APPENDIX A

BACKGROUND ON THE CLEAN WATER ACT AND 

EFFLUENT GUIDELINES PROGRAM
Appendix A

A-1

APPENDIX A

BACKGROUND ON THE CLEAN WATER ACT 

AND EFFLUENT GUIDELINES PROGRAM

This appendix provides information on the Clean Water Act (CWA) and an explanation 

of different levels of controls for effluent limitations guidelines and standards (ELGs).

A.1 Effluent Limitation Guidelines and Pretreatment Standards Overview

The effluent guidelines program is one component of the Nation’s clean water program, 

established by the 1972 Clean Water Act and subsequent amendments. The effluent guidelines

program is authorized under Sections 301, 304, 306, and 307, 33 U.S.C. §§ 1311, 1314, 1316, 

1317. In summary, the CWA directs EPA to promulgate categorical regulations through six 

levels of control: 

1. Best practicable control technology currently available (BPT)

2. Best available technology economically achievable (BAT)

3. Best conventional control technology (BCT)

4. New source performance standards (NSPS)

5. Pretreatment standards for existing sources (PSES)

6. Pretreatment standards for new sources (PSNS)

For point sources that discharge pollutants directly into surface waters (direct 

dischargers), the limitations and standards promulgated by EPA are implemented through 

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits. See CWA Sections 301(a), 

301(b), 402; 33 U.S.C. §§ 1311(a), 1311(b), 1342. For sources that discharge to POTWs 

(indirect dischargers), EPA promulgates pretreatment standards that apply directly to those 

sources and are enforced by POTWs and state and federal authorities. See CWA Sections 307(b),

(c); 33 U.S.C. § 1317(b), (c). Figure A-1 illustrates the relationship between the regulation of 

direct and indirect dischargers.
Appendix A

A-2

Figure A-1. Regulations of Direct and Indirect Wastewater Discharges 

A.2 Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available (BPT) — CWA Sections 

301(b)(1)(A) and 304(b)(1)

EPA develops effluent limitations based on BPT for conventional, toxic, and 

nonconventional pollutants. CWA Section 304(a)(4) designates the following as conventional 

pollutants: biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), total suspended solids, fecal coliform, pH, and 

any additional pollutants defined by the Administrator as conventional. The Administrator 

designated oil and grease as an additional conventional pollutant on July 30, 1979 (see 44 FR 

44501). EPA has identified 65 pollutants and classes of pollutants as toxic pollutants, of which 

126 specific substances have been designated priority toxic pollutants. See Appendix A to Part 

423, reprinted after 40 CFR Part 423.17. All other pollutants are considered to be 

nonconventional.

In specifying BPT, EPA looks at a number of factors. EPA first considers the total cost of 

applying the control technology in relation to the effluent reduction benefits. The Agency also 

considers the age of the equipment and facilities, the processes employed and any required 

process changes, engineering aspects of the control technologies, non-water-quality 

environmental impacts (including energy requirements), and such other factors the EPA 

Administrator deems appropriate. See CWA Section 304(b)(1)(B). Traditionally, EPA 

establishes BPT effluent limitations based on the average of the best performances of facilities 

within the industry of various ages, sizes, processes, or other common characteristics. Where 

existing performance is uniformly inadequate, BPT may reflect higher levels of control than 

currently in place in an industrial category if the Agency determines that the technology can be 

applied practically.

NSPS

• Conventional Pollutants

• Nonconventional Pollutants

• Priority Pollutants (Toxics)

BPT

• Conventional Pollutants

• Nonconventional Pollutants

• Priority Pollutants (Toxics)

BCT

• Conventional Pollutants

BAT

• Nonconventional Pollutants

• Priority Pollutants (Toxics)

New 

Sources

Existing 

Sources

Direct Dischargers

PSNS

• Nonconventional Pollutants

• Priority Pollutants (Toxics)

PSES

• Nonconventional Pollutants

• Priority Pollutants (Toxics)

Indirect Dischargers
Appendix A

A-3

A.3 Best Conventional Control Technology (BCT) — CWA Sections 301(b)(2)(E) and 

304(b)(4)

The 1977 amendments to the CWA required EPA to identify effluent reduction levels for 

conventional pollutants associated with BCT for discharges from existing industrial point 

sources. In addition to the other factors specified in Section 304(b)(4)(B), the CWA requires that 

EPA establish BCT limitations after consideration of a two-part “cost-reasonableness” test. EPA 

explained its methodology for the development of BCT limitations in 1986 (see 51 FR 24974, 

July 9, 1986).

A.4 Best Available Control Technology Economically Achievable (BAT) — CWA 

Sections 301(b)(2)(A) and 304(b)(2)

For toxic pollutants and nonconventional pollutants, EPA promulgates effluent guidelines 

based on BAT. See CWA Sections 301(b)(2)(A), (C), (D), and (F). The factors considered in 

assessing BAT include the cost of achieving BAT effluent reductions, the age of equipment and 

facilities involved, the process employed, potential process changes, non-water-quality 

environmental impacts (including energy requirements), and such other factors the EPA 

Administrator deems appropriate. See CWA Section 304(b)(2)(B). The technology must also be 

economically achievable; see CWA Section 301(b)(2)(A). In addition to end-of-pipe wastewater 

treatment, BAT limitations may be based on effluent reductions attainable through changes in a 

facility’s processes and operations. Where existing performance is uniformly inadequate, BAT 

may reflect a higher level of performance than is currently being achieved within a particular 

subcategory based on technology transferred from a different subcategory or category. BAT may 

be based upon process changes or internal controls, even when these technologies are not 

common industry practice.

A.5 New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) — CWA Section 306 

NSPS reflect effluent reductions that are achievable based on the best available 

demonstrated control technology. New sources have the opportunity to install the best and most 

efficient production processes and wastewater treatment technologies. As a result, NSPS should 

represent the most stringent controls attainable through the application of the best available 

demonstrated control technology for all pollutants (i.e., conventional, nonconventional, and 

priority pollutants). In establishing NSPS, EPA takes into consideration the cost of achieving the 

effluent reduction and any non-water-quality environmental impacts and energy requirements.

See CWA section 306(b)(1)(B).

A.6 Pretreatment Standards for Existing Sources (PSES) — CWA Section 307(b)

PSES apply to indirect dischargers and are designed to prevent the discharge of pollutants 

that pass through, interfere with, or are otherwise incompatible with the operation of POTWs, 

including wastewater conveyance and sludge disposal. Pretreatment standards are technologybased and are analogous to BAT effluent limitations guidelines. See CWA section 301(b)(1)(A).

The General Pretreatment Regulations, which set forth the framework for implementing 

national pretreatment standards, are found at 40 CFR Part 403.
Appendix A

A-4

A.7 Pretreatment Standards for New Sources (PSNS) — CWA Section 307(c)

Like PSES, PSNS apply to indirect dischargers and are designed to prevent the 

discharges of pollutants that pass through, interfere with, or are otherwise incompatible with the 

operation of POTWs. PSNS are to be issued at the same time as NSPS. See CWA Section 

307(c). New indirect dischargers have the opportunity to incorporate into their plants the best 

available demonstrated technologies. The Agency considers the same factors in promulgating 

PSNS as it considers in promulgating NSPS.
APPENDIX B

EVALUATING DATA QUALITY OF SOURCES SUPPORTING 

THE 2014 ANNUAL REVIEW REPORT
Appendix B

B-1

APPENDIX B

EVALUATING DATA QUALITY OF SOURCES 

SUPPORTING THE 2014 ANNUAL REVIEW REPORT

B.1 Background

For the 2014 Annual Review, EPA continued its review of three industrial categories that 

it identified as warranting additional review in the Final 2012 and Preliminary 2014 Plan 

Effluent Guidelines Program Plans (79 FR 55472). Specifically, EPA continued its preliminary 

review of the Metal Finishing Category (40 CFR Part 433); conducted a targeted review of 

pesticide active ingredients (PAIs) for which the discharge from manufacturing is not currently 

regulated under the Pesticide Chemicals Manufacturing ELGs (40 CFR Part 455); and continued 

evaluating the use of wet air pollution controls within the brick and structural clay products 

manufacturing industry as a new potential source of industrial wastewater discharge. EPA also 

initiated an investigation of the manufacture and processing of engineered nanomaterials 

(ENMs) as a new potential source of industrial wastewater discharge, and continued its review of 

industrial wastewater treatment technology data for the Industrial Wastewater Treatment 

Technology (IWTT) Database.

EPA’s goals for these reviews were to identify new wastewater discharges or pollutants 

not previously regulated and to identify wastewater discharges that can be eliminated or treated 

more effectively. For more information on the methodology for EPA’s 2014 Annual Review, see 

Part II (EPA’s 2014 Annual Review Methodology and Analyses) of this report. 

EPA collected data, evaluated its usefulness for meeting these goals, and documented the 

usability and quality of the data from the categories of sources used to support these analyses. 

This appendix describes EPA’s evaluation of the types of data cited in this 2014 Annual Review 

Report.

To evaluate data usability, EPA followed the specifications presented in two Quality 

Assurance Project Plans (QAPPs): 

1. Environmental Engineering Support for Clean Water Regulations Programmatic 

Quality Assurance Project Plan (PQAPP) (ERG, 2013a).

2. Supplemental Quality Assurance and Control Plan for the Development and 

Population of the Industrial Wastewater Treatment Technology Database (ERG, 

2013b).

In addition to the categories of sources listed in Section B.2 below, during the 2014 

Annual Review, EPA used Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) data and discharge monitoring report 

(DMR) data downloaded from the DMR Pollutant Loading Tool. EPA documents the quality 

assurance and criteria of DMR and TRI data in the Revised Quality Assurance Project Plan for 

the 2009 Annual Screening-Level Analysis of TRI, ICIS-NPDES, and PCS Industrial Category 

Discharge Data (ERG, 2009). EPA has documented the quality assurance and criteria of the 

DMR Pollutant Loading Tool in Section 5 of the Technical Users Background Document for the 

Discharge Monitoring Report (DMR) Pollutant Loading Tool (U.S. EPA, 2012).
Appendix B

B-2

The following sections provide information on the data sources for the 2014 Annual 

Review, and an evaluation of the data quality for each data source identified and used in the 2014 

Annual Review.

B.2 Data Sources

EPA used the following categories of sources to characterize wastewater discharges 

during the 2014 Annual Review:

• Data and information from academic researchers (non-published).

• Conference proceedings, peer-reviewed journals, industry-specific organization 

literature.

• EPA, state, and local government information provided in telephone calls and 

email correspondence.

• Federal, state, and local government publications.

• Data and information obtained from industry.

• Information obtained from the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI).

• Other association data and information.

• Data and information obtained from trade association contacts.

• U.S. Economic Census data.

B.3 Data Quality Criteria

EPA used existing data to support analyses of the potential impact of industrial 

discharges on the environment. EPA obtained the existing data from publications and databases 

available from other EPA offices, directly from industry and regulators, and through online 

sources. EPA considered the accuracy, reliability, and representativeness of data sources to 

assess their usability for the 2014 Annual Review, as described in Section 4.3.1 of the 

Environmental Engineering Support for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP (ERG, 2013a) and as 

expanded upon below. EPA also referenced Table 4-2 in the Environmental Engineering Support 

for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP to determine that the sources provided information 

sufficiently accurate and reliable for use in the 2014 Annual Review (ERG, 2013a). 

Accuracy. EPA assumed that the data and information contained in and supporting state 

and federal reports, selected conference proceedings, peer-reviewed journal articles, and 

information obtained directly from federal, state, or local government organizations were 

sufficiently accurate to support the characterization of industries, wastestreams, and the 

performance of specified treatment technologies. EPA also considered certain non-peer-reviewed 

industry publications. The accuracy of data and information reported in these sources is 

potentially less certain than that in peer-reviewed literature, but provided useful information for

qualitative characterization of specific industrial discharges.

Reliability. EPA also evaluated the reliability of collected existing data and information

for use in qualitative analyses, using the following criteria:

1. The scientific work is clearly written, so that all assumptions and methodologies 

can be identified.
Appendix B

B-3

2. The variability and uncertainty (quantitative and qualitative) in the information or 

in the procedures, measures, methods, or models are evaluated and characterized.

3. The assumptions and methodologies are consistently applied throughout the 

analysis as reported in the source.

4. Wastestreams, parameters, units, and detection limits (when appropriate) are 

clearly characterized.

EPA considered data sources that met these criteria sufficiently reliable to support the 

characterization of industries, wastestreams, and the performance of specified treatment 

technologies. 

Representativeness. EPA evaluated existing data and information for use in qualitative 

analyses based on whether the data provide a national perspective and are relevant to and 

representative of the industry to which the data are applied, using the following criteria:

• Relevance: The data source is relevant to the industry or pollutant group of 

interest (e.g., the industry description or Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) 

and North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) codes provided in 

the data source, when available, matches the industry or pollutant group of 

interest; the wastewater treatment technology is appropriate for the 

wastestream(s) generated at the facility).

• National applicability: The data can be applied broadly to provide a national

perspective relative to the industry or pollutant group of interest (e.g., are the data 

characteristic of the industry or pollutant group as a whole; can the treatment 

technology be applied generally to the treatment of wastewater(s) from the 

industry?).

EPA considered data sources that met these criteria sufficiently representative to support 

the characterization of industries, wastestreams, and the performance of specified treatment 

technologies. 

EPA considered more detailed quality criteria specific to EPA’s development of the 

Industrial Wastewater Treatment Technology (IWTT) Database. These criteria are described in 

the Supplemental Quality Assurance and Control Plan for the Development and Population of 

the Industrial Wastewater Treatment Technology Database (ERG, 2013b).

B.4 Evaluating Data Quality

This section describes the sources and how they met the evaluation criteria listed above. 

Table B-1 at the end of this section details the criteria applied and the conclusions reached on 

each data source.

B.4.1 Academic Research (Non-published)

EPA obtained data and information from academic researchers, including information on 

current research at U.S. universities related to the impact of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) 
Appendix B

B-4

on human health and the environment, and the application of new metal finishing processes and 

chemistries. EPA considers non-published academic research data or information provided in 

informal communications to be anecdotal. However, using the data quality criteria established in 

the Environmental Engineering Support for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP (ERG, 2013a), 

EPA determined that the researchers were national experts in their respective fields and that the 

information they provided was therefore sufficiently accurate, reliable, and representative for 

identifying industrial sector trends and enhancing EPA’s understanding of the potential 

environmental impacts of industrial wastewater discharges. 

B.4.2 Conference Proceedings, Peer-reviewed Journals, Industry-specific Organization 

Literature

EPA reviewed selected conference proceedings, peer-reviewed journals, and industryspecific organization literature in support of its continued review of the metal finishing category 

and its initial evaluation of ENMs in industrial wastewater. EPA applied the data quality criteria 

established in the Environmental Engineering Support for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP

(ERG, 2013a) and determined that the data and information obtained from national conference 

proceedings, peer-reviewed journals, and industry-specific organization literature were 

sufficiently accurate, reliable, and representative for characterizing industry operations, 

wastewater discharge practices, and a range of available treatment technologies. In some 

instances, EPA considered certain non-peer-reviewed industry publications. Using the data 

quality criteria established in the Environmental Engineering Support for Clean Water 

Regulations PQAPP (ERG, 2013a) EPA determined that the data supporting these sources are of 

less certain accuracy than data supporting peer-reviewed literature. However, EPA determined 

that the information met the reliability and representativeness criteria and was therefore useful 

for capturing the full range of environmental impacts and available treatment technologies 

associated with pollutants resulting from metal finishing processes and ENMs in industrial 

wastewater discharges.

EPA is also collecting, reviewing, and compiling data on the performance of new or 

improved wastewater treatment technologies into a searchable Industrial Wastewater Treatment 

Technology (IWTT) Database. EPA obtained this industrial wastewater treatment technology 

data from conference proceedings, water-related journals, and literature from industry-specific 

organizations. For more information on EPA’s efforts to ensure that the data sources included in 

the IWTT database meet the data quality criteria, see the methodology documented in the 

Supplemental Quality Assurance and Control Plan for the Development and Population of the 

Industrial Wastewater Treatment Technology Database (ERG, 2013b).

B.4.3 EPA, State, and Local Government Information

As part of the 304(m) process, EPA’s Engineering and Analysis Division collected 

information from EPA Regional and Headquarters offices, as well as state and local government 

representatives, though telephone calls and email correspondence. EPA considers information 

provided from such informal communications to be anecdotal, but useful for qualitative 

descriptions, such as general information on industrial sector trends, characterization of 

industrial wastewater discharges, and available industrial wastewater treatment technologies. 

From discussions with government representatives, EPA often obtained published information; 

however, EPA separately evaluated the quality of this published information against the criteria 
Appendix B

B-5

established in the Environmental Engineering Support for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP

(ERG, 2013a) (see Federal, State, and Local Government Publications below).

B.4.4 Federal, State, and Local Government Publications

EPA reviewed federal, state, and local government publications, including regulations, 

reports, and supporting documentation. EPA used these publications to enhance its 

understanding of the impact of existing government programs and regulations on the industry or 

the pollutant group of interest. Using the criteria established in the Environmental Engineering 

Support for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP (ERG, 2013a), EPA determined that data and 

information provided in government publications is sufficiently accurate, reliable, and could be 

applied nationally to characterize the particular industry or pollutant group of interest. For 

example, EPA determined that the information provided by the Alabama Department of 

Environmental Management could be applied nationally to represent the brick and structural clay 

products manufacturing sector, because a majority of the brick and structural clay product 

manufacturers reporting DMR data in 2009 were located in Alabama.

B.4.5 Industry Information

EPA obtained information from specific company websites, such as descriptions of 

facility operations, including, for example, the types of products they produce and the longevity 

of business operations. EPA applied the criteria established in the Environmental Engineering 

Support for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP (ERG, 2013a)and determined this information was 

sufficiently accurate, reliable, and representative of the facilities of interest to use for 

characterizing facility-specific operations. EPA did not apply specific company information to 

characterize the industry as a whole. 

B.4.6 National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI)

The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) is a collaborative, interagency U.S. 

government research and development initiative. The NNI provides a framework for individual 

and cooperative nanotechnology-related activities for 20 federal department and agency units, 

including EPA, representing a range of research and regulatory roles and responsibilities. EPA 

reviewed information from the NNI, including its 2014 Strategic Plan, to understand how the 

organization’s efforts will help fill critical data gaps related to characterizing and quantifying the

impacts of ENMs in industrial wastewater. EPA applied the criteria established in the 

Environmental Engineering Support for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP (ERG, 2013a)and 

determined that information from the NNI was sufficiently accurate, reliable, and representative 

to use for identifying industrial sector trends and characterizing the environmental impact of 

ENMs in industrial wastewater discharge.

B.4.7 Other Association Data and Information

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the 

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars are international institutions that conduct 

research and address public policy issues. EPA reviewed reports, databases, and supporting 

documentation prepared by these institutions about ENMs. EPA evaluated the quality of these 

data sources using the criteria established in the Environmental Engineering Support for Clean 

Water Regulations PQAPP (ERG, 2013a). EPA determined that the reports are clearly written 
Appendix B

B-6

and document methodologies and assumptions. EPA concluded that the supporting data 

presented in the reports were sufficiently accurate, reliable, and representative to use for 

evaluating the current status of test method development and ENM characterization techniques. 

B.4.8 Trade Association Data and Information

EPA obtained information from one national trade association to support the 2014 

Annual Review, the Brick Industry Association. The Brick Industry Association provided 

information on the prevalence of wet air pollution controls within the brick and structural clay 

products manufacturing industry. EPA determined, using criteria set in the Environmental 

Engineering Support for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP (ERG, 2013a), that this information 

was sufficiently accurate, reliable, and representative to use for characterizing wastewater 

discharge practices and industry operations.

B.4.9 U.S. Economic Census Data

EPA used U.S. Economic Census data associated with specific Standard Industrial 

Classification (SIC) and North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) codes to 

identify the number of brick and structural clay products manufacturing and metal finishing 

facilities in the U.S. U.S Economic Census data are published and maintained by the federal 

government using clear and documented methodologies. They provide a national accounting of 

establishments in the U.S. by various sectors; therefore, applying the criteria established in the 

Environmental Engineering Support for Clean Water Regulations PQAPP (ERG, 2013a), EPA 

determined that the data were sufficiently accurate, reliable, and representative to use for 

providing industry profile information. 

B.5 References for Quality Assurance Activities Supporting the 2014 Annual Review 

Report

1. ERG. 2009. Eastern Research Group, Inc. Revised Quality Assurance Project Plan 

for the 2009 Annual Screening-Level Analysis of TRI, ICIS-NPDES, and PCS 

Industrial Category Discharge Data. Chantilly, VA. (September). EPA-HQ-OW2008-0517-0507. 

2. ERG. 2013a. Eastern Research Group, Inc. Environmental Engineering Support 

for Clean Water Regulations Programmatic Quality Assurance Project Plan 

(PQAPP). Chantilly, VA. (May). EPA-HQ-OW-2010-0824-0229.

3. ERG. 2013b. Eastern Research Group, Inc. Supplemental Quality Assurance and 

Control Plan for the Development and Population of the Industrial Wastewater 

Treatment Technology Database. Chantilly, VA. (November 22). EPA-HQ-OW2010-0824-0263..

4. U.S. EPA. 2012. Technical Users Background Document for the Discharge 

Monitoring Report (DMR) Pollutant Loading Tool. Version 1.0. Washington, 

D.C. (January). Available online at: 

http://cfpub.epa.gov/dmr/docs/Technical_Users_Background_Doc.pdf. EPA-HQOW-2014-0170-0058.
Appendix B

B-7

Table B-1. Data Sources Supporting 2014 Annual Review Analyses

Data Source

Data Quality Criteria

Accuracy and Reliability Representativeness Conclusions on Usability

Academic Research 

(Non-Published)

Academic researchers provided information on current 

research at U.S. universities related to the impact of 

engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) on human health and 

the environment and the application of new metal 

finishing processes and chemistries. EPA considers nonpublished academic research data or information provided 

in informal communications to be anecdotal, but 

determined the information is sufficiently accurate and 

reliable to use for identifying industry sector trends and 

enhancing EPA’s understanding of the potential 

environmental impacts of industrial wastewater 

discharges. EPA requests published information to support 

information provided in informal communications, when 

available.

Academic researchers provided perspective on 

the general application of their current 

research. EPA determined this information 

could be applied nationally to the relevant 

industry sectors or pollutants of interest.

Data are sufficiently accurate, 

reliable, and representative to 

use for providing general 

information on industrial sector 

trends, and to facilitate EPA’s 

understanding of the potential 

environmental impacts of 

industrial wastewater 

discharges. 

EPA evaluates the quality of 

published data from academic 

research separately (see 

Conference Proceedings, PeerReviewed Journals, and 

Industry-Specific Organization 

Literature, below).
Appendix B

B-8

Table B-1. Data Sources Supporting 2014 Annual Review Analyses

Data Source

Data Quality Criteria

Accuracy and Reliability Representativeness Conclusions on Usability

Conference Proceedings, 

Peer-Reviewed Journals, 

and Industry-Specific 

Organization Literature

Information is obtained from selected national conference 

proceedings, peer-reviewed journal articles and industryspecific organization literature. Industry-specific 

organization literature includes reports such as The Future 

of Finishing, a report written by Paul Chalmer of the 

National Center for Manufacturing Sciences that discusses 

recent trends in the surface finishing industry. All data 

sources are clearly written, document methodologies and 

assumptions, and where relevant, describe variability and 

uncertainty, and characterize wastestreams, parameters, 

units, and detection limits. EPA assumed these sources 

were sufficiently accurate and reliable to identify the 

range of potential risks and environmental impacts 

associated with industrial discharges and to characterize 

industry operations, wastewater discharge practices, and a 

range of available treatment technologies.

EPA determined that certain non-peer reviewed industry 

publications are of less certain accuracy than peerreviewed literature, but provided useful information for 

capturing the full range of environmental impacts 

associated with, and treatment technologies available for, 

pollutants resulting from metal finishing processes and 

ENMs in industrial wastewater discharges.

Data and information are relevant to the 

industry or pollutant group to which the data 

are applied. Data also provide general 

information about industrial sector trends (e.g., 

new process operations or chemistries), 

effectiveness of current or advances in 

industrial wastewater treatment, or the general 

impact of specific pollutants on human health 

and the environment. EPA determined this 

information could be applied nationally to the 

relevant sectors or pollutants of interest.

Data and information are 

sufficiently accurate, reliable, 

and representative, and 

therefore usable to identify the 

range of potential risks and 

environmental impacts 

associated with industrial 

discharges and to characterize 

industry operations, wastewater 

discharge practices, and a range 

of available treatment 

technologies. 
Appendix B

B-9

Table B-1. Data Sources Supporting 2014 Annual Review Analyses

Data Source

Data Quality Criteria

Accuracy and Reliability Representativeness Conclusions on Usability

EPA, State, and Local 

Government Information

EPA Regional and Headquarters offices, as well as state 

and local government representatives provided 

information on programs at the federal, state, and local 

levels through telephone calls and email correspondence. 

Historic and policy information about government 

programs is considered representative of the programs 

only. For non-published material provided from informal 

communication, EPA considers the information 

sufficiently accurate and reliable for qualitative 

descriptions, but anecdotal. EPA requested published or 

written information to support information provided from 

informal communication, when available.

Information obtained from government 

officials is considered representative of 

government programs. 

Federal, state, and local 

representatives may provide 

program information that 

guides EPA research. EPA 

considers the information 

anecdotal, but useful for 

providing general information 

to identify industrial sector 

trends and characterize 

industrial wastewater 

discharges. 

EPA evaluates the quality of 

any published documents from 

federal, state, or local 

governments separately (see 

Federal, State, and Local 

Government Publications, 

below).

Federal, State, Local 

Government 

Publications

EPA assumes that all data provided in federal, state, or 

local government reports and regulations are sufficiently 

accurate and reliable. 

All reports, regulations, and supporting documentation are 

clearly written and document methodologies and 

assumptions. 

All reports, regulations and supporting 

documentation provide a national perspective 

related to the industry to which the data are 

applied. EPA verified the representativeness of 

the data to the industrial sectors of interest 

using industry descriptions, or when available, 

applicable SIC or NAICS codes provided in 

the supporting documentation.

EPA evaluated the representativeness of all 

federal, state and local government data to 

determine if they could be applied nationally to 

characterize the particular industry or pollutant 

group of interest. 

Data are sufficiently accurate, 

reliable, and representative, and 

therefore usable to support 

industry and wastestream 

characterization, and to 

understand the impacts of the 

discharge of specific pollutants 

on human health and the 

environment. 
Appendix B

B-10

Table B-1. Data Sources Supporting 2014 Annual Review Analyses

Data Source

Data Quality Criteria

Accuracy and Reliability Representativeness Conclusions on Usability

Industry Information: 

Glen-Gery Brick 

Corporation and 

Interstate Brick

Information was obtained directly from facility websites 

and included information regarding the types of products 

produced and longevity of business operations. EPA 

determined this information was sufficiently accurate and 

reliable for characterizing facility-specific operations.

Data were obtained from facility websites and 

are therefore directly representative of the 

facilities of interest. EPA did not apply the 

information nationally to the industrial 

category; its analysis was specific to two brick 

and structural clay product manufacturing 

facilities identified as having wet air pollution 

controls.

Data are sufficiently accurate, 

reliable, and representative, and 

therefore usable for 

characterizing corresponding 

facility-specific operations. 

National 

Nanotechnology 

Initiative (NNI)

The NNI provides a framework for individual and 

cooperative nanotechnology-related activities for 20 

federal department and agency units. NNI disseminates 

information from peer-reviewed journals and government 

research and reports. EPA assumed that information 

obtained from the NNI was sufficiently accurate and 

reliable for identifying sector trends related to the 

production of ENMs and characterizing the potential 

environmental impact of ENMs in industrial wastewater 

discharge.

NNI is a U.S. government research and 

development initiative related to 

nanotechnology, therefore EPA assumed that 

the information obtained from NNI provided a 

national perspective relative to the 

characterization and potential environmental 

impacts of ENMs.

Data are sufficiently accurate, 

reliable, and representative, and 

therefore usable for identifying 

industrial sector trends and 

characterizing the 

environmental impact of ENMs 

in industrial wastewater 

discharge.

Other Association Data 

and Information:

Organization for 

Economic Co-Operation 

and Development 

(OECD), Woodrow 

Wilson International 

Center for Scholars

OECD and Woodrow Wilson International Center for 

Scholars are international institutions that conduct 

research and address public policy issues. Reports and 

programs are written and reviewed by researchers, 

government, industry and NGOs and are made publicly 

available through publications and over the internet. All 

reports, databases, and supporting documentation are 

clearly written and document methodologies and 

assumptions.

OECD is an international institution that 

publishes information on measurement and 

characterization standards for ENMs. Scientific 

methods serve as guidance based on the current 

state of research, therefore, EPA assumed the 

information provided a national perspective.

The Woodrow Wilson International Center for 

Scholars provides information on 

nanotechnology-based consumer products 

across the U.S. and internationally. The 

country of origin, and names of the companies 

and products are clearly identified; therefore, 

EPA assumed the information provided a 

national perspective on nanotechnology-based 

consumer products.

Data are sufficiently accurate, 

reliable, and representative, and 

therefore usable for 

characterizing industry trends 

and measurement standards for 

ENMs.
Appendix B

B-11

Table B-1. Data Sources Supporting 2014 Annual Review Analyses

Data Source

Data Quality Criteria

Accuracy and Reliability Representativeness Conclusions on Usability

Trade Association Data 

and Information: Brick 

Industry Association 

National trade associations representing the specific 

industry sectors of interest provided data on industrial 

wastewater discharge practices and industry operations. 

EPA determined that data provided by the Brick Industry 

Association were sufficiently accurate and reliable to use 

for characterizing wastewater discharge practices and 

industry operations.

Data are from national trade associations 

representing the industry sectors of interest; 

therefore, EPA determined the information 

provided could be applied nationally to 

characterize wastewater discharge practices 

and industry operations.

Data are sufficiently accurate, 

reliable, and representative, and 

therefore usable for 

characterizing wastewater 

discharge practices and industry 

operations. 

U.S. Economic Census 

Data

U.S. Economic Census data are published and maintained 

by the Federal Government using clear and documented 

methodologies and are therefore sufficiently accurate and 

reliable for the purpose of profiling specific industrial 

sectors (e.g., industry size, number of small and large 

businesses, and distribution among subsectors). 

U.S. Economic Census data provide a national 

accounting of establishments in the U.S. by 

various industry sectors. EPA used NAICS and 

SIC codes associated with specific sectors and

subsectors to ensure that the census data 

evaluated were representative of the industrial 

categories of interest.

Data are sufficiently accurate, 

reliable, and representative, to 

use for profiling specific 

industrial sectors.
APPENDIX C

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE 46 UNIT OPERATIONS 

IN THE METAL FINISHING INDUSTRY
Appendix C

C-1

APPENDIX C

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE 46 UNIT 

OPERATIONS IN THE METAL FINISHING INDUSTRY

Electroplating is the production of a thin surface coating of one metal upon another by electrodeposition. This 

surface coating is applied to provide corrosion protection, wear or erosion resistance, anti-frictional 

characteristics, or for decorative purposes. The electroplating of common metals includes the processes in which 

ferrous or nonferrous basis material is electroplated with copper, nickel, chromium, brass, bronze, zinc, tin, lead, 

cadmium, iron, aluminum or combinations thereof. Precious metals electroplating includes the processes in which 

a ferrous or nonferrous basis material is plated with gold, silver, palladium, platinum, rhodium, indium, 

ruthenium, iridium, osmium, or combinations thereof. 

In electroplating, metal ions in either acid, alkaline or neutral solutions are reduced on cathodic surfaces. The 

cathodic surfaces are the workpieces being plated. The metal ions in solution are usually replenished by the 

dissolution of metal from anodes or small pieces contained in inert wire or metal baskets. Replenishment with 

metal salts is also practiced, especially for chromium plating. In this case, an inert material must be selected for 

the anodes. Hundreds of different electroplating solutions have been adopted commercially but only two or three 

types are utilized widely for a particular metal or alloy. For example, cyanide solutions are popular for copper, 

zinc, brass, cadmium, silver, and gold. However, non-cyanide alkaline solutions containing pyrophosphate have 

come into use recently for zinc and copper. Zinc, copper, tin and nickel are plated with acid sulfate solutions, 

especially for plating relatively simple shapes. Cadmium and zinc are sometimes electroplated from neutral or 

slightly acidic chloride solutions. The most common methods of plating are in barrels, on racks, and continuously 

from a spool or coil.

Electroless Plating is a chemical reduction process which depends upon the catalytic reduction of a metallic ion in 

an aqueous solution containing a reducing agent and the subsequent deposition of metal without the use of 

external electrical energy. It has found widespread use in industry due to several unique advantages over 

conventional electroplating. Electroless plating provides a uniform plating thickness on all areas of the part 

regardless of the configuration or geometry of the part. An electroless plate on a properly prepared surface is 

dense and virtually non-porous. Copper and nickel electroless plating are the most common. The basic ingredients 

in an electroless plating solution are: 

1. A source of metal, usually a salt.

2. A reducer to reduce the metal to its base state.

3. A complexing agent to hold the metal in solution (so the metal will not plate out indiscriminately).

4. Various buffers and other chemicals designed to maintain bath stability and increase bath life.

Electroless plating is an autocatalytic process where catalysis is promoted from one of the products of a chemical 

reaction. The chemistry of electroless plating is best demonstrated by examining electroless nickel plating. The 

source of nickel is a salt such as nickel chloride or nickel sulfate, and the reducer is sodium hypophosphite. There 

are several complexing agents can be used, the most common ones being citric and glycolic acid. Hypophosphite 

anions in the presence of water are dehydrogenated by the solid catalytic surface provided by nickel to form acid 

orthophosphite anions. Active hydrogen atoms are bonded on the catalyst forming a hydride. Nickel ions are 

reduced to metallic nickel by the active hydrogen atoms which are in turn oxidized to hydrogen ions. 

Simultaneously, a portion of the hypophosphite anions are reduced by the active hydrogen and adsorbed on the 

catalytic surface producing elemental phosphorus, water and hydroxyl ions. Elemental phosphorus is bonded to or 

dissolved in the nickel making the reaction irreversible. At the same time hypophosphite anions are catalytically 

oxidized to acid orthophosphite anions, evolving gaseous hydrogen. The basic plating reactions proceed as 

follows:

The nickel salt is ionized in water

NiS04 = Ni+2 + SO4

- 2

There is then a reduction-oxidation reaction with nickel and sodium hypophosphite.
Appendix C

C-2

Ni+2 + SO4

- 2 + 2NaH2PO2 + 2 H20 = Ni + 2NaH2PO3 + H2 + H2SO4

The sodium hypophosphite also reacts in the following manner:

2NaH2PO2 + H2 = 2P + 2NaOH + 2H2O

As can be seen in the equations above, both nickel and phosphorus are produced, and the actual metal deposited is 

a nickel-phosphorus alloy. The phosphorus content can be varied to produce different characteristics in the nickel 

plate. 

When electroless plating is done on a plastic basis material, catalyst application and acceleration steps are 

necessary as surface preparation operations. These steps are considered part of the electroless plating unit 

operation.

Immersion plating is a chemical plating process in which a thin metal deposit is obtained by chemical 

displacement of the basis metal. Unlike electroless plating, it is not an autocatalytic process. In immersion plating, 

a metal will displace from solution any other metal that is below it in the electromotive series of elements. 

The lower (more noble) metal will be deposited from solution while the more active metal (higher in the series) 

will be dissolved. A common example of immersion plating is the deposition of copper on steel from an acid 

copper solution. Because of the similarity of the wastes produced and the materials involved, immersion plating is 

considered part of the electroless plating unit operation.

Anodizing is an electrolytic oxidation process which converts the surface of the metal to an insoluble oxide. 

These oxide coatings provide corrosion protection, decorative surfaces, a base for painting and other coating 

processes, and special electrical and mechanical properties. Aluminum is the most frequently anodized material, 

while some magnesium and limited amounts of zinc and titanium are also treated. 

Although the majority of anodizing is carried out by immersion of racked parts in tanks, continuous anodizing is 

done on large coils of aluminum in a manner similar to continuous electroplating. For aluminum parts, the 

formation of the oxide occurs when the parts are made anodic in dilute sulfuric acid or dilute chromic acid 

solutions. The oxide layer begins formation at the extreme outer surface, and as the reaction proceeds, the oxide 

grows into the metal. The last formed oxide, known as the boundary layer, is located at the interface between the 

base metal and the oxide. The boundary is extremely thin and nonporous. The sulfuric acid process is typically 

used for all parts fabricated from aluminum alloys except for parts subject to stress or containing recesses in 

which the sulfuric acid solution may be retained and attack the aluminum. Chromic acid anodic coatings are more 

protective than sulfuric acid coatings and have a relatively thick boundary layer. For these reasons, a chromic acid 

bath is used if a complete rinsing of the part cannot be achieved.

Coating – This manufacturing operation includes chromating, phosphating, metal coloring and passivating. These 

coatings are applied to previously deposited metal or basis material for increased corrosion protection, lubricity, 

and preparation of the surface for additional coatings or formulation of a special surface appearance. In 

chromating, a portion of the base metal is converted to one of the components of the protective film formed by 

the coating solution. This occurs by reaction with aqueous solutions containing hexavalent chromium and active 

organic or inorganic compounds. Chromate coatings are most frequently applied to zinc, cadmium, aluminum, 

magnesium, copper, brass, bronze, and silver. Most of the coatings are applied by chemical immersion although a 

spray or brush treatment can be used. Changes in the solutions can impart a wide range of colors to the coatings 

from colorless to iridescent yellow, brass, brown, and olive drab. Additional coloring of the coatings can be 

achieved by dipping the parts in organic dye baths to produce red, green, blue, and other colors.

Phosphate coatings are used to provide a good base for paints and other organic coatings, to condition the 

surfaces for cold forming operations by providing a base for drawing compounds and lubricants, and to impart 

corrosion resistance to the metal surface by the coating itself or by providing a suitable base for rust-preventative 

oils or waxes. Phosphate conversion coatings are formed by the immersion of iron, steel, or zinc plated steel in a 

dilute solution of phosphoric acid plus other reagents. The method of applying the phosphate coating is dependent 

upon the size and shape of the part to be coated. Small parts are coated in barrels immersed in the phosphating 

solution. Large parts, such as steel sheet and strip, are spray coated or continuously passed through the 
Appendix C

C-3

phosphating solution. Supplemental oil or wax coatings are usually applied after phosphating unless the part is to 

be painted. 

Metal coloring by chemical conversion methods produces a large group of decorative finishes. This operation 

covers only chemical methods of coloring in which the metal surface is converted into an oxide or similar 

metallic compound. The most common colored finishes are used on copper, steel, zinc, and cadmium. 

Application of the color to the cleaned basis metal involves only a brief immersion in a dilute aqueous solution. 

The colored films produced on the metal surface are extremely thin and delicate. Consequently, they lack 

resistance to handling and the atmosphere. A clear lacquer is often used to protect the colored metal surface. A 

large quantity of copper and brass is colored to yield a wide variety of shades and colors. Shades of black, brown, 

gray, green and patina can be obtained on copper and brass by use of appropriate coloring solutions. The most 

widely-used colors for or blue colors. A number of colors can be developed on zinc depending on the length of 

immersion in the coloring solution. Yellow, bronze, dark green, black and brown colors can be produced on 

cadmium. Silver, tin, and aluminum are also colored commercially. Silver is given a gray color by immersion in a 

polysulfide solution such as ammonium polysulfide. Tin can be darkened to produce an antique finish of pewter 

by immersion in a solution of nitric acid and copper sulfate. 

Passivation refers to forming a protective film on metals, particularly stainless steel and copper, by immersion in 

an acid solution. Stainless steel is passivated in order to dissolve any imbedded iron particles and to form a thin 

oxide film on the surface of the metal. Typical solutions for passivating stainless steel include nitric acid and 

nitric acid with sodium dichromate. Copper is passivated with a solution of ammonium sulfate and copper sulfate 

forming a blue-green patina on the surface of the metal.

Etching and Chemical Milling - These processes are used to produce specific design configurations and 

tolerances or surface appearances on parts (or metal-clad plastic in the case of printed circuit boards)-by 

controlled dissolution with chemical reagents or etchants. Included in this classification are the processes of 

chemical milling, chemical etching and bright dipping. Chemical etching is the same process as chemical milling 

except the rates and depths of metal removal are usually much greater in chemical milling. Typical solutions for 

chemical milling and etching include ferric chloride, nitric acid, ammonium persulfate, chromic acid, cupric 

chloride, hydrochloric acid and combinations of these reagents. Bright dipping is a specialized form of etching 

and is used to remove oxide and tarnish from ferrous and nonferrous materials and is frequently performed just 

prior to anodizing. Bright dipping can produce a range of surface appearances from bright clean to brilliant 

depending on the surface smoothness desired for the finished part. Bright dipping solutions usually involve 

mixtures of two or more of sulfuric, chromic, phosphoric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids. Also included in this unit 

operation is the stripping of metallic coatings.

Cleaning involves the removal of oil, grease and dirt from the surface of the basis material using water with or 

without a detergent or other dispersing agent. Alkaline cleaning (both electrolytic and non-electrolytic) and acid 

cleaning are both included. 

Alkaline cleaning is used to remove oily dirt or solid soils from workpieces. The detergent nature of the cleaning 

solution provides most of the cleaning action with agitation of the solution and movement of the workpiece being 

of secondary importance. Alkaline cleaners are classified into three types: soak, spray, and electrolytic. Soak 

cleaners are used on easily removed soil. This type of cleaner is less efficient than spray or electrolytic cleaners. 

Spray cleaners combine the detergent properties of the solution with the impact force of the spray which 

mechanically loosens the soil. Electrolytic cleaning produces the cleanest surface available from conventional 

methods of alkaline cleaning. The effectiveness of this method results from the strong agitation of the solution by 

gas evolution and oxidation-reduction reactions that occur during electrolysis. Also, certain dirt particles become 

electrically charged and are repelled from the surface. Direct current (cathodic) cleaning uses the workpiece as 

the cathode, while for reverse current (anodic) cleaning the workpiece is the anode. In periodic reverse current 

cleaning, the current is periodically reversed from direct current to reverse current. Periodic reverse cleaning 

gives improved smut removal, accelerated cleaning and a more active surface for any subsequent surface 

finishing operation. 
Appendix C

C-4

Acid cleaning is a process in which a solution of an inorganic (mineral) acid, organic acid, or an acid salt, in 

combination with a wetting agent or detergent, is employed to remove oil, dirt, or oxide from metal surfaces. Acid 

cleaning is done with various acid concentrations can be referred to as pickling, acid dipping, descaling, or 

desmutting. The solution may or may not be heated and can be an immersion or spray operation. Agitation is 

normally required with soaking, and spray is usually used with complex shapes. An acid dip operation may also 

follow alkaline cleaning prior to plating. Phosphoric acid mixtures are also in common use to remove oils and 

light rust while leaving a phosphate coating that provides a paint base or temporary resistance to rusting. Strong 

acid solutions are used to remove rust and scale prior to surface finishing.

Machining is the general process of removing stock from a workplace by forcing a cutting tool through the 

workpiece, removing a chip of basis material. Machining operations such as turning, milling, drilling, boring, 

tapping, planing, broaching, sawing and cutoff, shaving, threading, reaming, shaping, slotting, bobbing, filing, 

and chamfering are included in this definition.

Grinding is the process of removing stock from a workpiece by the use of a tool consisting of abrasive grains held 

by a rigid or semirigid binder. The tool is usually in the form of a disk (the basic shape of grinding wheels}, but 

may also be in the form of a cylinder, ring, cup, stick, strip, or belt. The most commonly used abrasives are 

aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and diamond. The processes included in this unit operation are sanding (or 

cleaning to remove rough edges or excess material}, surface finishing, and separating (as in cut-off or slicing 

operations}.

Polishing is an abrading operation used to remove or smooth out surface defects (scratches, pits, tool marks, etc.} 

that adversely affect the appearance or function of a part. Polishing is usually performed with either a belt or 

wheel to which an abrasive such as aluminum oxide or silicone carbide is bonded. Both wheels and belts are 

flexible and will conform to irregular or rounded areas where necessary. The operation usually referred to as 

buffing is included in the polishing operation.

Barrel Finishing or tumbling is a controlled method of processing parts to remove burrs, scale, flash, and oxides 

as well as to improve surface finish. Widely used as a finishing operation for many parts, it obtains a uniformity 

of surface finish not possible by hand finishing. For large quantities of small parts it is generally the most 

economical method of cleaning and surface conditioning. Parts to be finished are placed in a rotating barrel or 

vibrating unit with an abrasive media, water or oil, and usually some chemical compound to assist in the 

operation. As the barrel rotates slowly, the upper layer of the work is given a sliding movement toward the lower 

side of the barrel, causing the abrading or polishing action to occur. The same results may also be accomplished 

in a vibrating unit, in which the entire contents of the container are in constant motion.

Burnishing is the process of finish sizing or smooth finishing a workpiece (previously machined or ground} by 

displacement, rather than removal, of minute surface irregularities. It is accomplished with a smooth point or linecontact and fixed or rotating tools.

Impact Deformation is the process of applying an impact force to a workp1ece such that the workpiece is 

permanently deformed or shaped. Impact deformation operations include shot peening, peening, forging, high 

energy forming, heading, and stamping.

Pressure Deformation is the process of applying force (at a slower rate than an impact force) to permanently 

deform or shape a workpiece. Pressure deformation includes operations such as rolling, drawing, bending, 

embossing, coining, swaging, sizing, extruding, squeezing, spinning, seaming, staking, piercing, necking, 

reducing, forming, crimping, coiling, twisting, winding, flaring, or weaving.

Shearing is the process of severing or cutting a workpiece by forcing a sharp edge or opposed sharp edges into the 

workpiece stressing the material to the point of shear failure and separation.
Appendix C

C-5

Heat Treating is the modification of the physical properties of a workpiece through the application of controlled 

heating and cooling cycles. Such operations as tempering, carburizing, cyaniding, nitriding, annealing, 

normalizing, austenizing, quenching, austempering, siliconizing, martempering, and malleabilizing are included 

in this definition.

Thermal Cutting is the process of cutting, slotting or piercing a workpiece using an oxyacetylene oxygen lance or 

electric arc cutting tool.

Welding is the process of joining two or more pieces of material by applying heat, pressure or both, with or 

without filler material, to produce a localized union through fusion or recrystallization across the interface. 

Included in this process are gas welding, resistance welding, arc welding, cold welding, electron beam welding, 

and laser beam welding.

Brazing is the process of joining metals by filling a thin, capillary thickness layer of nonferrous filler metal into 

the space between them. Bonding results from the intimate contact produced by the dissolution of a small amount 

of base metal in the molten filler metal, without fusion of the base metal. The term brazing is used where the 

temperature exceeds 425°C (800°F).

Soldering is the process of joining metals by filling a thin (capillary thickness) layer of nonferrous filler metal 

into the space between them. Bonding results from the intimate contact produced by the dissolution of a small 

amount of base metal in the molten filler metal, without fusion of the base metal. The term soldering is used 

where the temperature range falls below 425°C (800°F).

Flame Spraying is the process of applying a metallic coating to a workpiece using finely powdered fragments of 

wire, together with suitable fluxes, are projected through a cone of flame onto the workpiece.

Sand Blasting is the process of removing stock, including surface f1lms, from a workpiece by the use of abrasive 

grains pneumatically impinged against the workpiece. The abrasive grains used include sand, metal shot, slag, 

silica, pumice, or natural materials such as walnut shells.

Abrasive Jet Machining is a mechanical process for cutt1ng hard brittle materials. It is similar to sand

blasting but uses much finer abrasives carried at high velocities (500-3000 fps} by a liquid or gas stream. Uses 

include frosting glass, removing metal oxides, deburring, and drilling and cutting thin sections of metal.

Electrical Discharge Machining is a process which can remove metal with good .dimensional control from any 

metal. It cannot be used for machining glass, ceramics, or other nonconducting materials. The machining action is 

caused by the formation of an electrical spark between an electrode, shaped to the required contour, and the 

workpiece. Since the cutting tool has no contact with the workpiece, it can be made from a soft, easily worked 

material such as brass. The tool works in conjunction with a fluid such as mineral oil or kerosene, which is fed to 

the work under pressure. The function of this coolant is to serve as a dielectric, to wash away particles of eroded 

metal from the workpiece or tool, and to maintain a uniform resistance to flow of current. 

Electrical discharge machining is also known as spark machining or electronic erosion. The operation was 

developed primarily for machining carbides, hard nonferrous alloys, and other hard-to-machine materials.

Electrochemical Machining is a process based on the same pr1nc1ples used 1n electroplating except the 

workpiece is the anode and the tool is the cathode. Electrolyte is pumped between the electrodes and a potential 

applied with the result that metal is rapidly removed. 

In this process, electrode accuracy is important since the surface finish of the electrode tool will be reproduced in 

the surface of the workpiece. While copper is frequently used as the electrode, brass, graphite, and coppertungsten are also used. The tool must be an electrical conductor, easy to machine, corrosion resistant, and able to 

conduct the quantity of current needed. Although there is no standard electrolyte, sodium chloride is more 

generally used than others.
Appendix C

C-6

Electron Beam Machining is a thermoelectric process. In electron beam machining, heat is generated by high 

velocity electrons impinging on part of the workpiece. At the point where the energy of the electrons is focused, it 

is transformed into sufficient thermal energy to vaporize the material locally. The process is generally carried out 

in a vacuum. While the metal-removal rate of electron beam machining is approximately 0.01 milligrams per 

second, the tool is accurate and is especially adapted for micro-machining. There is no heat affected zone or 

pressure on the workpiece and extremely close tolerances can be maintained. The process results in X-ray 

emission which requires that the work area be shielded to absorb radiation. At present the process is used for 

drilling holes as small as 0.0508 mm (0.002 in.) in any known material, cutting slots, shaping small parts, and 

machining sapphire jewel bearings.

Laser Beam Machining is the process whereby a highly focused monochromatic collimated beam of light is used 

to remove material at the point of impingement on a workpiece. Laser beam machining is a thermoelectric 

process, and material removal is largely accomplished by evaporation although some material is removed in the 

liquid state at high velocity. Since the metal removal rate is very small, they are used for such jobs as drilling 

microscopic holes in carbides or diamond wire drawing dies and for removing metal in the balancing of highspeed rotating machinery. 

Lasers can vaporize any known material. They have small heat affected zones and work easily with nonmetallic 

hard materials.

Plasma Arc Machining is the process of material removal or shaping of a workpiece by a high velocity jet of high 

temperature ionized gas. A gas (nitrogen, argon, or hydrogen) is passed through an electric arc causing it to 

become ionized and raised to temperatures in excess of 16,649°C (30,000°F). The relatively narrow plasma jet 

melts and displaces the workpiece material in its path. Because plasma machining does not depend on a chemical 

reaction between the gas and the work material and because plasma temperatures are extremely high, the process 

can be used on almost any metal, including those that are resistant to oxygen-fuel gas cutting. The method is of 

commercial importance mainly for profile cutting of stainless steel and aluminum alloys.

Ultrasonic Machining is a mechanical process designed to effect1vely mach1ne hard, brittle materials. It removes 

material by the use of abrasive grains which are carried in a liquid between the tool and the work and which 

bombard the work surface at high velocity. This action gradually chips away minute particles ·of material in a 

pattern controlled by the tool shape and contour. A transducer causes an attached tool to oscillate linearly at a 

frequency of 20,000 to 30,000 times per second at an amplitude of 0.0254 to 0.127 mm (0.001 to 0.005 in). The 

tool motion is produced by being part of a sound wave energy transmission line which causes the tool material to 

change its normal length by contraction and expansion. The tool holder is threaded to the transducer and oscillates 

linearly at ultrasonic frequencies, thus driving the grit particles into the workpiece. The cutting particles, boron 

carbide and similar materials, are of a 280-mesh size or finer, depending upon the accuracy and the finish desired. 

Operations that can be performed include drilling, tapping, coining, and the making of openings in all types of 

dies. Ultrasonic machining is used principally for machining materials such as carbides, tool steels, ceramics, 

glass, gem stones, and synthetic crystals.

Sintering is the process of forming a mechanical part from a powdered metal by fusing the particles together 

under pressure and heat. The temperature is maintained below the melting point of the basis metal.

Laminating is the process of adhesive bonding layers of metal, plastic, or wood to form a part.

Hot Dip Coating is the process of coating a metallic workpiece with another metal by immersion in a molten bath 

to provide a protective film. Galvanizing (hot dip zinc) is the most common hot dip coating.

Sputtering is the process of covering a metallic or nonmetallic workpiece with thin films of metal. The surface to 

be coated is bombarded with positive ions in a gas discharge tube, which is evacuated to a low pressure.
Appendix C

C-7

Vapor Plating is the process of decomposition of a metal or compound upon a heated surface by reduction or 

decomposition of a volatile compound at a temperature below the melting point of either the deposit or the basis 

material.

Thermal Infusion is the process of applying a fused zinc, cadmium, or other metal coating to a ferrous workpiece 

by imbuing the surface of the workpiece with metal powder or dust in the presence of heat.

Salt Bath Descaling is the process of removing surface oxides or scale from a workpiece by immersion of the 

workpiece in a molten salt bath or a hot salt solution. Molten salt baths are used in a salt bath - water quench -acid 

dip sequence to clean hard-to-remove oxides from stainless steels and other corrosion-resistant alloys. The work 

is immersed in the molten salt (temperatures range from 400- 540 degrees C), quenched with water, and then 

dipped in acid. Oxidizing, reducing, and electrolytic baths are available, and the particular type needed is 

dependent on the oxide to be removed.

Solvent Degreasing is a process for removing oils and grease from the surfaces of a workpiece by the use of 

organic solvents, such as aliphatic petroleums (e.g., kerosene, naptha), aromatics (e.g., benzene, toluene), 

oxygenated hydrocarbons (e.g., ketones, alcohol, ether), halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g., 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 

trichloroethylene, methylene chloride), and combinations of these classes of solvents. Solvent cleaning can be 

accomplished by either the liquid or vapor phase. Solvent vapor degreasing is normally quicker than solvent 

liquid degreasing. However, ultrasonic vibration is sometimes used with liquid solvent so as to decrease the 

required immersion time with complex shapes. Solvent cleaning is often used as a precleaning operation such as 

prior to the alkaline cleaning that precedes plating, as a final cleaning of precision parts, or as a surface 

preparation for some painting operations. 

Emulsion cleaning is a type of solvent degreasing that uses common organic solvents (e.g., kerosene, mineral oil, 

glycols, and benzene) dispersed in an aqueous medium with the aid of an emulsifying agent. Depending on the 

solvent used, cleaning is done at temperatures from room temperature to 82°C (180°F). This operation uses less 

chemical than solvent degreasing because of the lower solvent concentration employed. The process is used for 

rapid superficial cleaning and is usually performed as emulsion spray cleaning.

Paint Stripping is the process of removing an organic coating from a workpiece. The stripping of such coatings is 

usually performed with caustic, acid, solvent, or molten salt.

Painting is the process of applying an organic coating to a workpiece. The application of coatings such as paint, 

varnish, lacquer, shellac, and plastics by processes such as spraying, dipping, brushing, roll coating, 

lithographing, and wiping are included. Spray painting is by far the most common and can be used with nearly all 

varieties of paint. The paint can be sprayed manually or automatically, hot or cold, and it may be atomized with 

or without compressed air to force the paint through an orifice. Other processes included under this unit operation 

are printing, silk screening, and stenciling.

Electrostatic Painting is the application of electrostatically charged paint particles to an oppositely charged 

workpiece followed by thermal fusing of the paint particles to form a cohesive paint film. Usually the paint is 

applied in spray form and may be applied manually or automatically, hot or cold, and with or without compressed 

air atomization. Both waterborne and solvent-borne coatings can be sprayed electrostatically.

Electropainting is the process of coating a workpiece by either making it anodic or cathodic in a bath that is 

generally an aqueous emulsion of the coating material. The electrodeposition bath contains stabilized resin, 

dispersed pigment, surfactants, and sometimes organic solvents in water. Electropainting is used primarily for 

primer coats because it gives a fairly thick, highly uniform, corrosion resistant coating in relatively little time.

Vacuum Metalizing is the process of coating a workpiece with metal by flash heating metal vapor in a highvacuum chamber containing the workpiece. The vapor condenses on all exposed surfaces.
Appendix C

C-8

Assembly is the fitting together of previously manufactured parts or components into a complete machine, unit of 

a machine, or structure.

Calibration is the application of thermal, electrical, or mechanical energy to set or establish reference points for a 

component or complete assembly.

Testing is the application of thermal, electrical, or mechanical energy to determine the suitability or functionality 

of a component or complete assembly.

Mechanical Plating is the process of depositing metal coatings on a workpiece via the use of a tumbling barrel, 

metal powder, and usually glass beads for the impaction media. The operation is subject to the same cleaning and 

rinsing operations that are applied before and after the electroplating operation.

Printed Circuit Board Manufacturing involves the formation of a circuit pattern of conductive metal (usually 

copper) on nonconductive board materials such as plastic or glass. There are five basic steps involved in the 

manufacture of printed circuit boards: cleaning and surface preparation, catalyst and electroless plating, pattern 

printing and masking, electroplating, and etching. 

After the initial cutting, drilling and sanding of the boards, the board surface is prepared for plating electroless 

copper. This surface preparation involves an etchback (removal of built-up plastic around holes) and an acid and 

alkaline cleaning to remove grime, oils, and fingerprints. The board is then etched and rinsed. Following etching, 

the catalyst is applied and rinsing operations following catalyst application. The entire board is then electroless 

copper plated and rinsed. 

Following electroless copper plating, a plating resist is applied in non-circuit areas. Following application of a 

resist, a series of electroplates are applied. First the circuit is copper plated. A solder electroplate is applied next 

followed by a rinse. For copper removal in non-circuit areas, an etch step is next. After the etch operation, a 

variety of tab plating processes can be utilized depending on the board design requirements. These include nickel 

electroplating, gold electroplating, rhodium electroplating, and tin immersion plating. There are presently three 

main production methods for printed circuit boards: additive, semi-additive, and subtractive. The additive method 

uses pre-sensitized, unclad material as the starting board: the semi-additive method uses unclad, unsensitized 

material as the starting board: and the subtractive method begins with copper clad, unsensitized material.
APPENDIX D:

U.S. COMPANY INFORMATION FOR 

PRIMARY PRODUCERS OF ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS
Appendix D

D-1

APPENDIX D1

U.S. COMPANY INFORMATION FOR PRIMARY PRODUCERS OF ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS

Adapted from Hendren et al. (2011) Supplemental Information.

Table D-1. Nano-TiO2 Company Information

Company Product Website Other Sources

Altair Nano Nano-TiO2 http://www.altairnano.com U.S. Patent Number 6974566,

http://www.edgar-online.com

DuPont Several TiO2 products 

including DuPont TS-6200, 

fine powders that may 

include nano-TiO2

http://www2.dupont.com/Titanium_Te

chnologies/en_US/index.html

http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/30554/000104746

910000945/a2196441z10-k.htm,

http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2006/s

napshots/451.html

NanoAmor Nano-TiO2 http://www.nanoamor.com http://www.139001.net/company.asp?id-535458

NanoGram Nano-TiO2 — http://www.linkedin.com/companies/nanogram-corporation

Sigma Aldrich 8 nano-TiO2 products: 6 

nanopowders, 1 dispersion, 

and 1 paste

http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/materials

-science/material-scienceproducts.html?TablePage=16376794

Email techserv@sial.com

Sky Spring 

Nanomaterials

4 nano-TiO2 powders http://www.ssnano.com/inc/sdetail/316 http://www.globalspec.com/supplier/proficle/SkySpring_N

anomaterials

 1 The tables in this appendix, adapted from the cited literature source, provide a snapshot of U.S. manufacturers of nanomaterials as identified through patents, 

company websites, and requests for information. EPA has not confirmed whether the companies listed continue to manufacture ENMs.
Appendix D

D-2 

Table D-2. Nanosilver Company Information

Company Product Website Other Sources

American BioTech Labs Nanosilver solutions—

wound care, supplements, 

etc.

http://www.americanbiotechlabs.c

om/

Blue Nano Inc. Nanosilver particles 100 nm http://www.bluenanoinc.com http://www.linkedin.com/companies/bluenano?trk=co_search_results&goback=.cps_127178486489

7_1

NanoAmor Polymer-coated nanopowder http://www.nanoamor.com http://www.139001.net/company.asp?id=535458

NanoHorizons Inc. SmartSilverTM http://www.nanohorizons.com http://www.linkedin.com/profile?viewProfile=&key=63857

163&authToken=ZvLv&authType=OUT_OF_NETWORK

&locale=en_US&srchindex=38pvs=ps&goback=.fps_*1_*

1_*1_*1_*1_*1_NanoHorizons_C_Y_*1_*1_*1_false_1_

R_true_N%2CG%2CI%2CED%2CFG%2CL%2CDR%2C

CC%2CPC_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*

2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2_*2

NanoMas Technologies, 

Inc.

NanoSilverTM http://www.nanomastech.com/inde

x.html

http://www.linkedin.com/companies/363757

Quantum Sphere QSI-Nano silver 

nanopowder

http://www.qsinano.com/about.php http://www.qsinano.com/products.php

Sigma Aldrich 2 silver nanopowders http://www.sigmaaldrich.com http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/Lookup.do?N5=All

&N3=mode+matchpartialmax&N4=silver+nano&D7=0&D

10=silver+nano&N1=S_ID&ST=RS&N25=0&F=PR

Silver Nanotechnologies, 

Inc.

NanoSilver Solutions — http://snti.en.ec21.com/
Appendix D

D-3

Table D-3. CNT Company Information

Company Product Website Other Info Sources

Alfa Aesar 11 types of nanotubes http://www.alfa.com/en/GP140W

.pgm

http://www.manta.com/c/mtkhc1b/alfa-aesar

American Elements 4 types of CNTs, some single, 

some double, and some multiwalled

http://www.americanelements.co

m/nanotech.htm

http://www.manta.com/c/mmcmm64/americanelements-corporation

Carbon Solutions, Inc. 7 SWCNT products at various 

purities and solubilities

http://carbonsolution.com/ http://www.manta.com/c/mm2jknd/carbon-solutions-inc

Catalytic Materials LLC 1 grade of MWCNTs http://www.catalyticmaterials.co

m/

http://www.azonano.com/Suppliers.asp?SupplierID=674

http://www.catalyticmaterials.com/patentportfolio.html

Cnano Technology Single, double, and multiwalled CNTshttp://www.cnanotechnology.co

m/en/pro.html

http://www.pangaeaventures.com/news/41-cnanotechnology-commissions-worlds-largest-carbonnanotube-manufacturing-plant-with-a-capacity-of-500-

tons-per-year

Helix Material Solutions 2 types of SWCNTs, 1 

DWCNT, and 3 types of 

MWCNTs

http://www.helixmaterial.com/pr

oduct.html

—

Hyperion Catalysis Hyperion FIBRIL MWCNTs http://www.hyperioncatalysis.co

m/emerging2.htm

http://www.manta.com/c/mm3ht3h/hyperion-catalysisintl

http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/priva

te/snapshop.asp?privcapId=29658

Mer Corporation Various single, double, and 

multi-walled CNTs

http://www.mercorp.com/product

s2.htm

http://www.linkedin.com/companies/mer-corporation

MicroTech Nano Various single, double, and 

multi-walled CNTs

http://www.microtechnano.com/ —

Nano-C SWCNTS in 2 purity grades http://nano-c.com/nanoprod.html http://www.spoke.com/info/c5ZZAgi/Nano-CInc

Nanocs, Inc. SWCNTs and MWCNTs with a 

variety of diameters

http://www.nanocs.com/nanotube

.htm

http://dnb.powerprofiles.com/profile/931146919/NANO

CS+INTERNATIONAL,+INC-MALDEN-MA

NanoLab, Inc. 6 varieties of single, double, 

and multi-walled CNTs

http://www.nano-lab.com/swntapj-a.htmlhttp://www.manta.com/c/mmgjlkw/nanolab-inc

Nanostructured & 

Amorphous Materials, Inc.

Over 70 varieties of CNTs http://www.nanoamor.com/inc/p

detail?v=1&pid=602

http://www.139001.net/company.asp?id=535458

NanoTechLabs MWCNTs with a variety of 

diameters

http://www.nanotechlabs.com/pa

ges/products/nanotubes.html

http://www.manta.com/c/mtbzf4y/nanotechlabs-inc
Appendix D

D-4

Table D-3. CNT Company Information

Company Product Website Other Info Sources

SES Research 8 types of MWCNTs, 2 types of 

SWCNTs, and 1 type of 

DWCNT

http://sesres.com/Nanotubes.asp http://www.manta.com/c/mm6h4zs/ses-research

Sky Spring Nanomaterials 8 types of single and multiwalled CNTs and many

functionalized CNTs

http://www.ssnano.com/inc/sdeta

il/869

http://www.globalspec.com/supplier/profile/SkySpringN

anomaterials

SouthWest 

Nanotechnologies

4 types of SWCNT products 

and 1 specialty MWCNT 

product

http://www.swentnano.com/ http://www.crunchbase.com/company/southwestnanotechnologies

http://www.linkedin.com/companies/southwestnanotechnologies-inc

Unidym, now merged with 

CNI

3 purity grades of SWCNTs http://www.unidym.com/product

s/materials.html

http://www.hoovers.com/company/Unidym_Inc/rfjfyci1.html

Xintek, Inc., or “Applied 

Nanotechnologies”

“Few-wall” CNTs, DWCNTs, 

and MWCNTs

http://www.xintek.com/products/

materials/index.htm

http://www.manta.com/c/mm8z7g0/appliednanotechnologies-inc

DWCNT: double-walled carbon nanotube

MWCNT: multi-walled carbon nanotube

SWCNT: single-walled carbon nanotube
APPENDIX E

KEY WORDS USED FOR PETROLEUM, METAL FINISHING, 

ELECTROPLATING, AND METALS REMOVAL 

TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY LITERATURE SEARCHES
Appendix E

E-1

APPENDIX E

KEY WORDS USED FOR PETROLEUM, METAL FINISHING, ELECTROPLATING,

AND METALS REMOVAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY LITERATURE SEARCHES

Master Terms

Industrial wastewater

Industrial wastewater treatment 

Privately owned treatment works

Metals removal

General Terms

Case study

Control

Efficiency

Effluent

Elimination

Field-scale

Full-scale

Improvement

Influent

Percent (%)

Performance

Pilot-scale

Pollution prevention

Recovery/recycle

Reduce/reduction

Removal

Pollutant Terms

Aluminum

Arsenic

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Cyanide

Heavy metals

Iron

Lead

Manganese

Mercury

Molybdenum

Nickel

 2 Source: 40 CFR Part 433.10.

Oil and grease

Phosphate

Selenium

Silver

Tin

Total organic carbon

Total suspended solids

Zinc

Zirconium oxide

Industry Terms

Aluminum forming

Battery manufacturing

Coil coating 

Copper forming

Metal coating

Metal finishing

Metal forming

Metal painting

Petroleum refinery

Porcelain enameling

Specialty steel

Metal Finishing Operations2

Anodizing

Chemical etching and milling

Coating

Chromating

Phosphating

Coloring

Electroless plating

Electroplating

Printed circuit board manufacture

Process Operations3

Brazing

Burnishing

Flame spraying

3 Ibid.
Appendix E

E-2

Grinding

Heat treating

Hot dip coating

Iron phosphate pretreatment4

Laminating

Machining

Electric discharge 

Electrochemical

Electron beam

Laser beam 

Other abrasive jet 

Plasma arc

Ultrasonic 

Mechanical plating

Paint stripping

Painting

Electropainting

Electrostatic painting

Polishing

 4 Not included in 40 CFR Part 433.10.

Pressure or impact deformation

Salt bath descaling

Sand blasting

Shearing

Sintering

Soldering

Solvent degreasing

Sputtering

Thermal cutting

Thermal infusion

Tumbling

Vacuum metalizing

Vapor plating

Welding

Zirconization5

5 Ibid.
APPENDIX F

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ARTICLES ENTERED INTO IWTT
Appendix F

F-1

APPENDIX F

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ARTICLES ENTERED INTO IWTT

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

A Pilot Study of the 

Treatment of Waste 

Rolling Emulsion Using 

Zirconia Microfiltration 

Membranes

Peerreviewed 

journal

Pei Wang, Nanping 

Xu, Jun Shi

2000 Journal of 

Membrane Science 8 Metal finishing

Nitrogen and DOC 

Removal from Wastewater 

Streams of the Metalworking Industry

Peerreviewed 

journal

R. Schuch, R. 

Gensicke, K. 

Merkel, J. Winter 2000 Water Research 9 Metal finishing

Treatment of Rinsing 

Water from Electroless 

Nickel Plating with a 

Biologically Active 

Moving-bed Sand Filter

Peerreviewed 

journal

T. Pumpel, C. Ebner, 

B. PernfuB, F. 

Schinner, L. Diels, 

Z. Keszthelyi, A. 

Stankovic, J.A. 

Finlay, L.E. 

Macaskie, M. 

Tsezos, H. Wouters

2001 Hydrometallurgy 11 Metal finishing

Optimization of Oily 

Wastewater Membrane 

Bioreactor Treatment: Pilot 

to Full Scale Results

Conference 

proceeding

Paul M. Sutton, 

Prakash N. Mishra, 

Jeff A. Roberts, Luis 

Abreu, Paul Gignac

2001 WEFTEC 24 Metal finishing

Reverse Osmosis Applied 

to Metal Finishing 

Wastewater

Peerreviewed 

journal

Y. Benito, M.L. 

Ruiz 2002 Desalination 6 Ferroalloy 

manufacturing

A Pilot Study on a 

Membrane Process for the 

Treatment and Recycling 

of Spent Final Rinse Water 

from Electroless Plating

Peerreviewed 

journal

F.S. Wong, J.J. Qin, 

M.N. Wai, A.L. 

Lim, M. Adiga 2002

Separation and 

Purification 

Technology

11 Metal finishing

Microsand Ballasted 

Flocculation and 

Clarification: Effects on 

Removal of TSS, Oil & 

Grease, and Metals From a 

Steel Mill Waste Stream

Conference 

proceeding

Carol Kessler, Luke 

Wood, Joe Gober, 

Barry Hendley 2002 WEFTEC 16 Iron and steel 

manufacturing
Appendix F

F-2

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Heavy Metals Removal by 

Sand Filters Inoculated 

with Metal Sorbing and 

Precipitating Bacteria Peerreviewed 

journal

L. Diels, P.H. 

Spaans, S. Van Roy, 

L. Hooyberghs, A. 

Ryngaert, H. 

Wouters, E. Walter, 

J. Winters, L. 

Macaskie, J. Finlay, 

B. Pernfuss, H. 

Woebking, T. 

Pumpel, M. Tsezos

2003 Hydrometallurgy 7

Nonferrous 

metals 

manufacturing

Treatment of Oily Wastes 

by Membrane Biological 

Reactor

Conference 

proceeding

Jim Buckles, Art 

Kuljian, Kevin 

Olmstead, Jason 

Merritt

2003 WEFTEC 13 Metal finishing

A Pilot Study for 

Reclamation of a 

Combined Rinse from a 

Nickel-plating Operation 

Using a Dual-membrane 

UF/RO Process

Peerreviewed 

journal

Jian-Jun Qin, Maung 

Nyunt Wai, Maung 

Htun Oo, Hsiaowan 

Lee 2004 Desalination 13 Metal finishing

NF and RO Membranes for 

the Recovery and Reuse of 

Water and Concentrated 

Metallic Salts from Waste 

Water Produced in the 

Electroplating Process

Peerreviewed 

journal

Jasmine 

Castelblanque, 

Francesco Salimbeni 2004 Desalination 9 Metal finishing

Metal Recovery from 

Electroplating Wastewater 

Using Acidophilic Iron 

Oxidizing Bacteria: PilotScale Feasibility Test

Peerreviewed 

journal

Donghee Park, Dae 

Sung Lee, Jong 

Moon Park, Hee 

Dong Chun, Sung 

Kook Park, Ikuo 

Jitsuhara, Osamu 

Miki, Toshiaki Kato

2005

Industrial & 

Engineering 

Chemistry 

Research

6 Metal finishing

Physical/Chemical 

Treatment for Refinery 

Wastewater

Conference 

proceeding

William Conner, 

Mohammed Al 

Hajri, John Liu

2005 WEFTEC 25 Petroleum 

refining

The Use of Liquid-Liquid 

Extraction for Heavy 

Metals Recovery and 

Reuse from Plating 

Wastewaters

Conference 

proceeding

Paul Usinowicz, 

Bruce Monzyk, H. 

Nicholas Conkle, J. 

Kevin Rose, Satya 

Chauhan

2005 WEFTEC 11 Metal finishing

Pilot Study on the 

Treatment of Spent Solvent 

Cleaning Rinse

in Metal Plating

Peerreviewed 

journal

Jian-Jun Qin, Maung 

Htun Oo, Fook-Sin 

Wong 2006 Desalination 6 Metal finishing
Appendix F

F-3

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Electrochemical Treatment 

Applied to FoodProcessing Industrial 

Wastewater

Peerreviewed 

journal

Carlos Barrera-Dıaz, 

Gabriela RoaMorales, Liliana 

Avila-Cordoba, 

Thelma Pavon-Silva, 

Bryan Bilyeu

2006

Industrial & 

Engineering 

Chemistry 

Research

5 Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Treatment of HighStrength Pharmaceutical 

Wastewater and Removal 

of Antibiotics in Anaerobic 

and Aerobic Biological 

Treatment Processes

Peerreviewed 

journal

Ping Zhou, Chengyi 

Su, Binwei Li, Yi 

Qian 2006

Journal of 

Environmental 

Engineering

8 Pharmaceutical 

manufacturing

Copper Recovery and 

Spent Ammoniacal Etchant 

Regeneration Based on 

Hollow Fiber Supported 

Liquid Membrane 

Technology: From Benchscale to Pilot-scale Tests

Peerreviewed 

journal

Qian Yang, N.M. 

Kocherginsky

2006 Journal of 

Membrane Science 9 Metal finishing

Performance of an Up-flow 

Anaerobic Stage Reactor 

(UASR) in the Treatment 

of Pharmaceutical 

Wastewater Containing 

Macrolide Antibiotics

Peerreviewed 

journal

Shreeshivadasan 

Chelliapan, Thomas 

Wilby, Paul J. Sallis 2006 Water Research 10 Pharmaceutical 

manufacturing

Three Years of Full-Scale 

Treatment of an Oily 

Wastewater Using an 

Immersed Membrane 

Biological Reactor

Industry 

publication

Jim Buckles, Art 

Kuljian, Kevin 

Olmstead, Tom 

Galloway

2007 WEFTEC 12

Transportation 

equipment 

cleaning

Best Arsenic Technology: 

A Power-generating 

Facility Upgrades its 

Wastewater Treatment 

System to Meet Stricter 

Limits

Industry 

publication

Jean-Claude 

Younan, Joseph 

Chwirka 2008 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 6

Steam electric 

power 

generating

No Spikes: Allowed Better 

Chemical Feed Controls 

Eliminate Unwanted 

Effluent Spikes

Industry 

publication

Allan Erickson

2008 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 4 Meat and poultry 

products

Tough Treatment 

Technology

Membrane Bioreactors 

Can Handle Wastewater 

with Very High Salt, 

Chloride, and Total 

Dissolved Solids Levels

Industry 

publication

Joseph Lala, 

Shannon R. Grant, 

and Scott J. 

Christian 2008 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 6

Miscellaneous 

foods and 

beverages
Appendix F

F-4

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Twofold Solution Industry 

publication

George Patrick, Don 

Deemer, Loren 

McCune, Terry Snell

2008 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 5 Aluminum 

forming

Aquatic Toxicity 

Reduction and Water 

Reuse at a Metal Finishing 

Plant

Conference 

proceeding

George Patrick, Don 

Deemer, Loren 

McCune, Terry Snell 2008 WEFTEC 12 Aluminum 

forming

Enhancing Nitrification in 

an Oil Refinery WWTP 

with IFAS Conference 

proceeding

Wayne J. Flournoy, 

Russ Grillo, Sarah 

B. Hubbell, Ramesh 

Kalluri, Casey 

Mueller

2008 WEFTEC 9 Petroleum 

refining

Footprint and O&M Cost 

Reductions with Actiflo

System - A Pilot Study for 

Gold Mining Effluent 

Treatment

Conference 

proceeding

Zhifei Hu, Brian 

Edwards, Jes 

Alexant, Jamie 

Quesnel

2008 WEFTEC 10 Ore mining and 

dressing

Treatment of Beverage 

Production Wastewater by 

Membrane Bioreactor

Peerreviewed 

journal

Marin Matošić, 

Ivana Prstec, Helena 

Korajlija Jakopović, 

Ivan Mijatović

2009 Desalination 9

Miscellaneous 

foods and 

beverages

Treatment of Textile 

Wastewater with an 

Anaerobic Fluidized Bed 

Reactor

Peerreviewed 

journal

Mahdi Haroun, Azni 

Idris 2009 Desalination 10 Textile mills

Novel Single Stripper with 

Side-Draw to Remove 

Ammonia and Sour Gas 

Simultaneously for CoalGasification Wastewater 

Treatment and the 

Industrial Implementation

Peerreviewed 

journal

Dachun Feng, 

Zhenjiang Yu, Yun 

Chen, Yu Qian

2009

Industrial & 

Engineering 

Chemistry 

Research

8 Oil and gas 

extraction

A Powerful Challenge: 

Treatment Plant Upgrade 

Aims to Minimize 

Electrical Conductivity 

While Nearly Doubling 

Capacity

Industry 

publication

James C. Young, 

Madan Arora, Lewis 

Nelson, and Richard 

Bono 2009 Industrial 

Wastewater 7 Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Just Plane Better: Water 

Reuse Improves Aircraft 

Washing Operations at 

Texas Military Base

Industry 

publication

Richard Milhollon, 

Greg Braddy, 

Thomas Coffey, and 

Bill Morgan

2009 Industrial 

Wastewater 3 Airport deicing

Manage Water Better: 

Membrane Bioreactors 

Can Help Companies 

Make the Most of Their 

Water Resources

Industry 

publication

Jeff Peeters, Andrew 

Sparkes, Sven 

Baumgarten 2009 Industrial 

Wastewater 3

Grain mills, 

Miscellaneous 

foods and 

beverages
Appendix F

F-5

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Sludge Handling and 

Processing: A Taste for 

BOD5 Removal

Industry 

publication

Chandler Johnson, 

Neil McAdam 2009 Industrial 

WaterWorld 3

Miscellaneous 

foods and 

beverages

Transforming CBM 

Produced Water into a 

Valuable Resource

Industry 

publication

Juzer Jangbarwala

2009 Industrial 

WaterWorld 3 Oil and gas 

extraction

Selenium Removal from 

Refinery Wastewater via 

Iron Co-precipitation in a 

Mobile Clarifier

Conference 

proceeding

Charles McCloskey, 

Tom Jettinghoff 2009

Microconstituents/I

ndustrial Water 

quality

7 Petroleum 

refining

Treatment of Metal 

Finishing Wastewater from 

Aircraft Maintenance 

Operations Using an 

Electrocoagulation 

Treatment Process

Conference 

proceeding

Forough Firouzi, 

Mark Ross, Gordon 

Champneys, 

Michael McFarland 2009

Microconstituents/I

ndustrial Water 

Quality

8 Metal finishing

Easy Upgrade: A 

Membrane Bioreactor 

Enables a Meat Processor 

to Upgrade its Wastewater 

Treatment System with 

Little Fuss

Industry 

publication

Ralph Teckenberg, 

Sandra Schuler, 

Andreas Böhm, 

Torsten Hackner, 

Markus Roediger

2009 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 4 Meat and poultry 

products

Mix It Up: A Gas–energy 

Mixing System Helps 

Improve Moving-bed 

Biofilm Reactor 

Performance

Industry 

publication

Miroslav Colic, 

Wade Morse, Ariel 

Lechter, Jason 

Hicks, Steve Holley, 

Carl Mattia

2009 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 7 Meat and poultry 

products

Quenching the Thirst in 

China Industry 

publication

Angela Yeung, 

Robert Chu, Steven 

Rosenberg, and 

Thomas Tong

2009 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 5 Iron and steel 

manufacturing

Too Many Causes Industry 

publication

Naomi Jones, Adam 

Smith, Gang Xin 2009 WEF Industrial Wastewater 6 Nonclassifiable establishments

Two Fine Fluids: A

Membrane Bioreactor 

Treats Winery Wastewater 

Effectively and Leaves 

More Room for Grapes

Industry 

publication

Anu Shah, John 

Bulleri, Richard 

Ross, John Carter, 

Michael Long

2009 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 6

Miscellaneous 

foods and 

beverages

Innovative Approaches to 

Complying with Very Low 

National Pollutant 

Discharge Elimination 

System (NPDES) Permit 

Limits for Metals

Conference 

proceeding

William Payne

2009 WEFTEC 13

Inorganic 

chemicals 

manufacturing, 

Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Innovative Technology for 

Biological NitrificationDenitrification of Oil 

Refinery Wastewaters

Conference 

proceeding

Carl E. Adams, Jr., 

Ryan Kirkland, John 

D. Driver, Andrew 

W. Edwards

2009 WEFTEC 20 Petroleum 

refining
Appendix F

F-6

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Lessons Learned on LongTerm Operation of MBBR

for Refinery Wastewater 

Treatment

Conference 

proceeding

Christian Cabral, 

Eoin Syron, Ray C. 

Asencio, Chandler 

Johnson

2009 WEFTEC 16 Petroleum 

refining

Liquid-Liquid Extraction 

for Acid Mine/Acid Rock 

Drainage Processing for 

Water Purification and 

Recovery of Sulfate Metals 

Without Sludge or Brine 

Production

Conference 

proceeding

Paul Usinowicz, 

Bruce Monzyk, H. 

Nicolas Conkle, F. 

Michael 

VonFahnestock, 

Todd Beers

2009 WEFTEC 16 Coal mining

Pilot Testing and Modeling 

of a Membrane Biological 

Reactor System for 

Refinery Wastewater Conference 

proceeding

Mauro Marinetti, 

Carlo Zaffaroni, 

Glen T. Daigger, 

Silas Givens, Ronald 

Ballard, C. P. Leslie 

Grady Jr., Savas 

Soydaner

2009 WEFTEC 20 Petroleum 

refining

Treatment of Metal 

Finishing Wastewaters in 

the Presence of Chelating 

Substances

Conference 

proceeding

Forough Firouzi, 

Mark Ross, Gordon 

Champneys, 

Michael McFarland

2009 WEFTEC 6 Metal finishing

Water Reuse in an Oil 

Refinery: An Innovative 

Solution Using Membrane 

Technology

Conference 

proceeding

Boris Ginzburg, 

Ross Cansino 2009 WEFTEC 11 Petroleum 

refining

A Full-scale Biological 

Treatment System 

Application in the Treated 

Wastewater of 

Pharmaceutical Industrial 

Park

Peerreviewed 

journal

Ge Lei, Hongqiang 

Ren, Lili Ding, 

Feifei Wang, 

Xingsong Zhang 2010 Bioresource 

Technology 10 Pharmaceutical 

manufacturing

Pilot-scale Removal of 

Chromium from Industrial 

Wastewater Using the 

ChromeBac System Peerreviewed 

journal

Wan Azlina Ahmad, 

Zainul Akmar 

Zakaria, Ali Reza 

Khasim, Muhamad 

Anuar Alias, Shaik 

Muhammad 

Hasbulla Shaik 

Ismail

2010 Bioresource 

Technology 8 Metal finishing

TDS Removal in 

Wastewater Using 

Roughing Filters

Peerreviewed 

journal

O I Nkwonta, G M 

Ochieng 2010 Chemical Sciences 

Journal 6 Coal mining
Appendix F

F-7

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Process Development, 

Simulation, and Industrial 

Implementation of a New 

Coal-Gasification 

Wastewater Treatment 

Installation for Phenol and 

Ammonia Removal

Peerreviewed 

journal

Zhenjiang Yu, Yun 

Chen, Dachun Feng, 

Yu Qian

2010

Industrial & 

Engineering 

Chemistry 

Research

8 Oil and gas 

extraction

Ultrafiltration and RO 

Treatment Consolidates 

Water Treatment Process 

for Indian Refinery

Industry 

publication

Unknown

2010 Industrial 

Wastewater 2 Petroleum 

refining

What Nitrate?

Industry 

publication

Carl Adams Jr, Ryan 

Kirkland, John 

Driver, Andrew 

Edwards, Ruth 

Cade, Chad Louque, 

Wally Dows

2010 Industrial 

Wastewater 6 Petroleum 

refining

Biological Treatment 

Helps Remove Nitrate, 

Sulfate from Mine Runoff

Industry 

publication

Mark Reinsel

2010 Industrial 

WaterWorld 2 Coal mining

Historic Mine Uses Ion 

Exchange for Copper, 

Cobalt Removal

Industry 

publication

Paul Egder, Adam 

Szczesniak, Mark 

Korzenecki

2010 Industrial 

WaterWorld 2 Ore mining and 

dressing

Treatment System Extracts 

Value from Acid Mine 

Drainage

Industry 

publication

Unknown

2010 Industrial 

WaterWorld 1 Coal mining

Turnkey Treatment System 

Tackles Food-Processing 

Wastewater

Industry 

publication

Unknown

2010 Industrial 

WaterWorld 2

Canned and 

preserved fruits 

and vegetables 

processing

Zero Liquid Discharge 

Installation is the First 

Permit-Free Chromium 

Plating Operation

Industry 

publication

David Delasanta

2010 Industrial 

WaterWorld 2 Metal finishing

Use of Ozone in a PilotScale Plant for Textile 

Wastewater Pre-treatment: 

Physico-chemical 

Efficiency, Degradation 

By-products Identification 

and Environmental 

Toxicity of Treated 

Wastewater

Peerreviewed 

journal

Cleder A. Somensi, 

Edésio L. 

Simionatto, Sávio L. 

Bertoli, Alberto 

Wisniewski Jr., 

Claudemir M. 

Radetski

2010

Journal of 

Hazardous 

Materials

6 Textile mills

A Carbonless, Total 

Nitrogen Removal Process

Industry 

publication

Chandler Johnson 2010 Pollution 

Engineering 4 Nonclassifiable establishments
Appendix F

F-8

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Stripping Cleans Up: 

Research on the stripping 

performance of wastewater 

containing highconcentration ammonianitrogen and zinc from a 

refinery plant

Industry 

publication

Jiang Linshi, Li Wei, 

Ma Hongfei, Li Na

2010 Pollution 

Engineering 4 Petroleum 

refining

Wastewater Helps Run 

Your Car Industry 

publication

Dr. Marcus Allhands

2010 Pollution 

Engineering 1

Organic 

chemicals, 

plastics and 

synthetic fibers

Characterization and 

Treatment of Selenium in 

Water Discharged from 

Surface Coal Mining 

Operations in West 

Virginia

Conference 

proceeding

T. Harrison, T. 

Sandy, K. Leber, R. 

Srinivasan, J. 

McHale, J. Constant 2010 SME Annual 

Meeting 5 Coal mining

Clear Results: Magnetic 

Ion Exchange Could 

Enable Pulp and Paper 

Mills to Reuse More 

Water.

Industry 

publication

Michael Bourke and 

Abigail Holmquist

2010 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 4 Pulp, paper and 

paperboard

Food Wastes? No 

Problem! Full-scale 

Anaerobic Membrane 

Bioreactor Proves it Can 

Handle High-Strength 

Industrial Wastewater

Industry 

publication

Scott Christian, 

Shannon Grant, 

Dwain Wilson, Peter 

McCarthy, Dale 

Mills, Mike 

Kolakowski

2010 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 4

Canned and 

preserved fruits 

and vegetables 

processing

High Strength? No 

Problem: Variable, Highstrength Wastewater Not a 

Problem for Static 

Granular Bed Reactors

Industry 

publication

Jaeyoung Park, 

Michael F. Lally, Jin 

Hwan Oh, Timothy 

G. Ellis

2010 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 7 Meat and poultry 

products

Needs More Work

Industry 

publication

Forough Firouzi, 

Mark A. Ross, 

Gordon Champneys, 

Michael J. 

McFarland

2010 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 3 Metal finishing

Suitable for Reuse

Industry 

publication

Elisângela 

Schneider, Ana 

Cláudia Figueiras 

Pedreira de 

Cerqueira, Geraldo 

Sant’Anna Jr., 

Marcia Dezotti

2010 WEF Industrial 

Wastewater 4 Petroleum 

refining
Appendix F

F-9

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

A Coordinated Approach 

to Achieving NPDES 

Permit Compliance for 

Mercury and Selenium in a 

Refinery Effluent

Conference 

proceeding

Greg Pulliam, 

Anthony Congram, 

Hal Davis, Bob 

Davis, Patricia 

Nelson

2010 WEFTEC 16 Petroleum

refining

Evaluation of Activated 

Sludge Microfiltration for 

Refinery Wastewater 

Reuse

Conference 

proceeding

Christian Cabral, 

Erica Blumenschein, 

Carla Robinson 2010 WEFTEC 18 Petroleum 

refining

Wastewater Reuse 

Considerations at a 

Petroleum Refinery

Conference 

proceeding

Lucy Pugh, Alan 

Burghart, Carl 

Finlay

2010 WEFTEC 16 Petroleum 

refining

NPDES #WV1003763, 

Outlet #2 Selenium 

Treatment System 

Evaluation Report

Industry 

publication

Coal Mac, Inc.

2011 Consent Decree 

Report 3 Coal mining

Desalinating Produced 

Water For Beneficial ReUse

Industry 

publication

Lnsp Nagghappan

2011 Industrial 

WaterWorld 3 Oil and gas 

extraction

High Recovery Reverse 

Osmosis for Treatment of 

Produced Water

Industry 

publication

Bob Kimball, Ken 

Klinko 2011 Industrial 

WaterWorld 2 Oil and gas 

extraction

A Review of the Cooling 

Water Methods for Sodium 

Hypochlorite Activation of 

Sodium Bromide into a 

Hypobromous Acid –

Hypobromite Biocide

Conference 

proceeding

Liz Harrelson, 

Jonathan Howarth, 

Courtney 

Mesrobian, Todd 

Shaver

2011 IWC 10 Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Absorbent Technology for 

Removal of Soluble 

Mercury at the Trace 

Contaminant Level (Low 

Part Per Trillion)

Conference 

proceeding

Gina Sacco, Cheryl 

Soltis-Muth

2011 IWC 10 Centralized 

waste treatment

Anti-Fouling Membrane 

System for Industrial 

Wastewater Treatment and 

Recovery Conference 

proceeding

Joon Min, Daeik 

Kim, Yong Eum, Gi 

T. Park, Sang W. 

Kim, Jang K. Kim, 

Dae H. Rhu 2011 IWC 11

Miscellaneous 

foods and 

beverages, Oil 

and gas 

extraction, 

Organic 

chemicals, 

plastics and 

synthetic fibers

Case Study on Selenium 

Removal from a Combined 

FGD Wastewater and 

Landfill Leachate for a 

Power Plant on the Ohio 

River

Conference 

proceeding

Michael Soller, PE, 

CPC, James 

Harwood, Tim 

Pickett 2011 IWC 12

Steam electric 

power 

generating
Appendix F

F-10

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Ceramic Membranes: Deoiling and Produced Water 

Recovery, Operating 

Performance, Successes 

and Failures

Conference 

proceeding

R. Gay-de-Montella, 

Worley Parsons, T. 

Harding, V. Martez 2011 IWC 8 Oil and gas 

extraction

Chemical Treatment and 

Fill Selection Methods to 

Minimize Scaling/Fouling 

in Cooling Towers

Conference 

proceeding

Brad Buecker, Ray 

Post, Rich Aull 2011 IWC 10 Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Concepts in Zero-Liquid 

Discharge Conference 

proceeding

Christian, Melches; 

Matthias, 

Lowenberg; Gunter, 

Hofmann

2011 IWC 17

Steam electric 

power 

generating

Demonstration Test of Iron 

Addition to a Flue Gas 

Desulfurization (FGD) 

Absorber to Enhance Flue 

Gas Selenium Removal

Conference 

proceeding

Thomas E. Higgins, 

Karen Meade, Denis 

Fink 2011 IWC 14

Steam electric 

power 

generating

Enzymatic Removal of 

Selenocyanate from Sour 

Water Stripper Bottoms

Conference 

proceeding

Greg DeLozier, 

Ph.D., Yakup 

Nurdogan, Ph.D., 

P.E.

2011 IWC 9 Petroleum 

refining

Evaluation of Carbon 

Sources for the Anaerobic 

Treatment of Flue Gas 

Desulfurization (FGD) 

Wastewaters for Heavy 

Metals Removal

Conference 

proceeding

Antonio O. Lau, 

Rudy Labban, Sunil 

Mehta, A. Paul 

Togna 2011 IWC 16

Steam electric 

power 

generating

Hydrodynamic Cavitation 

for Cooling Water 

Treatment: A Technology 

Update

Conference 

proceeding

Philip Vella

2011 IWC 10

Miscellaneous 

foods and 

beverages

In Search of the Highest 

Purity Ion Exchange Resin 

Available Stretching the 

Limit of Microelectronics

Conference 

proceeding

Alan Knapp, Slava 

Libman 2011 IWC 10

Electrical and 

electronic 

components

Organic Removal with 

Granular Activated Carbon 

(GAC) from Distillate 

Water with Bio-Fouling 

Tendency, and associated 

issues: A Follow-up Report 

on a Power Plant CaseStudy

Conference 

proceeding

Emmanuel 

Quagraine

2011 IWC 26

Steam electric 

power 

generating
Appendix F

F-11

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Piloting Conventional and 

Emerging Industrial 

Wastewater Treatment 

Technologies for the 

Treatment of Oil Sands 

Process Affected Water

Conference 

proceeding

Richard Mah, 

Rodney Guest, 

Pritesh Kotecha 2011 IWC 16 Oil and gas 

extraction

Preliminary Assessment of 

a Thermal Zero Liquid 

Discharge Strategy for 

Coal-Fired Power Plants

Conference 

proceeding

H.A. Nebrig; Xinjun 

(Jason) Teng; David 

Downs 2011 IWC 13

Steam electric 

power 

generating

Produced Water Softener 

Regeneration Using Boiler 

Blowdown

Conference 

proceeding

Francis Boodoo, 

Stephen Moylan 2011 IWC 9 Oil and gas 

extraction

Recovery and Recycling of 

Industrial Side-stream 

Wastewater

Conference 

proceeding

Michael Chan

2011 IWC 6 Metal finishing

Solidification of FDG 

Wastewater with Fly Ash: 

Feasibility and Fate 

Analysis

Conference 

proceeding

Rudy Labban, 

Denise Horner, 

Mark Owens 2011 IWC 11

Steam electric 

power 

generating

Sulfate Removal from 

Acid Mine Drainage for 

Potential Water Re-use

Conference 

proceeding

Alex West, David 

Kratochvil, Phil 

Fatula 2011 IWC 15

Mineral mining 

and processing, 

Ore mining and 

dressing

The Use of Constructed 

Wetlands in the Treatment 

of Flue Gas 

Desulfurization 

Wastewater

Conference 

proceeding

Jared Morrison, 

Christopher Snider, 

Dennis Haag 2011 IWC 14

Steam electric 

power 

generating

Using Permeate Suction to 

Reduce Concentration 

Polarization in Spiral 

Wound Nanofiltration 

Module

Conference 

proceeding

Awad El-Shamy, 

Robert Carnahan, 

Mahmoud Nachabe, 

Mark Ross, Ayden 

Sunol, Ahmed Said

2011 IWC 11 Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Generating 'Light Work' 

Removing Heavy Metals Industry 

publication

Rob Aldave, Steven 

Buday 2011 Pollution 

Engineering 4

Steam electric 

power 

generating

Regenerative Turbine 

Aeration Technology

Industry 

publication

Stuart Ward 2011 Pollution 

Engineering 4 Nonclassifiable establishments

Pilot Field-scale 

Demonstration of a Novel 

Alum Sludge-based 

Constructed Wetland 

System for Enhanced 

Wastewater Treatment

Peerreviewed 

journal

Y.Q. Zhao, A.O. 

Babatunde, Y.S. Hu, 

J.L.G. Kumar, X.H. 

Zhao 2011 Process 

Biochemistry 6 Agricultural 

services
Appendix F

F-12

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Enhancement of Start-up 

of Pilot-scale Granular 

SBR Fed with Real 

Wastewater

Peerreviewed 

journal

Yong-Qiang Liu, 

Yunhua Kong, JooHwa Tay, Jianrong 

Zhu

2011

Separation and 

Purification 

Technology

7 Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Petroleum Refinery 

Stripped Sour Water 

Treatment Using the 

Activated Sludge Process

Peerreviewed 

journal

Rion Merlo, 

Matthew Gerhardt, 

Fran Burlingham, 

Carla De Las Casas, 

Everett Gill, T. 

Houston Flippin

2011

Water 

Environment 

Research

12 Petroleum 

refining

Removal of Organics and 

Nutrients from Food 

Wastewater Using 

Combined Thermophilic 

Two-phase Anaerobic 

Digestion and Shortcut 

Biological Nitrogen 

Removal

Peerreviewed 

journal

Fenghao Cui, 

Seungho Lee, 

Moonil Kim

2011 Water Research 8 Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Activated Anaerobic 

Digestion with a 

Membrane Filtration 

System

Conference 

proceeding

S. Joh Kang, Kevin 

Olmstead, Oliver 

Schraa, Dai Hwan 

Rhu, Young Jin Em, 

Jang Kyu Kim, Joon 

H. Min,

2011 WEFTEC 19 CAFO

Chemical Treatment for 

Nitrite Nitrogen Removal 

from Stainless Steel 

Pickling Liquor 

Wastewater

Conference 

proceeding

Ryan A. Kirkland, 

A. Todd Lusk, Dr. 

Meint Olthof, David 

G. Gilles

2011 WEFTEC 7 Iron and steel 

manufacturing

Coal Seam Gas Water 

Treatment and Reuse 

Options

Conference 

proceeding

Graeme R. Lewis, 

Peter Baudish 2011 WEFTEC 16 Oil and gas 

extraction

Conceptual Design and 

Evaluation of Zero Liquid 

Discharge Systems for 

Management of Industrial 

Wastewater

Conference 

proceeding

Kristen Jenkins, 

Tom Higgins, Jim 

Mavis, Tom Sandy, 

Laura Reid, Ken 

Martins

2011 WEFTEC 10

Steam electric 

power 

generating

Extreme Water Reuse: 

Recycling in a Food 

Products Industry

Conference 

proceeding

Nicholas B. Cooper, 

Tracy Barker, A.G. 

Fishbeck

2011 WEFTEC 8 Wholesale trade 

- durable goods

Framework for a MixedCulture Biofilm Model to 

Describe Oxidized 

Nitrogen, Sulfur, and 

Selenium Removal in a 

Biofilm Reactor

Conference 

proceeding

Joshua P. Boltz, 

Doris Brockmann, 

Thomas Sandy, 

Bruce R. Johnson, 

Glen T. Daigger, 

Kristen Jenkins, Kar 

Manirathinam

2011 WEFTEC 12 Nonclassifiable 

establishments
Appendix F

F-13

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Industrial Waste Waters 

Re-use: Application of 

3FM High Speed Filtration 

and High Rate Softening as 

Pre-Treatment of 

Wastewaters from the High 

Water Consuming Pulp & 

Paper Sector

Conference 

proceeding

Marie-Pierre 

Denieul, Stephanie 

Mauchauffee, Eric 

Barbier, Gilles Le 

Calvez, Aurore De 

Laval, Marielle 

Coste

2011 WEFTEC 15 Pulp, paper and 

paperboard

Membranes for 

Wastewater Reclamation 

and Reuse for 

Petrochemical and 

Petroleum Refining 

Industries

Conference 

proceeding

Joseph Wong

2011 WEFTEC 12 Petroleum 

refining

Pretreatment of Electronics 

Wastewater for Reuse: 

Removal of Calcium Using 

Controlled Hydrodynamic 

Cavitation

Conference 

proceeding

Sunjip Kim, JinYoung Park, YongWoo Lee, Jae-Jin 

Lee, Yun-Kyu Choi,

Kyu-Won Hwang, 

Philip Vella, WonKwon Lee

2011 WEFTEC 16

Electrical and 

electronic 

components

Process Design for 

Simultaneously Removing 

Arsenic and Manganese

Conference 

proceeding

H. C. Liang, Samuel 

J. Billin, Joseph R. 

Tamburini

2011 WEFTEC 6 Coal mining

Process Optimization of a 

Petroleum Refinery 

Wastewater Treatment 

Facility Using Process 

modeling and Site Specific 

Biokinetic Constants

Conference 

proceeding

Hank Andres, David 

Kujawski, Oliver 

Schraa, Che-Jen Lin, 

Arthur Wong 2011 WEFTEC 15 Petroleum 

refining

Purification of High 

Copper and TDS Acid 

Mine Drainage Water 

Using F-LLXTM AMD 

VEPTM Liquid-Liquid 

Extraction Technology

Conference 

proceeding

Paul J. Usinowicz, 

Bruce F. Monzyk, 

Ann E. Lane, 

Tenisha Highsmith, 

Niharika Chauhan

2011 WEFTEC 9 Ore mining and 

dressing

Selenium Treatment of 

Mine Water Effluent in a 

Fluidized Bed Reactor 

(FBR)

Conference 

proceeding

Kar Munirathinam, 

Rangesh Srinivasan, 

Jeff J. Tudini, Tom 

A. Sandy, Tim D. 

Harrison

2011 WEFTEC 21 Coal mining

Soluble and Total 

Aluminum after NaOH 

Neutralization of Acid 

Rock Discharges

Conference 

proceeding

Ronald Neufeld, 

Xunchi Pu, Oscar 

Martinez Vazquez 2011 WEFTEC 8 Coal mining

Steel Slag Filtration for 

Extensive Treatment of 

Mining Wastewater

Conference 

proceeding

Dominique ClaveauMallet, Scott 

Wallace, Yves 

Comeau

2011 WEFTEC 14 Coal mining
Appendix F

F-14

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Treatment of Acrylic Acid 

Production Wastewater 

Using a Submerged 

Anaerobic Membrane 

Bioreactor

Conference 

proceeding

Michael Allison, 

Kripa Singh, 

Jonathan Webb, 

Shannon Grant

2011 WEFTEC 11

Organic 

chemicals, 

plastics and 

synthetic fibers

Uranium (VI) Reduction 

Under Facultative 

Anaerobic Conditions

Conference 

proceeding

Simphiwe 

Chabalala, Evans M. 

N. Chirwa

2011 WEFTEC 9 Ore mining and 

dressing

Use of Dissolved Gas 

Flotation for Clarification 

of Biological Solids from a 

Petroleum Refinery 

Activated Sludge System

Conference 

proceeding

Brian Foy, Dr. Enos 

Stover, Charles C. 

Ross, J. Patrick 

Pierce

2011 WEFTEC 14 Petroleum 

refining

Use of SofteningEnhanced High Density 

Sludge Treatment to 

Recover Mine Water for 

Beneficial Irrigation Reuse

Conference 

proceeding

Jim Stefanoff, Darby 

Stacey, James 

Almaas, Greg 

Pulliam, Karen 

Meade

2011 WEFTEC 9 Ore mining and 

dressing

A Simultaneous Removal

of Beryllium and 

Ammonium–nitrogen from 

Smelting Wastewater in 

Bench- and Pilot-scale 

Biological Aerated Filter

Peerreviewed 

journal

Fang Sun, Wei-Ling 

Sun

2012

Chemical 

Engineering 

Journal

8

Nonferrous 

metals 

manufacturing

Hospital Wastewater 

Treatment by Membrane 

Bioreactor: Performance 

and Efficiency for Organic 

Micropollutant Elimination

Peerreviewed 

journal

Lubomira Kovalova, 

Hansruedi Siegrist, 

Heinz Singer, Anita 

Wittmer, Christa S. 

McArdell

2012

Environmental 

Science & 

Technology

10 Hospital

Biosorption and Recovery 

of Chromium from 

Industrial Wastewaters By 

Using Saccharomyces 

cerevisiae in a FlowThrough System

Peerreviewed 

journal

Giovanni Colica, 

Pier Cesare 

Mecarozzi, Roberto 

De Philippis 2012

Industrial & 

Engineering 

Chemistry 

Research

6 Metal finishing

Removal of Cr(VI) and 

Humic Acid by 

Heterogeneous 

Photocatalysis in a 

Laboratory Reactor and a 

Pilot Reactor

Peerreviewed 

journal

Lucía d. C. Cid, 

María d. C. Grande, 

Eduardo O. Acosta, 

Berta Ginzberg 2012

Industrial & 

Engineering 

Chemistry 

Research

7 Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Use of Constructed 

Wetland Systems with 

Arundo and Sarcocornia 

for Polishing High Salinity 

Tannery Wastewater

Peerreviewed 

journal

Cristina S.C. 

Calheiros, Paula 

V.B. Quitério, 

Gabriela Silva, Luís 

F.C. Crispim, Hans 

Brix, Sandra C. 

Moura, Paula M.L. 

Castro

2012

Journal of 

Environmental 

Management

6 Leather tanning 

and finishing
Appendix F

F-15

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Study of Permeate Flux in 

Micellar-enhanced 

Ultrafiltration on a SemiPilot Scale: Simultaneous 

Removal of Heavy Metals 

from Phosphorous Rich 

Real Wastewaters

Peerreviewed 

journal

Piia Hayrynen, 

Junkal LandaburuAguirre, Eva 

Pongracz, Riitta L. 

Keiski

2012

Separation and 

Purification 

Technology

8 Fertilizer 

manufacturing

Acid Mine Drain (AMD) 

Treatment to Achieve Very 

Low Residual Heavy Metal 

Concentrations

Conference 

proceeding

Miroslav Colic, Jack 

Hogan 2012 WEFTEC 23 Ore mining and 

dressing

Bench- and Pilot-Scale 

Testing of Ion Exchange 

and Zero Valent Iron 

Technologies for Selenium 

Removal from a Surface 

Coal Mine Run-Off Water

Conference 

proceeding

Ken Martins, Jeremy 

Johnson, Karen 

Leber, Rangesh 

Srinivasan, Bo 

Heller

2012 WEFTEC 21 Coal mining

Breakpoint Chlorination of 

Petroleum Refinery 

WWTP Effluent Conference 

proceeding

Carla L. De Las 

Casas, Matthew B. 

Gerhardt, Rion P. 

Merlo, T. Houston 

Flippin, Fran B. 

Burlingham, David 

S. Murray

2012 WEFTEC 14 Petroleum 

refining

Comparison of COD and 

Toxicity Removal during 

Activated Sludge and 

MBBR Treatment of Kraft 

Pulp Mill Effluent

Conference 

proceeding

Natália R. de 

Rezende, Ann H. 

Mounteer, Geovana 

C. Mozer, Eduarda 

O. Reis

2012 WEFTEC 11 Pulp, paper and 

paperboard

Development of a Site 

Specific Toxicity-based 

Operating Guideline for 

Nitrite Nitrogen in a 

Petroleum Refinery 

Wastewater Discharge

Conference 

proceeding

David W. Johnston, 

Scott M. Anderson, 

David R. Marrs 2012 WEFTEC 11 Petroleum 

refining

Dissolved Air Flotation as 

Secondary Clarification Conference 

proceeding

Houston Flippin, 

Larry Cuomo and 

Lynn Petersen

2012 WEFTEC 6 Dairy products 

processing

Evaluation Of PEG 

Biodegradability Using 

MBR And MBBR Conference 

proceeding

Daniel B. 

Wilkinson, Katie L. 

Jones, Angela J. 

Walsh, Laura R. 

Crisman

2012 WEFTEC 11 Pharmaceutical 

manufacturing

Fate and Effect of 

Naphthenic Acids on 

Biological Wastewater 

Treatment Systems in Oil 

Refineries

Conference 

proceeding

Spyros G. 

Pavlostathis, Teresa 

Misiti, Ulas Tezel, 

Madan Tandukar

2012 WEFTEC 10 Petroleum 

refining
Appendix F

F-16

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Fluidized Bed Bioreactor 

Technology: 

Implementation and 

Operation for Industrial 

Contaminated Water 

Treatment

Conference 

proceeding

Todd S. Webster, 

Dave Enegess, Sam 

Frisch

2012 WEFTEC 12

Centralized 

waste treatment, 

Coal mining, 

Inorganic 

chemicals 

manufacturing, 

Petroleum 

refining

Industrial Water Treatment 

and Resource Recovery 

Using Anti-Fouling 

Membrane System for 

Brewery Wastewater

Conference 

proceeding

Joon H. Min, Young 

J. Eum, Charles 

Wardle, Allen Chen, 

Jarod Limke, Gi T. 

Park, Sang U. Kim, 

Jang K. Kim, Dae H. 

Rhu

2012 WEFTEC 8

Miscellaneous 

foods and 

beverages

Management of Soluble 

Organics in Produced and 

Flowback Waters with 

Swellable, Absorbent 

Glass

Conference 

proceeding

Paul Edmiston, 

Justin Keener, 

Shawn McKee, Scott 

Buckwald, Gregory 

Hallahan, Michael 

Grossman

2012 WEFTEC 14 Oil and gas 

extraction

MBBR to MBR – Unique 

Process Configuration for 

Pharmaceutical 

Wastewater 

Treatment/Reuse

Conference 

proceeding

Katie L. Jones, 

Daniel B. 

Wilkinson, Angela J. 

Walsh, Laura R. 

Crisman

2012 WEFTEC 12 Pharmaceutical 

manufacturing

MBR for Wastewater 

Recycling in Textile 

Industry 

The Experiences of an 

Operator from Idea to 

Implementation

Conference 

proceeding

R. Teckenberg, T. 

Pohlers, A. 

Ghazinuri, 

M.Hoffmeister, S. 

Schuler

2012 WEFTEC 8 Textile mills

Pilot Study of Pulp & 

Paper Mill Effluent 

Treatment with MBR-RO 

System

Conference 

proceeding

Vetrivel 

Dhagumudi, Dr. 

Dongxu Yan 2012 WEFTEC 13 Pulp, paper and 

paperboard

Pilot Testing of Selenium 

Removal in a Surface Coal 

Mine Water Containing 

High Nitrate and Selenium 

Concentrations

Conference 

proceeding

Matthew Gay, 

Rangesh Srinivasan, 

Kar 

Munirathinamm, 

Tom A. Sandy

2012 WEFTEC 18 Coal mining

Remote High-Altitude 

Pilot Treatment System for 

Mining-Impacted Waters

Conference 

proceeding

Christina Progess, 

Ram Ramaswami, 

John DeAngelis, 

Tom Rutkowski

2012 WEFTEC 4 Ore mining and 

dressing

Removal of Selenium in 

Refinery Effluent with 

Adsorption Media

Conference 

proceeding

Missy Hayes, Nancy 

Sherwood 2012 WEFTEC 12 Petroleum 

refining
Appendix F

F-17

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Selenium Removal from 

Oil Refinery Wastewater 

Using Advanced 

Biological Metal Removal 

(ABMet®) Process

Conference 

proceeding

Yakup Nurdogan, 

Patrick Evans, Jill 

Sonstegard 2012 WEFTEC 13 Petroleum 

refining

Selenium Treatment in 

Refinery Wastewater Conference 

proceeding

Sudini Padmasiri, 

Ronald Olivacce, 

Charles Meyer

2012 WEFTEC 13 Petroleum 

refining

Treatment of Fatty 

Wastewater from Food and 

Beverage Processing 

Industries

Conference 

proceeding

Markus Roediger, 

Ralph Teckenberg, 

Alexander Ghazinuri 2012 WEFTEC 9

Dairy products 

processing, Meat 

and poultry 

products

Water Chemistry 

Considerations for 

Improving Molybdenum 

Removal at a Mine Water 

Treatment Facility

Conference 

proceeding

H. C. Liang, Glenn 

Wright, Joseph R. 

Tamburini, W. 

Brinson Willis

2012 WEFTEC 6 Ore mining and 

dressing

Use of High-Pressure CO2 

for Concentrating CrVI 

from Electroplating

Wastewater by Mg−Al 

Layered Double Hydroxide

Peerreviewed 

journal

Xiangying Lv, Zhi 

Chen, Yongjing

Wang, Feng Huang, 

Zhang Lin

2013 Applied Materials 

and Interfaces 5 Metal finishing

Optimization of 

Continuous Reactor at 

Pilot Scale for Olive-oil 

mill wastewater treatment 

by Fenton-like process

Peerreviewed 

journal

Gassan Hodaifa, 

J.M. OchandoPulido, S. 

Rodriguez-Vives, A. 

Martinez-Ferez

2013

Chemical 

Engineering 

Journal

8

Miscellaneous 

foods and 

beverages

Treatment of Copper 

Wastewater Using Optimal 

Current Electrochemical–

Coagulation

Peerreviewed 

journal

Kyungtae Kim, 

Fenghao Cui, 

Hyunsik Yoon, 

Moonil Kim

2013 Environmental 

Technology 8

Electrical and 

electronic 

components

Complete Removal of 

Organic Contaminants 

from Hypersaline 

Wastewater by the 

Integrated Process of 

Powdered Activated 

Carbon Adsorption and 

Thermal Fenton Oxidation

Peerreviewed 

journal

Weijun Zhang, 

Xiaoyin Yang, 

Dongsheng Wang

2013

Industrial & 

Engineering 

Chemistry 

Research

7

Organic 

chemicals, 

plastics and 

synthetic fibers

Nitrification Performance 

in a Membrane Bioreactor 

Treating Industrial 

Wastewater

Peerreviewed 

journal

Lukas Dvorak, Jan 

Svojitka, Jirı 

Wanner, Thomas 

Wintgens

2013 Water Research 10 Nonclassifiable 

establishments

Coke Oven Wastewater 

Treatment Using on 

Immersed Membrane 

Biological Reactor

Conference 

proceeding

Art Kuljian, Jr, Ben 

Mutton, Greg 

Shamitko 2013 WEFTEC 21 Petroleum 

refining
Appendix F

F-18

Table F-1. Articles Entered into IWTT

Title

Document 

Type Author(s) Date

Journal or 

Publisher Page Industry

Design and Performance of 

the First Full Scale 

Membrane Bioreactor 

Plant Treating Oil Refinery 

Effluent in Brazil

Conference 

proceeding

Ana Claudia 

Cerqueira, Tiago 

Lopes, Vania

Santiago, Marcus 

Vallero, Joubert 

Trovati, Brian 

Arntsen, Wajahat 

Syed

2013 WEFTEC 12 Petroleum 

refining

EcoRight MBR Pilot Study 

Investigating Treatability 

of a Saudi Aramco 

Refinery Wastewater

Conference 

proceeding

William 

Cunningham, Chad 

Felch, Duane Smith, 

Thomas Vollstedt

2013 WEFTEC 21 Petroleum 

refining

Electrocoagulation: 

Performance in Treatment 

of Slop Water and Other 

Wastewaters

Conference 

proceeding

Alena TetreaultHaarstad, Peter 

Dold, Tore Oian 2013 WEFTEC 17 Oil and gas 

extraction

Fracking Wastewater 

Treatment at Collection 

Facility

Conference 

proceeding

Miroslav Colic, Ray 

Guthrie, Ariel 

Lechter

2013 WEFTEC 13 Oil and gas 

extraction

MBR Based Treatment of 

Tractor Manufacturing 

Wastewater

Conference 

proceeding

Miroslav Colic, Ray 

Guthrie, Ariel 

Lechter

2013 WEFTEC 20 Metal finishing

Selenium Recovery for 

Beneficial Reuse from 

Zinc Smelting Processing 

at Low pH conditions

Conference 

proceeding

Jang K. Kim, Joon 

H. Min, Young Jin 

Eum, Eui J. Yang, 

Myeong J. Yu, 

Jungwoo Lee

2013 WEFTEC 11

Nonferrous 

metals 

manufacturing

Selenium Removal from a 

Refinery Wastewater: 

Integrated Approach from 

Source Control to 

Wastewater Treatment

Conference 

proceeding

Marinetti Mauro, 

Ciongoli 

Bernardino, 

Zaffaroni Carlo, 

Munirathinam Kar

2013 WEFTEC 18 Petroleum 

refining

Treatment of Refinery 

Wastewater Containing 

High Concentrations of 

Chemical Oxygen Demand 

and Total Sulfides for Low 

Odor Processing through a 

Capacity-Challenged 

Bioreactor

Conference 

proceeding

Rich Clasen, Stan 

Heimburger, Mike 

Fagan, Mostafa 

Jahanian 2013 WEFTEC 13 Petroleum 

refining
APPENDIX G

PERFORMANCE DATA IN IWTT
Appendix G

G-1

APPENDIX G

PERFORMANCE DATA IN IWTT

Table G-1. Parameters with Performance Data in IWTT

Parametera Frequency

Acetic acid, 2-bromo-2-chloro 1

Acids, volatile fatty (as acetic acid) 1

Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 2

Alkalinity, bicarbonate (as CaCO3) 1

Alkalinity, total (as CaCO3) 2

Aluminum 3

Ammonia 4

Ammonia (as N) 9

Ammonia (as NH3) 10

Ammonia (as NH4) 4

Ammonia, total 6

Ammonia-nitrogen 5

Ammonium, nonvolatile 1

Ammonium, volatile 1

Ammonium-nitrogen 3

Ampicillin 1

Arsenic 6

Arsenic, total (as As) 1

Azithromycin 1

Barium 1

Barium, total 1

Benzene 2

Benzo(a)pyrene 1

Beryllium 1

BOD 21

BOD, carbonaceous, 05 day, 20 C 1

BOD, total 1

BOD5 9

Boron 2

BTEX 4

Cadmium 10

Calcium 8

Carbon dioxide (as CO2) 2

Carbon, dissolved organic (as C) 3

Carbon, tot organic (TOC) 13
Appendix G

G-2

Table G-1. Parameters with Performance Data in IWTT

Parametera Frequency

Chemical oxygen demand 43

Chemical oxygen demand, dissolved 1

Chemical oxygen demand, soluble 5

Chemical oxygen demand, total 12

Chloride 11

Chlorinated VOCs 1

Chlorine 1

Chlorine, total residual 1

Chloroform 1

Chlortetracycline (Aureomycin) 1

Chromium 9

Chromium, hexavalent 5

Chromium, total 4

Ciprofloxacin 1

Cobalt 1

Color, concentration at wavelength 4

Conductivity 11

Copper 9

Copper, total 2

Cyanide 3

Cyanide, total (as CN) 2

Cyanide, weak acid, dissociable 1

Dibromoacetic acid (DBAA) 1

Dichloromethane 1

Dissolved oxygen (DO) 6

Ethylbenzene 2

Fats, oils and grease (FOG) 7

Fats, oils and grease, total (TFOG) 2

Fluoride 3

Haloacetic acids (HAA5) 1

Hardness (as CaCO3) 1

Hardness, Ca calculated (mg/L as CaCO3) 1

Hardness, Mg calculated (mg/L as CaCO3) 1

Hardness, total (as CaCO3) 1

Hydrogen sulfide 2

Iron 7

Iron, total 3

Lead 4

Magnesium 5

Manganese 4
Appendix G

G-3

Table G-1. Parameters with Performance Data in IWTT

Parametera Frequency

Manganese, total 1

Mercury 4

Morphine 1

Naphthalene 1

Naphthenic acid 5

Nickel 12

Nickel, total 1

Nitrate 5

Nitrate (as N) 6

Nitrate (as NO3) 1

Nitrite (as N) 3

Nitrite (as NO2) 1

Nitrogen, inorganic total 1

Nitrogen, Kjeldahl total (TKN) 9

Nitrogen, total 10

n-Propylbenzene 1

Oil 2

Oil and grease 10

Oil and grease, hexane extr method 3

ORP 2

Oxygen demand, chem. (COD), dissolved 2

Oxygen demand, total 2

Perchlorate (ClO4) 1

Phenol 5

Phenol, nonvolatile 1

Phenol, volatile 1

Phenolic compounds, total 1

Phenols 4

Phosphate 2

Phosphate (as P) 1

Phosphate, ortho (as P) 1

Phosphate, total (as PO4) 1

Phosphorus 5

Phosphorus, total 12

Phosphorus, total (as P) 1

Selenate (VI) 2

Selenite (IV) 2

Selenium 5

Selenium, dissolved 3

Selenium, dissolved 0.45 um filter 1
Appendix G

G-4

Table G-1. Parameters with Performance Data in IWTT

Parametera Frequency

Selenium, total 10

Silica, dissolved (as SiO2) 1

Silica, total (as SiO2) 2

Silver 2

Sodium 5

Sodium, total (as Na) 1

Solids, total 2

Solids, total dissolved (TDS) 17

Solids, total volatile 2

Solids, volatile suspended 5

Strontium, total (as Sr) 1

Sulfate 9

Sulfate, total (as SO4) 1

Sulfide 4

Surfactants 1

Suspended solids 3

Thiocyanate 2

Tin 2

Toluene 2

Total petroleum hydrocarbons 2

Total phenols 1

Total suspended solids 38

Trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) 1

Turbidity 8

Vanadium 1

Xylene 2

Zinc 9

a Parameter names are only as specific as the names stated in each article.
APPENDIX H

IWTT DATA ELEMENT DICTIONARY 

AND REFERENCE TABLES
Appendix H

H-1

APPENDIX H

IWTT DATA ELEMENT DICTIONARY AND REFERENCE TABLES

Table H-1. Data Element Dictionary

Field Name Description Data Type Associated Data Tables

Authors All authors listed in same order as the article. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Main Author First author’s organization or affiliation. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Ref_Date Article publication year. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Title Article title. Memo 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Journal_Publisher The name of the journal, conference proceedings, or publisher of the 

article. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Volume_or_Pages Article page length or volume number (if available). Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Abstract A copy of the article’s abstract. Memo 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Key_Findings A summary of wastewater treatment system implementation and

performance. Memo 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Motivation A brief description of the motivation to evaluate or implement the 

wastewater treatment system. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

PSC_ref

If treatment system is lab scale, the Point Source Category (PSC) 

code selected from KEY_PSCSIC_Crosswalk. PSC codes are 

assigned in a separate table for each pilot- or full- scale treatment 

system; see the field “PSC_Code.”

Number 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

SIC_ref

If treatment system is lab scale, the Standard Industrial Classification 

(SIC) code selected from KEY_PSCSIC_Crosswalk. SIC codes are 

assigned in a separate table for each pilot- or full- scale treatment 

system; see the field “SIC_Code.”

Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

MainParameter The main parameters or classes of parameters focused on or targeted 

for removal in the article. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Waste_Stream The type of wastewater undergoing treatment. Default value is

"process wastewater." Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information
Appendix H

H-2

Table H-1. Data Element Dictionary

Field Name Description Data Type Associated Data Tables

Article_TT_Codes

If treatment system is lab scale, the treatment technology code(s) are 

entered, listed in unit order for the treatment system. Treatment 

technology codes are defined in KEY_TreatmentTechCode. See 

Table H-6 for descriptions of the treatment technology codes.

Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

1_Notes Any notes about relevant or unique aspects of the article, as a whole,

which are not captured in another field. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Pilot_or_Field_Study Displayed as “True/False.” Select “True” if the article describes 

pilot- or full-scale treatment system(s). Yes/No 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Empirical_Data

Displayed as “True/False.” Select “True” if there are measured, 

numerical (and not modeled) data about the wastewater treatment 

system(s).

Yes/No 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Performance_Data_Available

Displayed as “True/False.” Select “True” if influent and effluent data 

(numerical values) or percent removal only (no numerical 

concentrations) are presented in the article.

Yes/No 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Selected_for_Review Displayed as “True/False.” Select “True” if Pilot_or_Field_Study, 

Empirical_Data, and Performance_Data_Available are all checked. Yes/No 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Country Country in which the described treatment system was implemented, 

either USA or International. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information

Industry The industry name selected from KEY_PSCSIC_Crosswalk. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information; 

2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Ref ID The unique ID for each article. Number

1_INPUT_Reference_Information; 

2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology; 

2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology_Codes; 

3_INPUT_Detection_Limits; 

4_INPUT_Performance_Data

Scale The treatment system’s scale (i.e., lab, pilot, or full scale). User may 

select more than one. See Table H-3. Text

1_INPUT_Reference_Information; 

2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology; 

Key_Lab_Scale

Doc_ID The unique ID for each document type. See Table H-2 for document 

type values. Number 1_INPUT_Reference_Information; KEY_Document_Types

Motivation_Cat The general motivation category for evaluation or implementation of 

the wastewater treatment system. User may select more than one. Text 1_INPUT_Reference_Information; KEY_Motivation
Appendix H

H-3

Table H-1. Data Element Dictionary

Field Name Description Data Type Associated Data Tables

PSC_Code The PSC or Industry code. Numbers in the 400s are promulgated 

effluent guidelines and correspond to the 40 CRF Part Number. Number 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Treatment_Tech_Description Detailed description of the treatment system. Text 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Discharge_Designation

The type of wastewater discharge. Values are "direct" discharge to 

surface waters or "indirect" discharge to POTWs for further 

treatment.

Text 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Media_Type Any relevant media used in a treatment system unit. This typically 

applies to filters and membranes. Text 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Low_pH_Range The minimum value for the operating pH range. Number 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

High_pH_Range The maximum value for the operating pH range. Number 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

pH_Descriptor

A general value for pH, matching the level of detail stated in the 

article or a description of the operating pH range. Values may be 

"Low" for pH < 7 and "High" for pH > 7.

Text 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Chemical_Addition The type, dose, and location (i.e., the specific treatment unit) of 

chemicals added to the system. Text 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Addt_System_Parameters Any additional notes about the system parameters not captured in 

other fields, e.g., residence time, footprint, or energy requirements Memo 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Process_Diagram Figures, pictures, and process diagrams that show the treatment 

system may be included in the database as attachments. Attachment 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Manufacturer Name of the manufacturer of the treatment units in the system (if 

available). Text 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

Capital_Cost Estimated or actual capital cost of part of or the entire system. Text 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

OandM_Cost Estimated or actual operation and maintenance costs of part of or the 

entire system. Text 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

2_Notes Any notes about relevant or unique aspects of the wastewater 

treatment system not captured in another field. Memo 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology

HasPerfData Displayed as “True/False.” Select “True” to indicate that the system 

described in the article includes removal performance data. Yes/No 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology
Appendix H

H-4

Table H-1. Data Element Dictionary

Field Name Description Data Type Associated Data Tables

System_Name

Unique ID for each system described in an article. An article can 

have more than one system. The system _name is generated by the 

following convention: REF ID, followed by “T,” and a unique 

number, starting at 1, and increasing sequentially for each system

(e.g., If the assigned REF ID for an article is 10 and two systems are 

described, the system names are “10T1” and “10T2”.)

Text

2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology; 

2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology_Codes; 

3_INPUT_Detection_Limits; 

4_INPUT_Performance_Data

NAICS_Code

The 6-digit code that identifies North American Industry 

Classification System (NAICS) industries. See the U.S. Census 

website for more information (U.S. Census, 2012).

Number 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology; 

KEY_NAICS

SIC_Code The 4-digit SIC code. Number 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology; 

KEY_PSCSIC_Crosswalk

TT_Code_Order The order of each unit within the treatment system. Number 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology_Codes

TT_Code

A code to describe each treatment technology or unit process, as 

defined in KEY_TreatmentTechCode. See Table H-6 for descriptions 

of the technologies. Each wastewater treatment system may have 

several treatment technologies.

Text 2_INPUT_Treatment_Technology_Codes; 

KEY_TreatmentTechCode

Analytical Method Measurement method as described in each article. If method is not 

stated, value entered is "None described." Text 3_INPUT_Detection_Limits

Influent DL Detection limit for measurement of parameter in influent wastewater. Number 3_INPUT_Detection_Limits

Influent DL Units Units of influent detection limit. Text 3_INPUT_Detection_Limits

Effluent DL Detection limit for measurement of effluent wastewater. Number 3_INPUT_Detection_Limits

Effluent DL Limits Units of effluent detection limit. Text 3_INPUT_Detection_Limits

3_Notes Any notes about relevant or unique aspects of the analytical methods 

not captured in another field. Memo 3_INPUT_Detection_Limits

ParamID

A 5-character code in ICIS-NPDES that identifies the regulated 

pollutant parameter and specifies both the pollutant name and 

pollutant form (e.g., dissolved or suspended) when available.

Number

3_INPUT_Detection_Limits; 

4_INPUT_Performance_Data; 

KEY_Parameter_Code

Parameter The name of the parameter measured, corresponding to a parameter 

ID. The name is only as specific as stated in each article. Text

3_INPUT_Detection_Limits; 

4_INPUT_Performance_Data; 

KEY_Parameter_Code

PramScope Displayed as “True/False.” Select “True” to indicate that the 

performance data applies to the entire treatment system. Yes/No 4_INPUT_Performance_Data
Appendix H

H-5

Table H-1. Data Element Dictionary

Field Name Description Data Type Associated Data Tables

Influent Flag Value qualifier for the influent concentration. Value may be ">," 

">=," "<,""<=," "~," or "ND." "ND" is non-detect. Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

Influent Concentration Value of measured influent concentration. Number 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

Influent Units Units of influent concentration in mass/volume wastewater (e.g., 

mg/L, ppm). Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

Effluent Flag Value qualifier for the effluent concentration. Value may be ">", 

">=", "<","<=", "~", or "ND". "ND" is non-detect. Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

Effluent Concentration Value of measured influent concentration. Number 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

Effluent Units Units of influent concentration in mass/volume wastewater (e.g., 

mg/L, ppm). Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

% Removal Flag Value qualifier for the percent removal reported in the article. Value 

may be ">," ">=," "<,""<=," or "~." Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

Report % Removal The percent of pollutant removal by the treatment system, as reported 

in the article. Number 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

Effluent Limit Value of effluent limit as stated in the article. Number 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

EL Units Units of the effluent limit. Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

EL Description

Description or type of limit. Preferably a permit limit, but can 

include proposed limits or targeted goals (e.g., maximum daily, 

average monthly).

Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

EL 2 Value of additional effluent limit as stated in the article. Number 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

EL Units 2 Units of the effluent limit. Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

EL Description 2

If more than one limit is described, description or type of the 

additional limit. Preferably a permit limit, but can include proposed 

limits or targeted goals (e.g., maximum daily, average monthly).

Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

EL 3 Value of additional effluent limit as stated in the article. Number 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

EL Units 3 Units of the effluent limit. Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

EL Description 3

If more than one limit is described, description or type of the 

additional limit. Preferably a permit limit, but can include proposed 

limits or targeted goals (e.g., maximum daily, average monthly).

Text 4_INPUT_Performance_Data
Appendix H

H-6 

Table H-1. Data Element Dictionary

Field Name Description Data Type Associated Data Tables

AddtData

Displayed as “True/False.” Select “True” if there is additional 

performance data in the article from what is captured in the database. 

For example, average value is entered in the database, but maximum 

and minimum values were also reported in the article.

Yes/No 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

4_Notes Any notes about relevant or unique aspects of the measured 

parameter not captured in another field. Memo 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

Effluent_Graph Figures or graphs that show parameter removal or effluent quality 

may be included in the database as attachments. Attachment 4_INPUT_Performance_Data

PerformStatID Unique ID number of the statistical measurement type. Also serves 

as the order in which PerformStat values are displayed in the form. Number 4_INPUT_Performance_Data; Key_PerformStat

DocumentType

Article reference type. Document types include government report, 

peer-reviewed journal, conference proceeding, and industry 

publication. See Table H-2.

Text KEY_Document_Types

DocumentType_Order The order of document types displayed in a form. See Table H-2. Number KEY_Document_Types

ScaleID

Unique ID for the scale of treatment system. Values are defined as 

the following: “1” is lab scale, “2”is pilot-scale, and “3” is full-scale. 

See Table H-3.

Number Key_Lab_Scale

Motivation_ID Unique ID for the motivation category. See Table H-4 for 

descriptions of each ID number. Number KEY_Motivation

Motivation_sort The order in which motivation categories are displayed in the form. 

See Table H-4. Number KEY_Motivation

NAICS_Desc

The name of the NAICS Industry. See the U.S. Census website for 

more information (http://www.census.gov/cgibin/sssd/naics/naicsrch?chart=2012).Text KEY_NAICS

CAS_NMBR A Chemical Abstract Service (CAS) number assigned by the 

American Chemical Society that uniquely identifies a chemical. Number KEY_Parameter_Codes

Category

Categories of different types of pollutants, as identified by the DMR 

Pollutant Loading Tool. These categories include Conventional, 

Metals, and Nutrient. If pollutant is not included in a category in this 

field or “Category 2,” then classified as "Non-conventional."

Text KEY_Parameter_Codes

Category 2 Category identifying CWA Priority Toxic Pollutants, see Appendix 

A to 40 CFR Part 423. Text KEY_Parameter_Codes
Appendix H

H-7

Table H-1. Data Element Dictionary

Field Name Description Data Type Associated Data Tables

PerformStat

The statistical measurement type for the performance data entered 

(i.e., average, minimum, median, mode, maximum, unspecified, or 

individual). See Table H-5.

Text Key_PerformStat

SICDesc The industry description of the SIC code. Text KEY_PSCSIC_Crosswalk

PSC PSC or industry code. Numbers in the 400s are promulgated effluent 

guidelines and correspond to the 40 CRF Part Number. Number KEY_PSCSIC_Crosswalk

PointSourceCategory Description of the Point Source Category (PSC) or industry. Text KEY_PSCSIC_Crosswalk

TypeofGroup

A code for the type of industry group listed in PointSourceCategory. 

PSC is Point Source Category; SIC is Standard Industrial 

Classification System Industry; REV is regulation under 

development; and PNC is Potential new industrial category.

Text KEY_PSCSIC_Crosswalk

TT_ID Unique ID of the treatment technology name and code in the 

database. Number KEY_TreatmentTechCode

TT_Name Treatment technology name. Text KEY_TreatmentTechCode

TT_Category

General category of treatment process. Categories include Biological, 

Physical, and Chemical. See Table H-7 for descriptions of the 

categories.

Text KEY_TreatmentTechCode

TT_Variation Other common names or variations of the treatment technology. Text KEY_TreatmentTechCode
Appendix H

H-8

IWTT REFERENCE TABLES

Table H-2: KEY_Document Types

Doc_ID DocumentType DocumentType_Order

1 Government report 1

2 Peer-reviewed journal 2

3 Conference proceeding 3

4 Industry publication 4

Table H-3: KEY_Lab_Scale

ScaleID Scale

1 Lab

2 Pilot

3 Full

Table H-4: KEY_Motivation

Motivation_ID Motivation_Cat Motivation_sort

1 Effluent limit 1

2 Cost savings 2

3 Water reuse 3

5 Capacity increase 4

6 Zero liquid discharge 5

7 Environmental impairment 6

8 Material recovery 7

Table H-5: KEY_PerformStat

PerformStatID PerformStat

1 Average

2 Median

3 Mode

4 Maximum

5 Minimum

6 Unspecified

7 Individual
Appendix H

H-9

IWTT TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY CODE DESCRIPTIONS

The Treatment Technology Code Guidance table contains a listing of every identified 

treatment system unit, their assigned codes, and synonymous treatment systems. Reviewers 

assign a treatment technology code to each unit within the treatment system. Treatment 

technology codes may be added in cases where novel technologies are described in articles or 

where technology performance comparisons may benefit from additional specificity. Table H-6 

provides guidance to assist in assigning the treatment technology codes. Table H-7 provides

descriptions of the general treatment technology categories.

Table H-6. Treatment Technology Code Guidance

Treatment Name Code Synonyms Description

Alkaline 

Chlorination

AC N/A Used to destroy cyanides. Most often the process is

operated in two stages, with separate tanks for each stage. 

Destruction of dilute solutions of cyanide by chlorination 

can be accomplished by direct addition of sodium 

hypochlorite (NaOCl), or by addition of chlorine gas plus 

sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to the wastewater.

Aerobic Biological 

Treatment

AD Aerated Biological 

Removal, Aerobic 

Digestion

Biodegradable organic compounds in wastewater are 

consumed by microorganisms. This process is aerated.

Adsorptive Media ADSM N/A New materials used to remove pollutants via surface 

adhesion. Do not use this code for packed-bed or any 

granular-filtration process. Expect these to have 

copyrighted names. This code excludes GAC.

Aerobic Fixed Film 

Biological 

Treatment

AFF Attached Growth, 

Fixed Bed Reactor, 

Rotating Biological 

Contactor, 

Trickling Filter, 

Fluidized Bed 

Reactor

Microorganisms attach to inert media. This process is 

aerated.

Aeration AIR Aeration Channel, 

Aerobic Polishing 

Cell

Providing contact with air or pure oxygen to increase 

dissolved oxygen (DO) in wastewater. 

Hydrolysis, Alkaline 

or Acid

AKH N/A Addition of an acid or base (e.g., sodium or potassium 

hydroxide) to enhance biodegradability of organic 

substances. Used as a pretreatment step before biological 

treatment and to reduce the toxicity of pesticides.

Anaerobic 

Biological 

Treatment

AND Non-Aerated, 

Facultative

A biological treatment process that is non-aerated, hence, 

without oxygen.

Anaerobic Fixed 

Film Biological 

Treatment

ANFF Attached Growth, 

Fixed Bed Reactor, 

Rotating Biological 

Contactor, 

Trickling Filter, 

Fluidized Bed 

Reactor

Microorganisms attach to inert media.
Appendix H

H-10

Table H-6. Treatment Technology Code Guidance

Treatment Name Code Synonyms Description

Anaerobic 

Membrane 

Bioreactor

AnMBR Combination of suspended growth biological treatment 

under low or zero dissolved oxygen conditions and

ultrafiltration.

Anaerobic 

Suspended Growth

ANSG Anaerobic Lagoon Biodegradable organic compounds in wastewater are

consumed by microorganisms. The microorganisms are 

suspended within the wastewater, creating a sludge that is 

separated from the water.

Advanced Oxidation 

Processes, Not 

Classified Elsewhere 

(NEC)

AOP Supercritical Water 

Oxidation, 

Catalytic 

Oxidation, Photo 

Catalysis (UV + 

TiO2), Fenton's 

Reagent

Various mechanisms to oxidize organic materials not 

classified elsewhere.

Aerobic Suspended 

Growth

ASG Activated Sludge, 

Aerobic Lagoon

Biodegradable organic compounds in wastewater are 

consumed by microorganisms. The microorganisms are 

suspended within the wastewater, creating a sludge that is 

separated from the water (during clarification–CLAR). This 

process is aerated.

Biological Activated 

Carbon Filters

BAC Granular media 

that support 

microbial growth, 

submerged aerated 

filter

GAC, sand, or other filter media with microbial growth that 

can remove residual pollutants via filtration, adsorption, 

biodegradation, and bioregeneration.

Biofilm Airlift 

Suspension Reactor

BASR Airlift Bioreactor Pneumatic device with defined channels for fluid flow. Air 

pumped into the unit forces the fluid to flow through 

channels (internal or external loops). Usually will contain 

gas, solid, and liquid phases. 

Bag and Cartridge 

Filtration

BCF N/A Used to remove suspended solids, typically in systems with 

lower flow rates. Filter media are shaped as bags or 

cylindrical cartridges. 

Ballasted 

Clarification

BCLAR BioMag, CoMag, 

Enhanced Settling, 

High Rate Settling, 

Actiflo

Improves gravitational settling rates by addition of a 

weighing agent to the clarifier, typically magnetite or sand.

Biological 

Treatment

BIO N/A Biodegradable organic compounds in wastewater are 

consumed by microorganisms. This is a general term that 

should only be used for unspecified biological treatments.

Biological Nutrient 

Removal

BNR Modified LudzackEttinger (MLE) 

Process

General term for technologies designed to remove nitrogen 

species from wastewater.

Chemical 

Disinfection

CD Hydroxyl Radical, 

Oxygen, Hydrogen 

Peroxide, Chlorine 

Species, Halogens

Use of chemicals to disinfect (destroy pathogens in) 

wastewater. Use CO when referring to oxidation of 

pollutants. 

Cloth Filtration CF Cloth Media (Disc) 

Filter

Water is passed through a cloth medium to remove solids. 

Cloth is often shaped into discs.
Appendix H

H-11

Table H-6. Treatment Technology Code Guidance

Treatment Name Code Synonyms Description

Controlled 

Hydrodynamic 

Cavitation

CHC Mechanical Energy 

Device

Device that uses mechanical energy to prevent biofouling, 

scale, and corrosion. The high temperatures and physical 

forces generated promote chemical reactions, oxidize

organic compounds, and kill pathogens. Cavitation is the 

formation and implosion of cavities (bubbles) in a liquid.

Chemical 

Precipitation

Chem

Pre

Coagulation and 

Flocculation

Process to remove suspended solids from water. Chemical 

addition first neutralizes charged particles (coagulation) and 

promotes particle adhesion to form large, visible clumps 

(flocculation) that can then settle out of the wastewater. 

This term is also used for the addition of lime, alum, ferric 

sulfite, or other precipitants to remove soluble metals from 

solution by forming insoluble compounds.

Clarification CLAR Settling, 

Sedimentation

Separation of suspended particles from water by 

gravitational settling. 

Chemical Nitrogen 

Removal

CNR N/A Redox reaction to remove nitrogen from water or convert 

between different forms of nitrogen. 

Chemical Oxidation CO Hydrogen 

Peroxide, 

Permanganate, 

Chlorine, Bleach

Addition of chemicals (in any phase) to oxidize organic 

compounds. This code excludes ozone.

Chemical 

Phosphorous 

Removal

CPR N/A Addition of metal-salts, most commonly alum, to 

precipitate phosphorus species out of solution.

Centrifugal 

Separators

CS (Liquid) 

Hydrocyclone

Mechanical separation of liquids or particles of different 

densities. Used to separate oil from water and separate light 

from dense solids.

Crystallization CYS Fluidized Bed 

Crystallization

Crystallization describes the formation of solid crystals 

precipitating from a solution. It can be applied postevaporation (EVAP) to create a solid waste product or to 

recover a product in the wastewater. When used for product 

recovery, crystallization combines four treatment steps–

coagulation, flocculation, sludge/water separation, and 

dewatering. High-purity, reusable water is also produced.

Dissolved Air 

Flotation

DAF N/A Air is dissolved under pressure and then released at 

atmospheric pressure in a tank. The released air creates 

bubbles which adhere to suspended solids, causing the 

solids to float to the surface where they can be removed by 

skimming. Removes suspended solids, oil, and grease

Dechlorination DCL N/A The process of removing residual chlorine from disinfected 

wastewater prior to discharge into the environment. Sulfur 

dioxide is most commonly used. Not to be confused with 

degradation of chlorinated organics. 

Capacitive 

Deionization

DEI Electro-sorption Removal of dissolved ions through an electrochemical 

mechanism.

Dissolved Gas 

Flotation

DGF Same process as DAF, but uses gases other than air (e.g.,

natural gas, nitrogen).
Appendix H

H-12

Table H-6. Treatment Technology Code Guidance

Treatment Name Code Synonyms Description

Degasification DGS Membrane 

Degasification, 

Forced Draft 

Degasification

Removal of dissolved gases from water by pressure 

reduction, membrane degasification, or an unspecified 

method. This includes heating to remove a gas. If heating is 

used to vaporize water, use EVAP.

Distillation DST N/A Contaminated water is heated to form steam, leaving 

inorganic compounds and large, non-volatile organic 

molecules behind. The steam is then condensed, forming 

purified water. Distillation requires input of energy and 

collection of the purified water.

Enhanced Biological 

Phosphorus 

Removal

EBPR Enhanced 

Biological 

Phosphorus Uptake

Use of phosphate-accumulating organisms to store 

phosphate within the cell. Phosphate removed in waste 

sludge.

Electrocoagulation EC N/A Entails passing the wastewater across metal electrodes. EC 

is used to remove colloids, heavy metals, and emulsified 

oils. The direct current solubilizes metal ions and 

destabilizes charged particles, promoting coagulation and 

flocculation.

Electrodialysis ED Electrodialysis 

Reversal (EDR)

Involves moving ions in a potential field across alternating 

polymeric anion- and cation-exchange membranes. A 

potential difference applied across the membranes traps 

ions and separates a brine waste stream from purified water. 

Electrodialysis works best for removing low molecular 

weight charged species.

Flow Equalization EQ Buffer tank, Flow 

Control, Flow 

Balance

A basin, lagoon, tank, or reactor that serves to control a 

variable flow of wastewater to achieve a near constant flow 

into the treatment system or between units. 

Evaporation EVAP N/A Water is vaporized and sometimes condensed for reuse. The 

remaining product is concentrated brine containing the 

dissolved solids from the original wastewater. The process 

may be carried out naturally in solar (shallow) evaporation 

ponds or through the use of commercially available 

evaporation equipment. The brine may be further 

concentrated during the crystallization process (CYS).

Denitrification 

Filters

FDN N/A Granular-media filtration beds that support growth of 

denitrifying bacteria. These units reduce nitrate to nitrogen 

gas and remove suspended solids.

Granular-Media 

Filtration

FI Conventional, 

Multi-Media, or 

Sand Filtration

Removal of suspended solids is accomplished by passing 

wastewater through a filter bed of granular media. Media 

may include sand, walnut shells, and steel slag.

Forward Osmosis FO Engineered or 

Manipulated 

Osmosis

Water transfer through a selectively permeable membrane 

driven by the osmotic pressure difference across the 

membrane. Water is drawn across a membrane to a solution 

with a higher concentration (relative to the wastewater). 

The resulting separated water must then be further treated to 

produce a high quality effluent. 
Appendix H

H-13

Table H-6. Treatment Technology Code Guidance

Treatment Name Code Synonyms Description

Granular Activated 

Carbon Adsorption

GAC N/A Uses the physical/chemical adsorption process to remove 

soluble contaminants from wastewater. GAC is a highly 

effective adsorbent due to its large surface area and high 

porosity. Used to remove organics and some metals and for 

taste and odor control.

Gasification GAS Downdraft, Updraft 

or Fluidized Bed 

Gasifier

Thermo-chemical process to convert carbon-containing 

biosolids into gas (carbon dioxide and methane) and energy. 

Resulting energy can be used for heating. Gases are used to 

generate fuels, electricity, and heat. GAS also reduces the 

volume of solids for disposal.

Granular Sludge 

Sequencing Batch 

Reactor

GSBR N/A Aerobic biological treatment with enhanced sludge settling 

by formation of granular sludge, without the use of carrier 

materials. Granular sludge developed by selection of 

biomass with short settling times.

Integrated Fixed 

Film Activated 

Sludge

IFAS N/A Carrier media added to an activated sludge system to 

increase loadings without increasing the plant footprint. 

Often used for retrofits.

Ion Exchange ION Softening, 

Deionization

Ion exchange is a physical-chemical process in which ions 

are swapped between a solution phase and a solid resin 

phase. Different resins are used to target different charged 

particles. Commonly used for softening (removing 

dissolved calcium and magnesium) and nitrate removal.

Liquid Extraction LE (Flotation) LiquidLiquid Extraction, 

Solvent Extraction

Separation of chemicals based on different solubilities in 

two solutes. Allows recovery of the chemical from 

wastewater. 

Moving Bed 

Bioreactor

MBBR N/A A hybrid suspended, growth-fixed film system. “Biocarrier”

media are provided in the unit for the microorganisms to 

grow on. Increases the effective surface area for reaction 

while reducing the footprint of the system.

Membrane 

Bioreactor

MBR N/A Combination of aerobic suspended growth biological 

treatment and ultrafiltration. Ultrafiltration replaces the use 

of secondary clarifiers (solids separation) in conventional 

WWTPs. Can be used to reduce BOD, TSS, nitrogen, and 

phosphorus.

Membrane Filtration MF Microfiltration, 

Ultrafiltration 

Filtration methods that remove particles as small as 100 nm 

(microfiltration) and 10 nm (ultrafiltration). Many 

molecules are within this size range. 

Mechanical PreTreatmentMPT Screen, Bar, Rack, 

Grit Chamber, 

Comminuter, 

Grinder, 

Preliminary 

Treatment

Physical removal of debris and coarse solids. This is the 

first step in wastewater treatment, which serves to protect 

downstream treatment equipment.

Nanofiltration NANO N/A A membrane filtration method used to remove particles as 

small as 1 nm from wastewater. This includes divalent and 

large monovalent ions (e.g., heavy metals). Used for 

desalination and softening.
Appendix H

H-14

Table H-6. Treatment Technology Code Guidance

Treatment Name Code Synonyms Description

Oil/Water 

Separation

OW API Separators Removal of gross quantities of oil and suspended solids by 

skimming and collecting oil from the surface of the 

wastewater. 

Ozonation OZ Advanced 

Oxidation Process

Ozone is a highly unstable gas used to either oxidize 

organic substances or disinfect wastewater. It must be 

produced onsite for immediate use in a contact chamber.

Powdered Activated 

Carbon

PAC N/A Same removal mechanisms as GAC, but finer particles (<= 

1.0 mm diameter).

Reverse Osmosis RO Desalination A membrane filtration method used to remove small ions 

(e.g., Na+) from water. Requires a high pressure hydraulic 

pressure gradient to counteract the osmotic pressure 

gradient that would otherwise favor movement of water into 

(instead of out of) the concentrated wastewater or saltwater.

Stripping ST Air or Gas 

Stripping

The removal of substances with equilibrium vapor pressures 

at ambient temperatures, such as ammonia and many 

volatile organic compounds (VOCs). 

Ultrasound US Sonication High frequency bandwidth of sound applied to agitate 

particles in solution and disrupt cell membranes. Used in 

water storage facilities to suppress algal growth and biofilm 

formation.

UV UV Ultraviolet Light or 

Radiation

Ultraviolet radiation penetrates into the wastewater to 

oxidize organics and/or disinfect. Used as a last, polishing 

step in wastewater treatment. May be used with chemical 

oxidants such as peroxide and ozone.

Wet Air Oxidation WAO N/A The oxidation of soluble or suspended components in water 

using oxygen as the oxidizing agent. Air is used as the 

source of oxygen.

Constructed 

Wetlands

WET Reed Bed, 

Artificial Wetland, 

Peat Land

Application of natural processes and use of vegetation to 

remove BOD, nutrients, and suspended solids. "Green" 

technology that can minimize energy used for water 

treatment.

Zero Valent Iron ZVI nZVI Granular or nanoscale ZVI is used to remove metals by 

adsorption and reductive precipitation mechanisms. Utilized 

through a separate reactor unit. Similar configuration to 

granular-media filtration.

Zero Liquid 

Discharge (ZLD)

A multi-unit process that produces solid, but not liquid waste. The main technologies 

enabling ZLD are EVAP and CYS. The facility can also choose to reuse all wastewater after 

a certain amount of treatment. The decision to fully reuse wastewater is not considered a 

treatment technology. Indicate ZLD as a motivation category in Form 1.

Blowdown Boiler Wastewater is fed to the boiler, which vaporizes water and generates concentrated brine. Not 

a direct treatment process. Use EVAP.

N/A: Not applicable.
Appendix H

H-15

Table H-7: Treatment Technology Categories

Category Description

Biological Any process utilizing microorganisms to remove or transform pollutants.

Chemical A process that changes the chemical composition of the wastewater or uses chemicals to 

promote solids separation (coagulation and flocculation).

Physical

Filtration A process in which suspended or colloidal particles are separated from water by passing 

through a porous medium.

Membrane A process in which particles are separated from water by passing water through a semipermeable membrane.

Sorption A process in which pollutants are removed from wastewater by absorbing or adsorbing to 

a non-biological medium.

Physical, NEC A process that changes the state but not the molecular composition of chemicals in the 

wastewater, often used for solids separation.