Pacific Northwest

Forest and Range

Experiment Station

General Technical

Report PNW-152

March 1983

William R. Meehan and John F. Thilenius

h
WILLIAM R. MEEHAN is fisheries

research project leader, and JOHN F.

THILENIUS is a research wildlife

biologist, Pacific Northwest Forest and

Range Experiment Station, Forestry

Sciences Laboratory, PO. Box 909,

Juneau, Alaska 99802.

The use of trade, firm, or corporation

names in this publication is for the

information and convenience of the

reader. Such use does not constitute

an official endorsement or approval by

the U.S. Department of Agriculture of

any product or service to the exclusion

of others that may be suitable.
Meehan, William R.; Thilenius, John F.

Safety in bear country: protective

measures and bullet performance at

short range. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW152. Portland, OR: US. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range

Experiment Station; 1983.16 p.

Bears are frequently encountered by

people working in or enjoying the outdoors. Some government agencies have

regulations concerning the firearms

their personnel carry for protection

against bears.

Guidelines to prevent hazardous

encounters with bears are presented,

and the performance of commonly

used weapons and ammunition is discussed. The ballistic performance of

bullets at short range is often considerably different from performance of the

same bullet at the longer ranges generally encountered while hunting.

Recommendations are made for weapons and ammunition used as protection from bears.

Keywords: Safety, safety equipment,

bears, ballistics, Alaska.

Brown bears (Ursus arctos) are found

from the seashore to the alpine zone

on the islands and mainland along

most of the Pacific coast of Alaska.’

The brown bear is a large, fast-moving

animal, unpredictable in its response to

humans, and a definite hazard to those

who must work in areas inhabited by

bears.

The USDA Forest Service in Alaska

requires at least one member of each

work party to carry a rifle.2 The most

common weapon issued is a boltaction magazine rifle chambered for

the .375 H&H Magnum cartridge. Commercial ammunition is used exclusively.

For handiness in the dense brush cover

of the Alaska coast, most of these rifles

have barrels shortened to 20 inches.

Receiver (peep) sights or factoryinstalled open sights are used; recoil

pads and slings are usually present.

In the past, most Forest Service professionals working where brown bears

occur had personally acquired experience with firearms. In recent years,

however, the Forest Service has

employed many persons with little or

no experience with firearms, and some

with a strong aversion to them. The

Forest Service provides training programs in the use of firearms for employees who must work in bear country.

The extent and quality of these programs vary from a cursory session on

how to load and fire a rifle to a rather

intensive course in nomenclature, maintenance and handling of rifles, marksmanship under field conditions, and

anatomy and behavior of bears. The

rifles used for training are like those to

be carried in the field (that is, shortbarreled, bolt-action, .375 Magnum).

Shooting this rifle may be very unpleasant for some inexperienced persons. They become more apprehensive

of the rifle (a known effect) than of the

bear (an unknown effect).

’ The same precautions apply to black

bears (Ursus americanus). The grizzly bear

is considered to be the same species as the

brown bear.

2

 The policies of other agencies or institutions may differ. Some agencies do not

require firearms to be carried; others

prohibit them.

The difficulties of training inexperienced persons to properly use largecaliber rifles might be lessened by

using smaller caliber weapons. Recoil,

muzzle blast, and rifle weight could be

decreased, but possibly at the expense

of killing power. To provide an

inadequate weapon just because it was

more pleasant to shoot would be unwise. What, then, constitutes an adequate weapon for protection against

bears in the coastal regions of Alaska?

Much has been written about the performance of various cartridges and

bullets on big game animals. Most tests

have been conducted at ranges of 50 or

75 yards to 300 yards or more, ranges

at which hunted game is usually shot.

Little information is available on the performance of cartridges and bullets at

ranges that could be considered critical

in a life-threatening situation. Distances

greater than 15 to 20 yards probably do

not constitute a dangerous situation,

and some other way to avoid a conflict

is probably available.

Our purpose was to evalute the commonly used and readily available

cartridges (and weapons) for protection from bears at short range. We

selected a distance of 15 yards as the

“point of no return”-the distance at

which an obviously aggressive bear

must be stopped or a person risks

personal injury or death. We stress

“obviously aggressive,” a term for a

bear that is charging, with the assumed

intent of doing bodily harm.
We selected a range of weapons and 

ammunition, including those issued by 

some government agencies to employees working in bear country or 

carried by the average outdoor person. 

Other combinations of weapons and 

ammunition are available, and they 

may compare favorably with those 

tested. Interested persons can conduct 

tests similar to those described here to 

arrive at their own conclusions for their 

particular equipment. They will have a 

better understanding of the capabilities 

of the weapon and ammunition, and 

the testing will force the individual to 

shoot more. 

Familiarization with a weapon is at 

least as important as performance of 

the bullet in instilling confidence in a 

person. A person who knows the capability of a firearm is more likely to hold 

fire until a life-threatening situation is 

unavoidable or, in a sudden encounter, 

will react instinctively for defensive 

purposes. 

Methods 

Most of our testing was done with 

rifles, but we also evaluated handguns 

and the 12-gauge shotgun. Handguns 

are often carried by people working in 

bear country because they are much 

more portable and convenient than 

rifles, especially when work requires 

both hands. The short-barreled 12. 

gauge shotgun also has a reputation as 

a good weapon at close range. We 

tested both slugs and buckshot loads 

in the shotgun. In some instances, 

weapons firing a give” cartridge were 

available with different barrel lengths. 

We tested these to evaluate the effects 

of barrel length on bullet performance. 

We used ammunition manufactured by 

several companies, chosen solely on 

the basis of availability, and made no 

attempt to compare similar loads of 

different manufacturers. The ammunition and barrel length of the weapons 

tested are included in table 1 in the 

“Results“ section. 

We fired three shots in random order 

bullet weight (or type), and barrel 

length. This testing method allowed us 

to measure the penetration of each 

bullet in a relatively uniform medium, 

to recover the bullet, and to determine 

its striking energy. We also measured 

retained bullet weight and expansion. 

To determine penetration and recover 

fired bullets, we used the testing medium recommended by Hagel (1978), 

who found that recovered bullets shot 

into a moistened mixture of 50 percent 

fine silt and 50 percent fine sawdust 

(by volume) were similar to bullets 

removed from various big game 

animals, including brown bears. 

We built a” open-end wooden box 12 

by 12 by 24 inches to hold the slitsawdust mixture, covering the open 

ends wth scrap pieces of indooroutdoor carpet to prevent spillage 

through bullet holes. To facilitate 

locating bullets, we placed the mixture 

in 4. by lo- by 12.inch cardboard file 

wallets. Six of these tightly filled wallets 

2 
After each shot, we located the bullet 

by sequentially liftmg the wallets (fig, 

2). We then carefully removed the siltsawdust mixture from the wallet containing the bullet until the bullet was 

exposed and measured the distance 

from the bullet to the front of the box to 

the nearest 0.5 inch. We removed the 

bullet, including adjacent fragments, 

from the medium and placed it in a 

paper envelope for future examination. 

We replaced the silt-sawdust mixture III 

the wallet where the bullet nad stopped 

and repaired all bullet holes with plastic 

packaging tape. To avoid bias, we rearranged the front-to-back sequence of 

all six wallets according to a preselected random sequence after recovering 

each bullet. We shook the wallets before replacing them and added mixture 

if needed to keep the content relatively 

constant. It was necessary tcl replace 

all wallets after each six to eight shots. 

We replaced badly damaged wallets 

immediately. 

We evaluated each cartridge-bullet 

weight-barrel length combinatmn 

tested by four ballistic categories: 

striking energy, penetration, retained 

bullet weight, and bullet expansion. We 

also measured bullet velocity because 

energy is a function of bullet weight 

and velocity. 

We fired all shots through the skyscreens of a Ballistocraft chronograph 

to determine bullet velocity (fig, 3).3 We 

used a 5-ft screen spacing with the first 

Screen at IO ft The velocity recorded 

was considered to be at 12.5 ft. The 

three-shot average velocity was converted to average velocity at 15 yards 

from tables provided by Hatcher (1962). 

Striking energy in foot-pounds (ft.lb) 

was determined from the formula 

E = WV2/450,240, where W is the bullet 

weight in grains (gr), V is the velocity in 

feet per second, and 450,240 = 2 x 

32.16 fffs2 x 7000 gr/lb (Hatcher 1962). 

3 Names of products are for tnformation 

only; the chronograph was fhe persona, 

property of one of the authors. 
Results and Discussion

We washed recovered bullets and bullet

fragments in hot water and detergent to

remove silt-sawdust medium. We rinsed,

dried, and weighed each to the nearest

grain. To determine expansion, we measured to the nearest 0.01 inch the

maximum diameter of the bullet (or the

largest fragment) and the diameter at

90O to the maximum diameter. The

cross-sectional area of this ellipse was

determined by the formula A=3.1416 ab,

where a = maximum diameter and b

= diameter at 90o to a. Both retained

bullet weight and expansion were expressed as a percentage of the weight

and cross-sectional area of an unfired

bullet pulled from a cartridge identical

to that fired in the tests.

We determined the free recoil energy

using the method described by Mannes

(1981). Although recoil is not directly

involved in short-range terminal ballistics, it is a significant factor in the overall evaluation of rifles used for

protection from bears.

Because we had no unbiased way to

determine the relative importance of

each ballistic category, we considered

each to be equally important. Our first

step in evaluating overall ballistic performance was to calculate the average

value in each category for the three

shots fired from each test combination.

We then divided each average by the

maximum average value in its category

to convert it to a relative proportion of

the maximum value encountered during

the tests. We rounded the quotient to

two significant decimal places and multiplied by 100 to eliminate decimals.

This transformation also eliminated the

different category units and allowed all

four to be arithmetically combined into

a single performance score. We calculated this score by multiplying the four

relative scores of each test combination. To eliminate the use of unwieldy

eight-digit numbers as scores, we divided the product by 100,000 and rounded

the quotient to the nearest whole number. This provided a two- or three-digit

score for each test combination, which

we ranked in highest to lowest order.

Results of the tests are presented in

table 1 and figure 4. We discuss each

cartridge tested in the following

categories: (1) large-, medium-, and

small-caliber magnum rifle cartridges;

(2) large-, medium-, and small-caliber

standard rifle cartridges; (3) large- and

medium-caliber magnum and standard

handgun cartridges, and (4) the 12-

gauge shotgun.

Large-Caliber Magnum Rifle

Cartridges

.458 Winchester Magnum. - In overall

ballistic performance, the .458 ranked

first. Bullet penetration was the deepest

of all the cartridges tested - average

depth, 19 inches. Striking energy was

79 percent of the .460 Weatherby (ranked second), part of which may be attributed to the extra 10 gr of bullet weight

in the .458. The bullet expanded well

(4.6 times) and retained 82 percent of

the unfired weight. The 510-gr Winchester factory bullets used in the .458 did

not fragment, but the 500-gr bullets of

the .460 Weatherby did. This was the

major reason for the first-place ranking.

Recoil in the 9.4-lb rifle was 54.7 ft-lb or

about 71 percent of that of the .460 in a

rifle that was 1.3 lb heavier. The lesser

recoil in a lighter rifle and better bullet

performance make the .458 Winchester

preferable to the .460 Weatherby. A

short-barreled, bolt-action .458 would

be an excellent rifle for an experienced

rifleman. Shortening the barrel to 22 or

even 20 inches should not reduce ballistic performance much. Any weight reduction, however, would increase

recoil.

.460 Weatherby Magnum. - The .460

Weatherby Magnum cartridge ranked

second in overall performance. The

large-caliber, heavy bullet at relatively

high velocity had good, but not the deepest, penetration. Although the chronographed velocity did not approach the

advertised velocity, bullet energy exceeded that of the .458 Winchester by

over 1300 ft-lb. Average retained bullet

weight was 65 percent of the unfired

weight. The bullets had a tendency to

fragment. It appears the high striking

energy exceeded the design limits of

the bullet at the short test range.

Cross-sectional area expansion was

adequate and overall bullet performance good, but not the best.

The high overall performance of the

.460 Weatherby was obtained in a

heavy-recoiling, 10.7-lb rifle with a

26-inch barrel. We used a Weatherby

Mark V rifle equipped with a receiver

sight. It was very difficult to use this

sight because of the high comb’ of the

Weatherby stock. This plus the heavy

recoil made it very uncomfortable to

shoot. The stock shape, heavy weight,

and long barrel detract from the utility

of the rifle in the heavy bush of coastal

Alaska. This could be ameliorated if the

rifle were remodeled, but shortening

the barrel to 20 inches would lower

velocity and energy. This might be

beneficial if it also reduced the

tendency of the bullet to fragment;

however, there is little reason to reduce

the .460 if a .458 is available.

A short-barreled .460 would have tremendous muzzle blast, and the recoil

of a .460 Weatherby less than 10 lb in

weight would be so severe that it would

be difficult for the shooter to recover

from the recoil and operate the bolt to

rapidly chamber a second cartridge.

For these reasons, we think the .460

Weatherby rifle is generally a poor

choice for protection from bears in

coastal Alaska.

4

The comb is the top portion of the stock

where the shooter’s cheek rests.

4
Table1 -Short-range ballistic performance 

Ranking Bullet Ballistic performance 

Cartridge score Rank Weight TYPO Brands 

Rifle: ?I 

,458 Win. Msg. 536 

,460 Why. Msg. 467 

,315 H a H Msg. (L) Y 30, 

,338 win. tvtag. (S) 260 

.375H a H Ma!&(L) 239 

.336Win.Maa, IS1 

.336 Win, Mai. iSj 

,336 Win. Mag. (L) 

.338Wi".Mag. (L) 

,375 H 8 H Msg. (S) 

.30-06 U.S. 

.3O-06 U.S. 

,444 Marlin 

.358Winchester 

7 mm Rem. blag. 

.375H BH M.q(S) 

.45-7OU.S (S) 

,308 Winchester 

.45-7OU.S (L) 

.358Norma btag. 

8 mm Rem. Msg. 

.300 Why. rvtag. 

,338 Win. Mag. (L) 

,350 Rem.Mag. 

7x57 mm MauSer 

12-p x 2% inch 

.45-70 U.S. (L) 

,300 Win. Msg. 

,300 Wby. Msg. 

.45-70 ",S. (S) 

8 mm Rem. Msg. 

.44Rem.Mag. (L) 

,300 Win Mag. 

213 

197 

191 

186 

185 

157 

153 

146 

142 

141 

137 

133 

126 

124 

115 

107 

104 

100 

93 

67 

74 

65 

60 

59 

50 

49 

?I 47 

44 

HWldg”“: 

,44 Rem. blag. (L) 

.44Rem.Mag.(M) 

.44 Rem. Msg. (L) 

.44 Rem.Mag. (S) 

.44 Rem. Magi (S) 

~44 Rem, blag, (M) 

.357S&Wtvw3 

.45 Colt (L) 

.45 Auto 

~41 Rem.Mag. 

.45 Colt 

.45 Colt (S, 

44 saw spec. 

Y 77 

64 

63 

60 

59 

57 

27 

13 

12 

11 

11 

10 

9 

1 510 

2 5w 

3 300 

4 300 

5 270 

6 200 

7 250 

8 200 

9 300 

10 300 

11 220 

!2 180 

13 240 

14 200 

15 175 

16 270 

17 303 

18 160 

19 300 

20 250 

21 185 

*2 180 

23 250 

24 200 

25 175 

26 436 

27 405 

26 200 

29 220 

30 405 

31 220 

32 240 

33 160 

: 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

240 LGC R-P 

240 LGC R-P 

240 JSP w-w 

240 LGC R-P 

240 JSP w-w 

240 JSP w-w 

158 JSP cc, 

255 LRN w-w 

230 SMJ R-P 

210 LFN R-P 

225 LHP FED 

255 LRN w-w 

246 LRN w-w 

- 

RSP 

RSP 

SSP 

RSP 

RSP 

PSP 

SSP 

PSP 

RSP 

SSP 

RSP 

RSP 

FSP 

SSP 

PSP 

RSP 

HSP 

RSP 

HSP 

PSP 

PSP 

PSP 

SSP 

SSP 

RSP 

LRN 

RSP 

PSP 

RSP 

RSP 

PSP 

LGC 

PSP 

- 

w-w 

WBY 

w-w 

w-w 

R-P 

w-w 

w-w 

w-w 

w-w 

w-w 

R-P 

R-P 

R-P 

w-w 

w-w 

R-P 

FED 

FED 

FED 

NOR 

R-P 

WBY 

w-w 

R-P 

FED 

FED 

R-P 

FED 

WBY 

R-F 

R-P 

R-P 

FED 

- 

- 

Firearm 

“e!O- E*pa”- 

city. Energy, Pen&a- Retained sion Recoil 

15yd 15Yd tion weight ratlo 

- 

FMS 

2074 

2364 

2541 

2314 

2659 

2699 

2507 

2634 

2360 

2401 

2261 

2456 

2237 

2366 

2709 

2456 

,573 

2430 

,666 

2730 

2991 

3033 

2594 

2566 

2419 

,398 

1322 

2699 

2798 

,211 

2779 

1401 

2959 

,401 

1317 

1383 

1265 

1370 

1348 

,226 

625 

619 

952 

613 

796 

745 

Ff-lb 

4871 

6204 

4903 

3568 

4241 

3235 

3491 

3563 

3710 

3843 

2496 

241, 

2666 

2466 

2653 

3735 

1649 

2360 

1649 

4139 

3676 

3676 

3735 

2931 

2274 

1902 

1572 

3237 

3626 

,319 

3773 

1046 

3266 

925 

1019 

653 

,001 

969 

528 

366 

343 

423 

330 

359 

303 

19.0 

17.2 

16.6 

16.2 

14.2 

15.0 

12.2 

12.3 

16.6 

13.6 

17.7 

13.2 

11.0 

12.0 

13.0 

12.3 

13.0 

12.7 

11.0 

15.2 

10.7 

15.2 

14.7 

12.2 

13.6 

15.3 

15.6 

15.2 

15.2 

17.6 

12.6 

11.5 

10.3 

11.5 

12.2 

14.5 

11.3 

9.5 

11.5 

9.5 

14.3 

14.2 

10.5 

13.3 

11.8 

12.1 

82 

65 

67 

61 

64 

69 

57 

60 

57 

63 

65 

71 

72 

7, 

44 

50 

84 

73 

96 

41 

32 

46 

45 

52 

Liz 

93 

36 

34 

96 

26 

97 

30 

97 

97 

94 

97 

97 

96 

99 

96 

100 

97 

97 

97 

99 

4.6 54.7 

3.6 76.6 

4.0 41.1 

4.6 356 

4.0 37.2 

4.2 26.9 

5.3 33.4 

4.7 26.0 

3.4 31.2 

3.6 44.1 

3.6 15.3 

4.4 14.6 

4.5 27.6 

4.4 33.4 

5.6 16.5 

3.9 39.4 

4.6 15.6 

3.9 13.6 

4.1 18.6 

2.9 25.0 

5.5 29.1 

2.6 26.0 

2.6 30.0 

3.2 34.5 

3.6 12.7 

1.7 26.1 

2.1 17.7 

2.2 25.9 

2.0 30.6 

1.4 13.6 

2.5 16.9 

2.6 13.9 

2.6 26.3 

2.6 13.9 

2.3 14.1 

1.8 12.4 

2.5 15.8 

2.5 15.1 

2.2 16.4 

2.1 7.2 

1.0 5.9 

1.0 5.2 

1.0 6.0 

1.0 4.6 

1.0 5.9 

1.0 3.9 

Ff-lb Lb 

9.4 

10.7 

6.6 

7.4 

6.6 

7,4 

7.4 

8.6 

6.6 

7.2 

6.8 

6.6 

7.3 

7.4 

9.1 

7,2 

7.1 

6.4 

7.6 

8.4 

9.4 

9.6 

6.6 

6.4 

6.9 

7.1 

7.8 

7.8 

9.6 

7.1 

9.4 

3.1 

7.6 

3.1 

3.2 

3.1 

2.9 

2.9 

3.2 

2.3 

2.6 

2.4 

2.4 

2.6 

2.4 

3.1 

24 

26 

24 

20 

24 

20 

20 

24 

24 

20.5 

22 

22 

22 

22 

24 

20.5 

20 

22 

22 

24 

24 

24 

24 

16.5 

24 

20 

22 

24 

24 

20 

24 

7.5 

24 

7.5 

6.5 

7.5 

5 

5 

6.5 

4 

7.5 

5 

4.6 

7.5 

4.6 

7.5 

I/ RSP = round nose soft point; SSP = semipointed soft point; PSP = pointed soft point; FSP = flat nose soft point: HSP = hollow soft point; 

LRN = lead round nose; LGC = lead gas-check; JSP = jacketed soft point; SMJ = solid metal jacket: LFN = lead flat nose; LHP = lead 

hollowpoint. 

?I W-W = Winchester-Western; R-P = Remington-Peters: FED = Federal; WBY = Weatherby; NOR =Norma; CCI = Speer. 

Y All rifles except 1 shotgun and 1 handgun included for comparison. 

3’ L = long barrel; M = medium barrel: S = shoti barrel; applies only when the same cartridge was tested in different length barrels 

3 Score calculated on same baiis as rifles and shotgun. 

“Score calculated for handguns only: not equal to rifle scores. 

5 
Medium-Caliber Magnum Rifle

Cartridges

.375 H & H Magnum. - The .375 H & H

Magnum was one of the cartridges

tested with different bullet weights and

in rifles with different barrel lengths.

With the 300-gr bullet in a rifle with a

24-inch barrel, it ranked 3; with the

270-gr bullet in the same length barrel

it ranked 5. Performance rankings for

the rifle with a 20.5inch barrel were 10

for the 300-gr bullet and 16 for the 270-

gr bullet. Energy exceeded 4200 ft-lb in

the longer barreled rifle for both bullets

and 3700 ft-lb for the shorter barreled

rifle. Bullets of both weights fired in the

longer barreled rifle penetrated about 2

inches deeper, but there were only

minor differences in retained bullet

weight and relative bullet expansion.

Velocity losses in the shorter barrel

were 203 ft/s for 270-gr bullets and 140

ft/s for 300-gr bullets. Chronographed

velocities were close to those advertised for the rifle with a 24-inch barrel.

Recoil in the 8.6-lb rifle with a 24-inch

barrel ranged from 37 to 41 ft-lb. The

7.2-lb rifle with the shorter barrel had

heavier recoil - 39 and 44 ft-lb for the

270- and 300-gr bullets, respectively.

The heaviest recoil value was 57 percent of the recoil value of the .460

Weatherby and 81 percent of the .458

Winchester.

The similarity in overall ballistic

performance and not too severe recoil

make the lighter rifle with the shorter

barrel preferable, although some ballistic performance is lost. The 300-gr

bullet is preferable to the 270-gr bullet.

This type of .375 rifle is commonly

carried in coastal Alaska. The rifle must

be rated at a capacity of three cartridges (magazine capacity) since it is

unsafe to have a cartridge loaded in the

chamber and depend on a mechanical

safety to prevent discharge. Moving

through thick brush, leaning the rifle

against a tree, or laying it on the

ground while working can cause inadvertent release of the safety on most

bolt-action rifles. This applies to boltaction rifles with the possible exception

of those made on military actions, such

as the Mauser or Springfield with their

180o safety levers, which are slow to

operate; however, few .375 caliber rifles

have such safeties. Regardless, the .375

H & H Magnum is an excellent cartridge for protection from bears at

close range. Our tests merely reinforced its already excellent reputation.

.338 Winchester Magnum. - The .338

Winchester was tested with three bullet

weights (200-, 250-, and 300-gr) and in

rifles with two barrel lengths, 24 and 20

inches. The recently available 225-gr

bullet was not produced at the time we

made the tests, and the 250-and 300-gr

bullets are no longer manufactured.

The shorter barreled rifle gave slightly

better overall ballistic performance.

With the 300-gr bullet it was ranked 4

and was close to the 300-gr .375 H & H

with a 4 inch longer barrel, although

the .375 H & H had 1335 ft-lb more striking energy with a 300-gr bullet. The

300-gr .338 Winchester bullet had only

0.6 inch less penetration, retained

slightly more bullet weight, and had

slightly greater expansion than the

300-gr bullet in the .375. The 250-gr

bullet gave much poorer overall

ballistic performance than either the

300- or the 200-gr bullet. The .338 with

the 200-gr bullet ranked 6 and 8, the

rifle with the shorter barrel giving the

better performance; it averaged 15

inches of penetration compared with

12.2 inches for the 250-gr bullet.

The 250-gr bullet had a tendency to

shatter in the test medium which may

account for the lower penetration. The

200-gr bullet should be selected if the

300-gr is not available. In the 7.4-lb .338

rifle with a 20-inch barrel, recoil was

35.6 ft-lb with the heaviest bullet. This

was somewhat less than in the .375

with the same weight of bullet in both

light and heavy rifles. The 200-gr bullet

load generated 28.9 and 26.0 ft-lb of

recoil in the rifles with 20- and 24-inch

barrels, respectively, and was not uncomfortable to shoot. Shortening the

barrel seemed to lower velocities only

slightly for the 300- and 250-gr bullets,

but a greater reduction in velocity

occurred for the 200-gr bullet (see

table 1). Chronographed velocities

were similar to advertised velocities.

The reasonable recoil in a light, shortbarreled rifle with impressive overall

ballistic performance makes the .338

Winchester cartridge a good choice for,

rifles for protection from bears. Limitations are the same as for the other boltaction magnums - low magazine capacity and the safety hazard inherent in a

mechanical safety. Discontinuation of

the 300-gr bullet in factory loading

decreases the potential of the .338 as a

cartridge for close-range protection.

.358 Norma Magnum. - The .358

Norma Magnum was ranked 20 in our

tests. Its relatively low ranking was

mainly due to poor retained bullet

weight and relative expansion. The

250-gr Norma factory bullets did not

hold together well in the test medium.

Retained bullet weight was low since

this parameter is based on the largest

recovered bullet fragment. The .358

Norma bullet reacted similarly to the

250-gr bullet in the longer barreled .338

Winchester (ranked 23). Although the

bullets fragmented, penetration of the

largest fragments was relatively deep.

Recoil of the .358 Norma Magnum was

similar to recoil in the .338 and .375

rifles with 250- and 270-gr bullets, respectively. If suitable bullets were available in factory-loaded ammunition, the

.358 Norma would be an excellent cartridge for rifles for protection from

bears. Other disadvantages are the cost

and difficulty of obtaining the ammunition. Because of these considerations,

the .358 Norma Magnum is not

recommended.

Small-Caliber Magnum Rifle

Cartridges

7 mm Remington Magnum.-The 7 mm

Remington Magnum was the highest

ranked (15) of the small-caliber

magnum cartridges. Bullet penetration

was only moderately deep, and the

bullets fragmented to some extent as

the average retained weight was only

44 percent. Bullet expansion was the

highest of all the bullets tested; this

attribute gave the 7 mm Remington its

relatively high overall rank. In contrast,

most other small-caliber magnum cartridges had relatively poor expansion

values. The exception was the 8 mm

Remington 185-gr bullet which had

high expansion but also had substantial weight loss and poor penetration.

The striking velocity of the 7 mm

Remington 175-gr bullet was barely

2700 ft/s at 15 yd, well below what

would be expected from published

ballistic data; nevertheless, it appears

the design limits of the bullet were

exceeded.

Recoil was calculated at 18.5 ft-lb in

the 9.1-lb rifle used. This is mild, but

greater than that of the 220-gr .30/06

cartridge from a lighter weight rifle.

There does not appear to be any

special reason for selecting the 7 mm

Remington for short-range protection.

Its overall ballistic performance is

marginal for this purpose.

.300 Weatherby, .3OO Winchester, 8 mm

Remington Magnums. - These three

cartridges are considered together. All

are loaded with moderate-weight

bullets (180-to 185-gr) at velocities

between 2950 and 3050 ft/s and heavier

bullets (200- to 220-gr) between 2700

and 2800 ft/s. These high velocities

with moderately heavy bullets resulted

in striking energies that exceed the

design level of the bullets, especially

the heavier ones. Fragmentation was

prevalent for these bullets, and weight

losses were 60 percent or more. The

average weight of the largest fragment

of the 8 mm Remington 220-gr bullet

was only 28 percent of the unfired

bullet weight. The 185-gr bullet in the

8 mm Remington was the best of the

lighter weight bullets in these three

cartridges, with a ranking of 21 in overall performance. Penetration was poor,

however, and fragmentation excessive.

The 180-gr bullet in the .300 Winchester also had poor penetration and

substantial weight loss, as well as

relatively poor expansion, all of which

contributed to its last place ranking.

The ranking of the .300 Weatherby with

the 180-gr bullet was a disappointment.

Factory cartridges are loaded with

180-gr Nosler partition bullets which

have an excellent reputation. In our

test, the 180-gr bullets in the .300

Weatherby penetrated well but lost

over 50 percent of the unfired bullet

weight and did not have particularly

good expansion. The 180-gr bullet was

much better in overall performance

than the 220-gr bullet which fragmented badly. This was also true for

the 200-gr bullet in the .300

Winchester.

None of the small-caliber magnum

cartridges can be considered good

selections for protection from bears at

short range because of the excessive

fragmentation of bullets.

Large-Caliber Standard Rifle

Cartridges

.45-70 U.S. - We tested the .45-70 in

two bullet weights (300- and 405-gr)

and in rifles with two barrel lengths (20

and 22 inches). Both rifles were Marlin

1895 lever-action. In both, the 300-gr

bullet ranked much higher than the

405-gr bullet, primarily because of the

poor expansion of the 405-gr bullets. At

the 1200-1300 ft/s striking velocity,

some of these bullets acted as solids

and penetrated as much as 24 inches.

This was the greatest penetration

recorded in the tests. The 300-gr

bullets, with 300 to 400 ft/s more velocity, did not penetrate deeply but held

together and expanded well and uniformly. Low velocities resulted in low

striking energy. Shortening the barrel

by 2 inches had no effect on the performance of the bullet; in fact, the rifle

with the 20-inch barrel performed

better with the 300-gr bullet than did

the longer barreled rifle. Recoil in this
rifle, which weighed less than 8 lb, was

much less severe than in the largecaliber magnums; it is thus not a

detracting factor. The poor action of

the 405gr bullets may limit their use

for protection from bears. The 300-gr

bullets in the commercial ammunition

we used are designed for animals the

size of deer and may expand too rapidly and lack sufficient penetration for

use against bears. In our test they did

not fragment too badly. The lack of a

proper bullet is unfortunate. The .45-70

can be obtained in a compact, moderate

weight, lever-action rifle that may be

easier and faster to operate, particularly for left-handed people.

Perhaps the current reinterest in .45-70

rifles will cause the manufacturers to

produce a more suitable bullet. We do

not consider factory-loaded .45-70

ammunition particularly suitable for a

rifle for protection from bears, especially with the 405-gr bullet.

.444 Marlin. - In overall performance,

the .444 Marlin cartridge ranked 13.

Although penetration was not especially deep, the bullet held together and

expanded well. Striking velocity exceeded 2200 ft/s in the rifle with the

22-inch barrel. Consequently, striking

energy was over 2650 ft-lb.

The flat nose soft point bullet loaded in

the .444 Marlin appears similar to that

of the .44 Remington Magnum revolver

cartridge. Although the .444 cartridge

ranked relatively high, we have reservations about shooting at a brown bear

with a bullet designed for a handgun

cartridge. If a well-constructed bullet of

about 300-gr weight was available in

factory-loaded ammunition, the .444

could become an adequate cartridge

for protection from bears. We were

unable to obtain the recently introduced cartridges factory-loaded with a

265-gr bullet.

Medium-Caliber Standard Rifle

Cartridges

.358 Winchester, .350 Remington

Magnum.5-The .358 Winchester and

the .350 Remington Magnum were

included to fill out the full range of

cartridge possibilities. The .358

Winchester ranked higher (14) than the

.350 Remington (24). Better retained

bullet weight and greater bullet

expansion accounted for the higher

rank of the .358 Winchester. These two

cartridges illustrate the poor relation

between penetration and striking

energy. The .350 Remington had 443 ftlb greater striking energy than the .358

Winchester, but only 0.2 inch more

penetration. In our tests there was

relatively little difference between the

.358 Winchester and some much larger,

more powerful cartridges. We were

unable to obtain 250-gr bullets for

either cartridge. The 200-gr bullet in

the .358 Winchester, however, seems to

be a well-balanced load. The relatively

low striking energy reduced the ranking of the .358 Winchester, and, to

some extent, the .350 Remington. In

addition, the average retained bullet

weight for the .350 Remington was 52

percent compared with 71 percent for

the .358 Winchester.

Recoil was moderate and similar in

both rifles. The .350 Remington rifle

weighed a pound less than the .358

Winchester rifle. Both cartridges can be

considered minimal for protection from

bears at close range.

5

 The .350 Remington lMagnum was considered a standard cartridge because its

case has a relatively small powder capacity.

Small-Caliber Standard Rifle

Cartridges

.30-06 U.S. -With the 220-gr bullet the

.30-06 ranked 11, and with the 180-gr

bullet it ranked 12 in overall ballistic

performance. The 220-gr bullet penetrated 17.7 inches. This was 4.5 inches

deeper than the 180-gr bullet, but the

striking energy of the two bullets was

similar. The 220-gr bullet had only 87

ft-lb greater energy at 15 yd. The 180-

gr bullet retained slightly more weight

than the 220-gr bullet and also expanded slightly more relative to the initial

cross-sectional area. The 180-gr bullet

also had less tendency to fragment

than did the 220-gr bullet.

Recoil for both bullet weights was mild

compared with large- and mediumbore magnums. Chronographed velocities were much lower than advertised.

The 220-gr bullet averaged 2261 ft/s

for three shots, whereas the 180-gr

bullet averaged only 2456 ft/s velocity

at 15 yd.

The light recoil potential and the good

overall ballistic performance make the

.30-06 a reasonable cartridge for protection from bears. Because of the

deeper penetration of the 220-gr bullet,

it is better than the 180-gr bullet. For

inexperienced persons or those of

small stature, the .30-06 with 220-gr

bullets may be a better choice than one

of the large- or medium-bore magnums.

A 7- to 7.5-lb .30-06 with a 20-inch

barrel would be a handy, portable rifle

for protection from bears. The use of

the .30-06 has a major advantage over

use of magnum cartridges -magazine

capacity is increased to five rounds.

Another advantage is the availability of

left-handed bolt-action rifles in this

caliber. The .30-06 is also available in

slide-action and semiautomatic rifles.
.306 Winchester, 7x57 mm Mauser. -

These two cartridges were included in

the tests to represent the “minimal”

cartridges that might be used for protection from bears. They are also often

used by deer hunters. The ranges of

the brown bear and the Sitka blacktailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus

sitkensis) overlap through much of

coastal Alaska, and deer hunters need

protection from bears similar to that of

working professionals. Of the two

cartridges, the .308 Winchester ranked

higher (18) than the 7x57 mm Mauser

(25). The greatest difference was in

retained bullet weight. The 7x57 mm

Mauser bullets lost almost half their

weight, whereas the .308 Winchester

bullets shed less than 25 percent of

their original weight. The 7x57 mm

bullets had about 1 inch deeper penetration, but the range in penetration

varied less in the .308 Winchester.

Penetration of the 175-gr bullet in the

7x57 mm Mauser was greater than that

of the same weight bullet in the 7 mm

Remington Magnum, although striking

energy was almost 600 ft-lb less in the

7x57 mm Mauser.

Recoil was mild for both cartridges;

however, both of the rifles used

weighed more than 8 lb. We do not

recommend either of these calibers for

protection from bears.

Large-Caliber Magnum Handgun

Cartridge

.44 Remington Magnum. - The .44

Remington Magnum load fired from a

handgun ranked 32 compared with

loads fired from rifles and the 12-gauge

shotgun but ranked first compared with

other handgun cartridges (table 1). It

was included with the rifle cartridges for

comparison purposes only and was

ranked by the rifle and shotgun attributes. In overall performance it was

similar to the 8 mm Remington

Magnum 220-gr bullet and the .300

Winchester Magnum 180-gr bullet. The

240-gr lead gas-check bullet held

together well, penetrated more than 11

inches, and expanded moderately well.

Only the low energy value reduced its

ranking in the rifle and shotgun

category.

The .44 Remington Magnum was by far

the best handgun cartridge. Two

bullets (240-gr lead gas-check; 240-gr

jacketed soft-point) were tested in

revolvers with 5, 6.5-, and 7.5-inch

barrels. No substantial difference was

observed between the velocities of the

two bullets in the same length of barrel.

but the lead gas-check bullet ranked

higher overall in ballistic performance

than did the jacketed soft-point bullet.

The lead gas-check bullet ranked 1, 2,

and 4. Generally, the lead gas-check

bullet expanded well and retained

almost all its original weight. The

jacketed soft-point bullet had somewhat greater average penetration, but

also much greater variation in penetration than the lead gas-check bullet.

It also had slightly greater striking

energy.

As expected, recoil was greater in the

.44 Magnum revolvers than in any other

handgun tested. It ranged from 16.4 ftlb in the 6.5-inch barrel revolver with

the jacketed soft-point load to 12.4 ft-lb

in the 7.5-inch barrel revolver with the

same load.

The superiority of the .44 Remington

Magnum makes it the cartridge choice

for a backup weapon. A revolver using

this cartridge should not be considered

a primary weapon for protection from

bears.

The slight difference in overall ballistic

performance between long and short

barrels makes a revolver with a short

barrel just as effective as one with a

longer barrel. A short-barreled revolver

is lighter, easier to carry, and may be

drawn from a holster more quickly.

Carried in a cross draw or shoulder

holster, a short-barreled .44 Magnum

revolver is at hand at all times. When

work requires both hands, a rifle is

often put aside. A rifle a few feet away

is useless for protection from bears,

but a handgun can be useful. Although

much practice is necessary to become

proficient with a shoulder arm, even

more practice is required to attain

competence with a handgun.

Other barge- and Medium-Caliber

Handgun Cartridges

.357 S&W Magnum, .41 Remington

Magnum, .44 S&W Special, .45 Auto,

.45 Colt. - The overall ballistic performance of these handgun cartridges

was much poorer than that of the .44

Remington Magnum cartridge. They

were included in the test because they

are commonly owned by many persons

working in coastal Alaska and might be

carried in the field. With one possible

exception, we do not recommend them,

even for backup protection. The exception is the .41 Remington Magnum. We

were unable to obtain the high-velocity,

jacketed 210-gr bullet factory load for

our tests. This loading may be suitable

for backup use because its ballistics are

closer to those of the .44 Remington

Magnum than are any of the other cartridges The .357 S&W Magnum was the

best of the other handgun cartridges,

but it was much less effective in all

categories than the .44 Remington

Magnum. The factory bullets of the .44

S&W Special, the .41 Remington

Magnum, and the .45 Colt were nonjacketed lead. At their low striking

energies, these bullets did not expand.

Consequently, penetration was relatively deep. The full-jacketed bullets

used in the .45 Auto also penetrated

deeply but did not expand.

Shotgun Cartridge

12-Gauge x 2 3/4 Inch Chamber. - The

variety, rapid-fire potential, and reasonable prices of 12-gauge repeating shotguns with short barrels and the impressive appearance of the l-ounce (438-gr)

rifled slug have made this combination

popular as a weapon against bears. The

slide-action shotgun with a short barrel

is relatively light and compact, has

good pointing characteristics and a

large magazine capacity, and can be

fired rapidly. Recoil was similar to that

10
of weapons firing small-caliber magnum

rifle cartridges. In our tests, the

12-gauge rifled slug did not have

a high overall rank because of the

relatively low striking energy and the

lack of bullet expansion. The lack of

bullet expansion is somewhat misleading. The unfired rifled slug is 0.672 inch

in diameter (0.355in2 area); the 1.7x

expansion ratio increases this to a

cross-sectional area of 0.62 square

inch, which is only slightly smaller than

that of the expanded bullets of the .458

Winchester and .460 Weatherby

magnum rifle cartridges. The penetration of the rifled slug was good (15.3

inches), and only 4 percent of the

unfired weight was lost. No fragmentation occurred. Low energy was due

to the low velocity of the slug.

We also tested the penetration of 00

buckshot. The first round was fired at

the box from 15 yd. At this range, the

nine pellets had a spread of about 12

by 12 inches and a penetration of only

2 to 3 inches. We then shortened the

range to 15 ft. From this distance, the

spread was 2 inches in diameter, and

the maximum penetration of a single

shot was 7 inches. At the shorter range,

the nine pellets appear to act as a

single projectile and the 00 buckshot

load might be relatively effective.

From our tests it would appear the slug

is much superior to buckshot for protection from bears. Whether buckshot

would be lethal to a bear at ranges

beyond 5 yd is doubtful. A mixed magazine load of slugs and buckshot can

be used, but there appears to be little

advantage to this. To be effective, the

12-gauge slugs must be thought of as

similar to the bullets in a rifle. Hitting

vital areas is the important thing.

Hitting a brown bear with a load of

buckshot at ranges beyond 5 yd may

mean a nonlethal wound and a very

angry, active bear.

A Note on Velocity

Because bullet velocity is an inherent

component of bullet energy, it was not

one of the factors we used to rank

ballistic performance. We did, however,

look at its relation to bullet penetration

because velocity is the most common

single factor used to rank ballistic

performance (table 1). In general we

found that bullet penetration decreased as striking velocity increased.

Notable examples of this were the

high-velocity small-bore magnum cartridges, such as the .300 Winchester

and .300 Weatherby magnums with

lighter weight bullets. The inverse

relationship between striking velocity

and bullet penetration should be

viewed only as a tendency; our data

demonstrated considerable variability.

When penetration is compared with

striking energy (table 1), the relationship is direct -that is, in general, penetration increases with an increase in

energy. Again, the predictive ability of

this relationship is poor and should

also be considered a tendency. For

both striking velocity and energy, the

confounding factors appear to be

design of the bullet and strength of the

bullet materials.

There is no well-defined distinction

between combinations of weapon and

ammunition that are adequate or inadequate for protection against bears.

The final decision on adequacy must

be made by each individual and should

include consideration of weapon size

and weight, recoil, and the person’s

experience with firearms. Our data can,

however, be used as a general guide to

the effectiveness of the weapons and

ammunition tested. A rifle in .375 H & H

Magnum caliber in the hands of a

person who can comfortably tolerate

the recoil is a much better choice than

a .30-06 or comparable caliber. A .30-

06 with 220-gr bullets, however, might

be a better choice for a person sensitive to recoil, who may shoot the lighter

caliber weapons with more confidence

and accuracy.

Based on our tests, four cartridge-bullet

combinations appear superior for protection against bears:

* .458 Winchester Magnum, 510-gr

soft-point bullet. For a shooter who can

handle the recoil of this cartridge, a

bolt-action rifle in .458 Winchester

Magnum is the surest weapon available.

* .375 H & H Magnum, 300-gr softpoint bullet. The recoil of a rifle in this

caliber, although considerably less

than that of the .458 Magnum, is still

severe for many people. Our tests indicate that the 270-gr soft-point bullet in

this caliber is only slightly less effective

than the 300-gr bullet and has only

slightly less recoil.

* .338 Winchester Magnum, 300-gr

bullet. This combination appears to be

a good choice. Recoil is somewhat less

than that of the .375 Magnum, and our

tests indicated that effectiveness would

not be much less than that of the .375

Magnum. If the 300-gr bullet cannot be

obtained, the 200-gr bullet should be

used

 .30-06, 220-gr bullet. Mild recoil,

compared with that of the large- and

medium-bore cartridges, even in a

lightweight rifle, makes this cartridge a

strong contender for shooters who are

sensitive to recoil. The .30-06 also has
Design and Use of Rifles for

Protection Against Bears

other advantages. It can be found in

several rifle actions - bolt, pump

(slide), semiautomatic - and can be

obtained as, or customized into, a

short, handy, lightweight weapon.

Our tests of the performance of bullets

at short range were conducted by

shooting into a uniform test medium,

not into brown bears. The medium did

not have a thick, wet coat of hair; thick,

resilient skin; dense muscle tissue; or

heavy bones; and it was not angry and

excited. Consequently, the validity of

the tests may not be directly applicable

to a real situation involving a bear.

Nevertheless, we believe the tests were

a good relative evaluation of bullets

shot at short range and can be used to

compare different cartridges and bullets Two major points can be inferred

from our tests: (1) none of the many

different types of bullets tested was

completely adequate, and (2) high

striking velocities may not be particularly beneficial at short range. The

best results were from bullets relatively

heavy for their caliber fired at moderate

velocity. Many experienced people

have also observed this: we have verified their observations under controlled

conditions.

The high-intensity cartridges needed

for protection against bears require the

use of strong breech mechanisms. The

strongest and simplest breech mechanism in a repeating rifle is the bolt

action.6 This section will apply to rifles

with that type of action, although many

of the comments on stock design,

sights, and so forth also apply to rifles

with other types of actions.

Several models of bolt-action rifles are

available. Of those made in the United

States, the Savage Model 110, the

Ruger Model 77, the Remington Model

700, and the Winchester Model 70 are

the best known. All are turn-bolt operated, magazine fed, and have welldesigned trigger mechanisms and

safeties. The Savage Model 110 and the

Remington Model 700 are available with

left-handed actions, but commonly only

in .30-06 or smaller calibers. Lefthanded .458-, .375-, and .338-caliber

rifles might be available on special

order. All factory-supplied rifles require

modification to increase their suitability

for use against bears.

Our tests show fairly similar bullet

performance when the same cartridgebullet weight combination was fired in

long- and short-barreled rifles. Most

rifles using magnum cartridges have a

factory-supplied barrel 24 inches long.

These can be shortened to 20 inches

for increased portability, with little loss

in ballistic performance at short range.

This job must be done by a competent

gunsmith because the barrel should be

cut off in a lathe and the muzzle

reshaped (crowned) to insure

concentricity.

Cutting off the barrel also requires

remounting the ramp that holds the

front sight. The ramp should be

relocated so its forward end is about

three-quarters of an inch from the

muzzle. This provides sufficient room

to cover the muzzle with a small piece

of electrician’s tape and to secure this

with another piece of tape wrapped

around the barrel. Taping the end of

6 We do not recommend single-shot rifles

for protection from bears because of the

time necessary for a followup shot.

the barrel is a worthwhile safety precaution. Bullet performance is not

affected; when the rifle is fired, the

bullet merely passes through the tape.

The tape, however, will prevent any

foreign material (mud, duff, rotten

wood, vegetation, snow) from entering

the muzzle. If the muzzle becomes

plugged with this type of material and

the rifle is fired, the barrel may burst.

Under no circumstances should an

attempt be made to clear a plugged

barrel by shooting out the plug. The

proper way to clear a plugged barrel is

to push the plug out with a cleaning

rod. Makeshift cleaning rods, such as

slender sticks, will usually break off in

the barrel. If the plug is not too tight, it

may be dislodged by blowing into the

barrel - from the breech end is the

best way - or by sloshing the barrel in

a stream or pool of water. A couple of

small pieces of electrician’s tape over

the muzzle will eliminate the problem

of plugs. Taping the muzzle also keeps

water from running into the barrel and

consequently reduces the possibility of

rust.

Because there is almost no possibility

of a slung rifle being brought into

action during a short-distance confrontation, rifles carried in bear country

should not be permanently equipped

with slings. The sling should be

mounted on detachable swivels, and

should be removed when conditions

exist for a possible confrontation. The

forward sling swivel should be mounted

on the barrel about 4 inches in front of

the fore-end tip of the stock. This eliminates the possibility of injuring the

hand grasping the fore-end of the stock

when the rifle is fired, and reduces the

amount of barrel projecting over the

shoulder when the rifle is slung in the

barrel-upward position.

12
If the rifle must be carried by a sling, a

barrel-downward position is preferable.

The rifle should be slung on the

shoulder opposite that from which it is

normally fired. A rifle carried in this

position can be brought to the firing

position by lifting it upward and forward while twisting the wrist so the

palm of the hand is up. This is a fast

method of getting a slung rifle into

firing position. It requires only one

hand and can be accomplished in a

smooth, coordinated manner with a

little practice. In bear country, however.

the rifle should be carried unslung in a

ready position.

If a bolt-action rifle is used, the bolt

should be manipulated while the rifle is

in firing position. The rifle should not

be lowered from the shoulder to operate the bolt. Learning to operate the

bolt from the shoulder requires

practice, but the speed and accuracy of

subsequent shots are worth the effort.

Some modification of the bolt-action

rifle stock is also worthwhile, particularly the length of pull.7

 The pull of

factory-stocked rifles is usually too

long when the shooter is dressed for

the weather conditions of coastal

Alaska; a thick wool jacket under a

raincoat and backpack will effectively

lengthen the pull by more than an inch

and make it almost impossible to get

the rifle into firing position without

catching the butt below the shoulder.

This problem is increased by the

presence of the rubber recoil pads

mounted on almost all heavy-recoiling

rifles. A partial remedy is to shorten the

length of pull by cutting an inch or

more off the butt of the stock and

remounting the recoil pad. The degree

of shortening depends on the individual. The edges of the remounted

recoil pad should be rounded to further

minimize the possibility of the rifle’s

catching on garments or pack straps. A

shortened pull also aids in manipulating the bolt while the rifle is shouldered

in the firing position.

7

 Length of pull is the distance from the

trigger to the butt of the stock.

A further aid to proper bolt operation is

to shorten the fore-end of the stock so

the left hand (in the case of a righthanded shooter) can be placed around

the end of the fore-end rather than

along the sides. To do this requires that

the left arm be held almost straight out.

This is a pointing action and will

facilitate proper aiming. By placing the

left hand in this manner, the rifle can

be held firmly against the shoulder in

firing position, with the right hand

completely removed from the rifle. The

right hand can be freely used to

manipulate the bolt and fire the rifle

when a person is in this position.

Shooting a rifle when confronted by a

bear at close range is similar to

shooting a shotgun and has little

resemblance to precision marksmanship. The rifle is pointed rather than

aimed. This does not mean the sights

should be ignored because proper

placement of the bullet is paramount. A

large-aperture, hunting-style peep sight

is an excellent rear sight. The screw-in

disk normally provided should be

discarded; the remaining aperture can

be drilled to a larger diameter if

desired. The open, narrow-V or

notched rear sights on factory rifles

range from poor to very good. Open

rear sights are simple and sturdy;

however, in a stressful situation, the

front sight may not be held completely

into the bottom of the notch or V of the

rear sight. This causes the rifle to shoot

high. For this reason, a low-mounted,

simple peep sight may be better. The

front sight should be large and have a

bright bead or blade so it can be quickly

located in dim light, common to the

coastal forests of Alaska. The sights must

be adjusted to accommodate the user.

Almost all factory rifle stocks are designed for use with telescopic sights.

With peep or open sights, the stock

comb must be lowered so there is no

difficulty in locating the sights when

the rifle is in firing position. The cheekpiece found on almost all factorystocked rifles can be removed. It is

mostly an unnecessary cosmetic

addition.

Stock modifications must be tailored to

the user. This precludes the use of

“community” rifles. If possible, a rifle

should be issued to an individual and

the stock modified to fit. The individual

should be held responsible for the care

and maintenance of the rifle and should

be required to become proficient in its

operation. Several stocks of varying

dimensions might be kept on hand for

use by temporary employees.

The stock modifications listed above

are not major alterations and do not

require a gunsmith. They can be done

by anyone reasonably competent with

a few simple woodworking tools. The

altered stock should be refinished with

an oil or a synthetic finish.

The modifications should be done to all

rifles used for protection from bears. If

new rifles are to be purchased, it may

be better to buy them without stocks

and have fiberglass stocks fitted.

Several companies produce fiberglass

stocks with low combs for use with

open or receiver sights. Such stocks

are strong, lightweight, warpfree, and

impervious to water. They can be

broken, but not easily. They can be

fitted with recoil pads and studs to

accommodate detachable sling swivels.

They can also be finished in bright

colors, which could aid in finding a

misplaced or forgotten rifle or one

dropped overboard from a boat. A

minor annoyance related to a bright

stock might be its attraction for

hummingbirds and bees.

Newly ordered rifles should have the

metal finished by some process other

than hot-rust bluing. Parkerizing or

some other rust-resistant surface

treatment will not completely eliminate

rust but will slow it down. Rifles on

hand should also be given this type of

finish when the present bluing becomes badly worn or scratched. Rustproof-finished rifles still need regular

cleaning and maintenance.
Shooting Brown Bears

Rifle practice should be done throughout the field season. At the minimum,

at least one firing session a week

should be required. This session should

consist of firing at least one full

magazine load (three to five shots)

while manipulating the bolt from the

firing position. Multiple targets should

be used: the first at about 20 yd; the

second at 15 yd; and the third at 10 yd.

At least one shot should be fired at

each target, starting with the most

distant target and progressing to the

nearest target. To some extent, this will

simulate shooting at a charging bear.

Accuracy standards of one hit in an

8-inch target area on each of the three

targets should be sufficient. The rifle

should be fired as rapidly as possible,

consistent with good placement of the

bullet. The latter is more important

than rapidity of fire, particularly for the

first shot.

Points to be emphasized during practice sessions are:

l The uplift and recoil of the rifle can

aid in operating the bolt from the shooting position.

l The bolt must be withdrawn smartly

and completely to the rear of its travel

to insure ejection of the fired cartridge

case so the rifle will not be jammed by

a partially ejected cartridge case when

the bolt is moved forward into battery.

l The rifle should be held firmly against

the shoulder to minimize the recoil felt.

A good part of this will be done by the

left hand. The extended left arm also

absorbs some recoil.

l The shooter should aim the rifle with

both eyes open to insure good binocular vision and proper depth perception.

This may be difficult for inexperienced

persons but can be learned.

l The trigger should be squeezed, not

jerked. Modern triggers have a very

clean breaking release, and proper

trigger manipulation is not hard to

learn.

l Because it may not always be possible to bring the rifle to the shoulder to

fire it in a normal manner, some practice in “shooting from the hip” may be

beneficial. The rifle can be held at or

near waist level, pointed at a close (10

yd or less) target, and fired. If possible,

the stock should be clamped between

the arm and the side of the body.

Williams (1952) recommended practice

with this shooting position. One of our

colleagues was recently required to use

the “hip-shooting” position. The bear

fell 9 ft from him.

“Dry-firing” practice should be encouraged. The rifle can be moved from

a carrying position to the firing position

and aimed at rocks and stumps while

on the trail. Because the rifle will be

carried without a live cartridge in the

chamber, this does not constitute a

safety hazard.

The brown bear is an extremely interesting animal. Seeing a brown bear at

close range is one of the most exciting

outdoor experiences a person can

have. A mutual withdrawal is the

preferred outcome, but this may not

always be possible.

The thought of killing a brown bear (or

any other wild animal) is repugnant to

many people. Whether or not a person

will shoot is a personal decision and

one that may have to be made quickly.

When shooting a bear, the shooter

assumes the responsibility of making a

quick and clean kill. There should be

no desire to hurt or harm the bear, only

to avoid being hurt or harmed oneself.

To kill properly, a person needs a knowledge of the anatomy of bears and their

reactions after being shot. This information is beyond the scope of this

paper, but illustrations of the location

of vital organs and bones, as well as

written accounts of reactions by bears

after being shot, are available (Adams

1976, O’Connor and Goodwin 1961,

van Veenen 1975). These should be

carefully studied.

Another consideration is that more

than one bear may be encountered.

Brown bear sows keep their cubs with

them for two seasons. A 2-year-old

brown bear “cub” is a large bear. Two

cubs are not uncommon for brown

bears, and triplets and even quadruplets are known to occur.

The most important shot is the first

one. If not properly placed, it may also

be the last shot fired. If a bear goes

down on the first shot, continue to

shoot. Do not stop to observe the

effects of the shots but continue to aim

at vital areas and shoot until the bear

stays down and is still. When the bear

has stopped moving, reload, work your

way around behind the animal, staying

as far away as practical and possible,

and shoot again into the brain or spine.

Make sure the bear is dead. If the bear

is still active and the rifle is empty, try

to avoid the bear, reload, and continue

to try to kill it.

1 4
A bear that is hit and flees is extremely

dangerous. An unwounded bear can be

a dangerous animal, but a wounded

bear is a dangerous animal. The

wounded bear is dangerous not only to

the person who wounded it, but also to

others. The shooter has a moral responsibility to find and kill the wounded

bear. Following a wounded brown bear

in the dense, poorly lighted forest of

coastal Alaska is an experience most

would like to avoid.

Although the State of Alaska allows

bears or other wild animals to be killed

to protect life or property, the dead

bear is the property of the State (see

appendix). The hide, with feet attached,

and the skull must be removed and

turned over to the Alaska Department

of Fish and Game, or the shooter is

liable to prosecution and fines. The

Department will investigate the kill to

determine if a real necessity existed.

No part of the bear may be kept.

Firing a warning shot to scare the bear

so it will move away has been advocated

in print and has been done with success.

It may, however, only antagonize the

bear and precipitate a charge, or the

bear may move away and come back

later or from another direction. Again,

firing a warning shot is a personal

decision; however, a warning shot

means there is one less cartridge in the

rifle. If a warning shot is fired, another

cartridge should be chambered immediately and the magazine reloaded as

soon as possible.

The preceding discussion has addressed the final stage of a potentially lethal

confrontation between bear and human.

In many instances, the ultimate confrontation may be avoided by commonsense precautionary measures:

l Select campsites carefully. Do not

pitch a tent in the middle of a well-used

bear trail or in a location obviously

frequented by bears.

l Keep food out of reach of bears and

some distance from camp even when

staying in a cabin.

l Precautions for garbage disposal are

the same as for food. Do not leave

garbage in or close to the camp.

l When walking through bear country,

particularly along salmon streams in

late summer and early fall, let your presence be known. Keep up a conversation

with a companion, or with yourself if

alone. A normal or slightly louder tone

of voice will usually alert bears to your

presence. Some people go a step

farther and use noisemaking devices

such as bells, whistles, or rocks in a

can. This may be a good procedure,

but one of the authors has, on two

occasions, observed bears that were

apparently fascinated by the bellringing routine and waited attentively

until the noisemakers were in sight

(about 30 yd in both instances) before

ambling off into the brush. Bears may

be attracted to the deer call commonly

used in southeast Alaska.

l Be very cautious if a dead animal

(deer, moose, bear) is encountered.

Bears frequently find a carcass (sometimes in an amazingly short time) and

take possession. When packing meat

- birds or small game as well as big

game - be particularly alert. Try to

stay in the open as much as possible,

keep a firearm in a ready position, and

check your backtrail frequently. If you

see a bear obviously homing in on you

and you cannot outmaneuver it, you

might leave some or all of your load of

meat.

l Sows with cubs are particularly

aggressive; do not get between them.

Bears that are feeding are also more

apt to react unfavorably, so give them

an especially wide berth.

* A subject of much debate, perhaps

second only to the choice of firearm for

protection from bears, is the matter of

personal hygiene in bear country. What

response human odor triggers in a bear

may never be known, but reasonable

cleanliness is advisable. Women should

be aware that changes in body odor

during menstruation can be a problem.

Bears want to be left in peace as much

as, or more than, humans do. Every

once in a while, however, a bear just

becomes mean. It may have suffered

an injury and be in pain, or it may be

old and crotchety, or for any number of

reasons it may become aggressive.

Then, all your precautions may be

useless, and this is the time when you

need that thorough familiarization and

confidence in yourself and in your

weapon.

1 5
Literature Cited Appendix

Adams, Chuck. Big game anatomy. Alaskan

brown bear. Hunting. 3(5): 52-53; 1976.

The following is reproduced from “Alaska Hunting Regulations No. 23,”

published by Alaska Board of Game, Alaska Department of Fish and Game:

Hagel, Bob. Game loads and practical

ballistics for the American hunter. New

York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf; 1978. 315 p.

Hatcher, Julian S. Hatcher’s notebook.

Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Co.; rev. 1962.

640 p.

Mannes, Phil. Rifle recoil. Rifle. 74: 40-43;

1981.

O’Connor, Jack; Goodwin, George G. The

big game animals of North America.

New York, NY: E.P. Dutton & Co.; 1961.

264 p.

van Veenen, Erik. Bear shot placement.

Anchorage, AK: Alaska Department of

Fish and Game. Hunter Education: 1975

1 p. (poster).

Williams, Jay. Alaskan adventure. Harrisburg,

PA: Stackpole Co.; 1952. 299 p.

5 AAC 81.375. TAKING GAME IN DEFENSE OF LIFE OR PROPERTY. (a)

Nothing in this chapter prohibits a person from taking game in defense of life or

property provided that:

(1) The necessity for the taking is not brought about by harassment or

provocation of the animal or an unreasonable invasion of the animal’s habitat;

(2) The necessity for taking is not brought about by the improper

disposal of garbage or a similar attractive nuisance: and

(3) All other practicable means to protect life and property are exhausted

before the game is taken.

(b) Game taken in defense of life or property is the property of the state.

Persons taking such game are required to salvage immediately the meat, or in the case

of black bear. wolf, wolverine and coyote. the hide must be salvaged and immediately

surrendered to the state In the case of brown, grizzly or polar bear, the hide and

skull must be salvaged and surrendered to the state immediately. The department

must be notified of such taking immediately and a written report giving the

circumstances of the taking of game in defense of life or property must be made to

the department within 15 days of such taking.

(c) As used in this section, “Properly” is limited to:

(I) dwelling, whether permanent or temporary;

(2) aircraft. boats. automobiles. or other means of conveyance;

(3) domesticated animals; and

(4) other property of substantial value necessary for the livelihood or

survival of the owner.

*U.S, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1989 - 69l-133/82074
Meehan, William FL; Thilenius, John F. Safety in bear country: protective measures and

bullet performance at short range. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-152. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range

Experiment Station; 1983.16 p.

Bears are frequently encountered by people working in or enjoying the outdoors. Some

government agencies have regulations concerning the firearms their personnel carry for

protection against bears.

Guidelines to prevent hazardous encounters with bears are presented, and the performance of commonly used weapons and ammunition is discussed. The ballistic performance

of bullets at short range is often considerably different from performance of the same bullet

at the longer ranges generally encountered while hunting.

Recommendations are made for weapons and ammunition used as protection from bears.

Keywords: Safety, safety equipment, bears, ballistics, Alaska.
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use management of the Nation’s forest resources

for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife,

and recreation. Through forestry research,

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and National Grasslands, it strives - as directed by

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