attracted new members interested in the partnership’s activities. The North Carolina 

Chapter’s FtF program is one of the strongest, due, in large part to these public outreach 

efforts that increase volunteer recruitment, stimulate project follow-up, and evoke feelings of 

pride in significant accomplishments.

As a general rule, first-time volunteers tend to perform more public outreach than repeat 

volunteers. However, since first-time volunteers also take longer to train and to become 

proficient in their assignments, FtF implementers strive for a mix of first-time and repeat 

volunteers. This increases the need for techniques to increase the likelihood that 

returned volunteers carry out outreach activities. Options include sending follow up 

letters or telephoning returned volunteers to remind them of their commitment to do 

outreach and offering assistance with preparing for the outreach activity. Another 

approach is to have volunteers prepare their own outreach plans before they leave for 

their assignments. This may enhance their sense of investment in outreach and also get 

volunteers to focus on outreach as an integral part of their assignment.

As part of outreach efforts, USAID encourages implementing agencies to help 

volunteers convey information about how the FtF program relates to other USAID 

programs in the host country. To accomplish this, implementing agencies must provide 

volunteers with some information about such activities and remind them to incorporate 

this in their outreach activities. This is especially easy where other USAID projects serve 

as partners to the FtF volunteer program.

An example of public outreach materials used by POA is found in Annex G.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 98

Key recommendations

♦ Encourage outreach by all returned volunteers. Provide volunteers with user-friendly 

materials for outreach activities within their communities. Make outreach a 

commitment of the volunteer and check back with them to monitor and encourage 

outreach.

♦ Ensure that implementing agency staff recognize the value of outreach activities, 

plan for them, and consider outreach as a part of their responsibilities. Ensure also 

that staff are available and able to respond to questions that arise due to outreach

activities.

♦ Use a wide array of outreach strategies—press releases, public talks by returned 

volunteers, presentations in professional meetings, newsletters, and websites—and 

try to evaluate the effectiveness of different approaches. 

♦ Target a diverse range of audiences to ensure that the various purposes of public 

outreach are served. Attempt to reach professional groups and colleagues, members 

of the general public, decision makers, politicians, and potential volunteers. 

♦ Plan for outreach activities within host countries to broaden the reach of the 

volunteer program and promote U.S. public image in the developing world. An 

effective strategy in this regard is reaching out to the news media of the host country. 

The U.S. Embassy's Public Affairs Office can provide guidance and any cautions 

regarding interaction with different elements of a country's media. 

♦ Broaden the message in public outreach. While the individual volunteer’s story is the 

point of interest, public education is furthered by placing this in the context of overall 

economic and social development needs and programs, globalization trends and the 

reciprocal benefits to the U.S. from international development.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 99

SECTION 5: MONITORING, EVALUATION AND IMPACT 

ASSESSMENT 

For any volunteer program, there is an obvious and understandable need to show that 

the funding provided is a good investment. Program monitoring and evaluation serve this 

function and guide further strategic planning and program design. Volunteer programs 

are increasingly called upon to be more than just good people-to-people exchanges; 

they are expected to result in sustainable development. This requires additional 

measures of impact. This section includes:

• Management Information Systems for International Volunteer Programs

• Reporting on Volunteer Programs

• Volunteer Program Evaluation
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 100

5.1 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR 

INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS

Management information systems (MISs) are the set of indicators, procedures, and 

reporting systems used in tracking program performance and impact. MISs are 

frequently computer-based and set up to provide routine data on programs. This data is 

used in program management decision-making and in evaluation of program 

performance and impact.

Why is an MIS important for volunteer programs? 

International volunteer programs typically involve many discrete activities with possibly 

hundreds of volunteers, hosts, and innovations. Tracking these activities and the impacts 

from them are important to sound management of program resources, effective 

planning, and accurate reporting on accomplishments and impacts. Information on

program impacts is important not only for good program management, but also for 

justifying use of funding and defending proposals for future funding for volunteer 

programs.

Issues in development of an MIS for international volunteer programs

Relevant indicators: Program performance and impact indicators provide the basis for 

an MIS. The development literature is replete with lists and analyses of indicators 

relevant to economic growth programs. The initial monitoring systems for many 

volunteer programs focused only on simple—yet relevant—input indicators of numbers 

of volunteer assignments and budget expenditures. More comprehensive MISs now 

must track and report on indicator changes along the cause and effect pathway of the 

project’s development hypothesis—from inputs and activities to outputs, outcomes 

(results) and impacts. The numbers of people benefited and the level of their financial 

benefit are commonly the critical impact indicators for economic growth programs.

Volunteer assignments: The volunteer assignment is the basic input for a volunteer 

program. So that annual and other reports of the program can aggregate across all 

assignments, the definition of a volunteer assignment must be standardized. For 

example, is one volunteer’s trip to work with two hosts in a country defined as one or two 

assignments? Is a five-day assignment counted the same as a three-week assignment? 

Some programs count an assignment as assistance to hosts provided by phone or 

internet, without traveling to the host country (usually only for repeat volunteers). Still 

others define travel of groups of volunteers to work with a host as a single assignment. 

Complexity: Volunteer programs involve extremely diverse activities (subsector and 

host projects) with differing objectives, hosts, strategies, and timeframes. An MIS must 

capture adequate detail on individual activities to reflect program and host performance 

and progress. In providing data across hosts, subsectors, and country programs, the 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 101

MIS must progressively simplify the indicator sets and aggregate data in easily 

understandable and relevant terms. At the host level multiple indicators are needed to 

track progress, but at higher levels of program management the masses of data and 

long lists of indicators become progressively less useful.

Organization: Robust MISs are computer-based and adaptable to different project and 

country situations. They also need to be capable of generating a range of project specific 

and special reports. Data must be accessible for multiple users. 

Current practices in use of MIS for volunteer programs

The USAID FtF Office aggregates information from eight implementing agencies on 

approximately 94 Focus Areas (subsector projects) to report on the overall program 

using standardize performance and impact indicators (see Tables below). This standard 

set of indicators was developed through extensive consultations between USAID and its 

FtF partners and is the result of several years of debate and evolution, as the program 

adapted to changing areas of focus, reporting, and management needs. While this type 

of flexibility is essential for monitoring and impact assessment, it has also been 

important to maintain some stability of common indicators over time, so that both USAID 

and FtF implementers can present a clear picture of the longer-term impact of the 

program.

USAID’s FtF program monitoring is based on systems FtF Program implementing 

agencies have more or less independently developed to monitor program activities and 

track results. Although the systems are unique, there are, by necessity, similarities as all 

programs report to USAID in a common format on progress towards similar objectives. 

All use standard FtF performance and impact indicators in addition to those specific to 

individual subsector projects (see Section 2.3). The following descriptions of 

ACDI/VOCA, Winrock and CNFA FtF program monitoring systems illustrates the 

different systems in use.

ACDI/VOCA: ACDI/VOCA’s Project Reporting, Information, Monitoring, and Evaluation 

System (PRIME) monitors performance and impact of volunteer programs at various 

levels and provides information necessary to manage program activities. The M&E 

system is implemented in three stages at the time of: (1) SOW development (including 

host organization profile and base-line surveys), (2) the volunteer assignment, and (3) a 

field survey conducted 3 – 12 months after assignment completion. 

The system tracks and reports on information by type of organization, location, and 

demographic. The system also tracks enterprise, organization, and financial institution 

performance by aggregating quantitative information on sales, employment, productivity, 

costs, firms’ adoption of management and quality assurance practices, new products 

and/or services offered, and the amount of rural loans. This data enables the program 

staff and the recipients of assistance to measure program impact through analysis of 

improved financial performance, increases in production and processing, introduction of 

new/improved products, improved management expertise, adoption of quality assurance 

practices, and improved loan portfolio performance.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 102

Table: Standard Performance and Impact Indicators in Use in the FtF Program

Inputs Outputs Outcomes Impacts

Number of volunteers:

• Male

• Female

• Total

Number of volunteer days completed

Program expenditures (U.S.$) 

Average FtF Program cost per volunteer 

day (U.S.$/day)

Value (U.S.$) of volunteer professional 

time

Value of resources leveraged by 

grantee/ volunteers in the U.S.

Value of resources mobilized by Host

Value of host contributions (U.S.$)

Type of volunteer assistance:

• Technology transfer

• Organizational development

• Business/Enterprise 

development

• Financial services

• Environmental conservation

Commodity chain activities:

• Information and input (preproduction)

• Support services

• On farm production

• Processing (product 

transformation, storage, 

transportation)

• Marketing (branding, 

advertising, promotion, 

distribution, sales)

Host Institutions:

• Cooperatives and 

associations

• Individual private farmers

• Other private enterprises

• Non-profit, public interest 

NGOs

• Public and private education 

institutions

• Rural financial institutions

• Public sector technical 

agencies

Beneficiaries receiving formal 

training:

• Male

• Female

• Total

Beneficiaries receiving on-the-job 

training:

• Male

• Female

• Total

Total direct beneficiaries:

• Male

• Female

• Total

Indirect beneficiaries

Economic: 

• Number of relevant hosts

• Number of hosts adopting 

volunteer recommendations

• Number of hosts reporting 

improvement

• Number of beneficiaries 

associated with hosts

Organizational capacity:

• Number of relevant hosts

• Number of hosts adopting 

volunteer recommendations

• Number of hosts reporting 

improvement

• Number of beneficiaries 

associated with hosts

Financial services:

• Number of relevant hosts

• Number of hosts adopting 

volunteer recommendations

• Number of hosts reporting 

improvement

• Number of beneficiaries 

associated with hosts

Environmental:

• Number of relevant hosts

• Number of hosts adopting 

volunteer recommendations

• Number of hosts reporting 

improvement

• Number of beneficiaries 

associated with hosts

Economic: 

• Increased net income across hosts 

adopting (U.S.$)

• Increased gross value of sales (U.S.$)

Organizational capacity: 

• Increase in revenues (U.S.$)

• Number of new or improved products 

and/or services

Financial services: 

• Number of hosts with loan delinquency 

rate less than 10%

• Increase in the amount of rural/ 

agricultural loans (U.S.$)

• Number of rural/ agricultural loans

• Increase in the value of the institution's 

net equity (U.S.$) 

Environmental:

• Increased gross sales (U.S.$)

• Area under improved NRM (ha)

• Number of hosts adopting one or more 

environmental technologies

• People with improved safety and 

working conditions

• People with improved environmental 

services

Public outreach:

• Number of volunteers performing public 

outreach activities

• Number of press releases issued 

• Number of media events by 

implementers and volunteers

• Number and attendance of group 

presentations
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 103

The PRIME database enables the FtF program to easily report to USAID by tracking the 

standard FtF program indicators and generating reports in a format for the USAID FtF 

Standard Reporting Tables. While the system serves primarily as an M&E tool, it is also 

an effective project management tool. Weekly reports are generated by the M&E 

Coordinator and circulated to program field staff to monitor progress in attaining FtF 

program goals for the current fiscal year. This enables the program managers to track 

recruitment efforts, maintain an accurate account of each organization’s level of effort, 

and track progress by subsector, type of organization, and geographic focus.

The PRIME database completes a baseline profile for each host organization using five 

standard host organization profile forms created for producers, processors, goods and 

service providers, associations/cooperatives, and financial institutions. The appropriate 

form for each host profile captures the host contact information, financial information, 

obstacles to profitability, and baseline data (including production unit, number of units, 

cost per unit, product unit, total yield, gross sales, total expenses, and net revenue). This 

baseline is attached to the volunteer’s scope of work and serves as a good reference 

point for the volunteer prior to arrival.

After completion of an assignment the volunteer and the FtF program staff determine the 

most appropriate time to conduct an evaluation of the host. Evaluations occur 3 to 12 

months after the completion of the volunteer assignment and are conducted either by

telephone or in person. The FtF program staff then completes an evaluation survey form 

and updates the host organization profile spreadsheet. The survey form records which 

volunteer recommendations have been implemented by the host, the indicators that 

have been impacted and the justification for this claim, resources mobilized by the host, 

employment generation, and host staff participation in additional training programs.

Results of the host evaluation survey and the updated host organization profile serve as 

the basis for determining which FtF program indicators have been impacted and enable 

the program staff to quantify changes experienced by the host during the evaluation 

period (i.e., increases in production, reduction in cost of production, increase in sales, 

increase in net revenue, etc.). Data from updated host organization profiles are entered 

into the PRIME database and the survey forms are attached. The indicators impacted by 

the assignment are also entered in the database. ACDI/VOCA is then able to report to 

USAID on the number of hosts impacted for each indicator and provide quantifiable 

results attained by each host organization.

Winrock: Winrock uses a web-enabled database, which contains information about 

hosts, assignment activities, and results. This decentralized system allows the FtF team 

to efficiently track and report activities and results at the country, regional, and program 

levels and is also instrumental for program management by HQ and field staff. A 

“Partner Web Portal” has also been developed that will allow Winrock partners to store 

and retrieve information relevant to volunteers they deploy.

Ex ante projections are based upon project analytical frameworks. Analysis conducted 

for each target sector includes a review of all the complementary inputs that are 

necessary to make volunteer technical assistance effective. Ongoing project monitoring 

and annual sector reviews are used to manage the project plans, update project 

analytical frameworks, and improve future decisions regarding target sectors, host 

selection, and volunteer assignment design.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 104

To manage project activities and report on indicators effectively, field staffs remain in 

close contact with hosts. A formal follow-up impact survey is conducted 6 to 12 months 

after each assignment. In most cases, hosts receive multiple volunteers and additional 

impact surveys are conducted with key hosts throughout the life of project. In addition to 

this ongoing monitoring, Winrock is establishing new procedures to monitor and analyze 

sector-level results. 

Baseline data is collected at both the host and sector levels. Baseline data for individual 

hosts is collected in a SOW host profile that includes detailed information about the 

host’s production, services, membership, and incomes. This enables field staff to assess 

changes after volunteer assignments. This information also informs the volunteers about 

the host’s size and capacity. The FtF program also draws on existing sources of sector 

data for baseline and annual monitoring. These include studies from donors, government 

statistics, and surveys by FtF partner organizations. In some cases, volunteers may 

conduct baseline surveys as part of their assignment.

CNFA: CNFA uses a custom-designed Integrated Project Design and Evaluation 

System (IPDES) to develop, monitor, and evaluate FtF projects. IPDES provides a 

framework for: (1) analyzing host needs and the kinds of volunteer training that can best 

help them, (2) projecting the extent of impact that can be expected from the training, and 

(3) monitoring and evaluating whether impact is being achieved. Its primary goal is to 

ensure that desired results are defined explicitly as part of the approval process for each 

FtF project and that progress toward those results is monitored and assessed regularly 

as volunteer assignments occur. IPDES prescribes completion by the CNFA field staff of 

a series of interrelated reports on each FtF project:

• A Host Profile (HP) prepared as part of the project development process records 

key data about the host group related to the proposed FtF training and desired 

impacts. This serves as a baseline for evaluation of project progress. Data must be 

verifiable, not informal or oral, drawn from objective sources such as host activity 

reports, financial records, or sales data. In order to economize on manpower and 

cost, FtF relies as much as possible on data collected by the hosts themselves and 

actively promotes data collection as part of host capacity building.

• A Project Strategy (PS) draws on the HP to identify the needs of the hosts, propose 

volunteer assignments to respond to those needs, describe how the proposed 

training will improve hosts' lives, and predict how many people will benefit in various 

ways as a result of the training. No volunteer training occurs until the PS has been 

reviewed and approved by CNFA headquarters. 

• Scopes of Work (SOWs) for each volunteer assignment lay out in detail what each 

volunteer is to do and the impacts that are expected to flow from that assignment.

• Volunteer trip reports and notes from debriefings of volunteers confirm the extent 

to which assignment objectives were achieved and predictions of impact remain 

valid.

• An annual Host Profile update and Project Impact Assessment (PIA) examine the 

pre-selected indicators of host impact and the extent to which desired impacts are 

being achieved and lives are being improved.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 105

Key recommendations

♦ Identify relevant and practical performance and impact indicators for each volunteer 

subsector project area with indicators covering inputs, outputs, outcomes, and 

impacts.

♦ Provide uniform operational definitions for units of measure such as assignments, 

hosts, and beneficiaries.

♦ Consider development of a computerized Management Information System to assist 

in managing and reporting on the volunteer program, but recognize the cost and 

complexity as well as the utility inherent in most such systems.

♦ Identify and use existing sector assessments and sector data for impact monitoring 

wherever possible to avoid duplication of effort. Use volunteers and field staff to 

conduct limited baseline and follow-up annual sector assessments in cases where 

adequate data does not exist from other sources.

♦ Conduct commodity chain analysis for each target subsector to document baseline 

status and expected improvements. Finalize initial subsector-level performance and 

impact targets in consultation with partners and donors.

♦ Disaggregate and track volunteer assignments and results by subsector project area 

and host assignment.

♦ Where organizational strengthening is a key objective, develop organizational 

capacity indicators tailored to the specific needs of the hosts and subsector. 

♦ Review aggregate subsector results compared to targets established during the 

initial planning phase. Adjust subsector targets annually in consultation with donors 

and partners based upon this analysis of results to date.

♦ Assess costs and benefits to determine how much of the budget should be spent on 

the MIS. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 106

5.2 REPORTING ON VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS

Program reporting involves summarizing activities and accomplishments in a way in 

which the implementer’s experience can be shared with others. In essence, it involves 

telling the story of what has happened and how this has impacted on participants and 

the target beneficiaries. Program reporting draws heavily on MIS systems and selfevaluation, but in narrative form goes further in analyzing why programs have or have 

not worked as expected.

Why is reporting important?

Program reports help donors ensure that their funds are used effectively. The reports are 

also used as a marketing instrument for the volunteer program implementing agencies. 

Donors like to hear success stories. But, reporting on problems and shortfalls in 

achievements helps to focus on collaborative efforts to overcome problems and improve 

implementation. Reports on successful volunteer placements help attract new volunteers 

and interest from hosts in having additional volunteer assignments. Reports provide an 

opportunity to learn from past performance and to improve future performance.

Issues in reporting on volunteer programs

Frequency of reporting: The FtF Program earlier required quarterly reporting and some 

volunteer programs have even required monthly reports. Currently, FtF implementers 

produce a Semi-Annual and an Annual Progress Report with an Annual Work Plan for 

the next year. The program has found that this is adequate for program progress 

monitoring and does not overburden program staff.

Impact reporting: Although reporting on volunteer activities is straight forward, reporting 

on impacts is much more challenging. Impacts accrue across many hosts and 

subsectors, complicating the data collection process for an MIS. FtF programs have 

found that some impacts can be observed and documented within six months of a 

volunteer’s assignment with a host. Many other innovations take longer to implement 

and generate impacts and some may be tried and later discarded for one reason or 

another. Thus, deciding when it is reasonable to begin reporting on impact from a 

volunteer program depends on the activities of the specific program. The FtF program is 

now requiring impact reporting only at mid-term (after 2 1⁄2 years) and at the end of the 

program (after five years).

Current good practice in reporting on volunteer programs

Volunteer program reports should provide a succinct analytical assessment of progress 

against objectives and detail on experience and progress in each subsector project and 

country of operation. In addition, FtF reports include statistical data on performance and 

impact indicators. The FtF program reports assess trends and issues within each 

subsector project (“Focus Area”) of activity, as well as reporting on individual volunteer 

assignments, plans, and host experiences.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 107

Volunteer program reporting is to a large extent based on individual volunteer reports 

that serve as a basis for tracking program indicators and understanding the nature and 

direction of changes in a subsector. An example of a volunteer assignment report from 

Winrock’s program in Nigeria is found in Annex F.

Success stories provide a balance to the quantitative data and analysis of subsector 

trends. These are a more interesting and personalized description of what the programs 

do and accomplish. Success stories can be either comprehensive, focusing on broad 

impacts over entire regions, or subsectors within a country, or they can tell a single story 

of a volunteer’s success. They are often the most effective piece of public relations that 

a volunteer program can generate. One example of a story highlighting one volunteer’s 

achievement was presented in a USAID ceremony honoring 50 years of support for 

volunteer programs (see box).

USAID Volunteer Brings New Opportunities to Haiti through Bamboo Production

Challenge: Haiti, once considered the Pearl of the Antilles, is now the poorest country in the 

Western Hemisphere. Decades of political turmoil and high levels of poverty have contributed to 

environmental degradation and extreme depletion of Haiti’s natural resources. Restoring native 

ecosystems, preserving soil nutrients for future crops, and decreasing erosion are critical to 

improving farm life for Haitians.

Initiative: The Farmer-to-Farmer program implemented by Partners of the Americas has been 

working for many years to address these issues. Bamboo, which grows rapidly and has multiple 

applications, is ideal to help with these needs. Bamboo can be used as construction material, to 

stabilize stream banks, and for traditional handicrafts, an industry of growing interest to smallscale farmers. FtF volunteer Norm Bezona, a bamboo expert, has traveled five times to Haiti to 

work with improved bamboo. He worked with Peace Corps volunteers and a local NGO, the 

Organization for the Rehabilitation of the Environment (ORE), on initial project planning. On his 

first assignment, Bezona brought 200 plants representing twelve bamboo varieties donated by 

the Quindembo Nursery in Hawaii.

This project has progressed through two phases. First, the project introduced and propagated 

new species of bamboo and educated farmers regarding multiple benefits of bamboo. Later, a 

second phase expanded activities to additional agricultural groups and regions and distributed 

plants to individual farmers and collaborating groups for nursery and communal reforestation 

projects. 

Results: After four months, the donated plants were doing better in Haiti than in their native 

Hawaii. Techniques such as root division and branch cuttings generated over 40,000 plants from 

the original 200. Fifteen thousand bamboo plants have been distributed throughout the country. 

Two hundred plants were brought to the Asociacion de Paysans de Vallue (APV) in the south, 

where staff members were trained on the propagation and use of bamboo. In the Camp Perrin 

area, USAID helped distribute plants to 2,000 individual farmers, most of whom farm one to two 

hectares. Farmers have planted 50% of the bamboo plants for construction, 25% for crafts, and 

25% for erosion control and reforestation.

The quantitative performance and impact indicator data reporting format used for the FtF 

program is found in Annex H.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 108

Key recommendations

♦ Combine quantitative and qualitative reporting on performance and impact.

♦ Use a limited number of meaningful indicators to report on overall program 

performance, including people level indicators of numbers of beneficiaries and 

financial indicators for level of impact obtained.

♦ Complement quantitative indicators with case studies to provide a human face to 

what volunteers really do and what they can accomplish.

♦ Incorporate objective analysis of what has and has not worked in the volunteer 

program and how problems are to be addressed.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 109

5.3 VOLUNTEER PROGRAM EVALUATION

Evaluations are systematic analytical efforts planned and conducted in response to 

specific management questions about assistance programs or activities. Unlike 

performance monitoring, which is ongoing, evaluations are conducted when needed. 

Evaluations often focus on why results are or are not being achieved and may address 

issues of relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, impact, or sustainability. Good evaluations 

provide management with lessons and recommendations for adjustments in program 

strategies or activities.

Issues in evaluating volunteer programs

Level of evaluation: Volunteer programs can be evaluated at the level of: (1) the overall 

program and its efficiency and effectiveness; (2) the country program; (3) the subsector 

project; (4) the host; or (5) the individual volunteer assignment. To some extent 

evaluation at the higher levels requires evaluation of the activities, performance, and 

impacts at the lower levels. 

Evaluations of volunteers/assignments: Each implementing organization has 

developed its own methods of assessing the quality and impact of volunteer 

assignments. Evaluating the performance of individual volunteers themselves requires 

some finesse. Due to the fact that volunteers by nature offer their specialized services 

free of charge, a publicized negative performance evaluation has the potential to be a 

public relations disaster, damaging future recruitment efforts and perhaps work with 

hosts. Thus, evaluations of individual volunteers are not performed or reported 

systematically. Problems are generally identified in regular performance monitoring and 

management processes, and kept internal to the implementing organization.

To some extent, evaluation of a volunteer assignment is covered by the periodic 

evaluations of the host organization that received the volunteer. These host impact 

assessments provide up-to-date client information on the host and ensure that program 

activities are evaluated. Individual assignment stories are often cited in program wide 

evaluations as well, serving to highlight the successes of the program that cannot be 

discerned from aggregated impact tables and overarching analyses of spread of impact.

Cost issues: Surveys of randomly or purposefully selected hosts can be a more cost 

efficient means of assessing impact than attempting to complete a census of all hosts. 

When using a sample survey, it is important to state clearly the means of sampling. Any 

appearance of attempting to pass off the most successful hosts or projects as 

representative of all hosts is likely to damage a program’s credibility. 

Current practices in evaluating volunteer programs

At the subsector project level, impact evaluations can be useful to determine how 

effective volunteers are in generating impacts in particular subsectors. The evaluation 

provides an opportunity for an in-depth look at trends and opportunities within the 

subsector and can help to reorient activities, as needed. Implementing agencies 

routinely collect the impact data needed for evaluation of the work in subsectors. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 110

The chart below derived from an ACDI/VOCA survey in the Caucasus region is a good 

example of indicators to evaluate true impacts of a program and not just its outputs.

Table: Income Impacts of Different Volunteer Assignments

Production 

Assignment

Baseline 

Sales

Surveyed 

Sales

% 

Change

Baseline

Revenue

Surveyed 

Revenue

% 

Change

Farm Management $10,800 $12,000 11% $4,800 $5,000 4%

Residue Management $1,080 $1,440 33% $230 $390 70%

Land Erosion Control $650 $990 52% $280 $540 93%

Garbanzo Bean 

Production $1,500 $1,700 13% $1,200 $1,340 12%

Soil Preparation/Wheat 

Production $20,556 $50,000 143% $13,106 $30,050 129%

Soil Preparation/Wheat 

Production $5,139 $15,360 199% $3,206 $9,510 197%

FtF program implementers occasionally commission internal evaluations of their 

programs, in order to access their own performance and management needs. These 

may use the agencies’ own staff or external consultants. 

At the larger program wide level, since 1985, USAID has formally evaluated the FtF 

Program about every six years. USAID evaluations seek an independent assessment of 

the program by outside consultants. Program funds are set aside in advance and the 

main issues to be addressed and geographic areas of concentration are outlined in a 

Scope of Work prepared by analyzing progress reports and discussing program issues 

with partners, evaluators, and USAID management staff.

Key findings from the last program-wide evaluation completed in the spring of 2003 were 

as follows:

• The quality of the volunteers recruited is generally high and the advice and 

training provided is universally appreciated.

• Over a five year period, FtF volunteers have directly assisted 238,535 people 

(30% women) and provided formalized training to 78,766 (20% women).

• The program is capable of moving to a more focused approach, in order to 

achieve greater impact through more concise planning of volunteer assignments 

based on pre-selected sectors and/or commodities, ideally linked to USAID 

Mission strategies.

• Evaluations should be followed up with a conference with implementing 

agencies, focused on planning for and assessing impact.

• There is a need for better results oriented frameworks that drive the planning 

process and help develop clear hypotheses and basic baseline analysis that 

support intended results.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 111

USAID provides guidance for performing program evaluations in a series of publications 

entitled “Performance Monitoring and Evaluation TIPS” produced by the USAID Center 

for Development Information and Evaluation. These publications are available on the 

USAID website (http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs), or can be obtained by contacting the 

Center directly.

Key recommendations

♦ Internal evaluations are useful to improve management operations, but independent, 

external evaluations are necessary to have greater credibility.

♦ Monitoring and evaluation systems should be developed during the planning process 

and made operational early in program implementation.

♦ Volunteer program evaluations need to be highly participatory involving consultations 

with implementing agency staff, volunteers, hosts, partner organizations, and others 

familiar with work in the subsectors in which the program is working.

♦ Evaluations can often usefully be structured to address specific management issues 

of current importance to the program. 

♦ A combination of independent and self-evaluation methodologies work well and can 

be usefully combined in an overall evaluation plan for a program. 

♦ Cost considerations are a factor in planning evaluations. Survey sampling can be 

cost effective for performing impact assessments, but methodologies must be welldocumented and reported. 

♦ Assessing each individual assignment allows a program to update information on 

hosts receiving multiple volunteers, providing a better picture of impact over time. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 112

SECTION 6: ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

http://www.mapnp.org/library/staffing/outsrcng/volnteer/volnteer.htm

http://www.volunteertoday.com/vpes/vpeshome.html

http://www.unv.org/infobase/articles/2001/01_02_15USAtoolkit.pdf 

http://www.nonprofitscan.ca/pdf/FS/Goulbourne-FS-English.pdf

http://www.pointsoflight.org/downloads/pdf/VolunteerProgramPlanning.pdf

http://www.pointsoflight.org/resources/epractice/

http://www.casanet.org/program-management/volunteer-manage/voleval.htm

http://www.volunteer.ca/volunteer/pdf/Volunteer_Program_Managemen.pdf

http://www.merrillassociates.net/focus_areas/volunteer_progr_mgmt.php

http://e-volunteerism.com/quarterly/03oct/03oct-keyboard.php

 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 113

GOOD PRACTICES FOR MANAGING INTERNATIONAL 

VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS

ANNEXES

Annex A: Example of Country Plan -- WI-Nicaragua, ACDI/VOCA-Kenya

Annex B: Example of Project Plan -- CNFA-Moldova

Annex C: Example of Scope of Work -- ACDI/VOCA – Kenya; requested from VSU

Annex D: Recruiting Database -- ACDI/VOCA

Annex E: Example of Orientation Materials -- ACDI/VOCA – Kenya, list of LOL 

orientation materials

Annex F: Example of Assignment Report -- WI – Nigeria

Annex G: Public Outreach Approaches and Materials -- POA

Annex H: FtF Standard Performance and Impact Indicator Reporting Tables
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 114

ANNEX A: EXAMPLE OF COUNTRY/SUBSECTOR PLANS

Winrock International in Nicaragua

In Nicaragua, Winrock/FIU will target horticulture, tree crops/forest products, and dairy. 

This work will support USAID/Nicaragua’s new 5-year strategy, Strategic Objective 2 

Economic Freedom: Open, Diversified Expanding Economics and Intermediate Results 

2.2: More Competitive, Market-Oriented Private Enterprises. The FtF Program will 

coordinate and collaborate with organizations such as World Relief’s horticulture 

projects, TechnoServe, Federacion de Asociaciones Ganaderas de Nicaragua, the 

national Livestock Producer’s Council (CONAGAN), and the Nicaraguan government’s 

Competitiveness Program.

1. Focus areas: Horticulture

Nicaragua imports approximately $17 million worth of fresh vegetables and fruits each 

year, mostly from Costa Rica and Honduras. Most of these imports are consumed within 

the Managua metropolitan area, but some of this volume is consumed in smaller cities 

(Matagalpa, Leon, and Jinotega), and some is transshipped through Nicaragua into 

neighboring countries. Winrock has worked in the vegetable sector for five years and 

developed cost-effective technical packages making vegetables competitive with 

competing countries and developed buyer/vendor linkages with a regional supermarket 

supplier, Managua wholesale markets, and other local markets. Winrock will replicate 

this model in other FtF participating countries. Key topics of FtF intervention will include 

assisting producers to meet sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) requirements and manage 

their supply chains. For example:

• Hortifruti is a private company that partnered with Winrock’s USAID-funded 

Technical Services to Small Farmers (TSSF) project. Hortifruti distributes fresh fruits 

and vegetables to supermarket chains in Central America. They collect produce from 

farmers in different areas of the country, and will assist Winrock to identify groups of 

small-scale farmers that would be able to access these new markets or expand sales 

with FtF technical assistance. They are also very interested in collaborating with 

Winrock to assist growers in Honduras.

• World Relief reports that they would welcome FtF assistance with their Asociación

Pueblos en Accion Comunitaria program. This organization is requesting specialized 

volunteers in fruits, vegetables, and tree crops. Similar to Winrock’s TSSF project, 

World Relief helps establish linkages to higher value markets for small-scale farmers.

• A private enterprise called La Matagalpa produces pickled vegetables. They work 

with a group of 20 farmers who provide them with the vegetables (e.g., onions, baby 

corn, chayote, green peppers, carrots, cucumber, and garlic). They have requested 

FtF assistance in two areas: technical assistance to the farmers to improve product 

quality and also technical assistance for the processing plant in labeling, product 

presentation, and quality standards to enter new regional markets.

In addition, Latin American food exporters are ill-prepared for new regulations that come 

into effect this month as a result of the United States’ Bioterrorism Act of 2002.19 Where 

 

19 Latin Trade, November 2003, Latin American Food Producers Opinion Survey on the Bioterrorism Act 

of 2002
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 115

appropriate, Winrock and FIU may field technical specialists to Nicaragua and 

neighboring countries to assist agricultural exporters to comply with new safety and 

phytosanitary regulations from the United States, European Union, and neighboring 

countries.

2. Focus Area: Tree crops/forest products

Cacao represents a viable cash crop in many areas of the country. Winrock’s TSSF 

project partnered with the Asociación de Productores de Cacao de Muelle de Bueyes 

(ACODEMUBE). The association has 423 manzanas (mz) under production in the El 

Rama and Los Buyes areas, benefiting 574 farm families. There are also some 185 mz 

that can be rehabilitated. Nicaragua has a cacao production area estimated at 7,000 mz, 

not all of which is in production. ACODEMUBE is one of the major players in the national 

market, managing 10 percent of national production. ACODEMUBE sells to El Caracol 

Inverciones, SA, in Managua and is working with Winrock to develop long-term 

contractual agreements with other national buyers, including Industrias Paramo SA and 

Ecomerco SA. Prices from El Caracol in 2002 averaged between 400-900 cordobas per 

100 pounds dried cacao or $1,062 per mt. Instituto Nicaraguense de Tecnologia y 

Agropecuaria (INTA) is also working with cacao at an experimental station, where they 

sell seeds and have selections of hybrid plants. Winrock will continue to develop this 

industry and further market linkages with Honduras and Costa Rica as well as domestic 

markets. FtF interventions will focus on post-harvest practices, quality control, and 

meeting market requirements.

Cardamom is another viable cash crop for diversifying coffee plantations in some areas 

of the country. Production estimates are approximately 6.5 quintals per mz with FOB 

prices in Nicaragua providing up to $360 per quintal FOB Managua, or up to $400 per 

quintal in Guatemala. Production costs are estimated at $300 per mz. Producers are 

interested in improving their post harvest practices and learning about markets and 

value-added strategies, as well as expanding production. Winrock has developed market 

linkages for finished cardamom seed in Guatemala and oil seed in Honduras. 

Cardamom has a robust market and this crop can also be replicated in other 

participating FtF countries. FtF intervention will focus on post-harvest practices, market 

linkages, and quality control.

Winrock has also received requests for technical assistance in agroforestry and wood 

products. For example, POSAF, an agroforestry program working in different parts of 

Nicaragua, is requesting technical assistance for its producers in commercialization, 

certification, and value-adding issues.

3. Focus Area: Dairy

Nicaragua’s total milk production increased from 43 million gallons in 1994 to 66 million 

gallons in 2002, an annual average increase of 4.7 percent.20 Nicaragua has an 

estimated average consumption of 42 kg per person of dairy products, 11 percent of 

which is imported. Dairy is a $100 million per year industry accounting for 5 percent of 

 

20 USDA GAIN Report, 2003
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 116

GDP. Principal products are cream, cheese, yogurt, and fresh milk. The industry 

includes 55,000 producers, most small farmers who typically have 6 to 15 milking cows.

Nicaragua began exporting cheese to El Salvador in 1990 with a gross value of 

$128,000. In 1998 this amount rose to 8,400 metric tons with a gross value of $14 

million.21 Most of this cheese is Morolique a salty white cheese made from 

unpasteurized milk, which is what Salvadoran consumers prefer. FECALAC estimates 

that Nicaragua exported some 52 million metric tons of dairy products in 2001, most 

produced by 1,200 small-scale producers. El Salvador has begun enforcing its food 

quality standards and few of Nicaragua’s small-scale producers are in compliance.

Emerging regional trade agreements create new opportunities for Nicaraguan milk 

processors to market their products in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico. These 

countries have growing populations and economies, as well as increasing pressure on 

land resources. However, to expand regional exports, Nicaraguan processors must 

address milk hygiene regulations. Less than 30 percent of Nicaraguan milk is 

pasteurized. Milk quality at the farm level suffers from lack of infrastructure and proper 

milk management. Loss of milk at collection centers due to contamination and seasonal 

declines in supply prevents processing plants from operating at full capacity, creating a 

disincentive to investment in new equipment and facilities.

The formal sector, mainly four industrial milk plants including Parmalot, supplies 

approximately 20 percent of the dairy products consumed. These products are 

pasteurized, packaged, stored, and sold under reasonably good quality standards. The 

remaining 80 percent is marketed through channels consisting mainly of small-scale 

rural cheese factories that do not pasteurize milk or maintain sanitary conditions and 

quality controls, although most have a health certificate to operate. Product shelf life is 

approximately 10 days and raw product prices paid to the informal sector are 20 percent 

less than the formal sector pays to its suppliers. Specific constraints that FtF can help 

address include:

Seasonal decrease in milk production. There is little use of feed concentrates, 

because the majority of producers prefer grass feed to lower production costs. During 

the rainy season (June through November), supply of natural grass is sufficient. 

However, during the dry months, limited fodder results in significant decreases in milk 

production. Price differentials, up to 50 percent, occur as a result of nearly double the 

amount of milk being available during the rainy season. Milk also suffers from longer 

transport times, higher bacterial counts, and lower milk solids content in the rainy 

season. Prices are greater during the dry periods as rural conditions are not as prone to 

contamination, the total solids content is greater and transport time less, resulting in a 

higher quality raw product. Consequently, more milk is required to make the same 

amount of cheese during the rainy season than the dry season. In contrast, farms 

supplying the industrial sector are managed to provide a constant year-round supply of 

raw product through better feed and quality control programs.

 

21 MAGFOR 2000
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 117

Lack of infrastructure at the farm level. Farmers are not investing in the infrastructure 

(e.g., proper housing) and equipment (basic milking tools) needed for hygienic milk 

production and handling. They also do not have the facilities to store silage.

Poor management of processing. At all levels of the Nicaragua dairy industry, poor 

handling of milk takes place. This is the major contributing factor to the deterioration of 

milk quality.

Lack of incentives to market high quality products. Milk producers and processors 

lack price incentives to market higher quality pasteurized products because there has 

been little branding or means for consumers to differentiate between products that have 

been made from properly pasteurized milk and those made from low quality milk.

Winrock’s FtF Program worked with the dairy/cheese sector during its previous grant in 

Nicaragua from 1992 to 1997, and has continued its relationship with the sector in the 

current TSSF project. FtF will collaborate with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 

TechnoServe, and others to upgrade Nicaragua’s artisan dairy products. Other 

weaknesses in the dairy sector that FtF can effectively address include business skills, 

marketing, packaging, processing, phytosanitary requirements, and differentiating 

products to enter new market niches. For example, the Nicaraguan Dairy Chamber and 

CONAGAN are requesting FtF technical assistance related to improved production 

practices, pasture management, and dairy products commercialization.

==================================================================

ACDI/VOCA - Kenya

Summary Program Description and Strategy

USAID awarded ACDI/VOCA the John Ogonowski Farmer-to-Farmer program in East 

Africa on September 30, 2003. This program will be concentrated in Kenya and Uganda, 

following on ACDI/VOCA’s previous activities with the Greater Horn of Africa component 

of the Worldwide Farmer-to-Farmer program. During the course of this five-year project, 

ACDI/VOCA staff will field a total of 160 volunteers, who will provide short-term technical 

assistance in the maize/grains, dairy, and horticulture sectors in each country. In 

addition, ACDI/VOCA’s Minority Serving Institution (MSI) partner in this project, Virginia 

State University (VSU), will field a total of 28 volunteers over the life of the project. The 

VSU-fielded volunteers will complement the ACDI/VOCA volunteers by establishing 

embedded extension services in the three focus commodity subsectors, and by working 

with the Cooperative College of Kenya and Egerton University.

The Kenya FtF program aims to encourage economic and social development in the 

agricultural sector in order that farmers make higher profits on their products. To achieve 

this objective, an integrated approach to enhance the quality of production, 

management, marketing, market information access, and development of other support 

activities such as extension services has been top of agenda. ACDI/VOCA will focus on 

the improvement of the operations of smallholder associations that currently lack 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 118

adequate representation due to the near collapse of the cooperative sector in Kenya. 

These focus areas are designed to follow up on past interventions and complement 

larger programs currently being implemented in Uganda and Kenya, in order to 

maximize the impact of short-term assignments. Follow-up assignments will be carried 

out to comply with recommendations from previous Farmer-to-Farmer volunteer 

interventions, continuing long-term relations with clients and host organizations that have 

hosted ACDI/VOCA volunteer consultants. 

ACDI/VOCA’s Farmer-to-Farmer Program in East Africa has been targeting and will 

continue to target farmer groups at the grassroots level, beginning with small villagelevel groups of 10-20, creating sustainability through follow-up assignments with such 

groups, which then serve as models to be emulated by other groups. Assignments 

targeted at cooperatives will focus on the need for a change in culture to enable them to 

compete in a liberalized environment where markets require customer orientation, and 

where organizations need growth, liquidity, and solvency. Assignments will incorporate 

business and market strategy development, and will aim to create sustainability through 

relevant strategic plans, alongside other aspects of association development.

In addition, HIV/AIDS-related activities in specific volunteer assignments have become 

integrated into the Farmer-to-Farmer Program’s interventions, especially those in areas 

with high prevalence rates. HIV/AIDS is becoming an important part of all interventions 

made by development organizations throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Consequently, in 

FY 2004 the program will explore methods to synergize its activities in this field with 

other organizations to which social development is core business. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 119

ANNEX B: EXAMPLE OF PROJECT PLAN CNFA MOLDOVA

Date of Submission:

Date Project Began: July, 2002

Host Organization: Lactica Dairy Cooperative

Project Location: Village of Cuconestii Noi, northern Moldova near the 

town of Edinet

CNFA Work Plan Objective Served: Objective 1– Increase the incomes of private farmers by 

helping them create democratic business cooperatives 

Strategy Developed By: Mr. Oleg Brinza

ESTIMATED NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHOSE LIVES ARE IMPROVED THROUGH THIS 

PROJECT:

Large 

Improvement

Small 

Improvement Total

Directly Improved 1,200 0 1,200

Indirectly Improved 21 0 21

Total 1,221 0 1,221

The following groups of people will experience one or more of the Level III impacts 

described in the Desired Impacts table below:

• 1,200 dairy producers supplying raw milk to the cooperative

• 1 co-op manager

• 3 veterinarians

• 17 cooperative employees
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DESIRED IMPACTS: 

Level of Impact22 Desired Impacts Host Profile Verification Items23

USAID 

Indicator 

Tables24

Lactica operates a veterinary 

pharmacy

Section V: Question G: “Member 

services”

Table V: 

Question A

The cooperative manages its 

business affairs following a 

business plan and monthly 

budgets

Section V: Question A: “Does the 

cooperative have a work plan?”

Section IV: Question C: “Has the 

cooperative adopted a budget?”

Table VI: 

Question B

Local dairy producers expand 

their dairy herds 

Section II: Question E2: “Size of 

herd of largest member”

Section II: Question E3: “Herd size 

of smallest member”

Table V: 

Question A

The cooperative opens an A/I 

station 

Section V: Question G: “Member 

services”

Table V: 

Question A

1. Host performs 

specific acts 

using the 

information & 

skills 

provided by 

the volunteer

Milk production increases as 

result of over 50% of supply-line 

farmers using A/I services

Section IV: Question D1: Vet. and 

A/I services “Total Income 

(breakdown per service)”

Table V: 

Question B

2. Intermediate 

impacts (link 

Level I to 

Level III)

Lactica milk collection amount 

increases due to improved 

lactation, rotational conception 

schedule and more dairy 

producers selling milk to the 

cooperative

Section II: Question F2: “Quantity 

of milk collected by the cooperative 

(average kg/day)”

Table V: 

Question B

Lactica improves revenues from 

increased milk & inputs sales 

over FY2001 records

Section V: Question M: “Revenue 

from services” Table V: 

Question D 3. Improvements 

in the lives of 

host people 

(usually an 

increase in 

income).

Local dairy producers’ cash 

income increases due to 

increased milk sales to the 

cooperative

Section V: Question P: “Total cash 

paid out to members”

Table V: 

Question E 

 

22 Since the goal of the overall program is to improve people’s lives, the project should have a succession of desired impacts leading 

logically up from Level I to at least Level III. Level IV identifies ways (if any) that the improvements generated by the assignment 

might be transmitted to a population beyond the immediate hosts.

23 Identify specific items in the Host Profile that will provide direct or – if it will not be possible to monitor the activity directly –

indirect confirmation of the impacts having been achieved. If data will be collected by means other than CNFA staff survey (for 

example, by host organization survey of its members), specify those means.

24 Specify the category/ies in the USAID Indicator Tables that will be credited if the desired impact is achieved.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 121

ANTICIPATED ASSIGNMENTS AND OBJECTIVES: 

Assignment Dates Objectives

Business 

Development 

09/01/-

09/22/02

1. Lactica cooperative management determines priority areas 

for cooperative development.

2. Lactica Board and Manager draw a long-term development 

strategy. 

3. Lactica Board and Manager adopt a short-term action plan. 

4. Lactica Manager develops and presents full-cost budgets 

for enterprises planned for launch or expansion. 

Veterinarian 

Service 

Development 

09/25-

10/16/2002

1. Lactica veterinarian assesses and develops a plan for 

improving the overall cow maintenance conditions.

2. Lactica Veterinarian, with manager’s support, develops 

mastitis prevention/control regulations for supply-line 

producers.

3. Lactica management sets a plan for developing a 

veterinarian pharmacy within the cooperative. 

Milk Production 

(Nutrition 

Development)

10/25-

11/16/2002

1. Lactica Manager and Agronomist put together a silage 

development program for the cooperative, including crop 

production and marketing to members.

2. Lactica cooperative designs an educational program for its 

supply-line farmers to instruct them on production of alfalfa, 

soybean, and other forage supplements. 

3. Cuconesti dairy producers learn to prepare and store good 

quality hay for winter.

Artificial 

Insemination 

Service 

Development

02/01-

02/22/2003

1. Lactica cooperative establishes an artificial insemination 

station in the village. 

2. A/I specialist and Manager develop an artificial 

insemination program aiming to improve winter milk 

supplies of the village herd. 

BACKGROUND: 

4,500 people reside in Cuconesti community. During Soviet times, a large “kolkhoz” collective 

farm operated there, being specialized in orchard and dairy production. The old dairy’s 

capacity constituted 1,000 milking cows. After 1990, unable to adjust to free market 

conditions, the farm had no other option than bankruptcy. Most of the assets were used to 

cover farm’s debts, while the rest were distributed between the employees based on their 

seniority on the farm. Today, about 640 Cuconesti farming families own over 1,200 heads of 

cattle and almost every family sells raw milk on the local market. 

The average Cuconesti farmer sells milk because of the stringent need for money. Although 

now only 20% of dairy farmers consider selling milk as their primary source of income, this 

trend is growing in conditions where milk is becoming the only constant cash source. More 

and more farmers express interest in expanding their dairy enterprise to increase the cash 

flow on their farms. Following this rationale, about 120 dairy producers set up a dairy 

marketing cooperative to access and exploit a stable and reliable market for their produce. Of 

the initial 120, 80 participated with 50 Lei (approximately $3.75) as joining fee. 

The producers view the cooperative as a possibility to sign a long-term contract with 

processors and avoid many questions that usually arise when selling milk at an individual 

level. The organization structure and all the implying proceedings discipline member 

suppliers and ensure quality control and quantity increase. This in turn increases 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 122

cooperative’s bargaining power, while earned profits allow members to develop the 

organization. 

Mr. Ion Borta, the leader of Cuconesti dairy marketing group, initiated collection of milk back 

in 1996. That year and the following three were famous for the events that took place in 

economic life of many Moldovan operators. Most of formerly owned state enterprises 

underwent privatization and became joint-stock companies with management in private 

hands. Unfortunately, that period is also infamous for failures to make timely payments to 

farmers. Ion Borta and his wife Natalia, entrepreneur and accountant, were constantly looking 

for ways to improve terms of delivery contracts as well as expand the milk collection 

operations. In his ambitions to find better terms, Ion came across Alba Dairy, a MoldovanAmerican joint venture, which turned out to be the most understanding and supporting of 

dairy producers around the country. Realizing the challenges that Ion and his colleagues 

struggled with, Alba provided them with a milk truck to help expand the operations in the 

neighboring villages. Undercapitalized yet sure of their success, the Borta family started to 

look for more support among private producers, because a cooperative formation would have 

more development potential than an individually run enterprise. More control over the quality 

of delivered product, a forum for structured training workshops to improve milk production, a 

good bargaining power are some advantages of cooperatives over private ownership 

structures. 

In their efforts to consolidate the community around a cooperative, the Borta family found 

some support from Agriment, a Dutch Government development organization. Agriment 

provided some basic training on cooperative concepts and assisted the newly formed 

cooperative with milk collection and office equipment. The cooling equipment allowed the 

cooperative to expand its operations into 7 neighboring villages. Today, the daily collection 

amounts have exceeded 7,000 liters per day and the total number of suppliers has reached 

1,200. Agriment’s collaboration with Cuconesti will end in December 2002. By that time, the 

Cooperative will be fully equipped with a German-made Mueller cooling tank as well as some 

other accessories. Agriment will also provide equipment for a milk storage room, laboratory, 

and office. Understanding the limitations of their project, Agriment fully supported Cuconesti 

farmers’ initiative in requesting CNFA volunteer assistance in different areas of their activity. 

Even with such impressive development over the last several years, the cooperative 

management and active membership still realizes that the road to successful operations is 

long and challenging. Realizing the tasks laying ahead, Cuconesti dairy producers requested 

CNFA volunteer assistance to address issues of silage production, uneven milk supply, cow 

maintenance (i.e., mastitis prevention and control) and other veterinary issues. At the same 

time, to properly envision and plan all activities, the cooperative management asks for 

assistance in business planning and management.

Attachment: Host Profile Spreadsheet
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 123

ANNEX C: EXAMPLE OF SCOPE OF WORK 

ACDI/VOCA – KENYA

The following example from ACDI/VOCA’s FtF program in Eastern Africa combines both 

a SOW for a specific assignment and project plan for the Odong’ Multipurpose 

Cooperative.

==================================================

Scope of Work/Target Organization Profile for ACDI/VOCA 

Technical Assistance in Institutional and Marketing Capacity 

Building for the Ondong’ Multipurpose Cooperative.

I. ASSIGNMENT INFORMATION

Assignment Number: 441011-001 

Assignment Title: Institutional and Marketing Capacity Building.

Assignment Location: Country: Kenya.

Region: Migori District.

Submission Date: June 2004

Assignment Summary:

The Ondong’ Farmers Multipurpose Cooperative Society started in 1994 as a marketing 

organization representing over 1,500 farmers. The society represents over 20 different 

farmer groups, which are administered under its umbrella in a confederation model. 

Years of setbacks in performing its core function of marketing members’ dairy and 

horticultural produce have been attributed to an underdeveloped institutional and 

organizational capacity to adequately live up to its mandate. The ability of the 

management to create and implement an institutional structure to enable business 

growth and to support its complex membership structure is essentially lacking. 

The Ondong’ Farmers Multipurpose Cooperative Society has sought ACDI/VOCA 

technical assistance in Cooperative Institution Strengthening. The successful volunteer 

will help the cooperative develop a model organizational structure and management 

system, and initiate techniques through which improved organizational and management 

capacity will translate into increased business and improved member services and 

participation. Interventions will be aimed at identifying the best approaches for mobilizing 

and training its members for effective agricultural planning and marketing. This 

assignment will also explore how the improved structure will support the cooperative’s 

key function of providing market access and timely market information to its members. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 124

Assignment Dates:

a. Acceptable Range of Start Dates: July 31-August 31, 2004 

b. Preferred Assignment Start Date: August 9, 2004 

c. Assignment Duration: 16 days

Assignment Subsector: Agriculture – Cooperative Management Services. 

 

Commodities/Products: Dairy, Horticulture, Fresh Fruit. 

II. ASSIGNMENT DESCRIPTION

A. Problem statement: 

An interview with the cooperative’s leadership and members revealed major constraints 

to be reduced financial and institutional sustainability, which can be attributed to 

unfocused and poorly articulated objectives as well as inept management. The farmers 

and Ministry of Cooperative Development and Marketing officials interviewed concurred 

with the assessment that the cooperative lacks the institutional and organizational 

capacity to represent its members adequately in its key functions – farm input sourcing, 

information transfer, and most importantly marketing. This conclusion was emphasized 

by an organization capacity assessment test (OCAT) which pointed out weaknesses in 

governance, management practices, external relations, and financial resource 

management. These weaknesses have resulted in deplorable service delivery, poor 

membership relations and eroded resource base sustainability. 

B. Objectives of the assignment:

The Ondong’ Cooperative Society has existed since 1994 as a marketing organization 

representing over 1,500 farmers, but in the past 10 years have not made a significant 

impact on the incomes of its members. Despite well-intended goals, the recurring 

setbacks in performance have been attributed to underdeveloped institutional and 

organizational capacity to live up adequately to its mandate. An enlightened 

management could make a tangible difference in the cooperative’s capacity to create 

and implement an institutional structure to enable turnover growth and to support its 

complex membership structure. Most of all, institutional arrangements must be 

incorporated to ensure that the cooperative is answerable to the farmers. It is notable 

that past initiatives aimed at improving access to input credit and dealing with gender 

imbalances in access to resources failed because of lack of proper institutional control 

mechanisms and farmer member participation in decision-making – a common 

occurrence in cooperatives in Kenya. 

This assignment is intended to provide a basic set of management resources – a 

blueprint – that can be utilized by the society to institutionalize a flexible organizational 

structure that reflects the goals and aspirations of the coops members, for the purpose 

of managing local resources and adapting to prevailing environments. With an improved 

capacity to plan for the market, the cooperative should be able to access and 

disseminate market information to its members, thereby increasing their revenues.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 125

For participatory development, the farmer members have to be empowered to take the 

leading role with respect to decision-making in planning, operations, and management. 

This participation will then represent an opportunity to improve their capacity and 

strengthen the organization, which are prerequisites for any further development 

interventions. 

C. Assignment tasks:

Before leaving U.S.:

• Acquire vaccinations recommended for tropical areas;

• Conduct research on cooperative development and associated constraints in subSaharan Africa

• If possible, the volunteer should bring books and materials that would assist the 

company to sharpen its business strategy.

• Prepare resource materials, which will be used during the training. Note that 

additional copies of these materials may be produced in Nairobi prior to the 

assignment.

• Please note that ACDI/VOCA Headquarters must approve any expenses exceeding 

$100, prior to the dates of the assignment. 

• Most importantly, he/she will be required to understand the concepts of smallholder 

farmer organizational development and associated management constraints. The 

volunteer should be in a position to design management structures reflecting 

cooperative action in development. The volunteer should also be able to prepare 

training materials and modules.

In-country activities/tasks:

• Discuss needs/goals of cooperative members, identify priority areas of intervention. 

• Discuss with the cooperative leaders, leadership, and cooperative extension officials 

how the association can be strengthened.

• Train the association leaders on the running of such an institution.

• Design an administrative structure for the growth of Ondong’ Multipurpose 

Cooperative.

Post Assignment:

After the assignment, the volunteer will be expected to prepare a report on the 

assignment, giving an implementation timeline for changes in the designed management 

structure. The report should give indicators on how a comprehensive evaluation can be 

done by the group and ACDI/VOCA by providing visible and timed indicators to gauge 

performance and the impact of the assignment. In addition, the volunteer will be 

expected to make recommendations on potential follow-on activity.

D. Deliverables:Technology Transfer/Recommendations-General Management. 

E. Anticipated Work schedule:
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 126

Week 1: Briefing at ACDI/VOCA. Travel to the Co-op and discussion of joint plan of 

work. Fact-finding about the cooperative’s existing decision-making process, especially 

as related to management composition and roles. Visits to farmers’ association

representatives, traders, processors, and Ministry of Cooperative development staff.

Meet with cooperative membership for SWOT analysis and hold discussions with the 

association’s management to source ideas.

Week 2: Carry out training of management on aspects of cooperative management 

strategy. Train cooperative leadership on how to mobilize the grassroots associations 

that constitute the cooperative membership for effective and efficient collective action for 

the core marketing function. Design a management structure with the association

leaders. Create a basic market information access and dissemination system. Meet 

membership at open forum to present findings. Prepare report, debriefing and leave for 

U.S.

III. Volunteer Qualifications and Priorities

• Background in group / association development and management. 

• Background in agribusiness planning and marketing.

• Experience in community mobilization

• Experience in developing countries, preferably in Africa.

• Excellent health condition

• Training skills: experience with management education would be beneficial to

translate technical expertise into materials that can be easily interpreted by farmer 

members of the cooperative.

• Country Experience/Language Capability: Experience with smallholder production

systems.

• Should have good analytical skills. 

• Availability for assignment timing

IV. Requesting Organization

A. Name: Ondong Farmers Multi-purpose Cooperative Society Ltd.

 Primary Contact: Mr. Muturi, Chairman

Address: P.O. Box 855 - 40400, Suna-Migori, Kenya.

Tel: Office: (254) - 722-832901

B. Type of host organization: Association/Cooperative

C. Organization Profile 

The Ondong’ Cooperative Society is located in Migori Town, on the Nairobi-Isebania 

Road in Migori District, on the shores of Lake Victoria (about 400 km from Nairobi). 

Membership consists of over 1,500 small-scale farmers farming an average of 10 acres 

each. These farmers keep cattle for dairy production, and are often also engaged in 

intensive horticultural crop production, which they market locally and regionally. The 

activities of the cooperative are geared to benefit its members and it aims to establish 

effective and innovative approaches to commodity production, storage, marketing, and 

credit systems for its members through:

• Mobilizing smallholder farmers, consolidating their produce for onward linkages to 

the market.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 127

• Upgrading capacities of members through training and access to sustainable

technologies for high production, right qualities, and efficient delivery to the market.

• Harnessing the existing production potentials through proper planning and forward 

contracting.

• Establishing effective and efficient delivery and payment systems.

• Establishing the much-needed linkages to affordable credit and current market

information.

• Attaining sustainability through provision of other relevant services and developing 

required internal capacities through regular training.

The farmers elect a committee of nine members consisting of one representative from 

each block plus a chairperson, treasurer and secretary in conformity with the statutory 

requirements. The management committee manages policy, fee collection, and

operations. Although women form at least half of the active membership, only one

woman sits on the management board, courtesy of a requirement in the bylaws requiring 

women representation. Cost of managing the coop’s operations and other expenses is 

borne from a monthly levy charged to each farmer and administered collectively. 

Apart from the marketing function, the cooperative schedules production regimes for its 

members to ensure timely and constant delivery of produce to make sure that the 

organization fulfills contractual obligations it makes. The society has not been able to sell 

directly to the market due to poorly developed access to reliable market information and 

frequent inability to create consistent volumes to fulfill supply contracts. The society 

however sells to brokers who then source for alternative markets usually at a

considerable profit. The cooperatives’ uniqueness comes from the fact that its members 

are not individual farmers but small informal groups from three different localities who 

have agreed to come together and act as one larger group. Each group that wishes to 

join has to meet certain criteria, which includes a registration fee and a share-capital 

subscription fee, after which the group’s chairperson is appointed to the executive 

committee of Ondong’ Cooperative. Nominating groups each hold their own elections, 

and in most cases have different governing constitutions. The cooperative is a loose 

federation of 20 semi-autonomous groups. 

Apart from marketing members’ produce, the society has endeavored to purchase inputs 

in bulk on behalf of the members and sell to them at discounted prices. Profits from this 

operation are channeled to cover for operation costs. The cooperative has 3 salaried 

employees: a manager/bookkeeper, a marketing representative, and an animal

husbandry technician. It has rented an office and also has a basic storage facility for 

horticultural crops. The cooperative has recently intensified recruitment of grassroots 

membership in order to generate critical masses to support its ambitious marketing 

plans. The cooperative is reaching out to both individual farmers and other producer 

groups, and is aiming to register a total of 3,000 members. The management contends 

that this would be a sufficient number to guarantee consistency in produce reaching the 

market or to fulfill contract farming based on production capability.

D. Assignment Background

The cooperative is located in Migori district, which borders Lake Victoria. While the lake

offers certain possibilities in terms of fisheries, irrigation and transport, much of the land 

away from the lakeshore is of low potential regarding commercial production, a situation 

compounded by poor infrastructure. Nevertheless, crops such as cotton, tobacco, and 

horticultural crops can be beneficial to the smallholders. Moving further from the lake 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 128

and with increasing altitude, agricultural potential improves and crops such as

sugarcane, coffee, and tea can be found in the eastern parts of the district. Agriculture 

contributes to 75% of household incomes in the area. Dairy cattle are kept under zero 

grazing25 and there is an increasing demand for dairy goats. Sugarcane and tobacco are 

widely produced in the district as rain fed crops on contract basis to various processors. 

In addition to food crops such as bananas and maize, farmers grow horticultural crops 

including kales, tomatoes, onions, pineapples, citrus, bananas, mangoes, and more

recently, passion fruit. Cotton and pineapples are also grown on a relatively low scale, 

and there is no organized processing (juice extraction, packaging) of marketing

channels. 

There are no successful farmer cooperatives to enable bulk input purchasing or effective 

collective product marketing. There is no substantial private sector support to farming. 

Farmers lack capital for commercial production, while financial institutions in the vicinity 

are few. There are about 20 operational cooperatives in the region, including dairy

cooperatives, fishermen’s cooperatives, multipurpose cooperatives, and 10 savings and 

credit cooperatives (SACCOs). Coffee coops, which concentrate on the provision of 

inputs and technical advice and marketing to coffee farmers, seem to be the only vibrant 

coops.

Government extension services, limited to dairy and livestock, farming provide clinical 

and vaccination services as well as technical advice on demand, and until recently had 

been offering natural bull services for exotic dairy cattle and an upgrading project for 

local breeds. Extension services in other areas are severely limited, and production 

levels by smallholder farmers are generally low, as most have not adopted improved 

production technologies. This situation is exacerbated by poverty and the ensuing lack of 

capital for inputs as well as the inability to access technical information. Farmers have 

attempted to address their problems jointly through informal farmer groups, which

attempt to facilitate credit, training and agricultural information. This assignment will

attempt to build the capacity of the Ondong’ Multipurpose Cooperative which is a loose 

federation of several of these informal farmer self help groups into a responsive and 

businesslike organization and offer direction on how to be able to do this systematically.

Marketing is problematic due to poor infrastructure, marketing channels, and storage 

facilities. Farmers tend to incur high post-harvest losses due to spoilage or destruction of 

produce. Lack of storage space forces farmers to sell all at once, flooding the market 

and occasioning low prices. Sustained tobacco growing has rendered the soils in the 

area unsuitable for the growing of all but a few crops, and Spirited Campaigns by the 

UN- World Health Program on tobacco growing and poor producer prices offered by 

tobacco firms has resulted in farmers exploring alternative cash crops, such as passion 

fruit. Passion fruit growing has become increasingly widespread in the recent past, 

notwithstanding anticipated problems in marketing. Ever-optimistic farmers are counting 

on their cooperative to play a major role in market intelligence gathering, and

consequence bulk selling and forward contracting, a possibility only if the organization 

has a structure and orientation to support it.

 

25 Zero Grazing: a labor intensive animal feeding and husbandry method peculiar to small scale farmers 

where usually one dairy animal is kept confined in a more often than not rudimentary structure, food and 

water being rationed out.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 129

The cooperative and its management must be able to build a collective decision

capability in allocating their resources. This assignment will attempt to build the

cooperatives capacity to analyze problems, create strategies necessary to overcome 

them and promote sustainability by offering proper member services.

E. Organization plans/goals: 

Immediate

1. Recruit optimum membership through groups and associations. 

2. Establish an effective organizational structure.

3. Develop standards for production and marketing.

4. Establish a secretariat complete with fully equipped office and member

support

5. To develop value-added processing at the local level (e.g. fruit juice

processing).

Long Term Plans

1. To improve the production and to ensure regular availability of produce.

2. To secure a storage facility for members at District level.

3. To strategically locate buying centers and other commodity handling facilities.

4. To establish a strong and effective network with stakeholders.

5. To develop a handbook used to train group leaders chosen by groups in the 

district.

6. To develop management information systems in order to increase the

efficiency of the association and its stakeholders.

V. Beneficiaries (Anticipated – To be confirmed by volunteer during assignment)

A. Direct beneficiaries: female 20 B. Direct beneficiaries: male 25

C. Indirect beneficiaries: female 400 D. Indirect beneficiaries: male 250

VI. Expected Outcomes

A. Expected Results/Impact

ß Establishment of management and institutional systems for effective 

planning.

ß Improved membership base

ß Increased crop marketed through the cooperative

ß Improved member services and market information availability

ß Establishment of a reliable market information collection and dissemination 

system

ß Improved profitability of the cooperative.

B. Assignment Results/Impact as linked to overall Project Objectives
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 130

This assignment falls under Farmer-to-Farmer’s horticulture focus area, particularly in its 

second objective: increasing domestic and international trade for horticulture farmers. 

This objective has a particular focus on enabling farmers and associations to access 

marketing information services and gain access to higher-value, reliable markets for their 

produce. 

C. USAID Regional Objectives

This assignment is in line with USAID-Kenya’s Strategic Objective 7 (SO7), which seeks 

to increase rural household income. The SO7 approach is to integrate all the process 

involved in the horticulture, dairy and the maize industries in Kenya by addressing input 

supply, husbandry methods, production, processing, and marketing of products in these 

subsectors with a vision of increasing the rate of returns on farmer’s and other 

stakeholders’ investments. The SO7 also seeks to evaluate the environmental and 

cultural effects of farming in the rural areas of Kenya. The mission is funding the Kenya 

Horticulture Development Project (KHDP) and the Kenya Dairy Development Program 

(KDDP) to assist small-scale farmers in meeting increasing competition by identifying 

new product opportunities and improvements in technology and production systems. 

Overall strategy for both programs is to work for stronger, more representative producer 

organizations capable of sustainably entering into business arrangements.

D. Post-Assignment Survey 

The volunteer will be expected to prepare a post-assignment report, indicating how the 

organization should implement the recommendations given. The report should provide a 

framework for a comprehensive evaluation that can be done by the host, ACDI/VOCA 

and possibly USAID, by providing visible and timed indicators to gauge host 

performance and assignment impact. This assignment is designed to be the first of a 

series that will complement KHDP and FtF’s initiatives in technology transfer of good 

agricultural and natural resource management practices, in post-harvest handling and 

farmer sensitization in marketing and market strategy.

VII. Resources to be Contributed by the Host/Client

A. Drivers: 14 of days Estimated Value: $140

B. Interpreters: # of days Estimated Value: $_______

C. Lodging: # of days Estimated Value: $_______

D. Meals: # of days Estimated Value: $_______

E. Transportation: 14 days Estimated Value: $420

F. Other: Estimated Value: $_______

VIII. Financial Information for Calculating Volunteer Travel Advance

A. Travel and Transportation: Cost: $_______

B. Lodging: 3 days in Nairobi; 14 days in Migori Cost: $255, 

C. M&IE: 3 days in Nairobi; 14 days in Migori Cost: $398, 

D. Interpreter/Translator: # of days Cost: $_______

E. Other Costs (i.e. visas, training materials, etc.) Cost: $_______
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 131

ANNEX D: RECRUITING DATA BASE FORMAT – ACDI/VOCA

EXAMPLE OF INDIVIDUAL RECORD IN REGISTRY OF VOLUNTEERS

Last Name: First Name:

Notes: Title, Suffix: 

 

Recruit Region: Volunteer 

Term:

Consultant 

Term:

Primary USPS Mailing 

Address (including c/o 

instructions, company 

names and PO boxes 

or street addresses):

Alternate 

Address:

City: Citizenship: 

Country: 

Home Phone: Work/Cell 

Phone, 

Extension:

 

Receive Mailings? 

Fax: Web Site: 

Email 1: Email 2: 

Resume Resume is attached 

here

REFERENCES/EDUCATION:

References First Second Third

 Name: 

Title: 

 Phone: 

Education 

Degree: 

Academic Major: 

Degree Institution: 

Degree Year: 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 132

SKILLS: (selected from a drop down menu)

EXPERIENCE SUMMARY:

Employment status:

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION/PERMANENT COMMENTS:

First Contact Date: Last Contact Date: 

CONTACT LOG/TEMPORARY INFORMATION:

NON-RESUME ATTACHMENTS (evaluations, reports, etc.)

LANGUAGE/AFFILIATIONS:

LIST OF ASSIGNMENTS COMPLETED:

Last Completed Assignment Date:, Country: 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 133

ANNEX E: ORIENTATION MATERIALS

I. Land O’Lakes Briefing Book Table of Contents for Zambia 

Farmer-to-Farmer Program

1. Scope of Work

2. Briefing Notes

3. Country Information

4. Overview of Projects

5. Statement of Value

6. Medical Evacuation Insurance

7. Map

8. Hotel Information

9. Per Diem Information

10. Contact List & Phone Information

11. Expense Report

12. Match Report

13. Final Report Format

14. Country Info/Security/Travel Tips

15. Miscellaneous
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 134

II. Kenya Orientation Materials – ACDI/VOCA

A. Assignment Logistics

1. Working/living conditions at the site

Migori district is located on the plain that rises gradually from the shores of Lake Victoria. 

The area has a modified climate and is at an average altitude of 800 m above sea level. 

Most of the year, it is warm and humid throughout the day. The preferred assignment 

period is just before the onset of the short rains. Daylight temperatures are average 

260C. The volunteer will be more comfortable in casual summer attire. A pair of study 

boots may come in handy.

2. Materials needed for the assignment

The consultant will be required to prepare resource materials to facilitate the training 

exercise properly. The ACDI/VOCA-Kenya office will provide flip charts and pens. If 

possible, the volunteer consultant should bring books and materials that will act as 

reference and assist in business plan development.

3. Other Logistics: On-site details

Computer: The volunteer will have access to the ACDI/VOCA laptop. He/she will

access to a telephone. E-mail facilities can be accessed after a 15-minute drive.

Volunteer Arrival and Transport to Hotel: The volunteer will be picked at the Jomo 

Kenyatta International Airport, Nairobi by ACDI/VOCA staff carrying a placard on which 

will his/her name will be written, and then taken to the Jacaranda Hotel for a day of rest. 

Accommodation: While in Nairobi, the volunteer will stay at the Jacaranda Hotel. There 

are a variety of restaurants and shopping malls next to the hotel.

The Jacaranda Hotel: The Jacaranda Hotel is situated in Westlands, on the outskirts of 

Nairobi. It is a four-star hotel set in spacious gardens with a swimming pool and salon. 

The rooms are clean and comfortably equipped with a television with 9 different

channels, including CNN. International direct dialing from rooms can be arranged

through the reception desk. The hotel provides laundry and dry cleaning services. It is 

next to the Sarit Centre shopping mall, which houses a bank, forex bureau, shops, 

grocery store, bookshop, restaurant, fast food center, and a Cyberspace Center for 

emails, fax and internet services.

The Jacaranda Hotel

P.O. Box 14287

Westlands, Nairobi

Phone: 254-20-444-8713 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7

Fax: 254-2-444-6159

Email: Jacaranda@africaonline.co.ke

Gilly Hotel, Migori: The Gilly Hotel located of the Kisii-Isebania road, about 50 km from 

Kenya’s border with Tanzania. Its rooms are self-contained, have hot water and

electricity. 

Note: The exact assignment accommodation location may change to enable the

consultant have closer relations with the host organization.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 135

Travel Advance Schedule: The assignment is based mainly in rural Kenya. The

volunteer will be provided with transport by ACDI/VOCA while in Nairobi and by the 

Ondong Cooperative while in Migori. Prior to leaving the United States, the volunteer will 

be provided with adequate per diem for each location, ($30/day while in Nairobi and 

$22/day upcountry). Lodging will be paid separately and will be on an actual basis.

Exchange Rate: U.S. $ 1 = 77.5 Kenya Shillings.

B. Country Information.

Official Name: Republic of Kenya

Geography:

Area: 582,646 sq. km. (224,960 sq mi.); slightly smaller than Texas, of which 130,000 sq 

km is water area.

Cities: Capital--Nairobi (pop. 2.1 million). Other cities--Mombasa (665,000), Kisumu 

(504,000), Nakuru (1.2 million). 

Terrain: Kenya rises from a low coastal plain on the Indian Ocean in a series of 

mountain ridges and plateaus, which stand to, above 3,000 meters (9,000 ft.) in the 

center of the country. The Rift Valley bisects the country above Nairobi, opening up to a 

broad arid plain in the north. Mountain plains cover the south before descending to the 

shores of Lake Victoria in the west. 

Climate: Although the country lies across the equator, it experiences wide climatic 

variations due to great differences in altitude. There is a narrow tropical belt along the 

coastline behind which lies large areas of arid and semi arid land. The land then rises 

steadily to the temperate highland plateau (where Nairobi is situated) through which 

passes the spectacular Rift Valley with the highlands to its west and east. Towards the 

extreme West and South-West the presence of Lake Victoria (the second largest single 

fresh water body in the world) has modifies the climate to humid semi-tropical. 

Environment and Natural Resources

Kenya’s natural resources include gold, limestone, soda ash, salt barites, rubies,

fluorspar, garnets, and wildlife.

Current environmental issues of greatest concern are water pollution from urban and 

industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from increased use of pesticides and 

fertilizers; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; and poaching.

Kenya is party to the following international agreements: Biodiversity, Climate Change,

Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life

Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands. 

History:

Fossils found in East Africa suggest that protohumans roamed the area more than 20

million years ago. Recent finds near Kenya's Lake Turkana indicate that hominids lived 

in the area 2.6 million years ago.

Cushitic-speaking people from northern Africa moved into the area that is now Kenya 

beginning around 2000 BC. Arab traders began frequenting the Kenya coast around the 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 136

first century A.D. Kenya's proximity to the Arabian Peninsula invited colonization, and 

Arab and Persian settlements sprouted along the coast by the eighth century. During the 

first millennium A.D., Nilotic and Bantu peoples moved into the region, and the latter now 

comprises three-quarters of Kenya's population.

The Swahili language, a mixture of Bantu and Arabic, developed as a lingua franca for 

trade between the different peoples. Arab dominance on the coast was eclipsed by the 

arrival in 1498 of the Portuguese, who gave way in turn to Islamic control under the 

Imam of Oman in the 1600s. The United Kingdom established its influence in the 19th 

century.

The colonial history of Kenya dates from the Berlin Conference of 1885, when the 

European powers first partitioned East Africa into spheres of influence. In 1895, the U.K. 

Government established the East African Protectorate and, soon after, opened the fertile 

highlands to white settlers. The settlers were allowed a voice in government even before 

it was officially made a U.K. colony in 1920, but Africans were prohibited from direct 

political participation until 1944.

From October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was under a state of emergency arising 

from the "Mau Mau" rebellion against British colonial rule. During this period, African 

participation in the political process increased rapidly.

The first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Kenya 

became independent on December 12, 1963, and the next year joined the

Commonwealth. Jomo Kenyatta, a member of the predominant Kikuyu tribe and head of 

the Kenya African National Union (KANU), became Kenya's first president. The minority 

party, Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes 

that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and joined 

KANU.

A small but significant leftist opposition party, the Kenya People's Union (KPU), was 

formed in 1966, led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice president and Luo elder. 

The KPU was banned and its leader detained after political unrest related to Kenyatta's 

visit to Nyanza Province. No new opposition parties were formed after 1969, and KANU 

became the sole political party. On Kenyatta's death in August 1978, Vice President 

Daniel arap Moi became interim President. On October 14, Moi became President

formally after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee.

In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially 

a one-party state, and parliamentary elections were held in September 1983. The 1988 

elections reinforced the one-party system. However, in December 1991, parliament 

repealed the one-party section of the constitution. By early 1992, several new parties 

had formed, and multiparty elections were held in December 1992.

President Moi was reelected for another 5-year term. Opposition parties won about 45% 

of the parliamentary seats, while President Moi's KANU Party obtained majority of the 

seats. Parliamentary reforms in November 1997 enlarged the democratic space in

Kenya, including the expansion of political parties from 11 to 26. President Moi won reelection as President in the December 1997 elections, and his KANU Party narrowly 

retained its parliamentary majority, with 109 out of 122 seats.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 137

In the last general elections held in December 2002, the KANU party lost to the National 

Rainbow Coalition (NARC), a coalition of majority opposition parties which united to 

topple the ruling party. Mr. Emilio Mwai Kibaki won the Presidential elections, making 

him the third President of Kenya since independence.

Government:

The Republic of Kenya gained its independence from the UK in 1963. The President is 

the chief of state, head of the government, and commander in chief of the armed forces. 

The legislative branch consists of the parliament consisting 288 representatives elected 

for a fixed 5-year term. Kenya has enjoyed relative political stability, especially in the 

context of its neighbors in eastern Africa. 

Kenya has many fundamentals of a democratic society: strong civic institutions,

including a vocal press, and citizens committed to the ideals of democracy. Suffrage in 

Kenya is universal for those over 18 years of age, but women’s participation in

government is limited at the ministerial and sub-ministerial level (less than 6% of

positions are occupied by women). Likewise, women’s representation in the Kenyan 

Parliament was low at about 3% following the 1992 elections.

The unicameral assembly consists of 210 members elected to a term of up to 5 years, 

plus 12 members appointed by the president. The president appoints the vice president 

and cabinet members from among those elected to the assembly. The attorney general 

and the speaker are ex-officio members of the National Assembly.

The judiciary is headed by a High Court, consisting of a chief justice and at least 30 High 

Court judges and judges of Kenya's Court of Appeal (no associate judges), all appointed 

by the president.

Local administration is divided among 63 rural districts, each headed by a presidentially 

appointed commissioner. The districts are joined to form seven rural provinces. The 

Nairobi area has special status and is not included in any district or province. The 

government supervises administration of districts and provinces.

Administrative subdivisions: 63 districts, joined to form 7 rural provinces. Nairobi area 

has special status. 

Political parties: 41 registered political parties. 

Ruling party: National Rainbow Coalition (NARC). 

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

People and Culture:

Kenya has a culturally diverse population of about 30 million that includes most major 

language groups of Africa (Swahili and more than 40 local ethnic languages; and

English). Ethnic groups include: African--Kikuyu 21%, Luhyia 14%, Luo 13%, Kalenjin 

11%, Kamba 11%, Kisii 6%, Meru 5%, non-African--Asian, European, Arab 1%. In 1998, 

the population growth rate was estimated to be 1.71%.

The national motto of Kenya is Harambee, meaning, "Pull together”. In that spirit, 

volunteers in hundreds of communities build schools, clinics, and other facilities each 

year and collect funds to send students abroad. 
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Traditional pastoralists, rural farmers, Muslims, and urban residents of Nairobi and other 

cities contribute to the cosmopolitan culture. The standard of living in major cities, once 

relatively high compared with much of Sub-Saharan Africa has been declining in recent 

years. Most city workers retain links with their rural, extended families and leave the city 

periodically to help work on the family farm. About 75% of the work force is engaged in 

agriculture, mainly as subsistence farmers. 

Kenya is home to various religious groups, including: indigenous beliefs (10%),

Protestant (40%), Roman Catholic (30%), Muslim (20%).

Population Structure 

The population statistics in Kenya as of 2002 reveal that there were about 31,138,735 

persons living in the country (note: estimates explicitly take into account the effects of 

excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant 

mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the 

distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2002 

est.) The population structure is given as:

Age Number of Males Number of Females

0 to 14 years 6,462,430 6,327,457

15 to 64 years 8,769,546 8,694,329

65 years and above 385,361 499,612

The population growth rate is estimated at 1.15%, with a birth rate of 27.61births per 

1000 persons and a death rate of 14.68 deaths per 1000 persons. The net migration rate 

is put at -1.48 per a population of 1000 persons. This has been detrimental to the 

economy since emigrants are usually young professionals seeking “greener pastures” 

abroad.

Sex Ratio:

 

Age Male Female

At birth 1.03 1

Under 15 years 1.02 1

15 to 64 years 1.01 1

65 years and above 0.77 1

 Total population 1 1

The infant mortality rate is estimated at 67.24 deaths per 1000 live births. 

The life expectancy at birth for the entire population is 47.02 years.

Political Conditions:

Since independence, Kenya has maintained remarkable stability despite changes in its

political system and crises in neighboring countries. Particularly since the re-emergence 

of multiparty democracy, Kenyans have enjoyed an increased degree of freedom.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 139

A bipartisan parliamentary reform initiative in the fall of 1997 revised some oppressive 

laws inherited from the colonial era that had been used to limit freedom of speech and 

assembly. This significantly improved public freedoms and assembly and made for 

generally credible national elections in December 1997.

President Moi’s term ended in December 2002. General elections held at the end of 

December resulted in the election of a new president, Emilio Mwai Kibaki, and a 

substantial win and Majority of parliamentary seats by his NARC Party. 

Education:

Primary education is now compulsory under the NARC government. As a result, 

attendance in primary school has increased. Although official enrollment figures are not 

yet available, it is estimated that primary school attendance may now be close to 95%. 

Literacy, defined as the percentage of those aged 15 and over who can read and write, 

in the total population is 78%, but this is highly skewed by gender. For males, literacy is 

estimated at 86% for females 70%.

The five state universities enroll about 38,000 students, representing some 25% of the 

Kenyan students who qualify for admission. Girls have made gains relative to boys in 

percentages enrolled in primary education, but at the university level, only 38 women are 

enrolled for every 100 male students. The increasing education of women has 

accompanied a decline in fertility in Kenya over the past several decades.

Foreign Relations:

Despite internal tensions in Sudan and Ethiopia, Kenya has maintained good relations 

with Sudan and Ethiopia, its northern neighbors. Recent relations with Uganda and

Tanzania have improved as the three countries work for mutual economic benefit. In 

March 1996, the Presidents of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda re-established the East 

African Co-operation (EAC). The EAC has grown into the East African Community

(EAC), with the signing of a treaty for the community by the three presidents on

November 30, 1999. The EAC's objectives include harmonizing tariffs and customs 

regimes, free movement of people, and improving regional infrastructures. The lack of a 

cohesive government in Somalia prevents normal contact with that country, but Kenya 

serves as the major host for refugees from turmoil in Somalia. 

Kenya maintains a moderate profile in Third World politics. Kenya's relations with 

Western countries are generally friendly, although current political and economic 

instabilities are often blamed on Western pressures.

Kenya serves as a major host for refugees from Somalia and Sudan and currently has 

troops in three UN peacekeeping operations in the Bosnia-Herzegovina, Democratic 

Republic of Congo, Liberia, and Sierra Leone.

U.S.-Kenyan Relations:

The United States and Kenya have enjoyed cordial relations since Kenya's 

independence. More than 7,000 U.S. citizens live in Kenya, and as many as 25,000 

Americans visit Kenya annually. About two-thirds of the resident Americans are 

missionaries and their families. U.S. business investment is estimated to be more than 

$285 million, primarily in commerce, light manufacturing, and the tourism industry.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 140

U.S. assistance to Kenya promotes broad-based economic development as the basis for 

continued progress in political, social, and related areas of national life. U.S. aid strategy 

is designed to achieve four major objectives: health care, including family planning and 

AIDS prevention; increasing rural incomes by assisting small enterprises and boosting 

agricultural productivity; sustainable use of natural resources; and the strengthening of 

democratic institutions. The U.S. also is helping the Kenyan victims of the August 7, 

1998 bombing of the American Embassy to recover and rebuild.

The U.S. Peace Corps has over 100 volunteers in Kenya.

Principal U.S. Officials:

Ambassador: William Bellamy

Deputy Chief of Mission: Leslie V. Rowe

USAID Mission Director: Kiert Toh

Public Affairs Officer (USIS): Peter Claussen

Agriculture Business and Environmental Office Director/ Team Leader SO7 

Team: Dr. Meg Brown

REGISTRATION/EMBASSY LOCATION:

U.S. citizens visiting or resident in Kenya are encouraged to register with the U.S. 

Embassy, where they may obtain updated information on travel and security within 

Kenya. Biographic information, passport data, and itinerary may be faxed to the U.S. 

Embassy at (254) (2) 537-810; or directly to the consular section at (254) (2) 537-837.

The Embassy in United Nations Avenue, Gigiri, Nairobi, Kenya; telephone (254) (2) 537-

800; facsimile (254) (2) 537-810. In the event of an after-hours emergency, the Embassy 

duty officer may be contacted at (254) (2) 537-809. The Embassy's international mailing 

address is P.O. Box 30137 Nairobi, Kenya.

ENTRY and EXIT REQUIREMENTS: 

A passport and visa are required. Visas should be obtained in advance, although airport 

visas are available. Travelers who opt to obtain an airport visa should expect delays 

upon arrival. There is a fee for the visa, whether obtained in advance or at the airport. 

Evidence of yellow fever immunization may be requested.

Travelers may obtain the latest information on visas as well as any additional details 

regarding entry requirements from the Embassy of Kenya, 2249 R Street, N.W.,

Washington, DC 20008, telephone (202) 387-6101, or the Kenyan Consulates General 

in Los Angeles and New York City. Persons outside the United States should contact the 

nearest Kenyan embassy or consulate. 

On leaving the country, an exit tax of $25 is levied (this amount is normally included in 

airport taxes charged on tickets).
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 141

SAFETY AND SECURITY: 

All efforts are made to ensure the safety of our volunteers. ACDI/VOCA’s Emergency 

Hotline can be reached 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, at 1-703-259-2288. The Hotline 

accepts collect calls. Contact information for ACDI/VOCA staff in country can be found 

below. 

The State Department has recently downgraded its travel advisory to Kenya. The new 

travel warning can be found below:

May 21, 2004: This Travel Warning is being issued to alert American citizens to ongoing 

safety and security concerns in Kenya. This supersedes the Travel Warning of 

September 25, 2003. 

Due to ongoing security concerns, the Department urges Americans to consider carefully 

the risks of travel to Kenya at this time. The Department recommends that private 

American citizens in Kenya evaluate their personal security situation in light of the 

current terrorist threat. 

The U.S. Government continues to receive indications of terrorist threats in the region 

aimed at American and Western interests. Terrorism poses a continuing threat in Kenya 

and throughout East Africa. Terrorist actions may include suicide operations, bombings, 

kidnappings, or attacks on civil aviation. U.S. citizens should be aware of the risk of 

indiscriminate attacks on civilian targets in public places including tourist sites and 

locations where westerners are known to congregate, as well as commercial operations 

associated with U.S. or other Western interests. 

American citizens resident in or traveling to Kenya should remain vigilant, particularly in 

public places frequented by foreigners such as hotels, shopping malls, restaurants, and 

places of worship, and should also avoid demonstrations and large crowds. In particular, 

there is a continuing threat against westerners in the capital, Nairobi, and the coastal 

region. 

U.S. citizens in or traveling to Kenya should consult the Department of State’s Consular 

Information Sheet for Kenya, the East Africa Public Announcement, and the Worldwide 

Caution Public Announcement, which are available via the Internet at 

http://travel.state.gov. American citizens may obtain up-to-date information on security 

conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll-free in the United States or 317-472-2328 from 

overseas. 

U.S. citizens visiting or resident in Kenya are encouraged to register with the U.S. 

Embassy. Security updates are e-mailed to all registered Americans monthly. American 

citizens may complete a registration form on-line at 

http://usembassy.state.gov/nairobi/wwwhcon3.html or may request one by email at: 

kenya_acs@state.gov. American citizens living or traveling in Kenya may contact the 

U.S. Embassy in Nairobi at 363-6000 during normal business hours; after-hours phone 

numbers are 363-6170 and 0722-514-246. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 142

Economy:

Kenya’s gross domestic product (GDP), Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), was $31 billion 

in 2001, and per capita income (PPP) was $1,000. The formal economic sector is 

estimated to employ 1.6 million wage earners, nearly one million in the country’s main 

urban areas. Formal sector economic activities are divided into three main sectors: 

services (47%), industry and commerce (34%), and agriculture (19%), whereas the 

overall GDP in the country is produced by the same major sectors in slightly different 

proportions: services (53%), agriculture (27%), and industry (20%). The urban sector 

employs 0.9 million people of the country’s total labor force of nearly 9 million people. In 

2001, the unemployment rate was estimated at 40% in urban areas. 

Informal sector activities are dominated by smallholder farming households, which are 

estimated to number approximately 3 million in Kenya, accounting for 70% of the 

economically active population and 75% of total agricultural production. 

Officially, women account for 46% of the labor force in Kenya, and 74% of women age 

15 years and older are economically active. Across the major sectors, women’s 

economic activity is concentrated in agriculture (85% of economically active women), 

with a much smaller percentage involved in services (12%), and even smaller proportion 

in industry (3%). Women provide over half the agricultural labor, and manage nearly half 

of all farms in Kenya. In 1990, women earned 73% of what men earned in manufacturing 

(all figures are estimates from the United Nations).

Kenya’s farmers produce tea, coffee, sugarcane, maize, wheat, rice, sisal, pineapples, 

pyrethrum, dairy products, meat and meat products, hides and skin. The major industry 

in Kenya consists of production of petroleum products, cement, beer and soft drinks, 

textiles and paper, grain and sugar milling, and other light manufacturing. Kenya’s major 

exports in 1996 were tea, coffee, horticultural products, petroleum products, cement, 

pyrethrum, soda ash, sisal, hides and skins, fluorspar. Its major export markets include 

Uganda, Tanzania, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Ethiopia, Rwanda, 

Egypt, South Africa, and the United States. From its major import suppliers—the United 

Kingdom, Japan, South Africa, Germany, United Arab Emirates, Italy, India, France, 

United States, and Saudi Arabia—Kenya imports machinery, vehicles, crude petroleum 

and refined petroleum products, iron and steel, resins and plastic materials, 

pharmaceuticals, paper and paper products, fertilizers, and wheat.

In 1993, with the assistance of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund 

(IMF), the Government of Kenya began a major program of economic reform and 

liberalization. Economic conditions have improved with the implementation of new 

economic measures, but Kenya currently faces a growing budget deficit, high interest

rates, rising inflation, and deteriorating infrastructure. Although many economic reforms 

put in place in 1993-94 remain, further reforms, particularly in governance, are 

necessary if Kenya is to increase GDP growth and combat poverty among the majority 

of its population. Tourism is a major income-generating sector of the economy, but its 

growth has slowed in the late 1990s. The reality and the public perception of political and 

social unrest in Kenya, and the destruction of infrastructure by disastrous floods in 1997 

and 1998, have slowed tourist traffic.
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Staff List and In-country Information:

ACDI/VOCA –KENYA

209 Muthangari Drive, off Waiyaki Way 

Westlands, Nairobi, Kenya

Tel: 254-20-4443254

Fax: 254-2-4450785

E-mail: mail@acdivoca-kenya.or.ke 

Country Director: Steve Collins

E-mail: scollins@acdivoca-kenya.or.ke 

Program Coordinator, Kenya Farmer-toFarmer Program: Sebastian Wanjala

Cell Phone number: +254-733-714468

E-mail: sowanjala@acdivoca-kenya.or.ke

ACDI/VOCA HEADQUARTERS

ACDI/VOCA

50 F Street, NW

Suite 1100

Washington, DC 20001

Tel: (202) 879-0268

Fax: (202) 626-8726

Project Assistant: Elisabeth Farmer

Email: efarmer@acdivoca.org 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 144

ANNEX: Description of Town.

The volunteer will be resident in Migori, the headquarters of Migori District in the 

Republic of Kenya.

Location: 450 Kilometers South West of Nairobi

Population and People 40,000 (1999 Census)

Bargaining Standard

Electricity 240 volts (rationing is regular)

Hours of business 08.00 – 17.00 Hrs

Security Fair

Dress Standard/Casual (hot and humid climate)

Time (GMT + 03.00) East African Time: Nairobi

Currency Kenya Shilling (Kshs)

Banks Kenya Commercial Bank.

Hotels Migori Tourist Hotel

Credit Cards Visa etc.

Tipping At discretion

Health Nairobi Hospital Evacuation Services (Africa Air Rescue, 

Amref, Flying Doctor Services etc.)

Transport Road Network (Buses)

Communications Telephone, Net Services, e-mail etc.

Newspapers The Daily Nation, The Standard, The East African.

Languages English and Kiswahili (official languages), Dholuo and Kisii 

(native dialects).
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 145

ANNEX F: EXAMPLE OF ASSIGNMENT REPORT: WINROCK 

INTERNATIONAL – NIGERIA

End of Assignment Report

NIG107

Cover Page and Specific Questions

Winrock requires a record of your volunteer activities in order to learn from your work 

and use that to develop future assignments. USAID also requires a report from every 

overseas assignment. Documenting and learning from completed assignments is critical 

to the long-term success of the overall Farmer-to-Farmer Program. We are particularly 

interested in the impact of your work on the people and organizations you interacted 

with. Therefore, we ask you to answer the following questions in order for us to better 

understand the activities and impacts that occurred during your assignment.

Typically, you will have 2 days at the end of your assignment in a Winrock field office to 

finalize your end of assignment report. We recommend that you keep a daily journal of 

your activities, recommendations, and impacts to assist in completing this report. For 

assignment teams of two or more volunteers, we request that volunteers work together 

and submit a joint end of assignment report.

Part A. Please provide the following information:

Volunteer name(s): Mary Carmen Yamamoto

Assignment dates: Sep 7- Sep 21 (Host 1)

Name of host(s): Diocesan Development Services

Assignment location(s): Idah, Kogi State

Number of individuals directly participating in technical assistance or training:

Male: 12

Female: 3

Number of individuals that you anticipate may benefit from your assistance (for example, 

other employees of the enterprise you worked with or other family members who are 

likely to benefit from your assignment):

Male: 100

Female: 30

Please attach this cover page to your responses to the questions listed below.

Part B. Please answer the following questions in as much detail as you think is 

necessary.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 146

1. What were the objectives of your assignment? What assistance did your host 

request? (Please note any changes made in your scope of work during your

assignment.)

Objectives of assignment: 

• Provide new methods of composting.

• Improve their composting methods and increase the efficiency.

• Identify different materials in the area for composting.

• Change in SOW that I made: Trainee in waste management.

Assistance that the host request: In this case, DDS didn’t ask for advice about organic 

fertilizer. It was an introduction for me to starting work in Organic fertilizer in Nigeria.

2. What activities and assistance were part of your assignment? Who was involved? 

What topics were addressed? (Details regarding any materials that were developed, the 

number of people trained, the organizations that participated in your programs or that 

you met with, etc., are all very important.)

People involved: DDS farm workers 

Activities and assistance

First week:

• I met Sister Nora, DDS staff office and DDS farm staff.

• Each morning I went to the farm and watched the different systems of agriculture.

• Postharvested some products as oranges, maize and chilli pepper with workers for 

understanding their job.

• Showed to the workers some photos of composting in my area and some graphics.

• We made a pit with palm leaves and the workers showed how they made it..

• Analyzed each compost method in DDS farm.

• We planned the training with the workers and planned to make the compost heaps 

for next week.

• In the weekend I worked in DDS compound where they have a little plot of maize, so 

we mulch it with some leaves around.

Second week

• Training in composting: Introduction of composting methods to the workers. Then, 

we walked around each heap in the farm. We analyzed and discussed with the 

workers the problems; advantage and disadvantage of each heap and find solutions 

together.

• Analyze the mulching in trees in the farm and how to do it better.

• Make 3 compost heaps with different materials.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 147

• Training in waste management: Identify problems and possible solutions in the farm 

with the workers.

3. Did you observe any improvements with respect to the objectives and expected 

results outlined in your assignment scope of work? Please explain.

• Yes, the workers were very enthusiastic with the training, and they were very

interested in learning another way to make compost, with different materials in the 

farm.

• Also, the workers were very motivated when we discussed during the training about 

the different topics and they were very participative. 

4. Could you see any other impacts by the end of your assignment? If so, what? (Please 

include any new knowledge transferred, skills obtained by the host, and new

attitudes observed.)

• Working in groups to analyze and discuss in the trainings.

• Identify a problem and find a solution together.

5. Do you anticipate any future impacts as a result of your assignment? (Please explain 

and list ways in which you think the results of your assignment can be measured 6 

months from now. 

• Mulching and composting the trees in a correct way: 1 foot away from the main stem.

• Use of different materials for doing compost from the farm and from outside. 

• Better waste management: Less plastic bags and empty bottles of pesticides around 

the farm.

6. What effect did your assignment have on you personally and/or professionally (for 

example, new knowledge, contacts,b etc.)?

• During this assignment I feel very happy with the job and all the DDS staff. They 

were very friendly and receptive to learn.

• I knew more about sustainable methods in agriculture with DDS.

• I was very impressed about the pressure of land in Idah because I visited some 

farmers around the area and many of them are not the owners and that means: 

• Anytime, the owner could come and they have to leave the land. So they don’t take 

care of land and for example composting is not important for them because they 

think It’s a waste of time.

• DDS is an example of organization that really works for development. 

• DDS books are really interesting and very well analyzed.

7. Drawing on your volunteer experience, please provide us with any conclusions and 

recommendations for follow-up activities to build on your assignment.

• Winrock International is doing a good job providing volunteers in DDS because, after 

the program many farmers are going to be benefit from DDS program.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 148

Part C. In the form of a personal letter to your host, please summarize your shortand long-term recommendations. This letter will be translated and delivered to your 

host. (attached)

Part D. Please attach a list of the names of people contacted during your

assignment. You can photocopy business cards collected or photocopy the contact list 

from your daily journal.

Sister Nora McNamara Mr. Stephen Morse

Mr. Chris Vasilliu Sister Catherine Oguono

Mr. Remi Ikka Mr. Gerald Obaje 

Workers in the farm

Patience Alfa, Deborah Yunusa, Alwall Okpanchi, Paul Usman,, Joel Ikani, Yusufu,

Idakiwo, Gabriel Ibrahim, Anthony Ezema

(Personal letter to host summarizing short- and long-term recommendations.)

Sister Nora McNamara

Diocesan Development Services

Idah, Kogi State

Nigeria

Dear Sister Nora,

Thank you for the opportunity to help DDS farm and to share new skills in composting 

and agriculture. 

I really appreciate your attention with me. The time that I expend with the workers farmer 

was really good.

In general composting methods in DDS farm are very good and I made some

observations and recommendations, as well I described the activities that I made in the 

farm. I’m attaching this at the end of the letter.

I hope that the workers could go on with the compost heaps and check and go on to 

improve them.

About the composting samples to be analyzed, in this moment in IITA are not accepting 

samples from outside. So, I found another laboratory in Ibadan and I’m going to try.

Thank you so much for the opportunity to assist DDS with knowledge and skills about 

composting and waste management.

Please give my greetings to the people in the farm.

Sincerely,

Mary Carmen Yamamoto
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 149

====================================

Attachment: Observations and recommendation for each compost method:

• Oil palm bunches: Collect oil palm bunches and makes a heap in the surface. It was 

made 8 months ago and it’s turned once a month. It has aeration, good moist, colors 

and good odor. 

• Pit: DDS dig into a hole 5m x 3 m and 30 cm deep. Put layers of palm trees leaves, 

weeds, soils, and compost already done. They don’t turn it and It will be used next 

year. Recommendation: Put more layers, use fresh manure, and for enrich the

compost use some legumes leaves which are near to this area. And something very 

important is not to put so much water.

• Cow dung: DDS let decay the manure for some months, but the manure is too wet 

and has a bad odor. Recommendation: Mix cattle manure with something else like 

sawdust, green leaves or rice chaff (waste near River Niger). Turn it at least once or 

twice a month.

• Goat’s manure: DDS let decay the manure and mix with soil. The light is very good 

and the odor is very well and goat’s manure has a very good texture.

• Leaves heaps: Carry leaves, branches into heap and then the tractor passed up and 

break the branches, wait 1 year or more for using that compost.

Activities at DDS farm:

• Taking samples of each compost heap that are going to be analyzed in the

laboratory.

• Compost heaps made

1.-We made a heap of goats manure with weeds and some leaves from trees from the 

area. 0.60m x 4m and 0.60m height. This heap is longer but not to wide for facilitating 

turn it at least once a month.

2.- Cow dung with rice chaff ashes.

3.- Cow dung with rice chaff ashes, weed and cover crops.

• Training at DDS farm 

Training in composting: First show photos of composting an introduction: definition,

process, methods, and application of composting. After we walked around each

composting area and we discuss the different methods. Participation of the workers and 

give ideas to resolve different problems. 

We discuss that mulching and composting are too close to the stem trees causing too 

much humidity and many ants in that area that could cause many sicknesses. Besides 

the most important roots are 2 foots from the stem. This is very important because the 

principal roots are not taking advantage of mulching. They just have to take care when 

they mulch.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 150

• Training in waste management: 

We analyzed problems in the farm and solutions. We walked around and identified that 

pesticides management and plastic management are not very appropriate. There are 

many plastics around the farm and many empty bottles of pesticides for example in the 

classrooms.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 151

End of Assignment Report

Cover Page and Specific Questions

Winrock requires a record of your volunteer activities in order to learn from your work 

and use that to develop future assignments. USAID also requires a report from every 

overseas assignment. Documenting and learning from completed assignments is critical 

to the long-term success of the overall Farmer-to-Farmer Program. We are particularly 

interested in the impact of your work on the people and organizations you interacted 

with. Therefore, we ask you to answer the following questions in order for us to better 

understand the activities and impacts that occurred during your assignment.

Typically, you will have 2 days at the end of your assignment in a Winrock field office to 

finalize your end of assignment report. We recommend that you keep a daily journal of 

your activities, recommendations, and impacts to assist in completing this report. For 

assignment teams of two or more volunteers, we request that volunteers work together 

and submit a joint end of assignment report.

Part A. Please provide the following information:

Volunteer name(s): Mary Carmen Yamamoto

Assignment dates: Sep 24 - Oct 14 (Host 2)

Name of host(s): University of Ibadan, Dept. of Agronomy

Assignment location(s): Ibadan, Oyo State

Number of individuals directly participating in technical assistance or training:

Male: 4

Female: 7 

Number of individuals that you anticipate may benefit from your assistance (for example, 

other employees of the enterprise you worked with or other family members who are 

likely to benefit from your assignment):

Male: 40

Female: 70

Please attach this cover page to your responses to the questions listed below.

Part B. Please answer the following questions in as much detail as you think is 

necessary.

1. What were the objectives of your assignment? What assistance did your host 

request? (Please note any changes made in your scope of work during your

assignment.)

Objectives of assignment: 

• Improve their composting methods.

• Identify different materials in the area for composting
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 152

• Assistance that the host request: Decrease the time of composting.

2. What activities and assistance were part of your assignment? Who was involved? 

What topics were addressed? (Details regarding any materials that were developed, the 

number of people trained, the organizations that participated in your programs or that 

you met with, etc., are all very important.)

People involved: Professor Omueti, workers in the plant, students University of Ibadan, 

Winrock staff. 

Activities and assistance

• Brochure how to make compost in the plant. (see attached)

• Training in how to increase microorganism in the compost process.

• Find waste materials that serve as activator for doing faster the compost.

• Production cost of a compost heap.

• Photo shows of composting in my area.

• Make temperatures graph of some heaps during the process.

3. Did you observe any improvements with respect to the objectives and expected 

results outlined in your assignment scope of work? Please explain.

• Yes, the people trained were very interested in a different compost method carry out.

• One of the principal factors which was carry out for composting is microorganism. So 

they learnt how to increase the microorganism in the heap for a faster process. 

• During the teaching with the people, we found out that there are many other cheaper 

or free materials for accelerating the compost such as activators like cassava

effluent, palm wine, waste of malt, waste of sugar process. 

4. Could you see any other impacts by the end of your assignment? If so, what? (Please 

include any new knowledge transferred, skills obtained by the host, and new

attitudes observed.)

• Yes, there was a student working in how to redeem soils polluted with oil in Delta 

state using microorganisms. I’m sure the training about microorganisms in

composting was very useful for him.

5. Do you anticipate any future impacts as a result of your assignment? (Please explain 

and list ways in which you think the results of your assignment can be measured 6 

months from now.)

• Yes, the reasons are because reducing the compost time with the microorganism 

and using the activators. 

• The brochures have to be a tool for farmers and people interested in a composting 

plant.

6. What effect did your assignment have on you personally and/or professionally (for 

example, new knowledge, contacts, etc.)?
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 153

• I expand my knowledge about the new development of composting in Organo

Mineral Fertilizer Plant in Ibadan. 

• I also notice about the problems of waste management in Ibadan like plastic bags of 

water and cow dung in the roads.

• I feel very good working in the plant with the student that were very enthusiastic .

8. Drawing on your volunteer experience, please provide us with any conclusions and 

recommendations for follow-up activities to build on your assignment.

• The Organo Mineral Fertilizer Plant in Ibadan is a plant that many people could 

beneficiate, because their process is very good and they want to teach other farmers 

and make other plants in other states.

Part C. In the form of a personal letter to your host, please summarize your shortand long-term recommendations. This letter will be translated and delivered to your 

host. (See below.)

Part D. Please attach a list of the names of people contacted during your

assignment. You can photocopy business cards collected or photocopy the contact list 

from your daily journal.

Dr. Professor Omueti

Leonides Halos - Kim

Olu Osiname 

Daniela Horna

J.I. Uponi

Rodomiro Ortiz

Joseph J. Adu-Gyamfi

Obgbareno Pipy Fawole

Volker Decher

Students and Workers in the plant

Onibon Vinvent Lanre

Ishola O. Ganiyat

Bimbo Alao

Anthonia Izevbigie

Lawrence Uswa

Goodluck Ogbonna

Ajaji Nike

========================================================
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 154

(Personal letter to host summarizing short- and long-term recommendations.)

Professor John Ajayi Omueti

Professor in Soil Science

Department of Agronomy

University of Ibadan 

Dear Professor Omueti,

Thank you for the opportunity to help in the Organo Mineral Fertilizer Pilot Plant in the 

University of Ibadan to share new skills in composting. I really appreciate your attention 

with me as the attention of the workers and students at University of Ibadan.

I would like to hear from you about the different experiments that we made, as the 

microorganism of forest, the use of cassava effluent in the heaps and reduce turning for 

increasing the temperature at the beginning.

As well the brochure that I made from the plant is going to be very useful for showing 

others how to make compost, because the way that the plant makes compost now is 

very good and it is an example for many farmers and interested people.

I hope that the materials that I gave you are going to be very useful for you and your 

students.

Thanks again for having the pleasure of working with you at the plant and send my 

regard to the workers and the students.

Sincerely,

Mary Carmen Yamamoto
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 155

Farmer-to-Farmer

End of Assignment Questionnaire

Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development is committed to ranking all 

Farmer-to-Farmer volunteer assignments as constructive and rewarding as possible. We 

ask that you take a few minutes and tell us whether your time was well spent. In 

particular, we will use your comments to strengthen the experience of future Farmer-toFarmer volunteers and improve the contributions that our volunteers make. Your insights 

and suggestions are appreciated. Please complete this questionnaire and return it to 

Winrock International Field Staff

Location and Dates of Assignment:

• DDS, Kogi State

• University of Ibadan

Please circle the corresponding number to rate your opinion in each category below.

Where response is not applicable, please leave blank.

1. Pre-Assignment Orientation/Briefing:

 Excellent Poor

a. Host country information 1 2 3 4 5

b. Host country organization information 1 2 3 4 5

c. Information on culture and customs 1 2 3 4 5

d. Information on your assignment 1 2 3 4 5

e. Travel preparation and support 1 2 3 4 5

How can we improve?

There is enough information about the host but not about the problems they have. 

Define exactly and better what the host wants in the scope of work. 

3. Logistics of Your Assignment In-Country: 

 Excellent Poor

a. Host country organization support 1 2 3 4 5

b. Access to translator if needed 1 2 3 4 5

c. Accommodations in country 1 2 3 4 5

d. Other logistics, i.e. local transportation 1 2 3 4 5

e. Per diem level 1 2 3 4 5 

f. Program staff support and assistance 1 2 3 4 5

How can we improve?
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 156

3. Volunteer Assignment Activities:

 Excellent Poor

a. Matching your skills with assignment 1 2 3 4 5

b. Appropriate season for the assignment 1 2 3 4 5

c. Length of your assignment 1 2 3 4 5

d. Availability of appropriate local staff 1 2 3 4 5

e. Access to local recipient populations 1 2 3 4 5

f. Access to facilities/equipment 1 2 3 4 5

How can we improve?

4. The degree to which your actual tasks matched the original scope of work:

1) Very Closely___ 2) Closely___ 3) Somewhat___ 4) Very slightly___ 5) Not at all___

What factors account for any gap that you may have noted above?

• Practical experience in composting in a similar climate as Nigeria.

5. Receptiveness of your assignment by the host country organization and/or 

beneficiary farmers?

1) Extremely well ___ 2) Well___ 3) Somewhat ___ 4) Very Little___ 5) Not at all___ 

What improvements can be made?

6. Final Comments:

 Excellent Poor

a. On a personal level, your overall impressions of the 

assignment. 1 2 3 4 5

b. On a professional level, your assessment of the 

effectiveness of the assignment. 1 2 3 4 5

c. Is this your first volunteer assignment with Winrock? Yes No

d. Would you volunteer with Winrock again? Yes No

e. With the same host country organization? Yes No

f. Would you recommend our program to colleagues? Yes No

Overall impressions of your volunteer assignment:

• This is the first time that I work with Winrock International and I’m very impressed 

about its job. As well It’s a very well organized institution. Winrock Nigerian staff was 

really good and they helped me as much as they could, that was very useful for my 

job.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 157

If you think you know of colleagues who are interested to learn more about Winrock 

International's Farmer-to-Farmer Program, please provide their name and contact 

information below and we will send them a brochure of the program:

Your assistance in providing this summary report will help us to ensure that your

assignment has the maximum impact possible. Your efforts are greatly appreciated!
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 158

Notes on University of Ibadan: Organo - mineral Fertilizer Plant

Mary Carmen Yamamoto, 2002

Main objective: Reduce time of composting.

Activities in the plant

1.Temperature records from past compost: PM/SD 1, PM/SD 2, CD/SD 1 and CD/SD 2.

2. Increase temperature in the heap

A) Heap CD/SD 4

B) Heap CD/ SD nylon cover 

C) Heap CD/SD and heap PM/SD turning each 5 days

3. Increase microorganism in the heap

A) Heap CD/SD cassava effluent

B) Make forest microorganisms (FM).

Other activities

1. Brochure of composting in the Organo - mineral fertilizer Plant.

2. Production cost of one compost heap.

1. Temperature records from 4 compost heaps

In the Organo - Mineral Fertilizer Plant the students take the temperature of the heaps 

for looking the variation each day. We recorded the temperature of 4 heaps to analysed 

them.

In the graphic 1 shows the temperature records from 4 heaps:

PM/SD 1 and 2 (Poultry manure/Sawdust)

CD/SD 1 and 2(Cow dung/Sawdust)

In a normal process of compost the temperature increase at the beginning, after it reach 

a constant temperature (curing compost).In this case the temperature is not so high at 

the beginning and that could increase the time of composting.

Temperature in all the heaps don’t increase more than 53 degrees and we need a 

temperature between 55 and 6O oC for at least 3 days for killing all weeds and diseasecausing organisms (pathogens).
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 159

The recommendation is to increase the temperature at the beginning (the first 3 weeks):

Normally the heaps are turning each 3 days, you could wait more time to turn.

Add an activator like waste from sugar process.

We could see that PM/SD 1-2 have very low temperature. There are many things that 

could happen: 

Not enough water. 

Turning too much.

Quantity of sawdust is very high.

Graphic 1.

Time- temperature for composting

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1 10 19 28 37 46 55

Composting time(days)

Temperature (oC)

PM/SD 1

PM/SD 2

CD/SD 1

CD/SD 2

2. Increase the temperature in the heaps

As we said before, the peak temperature is 60 oC in a compost process. We made 3 

experiments or heaps with different factors for increase the temperature to kill pathogens 

and to reduce the time of composting.

A) Heap CD/SD 4

Date: 26 sep

For the first two weeks has been turn each 3 days, for the next 2 weeks will be 

turn each 5 days for increase the temperature. 

B) CD/SD with nylon cover

Date: 3 oct
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 160

We put a nylon cover in the top for increase the temperature. It is partially cover 

for permitting the aeration in the low areas. 

C) CD/SD and PM/SD turning each 5 days

Date: 11 0ct

The first week will be turn each 3 days and thereafter will be turn each 5 days for 

increase the temperature.

3. Increase microorganisms in the heaps

A) Heap CD/SD with cassava effluent

Date: 3 oct

We are adding once a week cassava effluent for increase the temperature and 

as an activator because it has a lot of quantities of sugar and that increase the 

microorganisms too. Cassava effluent is a waste from the process of cassava all 

around Nigeria and is a free material (another material to use could be waste 

from malt beverages).

B) Make forest microorganisms

Forest microorganisms (FM) in composting

Microorganisms are the most important factor for composting because they decompose 

organic materials and break them down from complex to simple compounds. Apply them 

to increase the microorganism in compost, it is used to reduce the time of composting 

and reduce the odors too. 

What do we need?

Forest microorganisms: In the topsoil of an undisturbed forest, below the leaves or below 

some stems decaying, look for white or cream powders. These are actinomycetes, 

bacteria and fungi that decompose organic materials. Pick the microorganisms with 

leaves and topsoil around (no more than 5 cm deep).

Poultry litter or not cure compost: It’s optional because there are a lot of microorganisms. 

You could see a white powder inside these materials. 

Fiber: Wheat bran, maize bran, rice chaff, coconut fiber. It provides the medium 

where the microorganism could grow.

Charcoal: The microorganisms are going to colonize the charcoal.

Sugar: Molasses, sugar cane juice, palm wine, effluent of cassava.

Water: Microorganism needs moisture.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 161

Ingredients

4 kg forest microorganisms, 1 kg of poultry litter, 3 kg wheat,1 kg charcoal 1 kg sugar( or 

1 lt palm wine or 1 kg effluent of cassava or 1 kg malt waste) and 2 lt water

Preparation

Collect the microorganism from the forest. Pick them with some leaves and the topsoil 

around (no more than 5 cm deep)

Move this topsoil to the place where you are working.

Mix the topsoil with poultry litter, wheat and charcoal in little pieces.

Add the source of sugar diluted with water to moist, but not watering.

Put the mix in an anaerobic environment, a bucket or a plastic bag and closed, for 2-4 

week, depending on climate. If climate is hot the process is going to be faster

For activating put 1 kg of FM in 20 lt of water and store for 24 hours.

Then mix with water in doses of 15-20%.

Spray in the heaps once a week or as you see convenient.

Other activities 

A) Brochure of composting in the Organo - mineral fertilizer Plant. (attached)

The compost in the plant has a high quality and many people could learn how to make 

compost. This brochure serves for showing farmers, companies, enterprises and all 

people interested in learning about composting.

B) Production cost of one compost heap

For this plant is very important to have a production cost of a compost heap. I estimated 

the production cost of 60 days, that is the time for the compost process. Production cost 

of one compost heap in the Organo-mineral Fertilizer Plant is estimated below:

Total hours of work

Activities Number 

of times

Time require 

(hours)

Total 

(hours)

Dropp materials 1 8 8

Build heap 1 8 6

Turn 16 0.5 8

Pack 1 1 1

Watering 10 0.05 0.5

Total of hours 23.5
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 162

Production cost

The total production costs for 1 heap is 2954.4 nairas.

Each 50 kg bag of compost costs 3016.9/10 bags = 295.4 nairas.

Each kg of compost costs 301.7/50 Kg = 5.9 nairas.

 

Unit Quantity Unit cost

(nairas)

Total cost

(nairas)

Dropp materials hours 8 31.25 250

Build heap hours 6 31.25 187.5

Turn hours 8 31.25 250

Pack hours 1 31.25 31.25

Watering hours 0.5 31.25 15.63

Loan tractor day 0.5 2500 1250

Diesel day 0.5 2500 750

Bags bag 10 22 220

Total production cost 2954.4
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 163

University of Ibadan Technical Bulletin

Organo-Mineral Fertilizer Pilot Plant 

Composting Guidelines

Mary Carmen Yamamoto

2002

Composting is a natural way of 

recycling organic material and 

returning it to the earth to be reused.

The Organo-mineral Fertilizer Pilot Plant was established in University of Ibadan in 1995 

to alleviate the fertilizer need of farmers.

This plant produces compost in heaps using waste material like market refuse, cow dung, 

poultry waste, sawdust, etc.

Because the compost is usually low specially in N and P, urea and rock phosphate are 

usually added in small quantities to make the finished product in this plant “Organo - mineral 

Fertilizer”

Let’s show how to make compost in the Organo-mineral Fertilizer Pilot Plant.

What is composting?

Composting is a simple biological process that breaks down materials into a dark odorless, 

nutrient-rich organic product. It is an organic fertilizer that comes from the decomposition of 

materials with the help of microorganism.

Factors of composting

Temperature: 35-55oC

Moisture: 70-85%

pH: 7 - 8.5

Ratio C:N - 30:1

Oxygen and Microorganism

 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 164

What do we compost? 

Cow dung

Poultry waste 

Market refuse 

Sawdust

What do we not compost?

Cans, glass, plastics or nylon.

How do we make compost?

Select a flat surface, protected from rain

Mix 3 parts of fresh materials with 1 part of sawdust or market refuse (the ratio 3:1 is 

from research results).

• 3 cow dung/1 sawdust

• 3 poultry manure/1 sawdust

• 3 cow dung/ 1 market refuse

• 3 poultry manure/ 1 market refuse

Mix and make a heap in windrows 10 m x 1 m and 1.5 m high.

Composting process

Temperature change:

1. Heap is at environment Tempo 

2.-Tempo starts to elevate.

3.-Tempo starts to decrease to a constant.

Time of process: 8 weeks.

Turning: every 3 days

Watering: No water the first 3 weeks, thereafter water every 4 or 5 days.

A good compost has a dark color and no odor

heap
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 165

ANNEX G: PUBLIC OUTREACH MATERIALS—PARTNERS OF 

THE AMERICAS

Farmer-to-Farmer volunteers and committee members come from many backgrounds, 

they include farmers, extension agents, business people, university affiliated faculty and 

staff - in general, individuals active and respected in their fields and communities. These 

volunteers are the best advocates for U.S. foreign assistance as they put a face and a 

personal story of success to the acronyms PVO and USAID. Through the public 

outreach that Farmer-to-Farmer volunteers perform, U.S. communities learn about the 

life and struggles of other communities in the hemisphere in a way that directly relates to 

them and shows how and where they can make a difference. Public outreach also 

emphasizes global dynamics and explains how such issues as markets for goods and 

services, food supply, and migration are all relevant to the life of the average U.S. 

citizen. More than just helping to educate U.S. citizens about the developing world, 

however, public outreach and development education help increase recruitment of 

Farmer-to-Farmer volunteers, garner support from the organizations that provide the 

volunteers, and raise public awareness of the role PVOs and USAID play in tangibly 

improving quality of life in developing countries. 

Examples of Farmer-to-Farmer outreach activities include direct presentations to the 

local community or university about recent trips, program publications, local media 

coverage, and Farmer-to-Farmer program web sites. All of these examples help 

strengthen public-private partnerships by educating the public about development needs 

and showing how U.S. foreign assistance responds to these needs. Partners’ volunteers 

have excelled in the number of group presentations delivered and the percentage of 

volunteers participating in public outreach activities. 

An example of a U.S. Partners chapter that excels in public outreach is the North 

Carolina chapter. The local Farmer-to-Farmer coordinator put together an effective and 

educational display board highlighting agricultural projects of the North CarolinaCochabamba Partnership in Bolivia. This board has been displayed at meetings, fairs 

and conventions of many different organizations throughout North Carolina. In addition, 

the chapter publishes a newsletter that is distributed to members throughout the state. 

Although the newsletter covers all aspects of the North Carolina – Cochabamba, Bolivia 

Partnership, Farmer-to-Farmer activities are featured in almost every issue. Examples of 

this newsletter, as well as other Partnership information can be found on their web page: 

http://www.ncboliviapartners.org. These activities have served to strengthen the North 

Carolina-Cochabamba, Bolivia Partnership and to attract new members interested in the 

partnership’s activities. The North Carolina Chapter’s Farmer-to-Farmer program is one 

of the strongest, due, in large part to these public outreach efforts that increase 

volunteer recruitment, stimulate project follow-up, and evoke feelings of pride at 

significant accomplishments.

Farmer-to-Farmer volunteers generate quite a lot of media coverage in their own states 

and communities. The Farmer-to-Farmer coordinator in Wisconsin explains that in 

Northern Wisconsin, where the population is 99% caucasian and 1% Native American, 

they also use news articles as a way to bring different cultures to their communities. In 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 166

addition to the media coverage generated in the U.S., Farmer-to-Farmer is increasingly 

covered in local news in Latin America and the Caribbean. This news coverage 

broadens the potential reach of the Farmer-to-Farmer program and helps promote 

USAID’s public image throughout the hemisphere. 

In today’s society, an organization’s web page is becoming its “face” to the outside world 

and having an organized and useful site helps improve the public image of Partners and 

the Farmer-to-Farmer program. Wisconsin Partners have developed their own Farmerto-Farmer web site, in addition to the chapter’s general web site, that provides 

information about the program’s projects and activities: www.winiftf.org . Many portions 

of the site are available in Spanish as well as English. This site is a way to share 

Farmer-to-Farmer experiences and accomplishments with friends, family and the 

community in addition to serving as a recruitment tool for attracting potential new 

members. The material posted on the web is also used to orient and familiarize new 

travelers with the work of previous volunteers.

Partners experience has found that increased understanding and awareness of the 

benefits of international assistance lead directly to increased public support. In order to 

encourage volunteers to initiate public outreach activities, information on this topic is 

distributed to each Farmer-to-Farmer volunteer before he or she begins an in-country 

assignment. In addition, selected Farmer-to-Farmer volunteers are trained in message 

crafting, targeting audiences and communication with media to insure that these 

development education efforts are successful.

Since returned volunteers conduct much of the public outreach in their local 

communities, the local chapter is primarily responsible for responding to inquiries 

generated and requests for information. However, we also receive many requests for 

information on both Partners and the Farmer-to-Farmer program from our web site and 

are quick to respond with program materials and contact information for the inquirer’s 

local Partners chapter.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 167

SHARE YOUR EXPERIENCE!

What can you do, now that you’re home?

Public Outreach

• Play the role of local outreach coordinator. Talk with others about ideas on who 

to contact, what groups are interested in presentations and how to best “get the word 

out” and “deliver your message.”

• Talk to former volunteers. Previous Farmer-to-Farmer volunteers may have 

contact information for local media sources or additional ideas on how to generate 

trip coverage.

• Tell others about your experience. Organize presentations for your local chapter, 

professional colleagues, community groups and area students about your volunteer 

assignment, estimated impact abroad and potential Farmer-to-Farmer assignments 

in the future.

• Encourage local newspapers to cover your story. Complete and send the 

attached Farmer-to-Farmer press release template to several local and regional 

newspapers and include good “action” photographs. In your story, highlight the local 

angle. How is your experience relevant to your community? How does Farmer-toFarmer raise multicultural awareness at the global and local levels?

• Contact local radio and television stations. Tell area broadcast stations about 

your volunteer assignment and encourage them to highlight your experience on a 

local radio show or in the daily news.

• Position yourself as a resource. Put your knowledge and experience with Farmerto-Farmer to use by offering information on Latin America and the Caribbean in 

general, and on your Partner country in particular, and cultivate an ongoing 

relationship with individual reporters.

Why is Public Outreach Important?

• Impacts local communities. Your impact in the U.S. can be just as important as 

abroad. This also gets the word out about Farmer-to-Farmer opportunities and 

encourages potential volunteers to participate. They will provide the expertise 

necessary to make your work more meaningful.

• Shows the difference you made. Presentations and media coverage demonstrate 

how people-to-people development, particularly your experience, makes a difference 

and should continue.

• Demonstrates the benefits of international development. Public outreach, the 

exchange of ideas and showing the positive role played by U.S.-supported 

development efforts are important goals of Partners of the Americas and the Farmerto-Farmer program.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 168

Partners of the Americas

SAMPLE PRESS RELEASE

Contact Information: Name: Dr. Franklin Jackson Date: April 5, 2004

Tel: (601)877-6118

E-mail: fjackson@lorman.alcorn.edu

This notice is to inform you of a unique experience I will participate in when I travel to 

Guyana through the sponsorship of Partners of the Americas and the Farmer-to-Farmer

Program. I believe my experience will be of interest to local readers of your newspaper 

and I hope to submit an article for publication upon my return.

Dairy Development in Guyana

What: On this volunteer assignment, I will work with the Guyana Dairy Development 

Project and provide guidance to the National Project Coordinator in the preparation of 

relevant follow-up projects. I will also offer assistance to the St. Stanislaus Training 

Centre, and St. Stanislaus College Farm in streamlining its operations as a training 

institute for farmers and students. 

When: March 28-April 10, 2004

Where: Guyana

How: The trip is sponsored by Partners of the Americas (see below), specifically the 

Farmer-to-Farmer Program. The Farmer-to-Farmer Program improves economic 

opportunities in rural areas of Latin America and the Caribbean by increasing food 

production and distribution, promoting better farm and marketing operations and 

conserving natural resources. The program is supported by Congress and the Agency 

for International Development as part of the United States foreign assistance program. 

Farmer-to-Farmer brings together agricultural professionals and practitioners from the 

U.S. and Latin America. Volunteers from the U.S. work with farmers and ranchers in 

Latin America to identify local needs and design projects to address them.

Sponsoring Organization Information: Partners was founded in 1964 as the peopleto-people component of the Alliance for Progress. Today, it is a private, nonprofit and 

nonpartisan organization, enjoying the support of many committed volunteers, 

international corporations, public agencies, and foundations. Partners of the Americas is 

the largest volunteer-based organization in the western hemisphere engaged in social, 

economic, and cultural development. Partners of the Americas turns ideas into action. 

We envision a hemisphere in which opportunity is abundant for all and dreams are not 

bound by borders. The organization works by pairing U.S. states with Latin American 

and Caribbean countries in 60 “Partnerships.” For example, Alabama is partnered with 

Guatemala; New Jersey with Haiti; and Missouri with the state of Pará, Brazil.

Please visit the Partners of the Americas website at www.partners.net for 

additional program information.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 169

Partners of the Americas

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE

Contact: Jeff Adams April 20, 2002

 Phone: (202) 555-5555

 E-mail: farmer@agriculture.edu

Local Farmer-to-Farmer Volunteer Jeff Adams Travels to Honduras

Volunteer Jeff Adams (Charlotte, VT) traveled to La Esperanza, Honduras, from April 1-18 through 

the Farmer-to-Farmer Program with Washington, D.C.-based Partners of the Americas.

During his volunteer assignment, Adams provided technical assistance related to family garden 

projects, therefore addressing the needs of professional growers in the Intibucá region and those 

left behind by the extensive emigration from this area. With support from southern colleagues, 

Adams established three demonstration gardens, distributed seed at those sites, and provided 

training at a fourth site. During the second week of his trip, Adams trained 37 Hondurans in square 

meter gardening and composting techniques and delivered a 4-day seminar on chemistry and 

biology of composting in San Pedro Sula. He also consulted several Ministry of Agriculture officials 

regarding the management of fish viscera and blood by-products from the marine fishing industries 

along the coast. A long-time Farmer-to-Farmer volunteer, Adams is currently employed by the 

Department of Agriculture at the University of Vermont.

The trip was sponsored by Partners of the Americas (see below), specifically the Farmer-to-Farmer 

Program. The Farmer-to-Farmer Program improves economic opportunities in rural areas of Latin 

America and the Caribbean by increasing food production and distribution, promoting better farm 

and marketing operations and conserving natural resources. The Partners’ Farmer-to-Farmer 

Program is supported by Congress and the Agency for International Development as part of the 

United States foreign assistance program. Farmer-to-Farmer brings together agricultural 

professionals and practitioners from the U.S. and Latin America. Volunteers from the U.S. work with 

farmers and ranchers in Latin America to identify local needs and design projects to address them.

Partners was founded in 1964 as the people-to-people component of the Alliance for Progress. 

Today, it is a private, non-profit and non-partisan organization, enjoying the support of many 

committed volunteers, international corporations, public agencies, and foundations. Partners of the 

Americas is the largest volunteer-based organization in the western hemisphere engaged in social, 

economic, and cultural development. Partners of the Americas turns ideas into action. We envision 

a hemisphere in which opportunity is abundant for all and dreams are not bound by borders. The 

organization works by pairing U.S. states with Latin American and Caribbean countries in 60 

“Partnerships.” For example, Alabama is partnered with Guatemala; New Jersey with Haiti; and 

Missouri with the state of Pará, Brazil.

Adams can be contacted by telephone or e-mail to further explain his farmer-toFarmer volunteering in Ecuador.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 170

ANNEX H: FTF STANDARD PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT INDICATOR REPORTING TABLES

Table 1: Data on Volunteers and Values of Inputs Invested, by Country and Focus Area, Cumulative Life Of Project Inputs

Number of Volunteers2

Country

Focus 

Area1 Male Female Total

Number of 

volunteer 

days 

completed3

Estimated 

FtF Program 

expenditures 

to Date ('000 

U.S.$)4

Average FtF 

Program 

cost per 

volunteer 

day ('000 

U.S.$/day)

Estimated 

value of 

volunteer 

professional 

time ('000 

U.S.$)5

Estimated value of 

resources leveraged 

by the grantee and 

volunteers in the U.S. 

('000 U.S.$)6

Estimated 

value of 

resources 

mobilized 

by Host 

('000 

U.S.$)7

Estimated 

value of host 

contribution 

('000 U.S.$)8

 Total 

1 Please list all focus areas that you will be reporting against as stated in your approved planning matrices. This should be completed the same for all tables. If you have left a 

small percentage of volunteer days as "flexible" or "unplanned", you may list them under a "flexible" sector category if they do not fit under one of your planned sectors. 

Subsequently, if the numbers of flexible volunteers become large enough in a single focus area, such that they would warrant tracking as a new sector or focus area, please 

switch all information for those assignments under the new sector heading. 

2 These three columns provide a cumulative (life of project) count of the number of volunteers, disaggregated by gender. One volunteer is considered to be the same as one 

overseas trip. Volunteers who travel more than once during the course of the FtF Program will be counted for every overseas trip they make. If a volunteer makes one 

overseas trip, but provides technical assistance under two different FtF Cooperative Agreements during the same trip, that volunteer may be counted once by each of the 

organizations operating under the different cooperative agreements. However, travel to multiple countries to perform multiple tasks under one Cooperative Agreement still 

counts as only one volunteer. In this case, you should mark the volunteer under the specific country and focus area where he/she spent the majority of time. The number of 

volunteer days can then be divided up more appropriately in the next column for “Volunteer Days”.

3 Volunteer Days should be calculated the same as "per diem days". Any day, or fraction thereof, in which a volunteer is entitled to per diem is considered a Volunteer Day. 

These days will be based on seven-day work weeks beginning from the day the volunteer departs for his/her overseas assignment to the day he/she returns from that 

assignment. If a volunteer works in more than one country, and/or in more that one focus area, the number of days should be divided up accordingly in this column.

4 In estimating program expenditures by focus area, a simple calculation based on number of volunteer days for each given sector will suffice. Formula: sector expenditure = 

(total expenditure / total # of volunteer days) x # of volunteer days in that given sector.

5 This figure will be based on each individual implementing organization's standard estimates.

6 These funds are raised in the U.S. by the volunteer or grantee and counted as a matching contribution for the grant.

7 "Resources mobilized" are resources that FtF program managers and volunteers assist their hosts in accessing, such as various sources of credit, state assistance, PL 480 

local currency, other donor assistance, etc. Sum across years will provide LOP total.

8 This is the contribution made by the host organizations towards the cost of the volunteer assignment. It can be cash or in-kind contribution. Some examples might be 

translation services, transportation, or room/board.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 171

Table 2: Cumulative Number of Volunteers1

 

Previous Total This Period New Total

Regions States Male Female Male Female Male Female 

Northeast Connecticut 

 Delaware 

 Maine 

 Maryland 

 Massachusetts 

 New Hampshire 

 New Jersey 

 New York 

 Pennsylvania 

 Rhode Island 

 Vermont 

 Washington, DC 

 Subtotal

Southeast Alabama 

 Arkansas 

 Florida 

 Georgia 

 Kentucky 

 Louisiana 

 Mississippi 

 North Carolina 

 South Carolina 

 Tennessee 

 Virginia 

 West Virginia 

 Subtotal

Midwest 

 Illinois 

 Indiana 

 Iowa 

 Kansas 

 Missouri 

 Nebraska 

 Ohio 

 Subtotal
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 172

Upper Midwest 

 Michigan 

 Minnesota 

 North Dakota 

 South Dakota 

 Wisconsin 

 Subtotal

Rocky Mountain Colorado 

 Idaho 

 Montana 

 Utah 

 Wyoming 

 Subtotal

West Coast Alaska 

 Hawaii 

 California 

 Oregon 

 Washington 

 Subtotal

Southwest Arizona 

 Nevada 

 New Mexico 

 Oklahoma 

 Texas 

 Subtotal

Other 

 

 Subtotal

 TOTAL

1

The same definition for volunteers given on Table 1, Footnote 1 applies here. Therefore the TOTAL of this table 

should equal the total number of volunteers from Table 1. Note that the volunteer's state of primary residence 

should be used as the determining factor for this table.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 173

Table 3 - Data on Volunteers: Classification of Their Technical Assistance, and Commodity Chain Placement by Country 

and Focus Area1

 Type of Volunteer Assistance Commodity Chain Activities

Country Focus Area

Technology Transfer

Organizational Development

Business/Enterprise Development

Financial Services

Environmental Conservation

Information and Input (preproduction) SUPPORT SERVICES

2

On Farm PRODUCTION by 

FARMERS

PROCESSING (including primary and final product transformation, 

storage, transportation)

MARKETING (including branding, 

advertising, promotion, distribution, 

sales)

 

 

 

 TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1On this table, each volunteer (as defined on Tables 1 and 2) should be classified under the two categories provided. A volunteer should only be counted once under the 

heading "Type of Volunteer Assistance" and once under "Commodity Chain Activity". The totals of both sections of the table will be equal to the number of volunteers listed in 

Tables 1 and 2. If a volunteer provides multiple types of assistance and/or focuses assistance on multiple categories of the commodity chain, determine the one category that 

the volunteer spent the majority of his/her time with and use that for the classification. The volunteers will also be classified by one major country and focus area. All numbers 

are cumulative.

2

This category should include activities related to such areas as extension services, input supplies, veterinary services, and credit. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 174

Table 4: Data on Hosts - Description of Institution Types (Legal Enterprise or Association Status) by Country and Focus 

Area Also, Numbers of Beneficiaries and Numbers Receiving Training, by Country, by Focus Area 

 Host Institutions1 Direct Beneficiaries3

Beneficiaries 

Receiving Training4

 

Country Focus Area

Cooperatives and 

Associations

Individual Private 

Farmers

Other Private 

Enterprises

Non-Profit, Public 

Interest NGOs

Public and Private 

Education Institutions

Rural Financial 

Institutions

Public Sector [gov’t] Technical AgenciesMale Female Total Male Female Total

Indirect 

Beneficiaries 5

 

 

1 Host organizations may only be counted once for the LOP and may only be categorized under one of the following types, unless some fundamental change requires that 

they be re-classified: Host Institution Categories: Cooperatives and Associations: Member-based organizations representing stakeholders in the agricultural sector. Do not 

include Credit Unions or other similar organizations that provide credit or finance as a primary service. These organizations will be categorized under "Rural Financial 

Institutions". Cooperatives will commonly have a cash flow; associations will not (other than minor membership dues). Individual Private Farmers: Hosts that can be 

considered private farmers, whose technical assistance is not based on their membership or affiliation with a cooperative, association, agribusiness or other private 

enterprise. Other Private Enterprises: These are primarily agribusinesses (pre-production inputs, post-harvest handling), but may also include informal farm and community 

groups. Non-Profit Public Interest NGOs: non-governmental organizations serving community interests, with no profit motive. NGOs are "host country PVOs". Use the NGO 

category if a host cannot be defined in any other category according to the indicator guidelines set forth. For example, an association is an association first and an NGO 

second. “Association” will provide a more specific definition of the host type. Public and Private Education Institutions: Publicly or Privately funded Colleges and Universities 

or any related departments or affiliated agencies. Rural Financial Institutions: These are lending institutions with rural outreach to the agricultural sector. Public Sector 

Technical Agencies: This would include public extension service agencies or other government agencies serving that function.

2" Resources mobilized" are resources that FtF volunteers assist their hosts in accessing, such as various sources of credit, state assistance, PL 480 local currency, other 

donor assistance, etc. Sum across years will provide LOP total.

3 Direct beneficiaries receive face-to-face or hands on training or assistance from the FtF volunteer. Indirect beneficiaries (for example, those trained by direct beneficiaries) 

should not be included in this data.

4 Direct Beneficiaries that receive technical or in-country training as defined under USAID ADS Chapter 253.4 and ADS Glossary as follows: Technical Training: Formally 

structured learning activities, generally in a classroom, which do not lead to an academic degree. Can include technical courses at community colleges, technical institutes or 

universities, on-the-job activities tied to technical-area classroom work, or any combination of such formally structured, non-degree producing instructional activity. In-Country 

Training: A learning activity taking place in a classroom or workshop with formally designated instructor(s), learning objectives, and outcomes, conducted full-time or 

intermittently within the host country.

5 Indirect beneficiaries are those who do not receive face-to-face or hands on assistance from an FtF volunteer, but who otherwise benefit from assistance. This may include 

family members based on survey counts or average sizes. This number is difficult to measure and best estimates are acceptable. However, to the extent possible, please 

footnote source for data or calculation.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 175

Table 5: FtF Program Economic Impacts - Incremental Net Incomes of Hosts, Numbers Adopting and Reporting 

Improvement and Organizational Capacity Impacts

 Economic Impacts Organizational Capacity Impacts

Country Focus Area

Number of relevant hosts

1

Number of hosts adopting volunteer 

recommendations

2

Number of hosts reporting 

improvement

Number of beneficiaries associated 

with hosts reporting improvements

Increased incremental net income

3

across all hosts adopting ($000)

Increased gross value of sales ($000)

Number of relevant hosts

Number of hosts adopting volunteer 

recommendations

Number of hosts reporting 

improvement

Number of beneficiaries associated 

with hosts reporting improvement

Increase in the Host's Revenues

4

($000)

Number of New or Improved 

Products and/or Services

 

1 Relevant hosts are those hosts who seek improvement in the given results category. The primary focus of both the host and the volunteer assignment 

should be on producing a result in this category for a host to be counted as relevant.

2 This number is very subjective, but should reflect hosts that have adopted volunteer recommendations in a substantial way.

3 Increased Net Income: Increase in Incremental ("With" adoption of recommendation, less "Without" adoption of recommendation) Net (after subtracting 

production costs in both cases) Income (expressed in thousand U.S. Dollars). The hosts and the volunteers will be enlisted to prepare simple enterprise 

budgets or per-hectare crop budgets (partial budgets will do) to compare the "With" and "Without" cases, as part of the terms of reference for their 

assignment.

4 Revenues raised through member dues, services fees, or other sources of income such as contracts or grants.

Note: Baseline data collected in prior years needs to be updated as of time of volunteer assignment. Prices change rapidly.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 176

Table 6: FtF Program Outcomes and Impacts from Financial Services and Environmental Protection Activities

 Financial Services (e.g. Credit) Indicators Environment/NRM

Country Focus Area

Number of relevant hosts

1

Number of hosts adopting 

volunteer recommendations

2

Number of hosts reporting 

improvement

3

Number of hosts with loan 

delinquency rate maintained at 

less than 10%

Increase in the amount of rural and/or agricultural loans ($000)Increase in the number of rural 

and/or agricultural loans

Increase in the value of the host's net equity

3 ($000) 

Number of relevant hosts

Number of hosts adopting 

volunteer recommendations

Number of hosts reporting 

improvement

Increased incremental net 

income

3 ($000)

Increased gross value of sales 

($000)

Area covered by improved 

natural resource management 

(ha)

Total number of hosts adopting 

one or more environmental 

technologies

People with improved safety and 

working conditions

People with improved 

environmental services

 

 

 

 

 

1 Relevant Hosts are those hosts who seek improvement in the given Results category. The primary focus of both the Host and the volunteer assignment 

should be on producing a result in this category for a host to be counted as relevant.

2 This number is very subjective, but should reflect hosts that have adopted volunteer recommendations in a substantial way.

3 Net equity equates to assets minus liabilities.
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 177

Table 7: Increased Awareness in the U.S. Agricultural Sector Concerning International 

Agricultural Development

Annual Indicators

Number of FtF volunteers who have performed public 

outreach activities. 

Number of Press Releases (issued by FtF implementing 

agency) to local press/radio/TV media in area of origin 

of volunteer.1

 

Number of media events by implementers and FtF 

volunteers.2

 

Number of group presentations by implementers and 

FtF volunteers. 

1

A new category we intend to track is the number of press releases issued by the grantee to local press/radio/TV 

media in area of origin of volunteer. This is not a specific requirement in the cooperative agreements, and not all 

FtF grantees perform this activity, but we would like to track the extent to which it is taking place.

2

Any internet-based outreach activity should be counted as a media event. Examples may include hosting a chat 

room or using the internet or an email system to disseminate a newsletter. This does not include emailing 

information packets for recruitment purposes. Other examples of media events might include newspaper 

articles, radio or television news coverage. 
A MANUAL FOR MANGING INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTEER PROGRAMS 178

Table 8: Semi-Annual Volunteer Tracking

Volunteer 

Name

Country(ies) 

Visited

Trip dates 

(from/to)

Number of 

Volunteer 

Days

Type of 

Assistance

Hosts 

Assisted

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Note: Please provide the information requested in this table. If you have the information in 

another format that is easier to report, then you may use that, but please make sure all of the 

above fields are provided. We would like this information in both semi-annual and annual reports; 

however you should only provide information on volunteer activities completed during the sixmonth reporting period between reports. This table will not be a running count of volunteers, but 

should only correspond to the reporting period for which it is presented.