UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT 

FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 

 

_________________________________________ 

 ) 

CHOUDHARY M. AZAM, et al., ) 

 ) 

Plaintiffs, ) 

 ) 

 v. ) Civil Action No. 13-1558 (ESH) 

 ) 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA TAXICAB ) 

COMMISSION, et al., ) 

 ) 

 Defendants. ) 

_________________________________________ ) 

 

MEMORANDUM OPINION 

Plaintiffs, individuals who are either licensed to operate taxicabs in the District of 

Columbia or who utilize taxicabs as passengers, bring this action against Ronald Linton, 

Chairman of the District of Columbia Taxicab Commission, and the District of Columbia, 

challenging various regulations enacted by the Commission as violating the Fourth and Fifth 

Amendments to the United States Constitution, Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act 

(“ADA”), 42 U.S.C. § 12132, and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (“ADEA”). (See

2d Am. Compl., Nov. 23, 2014 [ECF No. 17] (“2AC”).) Before the Court are plaintiffs’ motion 

for a preliminary injunction (Pls.’ Mot. for Preliminary Injunction, Nov. 23, 2013 [ECF No. 18] 

(“PI Mot.”)) and defendants’ motion to dismiss or, in the alternative, for summary judgment. 

(Defs.’ Mot. to Dismiss Pls.’ Second Am. Compl. or, in the Alternative, for Summary Judgment, 

Jan. 17, 2014 [ECF No. 19] (“Defs.’ MTD/SJ Mot.”).) For the reasons stated herein, defendants’ 

motion to dismiss will be granted. Plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction and 

defendants’ motion for summary judgment will be denied as moot. 
2 

BACKGROUND 

 In 2012, the D.C. Council enacted the Taxicab Service Improvement Amendment Act of 

2012 (“Improvement Act”). 2012 District of Columbia Laws 19-184 (Act 19-437). One section 

of the Improvement Act addressed the “modernization of taxicabs” in the District, giving the 

District of Columbia Taxicab Commission1

 “one year from October 22, 2012, to modernize the 

taxicab fleet and make vehicle and equipment improvements, including installation of meter 

systems that would accept non-cash payment of fares and electronically collect trip-sheet data 

through the use of GPS technology” and installation of “[u]niform cruising lights that clearly 

display a taxicab’s identification number, as well as identify when a taxicab is occupied, on-call, 

off-duty, or available to accept a fare.” See D.C. Code § 50-326(1)-(2). The Act further 

authorized the Taxicab Commission to collect a “passenger surcharge” for each ride “in an 

amount not to exceed 50 cents” to help fund the Commission. D.C. Code §§ 50-303, 50-320 

Pursuant to the Improvement Act, the Taxicab Commission issued implementing 

regulations, which, in relevant part, provide for the collection of a $0.25 passenger surcharge for 

each trip, 31 D.C. Mun. Regs. § 1103; require licensed taxicab drivers to install a “modern 

taximeter system” (“MTS”); see 31 D.C. Mun. Regs. § 603 (“MTS Regulation”), and require 

drivers to install a new standardized dome light, 31 D.C. Mun. Regs. § 605 (“Dome Light 

 

1

 The District of Columbia Taxicab Commission was “established . . . as a subordinate agency of 

the executive branch of the District government with exclusive authority for intrastate regulation 

of the public vehicle-for-hire industry.” D.C. Code § 50-304; see also D.C. Code § 50-307(a) 

(“The Commission is charged with the continuance, further development, and improvement of 

the public vehicle-for-hire industry within the District, and for the overall regulation of 

limousines, sedans, taxicabs, taxicab companies, taxicab fleets, and taxicab associations.”). 
3 

Regulation”).2 The aspects of the MTS Regulation and Dome Light Regulation that are at issue 

in the present litigation are summarized below. 

MTS Regulation 

The MTS Regulation requires drivers to acquire an MTS from an approved “payment 

service provider” (“PSP”). The MTS includes a taximeter, a global positioning system, and a 

payment processing unit. The MTS is turned on when a driver begins a shift and turned off 

when the shift ends. When it is on, the MTS connects to the PSP, which then receives and 

processes payment information for each trip in real time. Through the PSP, the MTS is also 

connected to the Taxicab Commission’s Taxicab Information System (“TCIS”).3

 Every 24 

hours, the MTS transmits data to the TCIS, including: 

(1) The date; 

(2) The operator identification (Face Card) number and PVIN, reported in a 

unique and anonymous manner allowing the PSP to maintain a retrievable record 

of the operator and vehicle; 

(3) The name of the taxicab company, association, or fleet if applicable; 

(4) The PSP-assigned tour ID number and time at beginning of tour of duty; 

(5) The time and mileage of each trip; 

(6) The time of pickup and drop-off of each trip; 

(7) The geospatially-recorded place of pickup and drop-off of each trip which 

may be generalized to census tract level; 

(8) The number of passengers; 

 

2

 The Court notes that the complaint includes the text of earlier versions of the relevant 

regulations. (See 2AC ¶¶ 38-67.) 

3

 When the driver turns on the taximeter and logs in, the MTS validates the driver’s identity and 

license status. See 31 D.C. Mun. Regs. § 603.9(a). 
4 

(9) The unique trip number assigned by the PSP; 

(10) The taximeter fare and an itemization of the rates and charges pursuant to § 

801; 

(11) The form of payment (cash payment, cashless payment, voucher, or digital 

payment), and, if a digital payment, the name of the DDS; 

(12) The time at the end of each tour of duty. 

31 D.C. Mun. Regs. § 603.9(c). The MTS is also used to “provide the information necessary to 

ensure that the passenger surcharge has been assessed for each trip, regardless of how the fare is 

paid.” Id. § 603.9(d). Every seven days, the PSP must remit the passenger surcharges it collects 

to the District. Id. § 408.15. 

 Dome Light Regulation 

 The Dome Light Regulation requires drivers to install new “uniform” dome lights. These 

dome lights differ from prior lights in two material ways. First, instead of being operated by a 

manual switch, the dome light display is controlled by engaging the MTS. The dome light 

displays “’Taxi For Hire’ at all times when the taxicab is available for hire” and goes “‘dark’ 

when the taxicab is not available for hire because the taxicab is carrying a passenger, is on call, 

or is off duty not intending to take on passengers.” 31 D.C. Mun. Regs. §§ 605.5, 605.6, 605.7. 

The “Taxi For Hire” display cannot be manually changed from inside the cab to read “Taxi On 

Call”, unless the driver is affiliated with an “authorized dispatch company.” (2AC ¶¶ 82-86); 31 

D.C. Mun. Regs. § 602. Second, the new dome light eliminates the “Call 911” display option, 

which drivers formerly could activate via a manual switch inside the taxicab in the case of an 

emergency to alert passersby that assistance was needed. (2AC ¶¶ 74-79.) 

 Six individuals who are licensed to operate taxicabs in the District of Columbia 

(Choudhary M. Azam, Tariq Mahmood, Waleed A. Mohammed, Ahmed Djebbour, Mohammed 
5 

Akram, and Mohammed Saleem Syed) and two individuals who utilize District of Columbia 

taxicabs as passengers (Benjamin P. Stewart and Per Kristian Hoel) have filed a complaint 

against the District of Columbia alleging that the MTS Regulation violates the Fourth 

Amendment’s protection against “unreasonable searches and seizures” and the Fifth 

Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection and that the Dome Light Regulation violates the 

Title II of the ADA and the ADEA (Counts I-IV). The complaint also seeks to hold Linton 

individually liable for these violations (Counts V-VII) and to hold the District liable for 

negligence in failing to prevent the violations (Count VIII). Plaintiffs seek a preliminary 

injunction. In response, defendants have opposed plaintiffs’ motion and have moved to dismiss 

the complaint for lack of standing4

 and failure to state a claim, see Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(1), (6), 

or, in the alternative, for summary judgment. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 56. 

ANALYSIS

I. STATUTORY CLAIMS AGAINST THE DISTRICT 

A. ADA (Count I) 

 Count I of plaintiffs’ complaint alleges that the Dome Light Regulation violates Title II 

of the ADA. Title II provides that “no qualified individual with a disability shall, by reason of 

such disability, be excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of the services, 

programs, or activities of a public entity, or be subjected to discrimination by any such entity.” 

42 U.S.C.A. § 121325

; see also 28 C.F.R. § 35.130.6 According to plaintiffs, the Dome Light 

 

4

 In this Circuit, a motion to dismiss for lack of standing constitutes a motion to dismiss for lack 

of subject matter jurisdiction under Rule 12(b)(1) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. 

Haase v. Sessions, 835 F.2d 902, 906 (D.C. Cir. 1987) (“the defect of standing is a defect in 

subject matter jurisdiction”). 

5

 A person has a “disability” if he has “(1) a physical or mental impairment that substantially 

limits one or more major life activities; (2) a record of such an impairment; or (3) is regarded as 
6 

Regulation discriminates against taxi drivers with disabilities by (1) only allowing drivers 

affiliated with an approved dispatch company to have an in-car switch that changes the display 

from “Taxi For Hire” to “Taxi On Call”; and (2) eliminating the option to have “Call 911” 

displayed on the dome light. (2AC ¶¶ 14-15.) The complaint alleges that these changes 

“create[] a hazardous condition for all of the taxicab drivers and passengers, particularly taxicab 

drivers with a disability,” and that they were “implemented with reckless disregard for the safety 

and welfare of those cab drivers with disabilities.” (2AC ¶¶ 80, 91.) Defendants have moved to 

dismiss for lack of standing and failure to state a claim. 

1. Standing 

 Defendants’ contention that plaintiffs lack standing to challenge the Dome Light 

Regulation as violating the ADA is without merit. “To establish constitutional standing, a 

plaintiff must show an injury in fact that is fairly traceable to the challenged conduct and that 

will likely be redressed by a favorable decision on the merits.” Muir v. Navy Fed. Credit Union, 

529 F.3d 1100, 1105 (D.C. Cir. 2008) (citing Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555, 560–

 

having such an impairment.” Id. § 12102(1). The term “qualified individual with a disability” 

means “an individual with a disability who, with or without reasonable modifications to rules, 

policies, or practices, the removal of architectural, communication, or transportation barriers, or 

the provision of auxiliary aids and services, meets the essential eligibility requirements for the 

receipt of services or the participation in programs or activities provided by a public entity.” 42 

U.S.C.A. § 12131. 

6

 28 C.F.R. § 35.130 states: 

A public entity may not administer a licensing or certification program in a 

manner that subjects qualified individuals with disabilities to discrimination on 

the basis of disability, nor may a public entity establish requirements for the 

programs or activities of licensees or certified entities that subject qualified 

individuals with disabilities to discrimination on the basis of disability. 
7 

61 (1992)).7 “When the suit is one challenging the legality of government action or inaction, the 

nature and extent of facts that must [alleged] . . . in order to establish standing depends 

considerably upon whether the plaintiff is himself an object of the action (or forgone action) at 

issue. If he is, there is ordinarily little question that the action or inaction has caused him injury, 

and that a judgment preventing or requiring the action will redress it.” Lujan, 504 U.S. at 561-

62. “The fundamental aspect of standing is that it focuses on the party seeking to get his 

complaint before a federal court and not on the issues he wishes to have adjudicated.” Flast v. 

Cohen, 392 U.S. 83, 99, 88 S. Ct. 1942, 1952, 20 L. Ed. 2d 947 (1968) Thus, “[i]n ‘reviewing the 

standing question, the court must be careful not to decide the questions on the merits for or 

against the plaintiff, and must therefore assume that on the merits the plaintiffs would be 

successful in their claims.’” Muir, 529 F.3d at 1105 (quoting City of Waukesha v. EPA, 320 F.3d 

228, 235 (D.C. Cir. 2003)); see Warth v. Seldin, 422 U.S. 490, 501 (1975); see also Louisiana 

Energy & Power Authority v. FERC, 141 F.3d 364, 367–68 (D.C. Cir. 1998) (whether a statute 

has been violated “is a question that goes to the merits . . . and not to constitutional standing,” 

because a “party need not prove that the . . . action it attacks is unlawful . . . in order to have 

standing to level that attack”). 

 Here, the complaint alleges injury (that “[t]he new dome light system creates a hazardous 

condition” for Syed and other drivers with disabilities), causation (the Dome Light Regulation is 

the reason all drivers have to install the new dome light system), and redressability (if the Dome 

 

7

 An “injury in fact” is “an invasion of a legally protected interest which is (a) concrete and 

particularized, and (b) actual or imminent, not conjectural or hypothetical.” Lujan, 504 U.S. at 

560-61 (internal citations and quotations omitted). The “fairly traceable” element for 

constitutional standing requires “a causal connection between the injury and the conduct 

complained of.” Id. at 560-61 (internal citations and quotations omitted). Finally, “it must be 

likely, as opposed to merely speculative, that the injury will be redressed by a favorable 

decision.” Id. (internal citations and quotations omitted). 
8 

Light Regulation violates the ADA, disabled drivers could not be required to install the new 

system). These arguably bare bones allegations “are sufficient, at this pre-discovery stage, to 

meet the requirements of constitutional standing. Muir, 529 F. 3d at 1105. 

2. Failure to State a Claim 

 Although the ADA count will not be dismissed for lack of standing, it will be dismissed 

for failure to state a claim. To survive a motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim, a 

complaint must contain sufficient factual matter, accepted as true, to “state a claim to relief that 

is plausible on its face.” Iqbal, 550 U.S. at 570. “A claim has facial plausibility when the 

plaintiff pleads factual content that allows the court to draw the reasonable inference that the 

defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged.” Id., at 556. A pleading that offers “labels and 

conclusions” or “a formulaic recitation of the elements of a cause of action will not do.” Id. at 

555. Nor will a complaint survive if it tenders “naked assertion[s]” devoid of “further factual 

enhancement.” Id., at 557. 

 To state a claim under Title II of the ADA, a plaintiff must allege: (1) that he is a 

“qualified individual with a disability”; (2) who “was either excluded from participation in or 

denied the benefits of a public entity’s services, programs, or activities, or was otherwise 

discriminated against by the public entity”; and (3) that “such exclusion, denial of benefits, or 

discrimination was by reason of his disability.” Alston v. D.C., 561 F. Supp. 2d 29, 37 (D.D.C. 

2008). The complaint alleges that plaintiff Syed has a “certified medical disability as a result of 

a brain hemorrhage and stroke he suffered” 8 and that the new Dome Light system creates a 

 

8

 The complaint also alleges that “The Social Security Administration has certified Plaintiff 

Mohammed Saleem Syed as disabled effective November 1, 2005” and that he “receives 

supplemental security income payments from the Social Security Administration as a result of 

his certified disability.” (2AC ¶¶ 14, 15, 16.) 
9 

“hazardous condition” for him and other drivers with disabilities. (2AC ¶¶ []-[].) What the 

complaint fails to plausibly allege is that the Dome Light Regulation imposes a greater burden on 

Syed, or on any other driver with a disability, than it imposes on drivers without disabilities. For 

example, the complaint alleges that “[a]bsent the interior switch, those taxicab drivers who are 

not affiliated with a dispatch system can only activate or deactivate the “TAXI ON CALL” by 

physically exiting the vehicle and activate the switch on the exterior of the new dome light on the 

roof of the vehicle,” and that “[t]his must be done regardless of traffic conditions, weather 

conditions, or the conditions of the area of town where the driver is located when he or she must 

get out of his/her car,” but fails to allege why this burden would be any greater for plaintiff Syed, 

or any driver with a disability, than it is for drivers without disabilities. Similarly, the complaint 

alleges the lack of a Call 911 display option creates a hazardous condition because “[i]f a taxicab 

driver with a disability . . . encounters a medical crisis or is a victim of a crime, the absence of 

call 911 sign places the taxicab driver . . . and any passenger in danger,” but again the complaint 

does not allege any facts to suggest that this hazard would be greater for Syed and other drivers 

with disabilities than for drivers without disabilities. Without knowing the nature of Syed’s or 

any other driver’s disability, there is no factual basis for the conclusory allegation that the Dome 

Light Regulation is “particularly” hazardous for drivers with disabilities, and the complaint has 

not plausibly alleged that Syed has been discriminated against “by reason of his disability.” 

B. ADEA (Count IV) 

 Count IV of the complaint alleges that the Dome Light Regulation violates the Age 

Discrimination in Employment Act (“ADEA”). Under the ADEA, it is “unlawful for an 

employer to . . . discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, 

conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual’s age.” 29 U.S.C.A. § 
10 

623(a)(1). The complaint alleges that the Dome Light Regulation “places an undue burden on 

taxicab drivers over the age of forty and puts them at an unfair disadvantage to drivers who are 

younger than forty.” (2AC ¶¶ 121-134.) The complaint further alleges that this burden amounts 

to discrimination in violation of the ADEA. Five of the named plaintiffs (Azam, Mohammed, 

Akram, Djebbour, and Mahmood) are licensed taxi drivers who “are over the age of forty.” 

Defendants have moved to dismiss each count for lack of standing and failure to state a claim. 

1. Standing 

 The District’s challenge to plaintiffs’ standing is again without merit. Plaintiffs allege 

that the Dome Light Regulation puts drivers over the age of forty at an unfair disadvantage and, 

if they were to prevail on their ADEA challenge to the Dome Light Regulation, that injury would 

be redressed. As previously noted, whether plaintiffs will prevail does not bear on their standing 

to bring a claim. Accordingly, just as with the ADA count, plaintiffs have adequately alleged the 

elements of Article III standing. 

2. Failure to State a Claim 

 The ADEA count will, however, be dismissed for failure to state a claim. First, neither 

the District itself nor the Taxicab Commission qualifies as plaintiffs’ “employer” under the 

ADEA. See, e.g., Bonaby v. New York City Taxi & Limousine Comm'n., No. 02-cv-5423, 2003 

WL 21649453, at *4 (S.D.N.Y. July 14, 2003) (“The plain meaning and statutory definitions of 

“employer” . . . in . . . the ADEA indicate that those terms are not intended to apply to the type of 

licensing activity in which the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission engages.”) 

Second, the allegation that the Dome Light Regulation “places an undue burden” on drivers over 

the age of 40 without any indication of what that burden is or how it is linked to the drivers’ age 

fails to provide sufficient “factual content” to “allow the court to draw the reasonable inference” 
11 

that the Dome Light Regulation violates the ADEA. See Iqbal at 556. Finally, the complaint 

does not allege that the taxicab drivers’ age was the “but-for” cause of the decision to enact the 

Dome Light Regulation. See Gross v. FBL Fin. Servs., Inc., 557 U.S. 167, 176 (2009) (“To 

establish a disparate-treatment claim under the plain language of the ADEA, therefore, a plaintiff 

must prove that age was the “but-for” cause of the employer's adverse decision.”) Accordingly, 

plaintiffs’ have failed to plausibly allege that the Dome Light Regulation violates the ADEA. 

II. CONSTITUTIONAL CLAIMS AGAINST THE DISTRICT 

A. Equal Protection (Count III) 

 Count III challenges the MTS Regulation on equal protection grounds. It alleges that 

under the MTS Regulation (and related rules), licensed taxicab drivers are subjected to 

“draconian” requirements that impose greater burdens on them than are imposed on any other 

individual or business in the District of Columbia. According to the allegations in the complaint: 

drivers are “required to select a PSP from a limited mandatory list of providers to process credit 

card transactions”; the agreement between the PSP and the Commission “permits the District full 

access to all drivers’ credit card transactions”; the PSP can “track the movement of taxicab 

drivers in real time”; after the PSP processes the credit card transactions, it can “pass the trip data 

to the TCIS, delayed by twenty four hours”; “[t]he Commission has the full authority to mine all 

information from every taxicab drivers’ transaction”; taxicab drivers “are obligated to pay to the 

Commission twenty five cents ($.25) for every cash or credit card fare”; “[i]f the taxicab driver 

does not remit the required payment to the Commission within a requisite period of time, the 

Commission will unilaterally access the taxicab driver’s vendor-established and mandated 

account and deduct the amount due to this agency for the cash transactions from the account 

maintained for the credit card transactions” and [i]f a taxicab driver does not have sufficient 
12 

funds in his PSP account, the Commission will remotely automatically turn off the taxicab 

driver’s meter and the driver is precluded from picking up any passengers”; “[t]he twenty five 

cent ($.25) tax . . . diminishes [the drivers’] income”; and “[t]he Commission’s ability to 

automatically withdraw funds from a taxicab drivers’ PSP account provides the Commission 

with unfettered access to each taxicab driver’s credit card transactions with a passenger.” (2AC 

¶¶ 102-112.) The complaint further alleges that the District “intentionally targeted this group of 

individuals to treat them differently than similarly situated individuals or groups” and that 

licensed taxicab drivers in the District constitute a “suspect class” because they are all either 

“foreign born” or “African American.” The District has moved to dismiss this count for failure to 

state a claim or, in the alternative, for summary judgment. 

 “The Equal Protection Clause protects against arbitrary and irrational classifications, and 

against invidious discrimination stemming from prejudice and hostility.”9 Plyler v. Doe, 457 

U.S. 202, 245 (1982). Accordingly, courts apply “strict scrutiny when the challenged 

classification jeopardizes the exercise of a fundamental right or categorizes individuals on the 

basis of an inherently suspect characteristic such as race, alienage or national origin, see Banner 

v. United States, 428 F.3d 303, 307 (D.C. Cir. 2005); Hunt v. Cromartie, 526 U.S. 541, 546 

(1999), but “if a law neither burdens a fundamental right nor targets a suspect class,” it will be 

upheld “so long as it bears a rational relation to some legitimate end.” Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 

620, 631 (1996); Hettinga v. United States, 677 F.3d 471, 478 (D.C. Cir. 2012) (“A statutory 

 

9

 Although the Fifth Amendment does not contain an equal protection clause, the Supreme Court 

has held that the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment contains an equal protection 

component that applies to the District government. Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497, 499 (1954); 

Brandon v. Dist. of Columbia Bd. of Parole, 823 F.2d 644, 650 (D.C. Cir. 1987). The approach 

to Fifth Amendment equal protection claims is “precisely the same” as the approach to 

Fourteenth Amendment equal protection claims. Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld, 420 U.S. 636, 638 n. 

2 (1975). 
13 

classification that ‘neither proceeds along suspect lines nor infringes fundamental constitutional 

rights must be upheld against equal protection challenge if there is any reasonably conceivable 

state of facts that could provide a rational basis for the classification.’” (quoting FCC v. Beach 

Commc'ns, Inc., 508 U.S. 307, 314 (1993))); see also Muwekma Ohlone Tribe v. Salazar, 708 

F.3d 209, 215 (D.C. Cir. 2013) (to prevail on an equal protection claim, a plaintiff must prove 

“that the government has treated it differently from a similarly situated party and that the 

government’s explanation for the differing treatment ‘does not satisfy the relevant level of 

scrutiny’” (quoting Settles v. U.S. Parole Comm’n, 429 F.3d 1098, 1102–03 (D.C. Cir. 2005)). 

“Where the government’s action or policy is facially neutral, a plaintiff ‘must plead and prove 

that the defendant acted with discriminatory purpose.’” Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1948. 

 Here, plaintiffs’ equal protection challenge is premised on the application of the strict 

scrutiny test. However, strict scrutiny will only be applied to a facially neutral law, if the law 

“has been applied differently on the basis of race, see Yick Wo. v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356, 373–74 

(1886), or if it is “in fact, motivated by discriminatory intent and has a racially discriminatory 

impact.” See Village of Arlington Heights v. Metro. Hous. Dev. Corp., 429 U.S. 252, 265-66 

(1977); City of Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55, 113 (1980) (“a showing of discriminatory purpose 

is necessary to impose strict scrutiny on facially neutral classifications having a racially 

discriminatory impact”); Gomillion v. Lightfoot, 364 U.S. 339 (1960); Smith v. Henderson, No. 

13-cv-420, 2013 WL 5592905 (D.D.C. Oct. 10, 2013); In re Navy Chaplaincy, 738 F.3d 425, 

428 (D.C. Cir. 2013) (“equal protection attack on . . . facially neutral policy could prevail only if 

[plaintiffs] . . . [could] prov[e] an intent to discriminate”); Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229, 

242 (1976) (“Disproportionate impact is not irrelevant, but it is not the sole touchstone of an 

invidious racial discrimination forbidden by the Constitution. Standing alone, it does not trigger 
14 

the rule that racial classifications are to be subjected to the strictest scrutiny and are justifiable 

only by the weightiest of considerations.”) 

 The regulations at issue are “facially neutral” and there is no suggestion that they have 

been discriminatorily applied. As for the third path to strict scrutiny, the complaint arguably 

alleges a racially disparate impact (by alleging that the requirements are unique to the taxicab 

industry and that the drivers are a “suspect class” because they are all either foreign born or 

African-American), but it fails to allege any basis upon which to infer a plausible inference of 

discriminatory intent could be drawn. The sole allegation pertaining to intent is that the 

regulation “intentionally targets” licensed taxicab drivers. But the same could presumably be 

alleged as to every regulation enacted by the Taxicab Commission. As the Supreme Court 

explained in Iqbal, 

[P]urposeful discrimination requires more than intent as volition or intent as 

awareness of consequences. It instead involves a decisionmaker’s undertaking a 

course of action ‘because of,’ not merely ‘in spite of,’ [the action’s] adverse 

effects upon an identifiable group. 

129 S.Ct. at 1948. Considering the “spare facts and allegations” in the complaint, the Court 

cannot reasonably infer that defendants were “motivated by discriminatory intent or purpose.” 

Atherton v. Dist. of Columbia Office of the Mayor, 567 F.3d 672, 688 (D.C. Cir. 2009); Ekwem v. 

Fenty, 666 F. Supp. 2d 71, 78-79 (D.D.C. 2009). Absent an adequate allegation of 

discriminatory purpose or intent, strict scrutiny is not warranted. As there is no allegation that 

these regulations lack a rational basis, plaintiffs’ equal protection claim cannot succeed. See, 

e.g., In re Navy Chaplaincy, 738 F.3d 425, 430 (D.C. Cir. 2013) (“Given facially neutral policies 

and no showing of intent to discriminate, the chaplains’ equal protection attack on the Navy’s 
15 

specific policies could succeed only with an argument that the policies lack a rational basis.”). 

Accordingly, the Court will dismiss plaintiffs’ equal protection claim against the District.

B. Fourth Amendment (Count II) 

 Count II alleges that the MTS Regulation violates the Fourth Amendment right of taxicab 

drivers and passengers to be protected from “unreasonable searches and seizures.”10 U.S. Const. 

Am. IV. Specifically, plaintiffs complain that requiring installation of an MTS with a GPS 

tracking system violates the Fourth Amendment because it “tracks all trips from arrival to the final 

destination,” it “reveals the identity of the passenger who traveled in the taxicab and paid for the fare 

by a credit or debit card as well as the time and location where the travel was initiated and the 

disembarkation point,” and “[a]ll the information after a credit card transaction is processed is 

downloaded in real time to the District of Columbia Taxicab Commission.” (2AC ¶¶ 94-97.) The 

District has moved to dismiss this count for failure to state a claim or, in the alternative, for summary 

judgment. 

Plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment claim fails because requiring licensed taxicab drivers in the 

District to install a MTS with a GPS tracking device does not constitute a Fourth Amendment search. 

A search within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment occurs when the government trespasses on 

private property, United States v. Jones, 132 S. Ct. 945, 949 (2012), or when it infringes on an 

individual’s “reasonable expectation of privacy.” See Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 351 

(1967); Maryland v. Macon, 472 U.S. 463, 469 (1985); see also Jones (“the Katz reasonableexpectation-of-privacy test has been added to, not substituted for, the common-law trespassory 

test”). Here there has been no trespass and no infringement of a reasonable expectation of privacy. 

 

10 The Fourth Amendment provides in relevant part that “[t]he right of the people to be secure in 

their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not 

be violated.” U.S. Const. Am. IV. 
16 

As recently explained by another federal district court, confronted with a Fourth Amendment 

challenge to similar taxicab requirements, “mandating the installation of [a taximeter system with 

GPS tracking] and installing the system in compliance with regulations do not constitute a 

common-law trespass: taxi drivers are aware of the system, the system is installed pursuant to 

regulations, and the taxicabs in which the system is installed are not truly private vehicles.” See 

El-Nahal v. Yassky, No. 13-cv-03690, 2014 WL 333463, at *4 (S.D.N.Y. Jan. 29, 2014). In addition, 

neither the taxicab drivers nor passengers have a reasonable expectation of privacy in the pick-up and 

drop-off data collected by the GPS tracking aspect of the MTS. In 1983, the Supreme Court held that 

“[a] person traveling in an automobile on public thoroughfares has no reasonable expectation of 

privacy in his movements from one place to another.” See United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276, 281 

(1983). Applying Knotts, other courts have held, and this Court agrees, that requiring a taxicab 

driver to install a GPS tracking device that records the start and end of each trip does not infringe on 

any reasonable expectation of privacy. See El-Nahal at *5-*6 (no reasonable expectation of privacy 

in trip data given long history of regulation of taxicab industry and prior requirement to create “trip 

sheets” containing the same information); see also Buliga v. New York City Taxi and Limousine 

Comm’n., 2007 WL 4547738, at *2 (S.D.N.Y. 2007) (“well established that there is no Fourth 

Amendment protection accorded information about the location and movement of cars on public 

thoroughfares”), aff’d, 324 F. App'x 82 (2d Cir. 2009); Alexandre v. New York City Taxi and 

Limousine Comm’n, 2007 WL 2826952, at *9 (S.D.N.Y. Sep. 28, 2007) (“Where, as in the taxicab 

context presented here, there is likely no legitimate expectation of privacy, there is also no search or 

seizure within the ambit of the Fourth Amendment.”)11 Absent a Fourth Amendment “search,” there 

can be no Fourth Amendment violation, and plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment count must be dismissed. 

 

11 The holding of Knotts as applied to those who drive or hire taxicabs was not undermined by 

the suggestion in the concurring opinion in United States v. Jones, 132 S. Ct. at 958 (Alito, J. 
17 

III. INDIVIDUAL CAPACITY CLAIMS AGAINST LINTON (Counts V, VI, VII) 

Counts V, VI, and VII allege that Linton is “individually liable” pursuant 42 U.S.C. 1983 

for each of the statutory and constitutional claims against the District. (See 2AC ¶¶ 135-138 

(constitutional violations); ¶¶ 139-143 (ADA violation); ¶¶ 144- 148 (ADEA violation).) In each 

instance, the complaint alleges that “Linton, in his capacity as Chairman of the Commission, is 

responsible for supervising the conduct of commission members in relation to constitutional and 

other violations that the defendants committed against the plaintiffs” (2AC ¶¶ 136, 140, 145) 

and for “ensur[ing] that the Commission’s policies and regulations do not violate” the law (2AC 

¶¶ 141, 146)12 and that he “failed in his fiduciary duty to his employer, the District of Columbia, 

to bring to their attention any conduct involving [such] violations by the District of Columbia 

Taxicab Commission.” (2d Am. Compl. ¶¶ 137, 142, 147.) 

All of these claims are meritless. First, in each instance Linton’s liability depends on the 

existence of an underlying constitutional or statutory violation, but the Court has determined that 

all of the claims against the District must be dismissed. Second, there is no individual liability 

under either Title II of the ADA or the ADEA. See, e.g., Smith v. Janey, 664 F. Supp. 2d 1, 8 

(D.D.C. 2009)( “ no individual liability under . . . the ADEA or the ADA”), aff’d sub nom. Smith 

v. Rhee, No. 09-7100, 2010 WL 1633177 (D.C. Cir. Apr. 6, 2010); Sindram v. Merriwether, 506 

F. Supp. 2d 7, 11 (D.D.C. 2007) (“Title II of the ADA does not permit lawsuits against 

individuals.”). Accordingly, plaintiffs’ claims against Linton will be dismissed.

 

concurring in judgment) and the holding in the Court of Appeals decision in the underlying case, 

United States v. Maynard, 615 F.3d 544 (D.C. Cir. 2010), that an individual’s reasonable 

expectation of privacy is infringed by police using a GPS device to continuously track his 

movements for 28 days. Id. at 555-566. 

12 In what appears to be an oversight, Count V does not include this allegation. (2AC ¶¶ 135-

38.) 
18 

IV. NEGLIGENT TRAINING CLAIM (Count VIII) 

 Count VIII of the complaint alleges that the District is liable under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 for 

“fail[ing] to effectively train, supervise discipline, and control the personnel it employs in the 

District of Columbia Taxicab Commission” regarding the statutory and constitutional laws that 

the MTS Regulation and the Dome Light Regulation allegedly violated. Having concluded that 

the complaint fails to state a claim for any statutory or constitutional violation, this count must 

also be dismissed. 

V. PRELIMINARY INJUNCTION 

 Having concluded that plaintiffs’ complaint should be dismissed for failure to state a 

claim, plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction is moot. 

CONCLUSION 

 For the reasons stated above, the Court will grant defendants’ motion to dismiss and deny 

as moot defendants’ motion for summary judgment and plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary 

injunction. A separate Order accompanies this Memorandum Opinion. 

 /s/ 

ELLEN SEGAL HUVELLE 

United States District Judge 

DATE: June 2, 2014