United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest

Research Station

General Technical

Report

PNW-GTR-407

January 1999

Biological Characteristics and

Population Status of Steelhead

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in

Southeast Alaska

Samuel C. Lohr and Mason D. Bryant
SAMUEL C. LOHR was formerly employed as a post-doctoral research associate

with the Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, Fort

Collins, CO 80523 and presently is a fishery biologist with the U.S. Department of

the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Snake River Basin Office, 1387 S. Vinnel Way,

Suite 368, Boise, ID 83709; and MASON D. BRYANT is a research fishery biologist,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station,

Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 2770 Sherwood Lane 2A, Juneau, AK 99801.

Authors
Lohr, Samuel C.; Bryant, Mason D. 1999. Biological characteristics and population

status of steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in southeast Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep.

PNW-GTR-407. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Research Station. 29 p.

We reviewed existing data to determine the range and distribution of steelhead

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in southeast Alaska, summarized biological characteristics,

and determined population status of steelhead stocks. Unique or sensitive stocks that

may require consideration in planning land management activities are identified within

the data reviewed. Data sources were personal communications, reports, and unpublished data files of State and Federal agencies. Only eight winter-run stocks in southeast Alaska and two summer-run stocks in southwest Alaska had sufficient data to

evaluate biological characteristics. Age structure, sex ratio, incidence and frequency of

repeat spawning, and body length were similar among winter-run stocks, and consistent with coastwide trends of increasing freshwater age and body size of steelhead

stocks in the northern portion of their range. Winter-run stocks appeared to have a

greater proportion of repeat spawners (kelts) than summer-run stocks, and juvenile

steelhead in the summer-run stocks generally spent 1 year less in both fresh water

and the ocean. Assessment of escapement trends, run timing, and stock status is

hindered by lack of adequate data both in number of stocks with sufficient data and

the number of years of data available. Incomplete weir counts during immigration and

emigration of adult fish and low sample sizes of escapement indices, both within and

among years, decrease the reliability of estimates. Although stocks with sufficient data

are not at risk, small run sizes that are typical of most steelhead stocks may be more

susceptible to poor land management practices and overharvest than larger stocks.

Keywords: Steelhead, stock assessment, Alaska, management, biological review.

Abstract
1 Introduction

1 Steelhead Biology and General Life History

3 Steelhead Management in Alaska

4 Methods

7 Results

7 Distribution and Relative Stock Size

7 Age Structure

9 Sex Ratio

9 Repeat Spawning

13 Body Length

13 Run Timing

14 Stock Status

15 Other Studies

17 Discussion

19 Risk Factors

20 Acknowledgments

20 References

Contents
Fisheries program managers of the USDA Forest Service identified the need to summarize biological characteristics and determine population status of anadromous

salmonids in southeast Alaska because of declines in stocks of anadromous salmonids

in California, Oregon, Idaho, and Washington (Nehlsen and others 1991). Their purpose

was to identify unique or sensitive stocks that may require special consideration in

planning land management activities on the Tongass National Forest. Reports by Halupka

and others (1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1996d, 1996e) summarize and review existing data

with primary emphasis on escapement records of chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytcha

(Walbaum)), coho (O. kitsutch (Walbaum)), sockeye (O. nerka (Walbaum)), chum (O.

keta (Walbaum)), and pink (O. gorbuscha (Walbaum)) salmon. Most data are from the

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG), but records and interviews from various

other State and Federal natural resource agencies are included.

Halupka and others (1996a) define salmon stocks according to Ricker (1972); that

is, by the population of fish spawning in a particular tributary of a drainage during a

specific season. They compile, summarize, and compare biological data on the intraspecific diversity of life history and demographic attributes among stocks, and

evaluate population trends to identify unique characteristics and to determine the status

of stocks. We present a similar evaluation of steelhead (O. mykiss) stocks in southeast and southwest Alaska. The objectives are to (1) determine the range and distribution of steelhead stocks in southeast Alaska; (2) characterize stocks according to age

structure, sex ratio, incidence and frequency of multiple spawning, and body length, and

compare these attributes among stocks; (3) determine timing of freshwater immigration and emigration of adult steelhead during spawning; (4) assess temporal population

trends of specific stocks based on indices of escapement; and (5) identify factors that

might place stocks at risk.

Steelhead are anadromous rainbow trout. In a thorough review of the literature, Burgner

and others (1992) found no significant differences in genetic, morphological, and

morphometric characteristics and concluded that the two differ only in their life history

strategies. Thus, where the two forms are sympatric and not separated by barriers, each

may produce progeny of the other life-history type. The native range of nonanadromous

rainbow trout is more extensive than that of steelhead. Rainbow trout are found north

from Rio del Presidio, Mexico, to the Kuskokwim River, Alaska, west across the Pacific

Ocean to Asia, and south along the Kamchatka Peninsula, Siberian mainland, Commander Islands, and Greater Shantar Island (Behnke 1992, Burgner and others 1992,

MacCrimmon 1971). Within this range, steelhead are found on the Kamchatka Peninsula, a few mainland streams in Asia, and perhaps the Commander Islands (Burgner

and others 1992). In North America, the current southern limit of steelhead is Santa

Monica Bay, California, and the northern limit is the Gulkana River and other tributaries

of the Copper River, Alaska (Burger and others 1983; Williams 1972; Williams and

Potterville 1983, 1984, 1985). Within Alaska, steelhead stocks are most abundant in the

southeast portion of the State, but small numbers of stocks occur in Prince William

Sound, Cook Inlet, Kodiak Archipelago, and Alaska Peninsula (Van Hulle 1985).

Although river systems in these areas all drain into the Gulf of Alaska, a few small

stocks occur in drainages on the northern side of the Alaska Peninsula (USDI Fish and

Wildlife Service 1994).

Introduction

Steelhead Biology and

General Life History

1
Steelhead probably possess the greatest diversity of life-history characteristics of any

Pacific Ocean salmonid (Behnke 1992, Burgner and others 1992). They typically are

separated into two seasonal races, summer and winter, based on time of return to fresh

water for spawning and degree of sexual maturity. Summer-run steelhead typically return

to fresh water during May-October in sexually undeveloped condition, whereas, winterrun fish return in November-April with developed gonads (Smith 1969, Withler 1966).

Although steelhead probably enter streams during all months of the year in North

America (Withler 1966), precise timing is influenced by several environmental and

regional factors such as water temperature and flow regime (Burgner and others 1992).

Winter-run stocks are most abundant in southeast Alaska, but it is not uncommon for the

same streams to contain a smaller summer-run (Didier and others 1991, Van Hulle

1985). Summer-run stocks are more abundant northwest of Yakutat.

Spawning occurs from late winter to early spring, in both summer- and winter-run

steelhead; therefore, freshwater residency of summer-run steelhead is several months

longer than that for winter-run steelhead. Even though spawning may take place at

nearly the same time in streams with both runs, partial reproductive isolation may exist

between runs (Leider and others 1984, Smith 1969). Summer-run fish may spawn in

drainages farther from the ocean than those used by winter-run fish (Behnke 1992).

Maximum spawning activity is thought to occur during late April to May for both

runs in Alaska.

Steelhead fry emerge from redds 4 to 7 weeks after spawning, depending primarily on

water temperature (Pauley and others 1986). They reside in streams for 1 to 5 years

before migrating as smolts to the ocean (Burgner and others 1992). Because growth

rates in streams depend on water temperatures, and size is the greatest determinant of

age at which steelhead become smolts, there is a trend toward increasing age of

smolts from south to north along the Pacific coast (Withler 1966). Throughout Alaska,

most steelhead smolts migrate to the ocean after 3 or more years in fresh water

(Van Hulle 1985). Coastwide timing of smolt emigration usually corresponds with high

spring flows caused by melting snow during March-June. In 4 years of trapping at

Petersburg Creek, Alaska, smolts began emigrating as early as late April and typically

reached their maximum in the first week of June (Jones 1977b). Of all smolts sampled

for age and length during this time (n = 163), 90 percent had spent three or four winters

in the stream, and overall mean fork length was 176 mm (6.9 inches).

After 1 to 4 years of growth in salt water, steelhead return to their natal streams to spawn.

An exception is a regional run of “half-pounders” occurring in northern California and

southern Oregon that return to streams after only a few months at sea, but most are

sexually undeveloped and do not spawn (Burgner and others 1992). Most steelhead

returning to Alaska streams have spent 2 or more years at sea (Van Hulle 1985). In

contrast to Pacific salmon that usually die soon after spawning, steelhead may survive

their initial spawning run and return to spawn several times. Most repeat spawners

(kelts) are females. Although Withler (1966) noted that the incidence of repeat spawning tended to decline in the northern portions of steelhead range in North America,

spawning runs into Alaska streams may consist of 25 to 33 percent of repeat spawners

(Didier and others 1991, Van Hulle 1985).

2
Steelhead are managed as a sport fish in Alaska. From 1977 to 1992, estimated

annual harvest ranged from 2,978 fish in 1979 to 6,539 in 1984 (fig. 1; Didier and

others 1991, Mills 1993), with over half of the fish harvested in the southeast region

for 13 of the 16 years of record. Because of apparent declines in stocks throughout the

State, more restrictive angling regulations have been implemented in recent years. For

example, Jones (1994) reports that the Situk River was the only drainage in southeast

Alaska with catch-and-release regulations in 1991. In 1992, 24 streams were restricted

to catch-and-release angling and 48 in 1993. The 1994 sport fish regulations for southeast Alaska permitted a season harvest of two steelhead with a 914-mm (36-inch)

minimum size limit, which was estimated to protect 95 percent of the wild fish (Jones 1994).

Steelhead are taken as incidental harvest in the commercial salmon fisheries and are

part of subsistence fisheries throughout Alaska. Since 1969, the harvest of steelhead

in the Alaska commercial fishery has ranged from 849 to 11,540 fish (fig. 2).

1 These

values are conservative because they were reported by fish buyers, and do not include

steelhead that were caught but not sold. Moreover, the proportion of steelhead in the

commercial catch that originated from Alaska streams is not known. Jones (1994)

found steelhead marked with coded wire tags from California, Oregon, Washington,

Idaho, and British Columbia in the Alaska commercial harvest.

1 C. Smith. Unpublished data. On file with: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Commercial Fishery

Management and Development, 1255 W. 8th Street,

Juneau, AK 99801.

Steelhead

Management in Alaska

1977 78 79 80 84 85 91 92 ’ ’ ’ ’’ ’’ ’ ’’ ’ ’ ’ 81 86 87 88 89 90 ’ ’ 82 83

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Figure 1—Annual sport harvest of steelhead in Alaska 1977-92 (after Didier and others 1991, Mills 1993).

Year

Thousands Number of steelhead

3
Although most of our data are from steelhead stocks in southeast Alaska, their geographic area extends from the international boundary with Canada at Dixon Entrance

north to the Yakutat area of Alaska; however, we include the remaining portions of

steelhead range and use biological data from stocks in the Anchor River (Kodiak) and

the Karluk River (Kenai Peninsula) (fig. 3). Within southeast Alaska, only eight streams

had specific studies on steelhead: the Karta, Klawock, Situk, and Thorne Rivers and

Petersburg, Peterson, Ward, and Sitkoh Creeks (Freeman and Hoffman 1989, 1990,

1991; Harding and Jones 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994). Most data from Ward Creek

and the Klawock and Thorne Rivers consisted only of angler surveys, so data pertinent

to biological characteristics of steelhead stocks were derived from limited samples of

harvested steelhead (Hubartt 1989, 1990). Steelhead in the remaining five streams had

been studied intensively for only 3 to 5 years.

Methods

Figure 2—Annual commercial harvest of steelhead in Alaska 1969-93 (C. Smith, ADFG, Division of

Commercial Fish, Juneau). Unpublished data. On file with: Alaska Department of Fish and Game,

Commercial Fish Division, Juneau, AK.

Year

Number of steelhead

Thousands

1969 '79 '81 '83 '85 '87 '89 '91 '93 '71 '73 '75 '77

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Propagation and stocking of steelhead has been conducted in south-central and

southwest Alaska since the early 1950s, and in southeast Alaska since the 1930s

(Didier and others 1991). Technical limitations of rearing facilities (Schwan 1989) and

controversies about the need to supplement wild stocks (Didier and others 1991) have

limited recent stocking activities. Small steelhead stocks are currently maintained by

private hatcheries for smolt releases primarily in the Klawock and Ketchikan areas in

southeast Alaska.

4
Figure 3—Locations of 10 steelhead stocks with sufficient data for analysis. Two summer-run steelhead

stocks are located on Kodiak Island and the Kenai Peninsula; eight winter-run stocks are located from the

Yakutat area, Situk River to Prince of Wales Island. The Takini, Taku Stikine, and Leduc Rivers have stocks

that enter British Columbia.

Range and distribution of steelhead stocks in Alaska were determined from Van Hulle

(1985) and data compiled by ADFG in 1988.2 Steelhead occurrences recorded in the

“Atlas of Waters Important for Spawning, Rearing, and Migration of Anadromous Fishes”

—updated October 1994— (Alaska Department of Fish and Game 1993) were also

included. The catalog number for each stream found in the 1993 catalog accompanying

the Atlas also was included.

We used information from reports, data files, and personal communication with ADFG

personnel. Reports by the ADFG, Division of Sport Fish, contain a variety of information

concerning steelhead escapement, run timing, adult age, sex, and body size. Data are

from fish collected at weirs specifically for steelhead or from fish sampled during creel

2 Harding, R. 1988. Unpublished data. On file with: Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, Sport Fish Division, P.O. Box

240020, Douglas, AK 99824.

B

.

Karta River

Thorne River

Klawock River

4

5

6

8

97

ALASKA

1 Karluk River

2 Anchor River

YAKUTAT AREA

3 Situk River

SOUTHEAST

AREA

4 Peterson Creek

5 Sitkoh Creek

6 Petersburg Creek

7 Klawock River

8 Thorne River

9 Karta River

 10 Ward Creek

A

.

B

10

Juneau

Sitkoh Creek

Frederick Sound

Petersburg Creek

Yakutat

Situk River

A

3

A

Peterson Creek

Taku River

Takini River

Petersburg Creek

Leduc River

Prince of Wales Island

Ward

Creek

Ketchikan

Alaska British Columbia

Karluk River

Anchorage

Kodiak

Anchor

River

B

A

1

2

Alaska

1 Karluk River

2 Anchor River

Yakutat area

3 Situk River

Southeast area

4 Peterson Creek

5 Sitkoh Creek

6 Petersburg Creek

7 Klawock River

8 Thorne River

9 Karta River

10 Ward Creek

B

A

B

5
surveys. Steelhead are not fished as a commercial species and are not reported with the

commercially important salmon species. Steelhead captured at weirs to enumerate

commercial salmon escapement are recorded only as comments and are not reported

in the computerized ADFG escapement database for commercial salmonids. These

data were used only when they were included in reports by the ADFG. Additional data

were gathered from published articles, symposia, and various reports, and from

personal communications with the USDA Forest Service (FS), USDI Fish and Wildlife

(FWS), and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS).

Not all sources were used to summarize biological characteristics to compare among

stocks. Different or multiple sampling methods limit comparisons: data collected from

fish during only a restricted period of a spawning run, operation of weirs during only a

portion of a run, different length measures reported (that is, mid-eye-to-fork vs. fork

length), and uncertainty in the method of aging or reporting freshwater and saltwater

ages may introduce an unknown bias to the data. The biological data (for example, age

classes, body length) were summarized within years for a given stream and presented

as annual means, weighted by the number of fish in each age class. Grand means,

calculated as the average of the annual means across years at a given stream, were

used to summarize biological attributes and to make comparisons of age structure, sex

ratio, and body length among stocks. Age distribution within a stock was derived from

freshwater and saltwater ages estimated from scales; sex ratio and incidence and

frequency of spawning were determined from all fish sampled, including those with

scales regenerated before entering salt water. All body length measurements are fork

length. Other measures such as mid-eye-to-fork were converted to fork length by using

equations for ocean-caught coho salmon (Pahlke 1989).3

Ages are reported by using the European system (Narver 1969), whereby the number

of winters spent in fresh water is followed by a period and then by the number of

winters spent in salt water before the initial spawning run. Departures from this system

and uncertainty in the aging methods used occurred in some studies of summer

steelhead runs and are noted in the text. The ages presented in the original literature

are reported. The most recent spawning check was omitted for age data in which only

kelts were sampled after spawning. This allowed direct comparisons of spawning

frequency and the incidence of repeat spawners among stocks. In some data sources,

samples were reported separately by collection method and survey for a particular

stream. Though these different methods are noted in the tables, no attempt was made to

combine multiple data sets from a single source (report). Comparisons among

streams were made from samples collected during the same season.

Mean dates of spawner immigration and emigration were calculated by using methods

described by Mundy (1984) for 1 to 5 years that weirs were operated in four streams.

Weirs often were hampered by high water and probably did not encompass the entire

spawning run; therefore, only steelhead counts that showed an increase, peak, and

decline throughout the run were used to determine trends in escapement and stock

3 Personal communication. 1995. Roger Harding, Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, Sport Fish Division, P.O. Box

240020, Douglas, AK 99824.

6
The greatest abundance of steelhead stocks occurs in the southeast region of Alaska

(fig. 3, inset B). Steelhead were found in 581 streams within this region. Of these, 345

flowed directly into salt water. Eighty-seven of the 345 systems contained lakes from

which steelhead were reported. Most systems were relatively small, but steelhead

occurred in four large rivers, the Leduc (tributary of the Chickamin River), Stikine,

Taku, and Takini (tributary of the Chilkat River) that extended into British Columbia

(fig. 3). More than 80 percent of all identified streams (482) with steelhead were

adjacent to or south of Frederick Sound. Moreover, within the southern portion of

southeast Alaska, steelhead are known from 87 streams located on Prince of

Wales Island alone (Harding and Jones 1993).

Steelhead escapement studies have been conducted on few streams in Alaska, and

most occur in southeast Alaska. Tentative estimates of escapements, primarily based

on professional judgment, were made for 331 streams. In less than 200 streams,

escapements were thought to be under 100 fish (Jones 1994). Fifty-six streams were

estimated to have runs over 500 fish, and 12 streams were thought to have runs over

1,000 fish. The Situk River in the northern portion of southeast Alaska near Yakutat has

the largest steelhead run, with escapement estimates over 5,000 (Jones 1994). Escapement estimates of the summer-run stocks in the Karluk and Anchor rivers, near

the northern limit of steelhead range, were generally over 1,000 fish.6

The most abundant age classes were typically 3.2, 3.3, 4.2, and 4.3 (table 1).

Residence in fresh water ranged from 1 to 5 years and residence in salt water 1 to 6

years before the initial spawning run in the 10 steelhead stocks assessed. Most fish

spent 3 to 4 years in fresh water and 2 to 3 years in salt water. Excluding stocks with

hatchery fish and those with a small sample size such as the Thorne and Klawock

Rivers and Ward Creek, the mean percentage of both female and male fish for the 5

remaining winter-run stocks ranged from 53 to 68 percent for the age classes 3.2 and

3.3, and from 12 to 38 percent for the age classes 4.2 and 4.3. The mean percentages

of fish that spent either 3 or 4 years in fresh water generally were similar for both

sexes. Fish that had migrated as smolts at 2 years were 11 to 15 percent of all fish in

three of the five streams, whereas <4 percent spent 2 years in fresh water at Peterson

and Sitkoh Creeks. Wild fish that spent 1 year in fresh water were observed only in the

Situk River during 1970 (McHugh and others 1971, 1972), but these data were not

included in table 1 because sexes were combined.

4 Personal communication. 1995. T. Baker, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Commercial Fishery

Management and Development, 333 Raspberry Road,

Anchorage, AK 99515.

5 Personal communication. 1995. B. Johnson, Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, Division of Sport Fish,

Yakutat, AK 99689.

6 T. Baker. Unpublished data. On file with: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Commercial Fishery

Management and Development, 333 Raspberry Road,

Anchorage, AK 99515.

Results

Distribution and

Relative Stock Size

status.4 5 Escapement trends during a period of several years were used to determine

stock status. Stock status was determined by using methods of Konkel and McIntyre

(1987), and assigned to one of four classes: increasing, decreasing, not significant, or

unknown (<7 years of counts).

Age Structure

7
Table 1—Percentage of each age class (age class <1 included fish that spent 1 year in fresh water) of all adult steelh

spawning run from streams in Alaska

a

Age class

Catalog <1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.3 

Stream number Years Sex

Years

Winter-run stocks:

Karta River 102-60-10870 3 Female 6 5 40 25 16 7 

Male 10 2 1 48 13 1 16 8 

 Thorne River 102-70-10580 2 Both 3 8 11 5 35 30 3 5  Klawock Riverb 103-60-10470 1 Both 4 8 4 26 32 2 15 8 

 Petersburg Creek 106-44-10600 5 Female 4 8 4 26 32 2 15 8 

Male 1 8 6 6 37 18 2 17 4 

 Peterson Creek 111-50-10100 3 Female 1 1 30 23 2 25 13 

Male 3 1 1 45 9 2 34 4 

 Ward Creekb 112-47-10150 3 Both 15 8 6 1 34 20 6 9  Sitkoh Creek 113-59-10040 3 Female 1 25 34 20 16 

Male 2 1 43 15 29 6 

 Situk River 182-70-10100 3 Female 3 9 1 2 26 42 1 2 <1 9 3 

Male 6 5 1 44 22 1 13 5 

Summer-run stocks:

Anchor River 244-10-10010 8 Female 1 15 7 72 2 3 

Male 4 9 44 35 1 2 4 

 Karluk Riverc 255-10-10010 2 Female 9 62 7 20 1 1 

Male 1 54 20 1 16 7 

a Years are the number of years of data included.b Includes some hatchery fish.c Winter spent in fresh water during initial spawning run was reported as if in salt water.

8
Summer-run stocks spent less time in fresh water than did winter-run stocks (table 1).

Both summer-run stocks had substantially fewer fish that spent 4 years in fresh water

than did winter-run stocks. In the Anchor River, over 70 percent of both sexes spent 3

years in fresh water, and similar percentages of both sexes spent 2 years in fresh water

in the Karluk River. In both rivers, most fish spent at least 2 years in salt water before

their initial spawning run, except for males at the Anchor River. Of these, half had spent

only 1 year in salt water.

Differences in mean freshwater and saltwater age corresponded with differences in age

structure between the two life-history types. The mean freshwater ages of summer-run

fish from the Karluk and Anchor Rivers were <3 years for both males and females,

whereas all winter-run fish, except those in Thorne River which had a sample size of 37

fish during a 2-year period, were >3 years (table 2). Anchor River fish spent less than 2

years in salt water. Mean saltwater age was >2 years in the remaining stocks except

for male repeat spawners in Peterson Creek (table 2). No consistent differences in

mean age were apparent among winter-run stocks. Male steelhead, however, had

consistently lower mean saltwater ages than female fish in all stocks for which sex was

determined.

The mean percentage of males spawning for the first time (that is, initial spawners) was

between 40 and 51 percent for both winter- and summer-run fish (table 3), but high variability among years was observed in some streams (for example, Peterson Creek). A lower

percentage of males was observed among repeat spawners in the winter-run stocks

(25 to 35 percent) compared to summer-run stocks (43 and 50 percent).

The number of spawning runs made by kelts, based on scale analysis, ranged from one

to four in the winter-run stocks and from one to two in the summer-run stocks (table

3). The number of fish decreased in each successive run (table 4). On average, kelts

made up 21 to 51 percent of all fish in both summer- and winter-run stocks. The highest

mean (51 percent) was from Peterson Creek because 70 percent of the 1989 sample

was composed of repeat spawners.

Sex Ratio

Repeat Spawning

9
Table 2—Mean freshwater and saltwater age (SD) of steelhead during their initial spawning run for years in wh

collected in Alaska streams (M = male, F = female, B = both male and female)

Initial spawners Repeat spawners 

 Freshwater age Saltwater age Freshwater age Saltwater age Freshw

Stream Catalog number Years M F B M F B M F B M F B M Winter-run stocks:

Karta River 102-60-10870 3 3.4 3.3 3.4 2.4 2.5 2.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 2.1 2.2 2.2 3.4 3

(0.4) (0.4) (0.5) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.3) (0.3) (0.3) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.4) (0

Thorne River 102-70-10580 2 2.9 2.5 2.9 1.6 

(0.1) (0.2) (0.1) (0.3) 

Klawock Rivera 103-60-10470 1 

Petersburg 106-44-10600 5 3.2 3.1 3.1 2.4 2.7 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.1 1.7 2.0 1.9 3.1 3 Creek (0.2) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.2) (0.2) (0.2) (0.4) (0.4) (0.4) (0.2) (0Peterson Creek 111-50-10100 3 3.4 3.4 3.4 2.3 2.6 2.4 3.4 3.5 3.4 2.0 2.1 2.1 3.4 3

(0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.2) (0.1) (0.2) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0

Ward Creeka 112-47-10150 3 

Sitkoh Creek 113-59-10040 3 3.4 3.4 3.4 2.2 2.6 2.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 2.2 2.5 2.4 3.4 3

(0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (<0.1) (<0.1) (0.1) (<0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0

Situk River 182-70-10100 3 3.1 3.1 3.1 2.4 2.6 2.5 3.0 3.1 3.1 2.2 2.9 2.7 3.1 3

(0.3) (0.3) (0.3) (<0.1) (0.1) (0.2) (0.2) (0.5) (0.4) (0.2) (0.8) (0.7) (0.3) (0

Summer-run stocks:

Anchor River 244-10-10010 8 3.0 3.0 2.9 1.5 1.9 1.8 2.9 2.8 2.9 1.5 1.8 1.7 3.0 2

(0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.2) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.2) (0.1) (0.6) (0.2) (0.3) (0.1) (0

Karluk River 255-10-10010 2 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.9 2.6 2.2 2.5 2.4 2.1 2.5 2.4 2.2 2

(<0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (0.2) (0.1) (0.2) (0.2) (0.2) (0.1) (<0.1) (0.4) (0.3) (0.1) (0.2) (0

a Includes hatchery fish.

10
Table 3—Total number of male and female steelhead and mean percentage of males for initial spawners,

repeat spawners, and all fish for all years in which similar data were collected. The mean percentage of

repeat spawners of all fish and range in the number of previous spawning runs also are given. Ranges are in

parentheses (M = male, F = female)

Initial spawners Repeat spawners Repeat spawners

Repeat Previous

spawners spawnings

 Stream Years M F M (%) M F M (%) M F M (%) (range)

Winter-run stocks:

Karta River 3 443 653 40 183 498 25 626 1,151 35 38 1-4

(39-42) (20-28) (33-44) (33-44)

Petersburg Creek 5 406 451 48 192 359 35 598 810 43 38 1-4

(46-50) (25-45) (36-48) (30-43)

Peterson Creek 3 141 105 49 67 142 32 208 247 43 51 1-2

(22-66) (26-36) (31-51) (34-70)

Sitkoh Creek 3 444 382 51 115 317 28 559 702 42 38 1-4

(40-57) (20-32) (36-49) (24-46)

Situk River 3 161 173 50 37 100 30 198 273 44 33 1-4

(34-65) (20-45) (31-57) (25-41)

Summer-run stocks:

Anchor River 8 284 357 45 69 104 43 353 461 43 21 1-2

(30-50) (33-60) (33-48) (11-33)

Karluk River 10 952 1,169 41 210 208 50 1,130 1,376 44 21 1-2

(29-67) (33-100) (28-65) (13-38)

The frequency of repeat spawning was higher for females than for males in both winter

and summer-run stocks (table 4). In winter-run stocks, a mean of 77-89 percent of

males had spawned one time previously, 10 to 16 percent two times, and <4 percent for

three times. Males with four spawning checks were present in only two systems, the

Karta (<1 percent) and Situk (4 percent) Rivers. In the winter-run stocks, 60 to 70

percent of the females had one spawning check, 18 to 28 percent had two, and 6 to 12

percent had three or more checks. Females with four spawning checks were present in

all winter-run stocks except the Situk River.

11
Table 4—Number of previous spawning runs made by female and male steelhead repeat spawners in Alaska streamsa

Number of spawning runs

Stream catalog Female Male

number Source Year n 1 2 3 4 n 1 2 3 4

Winter-run stocks:

Karta River Jones 1984 1983 193 56 29 12 4 76 72 20 7 1

102-60-10870 Hoffman and others 1990 1990 1,989 257 75 21 4 <1 95 90 9 1

Harding and Jones 1993 1993 1,992 48 79 19 2 12 92 8

Mean 70 23 6 2 86 12 3 >1

Petersburg Creek Jones 1972 1971 39 51 33 13 3 44 77 21 2

106-44-10600 Jones 1973 1972 117 65 25 9 2 60 83 15 2

Jones 1974 1973 84 62 26 11 1 29 76 17 7

Jones 1975 1974 66 49 39 8 5 24 83 13 4

Jones 1976 1975 34 74 18 3 6 25 84 12 4

Mean 60 28 9 3 81 16 4

Peterson Creek Harding and Jones 1991 1989 40 60 30 10 22 77 18 5

111-50-10100 Harding and Jones 1991 1990 56 59 34 5 2 20 95 5

Harding and Jones 1992 1991 44 75 15 18 7 24 83 17

Mean 65 27 7 1 85 13 2

Sitkoh Creek Jones 1983a 1982 111 66 25 8 1 52 94 6

113-59-10040 Jones and others 1991 1990 149 62 28 9 1 37 89 11

Harding and Jones 1994 1993 56 82 18 26 85 15 x

Mean 70 24 6 1 89 10

Situk River Jones 1983b 1982 57 67 21 14 86 14

108-70-10100 Glynn and Elliott 1993 1992 18 67 33 12 67 17 8

Mean 67 27 6 77 16 4

Summer-run stocks:

Anchor River Wallis and Hammarstrom 1979 1978 9 78 22 8 88 13

244-10-10100 Wallis and Hammarstrom 1980 1979 71 71 29 3 100

Wallis and Balland 1981 1980 21 10 12 92 8

Wallis and Balland 1982 1981 6 83 17 4 75 25

Wallis and Balland 1983 1982 21 81 19 17 100

Wallis and Balland 1984 1983 18 83 17 10 100

Balland 1985 1984 16 81 19 12 83 17

Balland 1986 1985 6 83 17 3 100 17

Mean 83 18 92 9

 Karluk River Van Hulle 1972 1971 15 93 7 9 89 11

 255-10-10100 Van Hulle and Murray 1973 1972 11 82 18 27 74 26

Van Hulle and Murray 1975 1974 4 100 4 100

Van Hulle and Murray 1977 1976 2 10 12 83 17

Van Hulle and Murray 1978 1977 40 63 38 24 88 13

Murray and Van Hulle 1979 1978 10 100 10 100

Murray and Van Hulle 1980 1979 25 96 4 13 100

Van Hulle and Murray 1981 1980 5 80 20

Murray 1983 1982 5 10 8 100

Begich 1992 1992 46 80 20 45 93 7

Begich 1993 1993 49 92 8 49 100

 Mean 81 19 92 9

a Values are percentages of the total for each year.

12
Table 5—Mean fork length of female and male steelhead collected in Alaska

streams

Catalog Length of female Length of male

Stream number Years n (mm) SD n (mm) SDx

Winter-run stocks:

Karta River 102-60- 3 1,134 745 2 623 737 19

10870

Peterson Creek 111-50- 3 210 766 11 182 717 20

10100

Sitkoh Creek 113-59- 3 663 777 9 559 736 9

10040

Situk River 182-70- 3 266 741 18 171 727 15

10100

Summer-run stocks:

Anchor River 244-10- 8 436 704 9 315 675 27

10100

Karluk River a 255-10- 4 733 637 11 632 636 60

10100

a Data are from kelts only, collected in 1976.

Female steelhead were consistently larger than male fish in both winter- and summer-run

stocks for means of all age groups and stocks (table 5). Within all stocks of winter-run fish,

mean body length of females was 8 to 49 mm (0.3 to 1.9 inches) greater than that of

males, whereas differences between sexes were less in the two summer-run stocks, 29

mm (1.1 inches) for the Anchor River and 1 mm (0.04 inch) for the Karluk River. Mean

length was similar within sexes among winter stocks with a range of 36 mm (1.4

inches) for females and 20 mm (0.8 inch) for males. Fish from the summer-run stock in

the Anchor River were substantially larger than those from the Karluk River (69 mm

[2.7 inches] for females, 39 mm [1.5 inches] for males).

Few streams had weirs to enumerate steelhead immigration and emigration, and those

that did suffered from failures because of high flows. Many were not operated during

the entire run cycle. Information on run timing in the data sources typically approximated

the period of maximum escapement, but many represented incomplete counts because

of weir failure. Because of these limitations and because early and late segments of the

runs were probably missed in virtually all sources, the estimates of run timing reported

here are not exact.

Only four streams had operational weirs that could be used to estimate mean date of

immigration, the Karta River and Peterson and Sitkoh Creeks for 3 years each, and

1 year for the Situk River (table 6). Of these four stocks, Karta River steelhead

entered fresh water to spawn earlier (the third and last weeks of April) than the other

Body Length

Run Timing

13
three stocks. Fish in Peterson Creek were the latest (third week of May), whereas

the steelhead run in Sitkoh Creek was intermediate (first or second week of May).

The mean date of immigration based on 1 year of data at the Situk River was closer to

that of Sitkoh Creek than the other two streams. The mean date of emigration ranged

from the third week of May for the Karta River, the fourth week of May for Sitkoh Creek,

and the first week of June for Peterson Creek. For 5 years of data from the Situk River,

mean date of emigration ranged from the last week of May to the fourth week of June.

Relative to the number of days that weirs were operated in all four streams, standard

deviations for mean dates of immigration and emigration suggest that steelhead movement is sporadic.

Adult counts or other indices of escapement for 3 or more years existed for 11 stocks of

steelhead, including the Anchor and Karluk River stocks (table 7). Seven or more years

of information was available for five stocks, which was the criterion used by Konkel and

McIntyre (1987) to evaluate trends in spawning populations of anadromous salmonids

throughout the Pacific coast. Regression analysis of maximum annual escapement

index on year indicated no significant trend in four of these streams, but the Situk River

showed a significant increase in index values through time (table 7). The index values

were extremely variable, and the coefficients of variation ranged from 17 percent to over

100 percent. For example, year explained only 42 percent of the variance in temporal

changes in index values at the Situk River.

Stock Status

Table 6—Mean date of immigration and emigration (month and day) and total number of spawning steelhead

for streams with weirs in southeast Alaska (methods after Mundy 1984) a

Sample Immigration Emigration

Mean SD Mean SD

Stream Catalog number Year Start End Date (d) n Date (d) n

Karta River 102-60-10870 1983b 4/07 6/05 4/18 10.2 375 5/16 4.8 479

1989 3/24 6/09 4/25 11.4 1,118

1992 4/07 6/01 4/26 10.0 185 5/18 9.0 347

Peterson Creek 111-50-10100 1989 5/02 6/04 5/16 5.8 222 165

1990 4/13 6/04 5/16 8.0 179 114

1991 4/21 6/05 5/16 8.3 218 6/04 5.1 91

Sitkoh Creek 113-59-10040 1982 4/15 5/31 5/11 8.3 690

1990 4/05 6/01 5/03 10.9 661

1993 4/10 6/01 5/05 22.1 520 5/22 38.5 332

Situk River 182-70-10100 1988 6/07 8/08 60 6/20 10.5 1,211

1989 5/26 8/16 128 6/14 19.6 5,867

1990 5/07 7/27 741 5/30 8.8 3,639

1991c 5/09 7/27 394 6/23 6.4 2,490

1992d4/18 7/17 5/01 9.8 1,079 6/04 11.2 2,976

a Missing values are for years in which data were not available or timing of weir operation was thought to have missed a substantial portion of the

run.

b Biweekly counts reported. Dates based on midpoint of mean periods.

c Weir not operated May 28 -June 9.

d Weir not operated May 4 -15.

14
Table 7—Trends in maximum escapement indices of adult steelhead for streams with 3 or more years of data

in Alaska streams based on linear regression (methods after Konkel and McIntyre 1987)a

Stream Sample Escapement Slope Change

Name Catalog number n type Mean SD CV b SE(b) Percent r2 t P Status

Winter-run stocks:

Pleasant Creek 111-12-10050 3 F 28.7 13.2 46 -1.31 .59 -4.6 0.83 -2.21 0.27 U

Admiralty Creek 111-41-10050 6 F 14.2 11.7 82 -2.71 1.18 -19.8 .57 -2.29 .08 U

Windfall Lake Creek 111-50-10060 6 F 2.2 1.9 86 .89 .32 40.5 .66 2.78 .05 U

Peterson Creek 111-50-10100 9 F 13.0 12.3 94 -2.10 1.61 -16.2 .20 -1.30 .23 S

Bear Creek 111-50-10800 4 F 4.5 4.7 105 1.70 1.73 37.8 .32 .98 .43 U

Kadashan River 112-42-10250 3 F 37.3 36.0 96 -6.58 7.69 -17.6 .42 -.86 .55 U

Sitkoh Creek 113-59-10040 16 F 55.8 38.0 68 .71 1.75 1.3 .01 .41 .69 S

Sandy Bay 113-21-10020 3 F 24.7 4.1 17 -1.32 .84 -5.3 .71 -1.58 .36 U

Situk River b 182-70-10100 20 FL 1,115.7 1,114.7 100 124.74 34.81 11.2 .42 3.58 <.01 I

Winter-run stocks:

Anchor River 244-10-10100 9 E,W 1,628.2 1,097.8 67 25.50 28.72 1.7 .10 .89 .40 S

Karluk River 255-10-10100 17 W 1,671.0 1,215.8 73 -5.75 62.15 -.3 <.01 -.09 .93 S

a Sample types: FL = float count, F = foot count, E = estimated, W = weir. Status: I = increasing, D = decreasing (0.05), S = stable (P > 0.05),

U = unknown (<7 years of data).

b Similar results were obtained from 17 years of steelhead counts at a weir. Personal communication. 1995. T. Baker, Alaska Department of Fish

and Game, Division of Commercial Fishery Management and Development, 333 Rasberry Road, Anchorage, AK 99515.

The following studies are grouped into eight categories that include weir counts that

are not compatible with those used in the escapement estimates, smolt counts,

radiotelemetry studies, and various biological measurements. The data were not used

because they were either inconsistent with other sources or were collected sporadically.

In some cases, studies are in progress. The studies are listed by category but are not

summarized.

1. Earlier weir counts of steelhead were conducted at Sitkoh Creek7 in 1938, the Situk

River (Knapp 1952), and the Anchor River (Allin 1954, 1958). Although escapement estimates derived from weir counts at the Anchor River were used in assessing stock status, the sources for the other streams were not used because data

consisted of kelt counts at the Situk River, and weekly immigrant counts at Sitkoh

Other Studies

7 Chipperfield, W.A. 1938. Unpublished report to the Forest

Service on Dolly Varden research in Sitkoh Bay streams. On

file with: A. Schmidt, Alaska Department of Fish and Game,

304 Lake Street, Sitka, Alaska 99835.

15
Creek. In both cases, a longer record of adult escapement was collected by using

foot counts rather than weirs. References to steelhead encountered at weirs in

streams on Kodiak Island other than the Karluk River can be found in Van Hulle and

Murray (1981), Murray (1982, 1984, 1985, 1986), Sonnichsen (1990), and Schwarz

(1994). Additional information on steelhead in the Anchor River and the surrounding area of the Kenai Peninsula are found in Larson and others (1988), Larson and

Balland (1989), Larson (1990, 1993), and Redick (1968).

2. The distribution and biological characteristics of steelhead have been monitored at

the limit of their range on the Alaska Peninsula to establish a baseline data set to

determine the potential effects of climate change (Adams 1992, Irving 1991, USDI

Fish and Wildlife Service 1994).

3. Radiotelemetry was used to determine distribution and spawning areas of steelhead in the Situk River (Johnson 1991), Karta River (Hoffman and others 1990),

Karluk River (Chatto 1987), Anchor River (Wallis and Balland 1981, 1982), and the

Copper River and its tributaries (Burger and others 1983; Williams and Potterville

1983, 1984).

4. Jones (1977a, 1977b) summarized the results of 4 years (1972-75) of smolt trapping

in Petersburg Creek. Sex, age, and body length were recorded for 78 smolts emigrating from the Karta River (Harding and Jones 1993), and 80 smolts emigrating from

Sitkoh Creek (Harding and Jones (1994). Harding and Jones (1992) investigated

the contribution of juvenile rainbow trout from above a barrier to steelhead smolt

production below the barrier in Peterson Creek. Freeman (1992) evaluated summer

growth of hatchery-released smolts in the Ward Creek drainage system.

Thedinga and others (1993, 1994) conducted extensive trapping of juvenile salmonids in

the Situk River drainage to assess the projected effects of habitat alterations

caused by flooding because of the formation of a glacial lake. A steelhead life-history

study was conducted in the Anchor River based on limited results from smolt

trapping (Balland 1985; Wallis and Balland 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984).

5. Fecundity was determined for samples of steelhead in Petersburg Creek (Jones

1974, 1975), and the Anchor River (Wallis and Balland 1983, 1984; Larson and

Balland 1989).

6. Occurrence of steelhead in commercial harvests was recorded for the Situk River

(Didier and Marshall 1991). Begich (1992, 1993) and Schwarz (1994) discussed

steelhead harvested in commercial and subsistence fisheries in the Kodiak Island area.

7. Johnson (1990, 1991) tested techniques of using fish counters to enumerate

steelhead immigrating into the Situk River.

16
8. Studies are currently underway to determine loci to differentiate among steelhead

stocks 8 9 and characterize spawning habitat in tributaries of the Copper River.10 11

The Forest Service also is monitoring escapement in several streams.12 13 14 15

Common trends were evident among Alaska winter-run steelhead stocks with respect to

age structure, sex ratio, incidence and frequency of repeat spawning, and body length,

although there was considerable variability. Most fish spent 3 or 4 years in fresh water

before emigrating to sea as smolts, and adults made their initial spawning run after 2 or

3 years of residence in the ocean. Although the sex ratio of fish on their initial spawning run was close to 50 percent for each sex, females were usually more abundant

among repeat spawners. This has been attributed to higher survival of females because

they spawn at one location and leave the stream, whereas males tend to remain in fresh

water longer and interact with other males during many spawning attempts (Shapovalov

and Taft 1954, Withler 1966). For example, in two southeast Alaska streams, Petersburg

Creek and the Karta River, freshwater residency of female winter-run steelhead (27.8

to 35.5 days mean range) was several days less than of males (32.8 to 45.5 days mean

range) during the spawning run ( Hoffman and others 1990, Jones 1974, 1975). About

a third to one-half of the spawning runs consisted of repeat spawners. Most of these

had spawned one or two times previously, but more females than males had spawned

three or four times. Adult body length was similar between winter- and summer-run

stocks, with females being slightly larger than males.

8 Personal communication. 1995. C. Seifeit, ADFG,

Division of Sport Fish, P.O. Box 240020, Douglas, AK

99824.

9 Personal communication. 1995. T. Gharret, School of

Fisheries, University of Alaska, southeast, Juneau, AK

99801.

10 Personal communication. 1995. S. Brink, School of

Fisheries, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99709.

11 Personal communication. 1995. D. Tol, USDI, Bureau of

Land Management, 222 West 7th Ave. No. 3, Anchorage,

AK 99513.

12 Personal communication. 1995. D. Aho, USDA, Forest

Service, Petersburg Ranger District, P.O. Box 309, Petersburg, AK 99833.

13 Personal communication. 1995. J. Hannon, USDA Forest

Service, Craig Ranger District, P.O. 500, Craig, AK 99921.

14 Personal communication. 1995. M. Laker, USDA Forest

Service, Admiralty Island National Monument, 8431 Old

Dairy Rd., Juneau, AK 99801.

15 Personal communication. 1995. C. Riley, USDA Forest

Service, Hoonah Ranger District, P.O. Box 135, Hoonah,

AK 99829.

Discussion

17
Attributes observed for many of the Alaska stocks were similar to those observed for

Keogh River steelhead on Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Ward and Slaney 1988),

with the exception of incidence of repeat spawners and body length. Over the long-term

study, repeat spawners averaged about 10 percent of the total spawning run in the

Keogh River, but repeat spawners were proportionally more abundant in Alaska-winterrun stocks. Mean fork length for fish in the Keogh River (714 mm [28.1 inches] female,

731 mm [28.8 inches] male, all ages combined) tended to be less than that of females

in Alaska (741 to 777 mm [29.2 to 30.5 inches]), but similar for males (717 to 737 mm

[28.2 to 29.0 inches]). Males also were smaller than females in all Alaska stocks.

Smaller body length of fish in the Keogh River compared to Alaska steelhead may be

related to higher incidence of repeat spawners in Alaska (older fish) and possibly the

influence of shorter marine residence of Canadian fish. During most years, fish immigrating into the Keogh River were sampled during February-May, whereas sampling of

Alaska stocks usually did not begin until April.

Differences in attributes were observed between winter- and summer-run stocks of

Alaska steelhead. Summer-run stocks tended to spend 1 year less in both fresh water

and salt water before making their initial spawning run. About a fifth of the fish in the

summer-run stocks were repeat spawners and had spawned one or two times previously.

Summer-run fish entered fresh water to spawn several months before winter-run

stocks, thereby resulting in a consistently lower body length of summer-run fish than

was observed for winter-run fish (Ward and Slaney 1988, Withler 1966). For two

summer-run stocks, body length of both females and males from the Karluk River was

less than that of fish from the Anchor River. These differences may have been confounded by the sampling times and methods used at each river. All fish at the Anchor

River were immigrants, and most scale samples were obtained from harvested fish,

whereas at the Karluk River, all fish used in the data summaries were kelts and most

were sampled at a weir. Samples from creel surveys tend to be biased because anglers

tend to selectively keep larger females (Withler 1966).

Based on over a decade of trapping adults and smolts at a counting fence during 1975-

86, Ward and Slaney (1988, 1989) and Ward and others (1989) concluded that adult

run size and age structure varied directly with smolt abundance and body size, which

influenced ocean survival. Furthermore, ocean survival of smolts that emigrated in

1982 was twice the long-term average, which was attributed to increased marine

temperatures because of an El Niño event. They also documented an order-of-magnitude variation in the number of returning adults and, during a portion of the study, adult

age structure differed biennially. The variability observed in this stock during the longterm study emphasizes the tentative nature of conclusions that can be made about

Alaska steelhead stocks for which only limited data are available.

Withler (1966) compiled and summarized biological data from eight stocks of steelhead

in southern British Columbia and compared these to similar data for other stocks in

California, Oregon, and Washington. Although these data were obtained using various

sampling methods, and both summer- and winter-run stocks were represented,

coastwide trends in steelhead life-history characteristics were identified. From south

to north, observations included increasing body length, the amount of time fish spent in

fresh water and salt water, and decreasing incidence of repeat spawners; but sex ratio

18
Risk Factors

was similar coastwide (about 50 percent female and male). The primary environmental

factor thought to influence these trends was mean monthly water temperature, which

declined in the northern regions. Characteristics of Alaska steelhead correspond to

these trends, except that repeat spawners in Alaska were proportionally more abundant

than in many of the southern stocks. Postspawning mortality including fishing pressure

is lower in southeast Alaska than in southern regions of the Pacific coast in North America.

No unique biological characteristics were identified from the limited data available for

the two summer-run stocks in south-central and southwestern Alaska and eight winterrun stocks in southeast Alaska. Although winter-run steelhead are dominant in southeast Alaska, both summer- and winter-run stocks occur in large watersheds with

sufficient winter habitat throughout the region.16 Summer-run stocks in southeast

Alaska have not been studied as intensively as the more abundant winter-run stocks.

The summer-run stock in the Plotnikof River on southwest Baranof Island enters fresh

water during an extended period with fish arriving as early as July, which differs from

summer-run stocks on Vancouver Island, British Columbia that typically move into

fresh water during September (Jones 1977a, Schmidt 1983, Van Hulle 1985). The

Plotnikof River has a 5-m (16.25 foot) waterfall at the mouth of the river, and passage

over the falls may be controlled by flow conditions. It also supports an early run of coho

salmon, which may be unusual (Halupka and others 1996b). Similar characteristics may

exist in other summer-run stocks in southeast Alaska,17 but data are either lacking or

unconfirmed.

The small size of most steelhead stocks makes them susceptible to extinction through

habitat degradation or overfishing. Small populations are at greater risk of extinction

than large populations because of demographic, environmental, and genetic uncertainties, and they are more susceptible to natural catastrophes (Meffe and Carroll 1994).

The extent to which Alaska steelhead stocks interact as metapopulations (that is, a

population composed of interacting subpopulations in a landscape of suitable and

unsuitable habitat patches) both within and among watersheds, is unknown. Application of the concept to steelhead might, however, reveal insights into their demography,

stock delineation, and probability of survival (see Rieman and McIntyre 1993).

Rieman and McIntyre (1993) evaluated the relative influence of population size, reproductive rate, exchange of individuals among metapopulations, and correlation of environmental factors among metapopulations to determine the probability of survival for bull

trout (Salvelinus confluentus) in several areas of the Northwestern United States. A

similar analysis may be possible with existing data for steelhead escapement indices in

southeast Alaska. Estimates of straying (exchange) among stocks would assist such

an analysis. A low incidence of straying (<3 percent) was observed in a wild steelhead

stock in California (Shapovalov and Taft 1954), and the same may be the case for

Alaska stocks.

16 Personal communication. 1995. D. Jones, Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, Sport Fish Division, P.O.

Box 240020, Douglas, AK 99824.

17 Personal communication. 1995. S. Elliott, Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, Sport Fish Division, P.O.

Box 240020, Douglas, AK 99824.

19
Adams, F.J. 1992. The effects of global warming on the distribution of steelhead

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) populations on the Alaska Peninsula, Alaska. King Salmon,

AK: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service; progress report.

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1993. Catalog of waters important for spawning, rearing or migration of anadromous fishes, southeast region. Juneau, AK:

Habitat Division.

Allin, R.W. 1954. Stream survey of Anchor River. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of

Fish and Game. In: Federal Aid in Fish Restoration, annual performance report,

1985-1986; project F-1-R-4: 47-66.

Allin, R.W. 1958. Environmental studies of the steelhead of Alaska as related to their

spawning habitats, age, growth, fecundity, migrations and movements. Juneau, AK:

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. In: Federal Aid in Fish

Restoration; completion report; project F-1-R-7. 7: 1-26.

Balland, D.T. 1985. Lower Cook Inlet angler use and assessment studies and Anchor

River steelhead studies. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game. In:

Federal Aid in Fish Restoration, annual performance report, 1984-1985; project

F-9-17.26 (G-1-C and AFS-48-4): 38-70.

Balland, D.T. 1986. Lower Cook Inlet creel census and escapement. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Federal Aid in Fish Restoration, Annual Report 1985-1986;

project F-10,27 (S-31-1): 1-18.

Begich, R.N. 1992. Karluk River steelhead assessment. Fishery Data Series 92-56.

Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

References

The review of existing data considering the extensive range and large number of

watersheds that support steelhead reveals the paucity of data needed to assess the

current status and risks to individual stocks in southeast Alaska. Although the stocks

included in this review show a wide range of life-history strategies, data to determine

genetic differences or the effects of environmental factors on stock characteristics are

absent. Systematic studies of the life-history patterns and habitat requirements of

juvenile steelhead in fresh water are lacking throughout southeast Alaska. Existing data

do show that steelhead are an increasingly valuable resource to the sport fishery and

are susceptible to habitat degradation and overexploitation.

We thank G. Freeman, R. Harding, C. Seifert, B. Johnson, D. Jones, A. Schmidt, and

L. Schwarz of the ADFG, Division of Sport Fish; T. Baker and C. Smith of the ADFG,

Division of Commercial Fish; J. Palms and E. Weiss of the ADFG, Habitat Division; M.

Lorenz of NMFS; C. Burger, T. Chatto, J. Larson of FWS; D. Aho, C. Caspit, R. Dunlap,

J. Hammon, P. Porter, C. Riley, and P. Zellmer of USDA, Forest Service; S. Brink of the

University of Alaska; and B. Ward of the University of British Columbia. K. Fausch,

Colorado State University, made helpful comments on an earlier draft of the report.

Acknowledgments

20
Begich, R.N. 1993. Assessment of the 1992 return of steelhead to the Karluk River,

Alaska. Fishery Data Series 93-56. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and

Game.

Behnke, R.J. 1992. Native trout of western North America. American Fisheries Society

Monograph 6. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society. 275 p.

Burger, C.; Scott, M.; Small, M.; Potterville, W. 1983. Overwintering and spawning

areas of steelhead (Salmo gairdneri) in tributaries of the upper Copper River, Alaska.

Anchorage, AK: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service.

Burgner, R.L.; Margolis, L.; Okazaki, T.; Tautz, A.; Ito, S. 1992. Distribution and

origins of steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in offshore waters of the north Pacific

Ocean. Bull. 51. Vancouver, BC: International North Pacific Fisheries Commission.

Chatto, T. 1987. Instream movements and distribution of fall run steelhead in the Karluk

River 1982-1984. Kodiak, AK: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife

Service, Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge.

Didier, A.J.; Jones, J.D.; Schmidt, A. [and others]. 1991. A review of steelhead in

Alaska. In: International symposium on steelhead management; 1991 January 3-5;

[Meeting location unknown]. Portland, OR: Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission and Association of Northwest Steelheaders: 9-34.

Didier, A.J.; Marshall, R.P. 1991. Incidental harvest and voluntary release of steelhead and chinook salmon in the Situk River commercial set gill net fishery during

1990. Fishery Data Series 91-19. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and

Game.

Freeman, G.M. 1992. An evaluation of juvenile hatchery steelhead in the Ward Creek

system, Ketchikan, Alaska, 1991. Fishery Data Series 92-55. Juneau, AK: Alaska

Department of Fish and Game.

Freeman, G.M.; Hoffman, S.H. 1989. Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) creel census

on the Klawock River, southeast Alaska, 1987-1988. Fishery Data Series 118.

Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

Freeman, G.M.; Hoffman, S.H. 1990. Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) creel census

and recreation survey on the Thorne River, southeast Alaska, 1988-89. Fishery Data

Series 90-34. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

Freeman, G.M.; Hoffman, S.H. 1991. Thorne River steelhead creel and recreation

survey, 1989-90. Fishery Data Series 91-30. Juneau, AK: Alaska Department of Fish

and Game.

Glynn, B.; Elliott, S. 1993. Situk River steelhead counts, 1992. Fishery Data Series 93-

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21
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29
Lohr, Samuel C.; Bryant, Mason D. 1999. Biological characteristics and population

status of steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in southeast Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR407. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station. 29 p.

We reviewed existing data to determine the range and distribution of steelhead

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in southeast Alaska, summarized biological characteristics, and

determined population status of steelhead stocks. Unique or sensitive stocks that may

require consideration in planning land management activities are identified within the data

reviewed. The objectives were to measure age structure, sex ratio, incidence and frequency of repeat spawning, and body length. Assessment of escapement trends, run

timing, and stock status is hindered by lack of adequate data both in number of stocks

with sufficient data and the number of years of data available. Although stocks with

sufficient data are not at risk, small run sizes that are typical of most steelhead stocks

may be more susceptible to poor land management practices and overharvest than larger

stocks.

Keywords: Steelhead, stock assessment, Alaska, management, biological review.

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