CONTENTS 

Page 

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

FIELD RESEARCH IN THE MOUNT ADAMS AREA. ................ 4 

History ............................... 4 

1972Experiment. .......................... 5 

Area Description ......................... 5 

Objectives ............................ 9 

Experimental Design. ....................... 9 

Treatments ............................ 9 

Data Collection and Processing .................. 13 

Results .............................. 14 

Conclusions. ........................... 22 

Additional Mount Adams Field Research ................ 24 

FIELD RESEARCH IN THE MOUNT HOOD AREA ................. 25 

Area Description. .......................... 25 

Bulldoze-and-Burn Experiment. .................... 26 

Objectives ............................ 26 

Experimental Design. ....................... 28 

Treatment. ............................ 28 

Data Collection and Processing .................. 29 

Results .............................. 29 

Conclusions. ........................... 29 

Karbutilate Experiment. ....................... 29 

Objective. ............................ 29 

Experimental Design. ....................... 29 

Treatments ............................ 32 

Data Collection and Processing .................. 32 

Results .............................. 32 

Conclusions. ........................... 34 

Five-Treatment Grid ......................... 34 

Objective. ............................ 34 

Experimental Design. ....................... 34 

Treatments ............................ 34 

Data Collection and Processing .................. 36 

Results .............................. 36 

Conclusions. ........................... 41 

LABORAlIORYRESEARCH..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 

DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 

MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 

LITERATURECITED............................ 49 
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. - _--_ _.-- - ..- -, -._

For centuries before men

learned to prevent and control

them, wildfires periodically raced

through northwestern forests.

Often destroying the forests on

large areas in catastrophic burns,

these wildfires frequently created

open, tree-free environments above

3,000 ft (914 m) that were suitable

for the growth and development of

wild huckleberries. Some of the

resulting huckleberry fields were

heavily used by Indians.

Indians apparently dried their

huckleberries by placing them near

campfires or slowly burning rotten

logs ignited for that purpose.

Some years, when dry conditions and

high winds were favorable, these

drying fires may have spread and

reburned the berry fields. The

Indians also may have deliberately

set fires to reburn the heavily

used fields during dry, windy

periods. In any event, periodic

fires kept trees out of many

huckleberry fields and created new

fields where postfire environmental

conditions were favorable for

huckleberry growth.

Twelve blueberry-like huckleberry species grow in Oregon and

Washington (Minore 1972), and

huckleberry fields occupy over

100,000 acres (40 469 ha) in these

two states. 1/ Unfortunately, this

acreage is dwindling. Most large

wildfires have been effectively

lGerhart H. Nelson. Huckleberry management.

4 P. May 14, 1970. (Unpublished, on file at

USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Portland, Oreg.)

prevented or controlled in recent

years, and Indian-set fires have

not burned over the most heavily

used, high-elevation, huckleberry

fields for several generations. As

a result, trees of low timber

quality have been invading many

high quality huckleberry fields

(figs. 1 and 2). These trees

eventually form dense subalpine

forests that crowd and shade the

shrubs, eventually eliminating

huckleberry production.

Berry production is surprisingly high in some of the fields.

We measured a yield of 100 gal per

acre (935 1 per ha) on one high

quality huckleberry area in 1976.

In 1977, when overall berry production tended to be poorer,

another area produced 77 gal per

acre (720 1 per ha). Fresh

huckleberries sold for $10.00-11.00

per gal ($2.64-2.90 per 1) in

1977. Most berry pickers do not

pick every berry on an area, but

picking only half the berries would

have produced economic yields of

over $300 per acre ($741 per ha) on

several areas sampled in 1977.
Figure 1. --A portion of the Sawtooth huckleberry field near Mount Adams, 

Washington in 1938. Note snags and open aspect. 

2 
Figure 2.-- The same area shown in figure 1, 34 years later. These two 

photographs, taken at the same point, illustrate the rapid invasion 

by trees of this highly productive huckleberry field. 

will soon reduce berry production. 

Subalpine forest 

I 

3 
Economic yields do not adequately reflect the importance of

the northwestern huckleberry

resource, however, for the intangible values of fresh air,

mountain scenery, and berry buckets

they have filled themselves are far

more important than market values

to most huckleberry pickers. Many

people pick berries just for fun.

Over a thousand vehicles were

tallied in one ranger district's

berry fields during a single

huckleberry-season weekend in 1971.

On another district, 163,000

visitor-days were recorded in one

heavily used field during 1969 (see

footnote 1).

Considered either economically

or recreationally, deterioration of

the northwestern huckleberry

resource is serious. Several

factors are involved: natural

succession in the, absence of

wildfires; huckleberry regeneration, growth, and berry production; meteorological effects; and

the regeneration, growth, and

competition of associated species.

Seeking a better understanding of

these factors, we studied huckleberries from 1972 through 1977.

Field phenomena were investigated

in two areas near Mount Adams,

Washington, and Mount Hood, Oregon.

We conducted laboratory and greenhouse studies at the USDA Forestry

Sciences Laboratory in Corvallis,

Oregon. This report is a summary

of the research at all three

locations during the 6-year study.

FIELD RESEARCH IN

THE MOUNT ADAMS

/ - AREA

History

The huckleberry fields near

Mount Adams have been heavily used

by berry pickers for many years.

Members of the expedition led by

Captain George B. McClellan noted

the extensive burned-over areas in

this vicinity and found many

Indians picking and drying berries

there in 1853. One member recollected "a full tribe" and wrote

"I never saw so many (Indians) and

so ma kinds of berries in all my

life" 2/

Eighty-one years later, in

1934, an animal exclosure was

constructed to monitor the effects

of grazing in the berry fields.

Vegetation within the exclosure and

on an adjacent unfenced plot was

observed yearly until 1942. The

Forest Service observers concluded

that sheep benefited the berries by

reducing vegetative competition and

lightly browsing the huckleberry

shrubs. 3/ In 1937, all trees were

2George Henry C. Hodges. Personal recollection. Page 146, Washington State Historical

Society Publication. Volume 2, 1907 to 1914.

(On file at USDA Forest Service Gifford Pinchot

National Forest. Vancouver, Wash.)

3K. C. Langfield. Effect of grazing on

huckleberry production. 2 p. December 9.

1942. (Unpublished, on file at Mount Adams

Ranger District, Trout Lake, Wash.)

I

i I * I
-__-.----- ---. .------ _ _ _ _ -. _ _

felled on 5 acres (2 ha) of berry

field in the same Mount Adams

area. 4/ Later (1963), more trees

were felled, and 6 acres were

disked in an attempt to control

vegetative competition. 5/ Berry

production was not measured on

these felled or disked areas, but

disking apparently stimulated

rhizome sprouting. A huckleberry

management plan was formulated for

the Mount Adams huckleberry resource in 1968, but never implemented (see footnote 5).

Dr. Perry C. Crandall (Washington State University, personal

communication, March 17, 1972)

applied replicated herbicide

treatments near Mount Adams in

1969. He found that Casaron,

Simazine, Atrazine, and Paraquat

were ineffective in selectively

controlling vegetation competing

with huckleberries. Crandall's

huckleberry pruning trials (50

percent and 80 percent top removal)

were also ineffective, damaging the

huckleberry shrubs rather than

improving them.

AREA DESCRIPTION

We established a vegetation

control experiment 13 mi. (21 km)

southwest of Mount Adams during the

summer of 1972 in sec. 16, T. 7 N.,

R. 8 E. Located in a portion of

the Sawtooth Huckleberry Field

already invaded by subalpine

forest, this experimental area is

at an elevation of 4,000 ft.

(1 219 m), with a gently sloping

WSW aspect. Lodgepole pine,

western white pine, subalpine fir,

Douglas-fir, mountain hemlock, and

Engelmann spruce comprise most of

the forest canopy (see table 1,

fig. 3).61

The 1972 experimental area

occupies soil that is shallow,

coarse-textured, gravelly, low in

nutrients (table 2), and subject to

erosion. Invading trees are short

and poorly formed, often showing

considerable snow damage. Snow

packs usually are deep and longlasting, and the growing season is

cool and short.

4George A. Bright. Buckleberry release from

reproduction. 3 p. September 24, 1937.

(Unpublished, on file at Mount Adams Ranger

Station, Trout Lake, Wash.)

5Donald E. Wermlinger. Twin Buttes huckleberry management plan. 25 p. January 5, 1968.

(Unpublished, on file at Mount Adams Ranger

Station, Trout Lake, Wash.)

6Table 1 lists scientific names for all plants

mentioned in this report.

5

- -_ -_ . . -.

., . _ .-

. , .-
Table l--Names of plants 1

/

Common name Scientific name

Agoseris , orange

Beadlily, Queencup

Beargrass

Blueberry, eastern lowbush

Bramble, dwarf

Bunchberry

Cinquefoil, Drummond

Douglas-fir

Everlasting, pearly

Fescue, sheep

Fescue, western

Fir, grand

Fir, noble

Fir, Pacific silver

Fir, subalpine

Fireweed

Hawkweed, white

Hemlock, mountain

Hemlock, western

Huckleberry, big

Huckleberry, blue

Huckleberry, blueleaf

Huckleberry, evergreen

Huckleberry, red

Lupine

Mountain-ash

Oatgrass, timber

Phlox, pink annual

Pine, lodgepole

Pine, western white

Pussy-toes, rose

Redcedar, western

Sedge

Sorrel, sheep

Spirea

Spruce, Engelmann

Strawberry, western wood

Violet

Wildrye, blue

Willow

Willow-herb, alpine

Willow-herb, small flowered

Woodrush, field

Agoseris aurantiaca Greene

Clintonia uniflora (Schult.) Kunth

Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt.

Vaccinium angustifolium Ait.

Rubus lasiococcus Gray

Cornus canadensis L.

Potentilla drummondii Lehm.

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco

Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) B. & H.

Festuca ovina L.

F. occidentalis Walt.

Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl.

A. procera Rehder

A. amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes

A. lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.

Epilobium angustifolium L.

Hieracium albiflorum Hook.

Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr.

T. heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.

Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl. ex Hook.

V. globulare Rydb.

V. deliciosum Piper

V. ovatum Pursh

V. parvifolium Smith

Lupinus spp.

Sorbus spp.

Danthonia intermedia Vasey

Microsteris gracilis (Hook.) Greene

Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.

P. monticola Dougl. ex D. Don

Antennaria rosea Greene

Thuja plicata DOnn

Carex spp.

Rumex acetosella L.

Spiraea spp.

Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm.

Fragaria vesca L.

Viola SPP.

Elymus glaucus Buckl.

Salix spp.

Epilobium alpinum L.

E. minutum Lindl. ex Hook.

Luzula campestris (L.) DC.

1/ Nomenclature follows Fernald (1950), Garrison et al. (1976),

and Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973). Some of the common names were

obtained from Peck (1961).

6
Figure 3.-- A portion of the experimental area near Mount Adams before 

treatment. Note invading trees. 

7 
Table 2--Soil properties at the Mount Adams experimental area l

/

Depth (cm) 2/

Property O-15 16-30 31-46

pH 5.6 5.6 5.8

Cation exchange

capacity (meq/lOO g) 13.19 13.10 11.66

.ll .07 .05

14.00 6.00 3.00

28.40 16.40 11.20

1.04 .70 .39

.08 .07 .05

.02 .02 .03

Total nitrogen (percent)

Phosphorus (pm)

Potassium (pm)

Calcium (meq/lOO g)

Magnesium (meq/lOO g)

Sodium (meq/lOO g)

Boron (pm)

Acetate extractable

iron (pm)

.22 .22 .20

42.00 53.00 168.00

1

/ Average values based upon analyses of 4 samples--l for each of

the randomly distributed control plots.

-2 / To obtain depth in inches, multiply by 0.394.

8
OBJECTIVES 

The primary objective of this 

1972 experiment was the developmen 

of a method that could be used to 

control competing species without 

reducing huckleberry7/ growth or 

berry production. Ideally, such a 

method would increase berry production by creating a more favorable environment for the plants. 

Secondary objectives included a 

study of plant succession after 

disturbance and assessments of the 

t 

effects of sheep grazing on huckleberry growth and berry production 

and on forest regeneration. 

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 

We used a completely random 

experimental design in 1972, with 

five treatments replicated four 

times. The following treatments 

were randomly assigned to a grid of 

20 plots (fig. 4): sheep grazing; 

cut and burn; burn ; borax 

application; and control (no 

treatment). Each plot is 120 ft 

(37 m) square, occupying an area of 

l/3 acre (0.14 ha). 

'Throughout this report, uhuckleberry" refers 

to Vaccinium membranaceum. Names of other 

Vaccinium species mentioned are given in table 1. 

I Control m Borax 

Cut and Burn m Sheep 

m Burn 

Figure 4. --1972 experimental plots near 

Mount Adams. Each l/3-acre (O-14-ha) 

plot is 120 ft (37 ml square, with 

IO-ft (3-m) buffer strips between. 

TREATMENTS 

Sheep Grazing 

We constructed a 3-ft (0.9-m) 

high woven wire fence around the 

entire experimental area and fenced 

all four sheep plots during July 

1972. A cooperator provided 320 

dry ewes. On August 22, eighty of 

these sheep were penned on each 

l/+acre (O.&ha) sheep plot. 

They were confined on these small 

plots for 3 days, then returned to 

the cooperator. The resulting 

grazing intensity far exceeded 

anything that occurs during normal 

grazing operations, even exceeding 

the local intensity produced in 

bedding grounds. This deliberate 

9 
overgrazing was an attempt at

controlling competing vegetation,

but it also served as a severe test

of possible sheep damage to the

huckleberry resource. (Many

huckleberry pickers claim that

grazing damages the huckleberries;

they strongly oppose allowing sheep

in the berry fields.)

Cut and Burn

All trees on the four cutand-burn plots were felled by chain

saw during the second week in

August 1972; cut trees remained

where they had fallen. Firelines

were constructed around each plot

during the first week in September.

We attempted to burn during

the second week in September. Drip

torches and slash fuel were used to

ignite the l-month-old slash, but

it was not dry enough to burn. An

early autumn storm covered the

experimental area with 4 in (10 cm)

of snow on September 25. The snow

melted by September 29, however,

and snowmelt was followed by

several days of warm, dry weather

and strong east winds. When

burning was attempted again October

3 to 7, a weather station 5 mi (8

km) away, at the same elevation,

recorded 2:00 p.m. relative humidities averaging 35 percent, average

maximum temperatures of 66" F (19o

C), dry east winds averaging 7 mi/h

(11 km/h) , and 10 percent average

fuel moisture (10-h lag).8/ This

time we used a flamethrower and

about 150 gal (568 1) of diesel

oil. Although the resulting fire

would not spread through the slash,

all of the plots were burned by

applying the flamethrower over the

entire area. Fine fuels, herbaceous vegetation, and huckleberry

leaves were consumed by the oilfueled flame. Coarse fuels, duff,

and huckleberry stems were blackened, but not consumed (fig. 5).

Burn

Burning previously untreated

plots was even more difficult than

burning the slash on cut-and-burn

plots; little fuel was present

under the uncut trees, and a fire

could not be kindled or spread.

Nevertheless, by using about 150

gal (568 1) of diesel oil and the

flamethrower, we burned all four

plots from October 3 to 7. Huckleberry shrubs, herbaceous vegetation, and lower tree branches

were burned deliberately. Burning

intensity was slightly less than

that obtained on the slash-covered

plots. Fine fuels, herbaceous

vegetation, and huckleberry leaves I:,

were consumed, but coarse fuels,

duff, and huckleberry stems were

only blackened (fig. 6). A few

huckleberry stems survived.

8As measured with fuel moisture sticks, the

10-h lag represents the moisture content in

1/4-l in (O-6-2.5 cm) material.

10
Figure 5. --Cut-and-burn plot near Mount Adams, immediately after burn. 

October 1972. 

11 
Figure 6. --Burn plot near Mount Adams, immediately after burning in 

October 1972. 

Borax Application 

When borax was applied to 

eastern lowbush blueberry fields at 

the rate of 1 or 2 lb per 100 ft2 

(4.8 or 9.8 kg per 100 m2>, it 

killed or injured several weedy 

species without injuring the berry 

bushes (Smith, Hodgdon, and Eggert 

1947). Although the eastern 

lowbush blueberry is quite different from our western huckleberry, 

we applied similar quantities of 

borax powder to four plots during 

the third week of September 1972. 

Dividing each plot into 49 equal 

areas, we scattered 5 lbs (2.27 kg) 

on each area--a total of 245 lb 

(111 kg) of borax per i/j-acre 

(0.X-ha) plot. Borax is Na2B407.10H20, - 

so the actual amount of boron 

applied was 27.8 lb (12.6 kg) per 

plot, or 83.3 lb/acre (93.4 kg/ha). .9 

12 
--. .- _ . .---~_. --. .-- ._

Control

All four control plots were

inside the fence constructed to

prevent indiscriminate grazing, but

they received no other treatment,

DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

and species proved to be impractical from the l-m tape height.

Dominance estimates were substituted for linear measurements of

grass species. Sedges were recorded as Carex spp. Several other

plant species were identified while

blooming, but recorded as genera

during cover measurements.

Vegetation

Berry Production

We measured species composition and cover on all but the

cut-and-burn plots in 1972, before

treatment. (Cutting occurred

before pretreatment vegetation

could be measured on the cut-andburn plots.) These measurements

were repeated on all plots (including those cut and burned) in

1973, 1974, 1975, and 1977.

We used the line interception

method described by Canfield

(1941). Four 120-ft (37-m) lines

were established at equal intervals

on each plot. Measurements were

taken along a tape stretched 3.3

ft (1 m) above the soil surface.

Linear species coverage--first

below and then above the tape--

was recorded to the nearest 0.1 ft

(3 cm) along the entire line each

time. Thus, 480 ft (146 m) of line

were measured on each of the 20

plots.

Except for grasses, linear

measurements were converted to

percentage cover for each plant

genus. Linear grass measurements

and total grass cover were recorded; grass species were identified, but separating percentage

cover of individual grass genera

Huckleberry production was

measured by picking and weighing

the berries on 16 one-mil-acre

(0.0004 ha) subplots in each treatment plot. These subplots were

systematically located and permanently marked at equal intervals

along the vegetation intercepts.

The berries were picked in late

August each year, combined on each

plot, then weighed while fresh.

All berries were picked and weighed

on each of the 320 subplots (20

treatment plots) during 1972, 1973,

1974, 1975, and 1977. Random

subsamples of ripe berries and of

all berries harvested were then

counted and weighed on each plot.

The average weight of a ripe berry

on that plot was then determined,

as was the average weight of a

harvested berry. (All berries,

ripe and green, were harvested.)

Harvested weight on each treatment

plot was then converted to ripe

weight by using the following

equation:

Ripe weight = (Harvested weight) x

Average weight of a ripe berry

Average weight of a harvested berry

13

_^ ,_... . _ ^. -.- . . _ _
Statistical Analyses RESULTS 

Both vegetation and berryproduction data were subjected to 

analyses of variance each year. 

Coverage of each plant species or 

species group and ripe berry weights 

were compared among treatments in 

these analyses. Whexe significant 

differences occurred, Scheffe' (1959) 

multiple comparison tests were used 

to identify the treatments. 

Overstory Vegetation 

As expected, the cut-and-burn 

treatment completelyeliminatedall 

overstory competition. Burning 

alone was less effective, but it 

also reduced the overstory cover, 

The burning killed many trees 

immediately. Others were severely 

injured and died several years 

later (fig. 7). By 1977, total 

. 

Figure 7. --The same burn plot shown in figure 6, 5 years after burning. 

August 1977. 

14 
overstory canopy on the burn plots 

was significantly 9/ less than that 

on the control, borax, or sheep 

plots (table 3). The sheep and 

borax treatments did not significantly affect overstory canopy 

composition or cover. Overstory 

canopy results are graphically 

compared in figure 8. 

%lnless otherwise noted in this reprt, 

significance refers to statistical significance 

at PC 0.05 as indicated by Scheffe'tests. 

Figure 8. --Average overstory canopy 

at the Mount Adams experimental 

area. Treatments were applied 

between the 1972 and 1973 measurements. 

Table 3-Average overstoly cover (percent) on the Mount Adams experimental area’ 

Yeai- and treatment 

western Sub- Pacific Eslge1- kmn- west- Total 

white Douglas- alpine silver Noble lmnn tain em 

pine fir2/ 

overstory 

fir fir2/ fir2/ spr"Ce/ hemlock henllocr Willow cover 

1972 (before treatment): 

Control 

Borax 

Sheep 

BUTI 

cut and burn 2 

1973: 

Control 

Borax 

sheep 

BUT-D 

cut and burn 

1974: 

contra1 

Borax 

Sheep 

Bum 

cut and bum 

1975 : 

contra1 

Borax 

SheeD 

BurnA 

cut and bun 

22.1 

16.3 

16.8 

Il.8 

i 

22.2 

17.0 

19.2 

7.9 

0 

20.2 

18.6 

19.2 

8.4 

0 

i 

23.8 

21.4 

20.9 

8.5 

0 

24.4 

24.4 

22.1 

8.6 

0 

5.3 3.8 

5.3 

2.6 

-- 

( 

5.8 

1:: 

0.6 

0 

I 

6.0 

4.6 

5.2 

0 

0 

l 

5.8 

5.0 

5.7 

0 

0 

6.4 

6.1 

6.5 

0.2 

0 

2.1 0.3 1.2 0 

5.4 0.1 0 0 

2.7 0 0 0.6 

0.3 1.3 0 0 

_. _- _. -- 

I 

3.1 

5.7 

2.6 

0.1 

0 

0.3 

0.1 

0 

0 

0 

1.1 0 

0 0 

0 0.7 

0 0 

0 0 

3.0 

I 

5.9 

2.8 

0 

0 

0.3 1.2 0 

0.2 0 0 

0 0 0.8 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 

3.2 

I 

5.5 

3.0 

0 

0 

0.3 

0.3 

0 

0 

0 

1.3 0 

0 0 

0 0.7 

0 0 

0 0 

3.8 

I 

6.1 

3.3 

0 

0 

0.3 

0.6 

0.1 

0 

0 

1.3 0 

0 0 

0 0.7 

0 0 

0 0 

0 

0.3 

0 

0.4 

__ 

0 

0.3 

0 

0.1 

0 

0 

0.3 

0.2 

0.2 

0 

0 

0.4 

0 

0.1 

0 

0 

0.5 

0.5 

0.5 

0 

0.1 

0 

0.1 

1.7 

_- 

0.4 

0 

0.1 

0.5 

0 

0.3 

0 

0.1 

0.3 

0 

0.4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.6 

0 

0.6 

0.5 

0 

z 

: 

__ 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.3 

0 

0.1 

0 

0 

0 

0.2 

0.6 

1.0 

__ 

0.5 

0.2 

1.7 

0 

0 

0.5 

0.2 

1.3 

0 

0 

0.2 

0.1 

0.9 

0 

0 

0.6 

0.1 

0.9 

0 

0 

31.1 

26.1 

26.1 

19.1 

_- 

t 

33.4 

27.3 

29.9 

9.2 

0 

29.8 

i 

31.5 

29.6 

8.9 

0 

35.0 

[ 

32.7 

31.2 

8.6 

0 

37.7 

2 

9.6 

0 

1/ Each average represents four t*eatment plots. Averages within a common bracket are not significantly different (Scheff8 tests were 

not significant at P<O.OS). 

11 Absence on most treatment replications made statistical analyses impractical. 

2' No vegetation data were collected on the cut-and-burn treatment plots in 1972. 

15 
Understory Vegetation

Burning significantly affected

understory cover and composition.

Huckleberry and beargrass cover

percentages initially dropped on

the burned plots, then recovered.

By 1977, no significant differences

occurred among treatments for these

two species (table 4). Understory

trees did not recover as quickly,

and the understory cover of lodgepole pine, western white pine,

subalpine fir, and Douglas-fir was

lower on burned than on unburned

plots in 1977.

Grasses were not significantly

affected at first, but they began

to increase 2 years after being

burned. By 1977 (5 years after

treatment), grass cover was

significantly greater on the burned

plots than it was on unburned

plots. Species composition was

also affected. The dominant grass

species on the burned plots in 1977

was timber oatgrass; dominant

grasses on the unburned plots were

blue wildrye, western fescue, and

sheep fescue. Sedges, pearly

everlasting, rose pussytoes, sheep

sorrel, and fireweed all responded

like the grasses--no significant

differences were recorded for 1 or

2 years after burning, but by 1977

they were significantly more

abundant on the burned plots. Few

significant differences appeared

among burning treatments; burning

with and without slash had similar

effects on the understory. These

effects are illustrated in figures

7 and 9.

1 6

Understory vegetation on the

control, sheep, and borax plots was

not significantly affected by the

1972 treatments--with one exception.

Pink annual phlox, a tiny herb, invaded the sheep plots 1 year after

grazing to create a significantly

greater cover there. By 1974

this seral species began to fade

away on the sheep plots, and by

1977 it was found only where

burning had occurred.

Berry Production

Both burning treatments

significantly reduced huckleberry

production on the Mount Adams

experimental area (table 5). The

huckleberry plants sprouted during

the next growing season (fig. 10),

but no flowers or berries were

produced on these sprouts until

1975--3 years after the burning

treatments were applied. Five

years after treatment, a few

berries occurred on the burned

plots, but the bushes still had not

completely recovered. Control

plots produced 7 times as many

berries as the burn plots and

almost 300 times as many berries as

the cut-and-burn plots in 1977.

Although some of these 1977 differences in berry production were

associated with differences in

overstory protection from a severe

local hailstorm, very few flowers

or berries were present on the

burned plots before or after the

August storm.

Overgrazing by sheep reduced

berry production for 2 years, but

increased it during the 3d year

after treatment. The borax treatment had little effect on berry

production.

P
-_.- _-_- -- _

Table #4 which should appear on pages 17 & 18 will be found at back of book.

17

. _ .- .
This page was intentionally left blank
Figure 9.-- The same cut-and-burn plot shown in figure 5, 5 years after 

burning (1977). Note grass cover and sprouting huckleberries. 

19 
_r---- Lii-- _--

Table 5 --Average berry production on the Mount Adams experimental areal 1

/

Treatment

Berry production by year

1972 2/ 1973 3/ 1974 1975 1977 5/

Control

Borax

Sheep

Burn

Cut and burn

Kilograms per hectare 4/

99.30 0

61.43 0

81.24 0

83.01 0 0.03 1.81

-- 0 0 0.27

35.06

44.98

41.00

4.90

0.15

'/ Each average represents 4 treatment plots. Averages within a 1

common bracket are not significantly different (Scheffe' tests were not

significant at P<O.05).

2

/ Berries were picked before the treatments were applied. No production data were collected on the cut-and-burn treatment plots.

3

/ Unusual cold and very little snow during the 1972-73 winter,

followed by severe spring frosts, destroyed the 1973 berry crop.

4

/ To obtain pounds per acre, multiply by 0.8922.

5

/ A severe August hailstorm destroyed most of the berries on the

experimental area.

Miscellaneous Treatment Effects

Although the borax treatment

produced no statistically significant differences in overstory

cover, understory cover, or berry

production, it did affect vegetation. Conifer needles developed

brown tips during the spring of

1973. In the fall, the new foliage

on subalpine firs treated with

borax was blue-green and seemed

unusually vigorous. Beargrass

plants were damanged slightly by

the borax; they developed abnormal

inflorescences and produced few

seeds in 1973. Furthermore,

average beargrass cover on the

borax plots declined after treatment. It equaled the control cover

before treatment in 1972, but was

less than 60 percent of control

cover in 1977 (table 4). Unlike

the sudden decline and subsequent

recovery after burning of beargrass, its slow decline on borax

plots seems to be continuing.

Intensive overgrazing by sheep

in 1972 did not significantly

affect the cover of forest tree

species. It did significantly

reduce the number and average

growth of tree seedlings on the

sheep plots (table 6). Terminal

bud nipping and trampling by the

crowded, confined sheep seem to

have been responsible. The sheep

also added an estimated 2,000 lb of

manure/acre (367 kg/ha) to the

overgrazed plots.

22

Combustion of flamethrower

oil probably was not complete when

the burn and cut-and-burn plots

were treated in 1972. Some contamination of the soil probably

occurred from the 300 gal (1 136

1) of diesel oil used in burning

the 2.7 acres (1.1 ha) occupied by

these plots.

CONCLUSIONS

None of the four treatments

successfully controlled competing

species without damaging the

huckleberries. Those treatments

that controlled the competition

(burning, cutting and burning) also

reduced huckleberry production.

Those that did not damage huckleberry (borax, sheep grazing) did

not control competing species.

Sheep grazing did not damage

the huckleberries. Although some

browsing of the berry bushes occurred, ;i

this mechanical influence was more :,,

than offset by the nitrogen added ,'

as sheep manure. The damage to 8!',

conifer seedlings (table 6) that Ii II

resulted from overgrazing the sheep i'

plots probably would be less severe .'

under normal grazing practices.

I

5 !

.; 1:
Table 6 --Average tree seedling density and growth on sheep and control plots 

at the Mount Adams experimental area 1/ 

Species 

Seedlings per h&i Avg 1973 growth Avg 1975 growth 

in 1976 

Sheep Control Sheep Control Sheep Control 

plots plots plots plots plots plots 

Number Centimeters/ 

4.9 

4.9 

3.3 

7.2 6.0 

8.2 4.8 

5.1 4.1 

Lodgepole pine 5,752 12,046 

Western white pine 2,179 2,832 

Subalpine fir 1,905 2,090 

Pacific silver fir 0 1,529 

Grand fir 46 139 

Noble fir 0 46 

Douglas-fir 324 1,158 

Mountain hemlock 46 185 

Englemann spruce 139 46 

All species 10,391 20,071 

-- 

0 

-- 

6.4 

2.0 

1.3 

4.6 

3.5 -- 

3.0 3.0 

4.0 -- 

5.4 7.7 

7.2 6.0 

12.0 1.3 

6.7 5.4 

6.3 

6.5 

4.8 

3.5 

4.3 

15.0 

6.0 

11.2 

16.0 

6.0 

- '/ Based on sixteen 12.5 m2 (134.6 ft2) circular samples systematically 

located on each of the 8 plots (4 sheep plots and 4 control plots). 

Significant (PcO.05) differences are underlined. 

- 2/ To obtain seedlings per acre, multiply by 0.405. 

2/ To obtain growth in inches, multiply by 0.394. 

23 
Recovery of the huckleberry

bushes after fire seemed to be slow

and several competing species

appeared to recover faster.

Burning was difficult and large

quantities of diesel oil were

applied, which may have influenced

our results. These results should

be compared with those obtained in

similar burning experiments.

Burning eastern lowbush blueberry

(Black 1963, Smith and Hilton 1971)

is not comparable, however, for the

morphology and physiology of this

eastern species are very different

from the morphology and physiology

of big huckleberry. Differences

also occur among the western

Vaccinium species, so conclusions

about V. membranaceum should be

based on V. membranaceum experiments.

Additional Mount Adams

Field Research

Although our primary emphasis

was on control of competing vegetation in the Mount Adams area,

several other aspects of the

huckleberry problem were investigated in smaller, previously

published field studies. When the

rhizome system and root structure

of big huckleberry were investigated by hydraulic excavation

(Minore 1975b), numerous robust

rhizomes were found 8-30 cm (3-12

in) below the soil surface. The

soluble solid contents of shaded

and exposed huckleberry fruits

sampled throughout one berrypicking season showed no significant exposure differences, but

the berries were sweetest after

beargrass began shedding seeds

(Minore and Smart 1975). Finally,

high huckleberry abundance was

related to an optimum soil pH of 5.5

and the presence of seven associated plant species in a study of

huckleberry environments (Minore

and Dubrasich 1978).

24
FIELD RESEARCH IN 

THE MOUNT HOOD 

AREA 

Area Description 

Seven miles (11 km) southwest 

of Mount Hood, at an elevation of 

4,800 feet (1 463 m), we established three field experiments in a 

uniform area where competing 

species are inhibiting huckleberry 

production. All three are in 

SE1/4, NW1/4 sec. 10, T. 4 S, R. 8 

E - l , and all are on gently sloping 

western aspects. A dense young 

conifer forest now occupies the 

site (fig. 111, but vegetatively 

vigorous huckleberry shrubs persist 

in the understory without producing 

many berries. Average overstory 

composition is 86 percent lodgepole 

pine, 7 percent noble fir, 4 percent 

Douglas-fir, 2 percent mountain 

hemlock, and 1 percent composed of 

scattered western white pine, 

subalpine fir, grand fir, western 

hemlock, Engelmann spruce, and 

western redcedar. 

Figure 11 .--Dense young conifer forest at the Mount Hood experimental area. 

There are 5,800 trees per acre (14,332 trees per ha) in the stand (55% 

are taller than 4.5 ft (1.4 m), 45% are seedlings). 

abundant in the understory, 

Big huckleberry is 

but berry production is poor. 25 
-c-’ --. - -I_--1

Although its elevation is

greater, the Mount Hood experimental area is warmer than the

Mount Adams area during summer.

Winter snow packs remain there

longer than at Mount Admas, however, and huckleberry development

(bud burst, blooming, berry ripening) is later at Mount Hood. On

July 9, 1974, we had to use a

toboggan to transport equipment over

2 mi (3.2 km) of snow-covered road,

and 3 ft (0.9 m) of snow still

covered portions of the access road

on July 23.

Soil in the Mount Hood experimental area is shallow and rocky,

but less subject to erosion than

the soil encountered in the 1972

Mount Adams experiment. Like the

Mount Adams soil, it is low in

nutrients (table 7). Nevertheless,

26

analyses of variance indicated that

cation exchange capacity and

contents of potassium, sodium, and

boron are significantly higher in

the Mount Hood soil than in the

Mount Adams soil. Phosphorus and

acetate-extractable iron are lower.

Bulldoze-And-Burn Experiment

OBJECTIVES

To test the effectiveness of

mechanized overstory removal and

subsequent slash burning for

control of competing vegetation in

the huckleberry fields, we conducted a bulldoze-and-burn to

answer several questions: Does

bulldozing provide suitable slash

fuel for burning upper elevation

huckleberry fields? If so, does it

provide this fuel at less cost than

tree-cutting with chain saws? Does

the bulldoze-and-burn treatment

seriously reduce huckleberry growth

or berry production?
Table 7--Soil properties at the Mount Hood experimental area 1

/

Property

0-15

Depth in centimeters 2/

16-30 31-46

PH 5.30 5.70 5.50

Cation exchange

capacity (meq/lOO g) 23.39 20.00 26.10

Total nitrogen

(percent) 0.16 0.11 0.08

Phosphorus (pm) 4.90 6.00 6.40

Potassium (pm) 75.00 90.00 114.00

Calcium (meq/lOO g) 0.69 0.29 0.38

Magnesium (meq/lOO g) 0.12 0.07 0.07

Sodium (meq/lOO g) 0.13 0.16 0.16

Boron (pm) 0.32 0.30 0.28

Acetate extractable

iron (pm) 47.10 18.70 25.90

1

/ Average values based upon analyses of 4 samples--l for

each of the randomly distributed control plots.

2

/ To obtain depth in inches, multiply by 0.394.

27
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We treated one plot in each of

six pairs; the other, randomly

located plot was used an an untreated control (fig. 12). Control

plots are l/3 acre (0.14 ha);

adjacent treated plots are the same

size, with an additional 30-ft

m) buffer strip that includes a

(9-

tractor-built fireline.

TREATMENT

A Caterpillar D6C tractor with

12-ft angle blade was used to push

over all trees on each of the six

treated plots on October 23 and 24,

1973. Trees larger than 14 in (36

cm) d.b.h. were difficult to uproot

or break off. Those smaller than 4

in (10 cm) d.b.h. tended to spring

back after the blade went over

them. Except where buried by slash

or disturbed by uprooted trees,

huckleberry shrubs were not damaged

by the tractor. After transportation charges were deducted, the

bulldozing cost $34 per acre ($84

per ha).

Slash created by the bulldozing was burned the following

summer, early in the evening on

August 26, 1974. Eight miles (13

km) away and 350 ft (107 m) lower,

a weather station recorded a 2:00 p.m.

relative humidity of 23 percent, a

 maximum temperature of 84o F (29o

C), northwest winds of 6 mi/h (10

km/h), and a 10-h lag fuel moisture

of 7 percent (see footnote 8) for

that date. Cooperating personnel

from the Zig Zag Ranger District,

Mount Hood National Forest, used

drip torches to ignite each plot.

No contamination with fuel oil

occurred. The slash burned well,

but the fire did not spread into

areas without slash. Small patches

(less than 10 percent of the area

treated) remained unburned. Most

huckleberry shoots were blackened,

but not consumed.

28

Figure 12 .--The Mount Hood experimental area showing the pairedplot bulldoze-and-burn experiment (center), the Karbutilate

plots (lower left), and the

grid plots (upper left). Karbutilate plot numbers indicate pounds of active ingredient per acre.

, :.
DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

Vegetation data were collected

on each bulldoze-and-burn plot in

1975 and 1977 by the techniques

used at Mount Adams. Huckleberry

and total overstory cover were

tallied along four 120-ft (37-m)

lines established on each plot.

Competing understory species were

not tallied.

Sixteen 1-milacre (0.0004 ha)

subplots were established at equal

intervals on each plot. Equal

numbers of these subplots were

randomly chosen on each plot in

1975 and 1977, and the berries on

the chosen subplots were picked and

weighed. Picked weights were

converted to ripe weights by using

the procedure described earlier.

Ripe berry weights, huckleberry cover, and total overstory

canopy cover on the treated and

control plots were compared by

analyses of variance in 1975 and

1977.

RESULTS

The bulldoze-and-burn treatment eliminated dense overstory

competition. The huckleberry

understory was severely damaged by

the burn, however, and huckleberry

cover and berry production had not

recovered to control levels 3 years

after treatment (table 8). Huckleberry shrubs sprouted vigorously

(fig. 13), but they produced very

few berries.

CONCLUSIONS

Bulldozing provided suitable

slash fuel for burning upper

elevation huckleberry fields if the

slash was allowed to dry for 1

year. It provided this fuel at

less cost than tree-cutting with

chain saws. The bulldoze-and-burn

treatment effectively eliminated

competing vegetation, but burning

the slash seriously damaged huckleberry shrubs and reduced berry

production for at least 3 years.

Bulldozed sites look unattractive;

bulldozing should not be done in

scenic areas or where soil erosion

is a problem.

Karbutilate Experiment

OBJECTIVE

Researchers in the Coast

Ranges of Oregon and Washington

observed that karbutilate killed

most plant species, but had little

effect on evergreen huckleberry and

red huckleberry. Our objective was

to determine if it could be used to

kill competing plant species in

Cascade Range huckleberry fields

without affecting big huckleberry.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Four treatments were replicated four times in a completely

random experiment. One-tenth-acre

(0.04 ha) plots were used in a

four-by-four grid (fig. 12). The

following treatments were randomly

assigned to these plots: 5 lb

karbutilate/acre (5.6 kg/ha); 10 lb

karbutilate/acre (11.2 kg/ha); 15

lb karbutilate/acre (16.8 kg/ha);

and control (no treatment).

29

- -

__ ,, .i- . . . -Tp.-----..--rrEz-T‘-:-.~--.-..;’ _.,_.. .w-- -

-
Table 8--Average overstory cover, huckleberry cover, and

berry production on the Mount Hood bulldoze-and-burn

experimental plot 1/

Control Bulldoze-and- Control Bulldoze-andplots burn plots plots burn plots

Overstory cover

(percent) 45.30 0.20 50.60 0.20

Huckleberry

cover (percent) 33.00 6.00 35.20 9.40

Berry production

(kg per ha ) 2/ 94.85 10.14 66.73 7.89

1/ All control vs. bulldoze-and-burn differences are statistically

significant (P<O.05).

2 / - To obtain pounds per acre, multiply by 0.8927.

30
Figure 13.-- Three-year-old huckleberry shoots on a bulldoze-and-burn plot 

near Mount Hood. They are not producing berries. 

31 
TREATMENTS RESULTS 

The active ingredient in 

TandexlO/ is karbutilate (m-(3,3- 

dimetsureido) phenyl tertbutylcarbamate). It is often used 

as a soil sterilant. Mammalian 

toxicity is very low. We applied a 

granular form of the chemical 

(Tandex 10 G) in late June 1975, by 

uniformly spreading measured 

amounts on treated plots as the 

last snow was melting. We were 

extremely careful to secure an even 

distribution of the chemical and 

expended about 8 man-hours per acre 

(20 man-hours per ha). Control 

plots were located and marked, but 

they received no other treatment. 

DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING 

Overstory and understory cover 

were recorded in both 1976 and 1977 

along three lines established on 

each of the 16 plots. As in the 

other huckleberry experiments, the 

resulting linear measurements were 

converted to percentage cover for 

each species. Cover percentages 

were then subjected to analyses of 

variance, Where significant 

differences occurred, Scheffg 

multiple comparison tests were used 

to identify the treatments involved. Berry production was 

observed, but not measured on the 

treated plots. 

The karbutilate applications 

produced no immediate results, but 

huckleberry leaves began to turn 

brown 1 month later. By late 

autumn 1975, a few of the overstory 

trees also began to show herbicide 

damage. One year later, effects of 

the herbicide were evident (fig. 

14). The two heaviest applications 

Figure 14. --A karbutilate plot 15 

months after treatment with 15 lb 

of karbutilate per acre 

loMention of companies or products does not (16.8 kg/ha). The trees and huckleconstitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department 

of Agriculture. berry shoots are dead. September 

1976. 

32 
Table g-Average vegetative cover in percent on plots treated with karbutllatel 

overstoryl/ UnderstoryY 

Year and treatment 

Lodge- W! Pearly Lodge- Total 

p01e Douglas Noble All huckle- Bear- Dwarf ever- pole huckleberry 

pilIe fir fir species berry grass bramble lasting Violet pine competition 

1976: 

Control 

5 lb/acre 

(5.6 kg/ha) 

10 lb/acre 

(11.2 Q/ha) 

15 lb/acre (16.8 ktzg/ha) 

22.6 

9.6 

2.1 

2.4 

1977: 

Control 

' 

49.4 4.0 

5 lb&me (5.6 @g/ha) 28.8 5.6 

10 lb/acre 

(11.2 kg/ha) 5.6 

15 lb/acre 

(16.8 kg/ha) ,3.9 

1/ Each average represents 4 treatment plots. 

were not significant at PcO.05). 

Averages within a common bracket are not significantly different (Scheff&tests 

g' Only major species are listed individually, but all are included in the "all species" and "total huckleberry competition" 

columns. 

could be identified on the ground 

by amount of vegetation damaged. 

Indeed, most plants (including 

huckleberry shoots) were dead. The 

5-lb/acre (5.6-kg/ha) treatment 

produced significantly less damage 

(table 9); many of the overstory 

trees and huckleberry shoots were 

not killed. 

Lodgepole pine was damaged 

more than noble fir by the herbicide, 

and noble fir was damaged more than 

Douglas-fir. We noted that karbutilate killed all of the conifer 

species from the bottom up, (When 

affected by 2,&D, they die from 

the top down). Huckleberry shrubs 

appear to be slowly recovering from 

the treatments. Some of the damaged 

shoots bear a few green leaves, and 

some rhizomes are sprouting. Nevertheless, treated plots produced 

few berries in 1977, and many 

brown, curled leaves or bare huckleberry branches remained. 

33 
. ,.

,,,“,. ..._, ,,

CONCLUSIONS

Karbutilate nearly eliminated

competing vegetation in a huckleberry field when applied at l0-15

lb/acre (11.2-16.8 kg/ha). Unfortunately, it also nearly eliminated huckleberry. Lesser quantities

of karbutilate were less effective

in reducing competition and less

damaging to huckleberry.

Five-Treatment Grid

OBJECTIVE

Like the 1972 experiment at

Mount Adams, this Mount Hood

experiment had as its objective the

development of a method of controlling vegetation that could be

used against competing species

without reducing huckleberry growth

or berry production. A successful

method should increase berry

production.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We duplicated the completely

random experimental design used in

the 1972 experiment at Mount Adams

for this five-treatment, four

replication grid, but applied

different treatments (fig. 12):

cut and burn; brown and burn; 2,4-D

frill; phellinus (Poria) inoculation; and control (no treatment).

AS at Mount Adams, each grid plot

is 120-ft (37-m) square, occupying

an area of l/3 acre (0.14 ha).

34

TREATMENTS

Cut and Burn

With chain saws, we cut all of

the overstory trees on the four

cut-and-burn plots in September

1973. The operation required about

18 man-hours per acre (44 man-hours

per ha). The resulting slash was

left in place, and firelines were

built around each plot.

The ll-month-old slash was

burned by Zig Zag Ranger District

personnel late in the afternoon on

August 26, 1974. Meteorological

conditions for that date are

recorded elsewhere (see bulldozeand-burn experiment). Relative

humidity was 30 percent and the

temperature was 76o F (24o C) when

burning commenced 4:00 p.m. Although

the slash burned readily after

being ignited with drip torches,

several small areas without slash

(less than 10 percent of the area

treated) did not burn at all. Most

huckleberry shoots were blackened,

but not consumed by the fire,

Brown and Burn

Firelines were constructed

around the four brown-and-burn

plots in October 1973. These

plots were treated with a low

volatile ester of 2,4-D on July 23,

24, 25, and 26, 1974. We mixed

three lb (1.36 kg) 2,4-D with 3

gal (11.4 1) of diesel oil and

97 gal (367.2 1) of water, then

sprayed the resulting emulsion
on all vegetation. The vegetation was dense, and we used about 

190 gal of emulsion per acre (1 777 

M-4. Most of the foliage below 

10 ft (3 m) turned brown during 

the following month. 

Burning was attempted at the 

same time that adjacent cut-andburn plots were successfully 

ignited, but here it failed. Dry 

fireline slash along the plot edges 

burned, but the other vegetation-- 

even the brown pine needles and 

herbicide-damaged huckleberry 

shrubs--would not carry a fire. 

Thus, the brown-and-burn treatment 

was browned, but not burned. 1-t 

became a test of broadcast spraying 

with low volatile 2,4-D ester. 

2, 4-D Frill 

A one-to-one mixture of 2,4-D 

amine and water was applied to 

individual trees on the 2,4-D frill 

plots. We used a hatchet to cut 

frills 1.5 in (3.8 cm) apart around 

every tree larger than 2 in (5 cm) 

d.b.h. and squirted the 2,4-D 

solution into the frills with a 

plastic squeeze bottle (fig. 15). 

This operation is sometimes referred to as the "hack-squirt" 

technique. Frill plots were 

treated on July 8-11, 1974, when 

remnants of the heavy winter snow 

pack remained as drifts and huckleberry shrubs were just beginning to 

produce leaves. The large number 

of overstory trees (3,20O/acre or 

8,00O/ha) made this treatment very 

time consuming. It required about 

21 man-hours/acre (52 man-hours/ha). 

Figure 15, --2,4-D amine being applied 

to frills cut in an overstory tree. 

Note hatchet, squeeze bottle, and 

snowdrift in background. July 

1974. 

Phellinus (Poria) Inoculation 

Phellinus weirii (Murr.) 

Gilbertson (a native, root-rotting 

fungus that attacks conifers) 

spreads slowly, but remains in the 

soil for long periods after it 

becomes established. Establishment 

by inoculation could result in 

continuous, long-term overstory 

thinning in the huckleberry fields. 

35 
Pathologists Earl E. Nelson 11/ and

Allen W. Todd 12/ inoculated 25

well-spaced trees on each of the

four Phellinus plots. At each

tree, two lateral roots were

excavated and scarred by removing a

strip of phloem and cambium.

Phellinus weirii inoculum (alderblock cultures) was then placed in

contact with the exposed root

xylem, wrapped in plastic, and

buried. Tree species and diameter,

root size, root direction, and the

inoculation point on each root were

recorded. Azimuths and distances

between inoculated trees on each

plot were also recorded, and the

inoculated trees were labeled with

metal tags.

Control

Four control plots were

located and permanently marked in

the field. No treatments were

applied, and the control plots were

undisturbed except for periodic

measurements of vegetation and

berry production.

DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

Vegetation data were collected

in 1975 and 1977 on the fivetreatment grid by methods used in

the bulldoze-and-burn experiment.

Only huckleberry cover was recorded

below the four 120-ft (36.6-m)

lines established on each of the 20

plots. Overstory cover was recorded by species on the grid

llUSDA Forestry Sciences Laboratory.

Corvallis, Oregon.

120regon State University, Corvallis, Oregon.

36

plots, however, and both total

overstory and overstory cover by

species were obtained.

Berry production was measured

in 1975 and 1977 by picking and

weighing all the berries on 16

systematically spaced l-milacre

(O.OOO4-ha) subplots on each of the

20 plots. Picked weights were

converted to ripe weights by using

the procedure described on page 13.

Ripe berry weights, huckleberry cover, and overstory cover

were subjected to analyses of

variance in 1975 and 1977.

RESULTS

Overstory Vegetation

Overstory vegetation was

significantly reduced by the

herbicide spray in the brown-andburn treatment, which affected

lodgepole pine more than the other

tree species (table 10). The 2,4-D

frill treatment was much more

effective, however; it killed all

but 8.7 percent of the overstory

cover (fig. 16). Only the frilled

trees were affected by 2,4-D.

Phellinus weirii inoculations

showed no visible results in 1977,

and Phellinus plot overstories did

not differ significantly from the

controls (fig. 17).
d 

0 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 

In 

0 0 d 0 0 

UT 

0 0 d 0 0 

n N rl 

0 d d d 0 

d 

0 0 0 n* 0 

\D 

0 0 0 d 0 

.t 

0 n; 0 0 0 

r0 d 0 0 0 

to D In m 

. . . . 

,d In iu 0, 0 

37 
Figure 16. --A 2,4-D frill plot 3 years after treatment. Note dead overstory 

trees. Huckleberry shrubs comprise the understory. September 1917. 

Figure 17. --Average overstory canopy 60 

on the Mount Hood grid plots. 

Treatments were applied in 1974. 

38 
Overstory species reacted

differently to the 2,4-D frill

treatment. Lodgepole pine was most

susceptible, followed by noble fir,

which was more susceptible than

Douglas-fir. Mountain hemlock was

most resistant. All trees affected

by the 2,4-D frill treatment died

from the top down, not (as in the

karbutilate treatments) from the

bottom up.

Huckleberry Cover

Although burned shrubs sprouted

vigorously, burning significantly

reduced the huckleberry cover

measured on cut-and-burn plots in

1975, 1 year after treatment. This

reduction was still significant

3 years after treatment, in 1977

(table 10). The brown-and-burn

plots were never successfully

burned, but they also experienced a

significant reduction in huckleberry cover in 1975, a reduction

caused by the 2,4-D spray used for

browning. Herbicide damage seems

to have affected the huckleberry

plants less severely than fire

damage, however, for by 1977 the

average huckleberry cover on brownand-burn plots, though still much

less than that of the controls,

appeared to be increasing faster

than on the cut-and-burn plots.

Huckleberry cover on the 2,4-D

frill, Phellinus, and control plots

all increased slightly from 1975 to

1977. No significant differences

occurred among these three treatments.

Berry Production

As it did in the Mount Adams

experiment, the cut-and-burn

treatment at Mount Hood essentially

eliminated huckleberry production 1

year after treatment (table 10).

The few berries picked in 1975 came

from shrubs that were not burned.

Three years after treatment, in

1977, berries were still limited to

those few shrubs, and no increase

in production occurred. Burned

shrubs sprouted vigorously during

the 1st year after treatment, but

produced no berries 3 years after

burning (fig. 18).

Berry production was also

eliminated on the brown-and-burn

plots 1 year after treatment.

Huckleberries sprayed with 2,4-D

bore a few berries again during

following years, however, and in

1977 the brown-and-burn plots

produced much more than the cutand-burn plots (table 10). Nevertheless, berry production on brownand-burn plots was far below the

production attained on control,

Phellinus, or 2,4-D frill plots.

Although berry production on

the Phellinus plots was higher than

that on control plots in both 1975

and 1977, the difference was not

statistically significant in either

year. Production was appreciably

lower for both treatments in 1977

than it was in 1975 (table 10).

Phellinus weirii inoculations did

not affect berry production.
Figure 18. --Huckleberry shrub on a Mount Hood cut-and-burn plot, 3 years 

after burning. Note vigorous young shoots and absence of berries. 

September 1977. 

c 

40 
Fewer berries were produced on

the 2,4-D frill plots than on the

control plots in 1975, but the

difference was not statistically

significant. Three years after

treatment, in 1977, the frill plots

produced more than twice as many

berries as the controls, and the

difference was significant.

Furthermore, although production

declined on all other plots but

those recovering from herbicide

spraying between 1975 and 1977, it

increased during the same period on

2,4-D frill plots (fig. 19).

Huckleberries were abundant on the

frilled plots in 1977 (fig. 20).

MEASUREMENT YEARS

Figure 19. --Average berry production on the Mount Hood grid

plots. Treatments were applied

in 1974.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the Mount Hood

experiment was not contaminated

with diesel oil, the cut-and-burn

treatment was no more successful

there than it was near Mount Adams.

Huckleberry shrubs burned in the

summer or autumn sprout during the

following summer, but do not

produce berries for at least 3

years after the fire.

One-year-old slash carries

fire satisfactorily, and flamethrower burning is not necessary if

this slash is burned during warm

dry weather. Warm dry weather

probably will not be sufficient for

a satisfactory burn in high elevation huckleberry areas where dry

slash is absent, however. Success

in burning may require that it be

done during high-hazard conditions,

which are infrequent. Low fuel

densities, frequent fogs, and heavy

dews seem to be responsible for

unsatisfactory burning. Herbicide

browning of the foliage does not

provide enough dry fuel to carry a

fire on slash-free sites. Phellinus

wierii inoculations might thin the

overstory canopy without the need

for either fire or slash, but

Phellinus has had no visible effect

on our plots. We can only conclude

that benefits of inoculation, if

any, will be slow in appearing.
. 

Figure 20. --Huckleberry shrub on a 2,4-D frill plot, 3 years after treatment. Note abundant berries. September 1977. 

Application of 2,&D amine in reduction in overstory canopy was 

frills had little effect on berry accomplished without damaging the . 

production during the first year huckleberry understory. It created 

after treatment, but it greatly favorable conditions for berry 

reduced the overstory canopy. This production. . 

42 
LABORATORY

RESEARCH

Considerable time and effort

were spent in culturing huckleberry

in laboratory growthchambers and

greenhouses. Our initial attempts

were rooting trials. Two thousand

stem cuttings were collected from

dormant shoots in June 1972. These

cuttings were placed in a peat-sand

mixture under intermittent mist.

All broke buds. None rooted. In

late July, another 2,000 stem

cuttings were collected from

growing shoots. They were soaked

in an indolebutyric acid solution

(25 mg IBA/l water) overnight, then

rinsed before being placed in the

peat-sand mixture under intermittent mist. Again, none of the

stem cuttings rooted. Rhizome

cuttings grew vigorously, even when

collected in midsummer and potted

without further treatment.

As our attempts to root stem

cuttings failed, and as uniform

plants are difficult to obtain from

rhizome cuttings, we cultured

Vaccinium plants from seed. V.

membranaceum, V. globulare, and V.

deliciosum all grew equally well

under the conditions described.

Ripe berries were pulped in a

blender with water and a small

amount of detergent added to wet

the seeds and prevent them from

floating away with the pulp. The

resulting slurry was placed in a

dish and decanted under a slow

stream of water. The pulp floated

away, leaving the seeds in the dish

bottom. These seeds were airdried, then sown on moist peat kept

at cool growthchamber temperatures

(18o C or 64o F, 12-h days and 13o

C or 55" F, 12-h nights were

satisfactory). Seed stratification

was not necessary, and germination

occurred in 16-21 days.

The resulting seedlings grew

rapidly when watered periodically

with a nutrient solution based on

the macronutrient proportions

published by Ingestad (1973) and

the micronutrients listed by

Minton, Hagler, and Brightwell

(1951):

Macronutrient Solution (in 1 liter H2O)

0.048 g NH4H2PO4

0.095 g KC1

0.041 g Ca (N03)2

.

4H20

0.086 g MgSO4

.

7H20

0.341 g NH4C1

Micronutrient Stock Solution&'

0.90 g manganese chloride/500 ml H20

0.10 g zinc sulfate/500 ml H20

0.05 g cupric sulfate/500 ml H20

0.50 g boric acid/500 ml H20

0.08 g molybdic acid/500 ml H20

19.23 g sequestrine NaFe/5OO ml H20

130ne ml of each stock solution was added to

each liter of macronutrient solution.

43
Excellent growth occurred in 

chambers set for 20' C (68" F), 

14-h days and 14" C (57" F), 10-h 

nights. When well watered, the 

plants also grew satisfactorily in 

greenhouse and lathhouse conditions. 

When V. membranuceum plants were 

grown from seed, they first bloomed 

during their third growing season. 

Rhizomes were first formed during 

the third growing season (fig. 21). 

Rhizome formation in V. deliciosum 

apparently occurs much earlier--we 

found rhizomes on l-year-old 

growthchamber seedlings. 

Using V. membranaceum cultured 

from seed, we cooperated with an 

Oregon State University graduate 

student who studied the relation of 

nutrients and pH in a greenhouse 

and in the field (Nelson 1974). He 

found in both places that vegetative growth increased with added 

nitrogren. Better growth in the 

greenhouse occurred at pH 5.0 than 

at 3.0, 4.0, or 6.0. V. membranaceum 

seedlings were also used in a study 

of the comparative tolerances of 

huckleberry and lodgepole pine to 

boron and manganese (Minore 1975a). 

F syuss A,,uL,ulaLlaceum rhizome produced during the third growing 

season in a lathhouse. Our growth chamber, greenhouse, and lathhouse 

plants formed no rhizomes during their first two growing seasons. 

44 
The pine was more tolerant to

boron. We used seedlings of V.

membranaceum, V. deliciosum, and

V. globulare in a carefully controlled study of frost tolerance

(Minore and Smart 1978). v.

deliciosum was significantly more

frost tolerant than the other

species.

Beargrass is a major competitor in the huckleberry fields

and in high elevation clearcuttings,

but herbicides, burning, and

grazing have been ineffective in

controlling it. Past attempts to

culture beargrass have been hampered by the inability to germinate

the seeds. After trying several

methods, we obtained successful (64

percent) germination by stratifying

the seeds for 16 weeks (Smart and

Minore 1977). The seedlings were

successfully cultured under the

same nutrient, temperature, and

photoperiod regimes used in growing

V. membranaceum.

DISCUSSION

Although we tested vegetation

control methods in only two areas,

these areas appear to be typical of

the berryfields that occur at

elevations of 4,000-6,000 ft (1 220-

1830 m) in the Cascade Range of

Oregon and Washington. Lodgepole

pine, western white pine, beargrass, lupines, and grasses are the

most important huckleberry competitors

in the areas studied. Burning

the slash created by cutting or

pushing over all trees with a

tractor eliminated the lodgepole

and white pine competition.

Beargrass, lupines, and grasses,

however, were not satisfactorily

controlled. Indeed, grass growth

was stimulated by burning.

Controlled burning is exceedingly difficult in northwestern

huckleberry areas at these elevations.

Without dry slash to carry the

fire, burning appears impossible

except during hazardous meteorological conditions; it seems

counterproductive when short-term

benefits are desired. Abundant

berries did not occur after our

fires. Although the huckleberry

bushes sprouted almost immediately

after being burned, the sprouts did

not begin to bloom until the third

growing season. Significant berry

production was delayed for at least

5 years and perhaps much longer.

Meanwhile, tree seedlings from

adjacent unburned stands began to

invade the burned area. Unless

this area is very large (comparable

to the areas burned by wildfires in

former years), reinvasion of burned

areas by trees may be almost as

fast as huckleberry recovery.

45
Spring burning increased V. and autumn burning reduced both

globulare stem density within 1 stem density and berry production

year in the larch/Douglas-fir for at least 5 years.

forests of western Montana (tiller

1977), but Montana results may not Sheep grazing--even severe

apply to huckleberry in Oregon and overgrazing--did not damage the

Washington. Western Montana huckleberries. It may even have

environments differ from Pacific benefited them by adding nitrogen

Northwest environments. Furthermore, to the soil. Unfortunately, added

the morphology and sprouting be- nitrogen is of little value to

havior of V. globulare in Montana huckleberries growing under a

resemble that documented for V.

angustifolium (Miller 1978); beclosed forest canopy, and sheep

grazing does not eliminate this

havior of big huckleberry does not forest canopy or retard its closure.

resemble that of V. angustifolium,

so it probably also differs from Applications of karbutilate

that of V. globulare. V. globulare, eliminated the forest canopy, but

like V. angustifolium, may recover they also eliminated the hucklefrom fire more rapidly than big berries growing under that canopy.

huckleberry. The huckleberries could recover and

sprout again, but the prospects are

Season of burning--not not encouraging. Boron applicaspecies differences--probably was tions are even less encouraging and

responsible for higher stem density should not be considered further.

on some of the Montana fire plots.

Density-increasing burns there Successful Phellinus weirii

occurred in the spring, when soil inoculations probably would mainmoisture was higher and heat tain an open overstory indefipenetration was shallower than in nitely. As yet, the inoculations

the autumn. The Montana autumn have not been successful, however,

burns, like our burning treatments, and we will have to wait several

reduced stem densities. As our more years to see if this form of

Mount Adams burning treatments were biological control merits further

applied less than 2 weeks after an investigation.

early autumn snowfall, however, and

as the Mount Hood burning was done Application of 2,4-D amine

only 5 weeks after the disappearance to frills cut in each treated

of a heavy winter snow pack, our tree certainly deserves further

burns may have occurred under soil investigation. The method is

moisture conditions similar to expensive in dense stands like

those of a Montana spring. In any those treated near Mount Hood,

case, snow cover makes spring but it would be an economical

burning impossible in most north- way to eliminate trees at

western huckleberry fields. Summer earlier seral stages when stand

46

-
density is much lower. We

found no evidence of the 2,4-D

moving out of treated trees.

Applied in frills, the herbicide

appeared to be safe as well as

efficient.

Dense shade is detrimental to

huckleberry production, and some

sort of overstory control is needed

to preserve and maintain existing

berry fields. Partial shade does

not seem to be harmful, however,

and the slight overstory protection

afforded by dead snags or a thin

overstory canopy may even be

beneficial. Absolutely open

conditions, without shade of any

kind, may be less desirable than

this light partial shade.

Shrub disturbance is detrimental to production of huckleberries. Old shrubs continue to

produce berries year after year,

without pruning or other rehabilitation. When these old shrubs are

burned, cut, or otherwise disturbed, they stop producing berries

and start producing vigorous new

shoots. Unfortunately, vigorous

new shoots do not produce many

berries.

Vigorous new shoots should

produce many berries eventually,

however. When they do, areas

that were disturbed by burning may

be more productive than undisturbed

areas. The long-term benefits of

burning might then exceed the

short-term benefits obtained by

applying 2,4-D in frills. We will

continue to monitor all of our

experimental plots to see if this

occurs.

MANAGEMENT

RECOMMENDATIONS

Huckleberry management will be

expensive, and the areas to be

managed should be carefully selected.

Access, public use, and berry

production should all be considered.

In many areas, the public already

is using easily accessible areas

that are known to produce good

berry crops. Preserving and

maintaining these traditional

picking grounds should be given

highest priority. The following

recommendations are applicable to

huckleberry areas at 4,000-6,000 ft

(1 220-l 830 m) in the Cascade

Range of Oregon and Washington.

Overstory trees should be

controlled in the areas to be

managed. If berry production is to

be maintained or increased without

delays of 5 years or longer, this

must be done with minimal disturbance of the huckleberry understory.

A one-to-one solution of 2,4-D

amine and water, applied to frills

cut in the individual trees,

effectively kills a conifer overstory without disturbing the huckleberries. It should be applied in

the spring, just as conifer buds

are breaking. Where herbicide use

is undesirable, individua

girdling would produce th

result at somewhat higher cost.

Frilling and girdling will be least

expensive when done before a dense

overstory canopy develops.

47
Where dense overstory canopies

occupy large areas that are to be

managed for huckleberries, and

where berry production delays of 5

years or longer are acceptable, the

bulldoze-and-burn treatment should

be considered. Using a crawlertype tractor with raised bulldozer

blade, all trees in a large area

should be pushed over and allowed

to dry for a year before burning is

attempted. Burning should then be

done while soil moisture remains

high, as soon as the slash will

carry a fire. This method has a

severe visual impact on the landscape, it will eliminate berry

production for several years, and

long-term berry production benefits

are unknown. Nevertheless, it is

much cheaper than frilling or

girdling where dense unmerchantable

overstories are to be removed.

Where merchantable overstories

exist, conventional clearcutting

probably would be just as effective. Unfortunately, merchantable

overstories do not always occur on

areas capable of producing good

huckleberry crops.

Sheep grazing is compatible

with huckleberry production, but

sometimes incompatible with huckleberry pickers. Wherever possible,

grazing should be scheduled so that

sheep are out of the berry fields

before the huckleberries ripen.

48

Where optimal growth and berry

production are desired, nitrogen

fertilization is beneficial.

Nelson's work (1974) indicated that

40 lb of nitrogen per acre (44.8

kg/ha) produced a response nearly

equal to the maximum possible

response from field fertilization.

To supply this amount of nitrogen,

he used 191 lb of ammonium sulfate/acre (214 kg/ha).

If intensive huckleberry

management is ever attempted, the

young shrubs probably should be

planted in heavily used berry

fields or recent clearcuttings in

berry-producing areas. Cultural

techniques are available, and these

shrubs can be produced from seed

with little difficulty. In high

elevation areas where spring frosts

cause frequent crop failures, the

frost-resistant blueleaf huckleberry could be introduced and

managed. It is low-growing and

difficult to pick, however, and

seems to be less productive than

big huckleberry. Mixtures of these

two species probably should be

grown where frequent frosts occur

in the growing season.
LITERATURE CITED

Black, W. 1963. The effect of

frequency of rotational burning on

blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium)

production. Can. J. Plant Sci.

43(2):161-165.

Canfield, R. H. 1941. Application

of the line interception method in

sampling range vegetation. J. For.

39:388-394.

Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950.

Gray's manual of botany. 8th ed.

1,632 p. American Book Co.: New

York, Cincinnati, Chicago, Boston,

Atlanta, Dallas, San Francisco.

Garrison, G. A., J. M. Skovlin, C.

E. Poulton, and A. H. Winward.

1976. Northwest plant names and

symbols for ecosystem inventory and

analysis. USDA For. Serv. Gen.

Tech. Rep. PNW-46,263 p. Pac.

Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn.,

Portland, Oreg.

Hitchcock, C. Leo, and Arthur

Cronquist. 1973. Flora of the

Pacific Northwest. 730 p. Univ.

Wash. Press, Seattle.

Ingestad, Torsten. 1973. Mineral

nutrient requirements of Vaccinium

vitis idaea and V. myrtillus.

Physiol. Plant. 29(2):239-246.

Miller, Melanie. 1977. Response

of blue huckleberry to prescribed

fires in western Montana larch-fir

forest. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap.

INT-188, 33 p. Intermt. For. and

Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah.

Miller, Melanie. 1978. Effect of

growing season on sprouting of blue

huckleberry. USDA For. Serv. Res.

Note INT-240, 8 p. Intermt. For.

and Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah.

Minore, Don. 1972. The wild huckleberries of Oregon and Washingtona dwindling resource. USDA For.

Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-143, 20 p.

Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp.

Stn., Portland, Oreg.

Minore, Don. 1975a. Comparative

tolerances of lodgepole pine and

thin-leaved huckleberry to boron and

manganese. USDA For. Serv. Res.

Note PNW-253, 6 p. Pac. Northwest

For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland,

Oreg.

Minore, Don. 1975b. Observations

on the rhizomes and roots of Vaccinium

membranaceum. USDA For. Serv. Res.

Note PNW-261, 5 p. Pac. Northwest

For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland,

Oreg .

Minore, Don, and Michael E. Dubrasich.

1978. Big huckleberry abundance as

related to environment and associated vegetation near Mount Adams,

Washington. USDA For. Serv. Res.

Note PNW-322, 8 p. Pac. Northwest

For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland,

Oreg.

Minore, Don, and Alan W. Smart.

1975. Sweetness of huckleberries

near Mount Adams, Washington. USDA

For, Serv. Res. Note PNW-248, 4 p.

Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp.

Stn., Portland, Oreg.

49

1

-.._, ~~.~r----s-e?...- .-.. -=-

.((

-_ _ * --.- _

*,- .:: -

T--. -_. ._, , (.

. . .._.

. . _: . ..-. _.
.. - --

Minore, Don, and Alan W. Smart.

1978. Frost tolerance in seedlings

of Vaccinium membranaceum, Vaccinium

globulare, and Vaccinium deliciosum.

Northwest Sci. 52(3):179-185.

Minton, Norman A., T. B. Hagler, and

W. T. Brightwell. 1951. Nutrientelement deficiency symptoms of the

rabbit eye blueberry. Proc. Am.

Soc. Hort, Sci. 58:115-119.

Nelson, Eric A. 1974. Greenhouse

and field fertilization of thinleaved huckleberry. USDA Forest

Serv. Res. Note PNW-236, 13 p. Pat,

Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn.,

Portland, Oreg.

Peck, Morton Eaton. 1961. A manual

of the higher plants of Oregon. 2d

ed. 936 p. Binfords and Mort,

Portland.

Scheffe'; H. 1959. The analysis of

variance. 477 p. Wiley, New York.

Smart, Alan W., and Don Minore.

1977. Germination of beargrass

(Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt.).

Plant Propagator 23(3):13-15.

Smith, D. W., and J. R. Hilton.

1971. The comparative effects of

pruning by burning or clipping on

lowbush blueberries in north-eastern

Ontario. J. Appl. Ecol. 8(3):781-

789.

Smith, W. W., A. R. Hodgdon, and

Russell Eggert. 1947. Progress

report on chemical weed control in

blueberry fields. Proc. Am. Sot.

Hort. Sci. 50:233-238.

50
Table 4-Average understory cover on the Mount Adams experimental area1 

Year and treatment 

Big Lodge- Western Western Pearly 

huckle- Bear- pole white wood everberry grass Lupine Grasses pine2/ 

- pine/ strawberry lasting Sedges 

1972 (before treatment): 

Control 

Borax 

Sheep 

Burn 

cut ma burn 4' 

22.1 

23.2 

24.7 

18.4 

-- 

1973: 

Control 

Borax 

Sheep 

Burn 

Cut and burn 

1974: 

Control 

Borax 

Sheep 

Burn 

Cut and burn 

1975: 

Control 

Borax 

Sheep 

Burn 

Cut and burn 

1977: 

Control 

Borax 

Sheep 

Burn 

cut aa burn 

22.5 

22.0 

21.2 

15.1 

8.8 

22.6 

22.7 

22.3 

18.1 

6.7 

24.4 

25.6 

23.7 

18.8 

11.6 

19.7 

19.4 1 20.5 

17.9 

-- 

17.4 

I 

12.4 

10.2 

I ;:: 

16.8 

11.0 

i 

9.6 

6.3 

6.3 

i 

16.6 

11.0 

12.0 

7.9 

5.4 

15.2 

8.6 

11.2 

10.6 

9.1 

-- -- -- 

4.9 

::! 

2.7 

-- 

l 

t:: 

3.7 

0.1 

0 

I 

;:: 

3.5 

0 

0 

t 

3.8 

;:Lf 

0.1 

0 

3.4 

4.5 

2.8 

0.1 

0 

-- -- 

1.1 

1.8 

0.4 

1.3 

-- 

0.8 

1.3 

1.7 

1.6 

2.2 

0.8 

1.9 

1 

1.8 

z 

1.0 

2.0 

i 

1.7 

3.6 

2.1 

'1 Each average r e p 

significant at PqO.05). 

resents 4 treatment plots. Averages within a common bracket are not significantly 

2' Tallied as understory cover when encountered below the l-m height of our intercept tape. 

2' Absence on most treatment replications made statistical analyses impractical. 

4' No vegetation data were collected on the cut-and-burn treatment plots in 1972. 
Field Sub- Pink White Queen cup 

Dwarf Sheep Fire- wood- alpine Douglas- annual hawk- Mountain- Bead- Orange 

bramble sorrel Spirea weed rush fir2/ fir2/ phlox weed ash - - lily agoseris 

1 

1.0 0.2 

1.6 0.6 

1.3 

r 

0.7 

1.3 0.6 

0.8 0.9 

f 

1.4 

2.1 

1.7 

1.7 

,l.3 

0.3 

0.7 

c 

0.9 

0.9 

L.9 

'1.3 

1.7 

1.7 

,1.2 

0.5 1 

0.3 0.4 

0.6 0.6 

0.8 

1 

0.9 

1.2 0.7 

1.0 0.1 

'1.6 

2.2 

1.7 

1.8 

,1.2 

0.2 

0.4 

0.5 

1.5 

1.6 

0.4 

0.4 

1.0 

0.8 

-- [ 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 

0.4 

-- 

1 

0.3 

0.4 

0.8 

0.4 

0.3 r 

0.3 

0.5 

0.5 

0.8 

0.6 

[ 

0.6 

0.5 

1 

0.3 

0.6 

0.8 0.5 

0.7 1.3 

0.4 0.6 

1 

0.2 

0.3 

0.4 

0.8 

0.5 1 

0.3 

0.8 

0.5 

0.9 

0.7 

0.6 

0.8 

1.0 

1.2 

1.0 I 

0.4 

0.4 

0.5 

1.4 

0.9 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-- 

'0.2 

0.8 

0.7 

1.6 

1.2 

0.1 

0.4 1 0.2 

0.7 

0.6 

0.4 

1.2 

i 

0.1 

1.6 

-- 

0.2 

1.0 

0.2 

0 

0 

[ 

0.6 

1.0 

0.2 

0 

0 

0.9 

2.3 

0.4 

0 

0 

0.7 

0.5 i 0.4 

0.5 -- 

I 0.7 

0.3 

0.5 

0 

0 

[ 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0 

0 

I 

0.7 

0.5 

0.2 

0 

0 

I 

0.9 

0.5 

0.3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-- 

0 

0.2 

1.8 

0.1 

0.4 

[ 

0 

0.2 

0.5 

0.3 

0.4 

0 

0.1 

0.3 

0.2 

0.2 

0 

0 

0 

0.1 

0.1 

0 

0.1 

0.2 

0 

b.2 

0.1 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.1 

0.2 1 0.2 

0.2 

-- 

0.2 

0.2 I 0.2 

0.1 

0.1 

'0.2 [ 

0.3 

0.1 0.2 

0.4 ' 0.1 

0.3 0.2 

0.3 0.2 \ 

'0.2 

0.1 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 [ 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

p.1 0 

‘0.3 0.3 

0.1 0.3 

0.4 

[ 

0.1 

0.3 0.2 

,0.2 0.2 

0 

0 

0 

0.1 

-- 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.2 

0.3 

0.2 

0 

0.2 

0.2 

0.8 

0.1 

0.1 

i 

0.1 

0.2 

0.2 

[ 

0.4 

0.1 

0.1 

0.2 

0.4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-- 

[ 

0.1 

0.1 

0.2 

0.4 

0.3 

0 

[ 

0.2 

0.3 

0.4 

0.4 

0 

[ 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0 

I 

0.1 

0.1 

0.3 

0.3 

ifferent (Scheffe/ tests were not 
MOUI-l- Rose Pacific Small Fngle- Drummond 

tain pussy- silver flowered 

willow herb Egce2/3/ 

cinque- 

hemlock2/3/ Willow2/3/ toes -- fir2/3/ -- -- foil3/ 

-- _ 

0.3 0 

0 0.3 

0.2 0.4 

1.4 0.6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-- 

0.1 

0 

0 

0.1 

0.1 

0 

0.1 

0.1 

0.2 

0.2 

0.1 

0 

I 

0 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.1 

0 

0.4 

0.7 

0.7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-- 

0 

0.2 

0 

0.4 

-- 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-- 

[ 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.2 

0.3 

0.2 

0 

0.1 

0 

0 

0.3 

0.2 

0 

0 

0.1 

0 

0.2 

0 

0.1 

0 

0 

0.1 

0 

0 

0.2 

0.4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.1 

0.2 

0.2 

0.5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 0 

0 

0.1 

0 

0.3 

0 

I 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.3 

0 

0 

0 

0.6 0.2 

0 0.1 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0.1 

0.4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.2 

0 

0.1 

0 

0 

0 

0.1 

0 

0.2 

0 

0.2 

c 0.2 

0.4 

0.1 

0.1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.4 

0 

0.1 

0.5 

0 

0 

0 

0 [ 

0 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.2 

0 

0.2 

0.1 

0.1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

E.3 
Alpine Total 

Bunch- Noble willow- Grand huckleberry 

berry fir2/3/ Violet herb3/ -- fir2/3/ competition -- 

0.1 

0 

0.1 

0 

-- 

0.1 

0 

0 

3 

3 

0.1 

0 

0.1 

0 

0.1 

0.2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.2 

0 

0.1 

0 

0.1 

0 

0 E 

0.1 0 

0 0 

-- -- 

0 0 

0 0 

0.2 0 

0 0.1 

0 0.1 

0 0 

0 0 

0.2 0.1 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0.2 0.1 

0 0 

0 0 

0.1 0.1 

0 0 

0.2 0.2 

0 0 

0 0.1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-- 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

: 

0 

0 

0 

0 

-- 

0.1 

0.1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.2 

0 

0.2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

58.8 

63.2 

56.6 

65.6 

-- 

i 

53.5 

56.6 

50.7 

38.9 

36.5 

[ 

47.2 

50.1 

46.3 

40.7 

42.9 

r 

44.1 

45.2 

40.9 

33.1 

23.3 

57.2 

58.9 

56.9 

59.4 

54.5