Recreation Visitor Research: 

Studies of Diversity

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Southwest 

Research Station

General Technical 

Report

PSW-GTR-210

October 2008

DEPAR TMENT OF AGRICULT URE
The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of 

multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, 

water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the 

States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National 

Grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service 

to a growing Nation.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, 

sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic 

information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income 

is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all 

programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of 

program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET 

Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write 

USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 

20250-9410 or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal 

opportunity provider and employer.

Editors

Deborah J. Chavez is a supervisory social scientist, and Patricia L. Winter

and James D. Absher are research social scientists, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station, Wildland Recreation and Urban Cultures research unit, 

4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507-6099; e-mail: dchavez

@fs.fed.us; pwinter@fs.fed.us; jabsher@fs.fed.us. 
Recreation Visitor Research: 

Studies of Diversity 

Deborah J. Chavez, Patricia L. Winter, and James D. Absher, Editors

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service

Pacific Southwest Research Station

Albany, CA

General Technical Report PSW-GTR-210

October 2008
Abstract

Chavez, Deborah J.; Winter, Patricia L.; Absher, James D., eds. 2008. Recreation visitor research: studies of diversity. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-210. 

Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station. 216 p.

In 1987, the Pacific Southwest Research Station (PSW) of the U.S. Department 

of Agriculture Forest Service (USFS) chartered a research work unit to examine 

outdoor recreation in the wildland-urban interface. The new work unit was established to address the needs of the increasingly diverse recreation visitors to national 

forests. The four forest supervisors in southern California observed that in the past, 

most recreation visitors were White.1 However, that percentage was changing with 

an increase in diverse visitors. In particular, they noted the increasing numbers 

of Latino visitors. They also observed that the diverse visitors were recreating in 

different ways compared to White visitors. The supervisors expressed concern that 

the needs of the diverse visitors may not be being met because the sites were often 

developed with White visitors in mind, and thought it was beneficial for PSW to 

provide scientific information about the diverse outdoor recreation visitors who 

were using USFS lands for outdoor recreation. The research work unit has emphasized applied research in response. 

We report 16 studies grouped into six major topical headings: international 

studies, syntheses of studies, management studies, environmental belief studies, 

communication studies, and measurement studies. 

Keywords: Recreation, diversity, forest visitors, forest users, wildland-urban 

interface.

1 Please note that throughout this document we will use a variety of terminology when 

discussing racial and ethnic groups. We often use the term “White,” for example in 

place of Caucasian or European-American and other terms. We often use the term 

“Latino” in place of Hispanic, Chicano, Mexican American, Central American, etc. 

We sometimes use the term “Hispanic.” We use African American in place of Black. 

We understand that people have strong preferences for a particular term, and do not 

wish to offend any reader with our choices.
Contents

1 Section I

3 Chapter 1: Introduction

7 Section II: International Studies

9 Chapter 2: The Dual Role of Local Residents in the Management of 

Natural Protected Areas in Mexico

 Gustavo Perez-Verdin, Martha E. Lee, and Deborah J. Chavez

23 Chapter 3: Use of the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum in Natural

Protected Area Planning and Management

 Gustavo Perez-Verdin, Martha E. Lee, and Deborah J. Chavez

39 Chapter 4: Constraints to Leisure Travel and Visitation to Natural Areas:

An International Comparison of Four Cities

 Patrick T. Tierney, Deborah J. Chavez, and James D. Absher

51 Section III: Syntheses of Studies

53 Chapter 5: Serving the Needs of Latino Recreation Visitors to UrbanProximate Natural Resource Recreation Areas

 Deborah J. Chavez

63 Chapter 6: Diverse Users of Four Urban National Forests: Participation,

 Preferences, and Perceptions

 Deborah J. Chavez and David D. Olson

75 Chapter 7: Race, Ethnicity, Recreation, and Leisure: An Assessment of

 Research Gaps

 Edwin Gómez

85 Section IV: Management Studies: Programs, Outreach, and Employment

87 Chapter 8: Management Assumptions and Program Realities: A Case Study

of Noncommercial Fern Gathering

 Janet E. Alm, Dale J. Blahna, and Deborah J. Chavez

97 Chapter 9: Southwesterners’ Views of Threatened and Endangered Species

Management: Does Racial/Ethnic Diversity Make a Difference?

 Patricia L. Winter and George T. Cvetkovich

113 Chapter 10: Physical Activity Among Hispanic/Latino and Non-Hispanic/

Latino White Visitors on Urban-Proximate Public Lands

 Sonja A. Wilhelm Stanis, Ingrid E. Schneider, Kimberly J. Shinew,

 Deborah J. Chavez, and Mary C. Vogel

123 Chapter 11: Outdoor Recreation and Nontraditional Users: Results

of Focus Group Interviews With Racial and Ethnic Minorities

 Robert C. Burns, Elizabeth Covelli, and Alan Graefe
139 Chapter 12: Perceptions of Agriculture and Natural Resource Careers

Among Minority Students in a National Organization

 Corliss Wilson Outley

155 Section V: Environmental Belief Studies

157 Chapter 13: Connecting Latinos With Nature

 Deborah J. Chavez

163 Chapter 14: Wildland Recreationists’ Natural Resource Management

Purposes and Preferences: A Connection to Environmental Identity

 Patricia L. Winter and Deborah J. Chavez

175 Section VI: Communication Studies

177 Chapter 15: Forest Visitation, Media Consumption, and Diverse Publics:

Lessons for Outreach

 Willam Crano, Ryan Quist, and Patricia L. Winter

195 Chapter 16: Routes to Communication About Outdoor Recreation

With Diverse Publics: What We Know About Media

 Patricia L. Winter, Jessica Skenderian, and William Crano

205 Section VII: Measurement Studies

207 Chapter 17: Approaches to Measuring Cultural Diversity in Recreation

 Chieh-Lu Li, James D. Absher, Yi-Chung Hsu, and Alan R. Graefe

216 Acknowledgments
Section I
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210
Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Deborah J. Chavez, Patricia L. Winter, and James D. Absher

In 1987, the Pacific Southwest Research Station (PSW) of the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service (USFS), chartered a research work unit to examine 

outdoor recreation in the wildland-urban interface. The need for the work unit was 

identified by the four forest supervisors in southern California, from the Angeles 

National Forest, the Cleveland National Forest, the Los Padres National Forest, 

and the San Bernardino National Forest. Supervisors wanted scientific information about the diverse outdoor recreation visitors who were using USFS lands for 

outdoor recreation. They noted that in the past, most recreation visitors were White, 

but that the percentage was changing with an increase in diverse visitors. In particular, they noted the increasing numbers of Latino or Hispanic visitors and that they 

recreated in different ways compared to White visitors. For example, for outdoor 

picnics, Latinos would come early in the day and stay all day, often making foods 

from scratch on site. In comparison, White recreation visitors would stay for only a 

few hours and bring foods made at home. The supervisors expressed concern that 

the needs of the diverse visitors may not be being met because the sites were often 

developed with White visitors in mind. For example, Latinos were coming in larger 

groups than could be accommodated with solitary picnic tables, so site designs did 

not fit their patterns of use. The supervisors requested scientific information that 

would help them better serve those diverse visitors. The research work unit has 

emphasized applied research as a response. 

In 2001, Chavez authored a general technical report (PSW-GTR-180) on managing outdoor recreation in California, focusing on studies of visitors from 1989 

through 1998. The current document presents a compilation of studies that have 

occurred since the Chavez 2001 paper. Several differences exist between the 2001 

paper and this general technical report (GTR). First, many of the studies reported 

here are outside California (they include studies in Oregon, Minnesota, Illinois), 

and several studies are international. Next, some articles in this GTR include 

general population studies, whereas Chavez 2001 focused on visitors to public 

forest and desert lands. Another difference between the GTRs is that the Chavez 

2001 GTR is a synthesis of different topics included in several studies, whereas here 

we report on several individual papers, including a few synthesis papers. There are 

also some similarities—both GTRs have an emphasis on diverse visitors and both 

emphasize the applied nature of the studies. Our hope is that this document continues to fulfill the needs of the supervisors in southern California as well as other 

managers in need of information about diverse recreation visitor groups. 

Chapter 1: Introduction
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

The 16 papers included in this GTR were grouped into six major topical headings: international studies, syntheses of studies, management studies, environmental belief studies, communication studies, and measurement studies. 

International Studies

The three papers in this section cover the following topics:

• The dual role of local residents in the management of natural protected areas 

in Mexico. Local residents play an important role in the management of protected areas because they represent potential users of these areas, they receive 

the benefits or costs of developing nature-based recreation in these areas, and 

they are the group most closely interested in the management of these areas. 

• The use of the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) framework for managing recreation opportunities at two protected natural areas in Mexico. The 

ROS criteria and standards used to inventory and describe outdoor recreation 

opportunities in these two areas had to be adapted for local conditions; nonetheless, the ROS framework performed well. 

• Results from constraints to leisure travel and visitation to natural area studies 

conducted in Mexico, and also, Scotland, Spain, and the United States. The 

article points out how cultural values produced significant differences on visitation constraints and use of undeveloped natural areas.

Syntheses of Studies

Three papers in this section cover the following topics:

• A synthesis of materials from 17 research projects provides insight into serving Latino recreation visitors to urban proximate outdoor recreation areas. 

Suggestions to serve Latino outdoor recreation visitors were offered in communications, development of recreation sites, use of partnerships and cooperation, and provision of employment opportunities. 

• A synthesis of visitor participation patterns, visitor preferences, and the perceptions of visitors based on data collected over time in southern California at 

day use outdoor recreation sites. 

• An assessment of research trends and five research gaps in studies related to 

race, ethnicity, recreation, and leisure. 

The 16 papers included in this GTR 

were grouped into six 

major topical headings: 

international studies, 

syntheses of studies, 

management studies, 

environmental belief 

studies, communication studies, and 

measurement studies. 


Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Management Studies: Programs/Outreach/Employment

The five papers in this section cover the following topics:

• Management assumptions and program realities for fern gathering on the San 

Bernardino National Forest, focusing on biological and sociological factors. 

• Southwesterners’ views of threatened and endangered species management, 

which examined whether trust, or the willingness to rely upon others to make 

decisions or take actions on others’ behalf, was influenced by racial/ethnic 

diversity or gender. 

• Physical activity among Latino and non-Latino White visitors in California, 

Illinois, and Minnesota. The differences found between the two racial and 

ethnic groups suggested both management challenges and opportunities. 

• Results of focus group interviews with racial and ethnic group members in 

Oregon. The focus group interviews were designed to determine perceptions 

about what recreation activities, services, facilities, and experiences were 

thought to be appropriate at various public locations in Oregon. 

• Perceptions of agriculture and natural resources careers among minority students from a national organization. The perceptions and attitudes reported by 

students who chose a career in agriculture and natural resources were focused 

around the themes of career opportunities, positive educational experiences, 

and internship/job experiences with agencies and organizations.

Environmental Belief Studies

The two papers in this section cover the following topics:

• Perceptions of Latino outdoor recreation visitors about ecosystem services. 

These visitors strongly agreed with the importance of managing natural areas 

for both cultural (such as outdoor recreation locations) and regulating (such as 

protecting water quality) ecosystem services. 

• Wilderness and day use recreationists’ preferences for natural resource 

management and their perceptions of purposes for management using an 

Environmental Identity Salience scale, which indicate that management of 

recreation opportunities can include considerations of sustainability. 
GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Communication Studies

The two papers in this section cover the following topics:

• Lessons for outreach based on a needs analysis conducted among residents of 

Los Angeles County. The findings suggest that ethnic media may be one form 

of contact to utilize, and the data suggest the use of print media and getting 

the word out through community contacts. 

• Routes to communication about outdoor recreation with diverse publics, 

including a discussion of the value of ethnic media, the potential utility of 

community networks (such as churches), and the use of the Internet.

Measurement Studies

The one paper in this section covers the following topic:

An approach to measuring cultural diversity in recreation. Measuring cultural 

diversity in recreation is an important topic because of the increasing coverage 

of and interest in ethnicity and cross-cultural aspects of recreation. Cultural consensus analysis is suggested to estimate the level of within-group agreement, and 

approaches to measuring between-group differences are described. 

Literature Cited

Chavez, D.J. 2001. Managing outdoor recreation in California: visitor contact 

studies 1989–1998. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-180. Albany, CA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research 

Station. 100 p.
Section II:

International Studies



Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Gustavo Perez-Verdin,1 Martha E. Lee,2 and Deborah J. Chavez3

Abstract

In many developing countries, local residents play an important role in the management of protected areas because they represent potential users of natural protected 

areas (NPA) resources, they receive the benefits (or costs) of developing naturebased recreation, and they are the group most closely interested in the management 

of an area located near them. In this study, we evaluated the perceptions of local 

residents toward developing nature-based recreation programs in a protected area 

in northern Mexico. Personal interviews in three cities were used to assess barriers to recreation participation and the potential impacts that additional recreation 

programs could bring to the area. We found that residents identified lack of money, 

lack of time, lack of knowledge, and no interest as the main barriers to participation in nature-based recreation opportunities. No consensus was found among the 

three communities with regard to recreation impacts. Two communities agreed that 

recreation can be beneficial, whereas the third community believed that it can bring 

negative impacts. If more recreation were to develop in this NPA, resource managers would have to consider all residents’ perceptions to plan for effective management strategies. 

Keywords: Natural protected areas, marginality theory, Michilía Biosphere 

Reserve, recreation impacts, residents’ perceptions.

Introduction

Natural protected areas (NPAs) have been recognized worldwide because of 

their role in conservation strategies and their historical, intrinsic relationship 

with humans. People protect areas for spiritual reasons, resource or species 

management, or for the sustainable use of natural resources (Chape et al. 2005). 

An NPA is a human response to perceived threats to nature and, further, the type 

1 Assistant professor, Department of Forestry, Mississippi State University, Box 9681, 

Starkville, MS 39762, e-mail: gperez@cfr.msstate.edu. 

2 Professor, School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 

86011, e-mail: Martha.Lee@nau.edu. 

3 Supervisory social scientist, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 

4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507, e-mail: dchavez@fs.fed.us.

Chapter 2: The Dual Role of Local 

Residents in the Management of 

Natural Protected Areas in Mexico

We evaluated the 

perceptions of local 

residents toward 

developing naturebased recreation 

programs in a 

protected area in 

northern Mexico.
10

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

and characteristics of the protected area are determined by the current generation’s 

values (McNeely 1997). For example, Yellowstone National Park established in 

1872 and considered one of the first protected areas in the modern era, was created 

as a result of society’s increasing needs for wildland recreation uses and wildlife 

protection (Haines 1974). The Yellowstone National Park concept as an NPA 

eventually sparked the creation of more protected areas to address specific concerns 

within the United States and transcended to other parts of the world. These include 

Canada (Banff), Mexico (El Chico), New Zealand (Tongariro), and Switzerland 

(Swiss National Park), among others (Mulongoy and Chape 2004). Today, there 

are more than 100,000 NPAs registered in the World Database on Protected Areas, 

covering almost 12 percent of Earth’s land area (Chape et al. 2005).

Although the concept of NPAs implies different land uses for various objectives, depending in part on a country’s legislative regime (Chape et al. 2005), the 

majority of these areas have similar objectives with regard to wilderness protection, preservation of species, maintenance of environmental services, tourism and 

recreation, scientific research, and education (Mulongoy and Chape 2004). Tourism 

and recreation have recently seen tremendous increases because of the growing 

number of visits and the economic impacts visitors bring to the regional economy 

of many countries (Barkin 2000). The economic value of ecotourism in Canada 

and the United States in 1996, for example, was estimated to be worth between 

$237 and $370 billion (Mulongoy and Chape 2004). Likewise, visits to the Monarch 

butterfly (Danaus plexippus) sanctuary in central Mexico greatly increased from 

about 25,000 people in 1986 to some 250,000 in 1999 (Barkin 2000). Ideal goals of 

ecotourism are to simultaneously pursue environmental conservation, benefits to 

local communities, and sustain profitable business (Jones 2005).

In many developing countries, NPAs are created in areas removed from 

mainstream development. As soon as an NPA is established, an exchange process 

between protected resources and humans begins, making the linkage between 

nature conservation and economic development especially challenging. Local 

residents respond to that process by giving support to its establishment to the 

extent that such areas continue to provide benefits to them, especially in the form 

of continued resource availability (Mulongoy and Chape 2004). Visitors in turn 

are compensated by the quality of services found and the level of accomplishment 

of their personal goals. This exchange process has been the topic of many studies 

in areas such as tourism, ecotourism, and recreation (Bryant and Napier 1981; 

Madrigal 1993, 1995; Perdue et al. 1987, 1990; Teye et al. 2002).
11

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Conceptual frameworks to explain residents’ perceptions toward nature-based 

recreation include social exchange theory (Bryant and Napier 1981). This theory 

explains the relationship between individual benefits and perceptions of economic 

development (Perdue et al. 1987, 1990). The theory specifies that local residents 

seek benefits in exchange for something estimated as equal to the benefits they offer 

in return, such as resources provided to tourism developers, tour operators, and 

visitors (Perdue et al. 1990). Residents offer support for appropriate development, 

hospitability, and tolerance for inconveniences created by recreation such as 

pollution, littering, and queuing for services (Teye et al. 2002). If a resident 

perceives environmental impacts, threats to their cultural status, or anticipate 

no economic development, the resident will be more likely to oppose a program 

intended to develop recreation. One way to identify potential impacts of recreation 

development is by assessing local residents’ perceptions. Typically, support for 

additional recreation development is classified into positive or negative impacts 

and residents are asked to rate specific variables in each category (Madrigal 1993, 

1995; Perdue et al. 1987, 1990).

Although the majority of studies on residents’ perceptions about nature-based 

recreation treat locals as hosts (e.g., Avila-Foucat 2002; Barkin 2000; Pearce 1980; 

Walker 1996, 1997), few studies have analyzed their role as potential users of NPA’s 

resources. In the absence of available recreation areas, some residents can become 

active users and still maintain their host status as exchangers for recreational 

programs. However, the use of recreation areas is restricted as a function of 

various socioeconomic, demographic, and cultural barriers (Floyd 1998, Johnson 

et al. 1997). The emphasis on local participation in NPA development implies that 

host members are often excluded from not only planning, but decisionmaking 

and management of programs (Teye et al. 2002). The exclusion of locals in NPA 

management is a common practice in developing countries with a top-down 

decisionmaking culture. 

In this paper, we evaluate the dual role of local residents toward recreation in an 

NPA in northern Mexico. These roles have been identified as potential users of recreation resources and hosts of outside visitors. In the first case, we examine a social 

theory that explains limitations to participation in nature-based recreation programs 

and discuss the differences among residents of three nearby cities. In the second 

case, we use local residents’ perceptions to identify positive and negative impacts 

for potential recreation development. We begin this paper by providing background 

on the marginality theory and the system of NPAs in Mexico. 

Some residents can 

become active users 

and still maintain 

their host status 

as exchangers for 

recreational programs.
12

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Marginality Theory

Several social theories have been developed to analyze the lack of participation 

in outdoor recreation opportunities in the United States (Johnson et al. 1997). 

Marginality theory, for example, suggests that differences in leisure participation are a function of poverty or discrimination as reflected in fewer available 

recreation opportunities, lack of access to transportation, underdeveloped program 

availability, and lack of information about facilities (Chavez 2000; Johnson et al. 

1997, 1998). Other social theories include ethnicity, perceived discrimination, and 

opportunity (Johnson et al. 1998, Manning 1999). In Mexico, few studies have been 

conducted to evaluate the factors that keep people from visiting recreation areas. 

We focused on the marginality theory only because of the presence of a single 

dominant ethnic group and the existence of well-identified socioeconomic classes. 

We assumed that the marginality theory could have some effect on recreation 

participation among residents of Durango, similar to that of Latinos in the Southwestern United States (Chavez 2002, Floyd 1998, Floyd et al. 1993, Tierney 

et al. 1998). This observational reasoning came from the various similarities 

between these populations in terms of customs and values (Ai-Camp 2003).

As active users of recreation resources, residents face various limitations, 

which can reduce their participation in nature-based recreation opportunities. 

They can be restricted by money, resource accessibility, lack of knowledge of 

NPA resources, and lack of time, among other factors.

The Natural Protected Areas System in Mexico 

According to the National Commission on Natural Protected Areas (or CONANP, 

its Spanish acronym), there are 159 protected areas in the Mexican system of 

NPAs. These include 67 national parks, 36 biosphere reserves, 29 wildlife areas, 17 

sanctuaries, and 10 national monuments. They cover approximately 22.3 million 

hectares (11.3 percent of the country’s total area) of which about 11 million hectares 

are biosphere reserves making them the biggest contributor to the protected area 

system (CONANP, accessible at http://www.conanp.gob.mx/anp/anp.php). 

Owing to the unique land tenure system in Mexico where the majority of forest 

lands belong to local communities in the form of common properties (ejidos4), 

nature-based recreation is more likely to occur in NPAs, especially in national 

parks and biosphere reserves. Although more ejidos and other private properties 

have started community enterprises for ecotourism development, particularly in 

4

An ejido/comunidad is an expanse of land, title to which resides in a community of 

beneficiaries of the agrarian reform. In the majority of ejidos the property is collectively 

owned, and some lands (woodlands, pastures) are for collective use.
13

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

tropical areas, the supply of recreation areas is still not enough to satisfy a growing 

demand for nature-based recreation opportunities. In addition, the cost for visiting 

community-developed recreation areas is regulated by market and seasonal changes 

as opposed to the reduced fee (or sometimes free access) to public NPA areas.

Although there are no area restrictions in using national parks for recreation, 

biosphere reserves have barriers to unlimited access (Borrini 1996). A typical 

biosphere reserve contains a secure central core area designed strictly for nature 

preservation, a surrounding buffer area in which relatively nondestructive multiple 

uses may occur, and an outermost transition area that allows greater human participation (Baker 1994). It is in the buffer and transition areas of reserves where 

properly managed ecotourism can bring considerable income to locals without 

threatening the natural resource base (Kaus 1993, Mulongoy and Chape 2004). 

Although participation in nature-based recreation opportunities has increased 

in recent years, a considerable portion of Mexican society still faces many restrictions, mostly economic, to visitation. Cothran and Cothran (1998) suggested that 

nature-based recreation is still exclusive for the middle and upper socioeconomic 

classes, leaving city parks and other outdoor attractions to the low socioeconomic 

class. The fact that NPAs are located in remote areas, coupled with little knowledge 

of NPA resources, have resulted in few visitors to the areas. Not surprisingly, city 

parks and other town attractions report overcrowding, especially on the weekends.

Methods

The Michilía Biosphere Reserve (MBR), one of the two biosphere reserves in the 

state of Durango, was examined in this research. The MBR receives more than a 

thousand visitors per year mostly from in-state cities such as Durango City, Súchil, 

El Mezquital, and Vicente Guerrero, but others travel from distant areas like 

Mexico City, Monterrey, and Torreón. Currently, resource managers are developing 

a comprehensive management plan for the reserve in which nature-based recreation 

programs are considered to promote a sense of conservation and environmental 

education among local residents and visitors. Our study focused on this area 

because of its potential to provide recreation opportunities, its low popularity, and 

its developing facilities. To learn residents’ perceptions, we conducted personal 

interviews in the cities of Durango, El Mezquital, and Súchil in 2002. The sample 

sizes for each city were Durango 105, El Mezquital 96, and Súchil 95 (fig. 2-1). 

More on the characteristics of the study area can be found in Perez-Verdin (2003).

The survey instrument consisted primarily of closed-ended questions asking 

individuals to identify barriers to recreation participation and indicate their level of 

agreement with perceived recreation impacts. Response categories included 7-point 

It is in the buffer 

and transition areas 

of reserves where 

properly managed 

ecotourism can bring 

considerable income 

to locals without 

threatening the natural 

resource base.
14

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

scales with endpoints labeled -3 (either very unimportant, or strongly disagree) and 

+3 (either very important, or strongly agree). Other questions required dichotomous 

answers (“yes/no”) or open-ended responses such as basic demographic data. 

Consistent with the marginality theory (Johnson et al. 1997), barriers to visitation 

included lack of money, lack of time, lack of knowledge, and no interest in recreation participation among others. Other nonmarginality factors included discomfort 

in MBR settings, feeling unsafe in the area, and the weather. The perceived impacts 

were classified into positive and negative impacts. The negative impacts group 

included higher risk of wildfires, ecological impacts to flora and fauna, loss of cultural values, change in customs, and overcrowding by visitors. The positive impacts 

groups consisted of creation of new facilities, increase in investments, increase in 

labor supply, and increase in the standard of living (Perez-Verdin et al. 2004). Cross 

tabulations, one-way analysis of variance, and discriminant function analysis were 

the statistical tools most used to differentiate residents’ perceptions.

Figure 2-1—Michilía Biosphere Reserve (MBR) and the communities involved in the study of local 

residents’ perceptions in Durango, Mexico. The communities are Durango, El Mezquital, and Súchil. 
15

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Results

In general, most of the interviewees (79 percent) had visited forest lands, but only 

31 percent had visited MBR. In these visits, survey respondents tended to participate in large groups (average nine people per visit; no significant difference was 

found among the three cities), and 68 percent of residents spent fewer than 2 days 

per visit. The city of Durango reported the highest percentage of non visitors (84 

percent), compared to El Mezquital (60 percent), and Súchil (47 percent).

Marginality Theory Effects

A majority of respondents reported lack of time (65 percent) as the main reason for 

not visiting MBR.5 Lack of knowledge (63 percent), family and friends not liking 

this type of recreation (43 percent), lack of money (42 percent), and lack of interest 

(37 percent) were other reasons respondents provided for their relatively few visits 

to MBR. Nonetheless, when asked the question “If the reason you expressed as 

the most important could be changed, would you consider visiting the MBR in the 

future?” 90 percent of the respondents answered “yes.” 

Residents of El Mezquital and Súchil were more likely than Durango residents 

to report being constrained by lack of money and lack of interest (fig. 2-2). Lack of 

time and lack of knowledge did not show significant differences among the cities. 

The results agreed somewhat with the socioeconomic profiles of the cities: Durango 

5 This number is fairly analogous to the 77 percent of Latino-Americans who indicated the 

same variable as the main participation barrier in the United States (Cordell et al. 1999).

Figure 2-2—Cross tabulations of reasons that keep people from visiting the Michilía Biosphere 

Reserve in Durango, Mexico.

100

80

60

40

20

0

Lack of time

X2 = 2.011

p = 0.73

Lack of money

X2 = 11.81

p = 0.02

Lack of knowledge

X2 = 5.945

p = 0.20

No interest

X2 = 20.73

p = <0.01

Percentage of respondents

Durango

El Mezquital

Súchil
16

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

residents had the highest economic status and the highest level of education, thus 

marginality issues were less important than for the other two cities involved in the 

study. Cross tabulations showed that all marginality factors together accounted for 

88 percent of responses, whereas nonmarginality factors accounted for 12 percent 

(χ

2 = 13.34, p < 0.01). 

Perceived Impacts of Nature-Based Recreation Programs

A one-way ANOVA was conducted to test for differences in the perceived impacts 

among the three cities. Six of the nine impacts, including all items within the 

negative impacts group plus an increase in labor supply, reported significant 

differences among the communities (fig. 2-3). A discriminant function analysis 

was performed to identify the relative weights of each recreation impact and 

differentiate residents’ perceptions. The nine recreation impact variables were 

entered as independent variables with residency membership as the grouping 

variable. The first discriminant function (λ = 0.61, χ

2

 = 129.1, p < 0.001) accounted 

for 96 percent of the total variance and correlated most highly with the negative 

impacts groups, which include higher risk of wildfires (0.65), loss of cultural 

values (0.54), overcrowding by visitors (0.49), change of customs (0.27), and 

ecological impacts to fauna and flora (0.19). The correlation coefficients for the 

Figure 2-3—Perceived impacts of developing outdoor recreation programs in the Michilía Biosphere Reserve. The positive 

impacts included increase in investments (INVEST), increase in labor supply (LABOR), creation of new facilities (FACIL), 

and increase in the standard of living (LIVING). The negative impacts included ecological impacts to fauna and flora 

(FAFLO), overcrowding by visitors (OVERC), change in customs (CUSTOM), higher risk of wildfires (WILDF), and loss 

of cultural values (CULTUR). 

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

Mean values

INVEST LABOR FACIL LIVING FAFLO OVERC CUSTOM WILDF

CULTUR

Durango

El Mezquital

Súchil Very

unimportant

Very

important

-3 Scale (mean values) 3
17

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

positive impacts were increase in labor supply (-0.21), creation of new facilities 

(0.15), increase in investments (0.08), and increase in standard of living (0.03). 

Analysis of group centroids clearly identified that El Mezquital residents had 

higher scores on the discriminant function than the Durango and Súchil residents. 

The functions at group centroids were Durango -0.38, El Mezquital 1.06, and 

Súchil -0.72 (fig. 2-4). If a person had strong negative perceptions toward the 

development of outdoor recreation programs, she or he was more likely to be 

identified as an El Mezquital resident. 

Excluding increase in labor supply, El Mezquital residents agreed that recreation is beneficial in terms of providing greater investments in the region, more 

facilities, and an increase in living standards. However, they were concerned about 

the potential negative impacts of recreation such as the risk of wildfires and loss 

of traditional, cultural values. In 1998, a forest fire burned several hectares in the 

MBR and killed one firefighter near El Mezquital. It is not clear what caused this 

wildfire, but apparently visitors did not completely extinguish a campfire. Events 

like this could have influenced residents’ perceptions on nature-based recreation 

impacts, particularly the risk of wildfires. We also attributed the score differences 

of El Mezquital residents in part to the physical and social conditions of this community. El Mezquital is isolated from other towns or communities and is home 

to Tepehuanos, one of the most important indigenous groups in Durango. More 

than 90 percent of the El Mezquital residents have been in a forest land and have 

Figure 2-4—Discriminant function analysis of the perceived impacts by local residents in Durango, 

Mexico. Function 1 accounted for 96 percent of the total explained variance and is the reference axis.
18

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

perceived threats to natural resources. For example, we found a slight negative 

correlation (r = -.20, p < 0.05) between visitors to forest lands and perceived risk 

of wildfires. Visitors were more concerned about the potential increase of wildfires 

than nonvisitors. In sum, it appeared that El Mezquital residents’ perceptions 

reflected past experiences when rating the importance of the perceived impacts 

of recreation in MBR.

Conclusions

This research contributes to an understanding of the dual role of local residents 

in managing NPAs. Residents can be active users of recreation areas and at the 

same time hosts of outside visitors and judgers of potential impacts from developing recreational programs. The case study presented here provides support for the 

marginality theory in understanding factors that influence recreation participation. 

Residents reported lack of money, time, knowledge, and interest as the main barriers to participation in nature-based recreation opportunities in the area. However, 

there is significant latent demand for MBR visitation in the three cities. Nearly 

90 percent of the survey respondents would consider visiting MBR if their main 

reason for not visiting could be changed in the future, which means that if outdoor 

recreation programs are developed in the MBR, resource managers should consider 

strategies to overcome these marginality-related barriers. These strategies could 

include alternative transportation, improving existing roads, and providing more 

facilities in the area, particularly for large groups.

We also found that recreational development is positively supported by two of 

the three communities involved in this study. El Mezquital residents, the differing 

community, perceived that more recreation could bring potential negative impacts 

such as higher risk of wildfires, loss of traditional cultural values, change in customs, 

and overcrowding. The cultural richness of El Mezquital is based in part on the ethnic 

diversity and on the traditional ways values and customs are kept. Having more people visit the MBR may result in locals breaking traditional rules by working through 

the weekends (typically the days with most visitation), and employing women, which 

may affect family unity and community cohesiveness. El Mezquital residents agreed 

that recreation could bring more employment to the region, but this agreement was 

not as strong as in the other two communities. If more commercial recreation were to 

develop in MBR, resource managers would have to consider all residents’ perceptions 

to arrive at successful management strategies. 

The case study 

presented here 

provides support for 

the marginality theory 

in understanding 

factors that 

influence recreation 

participation. 

Residents reported 

lack of money, 

time, knowledge, 

and interest as the 

main barriers to 

participation in naturebased recreation 

opportunities in the 

area.
19

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

The implications of these findings are particularly relevant for NPA managers 

who have to recognize and accept the delicate role of local residents in the 

management of protected areas. The results from residents’ perceptions may 

indicate whether people associate relevant social problems with managing natural 

resources. Negative perceptions and potential conflicts could indicate the urgency 

for political arbitration and possible interventions, whereas positive perceptions 

could be interpreted as public policies finding acceptance and satisfaction. These 

results can be helpful to integrating the opinions and demands of all stakeholders 

into political planning and decisionmaking processes of MBR resources. However, 

we recommend more studies of the relationships among recreation participation, 

land conservation, and economic development of rural communities interacting 

with NPAs. 

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research 

Station and Northern Arizona University under the agreement PSW-02-JV11272137-010. The authors wish to express their gratitude to the residents that 

participated in the interviews as well as to the staff of the Forest Department of 

the state of Durango and the Michilía Biosphere Reserve. 

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23

1 Assistant professor, Department of Forestry, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 

39762; e-mail: gperez@cfr.msstate.edu. 

2 Professor, School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011; e-mail: 

Martha.Lee@nau.edu. 

3 Supervisory social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507; e-mail: 

dchavez@fs.fed.us. 

Chapter 3: Use of the Recreation 

Opportunity Spectrum in Natural 

Protected Area Planning and Management

Gustavo Perez-Verdin,1 Martha E. Lee,2 and Deborah J. Chavez3

Abstract

The use of the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) framework, widely used 

in planning and managing wildland recreation in the United States, was tested 

for managing recreation opportunities in southern Durango, Mexico. Two natural 

protected areas were used as case studies to evaluate the ROS criteria and standards 

for land classification of outdoor recreation opportunities. Personal interviews were 

used to learn visitors’ characteristics and the recreation activities they performed 

during their visits. Other pieces of information consisted of maps, aerial photos, 

field trips, and population demographics. The ROS criteria and standards used to 

inventory and describe outdoor recreation opportunities in the two areas differed 

from the original ROS criteria and were adapted to local conditions. Based on 

visitors’ preferred settings and other available information, the study identified 

three of the six commonly used ROS classes. Overall, the ROS framework appears 

to perform appropriately in these two case studies and could be used effectively for 

recreation planning purposes in other forest areas of Mexico.

Keywords: Michilía Biosphere Reserve, protected area management, recreation 

opportunity spectrum, recreation planning, El Tecuán Recreational Park.

Introduction 

Natural protected areas are primarily managed to protect biodiversity but can 

often provide recreation-related economic benefits to local communities (Borrie et 

al. 1998, Lane 2001). The fact that these goals can be in conflict requires careful 

planning of recreation opportunities so as to minimize the negative impacts to 

natural resources (impacts to the biota, wildlife, and water quality), to visitor 

experiences (crowding, conflicts, and dissatisfaction), and to local residents (loss 

of culture, economic disbenefits). Borrie et al. (1998) proposed a series of 11 

principles to guide protected area planning based on research on visitor impacts 
24

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

and management practices designed to minimize those impacts; for example, the 

need to develop explicitly stated objectives being the first and most basic principle. 

The second principle acknowledges that visitors both within a particular protected 

area and among various protected areas desire a variety of recreation activities, 

experiences, and settings and that providing a “diversity of resource, social and 

managerial conditions in and among protected areas is inevitable and may be 

desirable” (Borrie et al. 1998: 138). Providing a diversity of recreation opportunities 

gives visitors choices, enabling managers to meet a variety of expectations, 

contributing to greater visitor satisfaction. These recreation opportunity “zones” 

can also lessen conflicts among visitors engaged in potentially conflicting activities 

(e.g., motorized vs. nonmotorized), and may lead to preservation of protected areas 

via a proactive management approach that plans for varying levels of human use 

rather than allowing unplanned recreation (Haas et al. 1987, McNeely 1994).

The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) was developed as a framework 

to assist resource managers to inventory, classify, and manage outdoor recreation 

resources within an overall planning framework (Brown et al. 1978). This planning 

process involves estimating user demand for recreation opportunities and combining this expected demand with the capability of the resource to provide recreation 

opportunities. Recreation opportunity planning outputs, including explicit management objectives, can be integrated with other outputs of protected area planning 

such as wildlife, cultural resources, and local community values to develop plans 

for resource allocation and management. 

The intent of these case studies was to assess the usefulness of ROS as a 

recreation planning tool for natural protected areas in southern Durango, Mexico. 

The flexibility of the ROS as a recreational planning framework motivated the study 

described here. The ROS recognizes that change is part of the natural environment 

and that human activity can accelerate and intensify change. In Mexico, the 

topography, the unique land tenure system that affects the patchiness of ecosystems, 

along with other management considerations, might require modified or even new 

ROS classification criteria and standards. Few studies in Mexico have documented 

the application of recreation planning and management frameworks. GonzálezGuillen et al. (1996) studied 14 natural parks in central Mexico to identify forestbased recreation potential and identified 27 forest recreation sites. Even though they 

never mentioned the ROS framework or any other planning approach to manage these 

areas, they considered the setting characteristics to identify those recreation sites. 

The overall objective of this study was to analyze the potential use of ROS in 

two natural protected areas in northern Mexico for managing and planning outdoor recreation opportunities. We attempted to achieve this through the following 
25

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

specific objectives: (1) identify visitors’ preferences for recreation setting characteristics; (2) classify visitors based on clustering setting preferences; (3) create a visitor 

typology by characterizing the settings-based visitor types in terms of activities, 

reasons for visiting, and selected demographic characteristics; and, (4) use the 

visitor typology to identify potential recreation opportunity classes in the Michilía 

Biosphere Reserve (MBR) and the El Tecuán Recreational Park (TEC). We focused 

primarily on recreation settings to map recreation opportunities because settings 

are the component of recreation opportunity planning most readily influenced by 

resource managers (Driver et al. 1987, Manfredo et al. 1983).

The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum

The ROS is based on the assumption that people seek diversity in recreation 

opportunities; that is, visitors seek a variety of activities, settings, and experiences 

(Brown et al. 1978, Burch 1964). Various combinations of activity, setting, and 

experience opportunities are grouped into recreation opportunity classes along a 

spectrum, ranging from primitive to modern urban. These combinations of opportunities reflect setting conditions necessary for people to realize desired experiences and benefits. Criteria are used to classify lands suitable for opportunities in 

different classes along the spectrum. These include remoteness of the area, type and 

amount of development, and the number of other people encountered. Standards for 

each criterion are prescribed for each opportunity class. Criteria and standards can 

be modified to consider natural barriers, unique landscapes, and vegetative features 

(Douglass 1993, Manfredo et al. 1983). Applying the criteria and associated standards to a tract of land enables recreation planners to delineate and map the recreation opportunities available to visitors. For example, a remote area that is isolated 

from the sights and sounds of human activities provides opportunities for solitude 

and introspection. A developed campground offers opportunities for socializing and 

learning.

The ROS approach to recreation planning is being widely applied in the United 

States and abroad. It has been expanded and adapted to manage water-based recreation (Haas et al. 2004), visual quality (Ribe 1993), interpretation (Pollock 1989), 

designated wilderness (Kliskey 1998), and ecotourism (Boyd and Butler 1996). 

Managers in Australia proposed a “micro-ROS” approach wherein ROS would be 

used to manage small “pockets” of recreation opportunity (Parkin et al. 2000). The 

ROS is being used to manage recreation resources in New Zealand (Kliskey 1998, 

Sutton 2004), Australia (Parkin et al. 2000), and Japan (Yamaki et al. 2003). This 

was the first application of ROS in protected areas in Mexico and adds important 

knowledge for further cross-cultural application of ROS. 
26

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Methods

We used two natural protected areas as case studies to discuss the potential 

application of ROS for managing and planning outdoor recreation in Mexico. The 

natural protected areas chosen for this study are the 30 000-hectare MBR that was 

established in 1979 as part of the Man and Biosphere International program, and a 

778-hectare, state-owned TEC. Even though TEC has not been officially declared 

as a natural protected area, its management objectives coincide with those of the 

national parks category, i.e., natural resources conservation, outdoor recreation, and 

aesthetics. The MBR has few facilities, including fire grates and interpretive signs 

along the main road and at major destinations. There is a research station, which 

hosts researchers and occasionally recreationists who visit the area for environmental education purposes (RBLM 2001). In contrast to MBR, TEC has more facilities, 

including picnic areas, basketball courts, restrooms, cabins, and dispersed recreation facilities. Two large ponds are used for fishing and backcountry recreation. 

We estimated that TEC receives more than 3,000 visitors, whereas MBR receives 

approximately 1,000 visitors per year. The study areas are located in the southeast 

and south-central parts of the state of Durango, Mexico, respectively (fig. 3-1). 

Data Collection and Analysis 

The ROS classes can be delineated by following criteria and standards (Driver et al. 

1987). To adjust for local conditions, we used personal interviews to learn visitors’ 

characteristics and the recreation activities they performed during their visits. 

Information gathered with the questionnaires consisted of documenting (1) the 

recreation activities they participated in; (2) characteristics of preferred recreation 

settings, facilities, or works preferred in the area; and (3) reasons for visiting the 

area and sociodemographic variables. Setting attribute preferences were measured 

by using a seven-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. 

Other pieces of information consisted of maps, aerial photos, field trips, and population demographics. 

In both areas, all visitors contacted during the 2002 sampling period were 

asked to participate in the study. Information was collected from MBR visitors 

using onsite interviews, and TEC visitors were given a questionnaire to fill out 

onsite and leave at the exit station at the conclusion of their visit. All 73 MBR 

visitors contacted during the sampling period participated in the survey, and 100 of 

the 123 TEC visitors contacted participated, an 81-percent response rate. The final 

sample included 73 MBR visitors and 100 TEC visitors.
27

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Cluster analysis was used to differentiate visitor preference attributes of the recreation settings to identify recreation setting classes or zones. The setting attributes 

included easy access to the area, many interpretive signs for guiding visitors within 

the area, many interpretive signs for using the forest, distance from main roads, few 

social encounters, high degree of naturalness, many big trees in and around the site, 

no forest harvesting activities, no grazing and agricultural activities, and basic facilities, e.g., grills, tables, and restrooms. We identified the clusters using the average 

within-groups linkage method, measured by Euclidian distance. 

The clusters were further described according to nine groups of reasons/motivations given for visiting the area (Manning 1999). These are participating in recreation activities, learning, family/friends together, escape pressure, enjoy nature, 

physical rest, risk reduction, nostalgia, and other. The characteristics of the selected 

recreation settings were used to identify potential recreational zones in the two 

protected areas and to construct a ROS-like map to represent the diversity among 

setting opportunities for each area based on visitors’ setting preferences. We used 

local maps, aerial photos, field trips, and the original ROS criteria and standards 

to identify ROS-like classes in both areas. The original ROS criteria and standards 

(USDA FS 1982) were slightly modified to consider local characteristics of roads 

such as accessibility and maintenance frequency. For example, some roads were 

ignored for primitive, semiprimitive motorized, or semiprimitive nonmotorized 

Figure 3-1—The Michilía Biosphere Reserve (MBR) and the El Tecuán Recreational Park (TEC).
28

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

ROS classification because of their current conditions that complicated access and 

transportation. Information gathered from the visitors’ questionnaires, particularly 

recreation setting, was used to identify areas that could meet visitor’s preferences 

for recreation sites. A comparison between modified and original ROS classes is 

provided in the discussion.

Cross-tabulations were used to examine the levels of association between 

clusters and descriptor variables such as recreation activities, motivation domains 

of reasons, and sociodemographic data. Chi-square statistics tested the significance 

of the levels of association among the setting clusters and descriptor variables.

Results and Discussion 

We found significant differences between the two visitor samples in terms of education, household income, employment, and distance traveled to the two areas. The 

MBR visitors had lower levels of education, income, and employment than TEC 

visitors. In both areas, visitors tended to participate in large groups: MBR groups 

averaged 8.2 members (maximum 20) while TEC groups averaged 10.7 members 

(maximum 40). 

Recreation Settings Preferences

Cluster analysis of preferred setting attributes identified two types of visitors in 

both areas. In TEC, we found significant differences between the clusters in their 

preferences for a high degree of naturalness, many big trees in and around the 

site, no harvesting activities, and no grazing/agriculture activities. Respondents in 

cluster 2 were more intolerant of setting modifications including harvesting and 

grazing/agricultural activities; they preferred undisturbed sites with many big trees 

in and around the sites. In MBR, significant differences were also found between 

the two groups in their preferences for easy access to the site, many interpretative 

signs for guiding within the area, few social encounters, and many big trees in and 

around the site (table 3-1). 

Although the visitor clusters differed in their preferences for setting attributes 

and tolerance for setting modifications, their socioeconomic profiles showed that 

the TEC groups are sociodemographically similar and had no significant differences in the reasons that motivated their visit to the park. The cluster 2 visitors 

were more likely to participate in nature-oriented activities and preferred recreation 

settings with nonnoticeable setting alterations (table 3-2). 

We found significant 

differences between 

the two visitor samples 

in terms of education, 

household income, 

employment, and 

distance traveled to 

the two areas. The 

MBR visitors had 

lower levels of 

education, income, 

and employment than 

TEC visitors. 
29

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

The MBR groups are sociodemographically similar to each other and had no 

significant differences in the reasons that motivated their visit to MBR. Visitors to 

the MBR reserve came to enjoy nature, hike, picnic, and watch wildlife. We did 

not find significant relationships between the clusters or participation in any of the 

activities as well as motivations and setting clusters. Cluster 1 visitors were more 

likely to camp, although the differences were not statistically significant (table 3-3).

Table 3-1—Comparison of the recreation setting type preferences of El Tecuán 

Recreational Park (TEC) and Michilía Biosphere Reserve (MBR) visitors

Characteristic of the site

Overall 

meana

Recreation settingsa

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Sig.

TEC visitors: (n = 36) (n = 63)

Easy access to the site 1.94 1.69 2.08 0.14

Many interpretative signs for guiding within the area 1.83 1.64 1.94 .26

Many interpretative signs for using the forests 2.19 2.03 2.29 .25

Short distance from main roads 1.73 1.50 1.86 .16

Few social encounters .62 .69 .57 .68

High degree of naturalness 2.39 2.02 2.60 <.01

Many big trees in and around the site 2.49 1.92 2.83 <.01

No harvesting activities 1.75 1.22 2.05 <.03

No grazing/agriculture activities 1.68 .81 2.17 <.01

Basic facilities 2.11 1.83 2.27 .13

MBR visitors: (n = 31) (n = 41)

Easy access to the site 2.19 1.90 2.41 <0.01

Many interpretative signs for guiding within the area 1.58 1.94 1.32 <.05

Many interpretative signs for using the forests 2.03 1.87 2.15 .11

Short distance from main roads 1.64 1.58 1.68 .69

Few social encounters .19 .58 -0.10 <.05

High degree of naturalness 2.15 2.23 2.10 .35

Many big trees in and around the site 2.38 2.10 2.59 <.01

No harvesting activities 1.71 1.45 1.90 .09

No grazing/ agriculture activities .93 .90 .95 .90

Basic facilities 2.60 2.55 2.63 .53

a Means based on a 7-point scale with endpoints labeled -3, very unimportant; and +3, very important.
30

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Table 3-2—Recreation activities, motivations, and sociodemographic variables 

of El Tecuán Recreational Park visitors clustered in recreation setting types

Item Overall

Recreation settings

Cluster 1

(n = 36)

Cluster 2

(n = 63) Sig.

Activities:

Camping (%) 20.5 12.9 24.6 0.15a

Hiking (%) 96.8 94.1 98.4 .29a

Picnicking (%) 94.3 100.0 90.9 .09a

Biking (%) 17.8 16.0 18.8 .52a

Enjoying nature (%) 92.4 90.9 93.2 .49a

Research activities (%) 25.7 25.0 26.1 .58a

Wildlife watching (%) 78.8 66.7 84.9 .06a

Collecting products (%) 30.8 29.6 31.4 .54a

Collecting plants (%) 28.8 35.7 25.0 .22a

Motives:

Enjoying nature (%) 26.8 31.4 24.2 .32a

Physical rest (%) 15.5 5.7 21.0 .32a

Participating in recreation activities (%) 14.4 14.3 14.5 .32a

Sociodemographics:

Percentage employed 83.7 83.3 83.9 .58a

Percentage male 74.2 72.2 75.4 .45a

Percentage with income ≤ $ USD 9,820 per year c 53.9 55.2 53.2 .53a

Percentage with college degree 61.7 62.9 61.1 .43a

Average age (years) 39.3 37.9 40.1 .37b

Average distance traveled (km) 137.0 72.4 174.0 .07b

a χ2

 –values.

b t-test values.

c 2002. Exchange rate pesos to dollars, 11:1.
31

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 3-3—Recreation activities, motivations, and sociodemographic variables 

of Michilía Biosphere Reserve visitors clustered in recreation setting types

Item Overall

Recreation settings

Cluster 1

(n = 31)

Cluster 2

(n = 41) Sig.

Activities:

Camping (%) 7.1 13.3 2.5 0.10a

Hiking (%) 98.6 96.8 100.0 .43a

Picnicking (%) 95.7 93.1 97.6 .037a

Biking (%) 2.9 3.3 2.5 .68a

Enjoying nature (%) 100.0 100.0 100.0 -

Research activities (%) 22.5 29.0 17.5 .19a

Wildlife watching (%) 97.1 93.3 100.0 .18a

Collecting products (%) 33.8 43.3 26.8 .11a

Collecting plants (%) 26.8 35.5 20.0 .11a

Motives:

Participating in recreation activities (%) 45.8 45.2 46.3 .50a

Family/friends together (%) 22.2 29.0 17.1 .50a

Learning (%) 13.9 6.5 19.5 .50a

Sociodemographics:

Percentage employed 50.0 51.6 48.8 .50a

Percentage male 77.1 76.7 77.5 .58a

Percentage with income ≤ $USD 9,820 per yearc 93.0 90.0 95.1 .47a

Percentage with college degree 20.8 19.3 22.0 .63a

Average age (years) 40.6 42.0 39.5 .19b

Average distance traveled (km) 62.1 73.9 53.3 .19b

a χ2 –values.

b t-test values.

c 2002. Exchange rate pesos to dollars, 11:1.
32

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Figure 3-2—Classification of the recreation opportunities in the El Tecuán Recreational Park. Zone 

A is intended to provide recreation opportunities for cluster 1 visitors, zone B for cluster 2 visitors, 

and zone C would be held in reserve.

Zoning Outdoor Recreational Opportunities

Figure 3-2 presents a zoning of the TEC area that attempts to meet current and 

future needs for recreation opportunities and minimize recreation impacts. We 

identified zone A for cluster 1 visitors, zone B for cluster 2 visitors, and the rest of 

the area would be held in reserve. This distribution should reduce the impact on 

zone A by accommodating visitors in a larger area. In this scenario, the area for 

the cluster 1 visitors is 247 hectares (32 percent of the TEC area) and the area for 

the cluster 2 visitors is 264 hectares (34 percent of the area). In addition, zone C is 

proposed to be kept in reserve, which in turn may serve to receive future visitors 

that may feel displaced by a potential increase in demand for undisturbed areas. 

This zone includes the most remote sites with no access by motorized vehicles.

Figure 3-3 presents the recreation opportunity zones for the MBR. Because of 

the easy access, zone A is more likely to receive more visitors than the rest of the 

MBR. Cluster 2 visitors will more likely visit zone A because it has easier access, 

there is little concern about social encounters, and it has more basic facilities 

(grills, tables). The 8007-hectare zone A represents 23 percent of the total area. It 
33

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Figure 3-3—Types of recreation opportunities in the Michilía Biosphere Reserve. Zone A is oriented 

to provide recreation opportunities for cluster 2 visitors; zone B for cluster 1 visitors, and zone C will 

be kept in reserve.

is located in the center of MBR and close to the main roads. Cluster 1 visitors 

would likely prefer zone B, which comprises 19 264 hectares (55 percent of the total 

area). Cluster 1 visitors needed many interpretative signs to guide them within the 

area and were more likely to participate in camping, collecting products and plants, 

and developing research/educational activities than cluster 2 visitors. As the number 

of visitors to each zone is relatively small, MBR appears to offer sufficient area to 

meet current and future needs for recreation opportunities. We included zone C, a 

remote area that comprises 23 percent of the total MBR (7803 hectares), to protect 

the reserve core from potential recreation impacts. The reserve core is located in 

the northwest part of the MBR, around the Cerro Blanco Peak, and could also fulfill 

potential demand for more primitive areas in the future.

The analysis identified three zones to classify lands for recreational opportunities in TEC and MBR: (A) zones with easy access and basic facilities, (B) 

natural-appearing zones having less access and fewer facilities, and (C) reserve 

zones. Using the U.S. Forest Service ROS criteria, these zones could be classified 

as (1) rural, (2) roaded natural, and (3) semiprimitive nonmotorized or primitive 

areas, respectively. The analogy is based on key common components that matched 

the ROS criteria: degree of naturalness, level of access, facilities, interpretative 
34

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

signs, and social settings. The degree of naturalness, expressed as remoteness and 

evidence of humans in the ROS, along with level of access and facilities correspond 

to the biophysical setting as described in the ROS criteria, and interpretative signs 

are included within the managerial setting. We found that the biophysical setting 

was more important for TEC visitors than MBR visitors, whereas the social and 

managerial setting was found to be less significant for TEC visitors but significant 

for MBR visitors.

The ROS rural class, i.e., zone A, is characterized by the presence of cultural 

modifications in the setting including pastoral, agricultural, and evidence of roads 

and highways; the frequency of contact with others is moderate to high; and the 

onsite regimentation and controls are obvious and numerous. The ROS roaded 

natural class, i.e., zone B, allows some modifications of the natural setting, but 

must remain unnoticed from sensitive travel routes and use areas. The frequency 

of contact with other parties is moderate to high on roads and low to moderate on 

trails and away from roads. Zone B, named as natural-appearing zones, matches 

ROS roaded natural class, and is characterized by being easily accessed and having 

fewer facilities. Sights and sounds of visitors are evident, but harmonize with the 

natural environment.

The ROS semiprimitive nonmotorized class is characterized by a predominantly unmodified natural environment of moderate to large size (Manning 1999). 

The only difference between the semiprimitive nonmotorized class and zone C 

of TEC is the size of the areas and the distance from roads. The former should be 

larger than 1000 hectares and 1.2 to 4.8 kilometers from roads, whereas the latter 

comprises 267 hectares and is 500 meters from roads. However, zone C in TEC 

does not have roads or trails for motorized use, and the frequency of contact with 

other parties is from moderate to low. In the spectrum of the ROS classes, the lack 

of use of motorized roads is more likely to occur either in the semi-primitive nonmotorized or primitive classes. The primitive class includes other characteristics 

such as remoteness, size, and managerial setting that are hardly found in the TEC. 

Thus, the semiprimitive nonmotorized class better matches zone C.

Zone C of MBR is more similar to the ROS primitive class because of the size of 

the areas, which is larger than 2000 hectares, and the reduced frequency of contact 

with other parties. We found that zone C does not systematically fit the remoteness 

criteria of 4.8 kilometers from all roads. According to the recreation opportunity 

maps, the distance from roads ranged from 500 meters to 5 kilometers. In this case, 

the topographic and rough conditions of the terrain helped to delineate this zone as 

the ROS primitive class. The terrain conditions isolate the primitive conditions from 

all other recreation opportunity classes. 
35

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Conclusions and Recommendations

The purpose of this study was to investigate the flexibility of ROS application in two 

protected areas in Mexico. The ROS criteria and standards used to inventory and 

describe outdoor recreation opportunities in the two areas differed from the original 

ROS criteria and were adapted to local conditions. We were able to identify distinct 

recreation opportunity zones and compared them to those of the ROS being used in 

the United States. This information was used to create recreation opportunity maps 

for use in recreation opportunity planning and enables planners to estimate and 

describe recreation opportunity supply and demand in equivalent terms.

It is important to recognize that the ROS was designated as a recreation 

opportunity inventory tool, not necessarily as a resource allocation tool. A ROS 

recreation opportunity inventory provides managers with information about the 

recreation opportunities’ potential in an area, not necessarily how an area should 

be allocated for recreation use (Moore and Driver 2005). A ROS inventory is only 

one informational input to the protected area management planning process, to be 

considered along with other biodiversity, cultural, economic, resource protection, 

and social concerns.

Overall, the ROS framework appears to be a useful framework for managing 

protected areas in Mexico. In the United States, the ROS is used primarily for 

managing and planning recreational opportunities in the wildlands. Most of the 

wildlands in the United States belong to the federal government, as do the MBR 

and TEC, and the agencies responsible for managing natural resources use the ROS 

as the primary approach to provide quality recreational opportunities. In Mexico, 

despite the increasing interest in recreation, few forest lands are explicitly managed 

for recreational opportunities. One alternative is to involve other nonfederally 

owned properties to increase the lands’ value for recreational purposes, such as 

the ejidos and comunidades’ forest lands. Ejidos’ forest lands can fulfill the lack 

of available recreation areas and at the same time, can reduce the pressure on 

timber production. We recommend more research to study the ejidos’ participation 

in providing recreation opportunities including people’s acceptance of ejidos’ 

recreation resources, including use of ROS to maximize economic benefits and 

evaluate tradeoffs on ejidos’ lands. 

We were able to 

identify distinct 

recreation opportunity 

zones and compared 

them to those of the 

ROS being used in the 

United States.
36

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the Pacific Southwest Research Station (USDA 

Forest Service) and Northern Arizona University under the agreement PSW-02-

JV-11272137-010. The authors wish to express their gratitude to the people who 

participated in the interviews as well as to the staffs of the Forest Department of 

the state of Durango and the Michilía Biosphere Reserve. 

Metric Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To get:

Yards 0.914 Meters

Miles 1.609 Kilometers

Acres .405 Hectares

References

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principles and strategies. In: Lindberg, K.; Wood, M.E.; Engeldrum, D., eds. 

Ecotourism: a guide for planners and managers. North Bennington, VT: The 

Ecotourism Society: 135–155. Vol 2. 

Boyd, S.W.; Butler, R.W. 1996. Managing ecotourism: an opportunity spectrum 

approach. Tourism Management. 17(8): 557–566.

Brown, P.J.; McCool, S.F.; Manfredo, M.J. 1978. Evolving concepts and tools 

for recreation user management in wilderness: a state-of-knowledge review. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. INT-220. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Intermountain Research Station: 320–346.

Burch, W.R., Jr. 1964. Two concepts for guiding recreation management decisions. 

Journal of Forestry. 62(10): 707–712.

Douglass, R.W. 1993. Forest recreation. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. 373 p.

Driver, B.L.; Brown, P.J.; Stankey, G.H.; Gregoire, T.C. 1987. The ROS 

planning system: evolution, basic concepts, and research needed. Leisure 

Sciences. 9: 201–212.

González-Guillen, M.; Valdez-Lazalde, R.; Velasco-Gonzalez, C. 1996.

Definición de áreas forestales con potencialidad recreativa. Agrociencia. 

30: 129–138.
37

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Haas, G.E.; Aukerman, R.; Lovejoy, V.; Welch, D. 2004. Water recreation 

opportunity spectrum (WROS) users’ guidebook. Lakewood, CO: U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Office of Program and 

Policy Services, Denver Federal Center.

Haas, G.E.; Driver, B.L.; Brown, P.J.; Lucas, R.C. 1987. Wilderness 

management zoning. Journal of Forestry. 85(12): 17–21.

Kliskey, A.D. 1998. Linking the wilderness perception mapping concept to the 

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum. Environmental Management. 22(1): 79–88.

Lane, M.B. 2001. Affirming new directions in planning theory: comanagement 

of protected areas. Society and Natural Resources. 14: 657–671.

Manfredo, M.; Driver, B.; Brown, P. 1983. A test of concepts inherent in 

experience-based setting management for outdoor recreation areas. Journal of 

Leisure Research. 15: 263–283.

Manning, R.E. 1999. Studies in outdoor recreation: search and research for 

satisfaction. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 374 p.

McNeeley, J.A. 1994. Protected areas for the 21st century: working to provide 

benefits to society. Biodiversity and Conservation. 3: 390–405.

Moore, R.L.; Driver, B.L. 2005. Introduction to outdoor recreation: providing 

and managing natural resource based opportunities. State College, PA: Venture 

Publishing, Inc. 358 p.

Parkin, D.; Batt, D.; Waring, B.; Smith, E.; Phillips, H. 2000. Providing for a 

diverse range of outdoor recreation opportunities: “a micro-ROS” approach to 

planning and management. Australian Parks and Leisure. 2(3): 41–47. 

Pollock, J.W. 1989. Interpretation in the recreation opportunity spectrum. 7 p. 

Unpublished paper. On file with: Martha Lee, School of Forestry, Northern 

Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011.

Reserva de la Biosfera La Michilía [RBLM]. 2001. Plan de manejo integral 

de los recursos naturales en la Reserva de la Biosfera La Michilía. Borrador. 

Documento no publicado. 77 p. On file with: Northern Arizona University, 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011.

Ribe, R.G. 1993. Scenic beauty perceptions along the ROS. Journal of 

Environmental Management. 42: 199–221.
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Sutton, S. 2004. Outdoor recreation planning frameworks: an overview of best 

practices and comparison with Department of Conservation (New Zealand) 

planning processes. In: Smith, K.A.; Schott, C., eds. Proceedings of the New 

Zealand tourism and hospitality research conference. Wellington, New Zealand: 

Institute for Tourism Studies: 407–423. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service [USDA FS]. 1982. ROS users 

guide. Washington, DC. 124 p.

Yamaki, K.; Hirota, O.; Shoji, Y.; Tsychiya, T.; Yamaguchi, K. 2003. A 

method for classifying recreation area in an alpine natural park using Recreation 

Opportunity Spectrum. Journal of Japanese Forest Society. 85(1): 55–62.
39

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Patrick T. Tierney,1 Deborah J. Chavez,2 and James D. Absher2

Abstract 

Leisure travel and visitation to natural areas and constraints to undertaking these 

activities are important concerns for recreation resource managers and tourism 

businesses. Surveys were administered to Los Angeles, Barcelona, Glasgow, and 

Morelia, Mexico, residents to ascertain leisure travel and undeveloped natural area 

visitation levels and constraints. A comparison of these cities with abundant nearby 

natural resources shows significant differences in leisure travel and natural area 

visitation levels. Differences were attributable to respondent demographic disparities and importance of visitation constraints. The study identifies how cultural 

values produce significant differences in visitation constraints and use of undeveloped natural areas.

Keywords: Recreation, natural areas, cross-cultural, constraints, visitation, 

international. 

Introduction

Natural areas, such as national and state forests, parks, wildlife refuges, and open 

space preserves located outside of cities, are some of the most popular recreation destinations. Few studies have compared visitation and travel constraints to natural areas 

among residents of international cities to learn if there are substantive differences. 

International comparisons might be useful to determine if natural area use patterns 

and constraints are unique to certain countries and culturally based, or if they are 

more universal. Such information could provide resource and tourism managers with 

information to help them more effectively market and manage their services.

Numerous studies have investigated constraints to visitation of recreation and 

natural areas (Carr and Williams 1993, Driver and Peterson 1986, Dwyer 1994, 

Jackson 1988, Pinhey and Iverson 1994, Shinew et al. 2004, Sonmez and Graefe 

1998). Findings of these studies were used to identify salient outdoor recreation 

constraints. For example, Norman (1995) identified over 25 common barriers to 

Chapter 4: Constraints to Leisure Travel 

and Visitation to Natural Areas: An 

International Comparison of Four Cities

1 Professor, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, San Francisco State University, 

San Francisco, CA 94132; e-mail: ptierney@sfsu.edu. 

2 Chavez is a supervisory social scientist and Absher is a research social scientist, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 4955 

Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507; e-mail: dchavez@fs.fed.us, jabsher@fs.fed.us.

Few studies have 

compared visitation 

and travel constraints 

to natural areas 

among residents of 

international cities 

to learn if there 

are substantive 

differences.
40

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

outdoor recreation. Also, in an earlier study, Tierney et al. (2000) compared vacation travel patterns of Hong Kong and Los Angeles residents. Johnson et al. (2001) 

analyzed recreation constraints by gender, race, and rural residence. They found 

gender was significant, but that race and rural residence were not significant predictors of constraints. Martin (2004) found that certain racial and ethnic groups are 

more comfortable in certain environments, and there is the potential for discrimination if a group is unfamiliar with areas. However, more information is needed to see 

if differences in natural area visitation and constraints exist among countries. 

The current paper compares residents of Barcelona (BAR), Spain, Glasgow 

(GLS), Scotland, Los Angeles (LA), California, and Morelia (MOR), Mexico metropolitan areas on their leisure travel patterns, constraints, and visitation to undeveloped natural areas (UNA). One purpose was to determine whether or not there are 

international similarities in visitation and constraints to visiting natural areas, or 

whether social and cultural environments contribute to differences in natural area 

visitation and constraints. 

Barcelona, Glasgow, Los Angeles, and Morelia were selected for this research 

because they are large, cosmopolitan metropolitan areas and have numerous natural 

areas, such as national forests and parks, within 100 kilometers. For example, 

the city of Morelia, located northwest of Mexico City with a population of about 

one-half million persons, has numerous nearby protected natural areas, including 

a national park, geysers, and archeological sites. The overall goal of the research 

was to gather and compare data from four international metropolitan areas about 

resident leisure travel and visitation to UNAs.

Methods

Telephone surveys and personal interviews were used to ask respondents about their 

leisure trips away from their home during the previous summer (May-August). If 

they took a trip, respondents were asked if they participated in a vacation, described 

as “work free periods of 4 or more consecutive days where most time was spent 

in leisure activities.” The survey next asked persons who took a leisure trip if they 

visited a UNA. Visits to UNAs were defined as “trips to places located outside of 

cities where you visited natural areas, such as national or state parks, forests, nature 

preserves or protected areas. These areas could have campgrounds and cabins, 

access roads, visitor centers, trails or an occasional farm.” Respondents were asked 

to agree or disagree with 16 statements about constraints to visiting natural areas, 

developed from past research (Driver and Peterson 1986, Norman 1995, Tierney et 

al. 1998). 
41

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Demographic data collected included respondent age, education, gender, and 

having children under 18 years living at home. 

 Data for the Los Angeles part of the research came from Tierney et al. (1998) 

who used a telephone survey of LA City and County adult residents. A stratified 

random sample was developed to oversample and acquire large enough sample sizes 

from four ethnic groups: Whites, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Latino 

Americans. The interviews were available in English, Spanish, and Mandarin. A 

similar but shortened survey was used in BAR, GLS, and MOR. Local recreation 

experts (professors at adjacent universities) translated the survey, designed the sampling, administered the data collection, and assisted in data interpretation. These 

partnerships were needed to ensure internal validity of the survey, comparable data 

collection methods, and accurate interpretation of survey results. 

The data collection methods in BAR, GLS, and MOR were modified from the 

LA approach because of issues related to using telephone surveys in those countries. 

Personal interviews were used instead. The survey used a systematic sample of three 

districts that represented high-to-low socioeconomic levels in the metropolitan area. 

Districts were identified, and then neighborhoods were selected that were representative of the district. Next, trained surveyors visited every other residence in the 

selected neighborhoods and attempted to administer the personal interview.

In LA, 894 telephone surveys were completed, 310 in-person interviews were 

obtained in BAR, 359 in GLS, and 257 in MOR, resulting in a total of 1,820 usable 

surveys. The response rate to the LA telephone survey was 29 percent; response 

rate for personal interviews was 79 percent in BAR, 68 percent in GLS, and 74 

percent in MOR.

Cross-tabulations with Chi-square and Z-tests were used to test for significant 

differences in taking a leisure trip, visiting natural areas, and demographic variables. Exploratory factor analysis of constraint data for respondents who did not 

visit a UNA was used to identify a smaller number of constraint aggregations for 

this subpopulation. Factor analysis used the principal components extraction with 

equimax rotation. 

Results 

Demographics

Findings indicate that there were substantial demographic differences among 

respondents of the four survey sites (see table 4-1). There were differences across 

countries by age, gender, marital status, parents born in the country, education 

level, and child at home. For example, MOR and BAR had more respondents in the 

18 to 34 age group than did GLS and LA. 
42

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Leisure Trips and Vacations

Table 4-2 shows that BAR respondents were far more likely to have taken a leisure 

trip away from home during the summer (88 percent), compared to GLS (73 

percent), LA (54 percent), and MOR respondents (44 percent). Almost all BAR 

and GLS respondents who took a leisure trip also took a vacation of 4 or more 

consecutive days (97 percent and 93 percent), which was much greater than LA (68 

percent) and MOR (58 percent) respondents.

Visits to Undeveloped Natural Areas

Respondents were also asked if they visited a UNA for any period during the prior 

summer. Table 4-3 shows that when comparing respondents who took a leisure trip, 

BAR respondents were more likely to visit a UNA (72 percent) compared to MOR 

Table 4-1—Respondent demographic characteristics by site

Barcelona Glasgow Los Angeles Morelia

Probabilitya (n = 310) (n = 359) (n = 894) (n = 257)

 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Percent - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Age: 0.000

18–34 55.1 21.6 49.2 56.9

35–44 24.5 28.9 23.5 20.0

45–54 10.2 29.8 11.6 12.1

55 or more 10.2 19.7 15.7 11.0

Gender: .000

Male 50.6 52.4 44.6 33.7

Female 49.4 47.6 55.4 66.3

Marital status: .000

Single 38.1 28.2 42.4 44.6

Married 22.9 59.9 45.6 61.3

Divorced 31.6 3.4 6.7 2.3

Separated 1.6 4.0 2.0 2.3

Widowed 2.9 4.5 3.3 3.1

Parents born in country: .000

Yes 80.0 51.9 68.5 97.3

No 20.0 48.1 31.5 2.7

Education level: .000

Grade school 13.2 1.7 4.6 16.5

High school 46.8 44.5 30.2 42.4

Technical school 12.9 44.5 30.2 42.4

College 25.5 39.4 48.6 2.0

Grad school 1.6 0.0 11.7 11.4

Child at home: .000

Yes 26.6 49.0 43.5 50.6

No 73.4 51.0 43.5 56.5

a Chi-square test of significance for each subtable of sociodemographic variable by four survey sites.
43

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 4-2—Took a leisure trip and vacation, by site

Barcelona Glasgow Los Angeles Morelia

Probabilitya (n = 310) (n = 359) (n = 894) (n = 257)

- - - - - - - - - - - - Percent - - - - - - - - - - - - 

Took leisure trip: 0.000

Yes 88.4 72.9 53.9 44.1

No 11.6 27.1 46.1 55.9

Took vacationb: .000

Yes 96.7 92.7 67.6 58.4

No 3.3 7.3 32.4 41.6

Visited natural area 

 outside citiesb:

.000

Yes 71.5 30.7 32.4 65.2

No 28.5 69.3 67.6 34.8

a Chi-square test of significance among four survey sites based on original cell frequencies 

(not shown).

b Only respondents who took a leisure trip are included in this analysis.

Table 4-3—Visitation to an undeveloped natural area, by site

Barcelona Glasgow Los Angeles Morelia Probabilitya

Visited natural area 

 outside cities: Those 

 who took leisure trip

0.000

Yes 71.5 30.7 32.4 65.2

No 28.5 69.3 67.6 34.8

Visited natural area 

 outside cities: All 

 respondents

.000

Yes 63.2 21.8 32.4 28.5

No 36.8 78.2 67.6 71.5 a Chi-square test of significance among four survey sites.

(65 percent), LA (57 percent), and GLS respondents (31 percent). When comparing 

all respondents, 63 percent of BAR respondents, 32 percent of LA, 29 percent of 

MOR, and 22 percent of GLS respondents visited a UNA.

Comparisons by Demographic Characteristics

Table 4-4 illustrates that age and martial status were generally not significantly 

related to visitation to a UNA for the four survey sites, except for age in BAR. 

Gender was moderately related to UNA visitation at BAR and LA, with males 

being more likely to visit than females. In GLS, LA, and MOR, education was 

highly related to UNA visitation. The higher the educational level, the greater the 

likelihood of visitation to natural areas.
44

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

The overall most 

frequently mentioned 

constraints were “my 

family and friends do 

not visit UNAs,” “my 

financial situation,” 

“lack of free time,” 

“lacked information 

on where to go and 

what to do,” and “want 

more workers of my 

ethnicity.”

Table 4-4—Probability levels associated with cross-tabulations of visiting a 

natural area, by demographic characteristics (Chi-square test of significance)

Barcelona Glasgow Los Angeles Morelia

Age 0.017 0.611 0.491 0.523

Education .084 .002 .000 .000

Gender .034 .267 .015 .407

Marital status .052 .302 .054 .374

Constraints

Constraints for travel and visitation to UNAs and a comparison of responses from 

the four study sites are shown in table 4-5. The overall most frequently mentioned 

constraints were “my family and friends do not visit UNAs” (42 percent of all 

respondents strongly agreed or agreed), “my financial situation” (39 percent), 

“lack of free time” (34 percent), “lacked information on where to go and what to 

do” (33 percent), and “want more workers of my ethnicity” (23 percent). The least 

frequently mentioned constraints among all respondents were “UNAs are uncomfortable” (17 percent), “do not feel welcome” (17 percent), “no interest in visiting 

UNAs” (14 percent), “people like me are discriminated against when traveling” (14 

percent), and “not healthy enough to travel” (9 percent). 

The percentage of respondents who strongly agreed or agreed with a constraint 

statement differed by survey site. For example, more than half (51 percent) of GLS 

versus 22 percent of BAR respondents agreed that their friends and family do not 

visit natural areas. The Z-test of proportions provided a test of the significance 

for the maximum difference (range) among cities. Results show that the range of 

responses for each constraint differed markedly and independently of the absolute 

magnitude of the ratings above. For instance, the variables “my financial situation 

prevented travel” (range of 60.8 percentage points) and “lack transportation” (53 

percentage points) had the greatest difference and were the second and seventh 

highest rated overall. Other constraints had a relatively low range among sites, such 

as “not healthy enough” (4.8 percentage points), and “no nearby UNAs” (9.5 points). 

The percentages for each of the 16 constraints were significantly different among 

the four study sites. 

Four factors emerged from an exploratory factor analysis conducted on constraint data for respondents who did not visit a UNA. First, items with low communalities and inconsistent relationships were dropped and the remaining nine 

items were factored. Table 4-6 shows that Eigenvalues for the factor dimensions 

ranged from 1.0 to 2.1 with a total of 62.1 percent of the variance explained. The 

factor accounting for the most variance was called “Feel unwelcome and unsafe,” 
45

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 4-5—Constraints for travel and visitation to undeveloped natural areas (UNAs) for all respondents from 

each country (percentage who strongly agree or agree)

Barcelona

(n = 310)

Glasgow

(n = 355)

Los Angeles

(n = 858)

Morelia 

(n = 243)

All

(n = 1,766) Range Probabilitya

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Percent - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Family or friends do not visit UNA 21.9 50.9 48.2 29.8 41.6 29.0 0.000

My financial situation 27.4 12.4 43.2 73.2 38.6 60.8 .000

Lack of free time 25.5 33.5 52.1 49.4 33.6 26.6 .000

Lack information 23.9 24.5 39.0 36.5 33.2 15.1 .000

Want more workers of my ethnicity 43.6 11.0 36.1 32.9 32.0 32.6 .000

UNA too crowded 10.7 7.6 43.7 43.9 30.9 36.3 .000

Lack transportation 17.8 14.9 27.9 67.9 29.2 53.0 .000

Normally go to UNA but wanted 

variety

10.6 7.4 39.2 16.5 23.0 31.8 .000

UNAs are unsafe 22.5 6.5 23.3 31.8 22.0 25.3 .000

No nearby UNA 16.5 19.7 23.8 14.3 20.1 9.5 .000

No companions 15.1 13.8 25.9 15.6 20.1 12.1 .000

UNA uncomfortable 9.1 14.1 18.4 28.8 17.4 19.7 .000

Do not feel welcome 10.6 1.7 16.7 48.7 17.2 47.0 .000

No interest in UNA 13.2 19.4 15.1 6.7 14.3 12.7 .000 

Discriminated against 5.8 2.8 18.5 23.1 13.9 20.3 .000

Not healthy enough 10.3 5.9 10.7 8.0 9.3 4.8 .001

a Z-test to determine probability of significance of range (maximum difference) across cities. 

Scale: 1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neither disagree or agree, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree.

Table 4-6—Factor analysis results of natural area visitation constraints scale for 

respondents who did not visit a natural area (all survey sites; n = 861)

Item statement F1 F2 F3 F4

F1—Feel unwelcome and unsafe

Discriminated against 0.76

Do not feel welcome .75

Undeveloped natural areas are unsafe .63

F2—Want more ethnic workers

Normally go to UNA, wanted variety 0.88

Want more ethnic workers .65

F3—Lack opportunity

No companions to travel with 0.82

No nearby natural areas .78

F4—Have time but no interest 

Lack free time -0.79

No interest in visiting UNA .67

Eigenvalue 2.1 1.3 1.2 1.0
46

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

had three constraint items (“Discriminated against,“ “Did not feel welcome,” and 

“UNAs are not safe”), and explained 19.6 percent of the variance. The second 

factor was named “Want more ethnic workers” (var = 15.1 percent), and it included 

“Normally go to UNA but wanted variety” and “Want more workers of my ethnicity.” The third factor was called “Lack opportunity” (var = 14.17 percent) and had 

the barriers of “No companions to travel with” and “No nearby natural areas.” 

The final factor was called “Have time but lack interest” (var = 13.3 percent) and 

it consisted of only two constraints “No interest in visiting UNA” and a negative 

value for “Lack free time.” 

Discussion

International research comparisons present large challenges, but this study 

attempted to increase validity by using similar survey instruments translated into 

three languages (English, Spanish, and Mandarin) by researchers who live in the 

study areas and are familiar with leisure travel and natural area visitation in BAR, 

GLS, LA, and MOR. Survey responses were translated and results were reviewed 

by these bilingual recreation experts to ensure accuracy. Despite efforts to make the 

research as comparable as possible, the findings may be affected by some differences in survey wording, data collection methods, and interpretation of results. We 

do not know the impact of these differences.

The focus of the study was on visitation and constraints to visiting UNAs. A 

much larger percentage of BAR and GLS respondents took a leisure trip away from 

home during the summer compared to LA and MOR respondents. This suggests 

there are large constraints to leisure travel in both LA and MOR. Findings also 

indicate leisure and vacation travel is more of a cultural norm in BAR, GLS, and 

LA. In BAR and other countries in Europe, the average citizen gets 30 days paid 

vacation in addition to three other 5-day holiday periods per year. The average in 

LA is about 2 weeks paid vacation, often taken as a 1-week holiday and then several 

long weekends. Paid vacation is much less common in MOR. 

There is broad interest in visiting natural areas by residents of all four cities, 

with more than three-quarters of respondents having a desire to visit UNAs. 

However, a much smaller number actually visited a UNA. Almost two-thirds of 

BAR respondents visited a UNA compared to about one-third of LA respondents, 

one-quarter of MOR respondents, and about one-fifth of GLS respondents. Much 

of this was due to respondents who had severe travel constraints and did not take 

a leisure trip. However, BAR respondents were still more likely to visit UNAs 

compared to respondents from the other cities, when only considering those 

respondents who took a leisure trip. There is strong interest in visiting natural 
47

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

areas by MOR respondents, but severe constraints are hindering many from taking 

leisure trips.

Demographic characteristics of respondents were also shown to influence the 

likelihood of visiting UNAs. Gender, and in particular, respondent education level 

significantly affected UNA visitation. 

These findings indicated that overall perceived constraints to visiting UNAs 

differed considerably among study areas. Personal time, economics, information, lack 

of interest, and access constraints were present. An overall comparison of constraint 

scores from the four study areas suggested that the types of factors limiting visits to 

natural areas were similar among the four cities, but the importance or degree of the 

constraint differed widely. The most highly rated constraints overall were “Friends 

and family do not visit UNAs,” “My financial situation,” “Lack of free time,” and 

“Lack of information.” The results from Z-tests of proportions indicated considerable 

variation in the level of influence a specific constraint had on respondents from each 

study site. These findings suggest there are unique cultural bases for the varying 

impact of some constraints. For example, the greatest constraints for MOR were 

“UNAs are unsafe,” “Financial situation,” and “Lack of transportation,” but these 

were very different from the mean values for the same constraints according to the 

BAR respondents. The implications for managers are that they can start to address 

the most powerful constraints, but they will need to conduct additional research to 

identify other constraints prevalent in their specific region. 

Factor analysis of responses from respondents who did not visit a UNA 

revealed four constraint clusters: “Feel unwelcome and unsafe,” “Want more ethnic 

workers,” “Lack opportunity,” and “Have time but lack interest.” It is important 

for forest and park managers to understand these four “universal” constraint 

factors and try to mitigate their impact through planning, management actions, 

and interventions. Findings also reinforce the need for agency outreach efforts, 

some of which are already underway, to help overcome respondent feelings of 

being unwelcome, UNAs being unsafe, and lacking opportunity. Introductory 

outdoor recreation programs with peers that are sponsored or supported by land 

management agencies working with ethnic organizations, such as churches, to 

recruit urban residents who do not normally visit natural areas is strongly supported 

by study findings. 

This research, through a comparison of four international cities with a 

similar abundance of nearby natural resources, illustrates a large number of 

cross-cultural similarities in leisure travel and use of natural areas. But, it also 

demonstrates how cultural values produce significant differences in visitation 

constraints and use of UNAs. 

The implications for 

managers are that they 

can start to address 

the most powerful 

constraints, but they 

will need to conduct 

additional research 

to identify other 

constraints prevalent in 

their specific region. 
48

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Acknowledgments

Special thanks to David Barkin, Katheryn Burnett, Rene Dahl, and Julian Miranda.

Literature Cited

Carr, D.S.; Williams, D.R. 1993. Understanding the role of ethnicity in outdoor 

recreation experiences. Journal of Leisure Research. 25(1): 22–28.

Driver, B.L.; Peterson, G. 1986. The values and benefits of outdoor recreation. In: 

Szwak, B., manager. A literature review, President’s Commission on Americans 

Outdoors. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 426 p. 

Dwyer, J.F. 1994. Customer diversity and the future demand for outdoor 

recreation. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-252. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest and Range Experimental 

Station. 58 p.

Jackson, E.L. 1988. Leisure constraints: a survey of past research. Leisure 

Sciences. 10: 203–215. 

Johnson, C.; Bowker, J.M.; Cordell, K. 2001. Outdoor recreation constraints: an 

examination of race, gender and rural dwelling. Journal of Park and Recreation 

Administration. 17: 21–39.

Martin, D. 2004. Apartheid in the great outdoors. Journal of Leisure Research. 

36: 513–535.

Norman, W. 1995. Perceived constraints: a new approach to segmenting the 

vacation travel market. Abstracts from the symposium on leisure research. 

Arlington, VA: National Recreation and Park Association. 113 p.

Pinhey, T.K.; Iverson, T.J. 1994. Safety concerns of Japanese visitors to Guam. 

Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing. 3(2): 87–94.

Shinew, K., Floyd, M.; Parry, D. 2004. Understanding the relationship between 

race and ethnicity and constraints. Journal of Leisure Sciences. 26: 181–199.

Sonmez, S.F.; Graefe, A.R. 1998. Determining future travel behavior from past 

travel experiences and perceptions of risk and safety. Journal of Travel Research. 

37(2): 171–176.
49

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Tierney, P.T.; Dahl, R.; Chavez, D.J. 1998. Cultural diversity of Los Angeles 

County residents using undeveloped natural areas. Res. Pap. PSW-RP-236. 

Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station. 76 p.

Tierney, P.T.; Dahl, R.; Chavez, D.J.; Apt, J.; Mok, C. 2000. Motives and 

constraints to vacationing in natural areas: a comparison of Los Angeles and 

Hong Kong residents. In: Schneider, I.E.; Chavez, D.J.; Borrie, W.; James, K., 

eds. Proceedings of the 3rd symposium on social aspects and recreation research 

symposium. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University: 61–68. 
50

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210
51

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Section III:

Synthesis of Studies
52

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210
53

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

1 Supervisory social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Pacific Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Dr., Riverside, CA 92507; 

e-mail dchavez@fs.fed.us.

Chapter 5: Serving the Needs of Latino 

Recreation Visitors to Urban-Proximate 

Natural Resource Recreation Areas

Deborah J. Chavez

1

Abstract 

A major shift has occurred in the ethnic and racial profile of the United States, with 

large increases in the Latino population. Beyond the demographic profiles are the 

influences on other aspects of life in the United States, including urban-proximate 

natural resource recreation area management. Latino groups may have different 

expectations about natural resource recreation areas, different barriers to participation, and different site development preferences than other groups. The information provided in this article is based on 17 research projects over the past 16 years 

conducted mostly in southern California. Suggestions for serving the needs of the 

rapidly increasing Latino population are offered. These suggestions relate to communications, development of recreation sites, use of partnerships and cooperation, 

and provision of employment opportunities. 

Keywords: Latinos, outdoor recreation, preferences, experience use history.

Introduction

The ethnic and racial profile of the United States is undergoing a major shift such 

that in the decades ahead, people of color will constitute a majority of the population (Shinew et al. 2006). Over the last 100 years, few racial or ethnic groups have 

had as great an impact on the demography of the United States as Latinos (Saenz 

2004). The number of Latinos in the United States more than doubled between 

1980 and 2000, accounting for 40 percent of the growth in the country’s population 

during that period. In 1900 there were approximately 500,000 Latinos in the United 

States. Today there are more than 35 million (Saenz 2004). In 2003, the U.S. Census 

Bureau designated Latinos as the Nation’s largest minority group. Beyond demography, this population has had additional impacts on American society. Some of 

those influences are found at natural resource recreation areas. Research indicates 

Latino groups may have different expectations about natural resource recreation 

areas, different barriers to participation, and different site development preferences 

than other groups (Chavez 2001, 2002; Tierney et al. 1998). 

 In 1900 there were 

approximately 500,000 

Latinos in the United 

States. Today there are 

more than 35 million. In 

2003, the U.S. Census 

Bureau designated 

Latinos as the Nation’s 

largest minority group.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

This paper examines the management of urban-proximate natural resource 

recreation areas as influenced by Latinos. In short, this paper describes special 

management characteristics of urban national forests (UNFs), especially for use 

by Latinos, barriers to outdoor recreation experiences, environmental beliefs, 

and experience use history of Latinos. These will be followed by suggestions for 

serving the needs of this rapidly increasing population. These suggestions relate to 

communications, development or renovation of recreation sites, use of partnerships 

and cooperation, and provision of employment opportunities. 

The information provided in this article is based on 17 research projects over 

the past 16 years conducted mostly in southern California. Owing to this emphasis 

on southern California, managers in other places may want to verify the validity 

and reliability of these studies for their management areas.

Urban National Forests 

Urban National Forests are forests located within 50 miles of a population center 

of greater than 1 million people (Dwyer and Chavez 2005). These forests demonstrate unique management challenges and opportunities (Hartley 1986). They also 

have great potential to educate the public and create supportive constituencies 

(Gangloff 2003). 

 In 1995, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, identified 14 

UNFs located in eight U.S. states. In 2005, they identified an additional 10 UNFs. 

Hartley (1986) defined several characteristics of UNFs including year-round accessibility, cultural beliefs, emergence of new recreation activities, and competition 

for open space. An adapted model is presented here, including intense use, regional 

parklike use, sprawl, complex communication strategies, safety, and cultural 

beliefs: 

• Intense use: areas that may be managed for “dispersed” use get quite 

“concentrated” use; often significant amounts of day use.

• Regional parklike usage: since most regional parks in southern California are 

booked well in advance, some parties intended for regional parks are shifted 

to public lands; there may be competition for open space.

• High use of designated wilderness: day use increases visitation at designated 

wilderness significantly (e.g., San Mateo Canyon Wilderness on the Cleveland 

National Forest where more use occurs from day users than permit holders); 

not enough permits available for wilderness use and lotteries need to be used.

• Sprawl: urban development adjacent to public land boundaries complicates 

management decisionmaking (e.g., fire management or land use decisions); 

community relations become more complex.
55

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

• Social ills: urban social problems can migrate to public lands; might see 

increases in crime, vandalism, arson, traffic congestion, etc.

• Safety: special care must be taken for the safety of the public and employees.

• Complex communication: information strategies need to consider race/ethnic 

diversity, use of multiple languages, and cultural meanings.

• Cultural beliefs: recreation visitor expectations may be based on behaviors 

learned in other countries; cultural activities may occur on public lands.

• New activities: the newest recreation activities or fads may occur here first, 

sometimes without benefit of administrative guidelines.

Some of these UNF characteristics linked to use of sites by Latinos in southern 

California are discussed (such as intense use levels at some sites, regional parklike 

use, and complex communication strategies). 

Hartley (1986) discussed intense use. Her premise was that some areas might 

be managed as dispersed sites, but use levels at those sites can be quite intense. 

Stikkers (1983) termed these concentrated dispersed-use areas, where, for example, 

a thousand people can be found in an area managed for 100 visitors. Importantly, 

few developments are located at these sites although many people frequent these 

areas. Some of these sites in southern California are predominately used by 

Latinos. At the convergence of the north and west forks of the San Gabriel River, 

approximately 90 percent of site users are Latinos. For years the only development 

was a nearby parking lot and pit toilet facilities. This has changed little over the 

years, with a few picnic tables recently added along with improved toilet facilities. 

Hartley (1986) also discussed regional parklike usage, focusing on the busy 

regional parks system in southern California. Indeed, most of the parks are booked 

well in advance making it difficult for people to obtain group reservations. Consequently, some groups intended for regional parks are shifted to other natural 

resource recreation areas. Many of these displaced visitors are Latino groups. 

In discussing sprawl, Hartley (1986) commented on how complex community 

relations can become. In areas that include large Latino populations, it becomes 

important to include Latinos in public meetings. In general, managers in southern 

California have found that few Latinos attend public meetings or participate in 

decisionmaking proceedings. 

Complex communication strategies were also discussed by Hartley (1986). 

In southern California, information strategies need to consider race/ethnicity, use 

of multiple languages, and cultural meanings of communications. Indeed, use of 

Spanish is quite necessary, but not all Spanish translations are done well. 

Hartley (1986) also addressed cultural beliefs. The premise is that recreation 

visitor expectations for natural resource recreation areas may be based on behaviors 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

learned in other countries. In southern California, many recreation visitors have 

family roots in Mexico, and cultural beliefs and practices from Mexico are 

common (such as mariachi performances at day use sites). 

Findings From the 17 Research Studies

Barriers to Outdoor Recreation Experiences

In a telephone survey of residents of Los Angeles County, Tierney et al. (1998) 

contacted 894 people. About one-third were Latino. They asked about barriers 

faced by Latino respondents who had not taken any trip in a 1-year period, who 

had taken a trip but not to a natural area, and who had taken a trip to a natural 

area where barriers were limiting their stay. Only barriers identified by at least 50 

percent of Latino respondents are presented in table 5-1. There were seven barriers 

identified by Latinos who had not taken a trip, three by those who took a trip but 

not to a natural area, and one by those who took a trip to a natural area. There is 

little overlap in barriers, and no barrier that was identified within all three travel 

scenarios by Latino respondents. Barriers that were mentioned within at least two 

of the travel scenarios were: “Would travel if more people of my race/ethnicity were 

employed there,” “Few friends travel or recreate in natural areas,” and “We don’t 

know where to go or what to do.” 

Table 5-1—Barriers identified by Latinos who either took no trip in a 1-year 

period, took a trip but not to a natural area, or mentioned barriers limiting their 

stay at a natural area

Took 

no trip

Took trip, but 

not to a 

natural area

Natural area 

stay limited

Normally travel but did something different X

Financial situation X

Would travel if more people of my 

 race/ethnicity employed there X X

Nearby destinations are too crowded X

Few friends travel or recreate in natural areas X X

Don’t know where to go or what to do X X

Time commitments X

Want more luxury accommodations X

Source: Tierney et al. 1998.

Barriers that were 

mentioned within 

at least two of the 

travel scenarios 

were: “Would travel 

if more people of my 

race/ethnicity were 

employed there,” 

“Few friends travel 

or recreate in natural 

areas,” and “We don’t 

know where to go or 

what to do.” 

Additional issues come from a series of day use studies on two forests in 

southern California (the series results are reported in Chavez 2001). It was found 

that day use visitors to two national forests (who were primarily Latino visitors) disliked seeing litter along forest roadways, litter at picnic sites, or graffiti on natural 
57

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

surfaces (such as rocks or trees). These are interesting findings given the sites 

where visitors were surveyed were frequently highly littered and graffiti was found 

on human-made (such as picnic table tops) and natural surfaces. 

No discussion of barriers would be complete without some mention of societal 

barriers. For Latinos these include, among others, barriers to education, barriers to 

the political process, and racism.

Environmental Beliefs

In 2005, Chavez (2006) examined the environmental beliefs of day use visitors to 

two canyons on the Angeles National Forest. More than half of the respondents 

were Latino. The respondents were asked about natural resource areas and what 

they should be managed for. Items rated included environmental activities. They 

evaluated items using a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). 

Most felt natural resource areas should be managed for protection of water quality, 

protection of wildlife, scenic value, watching wildlife, and improved air quality. Using the same list, they were asked if there were currently enough natural 

resource areas for these activities or if more were needed. Respondents used a 

scale of -1 (fewer areas needed) to 1 (more areas needed). Most reported the need 

for additional natural resource areas for improved air quality, protection of plants, 

protection of water quality, and protection of wildlife. 

Experience Use History

Chavez (2001, 2003) found evidence of repeat use of sites over time and plans to 

return to natural resource recreation areas multiple times per year by Latinos. A 

series of day use studies in southern California (Chavez 2001) have indicated that 

although Latinos are not found at all sites across forests, they are found in particular locations. At those sites, Latinos are often repeat visitors, who learned about 

the sites from family and friends, and who have plans to return to those sites in the 

future. Some respondents returned to the same day use site multiple times each 

summer. Respondent perceptions were that the natural resource recreation areas 

provided great recreation experiences, were well worth the money it took to take the 

trip, and planned to tell others about their experiences at those areas. 

In a qualitative study of Latinos, Chavez (2003) found that family groups were 

at natural resource recreation areas to rest and relax and have enjoyable family 

outings. She also found that Latinos were at these natural resource recreation areas 

because the areas were reminders of homelands. Proximity to homelands (such as 

Mexico) can contribute to the maintenance of Latino cultures, such as adding to the 

cultural identity through language or cultural activities. These findings also suggest 
58

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

that Latinos may be less likely to leave one site and substitute another place—which 

could be suggested by managers when sites are overcrowded—unless those substituted sites meet the same reminder of homelands criteria. 

Serving Needs of Latino Visitors

The remainder of the paper focuses on considering the needs of Latinos in natural 

resource recreation management. For some of these sections it is important to 

note that, in general, Latinos tend to use the natural resource recreation areas in 

larger and extended family groups (nuclear family plus aunts, uncles, cousins, etc.) 

as compared to non-Latinos. Many of the suggestions to consider are directed at 

urban-proximate natural resource recreation areas where Latinos select and use 

particular sites, when Latinos are fairly well attached to those places, where large 

groups of Latinos may use sites for big gatherings with cultural activities, where 

communications plans need to incorporate the Spanish language and respect 

cultural meanings, and where barriers to recreation use need to be alleviated. 

Suggestions Related to Communications

Research on Latino visitors to two southern California national forest recreation 

day use areas indicated a large percentage of Spanish speakers and Spanish readers 

(Chavez 2001). The same studies found a preference for getting information about 

these areas by word of mouth, particularly from family and friends. It was found 

that once on site, visitors preferred to receive information through a brochure at the 

site entrance, signs along the road, and notes on bulletin boards. The information 

preferred was site specific. At one site, preferences were for information on streamside areas, things to see and do, rules and regulations, and rare types of plants and 

animals. At another site, the preferences were for the best times to visit the area to 

avoid crowds, safety in the area, picnic/barbecue area, and camping in the area. 

Research on international symbols (signs without words) in use on two urbanproximate national forests indicated the following were signs well understood by 

all visitors: Fishing, Swimming, Restrooms, Horse trail, No fireworks, Hiking trail, 

Picnic area, No trucks, Camping (tent), Drown campfires, and Hikers (Chavez et 

al. 2004). Fewer visitors understood these symbols: Off-road vehicle trail, Information, and Automobiles permitted. The following symbols were not understood by 

visitors: No alcohol, No charcoal grills, Amphitheater, Carry water back to the site, 

Fish hatchery, and Conserve water. The majority of respondents were Latino, but 

results included others as well.

These various findings suggest some specific actions to consider for serving 

Latinos at urban-proximate natural resource recreation sites. Providing translated 
59

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

materials (into Spanish) is strongly suggested. Even better would be to provide 

well- translated materials that have been back-translated (see Marin and Marin 

1991) and are culturally correct. Some international symbols may be used as well, 

and would possibly serve more than Latino visitors. It appears that traditional use of 

brochures at the site entrance, signs along the road, and notes on bulletin boards are 

acceptable. When considering the types of information to provide, managers will 

need to survey their visitors.

Suggestions Related to Development of Sites

Research conducted in southern California indicated that Latino recreation visitors 

liked to recreate at relatively developed sites; they wanted restrooms, picnic tables, 

and related facility development. At one site the strongest preferences expressed by 

Latinos were for trash cans, water faucets, cooking grills, and picnic tables (Chavez 

2002). This was a function of the site being a picnic area. At another site, which is 

managed for dispersed use, the preferences were for trash cans, telephones, water 

faucets, and parking areas. 

Research indicated that visitors engaged in several activities when recreating on 

natural resource recreation areas (Chavez 2001). The things they usually engaged in 

were a function of the site where the data were collected. At one site, for example, 

the activities were picnic/barbecue, stream play, day hike, watch wildlife, and drive 

for pleasure. At another site the usual activities were picnic/barbecue, camp, drive 

for pleasure, stream play, and off-highway vehicle driving. In a study where half 

of the respondents were Latino, Chavez (2006) found that respondents believed 

that more areas were needed for camping, day hiking, educational purposes, scenic 

value, visitor safety, and watching wildlife. 

Sites that serve Latino visitors in urban-proximate natural resource recreation 

areas may need to be developed or renovated to suit the desires of those visitors. 

Level of development depends on the management plan of an area. For example, 

picnic areas can be highly developed since they serve a particular need, but managers should exercise more caution for development of dispersed sites. Picnic area 

development for Latinos should consider grouped tables, barbecues to suit larger 

groups, and nearby trash containers (Chavez 2002). It is also suggested that Latinos 

tend to be day users and prefer stream play, picnic/barbecues, and available hiking 

trails. Some consideration should be made for the longer period Latinos tend to stay 

at sites—perhaps having services/facilities that fit their preferences (such as group 

play areas that could be used for volleyball or soccer, drinking water, and toilets). 

Keeping sites clean is appreciated by all visitors. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Serving Latinos Through Partnerships and Cooperation

Given the backlog of work that needs to be accomplished at many urban-proximate 

natural resource recreation areas, managers may need to consider partnerships and 

cooperation with others. Managers of these areas will want to conduct an institutional analysis to determine the capabilities of the agency and to determine who 

else would be available to assist with site management and visitor services. 

Partnerships and cooperation to serve Latinos can be important at three points 

of the recreation experience—before they arrive onsite, once onsite, and after they 

return home. Thus, outreach and related efforts can serve many purposes. Managers can use partnerships and cooperation to communicate information to Latino 

groups before they arrive onsite, they can publicize information meetings, and they 

can encourage community involvement. If the partners focus on issues salient to 

Latinos, they will do a good job in developing appropriate environmental education 

programs and interpretation services and programs. Given how much use occurs 

onsite, managers can partner with groups to provide public transportation services 

while onsite, or even to the site (Sorvig 2002). They may also be able to partner 

with others in developing or renovating recreation areas. 

Makopondo (2006) had four major recommendations for creating racially and 

ethnically inclusive collaboration and partnerships: (1) agencies need to recognize 

minorities as legitimate stakeholders and invite all relevant organizations and leaders into partnership formation and problem defining, (2) agencies need to consider 

expanding their mission and goals outside their traditional boundaries, (3) agencies 

need to make their programs and activities relevant to the lives of racial and ethnic 

minorities, and (4) agencies must develop genuine personal relationships with their 

community partners.

Provision of Employment Opportunities 

When considering how to best serve Latinos in urban-proximate natural resource 

recreation areas, managers will want to consider staffing and training (Chavez 

2000). One of the barriers for Latinos to taking a trip or taking a trip to a natural 

area was the perception that few people of their ethnicity were employed at 

natural areas (Tierney et al. 1998). This perception can be alleviated through the 

continued hiring of Latinos into urban-proximate natural resource recreation 

positions. It would also be beneficial to train urban-proximate natural resource 

recreation paid and volunteer staff members. This training would focus on beliefs 

and preferences of the recreating public, especially the beliefs and preferences of 

Latino recreation visitors. 
61

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Conclusions

There has been a major shift in the ethnic and racial profile of the United States 

with large increases in the Latino population. The demographic profiles influence other aspects of life in the United States, including urban-proximate natural 

resource recreation area management. Latino groups may have expectations about 

natural resource recreation areas, barriers to participation, and site development 

preferences that are different than other groups (Chavez 2001, 2002; Tierney et al. 

1998). 

Suggestions for serving the needs of this rapidly increasing population 

were offered. These suggestions related to communications, development of 

recreation sites, use of partnerships and cooperation, and provision of employment 

opportunities. 

The information provided in this article was based on research conducted 

mostly in southern California. Owing to this emphasis on southern California, 

the suggestions presented may have different applicability in other areas of the 

United States.

Literature Cited

Chavez, D.J. 2000. Invite, include, and involve! Racial groups, ethnic groups, 

and leisure. In: Allison, M.T.; Schneider, I.E., eds. Diversity and the recreation 

profession: organizational perspectives. State College, PA: Venture Publishing, 

Inc.: 179–194.

Chavez, D.J. 2001. Managing outdoor recreation in California: visitor contact 

studies 1989–1998. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-180. Albany, CA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 

100 p.

Chavez, D.J. 2002. Adaptive management in outdoor recreation: serving Hispanics 

in southern California. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 17(3): 129–133.

Chavez, D.J. 2003. Mexican-American recreation: home, community and natural 

environments. Proceedings of the Hawaii international conference on social 

sciences. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii. [CD-ROM] 13 p.

Chavez, D.J. 2006. Connecting southern Californians with nature. Proceedings of 

the Hawaii international conference on social sciences. Honolulu, HI: University 

of Hawaii. [CD-ROM] 8 p.

Latino groups may 

have expectations 

about natural 

resource recreation 

areas, barriers to 

participation, and 

site development 

preferences that are 

different than other 

groups.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Chavez, D.J.; Knap, N.E.; McCollum, D.G. 2004. Assessing national forest 

visitors’ comprehension of international symbols for communicating outdoor 

recreation messages. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration. 22(3): 1–21.

Dwyer, J.F.; Chavez, D.J. 2005. The challenges of managing public lands in 

the wildland-urban interface. In: Vince, S.W.; Duryea, M.L.; Macie, E.A.; 

Hermansen, L.A., eds. Forests at the wildland-urban interface. Boca Raton, FL: 

CRC Press: 269–283. 

Gangloff, D. 2003. Welcome and challenge for the future. In: Larsen, G., ed. 

Proceedings of the 2003 Urban National Forest Coalition. [Place of publication 

unknown] [Publisher unknown]: 1–5. 

Hartley, M.S. 1986. An analysis of recreation management on southern California 

national forests. 76 p. Unpublished draft. On file with: Deborah Chavez, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 

4955 Canyon Crest Dr. Riverside, CA 92507. 

Makopondo, R. 2006. Creating racially/ethnically inclusive partnerships in 

natural resource management and outdoor recreation: the challenges, issues, 

and strategies. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration. 24(1): 7–31.

Marin, G.; Marin, B.V. 1991. Research with Hispanic populations. Applied Social 

Research Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. 130 p. Vol. 23.

Saenz, R. 2004. Latinos and the changing face of America. New York, NY: 

Russell Sage Foundation. 28 p.

Shinew, K.J.; Stodolska, M.; Floyd, M.; Hibbler, D.; Allison, M.; Johnson, C.; 

Santos, C. 2006. Race and ethnicity in leisure behavior: Where have we been 

and where do we need to go? Leisure Sciences. 28(4): 403–408. 

Sorvig, K. 2002. The wilds of South Central. Landscape Architecture. 4(April): 

66–75.

Stikkers, D. 1983. An examination of depreciative behavior and management 

options in San Gabriel Canyon. 35 p. Unpublished draft. On file with: Deborah 

Chavez, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Dr. Riverside, CA 92507. 

Tierney, P.T.; Dahl, R.F.; Chavez, D.J. 1998. Cultural diversity of Los Angeles 

County residents using undeveloped natural areas. Res. Pap. PSW-RP-236. 

Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station. 76 p.
63

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Deborah J. Chavez and David D. Olson 1

Abstract

Diversity at outdoor recreation sites, particularly those near large and diverse urban 

populations, is occurring across the United States. It is likely that individuals who 

belong to these changing groups bring a set of values and behaviors to public lands 

that differ from that of White visitors, and perhaps, land managers. Reported here 

are findings from studies conducted on four national forests in southern California. 

We examined the participation, preferences, and perceptions of diverse recreation 

visitors, focusing on Latinos. Studies like the ones reported here provide land 

managers insights to better serve this important group. Percentage of Latinos at 

the areas included in this article ranged from 24 percent (Palomar Mountain on 

the Cleveland National Forest) to 78 percent (Applewhite on the San Bernardino 

National Forest). 

At all four areas, picnic/barbecues and stream playing were among the activities usually engaged in. Activities usually engaged in at the areas were development 

dependent (picnicking/barbecuing, camping, and off-highway vehicle riding), natural area dependent (watching wildlife and driving for pleasure), or water dependent 

(stream play and fishing). 

When communicating with diverse groups, managers should consider whether 

this information is provided before people get to the area or after they arrive. 

Offsite communications were primarily word of mouth (family and friends) and 

would be challenging for land managers to tap into. Onsite communications are 

less problematic and fit the traditional methods available—brochure at the area 

entrance, signs along the road, and notes on a bulletin board. The desired pertinent 

information to share with visitors onsite differed by area suggesting managers will 

need input from their visitors to provide for visitor needs.

Visitors rated several facilities and amenities as important or very important. 

Trash cans and water faucets were common responses to all the areas studied, but 

other facilities and amenities were site specific. 

1

 Supervisory social scientist and social science analyst, respectively, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, 

Riverside, CA 92507; e-mail: dchavez@fs.fed.us; dolson04@fs.fed.us.

Chapter 6: Diverse Users of Four 

Urban National Forests: Participation, 

Preferences, and Perceptions
64

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

These studies also indicate that Latino and other urban national forest visitors 

to these areas were bothered by litter along the road and at picnic sites, graffiti on 

natural and on human-made surfaces, and tree carving. These findings suggest area 

managers should focus on keeping sites free of litter and graffiti. 

Visitors at all four of these urban national forest areas said they wanted to 

return to the area again, thought it was well worth the money expended to take the 

trip, and said they had a great recreation experience. These data suggest that Latino 

and other visitors are likely to continue to recreate in these places and will tell 

others about them.

Keywords: Latinos, outdoor recreation, participation, perceptions, preferences. 

Introduction

The social composition of the visitors to many U.S. outdoor recreation areas has 

been changing. In some states, it is the racial/ethnic makeup that is changing. In 

other states the changes might be in age, education, income, family composition, 

or some other variable or set of variables. In California, diversity is manifested in 

several ways with race and ethnicity being dominant among them. It is likely that 

individuals who belong to these changing groups bring a set of values and behaviors to public lands that differ from that of “traditional” users, and perhaps, land 

managers. These changes may be felt the strongest in resource programs dealing 

with visitor use, such as recreation, cultural resources, and lands (Chavez 2001). 

It is important to examine users of urban-proximate outdoor recreation sites 

and obtain visitor points of view about those sites. Of particular importance are 

day use sites, which receive a large amount of use but little research emphasis. 

Day use sites are those in which people visit for some portion of a day but they do 

not stay overnight. Managers of urban-proximate day use sites can better manage with detailed information about participation patterns, site preferences, and 

visitor perceptions. 

The following reports participation, preference, and perception results from 

day use visitor contact surveys conducted on four urban national forests in southern 

California between 2001 and 2004 with a focus on areas where Latinos recreate. 

The surveys were a replication of the day use surveys conducted on the same 

national forests in 1992-94 and 2000-01 (Chavez and Mainieri 1995; Chavez et al. 

1995a, 1995b, 2002). 

It is important to 

examine users of 

urban-proximate 

outdoor recreation 

sites and obtain 

visitor points of view 

about those sites. Of 

particular importance 

are day use sites, 

which receive a large 

amount of use but little 

research emphasis.
65

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Forest Descriptions

The Angeles National Forest (ANF) is situated primarily in Los Angeles and San 

Bernardino Counties. The ANF is more than 656,000 acres in size. The ANF offers 

year-round opportunities for camping, hiking, swimming, boating, picnicking, and 

sightseeing. Over 800 miles of forest trails lead hikers, mountain bikers, equestrians, and off-highway vehicle (OHV) riders across rugged backcountry, along high, 

scenic ridges, and through shady, tree-lined canyons. During the winter, visitors 

can ski at one of the five ski areas or cross-country ski, snow camp, hike, snowmobile, or just play in the snow.

The San Bernardino National Forest (SBF) covers about 820,000 acres within 

San Bernardino and Riverside Counties. Of this area, about 162,000 acres are in 

private, county, state, and other federal agency ownership. The forest lies within 2 

hours driving distance of more than 16 million residents of southern California. The 

SBF is one of the most heavily-used in the Nation and was ranked 12th in recreation 

use among national forests in 1995, with 6.3 million visitor days (it was ranked 

third in California). Developed recreation sites on the SBF frequently exceed their 

design capacity during weekends of high season use (includes summer and winter). 

General forest recreation accounted for 4.5 million visitor days in 1982 and has 

increased since then. It is important to examine use of recreation sites and get visitor points of view about those sites.

The Los Padres National Forest (LPNF) is situated primarily in Monterey, San 

Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, and Ventura Counties. Populations in these counties 

are extremely diverse. The LPNF is characterized by a mediterranean climate, 

with cool winters and hot, dry summers, and has more than 1.7 million acres on 

the Coast and Transverse Ranges, providing a variety of terrain, vegetation, and 

recreation settings including ocean beaches, forest, chaparral, and desert. The 

LPNF was one of the most heavily used in the state and ranked fifth in 1995 for recreation visitor days, with 5.0 million recreation visitor days. About 30 percent of the 

recreation use in the forest is in developed sites. These include public facilities such 

as campgrounds, picnic grounds, and observation sites. General forest recreation 

opportunities include undeveloped areas and roads and trails. About 70 percent of 

recreation use occurs in general forest areas. 

The Cleveland National Forest (CNF) includes three distinct mountain ranges 

adjoining the urbanized lowlands of Orange, Riverside, and San Diego Counties. 

Los Angeles County is within an hour’s drive of the northern part of the forest. 

More than 420,000 acres in size, the CNF encompasses much of the Santa Ana, 

Palomar, and Laguna Mountains. Elevations range from 400 to 6,140 feet. Chaparral is the most abundant vegetation type, covering about 88 percent of forest lands. 
66

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

The forest’s developed recreation facilities can accommodate about 4,200 persons 

at one time. These facilities include 5 picnic areas, 16 family campgrounds, 7 group 

campgrounds, and 2 information stations. The forest has experienced great demand 

for general forest or non-facility-based recreation opportunities, particularly for 

hiking and horseback riding.

Methods

All four studies reported here (ANF, CNF, LPNF, and SBF) are based on results 

from day use studies at those sites. The instrument used for the four studies 

reported here closely followed the questions first asked of day use visitors in 1992. 

All data were collected under the auspices of Office of Management and Budget 

approvals, as well as study plans filed with the Pacific Southwest Research Station. 

The survey instruments were available to participants in English and Spanish, and 

were collected by bilingual research teams. All visitors (age 18 or over) onsite were 

asked for their voluntary participation in the survey. Visitors were assured confidentiality of their responses.

Dates of data collection were randomly selected throughout the summer months 

2001 through 2004. Day use sites within the planning places were also randomly 

selected from a list provided by each forest of developed picnic areas, general day 

use areas, and trailhead sites. 

The primary objectives of each day use study were to:

• Gain a stronger understanding of recreation visitor characteristics.

• Report visitation patterns.

• Determine onsite activities.

• Determine interpretation, communication, and information patterns.

• Report on the relative importance of site attributes.

• Report visitor perceptions about impacts to day use sites and about their 

recreation experiences.

In total, 924 respondents were used for this paper. There were 137 from the 

ANF, 249 from the CNF, 268 from the LPNF, and 270 from the SBF. 

Results were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. 

Results

Sociodemographic Profiles

There are several differences in forest respondents among sites (table 6-1). There 

were more Latino respondents at the ANF and SBF day use sites, and more White 

respondents at the CNF and LPNF sites. There were also fewer respondents who 
67

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 6-1—Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents, by forest

Angeles 

National 

Forest

Cleveland 

National 

Forest

Los Padres 

National 

Forest

San Bernardino 

National Forest

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Percent - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

Race/ethnicity:

White 41 71 65 37

Latino 40 21 12 47

Other 19 8 23 16

Gender:

Male 52 66 55 49

Female 45 34 44 50

English:

Spoken 63 86 83 52

Read 69 90 88 57

U.S. born 64 82 81 62

Household income:

Up to $39,999 40 19 31 54

$70,000+ 22 43 29 17

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Mean - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Age 37 39 38 35

Education 13 15 15 17

spoke English and read English as their primary language at the ANF and SBF 

day use sites, fewer U.S.-born respondents at those sites, and lower incomes. The 

respondents at the CNF and LPNF were somewhat older (on average), and they 

reported higher years of education attained. There were more male respondents at 

all the sites except the SBF. 

The remainder of the paper examines participation, preferences, and perceptions focusing on areas within each forest where Latinos were found in the 

greatest numbers: On the ANF, it is the San Gabriel Canyon where 73 percent of 

the site respondents were Latino; on the CNF, Palomar Mountain had 24 percent 

Latino respondents; on the LPNF, the area with the most Latino respondents was 

Santa Ynez (39 percent). The Applewhite Picnic Area had the highest percentage 

of Latino respondents (78 percent) for the SBF. Group and visit characteristics 

were similar among these places with most respondents reporting they were 

recreating in a family group, most had plans to stay for more than 4 hours (except 

CNF where most reported planned visits of 1 to 3 hours), and most were on repeat 

visits to the areas. 
68

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Table 6-2—Activities respondents usually engaged in while on 

a forest visit, by area

Areaa Activity Percentage

SBF Applewhite Picnic/barbecue (BBQ) 66

Stream play 65

Day hike 48

Wildlife viewing 38

Drive for pleasure 36

ANF San Gabriel Canyon Picnic/BBQ 60

Camp 42

Drive for pleasure 40

Stream play 35

OHVb riding 20

LPNF Santa Ynez Stream play 79 

Camp 64 

Picnic/BBQ 61 

Wildlife viewing 50

Fishing 32

Drive for pleasure 32

CNF Palomar Mountain Picnic/BBQs 96 

Fishing 52

Day hiking 48

Stream play 48

Camp 44

Wildlife viewing 44

a ANF = Angeles National Forest, CNF = Cleveland National Forest, LPNF = 

Participation

Respondents were asked what activities they usually engaged in while on the 

national forest where they were contacted. Activities that respondents usually 

engaged in did not differ much by site (table 6-2). At all four areas, respondents 

reported picnic/barbecues and stream playing to be among the activities usually 

engaged in. For example, 66 percent of the respondents at the Applewhite Picnic 

Area said they usually engaged in picnicking/barbecuing when onsite and 65 

percent of the respondents at the Applewhite Picnic Area said they usually engaged 

in stream playing when onsite. At three areas, respondents said watching wildlife, 

driving for pleasure, and camping were activities in which they usually engaged. 

Day hiking, fishing, and OHV riding rounded out the list. Some of these activities 

are development dependent (picnicking/barbecuing, camping, and OHV riding), 

natural area dependent (watching wildlife and driving for pleasure), or water 

dependent (stream play and fishing).
69

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Preferences About Communication and Development

Communication—

Respondents were asked how they first learned of the site (response choices 

included agency, brochures, family, flyers, friends, newspaper, radio, television, 

other). Most (at least 50 percent within an area) heard about the areas by word of 

mouth through family members or friends. 

Respondents at each area were asked how they would like to receive information related to national forests while onsite. Response categories included brochure 

at entrance, evening program at information center, notes on bulletin board, radio 

broadcast, ranger who stops by for a visit, and signs along the road. How these 

respondents would like to receive information related to national forests while 

onsite differed little (table 6-3) by area. For example, 65 percent of the respondents at the Applewhite Picnic Area said they would prefer a brochure at the area 

entrance, 61 percent said signs along the road, and 51 percent said notes on a bulletin board. The top three responses across areas were brochure at entrance, signs 

along the road, and notes on a bulletin board.

Table 6-3—Top three preferences for receiving information while 

onsite, by area

Areaa Information choice Percentage liked

SBF Applewhite Brochure at entrance 65

Signs along the road 61

Notes on bulletin board 51

ANF San Gabriel Canyon Brochure at entrance 81

Signs along the road 66

Notes on bulletin board 46

LPNF Santa Ynez Brochure at entrance 68

Notes on bulletin board 61

Signs along the road 54

CNF Palomar Mountain Brochure at entrance 84

Signs along the road 80

Notes on bulletin board 52

a ANF = Angeles National Forest, CNF = Cleveland National Forest, LPNF = Los 

Padres National Forest, and SBF = San Bernardino National Forest.

Visitors selected several types of information they would like to receive about 

these areas (table 6-4). The options included best times to visit the area to avoid 

crowds, camping in the area, cultural and historical features of the area, fishing in 

the area, hiking in the area, history of the area, hunting in the area, location of day 

hike trails, locations of overnight trails, picnic/barbecue areas, places similar to this 

Respondents were 

asked how they first 

learned of the site. 

Most heard about 

the areas by word of 

mouth through family 

members or friends. 
70

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

one, OHV areas, rare types of plants and animals, rules and regulations, safety in 

the area, shooting areas, similar areas that are not crowded, streamside areas, area 

surrounding the forest, things to see and do, types of plants and animals in the 

area, ways to keep the area natural looking, ways to protect the wild area, other. 

The responses differed by area with respondents at three of the four sites selecting 

streamside areas and camping in the area. Respondents at two of the four areas 

selected best times to visit the area to avoid crowds and picnic/barbecue areas. 

Development—

Respondents at these areas were asked the importance of having particular 

facilities and amenities onsite (cooking grills, fire pits/rings, group facilities, law 

enforcement and patrols, parking areas, restricted use levels, telephones, trash 

cans, water faucets, other). Common responses to these areas included trash cans 

and water faucets (table 6-5 reports percentages for those saying these facilities 

and amenities were “important” or “very important”). Other responses differed 

by area with respondents at two of the four areas selecting cooking grills, picnic 

tables, and parking areas. 

Table 6-4—Top four preferences for topics of information, by area

Areaa Information topic Percentage

SBF Applewhite Streamside areas 43

Things to see and do 40

Rules and regulations 38

Rare types of plants and animals 35

ANF San Gabriel Canyon Best times to avoid crowds 66

Safety in the area 59

Picnic/barbecue area 59

Camping in the area 57

LPNF Santa Ynez Best times to avoid crowds 71

Camping in the area 68

Location of day hike trails 64

Streamside areas 64

CNF Palomar Mountain Picnic/barbecue areas 84

Camping in the area 68

Streamside areas 68

Fishing in the area 64

a ANF = Angeles National Forest, CNF = Cleveland National Forest, LPNF = Los Padres 

National Forest, and SBF = San Bernardino National Forest.
71

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 6-5—Top four preferences rated as “important” or “very 

important” for site development and amenities, by area

Areaa Amenity Percentage

SBF Applewhite Trash cans 84

Water faucets 80

Cooking grills 80

Picnic tables 79

ANF San Gabriel Canyon Trash cans 67

Telephones 65

Water faucets 61

Parking areas 61

LPNF Santa Ynez Trash cans 57

Parking areas 54

Water faucets 54

Law enforcement and patrols 50

CNF Palomar Mountain Cooking grills 60

Water faucets 60

Trash cans 56

Picnic tables 52

a ANF = Angeles National Forest, CNF = Cleveland National Forest, LPNF = Los 

Padres National Forest, and SBF = San Bernardino National Forest.

Perceptions

Respondents were asked their opinions about impacts to the day use sites. The 

possible impacts were cars parked at “no parking” areas; carving of names, initials, 

or messages on trees (tree carving); dogs walked off leash; drawings or graffiti on 

human-made surfaces (graffiti—man-made surfaces); drawings or graffiti on natural surfaces (graffiti—natural surfaces); litter along the road; litter at picnic sites; 

a lot of people at the site; people drinking alcohol. Items that bothered them 

“a lot” were litter along the road, litter at picnic sites, and graffiti on natural surfaces (table 6-6). 

Finally, the respondents provided their impressions about their recreation 

experience (table 6-7). They were asked if these statements were true (or false) 

about them: “Being at this site reminds me of childhood recreation experiences” 

(reminder of childhood), “I plan to tell at least one other person about my trip here” 

(tell others about trip), “I want to return here again,” “I was disappointed with 

some aspects of this site,” “My experience was not as good as I had hoped,” “The 

employees were helpful,” “The site was safe and secure,” “This is a great recreation 

experience,” “This trip was well worth the money I spent to take it” (well worth the 

money). A large percentage of respondents (70 percent or more) at all four areas 
72

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Table 6-7—Perceptions about the recreation experience, by area

Areaa Recreation experience Percentageb

SBF Applewhite I want to return here again 79

Well worth the money 74

Tell others about trip 71

It’s a great recreation experience 70

ANF San Gabriel Canyon I want to return here again 85

Tell others about trip 82

Well worth the money 71

It’s a great recreation experience 70

LPNF Santa Ynez Tell others about trip 82

I want to return here again 79

It’s a great recreation experience 71

Well worth the money 71

CNF Palomar Mountain I want to return here again 88

The site was safe and secure 88

Well worth the money 84

It’s a great recreation experience 80

a ANF = Angeles National Forest, CNF = Cleveland National Forest, LPNF = Los Padres 

National Forest, and SBF = San Bernardino National Forest.

b Percentage who said each statement was “true” about them.

Table 6-6—Top three perceptions about human impacts that bother them “a lot,” 

by area

Areaa Human impact Percentage

SBF Applewhite Litter along the road 63

Litter at picnic sites 57

Graffiti on natural surfaces 55

ANF San Gabriel Canyon Litter along the road 62

Graffiti on natural surfaces 59

Litter at picnic sites 57

LPNF Santa Ynez Graffiti on man-made surfaces 61

Graffiti on natural surfaces 57

Litter along the road 57

CNF Palomar Mountain Litter along the road 72

Litter at picnic sites 72

Tree carving 68

a ANF = Angeles National Forest, CNF = Cleveland National Forest, LPNF = Los Padres 

National Forest, and SBF = San Bernardino National Forest.
73

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

said the following were true about them: “I want to return there again,” “It was well 

worth the money expended,” and “It was a great recreation experience.” At three of 

the four areas, the respondents also said they would tell others about their trip.

Discussion

Studies like the ones reported here provide land managers insights to better serve 

this important group. When communicating with diverse groups, for example, 

managers should consider whether this information is provided before people get 

to the area or after they arrive. Offsite communications were primarily word of 

mouth (family and friends) and would be challenging for land managers to tap into. 

Onsite communications are less problematic and fit the traditional methods available—brochure at the area entrance, signs along the road, and notes on a bulletin 

board. The desired pertinent information to share with visitors onsite differed by 

area suggesting managers will need to have some specific information from their 

visitors to provide for visitor information desires. Still, there was some consistency 

with preferences for information about streamside areas and camping in the area. 

Visitors rated several facilities and amenities as important or very important. 

This is consistent with other studies reporting a desire by Latinos for development 

of sites (Chavez 2002). Trash cans and water faucets were common desires to all the 

areas studied, but other desires were site specific. 

These studies also indicate that Latino and other urban national forest visitors to these sites were bothered a lot by litter along the road and at picnic sites, 

and graffiti on natural surfaces. They were also bothered by graffiti on man-made 

surfaces and tree carving. These findings suggest managers should focus on keeping sites free of litter and graffiti. Another study found the addition of many trash 

cans cut back considerably on litter (Chavez 2002). 

Visitors at all four of these urban national forest areas said they wanted to 

return to the area again, thought it was well worth the money expended to take 

the trip, and said they had a great recreation experience. These data suggest that 

Latino (and other) visitors are likely to continue to recreate in these places and 

will tell others about it, signaling increased use by these respondent groups in 

the future.

Metric Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To get:

Acres 0.405 Hectares

Miles 1.609 Kilometers

Visitors rated several 

facilities and amenities 

as important or very 

important. This is 

consistent with other 

studies reporting a 

desire by Latinos for 

development of sites.
74

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

References

Chavez, D.J. 2001. Managing outdoor recreation in California: visitor contact 

studies 1989–1998. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-180. Albany, CA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 

100 p.

Chavez, D.J. 2002. Adaptive management in outdoor recreation: serving Hispanics 

in southern California. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 17(3): 129–133.

Chavez, D.J.; Mainieri, T. 1995. Recreation day use series-Report 1: San 

Bernardino National Forest, summer 1992. 58 p. Unpublished draft. On file 

with: Deborah Chavez, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Dr., Riverside, CA 92507. 

Chavez, D.J.; Winter, P.; Mainieri, T. 1995a. Recreation day use series—Report 

2, Angeles National Forest, summer 1993. 73 p. Unpublished draft. On file 

with: Deborah Chavez, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Dr., Riverside, CA 92507. 

Chavez, D.J.; Winter, P.; Mainieri, T. 1995b. Recreation day use series—Report 

3, Los Padres National Forest, summer 1994. 44 p. Unpublished draft. On file 

with: Deborah Chavez, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Dr., Riverside, CA 92507. 

Chavez, D.J.; McCollum, D.; Olson, D. 2002. Day use series: 2001, the San 

Bernardino National Forest. 31 p. Unpublished draft. On file with: Deborah 

Chavez, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Dr., Riverside, CA 92507.
75

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

1

Associate professor, Recreation and Tourism Studies Program, Department of Exercise 

Science, Sport Management, Physical Education and Recreation, Old Dominion University, 

115 Spong Hall, Norfolk, VA 23529; e-mail; egomez@odu.edu. 

Edwin Gómez 1

Abstract

The purpose of this report is to identify research gaps related to the race/ethnicity 

and leisure literature. This was done by first highlighting the trends involved in the 

ethnicity and leisure literature, and then presenting five gaps found in the literature 

for future researchers to consider.

Keywords: Ethnicity, race, recreation, leisure, research gaps.

Introduction

General interest in the area of racial/ethnic minority populations and recreation/

leisure began prior to the 1960s, but expanded in the 1960s as a function of the 

civil rights movement (Floyd 1998). Specific interest in racial/ethnic minority 

populations and outdoor recreation areas was spurred by findings from the Outdoor 

Recreation Resources Review Commission (ORRRC) (Mueller and Gurin 1962). 

Over the past 40 years, the quantity of studies in race/ethnicity and recreation/

leisure has increased. Floyd’s (2007) review of five major leisure studies journals 

in the field noted that only 5 articles appeared in the 1970s, whereas 23 appeared in 

the 1980s, and 66 in the 1990s. Since 2000, 55 articles have appeared on the topic. 

Special issues devoted to the topic of race/ethnicity and recreation were allocated 

in the following journals: Journal of Leisure Research (1993, 1998), World Leisure

(2001), Leisure Sciences (2002), Leisure Studies (2004), and Leisure/Loisir (2007).

Given the increase in the number of studies on the topic of race/ethnicity and 

recreation, and continued interest due to changing demographics of user groups, 

the purpose of this report is to conduct a gap analysis. To conduct a gap analysis, it 

is critical to look at past/current trends and future directions. As such, the present 

analysis is twofold.

The first area of analysis considers what has been researched in the area of 

race/ethnicity, and recreation over the past four decades. However, this analysis is 

less of a literature review, and more of a notation of trends. For more extensive literature reviews and critiques see Allison (2000), Floyd et al. (1994), Gómez (2002), 

Chapter 7: Race, Ethnicity, Recreation, 

and Leisure: An Assessment of 

Research Gaps

Given the increase 

in the number of 

studies on the topic 

of race/ethnicity 

and recreation, and 

continued interest 

due to changing 

demographics of user 

groups, the purpose 

of this report is to 

conduct a gap analysis.
76

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Gramann (1996), Philipp (1999), Shinew et al. (2006), and Woodard (1988). The 

second area of analysis involves the assessment of gaps in the field of ethnicity/race 

and recreation and leisure. It is important to begin with a brief analysis of where we 

have been, prior to addressing where we need to go. 

An Assessment of the Current State of Ethnicity/Race 

and Leisure Studies

The 1962 ORRRC study initiated a line of research that would last over a decade. 

The investigations following the ORRRC study focused on African American/

White differences in outdoor recreation. Outdoor recreation investigations of the 

1970s were typically centered on issues related to racial inequality in the outdoors, 

and in African American/White differences in participation in various recreational 

activities (Manning 1999). These foci consequently led to a search for explanations 

for the pattern of findings observed.

One explanation for the recreation underparticipation of racial/ethnic minorities 

was the marginality-ethnicity paradigm espoused by Washburne’s (1978) seminal 

article. Washburne hypothesized that the underparticipation of minorities was 

due to socioeconomic (marginality) and subcultural identity (ethnicity) reasons. 

This heralded an era of exploration in the 1980s concerning which of these two 

theories was more viable. Support for the ethnicity theory came from KlobusEdwards (1981) and Stamps and Stamps (1985). Support for the marginality theory 

came from Woodard (1988) and West (1989). Mixed results regarding support for 

marginality and ethnicity came from Hutchison (1988). These studies looked at 

differences between racially-integrated vs. homogenous neighborhoods, Southern 

vs. Northern African Americans, peer-group compositions, and called for more 

subjective/qualitative measures, as well as a move to alternative explanations 

beyond the ethnicity-marginality paradigm. At the close of the 1980s, West’s 

(1989) introduction of discrimination or interracial relations as an explanation for 

underparticipation led to a new set of studies in the 1990s that examined the role of 

discrimination in outdoor recreation (Chavez 1993, Feagin 1991, Floyd et al. 1993). 

The 1990s could be characterized as the decade where ethnicity/race and 

leisure research really soared and began to reflect on past research and point 

to new directions. The literature on race/ethnicity and recreation expanded 

its scope to include more ethnically diverse samples from populations such as 

Latinos/Hispanics (Carr and Williams 1993; Floyd and Gramman 1993, 1995), 

Asians (Allison and Geiger 1993, Tsai 2000, Yu and Berryman 1996), and Native 

Americans (Condon 1995, McDonald and McAvoy 1997, Sky 1995). These and 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

similar studies focused on meanings of leisure by various ethnic groups, intraand intergroup differences, and the roles that acculturation, assimilation, and 

immigration play in public recreation opportunities. Philipp (1999) explored African 

American socialization, discrimination, parental beliefs, and leisure in order to delve 

into the belief system of African Americans and how it impacts their leisure choices 

and their feelings about being “welcomed” in various leisure settings.

The transition from the 1990s to the 21st century involved a growing interest 

in the expansion of the race/ethnicity and recreation literature. The 21st century 

marked three key trends: (1) model development, (2) alternative explanations, and 

(3) more qualitative studies.

One of the first conceptual models was developed by Floyd et al. (1993) to 

illustrate the factors affecting ethnic group participation in recreation activities and 

reconceptualize the marginality-ethnicity paradigm within the larger perspective 

of assimilation theory. Gómez developed (2002) and empirically tested (2006) the 

Ethnicity and Public Recreation Participation Model. Gómez’ model illustrated how 

acculturation, subcultural identity, socioeconomic status, perceived discrimination, 

and benefits of recreation affected recreation participation. Stodolska (2005) developed the Conditioned Attitude Model of Discrimination to look at the relationship 

that external and internal forces contribute to recreation participation. 

 Alternative explanations for race/ethnicity and recreation are expanding. For 

example, the empirical literature has focused on acculturation issues related to 

ethnic identity, immigration, and transnationalism (Juniu 2000, Stodolska 2000, 

Stodolska and Alexandris 2004, Utsey et al. 2002). The role of leisure constraints 

and negotiation strategies has also been applied to recreation behavior by minority 

groups (Li and Stodolska 2007). The role of place attachment/meaning has been 

explored with respect to specific ethnic groups such as African Americans (Johnson 

1998) and, more recently, Native Americans (McAvoy et al. 2003), as well as the 

specific role a place can play in enhancing positive interracial interactions (Shinew 

et al. 2004).

Hutchison (1988) was one of the first to advocate for more qualitative studies 

in the race/ethnicity and recreation literature—a sentiment echoed by Henderson 

et al. (1999). Kelly (2000) pointed out that qualitative studies have legitimately 

established themselves in the recreation literature in general, and Stodolska and 

Walker (2007) noted this pattern as a staple of current initiatives in race/ethnicity 

and leisure research. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

An Assessment of the Gaps in Race/Ethnicity and 

Leisure Studies

Gap 1—Need for Replication of Previous Studies

There have been a multitude of studies geared at exploring various aspects of 

ethnicity/race and leisure. While certainly laudable, the next step is to begin the 

process of replicating studies to confirm previous conceptualizations and findings. 

As a discipline, ethnicity/race and leisure needs a more concerted effort regarding 

the establishment of correlations between hypothesized relationships. For example, 

what is the relationship (e.g., correlation) between acculturation and recreation use, 

or between perceived benefits and recreation use, and are these associations similar 

within and across race/ethnic groups? Replication studies would allow for the 

assessment of trends over time and a meta-analytic approach to race/ethnicity and 

leisure. Replication studies could be augmented by “linking” qualitative and quantitative data. Henderson et al. (1999) noted that quantitative data can provide “reliable 

outcome information that can be generalized,” while qualitative data provide an 

“insider’s view to better understand the phenomenon under study” (1999: 254).

Gap 2—Location, Location, Location

Related to the need for replication is the need to replicate studies in both the same 

areas of the country and in different areas of the country. The focus has traditionally been on national parks, regional recreation areas, or areas predominantly west 

of the Appalachians. As noted in an earlier publication (Gómez 2003), most African 

American studies have been conducted in the Great Lakes Region or in the U.S. 

Southeast; most studies on Latinos in the U.S. Southwest; the widest geographic 

distribution of studies have been done on Asian Americans; and Native American 

research has been primarily in the U.S. West and Canada. Very little has been 

done in the larger metropolitan areas, in general (with Chicago and Los Angeles 

being the exception), and the largest cities on the U.S. East Coast in particular. 

This is not to say that there is no research on wildland-urban interface; however, 

the vast majority of our concentrations of ethnic/racial groups are in cities, and the 

vast majority of park lands used by these groups, for various reasons, are urban 

park systems. Additionally, the Latino/Hispanic population grew faster from 1990 

through 2000 in much of the U.S. South than in other areas of the United States 

(Kochlar et al. 2005), and these new Latinos have distinctive characteristics (e.g., 

they tend to be male, unmarried, born abroad, and young), different from their 

predecessors in traditional settlement areas (e.g., New York and California).
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Gap 3—The Role of Language in Leisure

The role that language plays in leisure will be an area that will require further 

exploration. As the United States becomes more pluralistic and ethnic group 

members become more and more inclined to speak their heritage language, it will 

be important to look at the relationship between non-English speakers and the role 

that their heritage language has on how they recreate, where they recreate, and why 

they recreate with specific groups (in- vs. out-groupings). Also, what effect does 

language have on recreation participation? Besides being simply a constraint, what 

is it about language that encourages or discourages participation? For example, 

if one speaks both Spanish and English, and is a functional bilingual, where 

would that person choose to recreate, and who would he or she participate with? 

Language, in terms of loss or maintenance, should be explored. This will give the 

oft-measured acculturation variable a more indepth analysis (see Carr and Williams 

1993, Floyd and Gramman 1993, for early examples of this work—especially on 

why language use should be studied). Researchers noted that language is as much a 

cultural marker as it is an indication of acculturation and adaptation. Additionally, 

heritage language can facilitate intra-ethnic leisure interaction, which is important 

to maintain and reinforce other aspects of cultural norms. 

Gap 4—The Role of Values and Leisure/Recreation

Acculturation is not simply an issue of language, but also of value systems. Some 

researchers argued for acculturation measures to take into account the role of 

values, in addition to linguistic issues. As such, a gap in the literature is the lack 

of understanding of the role of value systems. Related to this, how is leisure itself 

valued as a concept by various racial/ethnic group members? Researchers have 

asked about meanings given to the environment and the outdoors, the same extension should be allotted to the exploration of leisure from a non-Western perspective. 

Over three decades ago, Meeker and others (1973) noted that “myth” of national 

parks as “Gardens of Eden” does not go well with conceptions of nature in traditional African and American Indian culture. Given that some cultures are collectivistic, while others are individualistic, how does leisure manifest itself in the public 

psyche of different cultural orientations (see Kim et al. 2001 for a case study on 

Koreans)? For example, is leisure manifested as a collective identity issue? What’s 

the role of leisure in maintaining ethnic identity or reinforcing values? Typically, 

leisure or recreation is viewed as the dependent variable or the “end product.” 

Arguably, however, recreation and leisure could be the cause of the reinforcement 

of values and ethnic identity (Virden and Walker 1999), or cultural values could be 

the cause of recreational resource conflicts (Dustin et al. 2002). 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Gap 5—More Exploration on Role of Dominant Ideologies

Assuming the hegemonic leisure mindset is an Anglo male perspective, why have 

researchers not asked Anglos their perceptions of why they think various ethnoracial groups do not participate in recreation, or visit certain leisure environments 

or recreation sites? When discussing individual leisure experiences, identity, 

and difference, researchers need to ask “why” difference matters, and ask how 

discourse about race operates within leisure. Kivel (2000) advocated for the need 

to “explicitly examine the construction of dominant discourses around race (e.g., 

whiteness); gender (masculinity); sexual identity (heterosexism); disability (hegemony of ability); class (economic privilege); [and religion (Christianity)] in order 

to understand leisure’s role in constructing and maintaining dominant identities of 

privilege” (p. 81). It is important to “deconstruct” the historical role of “whiteness” 

and its impact on recreation. Critical theorists and others have addressed the deconstruction of whiteness in public spaces (see Price’s 1998 case study in Washington, 

DC). The focus on whiteness and its accompanying issues or power and privilege 

are not only an extension of the interracial contact hypothesis mentioned by West, 

but also moves away from a categorical perspective of race to a more concerted 

effort surrounding the issue of racism, and how “leisure contexts operate to reproduce and reinforce racist discourses and discriminatory practices or how they serve 

as contexts in which people resist racism” (Kivel 2005: 26).

Discussion

This report noted that there has been a tremendous increase in the size and scope of 

research on race/ethnicity and recreation. This includes both theoretical approaches 

(i.e., theories and models), an exploration of various racial/ethnic groups, and 

methodological approaches (i.e., quantitative and qualitative). Although there has 

been an expansion in the literature on this topic, I noted other areas in need of 

expansion within the study of race/ethnicity and leisure including (1) replication 

of previous studies, (2) an expansion of research in regions of the United States 

where there has been historically limited research, or where demographic changes 

in regions necessitate new research, (3) a more thorough investigation of the role of 

language as a cultural marker and determinant of leisure behavior or attitudes, (4) 

the role that value systems play in race/ethnicity and recreation or attitudes toward 

recreation, and (5) a more critical examination of White hegemony and racial 

discourse as it relates to the recreation and leisure context. Although there certainly 

are more, I have presented the top five gaps or areas of concern for future research 

in race/ethnicity and recreation.

This report noted that 

there has been a tremendous increase in 

the size and scope 

of research on race/

ethnicity and recreation. This includes 

both theoretical approaches (i.e., theories and models), an 

exploration of various 

racial/ethnic groups, 

and methodological 

approaches (i.e., 

quantitative and 

qualitative). 
81

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

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Section IV:

Management Studies: Programs, 

Outreach, and Employment
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87

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Janet E. Alm,1 Dale J. Blahna,2 and Deborah J. Chavez3

Abstract

In the mid-1990s, picking bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) fiddleheads became a popular activity on the Mountaintop (formerly Arrowhead) Ranger 

District (MRD) of the San Bernardino National Forest in California. Concerned 

that fern picking was affecting the resource and that pickers were making large 

profits by selling the ferns, the MRD developed a program to charge a commercially based fee and limit fern picking to designated areas. Several years after 

implementation, MRD staff asked scientists to evaluate the program. Biologically, 

bracken ferns are very resistant, and there was no evidence of overpicking on the 

MRD. Studies also found no evidence of commercial resale of the ferns. Rather, 

fern gathering was a culturally-based recreational activity pursued primarily by 

Korean and Japanese family groups. Most participants picked for social and outdoor 

experiences and used the ferns in the preparation of culturally significant traditional 

dishes. As a result of program rules designed for commercial picking, most participants gathered many fewer pounds of ferns than they paid for. Similarly, many of 

the program violations resulted from the incompatibility between the commercially 

based rules and the pickers’ recreational motivations. This case illustrates that 

special forest products programs and management strategies need to be based on 

site-specific biological and sociological factors.

Keywords: Special forest products, commercial use, recreation, race, ethnicity, 

bracken fern, ferns, program evaluation.

1 Senior librarian, Utah State University Libraries, Logan, UT 94322; e-mail: 

janet_alm@yahoo.com. 

2 Social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

Research Station, Seattle, WA 98103; e-mail: dblahna@fs.fed.us.

3 Social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station, Riverside, CA 92507; e-mail: dchavez@fs.fed.us. 

Chapter 8: Management Assumptions 

and Program Realities: A Case Study 

of Noncommercial Fern Gathering
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Introduction

Each spring, hundreds of Asians and Asian-Americans visit the San Bernardino National 

Forest’s Mountaintop (formerly Arrowhead) Ranger District (MRD) to pick the tender 

young shoots, or fiddleheads, of bracken ferns (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) for use 

in preparing holiday and everyday meals. Bracken fern picking is accommodated 

under a special forest products (SFP) permit program introduced in 1981 and 

updated in 1993.

District staff and the San Bernardino National Forest Association (SBNFA) 

designed a permit program to address concerns that commercially motivated 

gatherers picked more ferns than they paid for, ranged onto private land, deliberately ignored program rules, demonstrated a lack of respect for the Forest Service 

and its employees, endangered the bracken fern resource, disturbed the state-listed 

threatened southern rubber boa (Charina b. umbractica) snake, and earned large 

profits from their harvests. A fee of $1.00 per pound of ferns picked, with a minimum purchase of 40 pounds, was instituted and later reduced to 50 cents; colorcoded picking bags were issued to verify fee payment; five legal picking areas were 

designated, signed, and flagged; and law enforcement services were contracted with 

the county sheriff.

The Forest Service initiated a pair of studies in 1996 and 1997 to evaluate the 

program. Study objectives were to identify demographics and motivations of MRD 

fern gatherers, group characteristics and picking experience, interest in stewardship 

behavior while picking, and perceptions of discrimination or other inequities related 

to program rules and in-field behavior. The project also compared survey responses 

of Korean and Japanese pickers to see whether major cultural differences exist 

(Anderson et al. 1997, 1998).

Review of the Literature

No studies of people who pick bracken ferns were found in the literature. The 

most relevant literature for this study was related to harvesting SFPs and sustainability of bracken ferns. Recreational characteristics of multicultural visitors 

are examined in the literature and were part of the development of both studies 

but have limited relevance to the present discussion. (For complete findings see 

Anderson et al. 1997, 1998).

Study objectives 

were to identify 

demographics and 

motivations of MRD 

fern gatherers, group 

characteristics and 

picking experience, 

interest in stewardship 

behavior while picking, 

and perceptions of 

discrimination or other 

inequities related to 

program rules and infield behavior. 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Special Forest Products

Many categories of nonwood forest products have been documented and analyzed, 

including fiber products, food products from both plants and animals, medicinal 

and cosmetic products, live animals, and others (Richardson 1995). In addition to 

the direct use of forest commodities, other types of SFP values recognized in the 

literature include cultural symbolism, recreation, biological diversity, carbon storage, and commercial values (e.g., Emery et al. 2003, Love and Jones 2001).

The overwhelming majority of literature on the management of SFPs focuses 

on the economic value and commercial harvest of these products and on subsistence 

uses. Some common themes related to economic and subsistence concerns include 

harvest and resource value, subsistence vs. commercial use, harvest sustainability, 

marketing of SFPs, the role of SFPs in rural development, support of SFP harvest 

for household income and use, migrant SFP gatherers’ attention to profit rather than 

resource sustainability, outsiders’ intrusion on the commercial income of local/

indigenous peoples through SFP harvest, and so forth (e.g., Adger et al. 1995, RosTonen et al. 1995, Wickramashinghe et al. 1996). Although some authors emphasized the noncommercial, cultural, and symbolic values of nonwood forest products, 

even this acknowledgment was often couched in relationship to the economic value 

of the resources and collectors’ livelihoods.

Multicultural Uses of Special Forest Products

Studies linking cultural differences and resource behavior are important to understand (1) diverse cultural groups whose numbers are growing on public lands, (2) 

the interests and preferences of underrepresented groups, and (3) potential sources 

of conflict over resource use. Little sociological or ethnographic research has been 

done on SFP harvesters in the United States with the exception of Native Americans and their subsistence use of SFPs. And while there is little research on recreational behavior of Asians in general, even less exists for harvesting SPFs.

Two studies of multicultural harvesters including several Southeast Asian 

groups were conducted in the Pacific Northwest by Hansis (1996), and Richards 

and Creasy (1996). Hansis (1996) interviewed Cambodian, Laotian, and Hispanic 

harvesters in Washington’s Yakima Valley who collected beargrass (Nolina bigelovii (Jorr.) S. Watson), huckleberries (Vaccinium scoparium), matsutake (Tricoloma 

magnivelare) mushrooms, medicinal herbs, and other products. The primary 

purpose of the harvest was to sell these products for commercial use.

A study by Richards and Creasy (1996) focused on gathering matsutake 

mushrooms in the Klamath region of Oregon and California. The authors reported 

differences in both the cultural backgrounds and gathering behavior of Southeast 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Asians and Native Karuk tribal members. The Asian pickers were relatively new to 

the practice in the Klamath region, and their primary motive was to sell mushrooms 

to help offset unemployment and to supplement their relatively low incomes in a 

way that reflected traditional forest resource gathering practices from their native 

countries. The traditional nature of the activity and the social gatherings were also 

important motives, but the pickers were primarily commodity-oriented and not 

necessarily concerned with resource sustainability or protection.4

Bracken Fern Biology

Bracken fern grows throughout the world, occurring almost everywhere with the 

exception of hot and cold deserts (Crane 1990). In fact, it may be the single most 

widespread vascular plant in the world (Richardson 1995). Two subspecies are 

recognized: aquilinum in the Northern Hemisphere, and caudatum in the Southern 

Hemisphere (Crane 1990).

Although spores germinate and grow in culture, most Pteridium aquilinum

regeneration is vegetative. Spore generation appears to require soil sterilized by 

fire (Crane 1990). Even after fire, however, some rhizomes also survive to provide 

new growth. Bracken fern’s hardy and aggressive rhizome system allows the plant 

to reproduce vegetatively and stores water for the plant’s needs (Crane 1990). Some 

rhizomatous clones alive today may be over 1,000 years old (Crane 1990). In short, 

bracken fern is a survivor. In addition to fire, it also survives most herbicides—a 

fact well known to foresters who attempt to reduce bracken fern competition with 

conifer crops (e.g., University of Guelph 1996).

Methods

Study Background

The MRD is located in the San Bernardino Mountains, an hour’s drive east of 

Los Angeles. In spring 1981, MRD staff first noticed heavy bracken fern picking 

by Asian visitors. At the same time they became aware of conflicts between fern 

pickers and private landowners in the area. In response to these conflicts, the MRD 

instituted a per-pound fee for gathering bracken ferns, designated approved picking 

sites, and began selling permits for the activity. In 1993, management of the fern 

program was assumed by the SBNFA, a nongovernmental support group.

4 For Native Karuks, by contrast, matsutake mushroom picking is a traditional activity they 

have conducted in the same areas for generations for who sustainability was a key concern 

(Richards and Creasy 1996).
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

The MRD’s bracken fern fiddlehead season lasts about 6 weeks each spring, 

roughly from the last week in April through the first week in June. In 1996, 427 

permits were sold, representing permission to pick nearly 10 tons (19,900 pounds) 

of bracken ferns. In 1997, 381 permits were issued for gathering 16,520 pounds. At 

the time of the 1996-97 study, the purchase of a $20 permit allowed an individual or 

group to gather up to 40 pounds of bracken ferns. 

The management of this program is complicated by a mosaic of land ownerships as well as areas of rubber boa habitat. Therefore five specific areas were 

designated as legal picking areas and marked with plastic flagging and signs in 

English and Korean. Permits were sold at the MRD. With each permit, purchasers 

were issued two official fern collection bags as well as a handout including basic 

program rules and a map showing designated picking areas. 

1996 Pilot Study 

Accounts of large potential profits and ecological overuse from SFP harvesting 

carried in area newspapers caused concern among Forest Service and SBNFA staff 

members who managed the bracken fern program on the MRD. Staff members 

believed the sale or commercial use of ferns was an important motive for pickers, 

and the district instituted a relatively high fee for picking the ferns based on the 

price of processed ferns for sale in nearby Los Angeles. As noted above, the staff 

also felt there was a relatively low level of awareness of, and cooperation with, 

program rules. This perception was largely based on the fact that some pickers used 

collection bags other than those issued with the purchase of a permit. At the same 

time, conflicts with local landowners and the operator of a nearby arboretum had 

also been reported. 

The results of the 1996 pilot study found little basis for the managers’ concerns 

(Anderson et al. 1997). The study employed onsite observations at fern picking 

areas in the forest, indepth interviews with six agency and eight cultural key informants, an analysis of the previous season’s permits, a brief postcard-length questionnaire sent to permit holders, and a review of literature related to bracken fern 

sustainability and regeneration. Some of the key findings of the 1996 study were (1) 

there were Japanese (13 percent) as well as Korean (83 percent) fern pickers on the 

MRD; (2) fern gathering is primarily a recreational and cultural, rather than commercial (<3 percent of respondents), activity; (3) bracken fern gathering is mainly 

an activity of the middle and older generations; (4) nearly 90 percent (86.4 percent) 

of the pickers purchased the 20-pound permit, the smallest permit size allowed; and 

(5) the bracken fern resource is not endangered by even extensive picking of the 

fiddleheads. The study also found that most harvesters came in groups of three or 
92

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

four. As they spread out across picking areas, the two plastic bags provided were 

not sufficient for their needs, and consequently pickers brought additional bags 

from home. 

1997 Followup Study

Questions for the 1997 followup mail survey were based on the 1996 pilot study 

and information from cultural key informants, including experienced Japanese and 

Korean fern pickers. An eight-page survey was mailed to each person who purchased a fern gathering permit during the 1997 picking season. Of the 269 deliverable surveys, 146 were completed and returned for a response rate of 54 percent 

(Anderson et al. 1998).

Results

Demographics

Bracken fern gathering on the MRD is primarily a family activity, with 89 percent 

of all respondents participating in family groups or with a combination of family 

and friends. Just two individuals came with organized groups, and one came alone. 

Unlike the predominantly lower income Southeast Asian SFP gatherers in the Pacific 

Northwest (Richards and Creasy 1996), fern pickers on the SBNF primarily had 

moderate household incomes (57 percent earning $25,001 to $65,000) and higher 

than average education levels (77 percent with education beyond high school).

Motivations

A 17-item list was used to identify specific motivations for picking ferns on the 

MRD in 1997. Based on a four-point scale (1 = not important at all, 2 = slightly 

important, 3 = moderately important, 4 = very important), regardless of ethnicity, 

the primary reasons for picking ferns were social and environmental: to spend time 

with family or friends (mean = 3.12), spend time in the mountains (3.00), get away 

from the city (2.99), and just being outdoors (2.99).

Although selling ferns was the lowest rated motivation at 1.05, 32 percent of 

the respondents reported that “needing the ferns to have enough food to eat” was 

at least slightly important (1.48), which suggests there may be a subsistence use of 

bracken ferns. Only one person said they were planning to sell some of the ferns 

they picked (2 pounds). Five respondents said “earning money by selling ferns” was 

a slightly or moderately important reason for picking ferns; at most 3 to 4 percent of 

the respondents reported they might sell some portion of their ferns. 

When asked to identify the one or two most important reasons for picking, 

environmental and social reasons were again rated highest. Most common was 

The primary reasons 

for picking ferns 

were social and 

environmental: to 

spend time with family 

or friends, spend time 

in the mountains, get 

away from the city, and 

just being outdoors.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

“to enjoy the outdoors,” named by 27 percent. Twenty-three percent named spending time with others and liking the taste of ferns, and 19 percent named being in the 

mountains or using ferns in either holiday or everyday meals. Although there were 

some use differences between Japanese and Korean pickers—for example, Koreans were more likely than Japanese to use the ferns in holiday meals—social and 

environmental aspects of the experience were clearly rated highest by both cultural 

groups, and commercial activity was rated very low. 

Experience

For 91 percent of all respondents, the MRD is the only place they go to pick ferns, 

and a large majority picked ferns on the MRD only once during the 1997 season. 

The mean time spent picking was 2.4 hours. Among pickers on the MRD, 37 

percent had no previous MRD visits, and 33 percent had picked there just once or 

twice previously. By contrast, Richards and Creasy (1996) found Southeast Asians 

camping in the area and picking matsutake mushrooms an average of 3.75 weeks per 

year. No MRD respondent reported camping in association with their fern visits.

About half (45 percent) of Japanese and one-third (35 percent) of Korean 

respondents said they take some special effort to ensure that ferns will be available 

in the future. Seventeen different stewardship actions were named in an open-ended 

question. These included, for example, “take only what’s needed,” “don’t damage 

the roots,” and “pick only young ferns” (Anderson et al. 1998). Again, this is in 

contrast to Richards and Creasy’s (1996) finding of little or no concern for resource 

sustainability among Southeast Asian gatherers in the Pacific Northwest.

Program Satisfaction

The major area of dissatisfaction with the fern program was the price charged. 

Seventy-three percent of respondents felt that $20.00 to pick up to 40 pounds of 

ferns was too high. When asked what a fair price for 40 pounds of ferns would 

be, the mean response was $10.06. In open-ended comments, five respondents (3 

percent) indicated that the fee is too high considering that they pick for fun or to 

remember their culture, rather than for commercial profit.

Most groups picked significantly fewer ferns than they bought permits for. 

Estimates by those who purchased a permit for 40 pounds, the smallest permit 

they could buy, averaged 25 pounds picked, while those who paid for 80 pounds of 

ferns reportedly picked an average of only 37 pounds. Just two respondents bought 

permits for 120 pounds. One of these said they picked 50, and the other reported 

picking 110 pounds.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Discussion

This study illustrates the problem of making assumptions about visitor motivations 

and resource sustainability as well as generalizing research findings across visitor groups, activities, locations, and forest products. Failure to make appropriate 

resource impact, user group, and SFP distinctions can lead to management decisions that are not in the best interests of the resources, SFP gatherers, or even the 

agency itself.

Many of the 1996 and 1997 findings contrast with the conclusions of Hansis 

(1996), Richards and Creasy (1996), and other authors who identified commercial 

resale as the primary goal of the SFP harvesters they studied. Whereas Southeast 

Asians in the Pacific Northwest often gathered SFP for consecutive days and even 

weeks, the majority of fern gatherers came to the MRD only once for just over 2 

hours of picking, and almost no resale of their harvest was reported. Other survey 

responses that suggested commercial picking is not the basis of the MRD’s fern 

gathering activity include (1) the most commonly named motivations for picking 

were social and environmental, (2) the MRD was the only place most respondents 

gathered ferns, (3) most respondents gathered considerably fewer ferns than they 

paid for despite the fact nearly 90 percent of the pickers purchased the smallest possible permits, and (4) many more pickers considered fern gathering a fun activity 

rather than work.

These findings suggest that an economic or commercial approach to managing 

the MRD fern program is inappropriate. While it is clear from MRD staff members 

that some abuses of picking limits and boundaries have occurred, there was no real 

evidence that this was a common occurrence or that the abuses (in one case, a car 

trunk-full of ferns by a group holding a single 40-pound permit) indicated commercial activity. Rather, fern gathering on the Mountaintop Ranger District appeared to 

be primarily a social and recreational activity that was laden with cultural meanings, an activity in which every step—from picking through processing, cooking, 

and eating—serves to reinforce ethnic group affiliation. Although this project 

identified several differences between Japanese- and Korean-background pickers, 

the similarity in the two groups’ picking motives and behaviors turned out to be 

greater when compared with the managers’ concept of what was important about 

the fern gathering activity—especially as picking bracken fern fiddleheads does not 

endanger the resource (Anderson et al. 1998).

Managers who focus exclusively on economic or subsistence values may implement management strategies that are inappropriate to the particular SFP activities 

they oversee. The fact that most SFP research has focused on commercial gathering 

and economic values may give the impression that SFP gathering is always eco-
95

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

nomic in intent. Study results revealed that in addition to the two major types 

of SFP collectors discussed in the literature—subsistence and commercial pickers—a third general category exists: the cultural/recreational picker. 

In light of these results, it is clear that both (a) knowledge of participants and 

their motivations and (b) understanding of the biology of the resource are essential 

to designing appropriate management strategies for SFPs. 

Metric Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To find:

Pounds 454 Grams

References

Adger, W.N.; Brown, K.; Cervigni, R.; Moran, D. 1995. Total economic value of 

forests in Mexico. Ambio. 24(5): 286–296.

Anderson, J.A.; Blahna, D.J.; Chavez, D.J. 1998. Bracken fern gathering on 

the Arrowhead Ranger District: a survey of 1997 program participants. 13 p. 

Unpublished report. On file with: D. Chavez, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, 

Riverside, CA 92507.

Anderson, J.A.; Blahna, D.J.; Chavez, D.J.; Anderson, J.A. 1997. Fern 

gathering on the Arrowhead Ranger District, San Bernardino National Forest: an 

evaluation. 50 p. Unpublished report. On file with: D. Chavez, U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon 

Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507.

Crane, M.F. 1990. Pteridium aquilinum. In: Fischer, W.C., comp. The Fire Effects 

Information System [Database]. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. http://

www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/. (August 17, 1996).

Emery, M.; Ginger, C.; Newman, S.; Giamusso, M.R.B. 2003. Special forest 

products in context: gatherers and gathering in the Eastern United States. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. NE-306. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 59 p.

Hansis, R. 1996. The harvesting of special forest products by Latinos and 

Southeast Asians in the Pacific Northwest: preliminary observations. Society 

and Natural Resources. 9: 611–615.
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Love, T.; Jones, E.T. 2001. Why is non-timber forest product harvesting an 

“issue”? Excluding local knowledge and the paradigm crisis of temperate 

forestry. Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 13(3/4): 105–121. 

Richards, R.T.; Creasy, M. 1996. Ethnic diversity, resource values, and ecosystem 

management: matsutake mushroom harvesting in the Klamath bioregion. Society 

and Natural Resources. 9: 359–374.

Richardson, S.D. 1995. Non-wood forest products: a regional overview. In: Durst, 

P.B.; Bishop, A., eds. Beyond timber: social, economic and cultural dimensions 

of non-wood forest products in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of an expert 

regional consultation. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the 

United Nations: 13–32.

Ros-Tonen, M.; Dijkman, W.; Lammerts van Bueren, E. 1995. Commercial 

and sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products. Wageningen, the 

Netherlands: The Tropenbos Foundation. 32 p.

University of Guelph, Turfgrass Institute. 1996. Classification of weeds 

according to response to various foliage sprays. [Database] 

http://www.uoguelph.ca/GTI/p384t13.htm. (August 17, 1996).

Wickramashinghe, A.; Perez, M.R.; Blockhus, J.M. 1996. Nontimber forest 

product gathering in Ritigala Forest (Sri Lanka): household strategies and 

community differentiation. Human Ecology: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 

24(4): 493–519.
97

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Patricia L. Winter 1 and George T. Cvetkovich2

Abstract

This paper presents an examination of trust in the Forest Service to manage 

threatened and endangered species as measured through a survey of residents of 

four Southwestern States. Of particular interest were variations by ethnic/racial 

group, gender, concern about threatened and endangered species, and self-assessed 

knowledge. Increasing diversity in the United States makes explorations of trust in 

natural resource managing agencies especially important to understand. Expected 

trust levels among groups of color 3 compared to Whites was not especially clear 

to us. Some very convincing arguments in natural resource management literature 

suggesting distrust should be expected among groups of color, while an expectation 

of higher trust among groups of color also finds strong support. A marginally lower 

level was found among people who engaged in more frequent outdoor recreation, 

and who visited national forests more often. Time in the United States was associated with lower trust levels among our non-U.S. born respondents. However, the 

most influential variables among those we considered were gender, ethnic/racial 

group, concern, knowledge, and perceived similarity of values to the Forest Service 

(the most significant of those examined). Findings suggest additional research 

is needed to fully illuminate the complexities of trust in our diverse society, as 

implications for natural resource management spill over into communication and 

collaboration efforts.

Keywords: Ethnic and racial diversity, salient values similarity, trust, concern, 

knowledge.

1 Research social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507-6099; 

e-mail: pwinter@fs.fed.us. 

2 Professor of psychology and Interim Director, Center for Cross-Cultural Research, 

Western Washington University, Department of Psychology, 516 High Street, Bellingham, 

WA 98225-9089; e-mail: cvet@wwu.edu. 

3 Throughout this paper we reference specific ethnic/racial groups. When we refer to 

people of color we are referring to non-Whites. When we refer to Whites we are including 

Caucasians and Anglos. Individuals of Hispanic origin are referred to as Latinos, and 

included Hispanic Americans, Latinos, Mexican Americans, and similar identifications. 

Asians are referred to as Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders. African Americans refers 

to Blacks. Native Americans includes First Nations and Aboriginals. Finally, Multiracials 

selected more than one of any of the groups above. 

Chapter 9: Southwesterners’ Views of 

Threatened and Endangered Species 

Management: Does Racial/Ethnic 

Diversity Make a Difference?

This paper presents an 

examination of trust in 

the Forest Service to 

manage threatened and 

endangered species 

as measured through 

a survey of residents 

of four Southwestern 

States. Of particular 

interest were variations 

by ethnic/racial group, 

gender, concern 

about threatened and 

endangered species, 

and self-assessed 

knowledge.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Introduction

Trust (the willingness to rely upon others to make decisions or take actions on our 

behalf) in natural resource agencies is essential to gaining public acceptance of 

management plans and actions (Borrie et al. 2002, Cvetkovich and Winter 2003, 

Shindler et al. 2004). It has been documented as an essential component of effective 

risk-related communications (Covello et al. 1986, Frudenberg and Rursch 1994, 

Johnson 2004, Slovic 2000). Those who trust a communication source are more 

likely to believe messages coming from that source and are more likely to comply 

with recommendations made to reduce risk exposure. Within the risk context, 

believability and compliance are of enhanced value to social agencies as well as 

publics, presumably because risk will be reduced when compliance is present. As 

such, trust is a form of social capital, easing acceptance of management decisions.

Understanding the perceptions of risk and responses to risk communications 

among multiethnic communities has been cited as essential to successful risk 

management in a diverse society (Johnson 2004, Lindell and Perry 2004). The 

importance of this line of inquiry is expanding rapidly, as the U.S. population is 

continuing to increase in ethnic and racial diversity. Implications of trust extend 

beyond risk management issues of course. Because believability of messages, 

compliance with messages, and willingness to engage in collaborative endeavors 

with natural resource managers extend to a broad array of management concerns, 

trust is especially important to natural resource management agencies. It is clear in 

some instances that minorities are underrepresented among the recreating public 

in natural areas (see Winter 2007 for a further examination of equity and access). 

Additionally, minorities have been found to have differing needs and interests 

regarding communication approaches and outlets (see Crano et al. Chapter 15 of 

this publication and Thapa et al. 2002). If differences in trust also exist, these are 

important to understand so that managers can be equipped to serve these diverse 

needs and interests.

Research exploring variations in trust across a number of contexts informs the 

work in this paper. Specifically, trust has been shown to be lowest among females 

(Delhey and Newton 2002, Patterson 1999), and Latinos or African Americans 

(Rahn et al. 2003). Higher levels of trust were reported for Whites and Asians 

(Rahn et al. 2003). Lower levels of trust among groups of color have been explained 

as a reflection of those groups’ histories of being marginalized, historically disadvantaged, or having experienced direct harm or discrimination (Bengston 2004; 

Bengston and Sanchez 2004; Hardin 1997, 2002; Patterson 1999). 

Other studies suggest an underlying complexity easily overlooked in a discussion of White/non-White comparisons. For example, work focused on Latinos 
99

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

suggests that degree of acculturation influences levels of trust in national government (Wenzel 2006). Participants who were more acculturated into the dominant 

U.S. culture (measured through language and interethnic social interaction) showed 

lower levels of trust than those who were less acculturated. Another study reported 

that while African Americans were consistently less positive and less trusting 

of government than Whites, Latinos were generally more positive than Whites 

(Bowler and Donovan 2002). The exception of Latinos as a community of color 

with more positive views of government than Whites was also reported by Hero and 

Tolbert (2004).

These are noteworthy findings because they suggest that an increasingly ethnically and racially diverse society may be characterized by changes in trust levels 

(general population surveys reporting levels of trust or distrust in government for 

example may be affected). However, which direction these changes might take 

and which groups might be associated with higher or lower levels of trust remains 

unclear. This could be a source of great concern to natural resource management 

agencies. Cultural differences may lie at the heart of distrust and could lead to 

difficult and complex debates (Nie 2003). On the other hand, we may discover that 

groups of color are more willing to extend trust to natural resource managers. 

Many inquiries represent general explorations of trust, rather than trust in specific 

targets regarding specific issues. Queries of specific issues may yield very different 

responses than would general questions on trust (Cvetkovich and Lofstedt 1999). 

In addition, recent work conducted by the authors challenges the notion of 

lower trust among groups of color and among females (Winter and Cvetkovich 

2007). In that particular study, we applied the salient values similarity model of 

trust. Trust, as measured through the salient values similarity model (Earle and 

Cvetkovich 1995), predicts that trust will result when individuals believe that they 

have salient values similar to those of another individual, group, or agency. Similarity of salient values is assessed through the measurement of public perceptions 

regarding degree of shared values, goals, and views with the managing agency. 

Using the salient values similarity approach, we examined public trust regarding 

fire management. We found a significant difference by ethnic/racial group in salient 

values similarity and trust, such that Whites had the lowest scores and Latinos the 

highest (Winter and Cvetkovich 2007). Additionally, males within both groups had 

significantly lower trust/salient values scores than females. 

Additional measures have been examined in our trust and salient values similarity research. Specifically, concern (about threatened and endangered species on 

local national forests), knowledge (self-assessed), and gender have been found to 

influence trust and salient values similarity ratings (Cvetkovich and Winter 2003). 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Siegrist and Cvetkovich (2000) also found a relationship between trust and knowledge. According to these authors, lay publics and those who have less knowledge 

about a hazard rely more on trust when making judgments about risks and benefits 

of management actions, whereas those who possess more knowledge about an issue 

rely much less on trust. 

This paper examines Southwestern residents’ trust in the USDA Forest Service 

to manage threatened and endangered species on wildlands and wilderness areas.4

We conducted a telephone survey of residents in four Southwestern States (Arizona, California, Colorado, and New Mexico). In the surveys, we explored ratings 

of salient values similarity and trust, concern about threatened and endangered 

species, and knowledge about threatened and endangered species. In particular, we 

looked for differences by ethnic and racial group and gender because of their implications for researchers, managers, and educators. Findings may aid our continued 

understanding of the role of diversity in trust and natural resource management. 

They might also help managers focus their communication and collaboration 

efforts. Additionally, our specific focus on trust in the Forest Service regarding 

threatened and endangered species management may reveal complexities of trust 

regarding the issues of acculturation, perceived similar values, gender, race/ethnicity, and knowledge. Findings should be of use in equipping managers to demonstrate greater cultural competency as discussed by Anderson and Stone (2005).

Methods

A random sample of residential telephone numbers, drawn from regional divisions in each of four states, was used to compile our sample. The total population 

for each region and state was determined based on state data from the U.S. census. Target sample sizes of 600 respondents in California, and 400 in each of the 

other three states were set. California’s target was established in the first wave of 

interviewing, and was based on a desired confidence level of 95 percent, plus or 

minus 4 percent; sampling for the other three states was designed for a confidence 

level of 95 percent, plus or minus 5 percent. A telephone survey in each state was 

then conducted.

Procedures

The California data were collected from late summer through early fall 2001, and 

the data for the other three states were collected in summer 2002. Interviewers 

contacted the adult in the household (age 18 or older) with the most recent birthday, 

4 Wildlands and wilderness are used here to refer to semideveloped and undeveloped 

natural areas, including federally designated wilderness areas. 

Our specific focus 

on trust in the Forest 

Service regarding 

threatened and 

endangered species 

management may 

reveal complexities 

of trust regarding the 

issues of acculturation, 

perceived similar 

values, gender, 

race/ethnicity, and 

knowledge.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

asked if they were willing to participate in a phone survey, and then noted if they 

were male or female (each final set of respondents was targeted to have half males 

and half females). 

Survey Instrument

A questionnaire for telephone administration was developed in both English and 

Spanish. It was modeled after prior surveys on trust in natural resource management used by the authors and their colleagues (Cvetkovich and Winter 2003, 2004; 

Winter et al. 1999). A pretest on a randomly selected sample of residents led to 

minor refinements to a portion of the introductory statement and to two questions.

Respondents were asked about sociodemographics, concern about threatened and 

endangered species (assessed using an 8-point scale where 1 = not at all concerned, 

8 = very concerned), knowledge about threatened and endangered species within 

their state of residence (assessed using an 8-point Likert-type scale where 1 = not 

at all knowledgeable, 8 = very knowledgeable), similarity of salient values with 

the Forest Service (measured by asking about values, goals, and views, with 1 = a 

dissimilarity anchor, and 8 = a similarity anchor, for example, “The Forest Service 

does not share your values” represented dissimilarity), and trust of the Forest 

Service (on a scale from 1 to 8, where 1 = do not trust the Forest Service at all, 

8 = trust the Forest Service completely).

Participants

In total, 1,807 telephone surveys were completed (603 in California, 401 in Arizona, 402 in Colorado, and 401 in New Mexico). All respondents were residents of 

the states within which they were contacted (this was a screening item during the 

telephone interview). The vast majority of surveys were completed in English (93.0 

percent), with the balance conducted in Spanish by a bilingual interviewer. Data for 

the English- and Spanish-speaking respondents are combined in this paper. Cooperation rates were high across states, ranging from about 84 to 90 percent.

Results

Respondents

Approximately equal numbers of males and females (50.1 percent female) participated. The majority (74.5 percent) of respondents had attended at least some 

college. The greatest proportion of respondents (58.5 percent) was between 35 and 

54 years of age, and most (82.3 percent) had lived in the United States their entire 

lives. Those who were born outside of the United States reported an average of 

26.13 years lived here. The majority of respondents were White (66.2 percent), 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

with about one-fifth (19.6 percent) selecting Latino as their ethnic identity. Fewer 

indicated that they identified with multiple ethnicities/races (3.2 percent), Native 

American (2.9 percent), African American (2.8 percent), or Asian (2.0 percent). 

General engagement in outdoor recreation activity showed that about onefourth recreated several times a week (23.4 percent), or several times a month (25.9 

percent), while about one-tenth recreated at least monthly (15.3 percent). About 

one-third reported infrequent participation in outdoor recreation (17.3 percent once 

or twice a year, and 17.3 percent rarely or never). The vast majority (80.5 percent) 

had visited a national forest in their state, and average number of visits in the past 

12 months was 11.48 visits (SD = 44.36, n = 1,438).

Concern About Threatened and Endangered Species

Ratings of concern over threatened and endangered species differed significantly 

by ethnic/racial group (based on the six ethnic/racial groups, table 9-1), with the 

highest concern among Latinos. Comparisons among ethnic/racial groups showed 

Whites provided significantly lower concern ratings than did Latinos.

Table 9-1—ANOVA exploring variation in concern by ethnic/racial group

Ethnic/racial group Meana n

Degrees of 

freedom F p

Asians 6.06 36 5, 1,732 7.65 < 0.01

African Americans 6.20 50

Latinos 6.37 353

Native Americans 5.96 51

Whites 5.64 1,185

Multiracial 6.24 58

a Scale was 1 = not at all concerned, 8 = very concerned.

Followup t-tests comparing males and females within each ethnic/racial group 

revealed significant differences by gender for Whites, with White females (mean = 

5.92) showing more concern than their White male counterparts (mean = 5.35, t = 

−4.69, p < 0.001). 

Knowledge About Species in Respondent’s State of Residence

As with concern, knowledge also differed significantly by ethnic/racial group (table 

9-2), with Native Americans and Whites rating their own knowledge about species 

the highest. Differences between males and females within each ethnic/racial group 

were also significant for Whites, with males rating their knowledge higher (mean 

= 4.82) than did females (mean = 4.48, t = 3.18, p < 0.01). Across all six groups, the 

tendency was for males to rate their knowledge higher than did females.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Salient Values Similarity and Trust

Perceptions of similar salient values, goals, and views were high, ranging from 5.5 

to 6.0 on the 8-point scale. A majority (56.1 percent) of respondents selected 6, 7, 

or 8 for the shared-values scale, as well as for shared goals (51.9 percent), and for 

shared views (52.8 percent). Even more (60.4 percent) chose 6, 7, or 8 on the scale 

for overall trust in the Forest Service to manage threatened and endangered species. 

The salient value items were highly correlated with each other (ranged from 0.63 

to 0.70). The salient values items were averaged to create a salient values similarity 

scale (α = 0.86).

Additional insights into those who trusted and those who did not—

Given our need to understand variations in trust to the greatest degree possible, 

we conducted an additional set of analyses exploring potential differences between 

those who trusted (provided a rating of 5, 6, 7, or 8) and those who did not (provided a rating of 1, 2, 3, or 4). The division at the mid-point of the scale was for 

future comparative purposes with other data sets, and helped standardize our point 

of comparison. 

Gender was associated with variations in trust, such that males were more 

likely to be in the distrust group (62.4 percent), females in the trust group (55.1 

percent; χ

2

1 1537 = 38.52, p < 0.01). Education level also differed significantly by 

trust group, such that respondents with more education had a greater percentage of 

their members in the distrust group (χ

2

4 1529 = 41.05, p < 0.01). Around 80 percent 

of respondents with a high school degree or less were in the trust group, whereas 60 

percent of those with at least some graduate education were in the trust group. Age 

was also associated with trust where younger respondents were much more likely 

to be in the trust group (above 80 percent of respondents between 18 and 24, and 25 

and 34) than were older respondents (between about 60 and 70 percent in the trust 

Table 9-2—ANOVA exploring variation in knowledge by ethnic/racial group

Ethnic/racial group Meana n

Degrees of 

freedom F p

Asians 4.11 36 5, 1,735 5.97 < 0.01

African Americans 4.10 49

Latinos 4.06 349

Native Americans 4.88 52

Whites 4.64 1,192

Multiracial 4.53 58

a Scale was 1 = not at all knowledgeable, 8 = very knowledgeable.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

group for ages 35 and up). This difference was also significant (χ

2

5 1524 = 43.19, 

p < 0.01). Although these comparisons were significant, their combined ability to 

predict trust ratings was marginal (R2 = 0.07; F 3 1729 = 44.77, p < 0.001). 

Influence of acculturation was examined for respondents born outside of the 

United States. Among those born outside of the United States, years lived in the 

United States was higher in the distrust group (35.31 years) than in the trust group 

(22.78 years, t = 4.77, p < 0.01). 

Members who distrusted the Forest Service engaged in outdoor recreation more 

frequently than the trust group. Of those recreating several times a week, more than 

one-fourth were in the distrust group. Respondents that recreated rarely or never 

had fewer members in the distrust group (only one-fifth, χ

2

4 1525 = 13.16, p < 0.05). 

Having visited the states’ national forests was also associated with a greater proportion of those in the distrust group (15.9 percent of respondents who never visited 

were in the distrust group compared to 32.1 percent of those who had, χ

2

1 1519 = 

29.80, p < 0.01). Finally, number of visits to a national forest in the past 12 months 

was significantly higher in the distrust group (M = 17.69, SD = 56.55, n = 389) than 

in the trust group (M = 7.61, SD = 32.04, n = 828, t = 3.95, p < 0.01). Predicting trust 

score from outdoor recreation frequency and number of visits to a national forest 

revealed a marginal effect (R2 = 0.02; F2 1383 = 18.20, p < 0.01). 

Predicting trust based on salient values similarity, knowledge, concern, ethnic/

racial group, gender, and education—

The ability to predict trust based on the salient values similarity scale, knowledge, 

concern, ethnic/racial group, gender, and education (following our prior research 

cited in Winter and Cvetkovich 2007) was examined through regression. A significant amount of the overall variance in trust was explained by these predictors 

(R2 = 0.47, F 6 1627 = 239.88, p < 0.001, table 9-3). The salient values similarity 

scale was the most influential predictor in the regression, although each of the 

predictors was a significant contributor to the equation.

To further examine variations in trust, the trust ratings were analyzed by 

ethnic/racial group, and significant variation by group was revealed (table 9-4). 

The lowest average trust scale ratings were provided by White respondents and 

Native American respondents, the highest by Latino respondents. 

Contrasts by gender within each ethnic/racial group revealed significant 

differences for Whites and Latinos, with females (White mean = 5.91, Latinos 

mean = 6.84) giving higher trust scale ratings than their male counterparts (White 

mean = 5.27, Hispanic mean = 6.40, t = -5.55, p < 0.01 and t = -2.24, p = 0.03).
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 9-4—ANOVA exploring variation in trust ratings by ethnic/racial group

Ethnic/racial group Mean n

Degrees of 

freedom F p

Asians 6.28 36 5, 1,692 16.53 < 0.01

African Americans 6.13 47

Latinos 6.62 349

Native Americans 5.71 51

Whites 5.59 1,157

Multiracial 6.32 53

Table 9-3—Summary of regression analysis to predict trust ratings

Independent variable β t p sr

2a

Similar salient values 0.67 33.93 < 0.01 0.38

Knowledge -.05 -2.67 < .01 < .01

Ethnicity/race -.09 -4.98 < .01 < .01

Concern -.13 -6.35 < .01 .01

Gender .04 2.39 < .02 < .01

Education -.09 -4.52 < .01 < .01

a Squared semipartial correlation is a measure of the unique contribution of the independent variable to the amount of variance explained within that set of independent variables. According to the numbers shown, similar salient values is the only 

variable contributing a substantial unique variance beyond the other independent 

variables. 

Source: Tabachnik and Fidell 2000.

Discussion

Findings suggest that ethnic/racial diversity and gender are of importance in management of Forest Service lands. Concern about threatened and endangered species, 

knowledge, and similar salient values, along with gender and ethnic/racial group, 

were highly predictive of trust ratings. Those who trusted and distrusted differed 

some in age group, outdoor recreation participation, and visits to national forests. 

Some difference was found linked to potential acculturation, where average time 

in the United States was greater among those in the distrust group. However, these 

differences told us less about trust in the Forest Service to manage threatened and 

endangered species on forest lands.

Males had a tendency to rate their concern about threatened and endangered 

species lower than females. Ratings of concern differed significantly by ethnic/

racial group with Whites indicating the lowest levels of concern, Latinos the highest. Similar to concern, ratings of knowledge were higher among males within all 

ethnic/racial groups. Ratings of knowledge also varied significantly by ethnic/racial 

group, with Whites indicating the highest levels, Latinos the lowest. 

Findings suggest 

that ethnic/racial 

diversity and gender 

are of importance in 

management of Forest 

Service lands. Concern 

about threatened and 

endangered species, 

knowledge, and similar 

salient values, along 

with gender and ethnic/

racial group, were 

highly predictive of 

trust ratings. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Based on the trust literature cited earlier (Rahn et al. 2003), we might have 

expected that Whites and Asians would have the highest trust ratings, and that 

groups of color would have the lowest. Furthermore, because females tend to have 

less advantage than males, trust ratings should be lower for females across all 

groups. Neither of these predictions found support in our data. In fact, groups of 

advantage, particularly White males were among the lowest in their trust ratings. 

This finding is in line with what we report elsewhere regarding fire and fire 

management (Winter and Cvetkovich 2007). The higher trust level among Latinos 

is in line with findings reported by Bowler and Donovan (2002). Some of this may 

have been accounted for by less time in the United States, as expected from the 

literature reporting an inverse relationship between acculturation and trust. While 

this would require further exploration, our findings suggest that greater experience 

living in the United States and recreating on national forests may both be associated 

with lesser trust. A longitudinal study exploring trust upon immigration and its 

evolution over time would of course require significant investment but would be 

more definitive on clarifying the relationships between acculturation, experience 

with the managing agency, and development of trust. If the inquiry were specific 

to threatened and endangered species management, a direct measure of knowledge 

and experience with that topic would be of special interest.

Forest Service resource managers and public information officers working in 

ethnically and racially diverse areas can use these findings by anticipating that the 

various ethnic/racial groups will respond uniquely to some management actions. In 

particular, trust regarding threatened and endangered species management might 

differ greatly by ethnic/racial identification. Given the significance of salient values 

similarity and trust, it seems advisable to establish and maintain ongoing relationships with different ethnic/racial groups to foster trust. As the Nation continues 

to increase in diversity, the importance of such efforts will increase. Interestingly 

enough, the predictions of decreasing trust in government affiliated with an 

increase in groups of color in the population do not find support here. However, 

groups of color may seek out different interaction styles and types of information 

from the managing agency, which could affect efforts to establish and maintain 

trust over time. In addition, as groups of color become more engaged and interested 

in natural resource management, the basis of information from which they derive 

trust judgments could change, shifting the patterns of higher trust reported in this 

paper. As direct knowledge increases, other factors may become more important 

than trust. 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Finally, note that this inquiry was specific to issues of Forest Service management in four states regarding threatened and endangered species. Results should not 

be assumed to indicate a broader trust in government across other topics/matters 

of concern among groups of color, or among women of any ethnic/racial group. 

The complexities of trust, which no doubt differ by topic of concern, by target of 

trust, by individuals that we are interested in, and by comparison with other issues 

of concern, dictates caution. In addition, although trust is important and valuable, 

its ultimate behavioral outcomes are not always clear cut. We know from risk 

management research that trust has been linked to greater acceptance of messages 

and greater compliance. However, individuals who trust might also be just as 

likely to be willing to engage more in dialogue about threatened and endangered 

species management, believing that their concerns and arguments will be attended 

to and they can help determine management direction. On the other hand, those 

who trust government in some matters (such as threatened and endangered species 

management) may have determined this is an appropriate area of concern to leave 

to the Forest Service to handle on their behalf, while they concern themselves with 

matters of social policy such as education or health care. The specific species may 

create other variations in trust, adding to the complexity of public/agency interactions. Ultimately, the minimum amount of trust necessary to conduct the business 

of natural resource management has not been determined, but it seems important to 

maintain as a concern of public agencies. 

Conclusions

We examined the role of trust and salient values similarity in opinions regarding threatened and endangered species. Results demonstrate the significance of 

perceived similar salient values, trust, and concern related to species management. 

Analyses exploring the roles of gender and racial/ethnic identity indicate heterogeneity between groups of color, as well as between males and females on some 

measures. Other indicators of potential experience with natural resources and the 

agency (specifically measured as outdoor recreation and visits to national forests) 

told us much less about trust judgments.

These findings offer insight into the ever-increasing complexity of managing 

natural resources, as well as forming informational and educational strategies 

that are sensitive to the diverse cultures of the region. Findings suggest caution in 

assuming that all groups of color can be considered homogeneous. Recent research 

has revealed the importance of considering heterogeneity within ethnic groups 

(Alvarez et al. 2004, Tierney et al. 1998), further emphasizing the complexity of a 

diverse public. 

Ultimately, the 

minimum amount of 

trust necessary to 

conduct the business 

of natural resource 

management has not 

been determined, but 

it seems important to 

maintain as a concern 

of public agencies. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

However, additional research is needed to further illuminate the differences and 

similarities within and between ethnic/racial groups and by gender. Larger numbers 

within each ethnic/racial group would be helpful in continuing this line of inquiry. 

The amount of influence risk has on individuals should also be considered (Shindler 

et al. 2004) and was not assessed here. It may be a factor in the determinations of 

trust that are complicated by a number of factors, including ethnic/racial group 

membership. Direct experience with threatened and endangered species, or more 

personalized concerns about species management, may be affiliated more with 

some ethnic/racial groups than others. The continuing increase of diversity within 

an already diverse society speaks to the importance of these lines of inquiry.

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113

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Sonja A. Wilhelm Stanis,1 Ingrid E. Schneider,2 Kimberly J. Shinew,3 Deborah J. 

Chavez,4 and Mary C. Vogel5

Abstract

Health benefits of physical activity are well recognized and documented, yet obesity 

rates remain high in the United States, particularly among Hispanics/Latinos. 

As our population becomes more urban and ethnically diverse, a greater understanding of specific populations may help agencies better address issues related 

to obesity and sedentary lifestyles. This study examined use of urban-proximate 

outdoor recreation sites for physical activity as well as differences in use, experience use history, and body mass index between Hispanics/Latinos of all races, and 

non-Hispanic/Latino Whites. Ultimately, this research seeks to inform efforts to 

increase physical activity levels on public lands. Data were collected through onsite 

interviews in urban-proximate parks in California, Illinois, and Minnesota used by 

a variety of racial and ethnic groups. Findings indicate that parks and recreation 

areas remain important places for physical activity for both Hispanics/Latinos and 

non-Hispanic/Latino Whites. Differences between the two groups suggest both 

management opportunities and challenges.

Keywords: Leisure, physical activity, health, ethnicity.

1 Graduate student, Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, 

MN 55108; e-mail: wilh0065@umn.edu.

2 Associate professor, Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, 

MN 55108; e-mail: ingridss@umn.edu.

3 Co-director, Center of Changing Landscapes, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 

55108. 

4 Supervisory social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station, Riverside, CA 92507; e-mail: dchavez@fs.fed.us.

5 Professor, Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism at the University of Illinois, 

Urbana-Champaign, Il 61820; e-mail: shinew@uiuc.edu.

Chapter 10: Physical Activity Among 

Hispanic/Latino and Non-Hispanic/Latino 

White Visitors on Urban-Proximate Public 

Lands
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Introduction

Human health is a vital concern throughout the world, including the United States. 

Being overweight or obese is associated with increased health risk for numerous 

chronic diseases (National Institutes of Health 1998). Therefore, the rising obesity 

level in the United States is gaining increasing attention as 66.3 percent of U.S. 

citizens are either overweight or obese (Ogden et al. 2006). Physical inactivity, as 

a contributing factor to obesity, is a serious problem. In 2003, only 45.9 percent of 

the U.S. population met the recommended levels of physical activity (Centers for 

Disease Control Prevention [CDCP] 2005a). Physical inactivity is most prevalent 

among ethnic and racial minority groups (Wilcox et al. 2000), particularly among 

Hispanics/Latinos (Marquez et al. 2004). In 2005, 32.6 percent of Hispanic adults 

reported no leisure time physical activity (LTPA), compared to 21.4 percent of nonHispanic Whites (as cited in Ainsworth et al. 2007). Further, more than 75 percent 

of Mexican Americans are overweight or obese (Ogden et al. 2006). Obesity rates 

contribute to health issues. 

Hispanic populations compose 14.8 percent of the U.S. population and are 

the fastest growing group, accounting for almost half of the national population 

growth between 2005 and 2006 (U.S. Census Bureau 2007). The term Hispanic 

refers to people with ethnic backgrounds from Spanish-speaking countries: they 

can belong to any race, and most in the United States are White. Although the U.S. 

Census uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably, the term Latino holds 

a slightly different meaning referring to Latin America nationality. As the U.S. 

population becomes more urban and ethnically diverse, a greater understanding 

of specific populations’ physical activity may facilitate agencies’ ability to address 

obesity and sedentary lifestyles. In June 2002, President Bush issued Executive 

Order 13266 for the purpose of improving the health of all Americans with physical activity as one of the four health-protection pillars. The Department of Health 

and Human Services was designated as the lead agency and a federal interagency 

memorandum of understanding and work group, representing the Departments of 

Health and Human Services, Agriculture, the Interior, and the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, is in process. This executive order has accentuated agency interest in 

health benefits, including those related to recreation.

Given the percentage of the U.S. population that occupies urban domains and 

the fact that this population is diversifying, this paper focuses on the use of urbanproximate outdoor recreation sites among a variety of race and ethnicity groups. 

Specifically, differences in park use history, physical activity, and body mass index 

(BMI) between Hispanics/Latinos of all races and non-Hispanic/Latino Whites 

were examined.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Background 

In 2000, 80.3 percent of U.S. citizens lived in urban areas, with one-third of the 

total population living in metropolitan areas of 5 million or greater (U.S. Census 

Bureau 2001). Urban-proximate recreation areas are those located close to urban 

areas and may attract different visitors than urban-distant or remote areas (Ewert 

1998). Outdoor recreation in urban-proximate areas is of increasing importance 

as residents seek benefits from natural environments and respite from the urban 

environs. Positive experiences often result from urban-outdoor recreation (Moore et 

al. 1998) and these experiences include health benefits.

Recreation and park visits can contribute to physical activity and improved 

health (Ho et al. 2003). However, physical activity participation differs markedly 

among racial and ethnic groups (Henderson and Ainsworth 2001, Ho et al. 2003). 

Hispanic and African-American groups engage in outdoor recreation less frequently 

than other groups (Floyd et al. 1993, Ho et al. 2003). Studies examining recreation 

participation among Mexican Americans typically focus on between-group differences, primarily comparing Mexican Americans to White Americans. Many of 

these studies have found that Mexican Americans have significantly lower levels of 

involvement in outdoor recreation and active sports (Cunningham et al. 1994).

One variable that may differentiate realized health benefits and physical activity is visitor experience with a site or, experience use history (EUH). Typically up 

to three elements measure EUH: total visits, total years of use, and frequency of 

use of a site (Hammitt and McDonald 1983, Schreyer et al. 1984). Hammitt and 

others (2004) suggested EUH is “linked to a number of recreation user perception, 

behavior, and management preferences” (p. 358). For example, a number of studies 

explore the relationship between EUH and crowding (Budruk et al. 2002, Graefe 

and Moore 1992). Similarly, EUH may be related to measures of physical health, 

such as BMI, as well as physical activity engagement.

Methods

In this study, onsite interviews were administered to park users across three 

U.S. urban-proximate areas to ascertain EUH, physical activity, and BMI, 

among other variables. 

Study Sites

The study sites were Hawkins Park in Los Angeles, California; Humboldt Park in 

Chicago, Illinois; and Powderhorn Park in Minneapolis, Minnesota. These sites 

were selected because they were comparable in terms of the amenities offered and 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

urban density. Each park is accessible by bus, bicycle, foot, and car, and is located 

in racially and ethnically mixed neighborhoods. 

Sampling 

Bilingual (Spanish and English) interviewers contacted park users during the 

summer of 2006. Sampling was conducted across a variety of weekends and 

weekdays and daylight hours. All available visitors were contacted during the data 

collection times. Field personnel tracked response rates and logged information 

about “unapproachable” visitors (e.g., number in group, reason could not approach, 

activity, etc.). The response rates ranged between 72.9 and 87.4 percent across the 

three sites.

Instrument 

A two-page instrument assessed EUH, physical activity (usual location, intensity, 

frequency, and duration), BMI, and demographics. Experience use history was 

measured by total times visited, times visited in the past 12 months, and years 

coming to the area. Physical activity was measured in terms of days per week 

and amount of time per day spent in moderate and/or vigorous activity (with a 

minimum of 10 minutes) modeled after select physical activity questions from 

the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (CDCP 2005b) and International 

Physical Activity Questionnaire (Karolinska Institutet 2002). Moderate activity 

was defined as that which causes small increases in breathing or heart rate while 

vigorous activity was defined as that which causes large increases in breathing or 

heart rate. The location of usual physical activity was obtained by asking respondents where they usually do their physical activity from a list of possible options. 

Body mass index was calculated by the height and weight information respondents 

reported. For comparison purposes, a person with a BMI between 25 and 30 is 

considered to be overweight and a person with a BMI more than 30 is considered 

to be obese (CDCP 2006). Finally, respondents were asked several demographic 

questions, including race and ethnicity. 

Analysis 

Questionnaire data were entered and analyzed using SPSS 13. Descriptive analysis 

provided means, standard deviations, and frequencies to describe the sample and 

variables of interest. The EUH items were winsorized to deal with outliers. T-tests 

were used to compare EUH, physical activity, and BMI between Hispanic/Latino 

and non-Hispanic/Latino White visitors, and correlation analysis assessed the 

relationship between EUH and physical activity as well as EUH and BMI. Although 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Figure 10-1—Race/ethnicity distribution of visitors by percentage.

Figure 10-2—Location of usual physical activity reported by visitors.

Hispanic/Latino,

any race, 57.9%

Black/African-American, 8.8%

Other, 5.1%

White, 28.1%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

This area

Different park

Home

Fitness center

Neighborhood

Work

Other

Physical activity location

Percentage reported b

y respondents

Hispanic/Latino

White

Hispanic/Latinos can be of any race including White, for the purposes of this 

paper, Hispanic/Latinos of any race will be referred to as Hispanic/Latino and 

non-Hispanic/Latino Whites will be referred to as White. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Results

Respondents were rather evenly split between males and females, U.S. and non-U.S. 

born, and Hispanic/Latino and White. Specifically, 53 percent of the sample was 

female, 56 percent born in the United States and 57.9 percent Hispanic/Latino (fig. 

10-1). The average age of the respondents was 37.9 years. The White respondents 

had a BMI of 24.8 (just under overweight), and the Hispanic/Latinos had a BMI of 

26.8 (considered overweight).

The majority of both Hispanic/Latinos and Whites indicated the site where they 

were contacted as a usual location of their physical activity (57 and 68 percent for 

Hispanic/Latinos and Whites, respectively; fig. 10-2). For Hispanic/Latino visitors, 

home (39 percent), different park/recreation area (15 percent) and work (8 percent) 

followed as the next usual locations for physical activity while for Whites the order 

differed slightly with home (33 percent) followed by fitness center (32 percent) and 

different parks/recreation area (23 percent). 

Significant differences were found between Hispanic/Latinos and Whites on 

two of the three EUH measures, one of four physical activity measures, and BMI. 

Specifically, Hispanic/Latinos visited less frequently in terms of total visits and 

visits in the past 12 months, engaged in moderate physical activity fewer days per 

week and had higher BMIs than Whites (table 10-1). 

Weak correlations existed between EUH measures and select physical activity measures (table 10-2). There was a weak, positive relationship between times 

visiting in the past 12 months and years and days per week of moderate physical 

activity for both groups. However, EUH was positively correlated to moderate 

physical activity duration for Hispanics only. For Hispanic/Latinos, there was a 

weak, negative relationship between total times visiting, vigorous physical activity 

duration, and frequency. Similarly, one of the EUH measures was weakly related to 

BMI: years for Hispanic/Latino and total visits for Whites.

Discussion and Implications

Onsite surveys with urban-proximate visitors found differences in EUH, physical 

activity levels, and BMI between Latino/Hispanic and White visitors. Also, weak 

correlations existed between EUH and BMI. These results suggest both opportunities and challenges for recreation managers.

The majority of respondents indicated their physical activity took place at 

either the site where they were contacted or another park/recreation area; thus, it 

appears the opportunities at these public lands are, in fact, contributing to physical 

activity. However, other studies contradict this finding (Huston et al. 2003) and 

reported that neighborhood, home, and fitness centers are used more frequently 

The majority of 

respondents indicated 

their physical activity 

took place at either the 

site where they were 

contacted or another 

park/recreation area; 

thus, it appears the 

opportunities at these 

public lands are, in 

fact, contributing to 

physical activity.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 10-1—Experience use history, physical activity and body mass index 

for Hispanic/Latino and non-Hispanic Latino (White) visitors

Measure Hispanic/Latino White t-value

- - - - - - Mean - - - - - -

Experience use history:

Total times visited 203.7 348.2 3.49***

Times visited in the past 12 months 41.8 83.5 5.86***

Years been coming to this area 9.1 9.0 -.14

Physical activity level:

Moderate—

Days per week 4.3 5.5 5.31***

Time per week 1:43 1:23 -1.64

Vigorous—

Days per week 2.4 2.4 .22

Time per week 0:39 0:35 -.91

Body mass index 26.8 24.8 -3.67***

Note: * indicates significance where p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 

Table 10-2—Correlations of experience use history, physical activity, and body 

mass index descriptions of Hispanic/Latino and non-Hispanic Latino (White) 

visitors

Hispanic/Latino White

Visits in Years Visits in Years

past 12 moderate past 12 moderate

Total months activity Total months activity

Physical activity level:

Moderate

Days/week 0.05 0.12* 0.14** 0.14 0.15* 0.19**

Time/day .17** .19*** .12* -.02 -.05 -.06

Vigorous

Days/week -.16** .03 .10 .06 .03 -.09

Time/day -.15** -.01 -.04 .01 .00 -.03

Body mass index .01 .06 .13* .16* .11 .06

Note: * indicates significance where p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 

than parks for physical activity. Therefore future research is needed to understand 

these differences. Nonetheless, to retain and encourage more physical activity and 

subsequent health benefits like reduced BMI, managers have a number of options to 

consider: (1) identify and inventory their physical activity offerings and programs, 

(2) promote physical activity offerings and programs in dominant and locally used 

languages as well as diverse publications, (3) work with nondominant cultures to 

ensure the physical activity opportunities are offered in situations and at times 

that are culturally appropriate, (4) consider the constraints to physical activity 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

for all visitors and nonvisitors, and (5) explore partnerships with local park and 

recreation providers as well as health organizations (clubs, hospitals, etc.). Given 

the positive relationship between EUH measures and moderate-level physical 

activity, promoting or continuing to promote park and recreation lands as important 

locations for physical activity is of interest and meets the intent of the 2002 

Executive order relating to the health of U.S. citizens. Understanding if and how 

these participation patterns differ across recreational opportunities is of interest, as 

these findings are limited to urban-proximate parks. 

With regard to the diverse population, managers need to recognize Hispanic/

Latino park visitors as frequent park users as well as a population with opportunities to improve physical activity levels and BMI. Given that a healthy BMI range 

is 18.5 to 24.9 (CDCP 2006), the average Hispanic/Latino park user is overweight. 

Partnering with local health care providers and/or other physical activity facilities 

can open new doors for agency partnerships. Further, although Hispanic/Latino 

visitors were frequent visitors to these sites, their visitation was still significantly 

lower than the White visitors. Certainly this difference raises questions about constraints to participation and abilities to negotiate these constraints to be addressed 

in future research.

Despite park use for physical activity, physical activity and BMI were not 

consistently correlated with park use. One reason for this finding is that our park 

use question focused on general use rather than that of park use for physical activity: the lack of specificity may contribute to the inconsistent relationship. Another 

reason for this inconsistent relationship is that constraints to participation may exist 

and therefore, identifying and understanding intervening factors to physical activity 

and park use is recommended. 

Federal agencies are mandated to promote physical activity on public lands. 

This research represents a first step to examine such physical activity and compare 

use between racial/ethnic groups. Results indicate visitors to these public lands 

have opportunity to increase their physical activity, decrease their BMI and realize greater health benefits. Subsequently, as appropriate, recreation managers can 

engage a variety of visitors to improve the health of Americans as stipulated in 

Bush’s 2002 executive order. 

Acknowledgments

This project was supported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Pacific Southwest Research Station.
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Perspectives of public health and leisure studies on determinants of physically 

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Budruk, M.; Schneider, I.; Andereck, K.; Virden, R. 2002. Crowding and 

satisfaction among visitors to a built desert attraction. Journal of Park and 

Recreation Administration. 20: 1–17.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDCP]. 2005a. Adult participation 

in recommended levels of physical activity—United States, 2001 and 2003. 

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 54(47): 1208–1212. 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDCP]. 2005b. Behavioral risk 

factor surveillance system survey questionnaire. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of 

Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 66 p.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDCP]. 2006. About BMI for 

adults. http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/bmi/adult_BMI/about_adult_BMI.htm. 

(May 5, 2007). 

Cunningham, P.H.; Leivadi, S.; Apostolopoulos, Y. 1994. Race, class, economic 

status and participation in sport and fitness. In: Watson, A.; Freysinger, V. eds. 

Abstracts from the 1994 symposium on leisure research. Arlington, VA: National 

Recreation and Park Association. 74 p.

Ewert, A.E. 1998. A comparison of urban-proximate and urban-distant wilderness 

users on selected variables. Environmental Management. 22(66): 927–935.

Floyd, M.F.; Gramann, J.H.; Saenz, R. 1993. Ethnic factors and the use of public 

outdoor recreation areas: the case of Mexican Americans. Leisure Sciences. 

15: 83–98.

Graefe, A.; Moore, R. 1992. Monitoring the visitor experience at Buck Island 

Reef National Monument. In: Vander Stoep, G.A., comp. and ed. Proceedings of 

the 1991 Northeastern recreation research symposium. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-160. 

Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest 

Experiment Station: 55–58.

Hammitt, W.E.; McDonald, C. 1983. Past on-site experience and its relationship 

to managing river recreation resources. Forest Science. 29: 262–266.

Hammitt, W.E.; Backlund, E.A.; Bixler, R.D. 2004. Experience use history, 

place bonding and resource substitution of trout anglers during recreation 

engagements. Journal of Leisure Research. 36: 356–378. 
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Henderson, K.A.; Ainsworth, B.E. 2001. Researching leisure and physical 

activity with women of color: issues and emerging questions. Leisure Sciences. 

23: 21–34.

Ho, C.H.; Payne, L.; Orsega-Smith, E.; Godbey, G. 2003. Parks, recreation and 

public health. Parks and Recreation. April: 18–27.

Huston, S.L.; Evenson, K.R.; Bors, P.; Gizlice, Z. 2003. Neighborhood 

environment, access to places for activity, and leisure-time physical activity 

in a diverse North Carolina Population. American Journal of Health Promotion. 

18: 58–69.

Karolinska Institutet. 2002. International physical activity questionnaire. 

http://www.ipaq.ki.se. (July 13, 2007). 

Marquez, D.X.; McAuley, E.; Overman, N. 2004. Psychosocial correlates and 

outcomes of physical activity among Latinos: a review. Hispanic Journal of 

Behavioral Sciences. 26(2): 195–229. 

Moore, R.L.; Scott, D.; Graefe, A.R. 1998. The effects of activity differences 

on recreation experiences along a suburban greenway trail. Journal of Park and 

Recreation Administration. 16(2): 35–53.

National Institutes of Health. 1998. Clinical guidelines on the identification, 

evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults—the evidence 

report. Obesity Research. 6: 51S–209S. 

Ogden, C.L.; Carroll, M.D.; Curtin, L.R.; McDowell, M.A.; Tabak, C.J.; 

Flegal, K.M. 2006. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 

1999–2004. Journal of the American Medical Association. 295(13): 1549–1555. 

Schreyer, R.; Lime, D.W.; Williams, D.R. 1984. Characterizing the influence of 

past experience on recreation behavior. Journal of Leisure Research. 16: 34–50. 

U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau [U.S. Census Bureau]. 2001. 

Population change and distribution 1990 to 2000. Census 2000 brief. 

http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-2.pdf. (June 28, 2007).

U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau [U.S. Census Bureau]. 2007. 

Minority population tops 100 million. U.S. Census press release. http://www.

census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/population/010048.html. 

(June 28, 2007).

Wilcox, S.; Castro, C.; King, A.; Housemann, R.; Brownson, R. 2000. 

Determinants of leisure time physical activity in rural compared with 

urban older and ethnically diverse women in the United States. Journal of 

Epidemiology and Community Health. 54: 667–672.
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1

Assistant professor, Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia 

University, 6125 Percival Hall, Morgantown, WV 26506. 

2 Doctoral student, Department of Recreation, Parks and Tourism Management, 

Pennsylvania State University, 800 Ford Building, University Park, PA 16801.

3

Associate professor, Department of Recreation, Parks and Tourism Management, 

Pennsylvania State University, 800 Ford Building, University Park, PA 16801.

Chapter 11: Outdoor Recreation and 

Nontraditional Users: Results of Focus 

Group Interviews With Racial and 

Ethnic Minorities

Robert C. Burns,1 Elizabeth Covelli,2 and Alan R. Graefe3

Abstract 

Resource managers in Oregon State Parks and the Pacific Northwest Region of the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (U.S. Forest Service) identified a 

need to better understand the needs of existing and potential stakeholders who may 

visit public recreation lands in Oregon. Specifically, this research was designed to 

understand the perceptions of racial and ethnic minorities in Oregon. A series of 

focus groups were completed in the state of Oregon to understand ethnic minorities’ 

interests and needs related to outdoor recreation, and how agencies such as Oregon 

State Parks, the U.S. Forest Service, and local park and recreation authorities can 

better respond to these nontraditional users. This report documents visitor usage 

perceptions for different outdoor recreation activities in a variety of outdoor recreation settings within the state of Oregon. The focus group interviews were designed 

to ascertain residents’ perceptions about what recreation activities, services, facilities, and experiences are appropriate on various public lands in Oregon. 

Keywords: Outdoor recreation, diversity, racial and ethnic minorities.

Introduction

As ethnic and racial groups continue to grow in the United States, it will become 

important for social service agencies to reexamine how they manage for a diverse 

population. According to estimates by the U.S. Census Bureau (Census Bureau 

2002), Latino and Asian American populations are increasing at a faster rate than the 

population as a whole, with a majority of these population changes taking place in 

the Western United States. Outdoor recreation managers will need to consider that 

ethnic and racial groups may have different outdoor recreation preferences, constraints, and information needs than the traditional outdoor recreation participant. 

Outdoor recreation 

managers will need to 

consider that ethnic 

and racial groups may 

have different outdoor 

recreation preferences, 

constraints, and 

information needs than 

the traditional outdoor 

recreation participant. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Resource managers in the state of Oregon, including the Oregon State Parks 

and Recreation Department and the Pacific Northwest Region (Region 6) of the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (U.S. Forest Service) continue to 

see a need to understand all of their users, including ethnic and racial minority 

groups. A research effort was designed to understand the perceptions of racial and 

ethnic minorities in Oregon. The study documented preferences and perceptions 

of different outdoor recreation activities in a variety of outdoor recreation settings. 

Through the use of focus group interviews, the study was designed to understand 

residents’ perceptions about what recreation activities, services, facilities, and 

experiences are appropriate at various places on public lands.

Literature Review

The demographics of the United States are changing rapidly, with changes most 

visible in the Western States. A compilation of studies completed by Chavez (2001) 

suggested that, over the next 25 years, Latinos will account for one-fifth to one-half 

of the total U.S. population. Chavez also stated that if Latinos grow at the highest 

projected rate, they will account for 54 percent of the Nation’s growth. Another 

rapidly growing group is the Asian American population. Since 1980, Asian 

Americans have grown to 3 percent of the population (Chavez 2001). The growth 

of the Asian American population has especially increased in the Western States 

of California, Oregon, and Washington. It is also projected that, within the next 20 

years, 49 percent of the Asian American population will live in the Western States 

(Census Bureau 2002).

Several theories have been proposed to help explain nonparticipation in outdoor recreation by different ethnic and racial groups. According to Johnson et al. 

(1997), two primary theoretical perspectives emerged in the 1960s and 1970s. The 

theories were based around race and ethnicity and socioeconomic status (income 

and education). Opportunity theory or demographic theory emerged in the 1970s 

and was used to explain specific causes of nonparticipation. According to Johnson 

et al. (1997: 2) “opportunity theory is distinct from the more general socioeconomic 

explanation because greater emphasis is placed on human proximity to resources as 

the specific cause of non-participation.” Lack of participation by ethnic and racial 

groups may be explained by lack of opportunities or resources for populations with 

lower socioeconomic status (Lindsey and Ogle 1972).

Washburne (1978) was among the first to propose a theoretical framework 

regarding race and outdoor recreation and approached the problem by offering two 

alternative hypotheses: ethnicity and marginality (Johnson et al. 1997). The marginality hypothesis suggests that African Americans do not participate in outdoor 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

recreation because of poverty and other consequences of socioeconomic discrimination. Washburne went on to explain that historically unmet needs like transportation from urban residences contributed to marginality. According to this theory, 

once the socioeconomic barriers are removed, we will see more equal participation 

between ethnic and racial groups (Floyd 1998). The ethnicity hypothesis attributes 

nonparticipation to cultural differences. Washburne (1978) explained that leisure 

patterns are a reflection of culture, and African Americans may have a historically 

different relationship with wildlands. Additionally, ethnic and racial groups have 

unique recreation preferences that may be attributed to value differences based on 

group norms (Floyd 1998, Johnson et al. 1998). 

Recent research on marginality and ethnicity theory attributed minority 

differences to social structural barriers like discretionary income, transportation, 

and information (Johnson et al. 1998). Carr and Williams (1993) explained that 

not all racial and ethnic groups are homogenous. Their study found significant 

differences in recreation preferences within the Latino ethnic group, specifically 

differences between Mexicans and Central Americans. In 2004, Winter et al. found 

similar results. They examined different cultures, income, education, and language. 

Results indicated that several different recreation patterns existed among Asian 

Americans. Thus, not all Asian Americans can be categorized together as they are 

not a homogenous group. 

Johnson et al. (1997) examined and reviewed several race and ethnicity theories. In their assessment, no single factor offers a definitive explanation of racial 

differences in recreation behavior. Lack of definitive findings may be attributed 

to not having standard definitions of terms and lack of consistency in measures 

across studies. The authors explain that the inconsistent results could also be due to 

peculiarities of the specific study areas. Johnson et al. (1997) noted that researchers 

tend to generalize findings from a specific area to entire racial and ethnic populations and that research should focus on regional or geographic differences. 

Tierney et al. (1998) examined the use of undeveloped natural areas by residents in the Los Angeles area. Their results indicated that respondents who were 

lower income African Americans, younger Latinos with low income, and low 

income Asian Americans were significantly less likely to visit an undeveloped area. 

Additionally, Asian American, Latino, and White respondents with similar status, 

assimilation, and perceived discrimination were equally likely to visit natural areas 

when compared to African Americans, supporting marginality theory’s assertion 

that differences between ethnic groups are reduced when other factors are taken 

into consideration.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Tierney et al. (1998) also examined potential constraints to recreation at natural 

areas. Their results identified information and transportation as constraints; however, ethnic preferences, assimilation, education, and perceived discrimination also 

affected participation. Shinew and Floyd (2005) explained that more research is 

needed to understand minorities and the factors that constrain their outdoor recreation participation. Further examination will help broaden understanding of societal 

issues surrounding minority groups. 

Last, Thapa et al. (2001) demonstrated that understanding information needs 

and search behaviors of ethnic groups is essential to communicating with visitors at 

natural areas. According to their results, White respondents were more likely to use 

all available information sources, whereas Latinos and other minority groups were 

less likely to use technology sources. All groups indicated that they used printed 

material; however, language was identified as a potential limiting factor. 

Methods

In the summer of 2006, a series of focus group interviews were conducted in several cities in Oregon to understand ethnic/racial minorities’ interests, participation, 

and constraints regarding outdoor recreation. The respondents were interviewed 

in four separate meetings with African American respondents (Portland, Oregon), 

Asian American respondents (Portland, Oregon), and Latino respondents (Medford 

and Hermiston, Oregon). 

The sample was identified through the use of snowball sampling, relying heavily on the existing contacts and relationships of Oregon State Parks and Recreation 

Department resource managers. The contacts consisted primarily of local recreation 

resource managers in the communities noted above. These contact persons were 

a key link in communicating with the racial and ethnic minorities in each community, as an element of trust between the managers and community groups had 

already been established. The meetings were held in community buildings (libraries, town meeting halls, etc.) and the duration of each meeting ranged from 2 to 3 

hours. 

The interviews followed a semistructured focus group protocol. This method 

was employed with the goal of obtaining as much information from the participants as possible. According to Madriz (2000), focus groups should be used when 

the interviewer desires a free expression of ideas. The focus group methodology 

empowers participants by tilting power in their favor, which can reduce the interviewer’s influence and allow for more open and honest discussion. A focus group 

interview guide was used as a loose guide throughout the meetings. The discussion 

guide addressed five specific research questions: 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

• What are your current and previous recreation experiences? 

• What benefits do you seek from recreation?

• What constraints keep you from recreating more often?

• What media sources would be most effective in getting you to recreate 

more often?

• What specific amenities (e.g., facilities, services, information) should be 

changed or improved?

Results

Current and Previous Recreation Experiences

Participants were asked to describe their outdoor recreation experiences and interests, including the types of activities they currently or previously have participated 

in. Probing questions were asked to understand the setting in which these activities 

took place and with whom they participated during the activity. The results of the 

interviews are outlined by segment (Asian American, Latino, and African-American) below and summarized in table 11-1.

Asian Americans—

A theme that emerged throughout the focus group meeting with Asian American 

participants was recreating with family, especially with children. Many participants 

explained that they prefer to recreate with their children. They want to experience 

outdoor recreation with their children rather than sending them to participate in a 

program by themselves, like the Boy Scouts. Additionally, participants explained 

that they usually recreate with their extended family, including elders. This has 

implications for the types of areas they visit and also dictates the types of activities in which they participate. Many Asian American participants indicated that 

they enjoyed visiting areas with water features, such as the Columbia River Gorge, 

Crater Lake, and the Willamette River in Portland.

Issues surrounding safety and protection were identified as important to the 

Asian American group. Participants were not interested in recreating in areas that 

do not “feel safe.” Nor will they allow their children to go to such areas. Reflections 

of childhood among participants revealed that they were not allowed to recreate or 

leave the apartment owing to safety concerns, which may help explain why more 

Asian Americans do not recreate outdoors. Asian Americans preferred going on 

shorter hikes and visiting areas where they could be close to people. 

Latinos—

Latino participants expressed frustration with visiting areas that do not have 

enough room for large, extended families. Latinos often enjoy celebrating a child’s 

A theme that emerged 

throughout the focus 

group meeting with 

Asian American 

participants was 

recreating with 

family, especially 

with children. They 

want to experience 

outdoor recreation 

with their children 

rather than sending 

them to participate 

in a program by 

themselves.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Table 11-1—Summary of major themes in nontraditional user focus groups

Asian Americans Latinos African Americans 

Current and previous recreation experiences:

Improved amenities: overnight facilities Facilities large enough for Dislike remote locations

and places to eat extended families

Access to facilities Prefer local areas over Aesthetics

traveling distances

Recreation areas with water features Information needs Often stereotyped

Dislike camping in tents Places for youth

Enjoy visiting areas with entire family

including elders and children

Safety and protection

Benefits sought: 

To be in nature and see wildlife Spend time with family Solitude

To get away from it all To get away from it all Spending time with family 

 and friends

Education Education

Constraints:

Lack of information Distance to recreation areas Facilities

Safety concerns Lack of information Cleanliness

Culture Fear of new places

Signage

Different activity styles

 Transportation

Media and recreation opportunities:

Information in multiple languages Lack of information African American organizations

Asian American organizations Information in multiple languages More information

Using key informants to build trust Information sent home with children

Publicizing benefits Latino media sources

Calendar of events

Latino organizations

Changes in parks and recreation 

services and facilities:

Increased signage Facility improvements Making health links

Facility improvements National forests Free is key

Web site improvements Parent/youth involvement
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

birthday, or having a family party in an outdoor setting. However, the setting or 

facility does not accommodate the group size. Additionally, many local areas are 

often busy or full and require a reservation system that Latinos are unaware of. 

Areas with gazebos or pavilions are also preferred settings. According to many 

participants, Latinos are likely to have jobs that often require long hours, and are 

also concerned with the price of gasoline. This prevents them from traveling long 

distances to recreation areas. They would like to see more local recreation facilities 

including campgrounds. Members of the Latino community often seek new places 

to visit; however, they have had problems accessing information from the local 

chamber of commerce. Participants agreed that members of their community would 

enjoy going to outdoor areas, but they are often constrained by not knowing what 

public facilities are available for recreation. 

Similar to Asian American respondents, participants explained that children are 

an important component of the Latino community. They prefer settings that accommodate children by having playgrounds, basketball courts, clean bathrooms, and 

water to play in. Additionally, parents and members of the community desired open 

places for their child to play and be free. 

African Americans—

Participants in the African American focus group preferred to recreate in locations 

that were not “off the beaten path.” The participants preferred controlled areas 

like city parks and facilities that were managed by the city, areas that were close 

to urban centers, and places that were well maintained with clean amenities. They 

find comfort in knowing that in case of an emergency, they can leave an area and 

get help. Aesthetically pleasing areas were important to African Americans; places 

with a view, water, or green spaces were identified as ideal. Participants like being 

able to look back at the hike and see the “reward” of climbing a mountain. African 

Americans discussed how stereotypes often prevent people from recreating in 

outdoor settings. However, they confirmed that African Americans are interested 

in outdoor recreation activities and specifically mentioned hiking, picnicking, and 

viewing nature.

Benefits Sought 

Participants were asked to identify what types of benefits they hoped to get from 

participating in an outdoor recreation activity. Benefits have been defined as 

voluntarily engaging in recreation behaviors for intrinsic rewards when basic needs 

like survival, comfort, material needs, and social commitments have already been 

met (Driver et al. 1991). 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Asian Americans—

For the Asian American group, three general benefits were discussed. One of these 

involved experiencing nature and viewing wildlife. One participant explained that 

Asian Americans place a high value on animals and they visit areas hoping to see 

wildlife. Scenery and fresh air are also important benefits. Along with nature, 

“getting away from it all” was identified by Asian Americans as a major benefit. 

They enjoy outdoor recreation because they are able to get away from home and 

spend time with family. Educational opportunities were also identified as a benefit 

to participating in outdoor recreation. Participants indicated that they look for 

areas where they can learn something. A nearby Corps of Engineers hydro-power 

project that provides opportunities for fish viewing was mentioned as an example 

of the type of educational experience that they look for. This specific area includes 

interpretive messages and guided interpretive tours.

Latinos—

Participants noted that they often recreate to spend time with family and friends. 

They enjoy going to places where they can have large parties and socialize with 

each other. Thus, areas with pavilions and barbeque facilities are ideal settings. 

Similar to Asian American respondents, they are also interested in going to areas 

to get away from the stress of everyday life. They like to go to places that are free 

of pollution and free of cost. Many Latino participants noted that members of their 

group cannot afford to go to expensive places. Additionally, they want to go to 

areas that will build memories for their families. Educational programs that help 

promote self-esteem for youth in the community would be welcomed. Parents want 

to be able to take their children to a place where they can learn and explore.

African Americans—

African American participants identified solitude and spiritual healing as reasons 

for participating and benefits that they hope to gain through outdoor recreation. The 

benefit of self-renewal is also important. Being with family and friends is another 

important benefit sought by African Americans. They enjoy connecting with family 

and meeting new people. Children are an important component of family; however, 

they often preferred to go to places where children are well behaved. 

Constraints

Participants were asked about their perceived constraints, or factors that prevent or 

decrease their participation in outdoor recreation. Since the 1980s, recreation and 

leisure researchers have examined the reasons why some people do not participate 

in desired recreation activities. 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Asian Americans—

A constraint that was noted for the Asian American group was lack of information 

or knowledge of where to find information. This included information about where 

to recreate, safety, and the reservation system for state parks. Asian Americans 

often will only go to places that they have visited before and know are safe, 

familiar, and convenient. Historical and cultural differences seem to play a role 

in the type of activities that Asian Americans have traditionally participated 

in. Generally, indoor activities are preferred, according to many participants. 

Additional cultural constraints were concerned with children and education. 

Although the Asian American group would enjoy more programs devoted to 

outdoor recreation and survival skills, they are still reluctant to send their children 

to classes alone. Consistent with earlier thoughts on recreation activities, they 

explained that they enjoy recreating with their children and do not like to send 

the child to a class focused on outdoor recreation without parental guidance. 

Participants explained that, while parents want to participate with their child, they 

also want programs that are focused on academic enhancement. Instead of an 

outdoor recreation program, a program that takes children into the woods to learn 

about archeology is more appealing to the parents. 

Latinos—

Transportation is a major constraint to recreation for the Latino community. The 

respondents explained that many Latinos are already paying a high price to live in the 

United States and driving to a recreation area takes more money than they can afford. 

Continual increases in fuel costs have exacerbated this problem and prevented some 

Latino participants from visiting outdoor recreation areas. Participants also explained 

that many people within their community do not like to go to remote locations and 

prefer more front-country settings that are easy to access and close to home. 

According to the participants, lack of information is also a major reason for 

not recreating at outdoor recreation areas. Participants see the benefit of recreating 

outdoors; however, they do not know where to go or who to contact about recreation 

opportunities. Additionally, lack of information written in Spanish is seen as a 

constraint. Along with not being aware of recreation opportunities, there is a fear 

amongst immigrants of visiting new areas. Latino immigrants seldom go to areas 

that other people in their community have not previously visited. 

There is also uncertainty when actually arriving at the site as to where to go 

and what the rules are. Although many communities on the local level have moved 

toward universal or Spanish/English signs, there are still many areas that have not 

altered their signage. Latinos may not be able to read a sign in English that informs 

Transportation is a 

major constraint to 

recreation for the 

Latino community. The 

respondents explained 

that many Latinos 

are already paying a 

high price to live in 

the United States and 

driving to a recreation 

area takes more money 

than they can afford. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

them of the recreation fee or that an area may be restricted, which could result in a 

dangerous situation. Many of the participants explained that Latinos do not recreate 

in the same fashion as traditional users. They often recreate in large groups and 

expect to have more amenities, like a place for barbeques and food. 

African Americans —

African American participants felt that many recreation areas are not large enough 

for their outdoor recreation interests. They would like to see more areas with picnic 

tables and places to barbeque. Also, outdoor recreation areas should include facilities with basketball hoops and restrooms. Other constraints included cleanliness 

of facilities. Participants would be more inclined to recreate if there were more 

trash receptacles and cleaner restrooms. According to the participants, unclean and 

unkempt areas discourage use. 

Media and Recreation Opportunities

Participants were asked about how they learned of outdoor recreation opportunities. 

This included what types of media sources they currently used and what types of 

media sources could be used to reach more people in their group.

Asian Americans—

According to the participants, having literature and information in multiple Asian 

languages would help encourage use at outdoor recreation areas. Mandarin Chinese 

is a language that is understood by many Chinese as well as by many Vietnamese. 

There was also a suggestion to recruit a more diverse staff in outdoor recreation 

settings. Participants all agreed that utilizing existing Asian American organizations as a means to inform the community about recreation opportunities would 

be helpful. This includes using social service agencies, Asian restaurant associations, churches, and schools. One suggestion was to hang fliers and posters in 

Asian restaurants and stores. The issue of trust within the community is important 

to acknowledge. Participants suggested that outdoor recreation agencies need to 

create trust with key informants within the community to pass along the benefits of 

outdoor recreation. This may be achieved by going to Asian community fairs and 

using social service agencies. 

Participants also suggested publicizing the benefits of recreation to the community. Some benefits that may be appealing to the Asian American community 

include health, culture, and education.
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Latinos—

Lack of information about recreation opportunities was an evident concern 

throughout the Latino focus group meetings. Participants often felt that they were 

excluded from receiving information and felt frustrated with not knowing where to 

look to find outdoor opportunities. Participants agreed that disseminating information in Spanish would be a good way to reach their community. In many Latino 

families, it is the children who speak or read English and have to translate for the 

adults. If the child does not find the information interesting, then they will not 

inform the parent. Using both English and Spanish in information campaigns and 

literature is ideal. 

Participants identified youth as a resource to communicate to adults. Sending information to households through the school system is a potential method of 

communication. As one participant put it, “children are a way into the household.” 

Information that is brought home from school is considered important and is more 

likely to be read by parents or translated to them by the children. 

Participants noted that many Latinos watch television, especially Univision 

(Spanish language channel). Advertising and informing the public through this 

media would be a useful way to inform the Latino community. Participants 

suggested making commercials with Latinos as advertisements for outdoor 

areas. Spanish language newspapers would also be useful avenues for 

informing the community.

Participants agreed that they would like to see some form of a calendar put 

together by local, state, and federal agencies listing the different recreation events 

that are occurring in the area. Along with a calendar, a list of resources with 

corresponding phone numbers would be a helpful way to find out about potential 

recreation opportunities.

Utilizing Latino organizations to disseminate information is another potential 

way to inform the community about recreation opportunities. These organizations 

can include farm workers associations, local health clinics, community centers, and 

small businesses.

African Americans— 

African American participants felt that more people would visit outdoor recreation 

areas if local, state, and federal agencies utilized local businesses to inform the 

public about recreation opportunities. These organizations could include barber/hair 

shops, restaurants, and public health offices. They also identified the need to have 

more readily accessible information. The use of local radio stations and African 

American newspapers (specific to each community) could help inform this segment 

of the public of outdoor recreation opportunities. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Changes in Parks and Recreation Services and Facilities

Participants were asked if they had noticed any changes in the service or facilities 

of their parks and forests within their Oregon community. These changes could be 

either negative or positive. This part of the interview also covered any additional 

areas that may not have been covered in previous sections. For example, amenities 

were mentioned several times throughout the focus group interviews. Especially 

during the Asian American discussion, participants explained that they sought 

areas with amenities. This included places to eat (restaurants) and indoor overnight 

facilities. Along with amenities there were concerns over actually accessing these 

facilities. Repeated concerns were mentioned about online reservation systems and 

not being able to locate overnight facilities on both the state and federal level. 

Asian Americans—

Participants have noticed an increase in signage and interpretive displays in the recreation areas they visit. However, some site-specific improvements are still needed, 

including repairing poor railings and stairs. They would like to see recreation areas 

where they can bring the elders in their family. 

Accessing information on the Internet is a useful development. Participants 

who had visited numerous sites had specific comments about the negative and 

positive elements of recreation resource Web sites. Some were considered more user 

friendly and resulted in visitations to recreation areas. Other Web sites were hard 

to navigate, and the respondents said they could not find the information they were 

looking for. 

Latinos—

Participants have recognized improvements in facilities at the community level. 

They have seen improvements in safety and feel that local parks are much safer 

than before. They also believe that their tax money is well spent with regard to local 

parks. But they wondered what the National Forests have to offer. A participant 

asked the question, “Why go to a national forest? What is there for me and my family? There is just open space.” These are questions that go back to lack of information about opportunities and the need to reach out to the Latino community.

Participants discussed the importance of using youth to target adults. Many Latino 

children assimilate at a quicker rate than their parents. The school system provides 

opportunities for youth to experience the outdoors. Participants agree that it is 

harder to get the parent to be part of field trips or programs outside of school. Often 

Latino parents are most concerned with working and providing for the family. 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

African Americans—

Participants agreed that, with current issues of obesity and health in America, 

people are more willing to participate in recreation. If outdoor recreation agencies 

could make the link between outdoor recreation and health, more people would be 

willing to go to outdoor facilities. 

The African American community would like to see more free recreation 

opportunities. The group was informed that Oregon State Parks offers a free recreation day at their sites; however, the participants were unaware this existed. 

Conclusions

The social context is a very important aspect of recreation among minorities. 

The family group is especially important. A lot of free time is devoted to family 

activities, and often involves the extended family spending time together. For 

example, if the older generation is not interested in going to parks, no one goes to 

the parks. The younger generation is more likely to participate in outdoor recreation 

with groups of friends. When families, specifically Asian Americans and LatinoAmericans, go to parks, they prefer nearby areas with modern facilities and plenty 

of space for their extended groups. 

Safety is a major concern affecting outdoor recreation participation and 

includes two elements: personal safety and safety for children. Many minority 

individuals consider parks dangerous, with the degree of danger varying for different types of parks and outdoor areas. While members of all cultures are concerned 

for the safety of their children, Asian American parents are especially protective of 

their children. They often will not allow their children to go to parks, especially if 

they are places for risky activities, such as skate parks, or far away outdoor areas.

Ethnic minorities have little awareness of the recreation opportunities available 

to them on public lands. Few understand the differences between the many federal, 

state, and local areas and managing agencies. Better information is needed to 

facilitate greater participation by these groups. Efforts such as multilingual materials and reaching out through community groups are necessary to deliver the needed 

information to the minority populations. 

Ethnic minorities are interested in outdoor recreation, but their extent and type 

of participation are related to the degree of acculturation. For example younger 

Asian Americans born in the United States have interacted with Whites all of their 

lives and have been introduced to parks and outdoor recreation, often through the 

schools. Older generations generally are less interested in outdoor recreation; they 

have no interest in camping and don’t like camping food. They would rather do 

other things with the family (including community gardening or other outdoor or 

When families, 

specifically Asian 

Americans and LatinoAmericans, go to 

parks, they prefer 

nearby areas with 

modern facilities and 

plenty of space for 

their extended groups. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

indoor activities). In general, interests in outdoor recreation activities and areas 

become more similar to the majority population as ethnic minorities become more 

assimilated within America. 

Ethnic minorities are not all alike. There is variation within the three groups 

studied as well as between them. Like the majority population, minorities in 

Oregon are split into two groups, rich and poor. These groups have very different 

interests in outdoor recreation. A common denominator for both groups, however, 

is support for the children’s education. Often, even the poorest will put all that they 

have to help their kids advance in life through a better education. Minority kids 

don’t usually join groups like Boy or Girl Scouts—their parents do not support it. 

Minority families might support it more if it were considered more educational.

Summer is the best time to get the minority youth outdoors, as they have several weeks with no school. But most minority parents do not want to send their kids 

away. They would rather participate with their children, but are unable to owing to 

work obligations. They might send kids to programs near to home while they are 

working, especially if they are educational. 

Literature Cited

Carr, D.S.; Williams, D.R. 1993. Understanding the role of ethnicity in outdoor 

recreation experiences. Journal of Leisure Research. 25: 22–38.

Chavez, D.J. 2001. Managing outdoor recreation in California: visitor contact 

studies 1989-1998. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-180. Albany, CA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 

100 p. 

Driver, B.L.; Brown, P.J.; Peterson, G.L. 1991. Benefits of Leisure. State College, 

PA: Venture Publishing. 

Floyd, M.F. 1998. Getting beyond marginality and ethnicity: the challenge for race 

and ethnic studies in leisure research. Journal of Leisure Research. 30(1): 3–20.

Johnson, C.Y.; Bowker, J.M.; English, D.B.K.; Worthen, D. 1998. Wildland 

recreation in the rural south: an examination of marginality and ethnicity. 

Journal of Leisure Research. 30(1): 101–120.

Johnson, C.Y.; Bowker, J.M.; English, D.B.K.; Worthen, D. 1997. Theoretical 

perspectives of ethnicity and outdoor recreation: a review and synthesis of 

African-American and European-American participation. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

SRS-11. Athens, GA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Lindsey, J.J.; Ogle, R.A. 1972. Socioeconomic patterns of outdoor recreation use 

near urban areas. Journal of Leisure Research. 4(1): 19–24.

Madriz, E. 2000. Focus groups in feminist research. In: Denzin, N.K.; Lincoln, 

Y.S. eds. The handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage 

Publications: 835–849.

Shinew, K.J.; Floyd, M.F. 2005. Racial inequality and constraints to leisure in the 

post-Civil Rights era: toward and alternative framework. In: Jackson, E.L., ed. 

Constraints to leisure. State College, PA: Venture Publishing: 34–51. 

Thapa, B.; Graefe, A.R.; Absher, J.D. 2001. Information needs and search 

behaviors: a comparative study of ethnic groups in the Angeles and San 

Bernardino National Forests, California. Leisure Sciences. 24: 89–117.

Tierney, P.T.; Dahl, R.; Chavez, D.J. 1998. Cultural diversity of Los Angeles 

County residents using undeveloped areas. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-RP-236. 

Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station. 76 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census [Census Bureau]. 2002. 

http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/cocoon/CENSUS/STUDY/13266.xml

Washburne, R.F. 1978. Black under-participation in wildland recreation: 

alternative explanations. Leisure Sciences. 1(2): 175–188.

Winter, P.L.; Jeong, W.C.; Godbey, G.C. 2004. Outdoor recreation among Asian 

Americans: a case study of San Francisco Bay area residents. Journal of Park and 

Recreation Administration. 22(3): 114–136.
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139

Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Chapter 12: Perceptions of Agriculture 

and Natural Resource Careers 

Among Minority Students in a 

National Organization

Corliss Wilson Outley1

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to identify factors that influence the career choice 

behaviors among students who were members of Minorities in Agriculture, Natural Resources and Related Sciences (MANRRS) National Society. A secondary 

purpose was to identify perceptions and attitudes among students that chose careers 

in agriculture and natural resources. The MANRRS students in the study indicated 

their mother and persons employed in the field as the individuals who most influenced their choice of a career. Students’ personal concern for the environment was 

an additional factor that influenced their choice of a career. The perceptions and 

attitudes reported by MANRRS students who chose a career in agriculture and 

natural resources focused around several themes, which included career opportunities, positive educational experiences, and internship/job experiences with agencies and organizations. It is hoped that the experiences presented here by current 

agriculture and natural resources students will aid governmental agencies, private 

corporations, and nonprofit organizations in increasing the number of ethnic minority professionals in the field of agriculture and natural resources.

Keywords: Minority students, natural resources, career development, agriculture education.

Introduction

One of the biggest challenges facing agriculture and natural resource professionals 

and educators lies in recruiting and retaining traditionally underserved populations. 

Although minorities are well represented in many fields, minority professionals in 

agriculture and natural resource careers are still limited and research is needed to 

investigate why there is a lack of interest among minorities.

The national U.S. demographics have shifted and continue to shift toward a 

more and more diverse population. According to a 2007 census brief, roughly 34 

percent of the U.S. population identified themselves as non-White—14.5 percent of 

1

Assistant professor, Texas A&M University, Department of Recreation Parks and Tourism 

Sciences, MS 2261, College Station, TX 77843-2261; e-mail: coutley@ag.tamu.edu. This 

work was performed through cooperative agreement PSW-99-025-RJVA.

One of the biggest 

challenges facing 

agriculture and natural 

resource professionals 

and educators lies 

in recruiting and 

retaining traditionally 

underserved 

populations.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Latino origin, 12.8 percent African American, 4.3 percent Asian American, about 

1 percent Native American, and approximately 1.5 percent indicated two or more 

races. In addition, minorities are more likely than Whites to live in urban areas 

(U.S. Census Bureau 2007) and 303 of the Nations’ 3,143 counties no longer have 

majority White populations (U.S. Census Bureau 2007). 

Despite increased attention to and discourse on the role changing demographics will have on the field of agriculture and natural resources, there have been few 

changes in the way minorities are recruited to pursue higher education in these 

professional areas. For example, a recent study of diversity in environmental institutions (Taylor 2005) found that one-fourth of 29 government agencies surveyed and 

more than one-third of 129 mainstream environmental organizations surveyed had 

not hired any minorities in the past 3 years. The same study also discovered that 

22 percent of government agencies and 33 percent of mainstream environmental 

organizations have no minorities on staff. 

These statistics are particularly alarming given the large number of retirements 

at the federal level. For example, at the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service (Forest Service), over 50 percent of the leadership in key areas will become 

eligible to retire by the end of 2007 (Renewable Natural Resources Foundation 

2003–2004). In some key career paths, the projections for turnover are significant—

where entomologists (81 percent), foresters (49 percent), engineers (40 percent), and 

wildlife biologists (35 percent) are all expected to retire in significant numbers. 

In the educational arena, many of the subdisciplines have faced declining 

enrollment of minority students in agriculture and natural resources (Renewable 

Natural Resources Foundation 2003–2004) and even graduates of these programs 

are not choosing governmental employment. During the period 1993-2000, only 9.4 

percent of the 182,519 degrees awarded in agriculture and natural resources were 

awarded to racial/ethnic minorities (Food and Agricultural Education Information 

System 2000). 

With the aforementioned dynamics in mind, what are the specific factors that can 

be used to attract minority students to the agriculture and natural resources field? What 

are the factors that influenced students to choose agriculture and natural resources 

as their career? What are students’ perceptions of the field? What are the barriers to 

pursuing degrees in agriculture and natural resources? Determining the specific strategies most effective in recruiting underrepresented students requires an understanding 

of not only how students chose a career in agriculture and natural resources, but also 

students’ perception of their respective field. In this paper, I examine the factors that 

influenced their choice of agriculture and natural resources as a college major and 

perceptions of agriculture and natural resources careers. 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

The research on career choices made by students entering college has been 

extensive. In the area of agriculture and natural resources, several studies have 

identified numerous factors influencing this decisionmaking process including 

values, financial incentives, exposure to agriculture, and family (Wildman and 

Torres 2001); and visiting with former graduates, campus visits, printed university 

publications, visits with professors, career opportunities, and academic reputation 

(Washburn et al. 2002). An early study by Wakefield and Talbert (2003) of past 

Negro Farmers of America members found that the teacher was a strong influence 

in their participation with the Future Farmers of America after the merger of the 

two organizations in 1965. Talbert (1997) and Talbert and Larke (1995) identified 

additional factors influencing student interest in agriculture. Previous research 

indicates early introduction of minorities to agriculture and natural resources 

through high school counselors (Leatherberry and Wellman 1988, Wellman 1987) 

and youth programs will increase minority participation. However, Jones and Larke 

(2001) and Mitchell (1993) suggested that minority students often decide to select 

an agriculture career later in their lives, and often transfer into the discipline after 

their freshman year. 

Perceptions and attitudes of minorities toward agriculture and natural resources 

careers have been researched. Findings from a 1995 study by Warlow et. al. concluded that the lack of minority professionals in agriculture who can serve as role 

models was seen as a significant barrier to encouraging minority youth to pursue 

agricultural careers. Leatherberry and Wellman (1988) reported African American 

students knew little about the skills needed by a wide range of natural resource 

professionals, the jobs available, and the wages earned in those careers. 

Methods

Data were collected at the 2000 Minorities in Agriculture, Natural Resources and 

Related Sciences (MANRRS) national career fair and conference. The mission of 

MANRRS is to promote academic and professional advancement by empowering 

minorities in agriculture, natural resources, and related sciences. The MANRRS 

program began as a vision shared by a group of agriculture students and faculty 

members at Michigan State University and Pennsylvania State University in 1986. 

Their goal was to develop a partnership between minority agriculture and natural 

resources students and professionals from academic institutions, government, and 

industry. Their commitment led to the first national MANRRS conference, held 

at Michigan State University in 1986. Currently, the organization just held its 23rd

annual conference and had over 900 students and professionals attending from 

more than 50 collegiate and high school chapters (representing 1862 and 1890 land 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

grant institutions and tribal colleges), governmental agencies (e.g., Forest Service 

and National Park Service), private corporations (e.g., Archer Daniels Midland 

Company) and nonprofit organizations (e.g., Environmental Careers Organization). 

Given that the total MANRRS student membership was the population under study, 

a convenience sample was preferred. In all, 227 completed surveys were obtained. 

Instrument

A survey was developed for this study following an indepth literature review. The 

following measures were used for the study:

• Factors of Influence—A 3-point Likert scale (1 = strong influence to 3 = no 

influence) to determine the major interpersonal influences on students when 

deciding a college major. For example, items included mother, other relative, high school teacher, college advisor, and person employed in the profession. Additional items included intrapersonal and structural influences. These 

included personal concern for the environment, availability of scholarships, 

and ability in science skills. 

• Perceptions of Agriculture and Natural Resources—Students indicated the 

degree to which they agreed or disagreed with issue statements using a 1 to 5 

scale where 1 = strongly agreed and 5 = strongly disagree. These statements 

included: (1) Most agriculture and natural-resources-related careers are in 

low-paying jobs, (2) Most agriculture and natural-resources-related careers 

involve working outdoors, and (3) Most members of minority groups have a 

negative image of agriculture and natural-resource-related careers. 

• Recommendations to Promote Diversity—This measure included a 5-point 

Likert scale and had nine items included. Examples include active recruiting 

of minority students for positions, forming minority support groups for minority employees, and establishing mentoring programs in the workplace. 

• Open-Ended Questions—These were provided for students to express personal feelings and experiences regarding recruitment, retention, and barriers of 

increased participation by minorities in agriculture and natural resources. 

Face validity and reliability for this section of the survey were established 

during a pilot test of nine University of Minnesota MANRRS student chapter 

members not included in the final survey population. Reliabilities on the pilot 

data were 0.79 (field perceptions) and 0.92 (barriers). The final data set yielded 

reliabilities of 0.72 and 0.89, respectively.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Results

The following tabulation presents demographic characteristics of the study participants (n = 227). The majority of the respondents were female (55.1 percent) and 

African American (81.8 percent). Students in the sample were more likely to live 

in a city or town during their childhood (41.3 percent) and had a total household 

income between $50,000 and $75,000 (30.4 percent). Sixty percent of the students 

held a sophomore or junior class standing and 60 percent had a 3.0 grade point 

average or higher. Almost half of students were agriculture majors (48.8 percent), 

followed by those majoring in forestry and natural resources (21.6 percent).

Percent

Gender

Male 44.9

Female 55.1

Race/ethnicity:

African American 81.8

Hispanic/Latino 9.3

Native American 3.1

Asian American 0.9

White/European 0.4

Other 4.4 

Location of childhood home:

On a farm/ranch 11.1

Rural area 14.2

Suburb 18.7

City/town 41.3

Major metro area 14.7

Household income:

Less than $25,000 24.9

$25,000–$50,000 23.2

$50,000–$75,000 30.4

Over $75,000 21.5

Percent

Current class standing:

1

st year (freshman) 11.5

2

nd year (sophomore) 30.4

3

rd year (junior) 31.7

4

th year (senior) 15.4

Graduate 6.2

Other 4.8

Academic major:

Agriculture, general 48.8

Forestry/nat res 21.6

Animal science 12.8

Wildlife and fisheries 5.3

Food science/tech 4.4

Plant sciences 2.1

Other 4.8

Grade point average:

4.0 0.5

3.5–4.0 22.1

3.0–3.5 37.4

2.5–3.0 30.6

2.0–2.5 8.6

Below 2.0 0.5
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Factors Influencing College Major Decision

Respondents indicated that their mother (M = 2.0; SD = 0.8) had the strongest 

influence on their decision of agriculture or natural resources as a college major 

(table 12-1). Other persons that had some influence on their decision in choosing 

a college major included persons employed in the profession (M = 2.1; SD = 0.9), 

college of agriculture/natural resources recruiter (M = 2.2; SD = 0.8), college advisor 

(M = 2.3; SD = 0.9), and their high school teacher (M = 2.2; SD = 0.9). Those persons 

with some or no influence included minister (M = 2.8; SD = 0.4), college admissions 

personnel (M = 2.5; SD = 0.6), high school administrator (M = 2.5; SD = 0.7), and 

father (M = 2.4; SD = 0.7).

Respondents’ “personal concern for the environment” (M = 1.7; SD = 0.6) had 

a strong influence on their choice of agriculture and natural resources as a career 

(table 12-2). Other strong influences included availability of scholarships in chosen 

major (M = 1.8; SD = 0.8), and availability of jobs after graduating from high school 

(M = 1.8; SD = 0.8). Availability of minority student clubs (M = 2.4; SD = 0.7) and 

ease of courses/programs of study (M = 2.4; SD = 0.8) were viewed as factors with 

some or no influence on their interest in agriculture and natural resources careers.

Respondents were also given the opportunity to indicate the extent to which 

different resources used by colleges influenced their decision on a major (table 

12-3). This was based on a 1 = not at all to 5 = very much scale. A college visit (M = 

3.5; SD = 1.5) and a conversation with current students in the major (M = 3.3; SD = 

1.7) had the most influence on their decision. Respondents indicated brochures (M = 

2.5; SD = 1.7) had very little influence on their decision on a major.

Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Agriculture and Natural 

Resources Careers

Respondents were asked their perceptions of agriculture and natural resources 

careers using 25 statements (table 12-4). The top five statements that the majority of 

students agreed upon included: “People with college majors in the sciences such as 

chemistry, genetics and biology can find agriculture and natural resources-related 

careers” (M = 2.1; SD = 0.8), “Graduates with degrees in agriculture and natural 

resource-related majors are able to pursue science oriented careers” (M = 2.2; SD 

= 1.1), and “Professional degrees in agriculture and natural resources are required 

for professional advancement” (M = 2.4; SD = 1.0), “Minority groups lack information about agriculture and natural resource careers” (M = 2.5; SD = 1.2), and “The 

media generally portrays agriculture and natural resources in a positive light” (M = 

2.7; SD = 1.0).

Respondents indicated 

that their mothers 

had the strongest 

influence on their 

decision of agriculture 

or natural resources 

as a college major. 

Other persons that had 

some influence on their 

decision in choosing a 

college major included 

persons employed in 

the profession 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 12-1—Influential persons on students’ choice of college major

Statement Meana Standard deviation Rank

Mother/female guardian 1.96 0.80 1

Person employed in career 2.09 .88 2

College recruiter 2.19 .83 3

College advisor 2.26 .85 4

High school teacher 2.29 .85 5

Brother/sister 2.32 .80 6

Friends 2.34 .67 7

College professor 2.35 .80 8

High school counselor 2.39 .77 9

Relative 2.42 .72 10

Father/male guardian 2.43 .67 11

High school administrator 2.53 .72 12

College admissions 2.54 .61 13

Minister 2.84 .41 14 a Scale: 1 = strong influence, 2 = some influence, and 3 = no influence.

Table 12-2—Influential factors/issues on students’ choice of college major

Statement Meana Standard deviation Rank

Personal concern for the environment 1.74 0.63 1

Availability of jobs after graduation 1.77 .79 2

Availability of scholarships in major 1.79 .83 3

Outdoor recreation activities 1.81 .83 4

Prestige of career I can enter with major 2.02 .80 5

Money I can earn after graduation 2.02 .76 6

Ability to use special talents 2.05 .73 7

Ability to use science skills 2.06 .79 8

Organized youth programs 2.16 .82 9

Rural family life 2.17 .78 10

Participant in natural resource programs (e.g., 4H) 2.20 .75 11

Past work experience 2.21 .86 12

Volunteering in enviro. organizations 2.26 .81 13

Ease of courses/program of study 2.38 .83 14

Availability of minority student clubs 2.41 .66 15 a Scale: 1 = strong influence, 2 = some influence, and 3 = no influence.

Table 12-3—Influential resources on students’ choice of college major

Resource Meana Standard deviation Rank

Brochure 2.59 1.70 1

Visits with minority faculty/staff 2.87 1.70 2

Visits with non-minority faculty/staff 3.19 1.78 3

Other 3.33 2.08 4

Career fairs 3.34 1.66 5

Participation in minority organizations 3.36 1.70 6

Conversations with students in the major 3.38 1.69 7

Visit to the college 3.57 1.54 8

a Scale: 1 = not at all, 3 = very little/some, and 5 = much/very much.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Table 12-4—Perceptions of agriculture and natural resource careers based on agreement with statements

Statements Meana SDb Rank

People with college majors in the sciences such as chemistry, genetics and biology 2.1 0.83 1

can find agriculture and natural resources-related careers

Graduates with degrees in agriculture and natural resource-related majors are 2.2 1.08 2

able to pursue science oriented careers

Professional degrees in agriculture and natural resources are required for 2.4 .96 3

professional advancement

Minority groups lack information about agriculture and natural resource careers 2.5 1.21 4

The media generally portrays agriculture and natural resources in a positive light 2.7 .99 5

Most agricultural and natural resources-related careers involve working outdoors 2.7 1.17 6

Most agriculture and natural resource-related careers require graduate training in 2.8 .89 7

fields such as genetics, microbiology, and chemistry

In general, agriculture and natural resource-related careers have a positive image 2.8 .71 8

in most minority communities

Most members of minority groups have a negative image of agriculture and natural 2.8 .80 9

resources-related careers

Graduates with college degrees in agriculture and natural resources-related majors 2.9 .90 10

are sought after by many multinational corporations

College graduates who major in agriculture and agriculture-related majors earn 3.0 .96 11

salaries as high as those earned by graduates in most other majors

Graduates with college degrees in agriculture and natural resources-related majors 3.1 .81 12

often pursue business careers

The number of job opportunities in agriculture and natural resources-related 3.1 1.02 13

careers are declining

Most people choose careers in agriculture and natural resources because they can 3.1 .86 14

be their own bosses (by owning their own farm, ranch, etc.)

Agriculture and natural resources occupations are generally viewed with the same 3.1 1.07 15

level of prestige by the general public, as are other occupations

Most careers in agriculture and natural resources are very dependent upon 3.3 1.21 16

weather conditions such as drought and floods

Most agriculture and natural resource-related careers involve or require 3.3 1.40 17

manual labor

Most agriculture and natural resources-related careers are not attractive to 3.4 1.06 18

members of minority groups

People with agriculture and natural resources-related careers often work in 3.4 .90 19

urban areas

Natural resource professionals are ethnically representative of the U.S. population 3.4 1.17 20

Most graduates of agriculture and natural resources-related programs lack skills 3.6 .89 21

for careers outside of agriculture

Most agriculture and natural resource career graduates are in low paying jobs 3.6 .74 22

Agriculture and natural resources related careers are not attractive to females 3.8 .95 23

There is little opportunity for advancement for people employed in agriculture 4.2 .92 24

and natural resource-related careers

Most agriculture and natural resources-related careers do not require education 4.4 .79 25

beyond high school

a Scale: 1 = strongly agree; 2 = agree; 3 = neutral; 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree.

b Standard deviation.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

The five statements that the respondents most disagreed with include: “Most 

agriculture and natural resources-related careers do not require education beyond 

high school” (M = 4.4; SD = 0.8), “There is little opportunity for advancement for 

people employed in agriculture and natural resource-related careers” (M = 4.2; 

SD = 0.9), “Agriculture and natural resources related careers are not attractive 

to females” (M = 3.8; SD = 1.0), “Most agriculture and natural resources careers 

graduates are in low paying jobs” (M = 3.6; SD = 0.7), and “Most graduates of 

agriculture and natural resources-related programs lack skills for careers outside 

of agriculture” (M = 3.6; SD = 0.9).

Barriers to Attracting Minorities to the Field

Respondents were given the opportunity to discuss what they felt is the greatest 

barrier to attracting racial/ethnic minorities to pursuing a degree in the field. 

The following themes were identified by the respondents’ comments: lack of 

information, internal agency/organization diversity, perceptions of careers, and 

historical cultural perceptions. Each of these will be discussed below.

Respondents felt that a major barrier to choosing agriculture and natural 

resources as a career is the lack of information being provided to students and the 

greater public. Several strategies were suggested by the students to overcome this 

barrier. One student stated that “getting the information to minorities seems to be 

the problem.” This perception is supported by other students’ comments:

Just introducing them to work in the field.

Lack of information that is circulated through minority communities to 

help the people understand the many different things they can do within 

the majors.

Negative perceptions of careers in agriculture and natural resources are also 

a major barrier to recruitment and retention of minorities. Of the comments provided, several revolved around negative perceptions of pay, remote job locations 

and availability, perceived career status, and African American cultural history. 

For example, 

Black Americans historical experience (slavery and sharecropping) and the 

misperception [misconception] that there is no money to be made and lack 

of prestige.

Minorities feel that the field has a lot of low paying, boring jobs in which 

they will be overworked.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Students also provided examples of personal barriers/obstacles that were 

faced as a minority student in the field of agriculture and natural resources. These 

barriers included interpersonal factors from individuals of influence such as 

family and friends; discrimination and racism in educational institutions, professional settings, and surrounding communities; and organizational acculturation. 

Many students commented on perceived discrimination and cultural insensitivity 

in professional settings. 

I have been in a racist environment where I was talked about behind my 

back by my supervisors and other fellow employees.

That I am always looking over my shoulder and don’t feel as an equal. 

A little people believe we [minorities] get the job based on our race and 

not our ability. 

People not really giving me a chance because of my color.

Lack of inclusion with nonminority departmental students. (within the 

higher educational institution.) 

In addition, some students felt a sense of “isolation” or “being exiled” when 

participating in student internships or other work experiences.

Lack of support from family and friends was experienced by several students. 

The students commented that lack of information about the field and its opportunities led to “parents and friends not being supportive” and “A lot of people tell me 

that I won’t make any money and I’ll be forced to work in the field cutting down 

trees for the rest of my life.”

Strategies to Promote Agriculture and Natural Resource Careers 

Among Minority Students

Respondents were asked their perceptions of strategies to promote diversity in 

agriculture and natural resources careers. Table 12-5 shows summary statistics and 

rankings for the perceived strategies to promote diversity. The top three statements 

agreed upon by the respondents included: “Agency/corporation scholarships for 

minority students in college” (M = 1.41; SD= 0.6), “Agency/corporation development and support of minority student internships” (M = 1.55; SD = 0.8), and “Providing outdoor experiences for minority youth” (M = 1.6; SD = 0.7).

Respondents were also provided with open-ended questions to provide recommendations to agencies to overcome recruitment and retention barriers. Several 

respondents felt that agencies and corporations could improve recruitment by 

starting at an earlier stage in the educational career of students.

Several respondents 

felt that agencies and 

corporations could 

improve recruitment 

by starting at an 

earlier stage in the 

educational career 

of students.
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You can improve the numbers by getting to them [students] in high school 

before they enter college by implementing or supporting programs for 

younger students to get introduced to the field.

Additional respondents felt that there should be increased partnership between 

agriculture and natural resource agencies and higher education institutions. 

Form long-term partnerships with HBCUs [Historically Black Colleges 

and Universities]—conduct on campus seminars with minority employee 

representatives and invest in HBCUs. Example is John Deere’s support of 

Iowa State ag [riculture] program.

Give more resources to HBCUs and recruit at these schools.

Internal strategies were suggested by respondents that could be used to increase 

cultural competency within the agency/organization. These included, “trying to 

make minorities feel comfortable,” “establish support systems in the workplace or a 

mentoring program,” “by advancing the pay in agriculture and natural resources,” 

“providing extra incentives to work in particular fields,” “recruit students earlier 

and provide support at the new job,” and “educate the employees about diversity.” 

Several external strategies were suggested to educate the community on the field 

and the opportunities available. These strategies include:

They should find some way to let the public know of all the advancements 

in the field.

Table 12-5—Strategies to promote diversity in agricultural and natural resources careers

Statement Meana SDb Rank

Agency/corporation scholarships for minority students in college 1.41 0.62 1

Agency/corporation development and support of minority student internships 1.55 0.75 2

Providing outdoor experiences for minority youth 1.6 0.65 3

Active recruiting of minorities for available positions 1.71 0.85 4

Agency/corporation sponsored continuing education programs for employees 1.72 0.76 5

Establish partnerships with minority professional organizations 1.73 0.89 6

Agency/corporation sponsored cultural diversity programs that demonstrate the 

value of an ethnically diverse workforce

1.90 0.79 7

Establishing minority mentoring programs in the workplace 1.99 0.99 8

Forming minority support groups for minority employees 2.21 1.02 9

a Scale: 1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree.

b Standard deviation.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Promote ag [riculture] in a positive light.

Educate the black community.

One respondent disagreed with any type of strategies that could be deemed 

as targeting only minority groups. This respondent stated, “I don’t think special 

catering should be done just because one is a minority, but on the basis of ability.”

Conclusion

Despite the positive perceptions of agriculture and natural resources among 

MANRRS students, professional organizations and agencies need to continue to 

address the inclusion of minorities in the field. This paper has described some of 

the major influences on minority students’ choices for professional careers. The 

role of the female parent/guardian and the high emphasis on visits with employees 

already in the field had a strong influence for many MANRRS students in choosing 

their professional career. These findings were inconsistent with previous studies, 

which suggested high school counselors as a major influential source. The attitudes 

and perceptions of agriculture and natural resource careers were also presented. 

The respondents for this study had positive perceptions of the field and consistently 

ranked agriculture and natural resources careers as prestigious as other careers. 

This result is similar to what Talbert et al. (1999) suggested, that professional organizations like MANRRS provided an excellent foundation not only for increasing 

students’ perceptions of the field positively but also provided numerous opportunities for college students to gain entry into top graduate schools around the country 

or agriculture-related careers in government, private industry, or higher education. 

Despite the barriers cited in the literature, many of the MANRRS students held 

highly satisfactory career perceptions that may be due to their participation in 

MANRRS and/or their commitment to their chosen major. Given this, several strategies are worth considering in providing entry not only into the field on a collegiate 

level but also professional:

• Increase of minority professionals in the field that can serve as mentor for prospective professionals at the collegiate level and incoming field professionals.

• Initiate minority community-based programs that connect institutions of 

higher education and agencies/organizations with prospective minority college 

students. Special emphasis should be placed on the family as an influential 

context. This will assist minority community members in gaining a greater 

understanding and appreciation for agriculture and natural-resources-related 

careers. This technique is currently being used among U.S. governmental 

agencies and private organizations. For example, the Forest Service “More 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Kids in the Woods” national program has several grant recipients that are providing programming in minority, low-income communities to introduce the 

outdoors to minority children and youth.

• Introduce agriculture and natural resources careers at all stages of career 

development (Jones and Larke 2005) to encourage entry into the field. Many 

organizations are nationally developing environmental youth programs to 

introduce young people to the outdoors (e.g., urban 4H, Outward Bound, and 

Environmental Careers Organization) and have had great success. However, 

despite their success in introducing young people to the outdoors and developing personal concern for the environment, few young people are choosing 

agriculture and natural resources as a career. Additional curriculum reviewing 

career options along with environmental stewardship could address this issue.

• Establish mentoring programs on the collegiate and professional level for 

minorities in agriculture and natural resources.

• Continue with existing and establish new partnerships with minority-serving 

institutions. 

Future research should replicate this study with other national minority student 

organizations (e.g., National Hispanic Environmental Council and National Tribal 

Environmental Council) to examine whether the findings are valid, which would 

increase the generalizability. In addition, future studies should continue to investigate career choice influences to examine other factors that influence minority 

agriculture and natural resource students’ perceptions of the field and their entry 

and retention into the professional realm. The author hopes that this information 

can provide government, private industry, or higher education institutions with a 

glimpse not only of the experiences that led minority students to choosing agriculture and natural resources careers but also how they feel about the field to ensure 

the future of agriculture and natural resources.

Literature Cited

Food and Agricultural Education Information System. [FAEIS 2000] 2000. 

http://www.reeis.usda.gov/portal/page?_pageid=53,545195&_dad=portal&_

schema=PORTAL&smi_id=35. (June 21, 2007).

Jones, W.A.; Larke, A. 2001. Factors influencing career choice of AfricanAmerican and Hispanic graduates of a land-grant college of agriculture. 

Journal of Agricultural Education. 42(1): 38–48.
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Jones, W.A.; Larke, A. 2005. Enhancing the quality of life for Hispanic 

individuals through career preparation. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education. 

4(1) 5–18.

Leatherberry, E.; Wellman, E. 1988. Black high school students’ images of 

forestry as a profession. Journal of Negro Education. 57(2): 208–219.

Mitchell, G.D. 1993. Factors related to minority student enrollment and retention 

in the College of Agriculture and School of Natural Resources at Ohio State 

University. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University. 186 p. Ph.D. dissertation. 

Renewable Natural Resources Foundation. 2003–2004. Federal natural resources 

agencies confront an aging workforce and challenges to their future roles. In: 

Colker, R.M.; Day, R.D., eds. Renewable Resources Journal. 21(4): 1–29.

Talbert, B.A. 1997. Comparison of attitudes toward agriculture of urban high 

school students by agricultural education enrollment status, minority status, and 

gender. In: Proceedings of the 24th National Agricultural Education Research 

Meeting, Las Vegas, NV: 24: 104–113.

Talbert, B.A.; Larke, A. 1995. Factors influencing minority and non-minority 

students to enroll in an introductory agriscience course in Texas. Journal of 

Agricultural Education. 36: 38-45.

Talbert, B.A.; Larke, A., Jr.; Jones, W.A. 1999. Using a student organization 

to increase participation and success of minorities in agricultural disciplines. 

Peabody Journal of Education. 74(2): 90–104.

Taylor, D. 2005. Diversity in the environmental institutions: summary results of 

the MELDI studies. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, School of Natural 

Resources and Environment. 23 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce [U.S. Census Bureau]. May 17, 2007. Minority 

population tops 100 million. http://www.census.gov/PressRelease/www/releases/

archives/population/010048.html. (June 24, 2007).

U.S. Department of Commerce [U.S. Census Bureau]. August 9, 2007. More 

than 300 counties now “majority-minority”. http://www.census.gov/Pressrelease/www/releases/archives/population/010482.html. (December 11, 2007).

Wakefield, D.B.; Talbert, B.A. 2003. Historical narrative on the impact of 

the New Farmers of America (NFA) on selected past members. Journal of 

Agricultural Education. 44(1): 95–104.
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Warlow, G.W.; Graham, D.L.; Scott, F.L. 1995. Barriers to professional careers 

as perceived by minority professionals in agriculture. In: Proceedings of the 

22nd annual national agricultural education research meeting. Denver, CO: 

22: 497–506.

Washburn, S.G.; Garton, B.L.; Vaughn, P.R. 2002. Factors influencing college 

choice of agriculture students college-wide compared with students majoring in 

agricultural education. In: Proceedings of the 24th national agricultural education 

research conference. Las Vegas, NV: 24: 327–333.

Wellman, J.D. 1987. Images of a profession: forestry is something of a mystery to 

college-bound students. Journal of Forestry. 85: 18–19.

Wildman, W.; Torres, R.M. 2001. Factors identified when selecting a major in 

agriculture. Journal of Agricultural Education. 42(2): 46–55.
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Section V:

Environmental Belief Studies
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Chapter 13: 

Connecting Latinos With Nature

Deborah Chavez 1

Abstract

Experts around the world have identified ecosystem services that benefit humans. 

Ecosystem services provided by natural areas include cultural (such as providing 

outdoor recreation locations) and regulating (such as protecting water quality) 

services. It is important to understand both public perceptions about the importance 

of particular ecosystem services and the availability of natural areas to provide 

these ecosystem services. This study of Latino recreationists to Forest Service day 

use sites in two canyons in southern California examined these perceptions. These 

Latino respondents strongly agreed with the importance of managing natural areas 

for several of the cultural services items and almost all of the regulating services 

items. In order of importance, they felt it was most important to manage natural 

areas for regulating services such as protection of water quality, protection of 

wildlife, improved air quality, and protection of plants, as well as cultural services 

such as swimming, visitor safety, camping, day hiking, picnicking at developed 

sites, scenic values, stream play, and watching wildlife. The Latino respondents 

also felt that more areas needed to be set aside for particular regulating and cultural 

services. In order of most needed, these included protection of water quality, protection of wildlife, improved air quality, and protection of plants, as well as visitor 

safety, watching wildlife, swimming, camping, picnicking in developed sites, 

scenic values, stream play, and educational purposes.

Keywords: Outdoor recreation, Latino, ecosystem services.

Introduction

Ecosystem services is a term used to describe the benefits to people from natural 

areas (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). Services to humans can range 

from food production to water purification to aesthetics. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) was initiated in 2001 to assess the consequences of 

ecosystem change for human well-being and the scientific basis for actions needed 

to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of those systems. The assessment 

involved more than 1,300 experts worldwide. Key messages from the assessment 

(2005) included the following:

1 Supervisory social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station, Riverside, CA; e-mail: dchavez@fs.fed.us.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

• Everyone in the world depends on nature and ecosystem services to provide 

the conditions for a decent, healthy, and secure life.

• Humans have made unprecedented changes to ecosystems in recent decades to 

meet growing demands for food, fresh water, fiber, and energy. But at the same 

time, they weakened nature’s ability to deliver other key services such as preservation of air and water, protection from disasters, and the provision of medicines. 

• Pressures on ecosystems will increase globally in coming decades unless 

human attitudes and actions change. Measures to conserve natural resources are 

more likely to succeed if local communities are given ownership of them, share 

the benefits, and are involved in decisions. 

Ecosystem services can be categorized as cultural services (such as providing 

outdoor recreation locations), regulating services (such as protecting water quality), 

provisioning services (such as timber for houses and paper), and supporting services (such as nutrient cycling) (see fig. 13-1). These services are important because 

they are linked to human well-being (MEA 2005). In particular, the items in the 

top of the figure are linked to security (personal safety, secure resource access, 

security from disasters), basic material for a good life (adequate livelihoods, sufficient nutritious food, shelter, access to goods), health (strength, feeling well, access 

to clean air and water), and good social relations (social cohesion, mutual respect, 

ability to help others). These all contribute to freedom of choice and action. 

It is unclear how familiar urban residents are with the ecosystem services provided by natural areas. Research conducted in southern California addressed beliefs 

about natural areas and how those areas should be managed. The original study 

included all visitors to the research sites although this chapter includes only the 

Latino visitors. Objectives of the study were to understand human connections to 

public lands (e.g., do they spend a lot of time or little time in natural settings, such 

as woods, mountains, desert, lakes, ocean), their perceptions about how natural 

areas ought to be managed (e.g., for long-term study of the relationships between 

weather, fire patterns, plants, animals, and soils or open to outdoor recreation 

opportunities), and their perceptions about whether there are currently enough natural areas set aside for particular purposes (such as for camping or for the protection 

of wildlife). Latino respondents were chosen because they are the largest and fastest 

growing population in California as well as in other states. There are approximately 

12 million Latinos in California (about a third of the population); by 2025 this is 

expected to grow to 21 million people (about 40 percent of the population) (Smith 

2004). Knowing their opinions and beliefs is essential to serving and providing 

information to Latinos about ecosystem services.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Methods

A self-administered survey was provided to recreation visitors at day use sites 

on the San Antonio and San Gabriel Canyons on the Angeles National Forest in 

southern California in summer 2005. Both canyons are within an hour’s drive of 

more than 10 million people. Survey instruments were available in English and 

Spanish. Respondents (n = 509) filled out the surveys onsite and returned them to 

data collection team members. Response rate was 56 percent. Data were entered, 

coded, and analyzed using SPSS. From these data, we separated Latinos (n = 301) 

from other respondents in order to assess the opinions of Latinos. 

Particular items in the instrument measured two components of ecosystem 

services. Most items measured the “cultural” component given their focus on recreational opportunities (such as camping) (see table 13-1 for list of items). Five items 

measured “regulating” services (such as improved air quality). This list of items 

was used in two sets of questions. The first set of questions asked how important 

it is to manage natural areas for each item (5-point Likert-type scale; a score of 1 

meant that respondents strongly disagreed with importance whereas 5 meant they 

strongly agreed with importance), and the other asked if there are enough natural 

areas available within this urban landscape for each purpose (3-point Likert-type 

scale; a score of -1 meant fewer areas were needed and a score of 1 meant more 

areas were needed).

Results

Demographic Measures

The majority of Latino respondents were male (62 percent). The Latino respondents 

averaged 33 years of age (n = 286; SD = 9.9). Most of the Latinos spoke Spanish as 

Figure 13-1—Ecosystem services components.

Ecosystem Services

Provisioning Regulating Cultural

Food Climate regulation Aesthetic

Fresh water Flood regulation Spiritual

Wood and fiber Disease regulation Educational

Fuel Water purification Recreational 

Supporting

Nutrient cycling

Soil formation

Primary production
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

their primary language (48 percent). Others spoke English (23 percent) or both English and Spanish (24 percent). Nearly half of the Latinos read Spanish (48 percent). 

Others read English (29 percent) or both English and Spanish (18 percent). 

Group Characteristics, Use Levels, and Activities

Most Latino respondents were recreating with family (74 percent) and/or friends 

(44 percent). Less than 5 percent were recreating alone or were with an organized 

group. Most groups stayed 4 or more hours (34 percent planned to stay 4 to 6 hours, 

and 33 percent planned to stay more than 6 hours) at the day use sites. More than 

two-thirds were repeat visitors to the sites (68 percent), and more than three-quarters planned to return to the day use sites within the next year (82 percent). More 

than one-third visited other natural area sites within the past year (36 percent). The 

most frequently mentioned activities participated in while on the visit included picnicking (56 percent), swimming/wading (36 percent), hiking (27 percent), camping 

(27 percent), spending time in camp (27 percent), photography (19 percent), fishing 

(15 percent), nature study (13 percent), and rock climbing (13 percent). About half 

spent a lot of time in natural settings (46 percent), and half (51 percent) said they 

think of themselves as part of nature, not separate from it. 

Ecosystem Services 

Respondents were told that the Forest Service manages public lands, including 

natural areas that are set aside for various purposes. For each item on a list (some 

were cultural services and others were regulating services) they were asked how 

much they agreed or disagreed that it is important to manage natural areas for that 

particular item. They were also asked to think about each item and indicate if more 

areas are needed for that purpose, if there is the right amount set aside now, or if 

there are too many areas set aside for that purpose. 

Cultural services—

For this survey the MEA (2005) component focused mostly on recreational opportunities (see table 13-1 for full list of items). The items the Latinos considered most 

important (ranked from 1 = strongly disagreed with importance to 5 = strongly 

agreed with importance) to manage natural areas for are these: swimming (4.6), 

visitor safety (4.6), camping (4.5), day hiking (4.5), picnicking at developed sites 

(4.5), scenic value (4.5), stream play (4.5), and watching wildlife (4.5) (see table 13-

1). Similarly, respondents reported more areas need to be set aside for visitor safety 

(0.8), watching wildlife (0.8), swimming (0.7), camping (0.7), picnicking at developed sites (0.7), scenic value (0.7), stream play (0.7), but also educational purposes 

(0.7) (ranked on scale of -1 = fewer areas needed and 1 = more areas needed). 
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Table 13-1—Average scores on ecosystem services component measures 

of cultural services and regulating services by the importance of managing 

areas and the availability of natural areas

Importance for

Service managing areaa Natural areas availableb

Mean Number Mean Number

Cultural:

Camping 4.5 272 0.7 267

Day hiking 4.5 269 .6 239

Educational purposes 4.4 267 .7 245

Fishing 4.1 251 .5 244

Horseback riding 4.0 255 .4 232

Mountain bike riding 4.0 261 .5 240

Picnicking at developed sites 4.5 278 .7 263

Scenic value 4.5 264 .7 256

Sightseeing 4.3 262 .6 239

Snow play 4.4 266 .6 248

Stream play 4.5 275 .7 262

Swimming 4.6 275 .7 268

Visitor safety 4.6 283 .8 265

Watching wildlife 4.5 275 .8 269

Off-highway vehicle riding 3.6 246 .3 238

Regulating:

Improved air quality 4.5 268 .8 245

Long-term biological studies 4.2 250 .6 233

Protection of plants 4.5 285 .8 268

Protection of water quality 4.6 283 .8 271

Protection of wildlife 4.6 277 .8 269

a Rated on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 = strongly disagree with importance and 

5 = strongly agree with importance.

b Rated on a scale of -1, where -1 = less areas needed and 1 = more areas needed.

Regulating services—

For this survey the MEA (2005) component focused mostly on natural resource protection (see table 13-1 for full list of items). The items considered most important to 

manage natural areas for are protection of water quality (4.6), protection of wildlife 

(4.6), improved air quality (4.5), and protection of plants (4.5). Similarly, respondents reported the need for more areas set aside for protection of water quality (0.8), 

protection of wildlife (0.8), improved air quality (0.8), and protection of plants (0.8). 

Conclusions

Experts around the world have identified ecosystem services that benefit humans 

(MEA 2005). These ecosystem services are provided by natural areas, such as those 

managed by the Forest Service. It is important to understand both public perceptions about the importance of particular ecosystem services and their perceptions 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

about the availability of natural areas to provide these ecosystem services. This 

study of Latino recreationists to Forest Service day use sites in two canyons in 

southern California examined these perceptions.

The Latino respondents were mostly repeat visitors to these sites who had also 

been to other recreation sites in the last year and had plans to visit these canyons 

again within the next year. A majority of respondents said they spent a lot of time in 

natural settings. 

These Latino respondents strongly agreed with the importance of managing 

natural areas for several of the cultural services items and almost all of the regulating services items. In order of importance, they felt it was most important to 

manage natural areas for regulating services such as protection of water quality, 

protection of wildlife, improved air quality, and protection of plants, as well as 

cultural services such as swimming, visitor safety, camping, day hiking, picnicking 

at developed sites, scenic values, stream play, and watching wildlife.

The Latino respondents also felt that more areas need to be set aside for particular regulating and cultural services. In order of most needed, these included protection of water quality, protection of wildlife, improved air quality, and protection of 

plants, as well as visitor safety, watching wildlife, swimming, camping, picnicking 

in developed sites, scenic values, stream play, and educational purposes.

Although these services were not defined as “cultural” or “regulatory” to the 

Latino respondents, the results suggest that the ecosystem services provided in 

natural areas resonate with them. Therefore, managers of these natural areas in 

southern California might want to consider communication and educational programs focusing on describing the benefits to Latinos from natural areas, especially 

emphasizing regulating and cultural services. It might be an opportunity to increase 

knowledge levels about what natural areas do for people. Awareness can lead to an 

informed public and protected natural areas.

Literature Cited

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MEA]. 2005. Ecosystems and human 

well-being synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press. 155 p.

Smith, P., ed. 2004. Hispanic outdoor recreation preferences. Sacramento, CA: 

California State Parks Planning Division. Bear Facts. June: 1–3.

 In order of importance, 

they felt it was most 

important to manage 

natural areas for 

regulating services 

such as protection 

of water quality, 

protection of wildlife, 

improved air quality, 

and protection of 

plants, as well as 

cultural services such 

as swimming, visitor 

safety, camping, day 

hiking, picnicking at 

developed sites, scenic 

values, stream play, 

and watching wildlife.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

1 Winter is a research social scientist and Chavez is a supervisory social scientist, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Wildland 

Recreation and Urban Cultures Research Unit, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 

92507-6099; e-mail: pwinter@fs.fed.us, dchavez@fs.fed.us.

Chapter 14: Wildland Recreationists’ 

Natural Resource Management 

Purposes and Preferences: A 

Connection to Environmental Identity

Patricia L. Winter1 and Deborah J. Chavez1

Abstract

Wilderness and day use recreationists’ preferences for natural resource management and their perceptions of purposes for management are examined in this paper. 

Environmental identity (EID) salience is used to help shed light on variations in 

recreationists’ preferences for how natural resources should be managed. Findings 

from two studies are reported; the first was from a survey of urban-proximate 

wilderness visitors, the second from visitors to day use areas. Both studies were 

conducted on national forest lands. The two studies incorporated similar items to 

allow comparisons. In both cases, recreationists were asked to evaluate the relative importance of natural resource areas for low-impact recreation opportunities, 

high-impact recreation opportunities, and for environmental protection purposes. 

In addition, they were asked to indicate if more, less, or the same amount of area 

should be set aside for each of these purposes. Strong support for environmental 

protection purposes was found in both studies. Support for additional areas allocated to environmental protection and low-impact recreation was also found, particularly among the day users. Our findings indicate that management of recreation 

opportunities can include considerations of sustainability as important to recreationists. Environmental identity seemed helpful in understanding management 

preferences in that significant relationships between high environmental identity 

and support for natural resource protection were revealed. The EID scale worked 

well among White respondents as well as among groups of color. The environmental identity construct may be of assistance in furthering our understanding of 

land management preferences and provides an additional point of context beyond 

place attachment.

Keywords: Environmental identity salience, management preferences, 

recreationists.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Introduction

Dunlap (1992) documented the environmental movement’s success in gaining public attention and support to address ecological problems. However, the gap between 

this expressed concern and actual social change to solve major environmental 

problems remains (Dunlap 1992). A number of factors influence individual action 

and help explain the gap between environmental attitudes and behaviors (Ajzen 

1988, Gardner and Stern 1996, Nickerson 2003). A strong relationship between 

attitudes and behaviors exists when attitudes are based in knowledge, are clear, and 

are developed through direct experience with the attitude object (Zimbardo and 

Leippe 1991). 

A newly emerging approach to the question of understanding environmental 

responsibility is the inquiry into environmental identity. Clayton (2003) has discussed environmental identity as part of a person’s self concept derived from their 

connection to the natural world. The Environmental Identity (EID) salience scale 

was created to assess the role that the natural environment might play in a person’s 

self-definition (Clayton 2003). Linking environmental behaviors to (EID) salience 

moves beyond an assessment of general attitudes and toward the centrality of an 

individual’s attitudes about the environment in their daily lives. In essence, the 

scale determines how connected to the natural environment an individual perceives 

herself to be. EID might shed light on variations in environmental behaviors and 

choices that impact the natural environment. Environmental identity was significantly correlated with ecocentrism (the perspective that the natural environment is 

of primary concern) as well as environmental behaviors during scale development 

(Clayton 2003).

The Present Study

A study was conducted involving visitors to urban-proximate federally designated 

wilderness areas and day-use areas to examine natural resource management 

perceptions and preferences. The goal was to ascertain the purposes these visitors 

felt were most important for natural resource areas. Additionally, we wanted to 

know whether or not the current amount of area for those purposes was viewed 

as adequate. We aimed to inform decisionmaking in an area not currently open to 

recreation–the San Dimas Experimental Forest. The experimental forest is located 

in a large urban area and may hold many interests for that surrounding population. Knowing what recreationists visiting surrounding forests view as important 

purposes for management, as well as knowing perceived need for areas for various 

purposes, can help inform choices about what San Dimas will be managed for 

beyond its continuing role as an experimental forest.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

A modified version of the EID scale was used in a survey of visitors on national 

forest lands. Two studies are reported, the first conducted with urban-proximate 

wilderness visitors and the second with visitors to dayuse areas. Selected comparable items are reported for the purpose of understanding the relationship between 

EID and recreationists’ management preferences. 

Methods

Procedure for Study 1

Visitors appearing to be age 16 or older intercepted at selected wilderness trailheads on summer weekends and week days were invited to participate in a brief 

survey. The final onsite survey items were an invitation to participate in a mailed 

survey, with a request for a mailing or e-mail address. Respondents were also asked 

to indicate whether they would prefer an English or Spanish version of the mailed 

survey. Each respondent who volunteered to complete the mailed survey received 

one, according to their expressed preference. Mailings followed a modified Dillman 

procedure, with an initial mailing, a postcard reminder 10 days later to nonrespondents, and later a second mailing of the full survey to nonrespondents. Response 

rate for the wilderness onsite survey was 43.0 percent, and of those, 58.2 percent 

agreed to participate in the mailed survey; 28.0 percent of the original respondents 

completed the mailed survey.

Respondents for Study 1

The onsite survey was completed by 368 respondents, most of whom were male 

(66.0 percent) and had graduated from college (54.0 percent). Most were White 

(58.0 percent), although 14 percent of respondents were Hispanic, 9 percent were 

Asian, and 10 percent identified with multiple ethnicities. A subset (n = 103) of the 

onsite wilderness survey respondents completed the mailed survey and was similar 

to the onsite respondents, although a greater percentage was White. 

Procedure for Study 2

Visitors appearing to be age 18 or older encountered at selected day-use locations 

were invited to complete a self-administered survey. Selected locations included 

picnic areas, trailheads, open space areas, an off-highway vehicle staging area, and 

a Forest Service visitor center located in San Gabriel and San Antonio Canyons on 

the Angeles National Forest. The response rate in this survey was 56.0 percent.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Respondents for Study 2

A total of 509 forest day users completed the survey. Most respondents were male 

(62.5 percent), Hispanic (55.0 percent), and had completed at least 1 year of college 

(56.1 percent). 

Surveys

In both studies, the surveys were available in both English and Spanish. The 

Spanish versions were verified through back translation using an alternate translator. Two surveys were used in study 1. The onsite wilderness survey was brief and 

included items asking about recreation visitation, who respondents were recreating with, activities engaged in, and sociodemographics. The mailed wilderness 

survey and the onsite day-use survey asked for what purposes public lands should 

be managed (such as recreational uses or environmental protection, shown in the 

following list).2

It is important to manage natural areas for:

• Environmental protection (6 items)

Improved air quality

Long-term study of the relationships between weather, fire patterns,

plants, animals, and soils

 Protection of plants

Protection of water quality

Protection of wildlife

Scenic value 

• Low-impact recreation (10 items)

Camping

Day hiking

Educational purposes

Sightseeing

Snow play

Stream play

Swimming

Watching wildlife

Picnicking at developed sites (with grills/tables/toilets)

Gathering (of minerals, plants, and other items for recreational purposes)

• High-impact recreation (4 items)

Horseback riding

Mountain bike riding

Off-highway vehicle riding

Fishing

2 Rated on a scale from 1 to 5 where 1 = strongly disagree, 3 = neither, and 5 = strongly agree.
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Table 14-2—Amount of area subscales

Study Subscalea αb Mean n

1 AMTENVSUM 0.87 3.35 99

AMTRECLOSUM .87 3.81 98

AMTRECHISUM .76 -.33 83

2 AMTENVSUM .87 4.25 481

AMTRECLOSUM .88 5.77 486

AMTRECHISUM .77 1.01 474

a AMTENVSUM measures the amount of area desired for environmental 

purposes, AMTRECLOSUM for low-impact recreation purposes, and 

AMTRECHISUM for high-impact recreation purposes.

b Chronbach’s alpha reliability for each subscale.

Twenty purposes for natural resource management were queried. The items 

were combined in three subscales representing environmental purposes (PURENV, 

6 items), low-impact recreation purposes (PURRECLO, 10 items), and highimpact recreation purposes (PURRECHI, 4 items, table 14-1). Respondents were 

also asked their opinions about the amount of areas available for each purpose 

(using the same list provided for management purposes). Respondents could 

indicate that there should be less (-1), the same (0), or more (+1) area. Items were 

combined in three comparable subscales, representing the sum of the items 

(AMTENVSUM-measuring the amount of areas for environmental purposes, 6 

items, AMTRECLOSUM-measuring the amount of area available for low-impact 

recreation uses, 10 items, AMTRECHISUM-measuring the amount of area 

available for high impact recreation uses, 4 items, table 14-2). 

Table 14-1—Land management purposes subscales

Study Subscalea αb Mean n

1 PURENV 0.92 4.67 102

PURRECLO .85 4.45 102

PURRECHI .76 3.89 102

2 PURENV .89 4.52 498

PURRECLO .90 4.38 500

PURRECHI .76 3.71 488

a PURENV measures support for management of natural areas 

for environmental protection purposes, PURRECLO for lowimpact recreation purposes, and PURRECHI for high-impact 

recreation purposes.

b Chronbach’s alpha reliability for each subscale.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Table 14-3—Environmental identity scale

Environmental identity (EID) scale itema

Study 1 

wilderness usersb

Mean (N, SD)

Study 2 

day users 

Mean (N, SD)

I spend a lot of time in natural settings (woods, mountains, desert, 

 lakes, ocean).

5.91 (101, 1.29) 5.01 (494, 1.83)

I think of myself as part of nature, not separate from it. 5.76 (101, 1.45) 5.13 (485, 1.77)

When I am upset or stressed, I can feel better by spending time outdoors 

 “communing with nature.”

6.25 (102, 1.25) 5.81 (494, 1.55)

I have a lot in common with environmentalists as a group. 5.03 (101, 1.68) 4.53 (483, 1.85)

I believe that some of today’s social problems could be cured by returning 

 to a more rural life-style in which people live in harmony with the land.

4.91 (101, 1.96) 5.00 (495, 1.88)

Learning about the natural world should be an important part of every 

 child’s upbringing.

6.54 (102, 0.88) 6.07 (492, 1.33)

I really enjoy camping and hiking outdoors. 6.73 (102, 0.60) 6.11 (485, 1.36)

Sometimes I feel like parts of nature–certain trees, or storms, or 

 mountains—have a spirit of their own.

4.82 (102, 2.09) 4.98 (490, 1.98)

I would feel that an important part of my life was missing if I were not 

 able to get out and enjoy nature from time to time.

6.53 (102, 1.10) 5.91 (490, 1.49)

I have never seen a work of art that is as beautiful as a work of nature, 

 like a sunset or mountain range.

5.69 (102, 1.80) 5.68 (490, 1.65)

 EID average scorec 58 (102, 9.52) 53.25 (499, 12.23)

a Adapted from Clayton (2003). Rated on a 1 to 7 scale, where 1 = not at all true of me, 4 = neither true nor untrue, and 

7 = completely true of me.

b Study 1 respondents rated all EID items higher on average with the exception of two items: “I believe that some of today’s social...” 

and “Sometimes I feel like parts of nature...”

c Is the average sum across all respondents on the EID scale.

In addition to these questions about management, a modified version of the EID 

scale was included (table 14-3) to assess respondents’ connection to nature. This 

modification involved a reduction in the number of items and a minor re wording of 

one item. Modification was necessary to reduce respondent burden and add clarity 

for a diverse recreating public. Responses on management purposes and the EID 

scale were then compared among groups (wilderness vs. day use, Whites vs. nonWhites) and examined for their relationship to each other.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 14-4—Management purposes and amount of areas needed for each purpose by 

Whites and people of color

Study Subscale Mean n tdf p

1 PURENV Whites 4.63 82

Non-Whites 4.79 20 1.07100 0.29

PURRECLO Whites 4.40 82

Non-Whites 4.65 20 1.55100 .12

PURRECHI Whites 3.84 82

Non-Whites 4.07 20 .91100 .37

AMTENVSUM Whites 3.70 80

Non-Whites 4.28 18 .9896 .33

AMTRECLOSUM Whites 2.88 81

Non-Whites 5.50 18 2.7997 < .01

AMTRECHISUM Whites -.46 76

Non-Whites .24 17 1.3691 .18

2 PURENV Whites 4.60 162

Non-Whites 4.46 296 -1.88389 .06

PURRECLO Whites 4.27 162

Non-Whites 4.43 297 2.21457 .03

PURRECHI Whites 3.42 162

Non-Whites 3.85 287 4.15447 < .01

AMTENVSUM Whites 4.32 158

Non-Whites 4.17 285 -.69441 .49

AMTRECLOSUM Whites 4.96 159

Non-Whites 6.20 288 3.49445 < .01

AMTRECHISUM Whites .28 155

Non-Whites 1.35 282 5.65435 < .01

Results

Public Land Management Purposes

The environmental purpose subscale was assigned the highest ratings among the 

three purposes in both studies, indicating agreement that natural resource areas 

should be managed for environmental protection purposes, with low-impact recreation purposes second in priority ratings. 

The ratings on these subscales were also examined to contrast Whites with 

groups of color. Although we recognize that people of color are not homogeneous 

in their perspectives toward land management, we had limited numbers of respondents within the various ethnic/racial categories; therefore, all people of color were 

considered as one group. No significant differences were found in land management 

purposes in study 1 by ethnic/racial group (t-tests, p > 0.05, table 14-4). 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Sufficient numbers of respondents in study 2 facilitated comparisons 

(maximum of 297 people of color and 162 Whites). People of color rated lowimpact recreation purposes higher on average than did Whites (PURRECLO, 

table 14-4). They also assigned higher priority to high-impact recreation purposes 

(PURRECHI, table 14-4). Ratings on environmental purposes (PURENV) were 

not significantly different.

Amount of Area

To compare support for amount of each type of area, we divided the sum of area 

ratings within each subscale by the number of items (to standardize the scores). 

In study 1 we found through this step in the analysis that the greatest support of 

wilderness respondents was for additional areas for environmental purposes (mean 

= 0.63, SD = 0.38, n = 98), followed by low-impact recreation purposes (mean = 

0.33, SD = 0.37, n = 99). The overall trend was for a reduction of areas for highimpact recreation among the wilderness visitors surveyed (mean = -0.08, SD = 0.48, 

n = 93). In study 2, we found some similarities to study 1, in that increase in the 

amount of area for environmental purposes was most supported by day users (mean 

= 0.71, SD = 0.36, n = 481), followed by amount of area for low-impact recreation 

(mean = 0.58, SD = 0.36, n = 486). Although least supported, a marginal addition to 

high-impact recreation areas was the outcome for the day users surveyed in study 2 

(mean = 0.25, SD = 0.49, n = 474). 

Similar to our examination of land management purposes, we examined ratings 

on each of these subscales for amount of area contrasting Whites and groups of 

color by using t-tests. For study 1, we found that people of color were more likely 

than Whites to agree that more areas were needed for low-impact recreation 

(AMTRECLOSUM). No other differences were significant (again, the low numbers of respondents constrained these tests). In study 2, respondents of color were 

more likely than Whites to indicate that more areas were needed for both low- and 

high-impact recreation (AMTRECLOSUM and AMTRECHISUM, table 14-4). No 

differences were found when we compared Whites and people of color on amount 

of area needed for environmental purposes. 

For study 2, we found that people of color were significantly more supportive 

of additional areas for both low- and high-impact recreation opportunities 

(AMTRECLOSUM and AMTRECHISUM) when compared to Whites. No 

significant differences were found in levels of support for additional areas for 

environmental protection. 

In study 1 we found 

that the greatest 

support of wilderness 

respondents was 

for additional areas 

for environmental 

purposes, followed by 

low-impact recreation 

purposes. In study 

2, we found some 

similarities to study 

1, in that increase in 

the amount of area 

for environmental 

purposes was most 

supported by day 

users, followed by 

amount of area for 

low-impact recreation 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Environmental Identity Scale

The modified EID scale (adapted from Clayton 2003) showed some similarities and 

differences between the two studies’ respondents (table 14-3). With the exception 

of two items, study 1 respondents indicated greater agreement with the individual 

statements than did study 2 respondents, suggesting that wilderness users perceived 

a stronger connection to nature. Both groups were equally likely to agree that they 

had not seen a work of art as beautiful as nature.

The EID score—

EID score was calculated from the mean of responses to the items within the scale. 

The EID items fit together reliably as a scale (EID study 1 α = 0.84; EID study 2 α

= 0.88). EID score was higher for the wilderness visitors than it was for day users 

(table 14-3). Average EID score was not significantly different when comparing 

Whites and people of color from study 1; however, it was significantly higher for 

Whites in study 2, where Whites had a higher EID score, suggesting a stronger 

connection to nature.

Environmental Identity Score and Purposes

In study 1, respondents’ EID scores were significantly and positively correlated 

with managing for environmental purposes (PURENV, r = 0.24, p < 0.05), and with 

amount of area needed for environmental protection (AMTENVSUM, r = 0.30, p < 

0.01). The EID score was not correlated with ratings of managing public lands for 

low- or high-impact recreation purposes, or with ratings on need for area (more or 

less) for low- or high-impact recreation.

In study 2, EID scores were significantly and positively correlated with managing for environmental purposes (PURENV, r = 0.40, p < 0.01), managing for 

low-impact recreation management purposes (PURRECLO, r = 0.28, p < 0.01), 

need for more areas for environmental protection (AMTENVSUM, r = .026, p < 

0.01), and need for more areas for low-impact recreation (AMTRECLO, r = 0.11, 

p = 0.01). The EID score was not correlated with ratings on managing public 

lands for high-impact recreation purposes, or with ratings on amount of area 

needed for high-impact recreation.

Using a median-split score for each EID revealed a significant difference 

between respondents with low and high EID scores in study 1. Among those with 

higher EID scores, greater agreement with importance of environmental purposes 

was found (PURENV, low EID average = 4.53, high EID average = 4.80; t = -2.37, 

p = 0.02). In addition, we found greater support for additional areas for environmental protection (AMTENVSUM, low EID average = 3.10, high EID average = 4.51; 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

t = -3.24, p < 0.01). Other differences between those with low and high EID scores 

were not significant.

In study 2, those with higher EID scores were more in agreement with managing natural resources for protection purposes (PURENV, low EID average = 4.28, 

high EID average = 4.77; t = -7.43, p < 0.01) and low-impact recreation (PURRECLOSUM, low EID average = 4.23, high EID average = 4.55; t = -4.90, p < 0.01). 

No difference was found on support for high-impact recreation purposes. Support 

for more areas for environmental purposes was also higher among those with 

higher EID scores (AMTENVSUM, low EID average = 3.86, high EID average = 

4.64; t = -3.93, p < 0.01).

Discussion

We contacted two separate populations of recreationists in the studies reported on, 

using a modified EID scale and sets of items that addressed natural resource management purposes as well as amount of natural areas available for various purposes. 

Respondents were most supportive of managing natural areas for environmental purposes. Support was also indicated for low-impact recreation purposes, and 

much less support from respondents for high-impact recreation purposes. Although 

Whites and people of color in both studies agreed that environmental protection 

should be a primary purpose for natural resource areas, people of color were more 

supportive of low- and high-impact recreation purposes. Further examination of 

these trends would be helpful in understanding if there is, in fact, shared agreement across ethnic/racial categories that environmental protection should be a 

central priority for natural resource management. Our findings suggest this may 

be the case. Additional support for this contention comes from our assessment of 

the amount of area needed for various purposes, which demonstrated support for 

additional areas for environmental purposes. Some support for additional areas for 

low-impact recreation was also found among both sets of respondents. It should 

be noted, however, that we did not ask respondents to make a choice among the 

purposes, rather they considered each independently. If tradeoffs are an issue, 

the selection of purposes might be different. In addition, the study 1 sample was 

relatively small, and both sets of respondents were from one region within southern 

California. Other geographic areas using respondents visiting natural resources 

other than national forest lands might yield different results. Additionally, larger 

samples from groups of color would facilitate breaking out findings by ethnic/racial 

groups to further our understanding of how non-Whites differ. Even then, members 

from various subcultures within a particular racial group (e.g., Asians) would be 

important to consider.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Our investigation into EID revealed its relationship to recreationists’ ratings of 

purposes for natural resource management as well as amount of area that should be 

allocated for various purposes. Differentiation in the ratings of management preferences by level of EID is promising, demonstrating an application to furthering our 

understanding of public preferences for resource management. Of particular interest 

is the potential stability of EID and its utility as an alternate or complementary 

measure to be paired with meaning of place. Place attachment and place meanings 

have been shown to be particularly influential in public response to management 

alternatives and collaborative endeavors (e.g., Gunderson and Watson 2007). 

However, place meanings are linked to specific areas. If EID were paired with 

place meanings, one might gain a global perspective on individual response as 

well as a more specific one. 

Conclusions

The EID scale appears to be valuable in shedding additional light on public preferences for natural resource areas, as well as interest in additional resource opportunities. The modified version provided a reasonable approach to the measurement 

of one component of environmental values and attitudes, assessing personal connection to the land. It was useful among groups of color and seemed to hold similar 

properties, increasing its value in our diverse society. Given its brevity and apparent 

relationship to other environmental attitudes as demonstrated in our findings, this 

modified scale is of interest in future research on natural resource management.

The support for management of natural resources for environmental protection 

purposes is of particular interest to natural resource managers. Findings suggest 

our respondents highly value these purposes. Although support for additional areas 

for environmental protection and low-impact recreation was evidenced, particularly 

among the day users, a lack of support for high-impact recreation areas was found. 

Managers might reference these findings in allocating some areas for more of a 

natural resource protection focus. It should be noted that we did not incorporate a 

large number of user groups that engage in high-impact recreation and that we did 

not ask respondents to make tradeoffs between the various use types. We also did 

not evaluate preferences of surrounding communities who might not go to these 

areas but may still have an opinion about their management.

The support and interest in areas for environmental purposes is reassuring and 

suggests these publics share the goals of the Forest Service in caring for the land 

and providing recreational opportunities in a sustainable manner.

The EID scale appears 

to be valuable in 

shedding additional 

light on public 

preferences for natural 

resource areas, as well 

as interest in additional 

resource opportunities. 

The modified 

version provided a 

reasonable approach 

to the measurement 

of one component 

of environmental 

values and attitudes, 

assessing personal 

connection to 

the land. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Literature Cited

Ajzen, I. 1988. Attitudes, personality, and behavior. Chicago, IL: The Dorsey 

Press. 175 p.

Clayton, S. 2003. Environmental identity: a conceptual and an operational 

definition. In: Clayton, S.; Opotow, S., eds. Identity and the natural environment: 

the psychological significance of nature. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts 

Institute of Technology: 45–65.

Dunlap, R. 1992. Trends in public opinion toward the environment. In: Dunlap, 

R.E.; Mertig, A.G., eds. American environmentalism: the U.S. environmental 

movement 1970–1990. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis: 89–116.

Gardner, G.T.; Stern, P.C. 1996. Environmental problems and human behavior. 

Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 300 p.

Gunderson, K.; Watson, A. 2007. Understanding place meanings on the Bitterroot 

National Forest, Montana. Society and Natural Resources. 20(8): 705–721.

Nickerson, R.S. 2003. Psychology and environmental change. Mahwah, NJ: 

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 318 p.

Zimbardo, P.G.; Leippe, M.R. 1991. The psychology of attitude change and 

social influence. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. 370 p.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Section VI:

Communication Studies
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

1 Professor of psychology, School of Organizational and Behavioral Sciences, Claremont 

Graduate University, 150 E 10th St., Claremont, CA 91711; e-mail: william.crano@cgu.edu. 

2 Assistant professor of pharmacy practice and administration, Western University of Health 

Sciences, 309 E Second Street, Pomona, CA 91766, e-mail: rquist@westernu.edu.

3 Research social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station, Wildland Recreation and Urban Cultures Research Unit, 

4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507-6099; e-mail: pwinter@fs.fed.us.

Chapter 15: Forest Visitation, Media 

Consumption, and Diverse Publics: 

Lessons for Outreach

William Crano,1 Ryan Quist,2 and Patricia L. Winter3

Abstract

In spite of a continuingly diverse public, particularly in urban areas, the majority 

of forest visitors are White. Researchers have offered up a number of factors that 

reflect differing motivations and constraints to national forest recreation among 

individuals from a variety of racial backgrounds. Some of these constraints may be 

addressed through improved communication with diverse publics, best understood 

through a needs analysis.

 This paper presents findings from a needs analysis conducted among residents 

of Los Angeles County. Individuals identified as Asian, African American, Latino, 

or White participated in a telephone survey. Findings reveal differential use of 

media among respondents, including significant differences in the number of hours 

per week that respondents watched television and listened to the radio. However, 

no differences in the hours spent reading magazines or newspapers were revealed. 

Aside from the differences in media types, specific outlets respondents reported 

also differed, as demonstrated by radio station programs listened to and newspapers 

read. A strong pattern of ethnic media use was indicated among Latino and African 

American respondents. Findings suggest that ethnic media may be one form of contact to focus on for communicating with diverse publics. The use of print media and 

getting the word out through community contacts is also recommended. Although 

the Internet was mentioned as a trusted source of information for respondents, 

differential access and familiarity of use, as well as the possible geographic specificity of Internet reliance, suggests caution. Our findings on media usage, including 

preferences for ethnic media, may be generalizable across recreation venues outside 

of the Los Angeles Basin and national forest lands, providing assistance for program managers interested in outreach to diverse publics.

Keywords: Diversity, media, ethnic media, barriers, communication.

Researchers have 

offered up a number 

of factors that reflect 

differing motivations 

and constraints 

to national forest 

recreation among 

individuals from 

a variety of racial 

backgrounds. Some 

of these constraints 

may be addressed 

through improved 

communication with 

diverse publics, best 

understood through a 

needs analysis.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Introduction

Motivations and Barriers/Constraints to Forest Visitation

National forests are important resources for all citizens, but with minor exceptions, 

research suggests that visitors to the forests are drawn largely from the White 

majority (Outdoor Industry Association 2004, Tierney et al. 1998). Researchers 

have offered many reasons for the underrepresentation of communities of color 

among forest visitors, including varying motivations for taking trips and constraints 

experienced by diverse publics.

Motivations for taking vacations or day trips differ by ethnicity. For example, 

Tierney et al. (1998) found that African Americans took vacations or daily excursions because they wanted to visit a safe place, to rest physically, or to challenge 

themselves. Latino respondents, conversely, vacationed or took day trips to be with 

family, to learn about a new culture or area, to develop new skills, to teach others, 

to maintain ties with their culture, or to meet new people.

The literature also outlines specific reasons for not visiting recreation areas 

based on ethnicity. Barriers and constraints specific to communities of color 

have been reported as agency culture (Roberts 2003, Tierney et al. 1998), historical context (Roberts 2003), perceived and actual discrimination (McDonald and 

McAvoy 1997, Tierney et al. 1998), language barriers (Allison and Hibbler 2004, 

Winter et al. 2004), concerns about safety (Johnson et al. 2001, Scott et al. 2004), 

lack of awareness of opportunities (Roberts 2003, Scott et al. 2004), lack of discretionary funds (Scott et al. 2004, Tierney et al. 1998), lack of transportation (Scott 

et al. 2004, Tierney et al. 1998), lack of someone to recreate with (Johnson et al. 

1998, Tierney et al. 1998), and cultural preferences for the built environment (such 

as more development of picnic spaces) versus what is found in natural resource 

recreation settings (Floyd 1999, McDonald and McAvoy 1997). A lack of information onsite has also been reported as a constraint to outdoor recreation participation 

among ethnic minorities (Winter et al. 2004).

Agency culture is seen as a barrier for multiple reasons including the underrepresentation of non-Whites as employees delivering and managing recreation 

opportunities, communication and education methods that are a poor fit with the 

needs and preferences of communities of color, planning for a “traditional White” 

visitor experience, and a general lack of feeling welcomed (Allison and Hibbler 

2004, Roberts 2003, Tierney et al. 1998). 

Historical context has been discussed by Johnson et al. (1998) as emerging from 

the history of slavery among African Americans in the United States, resulting in a 

negative relationship with the natural resource base; and for Native Americans as a 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

result of the loss of land and limitations on traditional uses on lands (McAvoy et al. 

2003, Roberts 2003). 

More indepth discussions of barriers to recreation participation among communities of color appear elsewhere (see Johnson et al. 1998, McAvoy et al. 2003, 

Tierney et al. 1998). However, for the purposes of this paper, two constraints are 

of particular interest: concerns related to agency culture regarding communication and education methods. Both can lend valuable insights into reports of lack 

of information as a constraint to outdoor recreation. Of particular interest are 

these barriers and constraints because they lie within the purview of the Forest 

Service. Given the agency’s role in providing services and opportunities within 

public land management, these topics are of significance. The present research 

explores racial/ethnic variations in outdoor recreation, including communicationrelated issues, to further our understanding of some of the underlying factors at 

work in minority underparticipation.

Media and Usage

One possible way to address the racial/ethnic imbalance in forest usage is through 

the use of the media. If the media can be used to persuade the citizenry that forested areas are a valued public resource, to be used by all, it might be possible to 

address a portion of the earlier-noted racial and ethnic differences in usage. This 

possibility raises a number of interesting questions. For example, is information 

about the Forest Service being adequately disseminated in minority communities? 

Can the media be used to help address possibly underserved communities? Further, 

are there better ways of making known to these communities the many resources 

and opportunities for recreation that are available in the national forests? In short, 

do we need to do a better job of disseminating the Forest Service’s message to a 

diverse public?

This study investigated ways that people of both majority and minority racial/

ethnic status acquire information about the national forests. Assuming differences 

in how this information is acquired, a second goal of the research was to determine 

the best ways of reaching the underserved audience (or audiences). If racial/ethnic 

minority groups do not acquire information in the ways that citizens of majority 

status do, then supplying information via alternate channels may be the optimal 

way of reaching these underserved groups.

In the United States, the government often has called upon the mass media 

to ameliorate important social problems or to publicize interventions taken to 

improve the public good. The current National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign 

is a case in point (Eddy 2003). Millions of dollars are being spent in this campaign 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

in an attempt to attenuate drug usage among the Nation’s youth. Using mass 

media for this purpose may prove a risky strategy, however. Although mass media 

campaigns have at times been effective, for some topics (e.g., health promotion) 

(Atkin and Arkin 1990, Brown and Walsch-Childers 1994), the media sometimes 

are quite ineffective, resulting in large expenditures with no positive outcomes 

(Crano and Burgoon 2002). It has been suggested that many intervention failures 

are the result of a misdiagnosis of need (Selnow and Crano 1987). An approach 

widely recommended to avoid such problems is a needs analysis, in which the felt 

needs of the directly affected community are assessed in a scientifically rigorous 

manner (Crano and Brewer 2002). Information derived from needs analysis allows 

programs to be designed (or disseminated) to best serve affected publics, and such 

programs are almost invariably more successful than those programs that omit this 

step (Crano 2003). 

The needs-analysis approach seems to be an appropriate way to address the 

interests of this study. We need to know how people from underserved ethnic/racial 

communities obtain information about recreation outlets, with special focus on the 

national forests. Researchers have only begun to study cultural and ethnic differences in self-exposure and responsiveness to media sources (Selnow and Crano 

1987), however, and what little is known does not provide much comfort (Brodie 

et al. 1999, Crano and Burgoon 2002, Dennis and Wartella 1996, Hofstetter et al. 

1995, Wolitski et al. 1996). Recent research on acculturation and responsiveness to 

media (Dawson et al. 1996, 2003) suggests that the most marginalized members of 

society are the least likely to profit from standard mass media social intervention 

programs. Why this is so is not clear, but it is reasonable to speculate that nonWhites may use different sources of information (compared to Whites) when learning about social programs and interventions (see, for example, Brodie et al. 1999 

and Huerta and Weed 2000). To address this potential problem, the current study 

was designed specifically to assess the sources of information that non-Whites do 

use regarding recreation programs.

Method

Participants

Our approach involved surveying a large, randomly sampled group of people who 

we pre-identified (with some degree of certainty) as being of White, Latino, Asian, 

or African American descent. On the basis of census tract information (and, in 

the case of the Hispanic subsample, surname), we developed an initial respondent 

sampling frame. Our aim was to obtain responses from 200 adults from each of the 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

4 The initial categorization was meant as a first step. The more direct assessment is used 

to pinpoint respondents’ ethnic/racial categories. The authors recognize the distinction 

between ethnicity (Hispanic, non-Hispanic) and race. However, in our effort to approach 

ethnic identity in meaningful, easily understood categories, we selected the four ethnic/

racial groups indicated. This approach to categorization mirrors that frequently found in 

ethnic identity literature, and self-identification from our respondents affirmed selection of 

these labels as fitting their perceptions of self.

5 Variations from the planned N (of 200) came about as a result of missing data or, in the 

case of White respondents, because of a minor miscount that resulted in data being collected on 2 more respondents than planned.

6 These respondents provided complete information in the interview.

four ethnic/racial groups noted here (a total of 800 respondents). The interviewers 

requested information regarding race and ethnicity from respondents to ensure the 

accuracy of our categorization system.4

We selected participants from a random quota sample of phone numbers in 

Los Angeles County, California, yielding 195 Latino, 200 African American, 195 

Asian, and 202 White5 respondents, all residents of the diverse Los Angeles (L.A.) 

Basin6 (Struglia et al. 2003). The mean age of these respondents was 47.98 years 

(SD = 19.60).

Interview

The telephone interview protocol included closed-ended questions designed to assess:

• Ethnic identity and fit of ethnic category

• Information sources regarding outdoor recreation opportunities (“Now I am 

going to name some common sources of information. I’d like you to tell me 

how frequently you use these sources of information about outdoor recreational 

opportunities,” included a list of 16 sources and a rating scale from 0 = never to 

3 = very frequently)

Open-ended questions focused on:

• Sociodemographics (respondents’ immigrant status, their country of origin)

• Primary language spoken at home and primary language of reading materials 

at home 

• Media usage

• Media preferences, television channel preferences, radio station preferences, 

newspapers/magazine preferences

• Most trusted source of information regarding outdoor recreation opportunities 

• National forest visitation, and reasons for not visiting the national forests
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Procedure

A stratified random sample was not possible because ethnic/racial information was 

not available from respondents prior to their interviews. Consequently, following a 

random selection of phone numbers, quotas were applied so that phone surveyors 

would inquire regarding a participant’s ethnicity near the beginning of the call. 

Seventy-three surveys (37 percent of Latino respondents and 9 percent of total 

respondents) were conducted in Spanish. 

A total of 21,196 randomly sampled phone numbers were dialed at least once 

in obtaining the sample of approximately 200 respondents per group. The most 

common reasons for not completing a survey were no answer/answering machine/

busy signal (9,136 phone numbers) and disconnected phone numbers (3,639 calls). 

A response rate was calculated including only phone calls that were eligible for 

surveying. This would exclude calls for which no one met ethnic or age (18 years 

and older) eligibility requirements, and phone calls for which no one was home or 

available to participate in the survey. There were 3,678 calls that met the eligibility 

criteria during which an individual was invited to participate in the study. Of these, 

792 individuals completed surveys. By this criterion, the response rate was 21.5 

percent. Surveys only partially completed (51 calls) were considered nonresponse. 

Data from incomplete surveys were not used. 

Results

Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Four Groups

Respondent age differed by ethnic/racial group, F(3, 773) = 27.67, p = 0. 001. 

African American and White respondents (M = 54.49, SD = 18.99, n = 190 and M

= 53.36, SD = 19.74, n = 200, respectively) were older than the Asian and Latino 

respondents (M = 43.65, SD = 19.67, n = 192 and M = 40.26, SD = 15.94, n = 192). 

Just over half (51.5 percent) of Latinos spoke primarily Spanish in their home, and 

almost half (47.4 percent) of Asians spoke a language other than English or Spanish 

in the home. The percentage of respondents living outside of the United States for a 

majority of their lives varied by ethnic/racial group as well (30.3 percent of Asians 

and 28.6 percent of Latinos had lived elsewhere, while only 4.5 percent of Whites 

and 2.0 percent of African Americans reported having lived elsewhere). 

Perceived fit of ethnic/racial description differed by group as well χ

2

 (9, n = 

757) = 35.532, p = 0.001. Respondents identifying themselves as White felt the 

description fit them better than for the other groups (very well at 26.1 percent and 

perfectly at 70.9 percent), followed by Asian (27.3 percent selected very well and 

57.2 percent selected perfectly), Latino (very well at 28.6 percent and perfectly at 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 15-1—General media usage, by ethnic group

Media type Latino African American Asian White ANOVA p level

- - - - - - - - - - Mean number of hours per week (SD; n) - - - - - - - - - 

Watch TV 16.38 20.03b 13.05 16.70 0.01

(15.43; 195) (20.36; 200) (14.33; 195) (15.26; 202)

Listen to the radio 14.48a 12.85 8.43 11.49 .01

(17.51; 194) (18.23; 200) (14.26; 195) (14.58; 202)

Read magazines or newspapers 5.44 6.82 7.02 7.68 .27

(11.05; 194) (10.0; 200) (12.66; 195) (12.07; 201)

a Significantly higher than Asians, based on Scheffe’s test at p < 0.01.

b Significantly higher than all three groups, each based on Scheffe’s test at p < 0.05.

54.7 percent), and African American respondents (very well at 33.5 percent and 

perfectly at 47.5 percent).

Media Usage

A comparison of the four ethnic/racial groups (Latino, African American, Asian, 

and White) on general media usage revealed significant differences in the number 

of hours per week that respondents watched television, F(3, 788) = 5.87, p = 0. 001, 

and listened to the radio, F(3, 787) = 4.86, p = 0.002 (table 15-1). Differences by 

ethnic/racial group in hours spent reading magazines or newspapers per week were 

not statistically significant. For all four groups, television viewing had the highest 

average number of hours reported.

Television Viewing by Ethnic/Racial Group

African American respondents reported the greatest average number of hours per 

week watching television (20.03 hours, table 15-1), Asian respondents reported the 

fewest hours of television watching (13.05), and Latino (16.38) and White respondents’ (16.70) viewing times fell between that of African American and Asian 

respondents. Hours of television viewing differed significantly by ethnic/racial 

group, with African Americans reporting significantly more hours than Asians 

(table 15-1).

Radio Listening by Ethnic/Racial Group

Latino respondents reported the greatest number of hours devoted to radio listening 

(14.48 hours, table 15-1), followed by African American (12.85) and White respondents (11.49). Asian respondents reported the least number of radio-listening hours 

(8.43). Hours listened to the radio differed significantly by ethnic/racial group, with 

Latinos reporting significantly more hours than Asians (table 15-1).

A comparison of the 

four ethnic/racial 

groups (Latino, African 

American, Asian, and 

White) on general 

media usage revealed 

significant differences 

in the number of 

hours per week that 

respondents watched 

television and listened 

to the radio.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

The range and types of radio stations listened to differed by ethnic/racial 

group. Summarizing only those categories with 10 percent or more within each 

ethnic/racial group (the full data on programming types reported is available 

upon request), Latinos were most likely to listen to ethnic radio stations (37.8 

percent), rhythm and blues (R&B) programming (15.1 percent) or rock (10.5 

percent, out of 304 reported stations, falling into 11 categories of programming). 

(The source for types of programming, call letters, frequency, description of 

station and geographic location was www.shgresources.com/ca/radio.) The 

majority of African American respondents reported listening to radio stations 

with R&B programming (51.2 percent), jazz (14.5 percent), or news/talk radio (13.7 

percent), based on 248 radio stations reported, falling into seven categories. Asian 

respondents reported listening to news/talk (19.8 percent), adult contemporary 

(15.0 percent), top 40 (12.8 percent), R&B (11.5 percent), or rock radio stations 

(10.6 percent), based on 227 reported stations, falling into 12 categories. White 

respondents reported listening most often to radio stations with news/talk (25.8 

percent), adult contemporary (14.0 percent), and rock (13.6 percent) programming, 

based on 279 reported stations. 

Magazine/Newspaper Reading by Ethnic/Racial Group

There were no significant differences between ethnic/racial groups regarding time 

spent reading magazines or newspapers, F(3, 786) = 1.31, p = 0.27. The number of 

hours spent reading magazines or newspapers ranged between approximately 5 and 

8 hours per week.

Types of magazines read were diverse and numerous. However, the titles 

reported by ethnic/racial group revealed that Latino and African American 

respondents read several magazines designed for an ethnically based audience. 

Among Latinos, approximately one-fifth (19.7 percent) of the magazines listed are 

designed for a Latino audience and many are in Spanish (these sources include Tele 

Novela, Vanidades, Cosmo en Español, Latina, Mi Gente, Mira!, and Selecciones). 

Among African Americans, more than one-third (43.4 percent) of magazines 

mentioned are designed for an African American audience (these sources include 

Ebony, Essence, Jet, Black Enterprise, and Black Business Journal).7

Respondents reported having read a number of different newspapers; however, 

the L.A. Times (63.3 percent of newspaper mentions), La Opinión (6.6 percent of 

newspaper mentions, 30.3 percent of Latino mentions), and the L.A. Daily News 

(6 percent of newspaper mentions) were the most frequently reported.

7 Readers wishing to see the full list of magazines reported within each group may contact 

the third author.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Sources of Information for Outdoor Recreation Opportunities

Respondents indicated their sources for outdoor recreation information (table 15-2). 

Responses were measured on a four-point Likert-type scale, ranging from “never” 

(0) to “very frequently” (3), resulting in ordinal variables; consequently, parametric 

tests may not have been appropriate. Table 15-2 presents significance levels for 

both parametric analysis of variance tests as well as the results of nonparametric 

Kruskall Wallis tests. Regardless of test, the pattern of results was consistent. The 

least relied upon sources of information about outdoor recreation opportunities for 

all groups were health care providers and billboards (table 15-2).

The results are generally consistent with the findings reported earlier on media 

usage. For example, African American respondents reported that television was 

a more frequent source of information than did the other ethnic/racial groups, 

whereas Asian respondents reported that television was less frequently used as a 

source of information about outdoor recreation when compared to the other ethnic/

racial groups. Latino respondents reported that radio was a more frequent source 

of information on outdoor recreation activities than the other groups. There were 

no significant differences between groups in reliance for recreation information 

gathered from community organizations, neighbors, or other friends.

Other data regarding sources of information for outdoor recreation activities 

may facilitate our understanding of general media usage. There were no significant 

differences between groups in the number of hours spent reading magazines or 

newspapers. However, when asked about newspapers versus magazines separately, 

White respondents appeared to rely on newspapers for recreation information more 

frequently than did members of the other ethnic/racial groups (table 15-2). Whites 

reported significantly more reliance on newspapers than did African Americans and 

Latinos. There were no significant differences between the groups in reliance on 

magazines for information. There were no significant between-group differences on 

use of other reading materials (e.g., books and pamphlets).

Although there were no significant differences between groups in terms of their 

dependence on neighbors, work, or health care providers as information sources, 

significant differences between groups were found for reliance on computers, 

relatives, and billboards. Asian respondents reported significantly more frequent 

reliance on computers for information about outdoor recreation opportunities than 

the other groups (table 15-2). Latino and African American respondents reported 

more reliance on relatives than Asian and White respondents, although the Latino/

Asian comparison was the only statistically significant difference. Finally, African 

American respondents also reported more frequent reliance on billboards than 

the other ethnic/racial groups (with the difference between African Americans 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Table 15-2—Ethnic differences in the frequency of obtaining information about outdoor recreation 

opportunities from different sourcesa

African ANOVA Kruskall Wallis

Information source Latino American Asian White p level p level

- - - - - - - - - - Mean frequency rating (SD; n) - - - - - - - - -

Television 1.40 b 1.43b 1.12 1.25 < 0.01 < 0.01

(0.90; 193) (0.97; 200) (0.94; 195) (0.93; 200)

Radio 1.29 b c 1.19b 0.91 0.99 < .01 < .01

(0.96; 195) (0.99; 200) (0.84; 195) (0.96; 200)

Newspapers 1.14 1.21 1.24 1.49 d e < .01 < .01

(0.89; 195) (0.99; 200) (0.92; 195) (1.01; 200)

Magazines 0.90 1.10 1.03 1.13 .07 .07

(0.92; 195) (0.97; 200) (0.90; 195) (0.98; 200)

Billboards 0.68 0.76b 0.50 0.61 < .01 .04

(0.81; 195) (0.89; 200) (0.67; 195) (0.77; 200)

Health care providers 0.53 0.59 0.48 0.53 .63 .77

(0.81; 195) (0.86; 199) (0.76; 195) (0.78; 200)

Pamphlets 0.81 0.95 0.82 0.92 .29 .49

(0.84; 195) (0.95; 200) (0.81; 195) (0.90; 200)

Books 0.71 0.91 0.88 0.90 .14 .09

(0.71; 195) (0.96; 200) (0.89; 295) (0.99; 200)

Computers 1.12 1.04 1.62 c d e 1.25 < .01 < .01

(1.15; 195) (1.11; 200) (1.17; 195) (1.13; 200)

Relatives 1.25 b 1.22 0.97 1.06 < .01 < .01

(0.92; 194) (0.96; 200) (0.93; 195) (0.94; 199)

Church 0.71 1.14b c d 0.56 0.63 < .01 < .01

(0.89; 194) (1.08; 200) (0.85; 195) (0.86; 200)

Church friends 0.65 1.04b c d 0.57 0.70 < .01 < .01

(0.87; 194) (1.04; 200) (0.82; 195) (0.86; 199)

Neighbors 0.83 0.89 0.83 0.80 .80 .86

(0.87; 194) (1.07; 200) (0.96; 195) (0.97; 200)

Work 0.79 0.80 0.68 0.92 .05 .11

(0.86; 194) (0.91; 199) (0.78; 195) (0.94; 200)

Other friends 1.29 1.27 1.47 1.38 .12 .12

(0.91; 194) (0.98; 200) (0.93; 200) (0.89; 200)

Community organizations 0.68 0.90 0.68 0.79 .05 .22

(0.86; 194) (1.03; 200) (0.81; 195) (0.92; 200)

a Respondents were asked how often they used each source of information, rating each on the scale where 0 = never, 1 = sometimes, 

2 = frequently, and 3 = very frequently.

b Scheffe’s contrast significantly higher than Asians at p < 0.05. c Scheffe’s contrast significantly higher than Whites at p < 0.05.

d Scheffe’s contrast significantly higher than Latinos at p < 0.05. e Scheffe’s contrast significantly higher than African Americans at p < 0.05.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table 15-3—Ethnic differences in the trust of information source for outdoor 

recreation opportunities

Total Latino African American Asian White

Percent

Computers/Internet 24.0 22.6 21.5 27.7 24.3

Family and friendsa 18.9 23.6 18.0 14.8 19.3

Newspapers 12.4 13.8 11.5 8.2 15.8

Television 7.3 13.8 6.5 4.6 4.5

Magazines 3.0 0.5 3.0 4.6 4.0

Community organizations 1.8 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5

Pamphlets 1.8 1.5 2.5 1.0 2.0

Books 1.8 1.5 0.5 1.5 3.5

Church 1.6 2.6 2.0 0.5 1.5

Radio 1.3 2.0 3.5 0 .9

Work < 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 .9

Health care providers < 1.0 0 0 0.5 .5

Billboards 0 0 0 0 0

Other source not listed 12.4 9.2 14.5 17.9 7.9

Don’t know/no answer 11.0 6.6 13.5 15.8 11.4

N 792 195 200 195 202

a Family and friends represents the combined responses to relatives, church friends, neighbors, and 

other friends.

and Asians being statistically significant as shown in table 15-2), although the 

mean rating suggests minimal reliance on this as an outdoor recreation information source. Within the ethnic/racial groups, the most frequently reported source 

of information on outdoor recreation opportunities for both Latino and African 

American respondents was television. For Asian respondents, the most frequent 

source of information was computers, and for White respondents, the most frequent source of information was newspapers.

Respondents were asked which source of information they trusted the most 

for information about outdoor recreation opportunities. The greatest proportion 

of respondents chose the Internet and computers as their most trusted source (24 

percent of all respondents listing a trusted source, table 15-3). However, some 

variations in trusted source by ethnic/racial group were found. For example, 

Latinos placed family and friends above the Internet as their most trusted source. 

The third-most trusted source among the groups was newspapers, although 

Latinos selected television in the same proportion as newspapers.

The greatest 

proportion of 

respondents chose the 

Internet and computers 

as their most trusted 

source. However, some 

variations in trusted 

source by ethnic/racial 

group were found. 

For example, Latinos 

placed family and 

friends above the 

Internet as their most 

trusted source. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

National Forest Visitation

There were significant differences linked to ethnic/racial group in national 

forest visitation (had or had not visited), c

2

(3, n = 788) = 46.06, p < 0.001. White 

respondents were most likely to have visited national forests (77 percent), followed by Asians (59 percent), Latinos (48 percent), and African Americans (48 

percent) respondents.

Those who had visited national forests were asked, “In the last 12 months, 

approximately how many times did you visit the national forest?”; the median 

response was 1 time in the last 12 months. Testing via the median test statistic 

indicated that there were significant differences between ethnic/racial groups in 

response to this query, c

2

(3, n = 262) = 7.80, p = 0.050. Of those who had visited 

the national forests, African American respondents traveled to the national forest 

the least frequently (31.0 percent of respondents were above the median), followed 

by Latino respondents (37.1 percent). White respondents (49.5 percent) and Asian 

respondents (54.7 percent) reported the most frequent visits to the national forests.

As reported, there were significant differences between the ethnic/racial groups 

in frequency of having previously visited the national forests. To establish whether 

respondents from the various groups were likely to utilize other outdoor resources 

at frequencies similar to their utilization of the national forests, respondents were 

asked to report one or more outdoor activities they had engaged in at locations other 

than the national forests. There were no significant differences among the groups’ 

responses, c

2

(3, n = 792) = 6.32, p = 0.097. Although White respondents were most 

likely to have visited national forests, Latino respondents were most likely to have 

engaged in at least one outdoor activity in places other than national forests (90 

percent, in comparison with 85 percent for White respondents). This result suggests 

that Latinos are not averse to outdoor activities; rather, they simply are less likely to 

go to the national forests to engage in them.

Barriers to National Forest Visitation

Among respondents who had reported visiting national forests, a variety of reasons 

were given for not visiting the forest more often. Barriers to more frequent visitation8

 included time-related constraints (39.8 percent of the reasons listed, included 

either being too busy in general, or specific to family, work, or school responsibilities), a lack of interest (16.2 percent), health or physical limitations (9.5 percent), 

lack of transportation (7.2 percent), a lack of information about outdoor recreation 

8 These responses went through content analysis procedures using the open-ended answers, 

developing a first round of categories, and then having an independent rater review 

category assignment.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Table15-4—Top five barriers to National Forest visitation by ethnic group

Ranking of barriersa

Ethnic group First Second Third Fourth Fifth

Latinos Time Transportation Lack of interest Lack of information/

 health or physical Lack of money

 limitation

Percent 52 10 8 5 4

African Americans Lack of interest Time Health or Transportation Fears/age/lack

 physical of information

 limitation

Percent 26 23 14 10 4

Asians Time Lack of Too far Lack of information/ No one to go with

 interest health or physical

 limitation

Percent 47 13 9.4 6 5

Whites Time Lack of Health or Lack of money Age

 interest physical

 limitation

Percent 37 17 12 7 6

a Multiple entries appear in cells when more than one type of barrier was listed by the same proportion of respondents in an ethnic group.

opportunities (4 percent), distance to sites (4 percent), age (3.8 percent, discussed 

in terms of being too old to participate), a lack of money (3.8 percent), fear (2.3 

percent, included fear of wild animals, getting lost, or being a victim of crime), no 

one to go with (2.0 percent), crowds (1.2 percent), and fire-related concerns (0.6 

percent, including closures due to fire risk, fear of fire, or recent burns and loss of 

places to recreate).

An examination of the top five barriers to more frequent visitation to the 

national forests more frequently showed both differences and similarities among 

the four ethnic/racial groups (table 15-4). More than half of the reasons listed by 

Latinos were time constraints, while only about one-fourth of the reasons given 

by African Americans were time-related. African Americans were the most likely 

among the groups to mention a lack of interest, and were twice as likely as the other 

two groups of color to cite this reason. Health or physical limitations represented 

about one-tenth of the reasons provided by African Americans and Whites, about 

twice as often as reported by Latinos or Asians. A lack of information was one of 

the top five reasons among all three groups of color. Lack of money was among the 

top reasons given by Whites and Latinos. African Americans and Whites cited age. 

Asians were the only group to list no one to go with among their top five. Fearrelated concerns were only among the top five reasons for African Americans. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Discussion

These findings offer many interesting and potentially useful insights for the 

resource manager interested in making the national forests more available to the 

population at large. These results, consistent with expectations based on earlier 

studies (e.g., Johnson et al. 2001, Scott et al. 2004, Tierney et al. 1998) revealed that 

White respondents were significantly more likely than the other groups to report 

having visited a national forest in the past, whereas African Americans and Latinos 

were significantly less likely to have done so, and Asian respondents were intermediate to these groups. This same pattern was found in our analysis of the number of 

times in the past 12 months that respondents had traveled to the national forests. 

In addition to differences in participation rates among the groups, this study 

also assessed respondents’ general media consumption patterns. Assessment of 

media consumption patterns disclosed strong and statistically significant differences among the groups. The results of the present investigation suggest that television might be the most optimal means to reach African Americans when choosing 

among forms of media, whereas for Latinos, radio might prove a more optimal 

medium of mass information diffusion. 

The variations in outlets, and specific outlets within media type add an additional layer of complexity. Findings suggest that ethnic media would be an effective 

means of contacting our non-White respondents. A reliance on ethnic media was 

also reported in Winter et al. (2004) among Asian Americans in the San Francisco 

Bay Area. Tailoring the outlet to meet the needs of ethnic/racial minorities seems 

appropriate based on our findings.

Respondents’ reports of sources of information they would trust the most lead 

to an additional recommendation for forest managers. Community networks may be 

an effective means of information dissemination, based on our finding that family 

and friends were the most trusted source among all four ethnic/racial groups studied. African American respondents favored interpersonal methods of information 

search. For example, relatives, church, and church friends were significant sources 

of information for African American participants; only Latino respondents were 

comparable in terms of their dependence on relatives for information. In a number of 

studies, onsite recreationists reported family and/or friends as their primary source 

of information about recreation opportunities and the recreation setting where they 

were contacted (Chavez 2001, Parker and Winter 1998). Latinos typically have 

a greater proportion of reliance on family and friends as their primary source of 

information than do Whites and other ethnic/racial groups. The prior onsite studies 

cited had too few African Americans to be able to draw conclusions about reliance 

on relatives and friends, making the present study particularly valuable.

Respondents’ 

reports of sources 

of information they 

would trust the most 

lead to an additional 

recommendation 

for forest managers. 

Community networks 

may be an effective 

means of information 

dissemination, based 

on our finding that 

family and friends 

were the most trusted 

source among all four 

ethnic/racial groups 

studied.
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

The overall expressed trust in the Internet and computers as the most frequently 

cited source among three of the four respondent groups may lead one to conclude 

that the Internet is the ideal venue for contacting potential recreationists (Latinos 

chose family and friends instead). A national survey on Internet users and nonusers 

suggests that the Internet is more important than other forms of media as an 

information source (Lebo 2004). However, a cautionary note should be added here 

about the Internet as a primary and trusted source of information. Research on 

access to the Internet suggests that non-Whites are less likely to use the Internet 

(particularly Latinos and African Americans) than are Whites (Spooner 2003). 

The bulk of non-Internet users report that they do not use the Internet because of a 

lack of a computer, or lack of a computer good enough to access the Internet (Lebo 

2004). Findings are inconsistent regarding actual levels of use of the Internet and 

access to the Internet. Lebo (2004) reported that over three-fourths of Americans 

use the Internet, whereas Spooner (2003) suggested that number is just over half of 

American adults (59 percent of males and 54 percent of females used the Internet 

in 2001). Geographic differences may also account for the high trust of the Internet 

expressed in this study, where L.A. basin residents may have greater access than 

found in other regions of the United States.

The concern over geographic differences in Internet use extends to other outlets 

as well. It would be important to examine use of ethnic and mainstream media on 

a broader scale, outside of the L.A. basin, to ensure that a portion of the findings 

cannot be attributed to the types and range of media available to our respondents. 

Additionally, the response rate suggests some caution, particularly because we 

were unable to conduct a nonresponse bias check. We would need to be sure that 

our participants were not uniquely different from those unwilling to participate in a 

telephone survey in some way that would be associated with media use or national 

forest visitation.

Conclusions

This study was undertaken to assess ethnic/racial differences in forest visitation 

and to determine media consumption differences that might have relevance to forest 

use. The results reported here should prove useful in delivering messages targeted 

to the specific interests and the specific media used by one or another of the groups 

studied here. The analyses provide useful information for the manager interested 

in getting the word out about outdoor recreation opportunities and subsequently 

influencing the rates at which people of various ethnicities take advantage of 

national forest recreation opportunities in southern California. The data on media 

usage, especially preferences for ethnic media, are generalizable across recreation 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

opportunity venues in the L.A. basin, so that managers of natural resource settings 

outside of national forest lands may also learn from these results. Findings suggest 

that managers in other geographic areas might also consider use of ethnic media 

and community networks for outreach to diverse publics.

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Brown, J.D.; Walsch-Childers, K. 1994. Effects of media on personal and public 

health. In: Bryant, J.; Zillman, D., eds. Media effects: advances in theory and 

research. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum: 389–414.

Chavez, D.J. 2001. Managing outdoor recreation in California: visitor contact studies 

1989–1998. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-180. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 102 p.

Crano, W.D. 2003. Theory driven evaluation and construct validity. In: Donaldson, 

S.I.; Scriven, M., eds. Evaluating social programs and problems: visions for the 

new millennium. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum: 145–157.

Crano, W.D.; Brewer, M.B. 2002. Principles and methods of social research. 

2

nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 384 p.

Crano, W.D.; Burgoon, M., eds. 2002. Mass media and drug prevention: classic 

and contemporary theories and research. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 256 p.

Dawson, E.J.; Burgoon, M.; Crano W.D. 2003. Parents’ and their children’s 

beliefs and knowledge of HIV/AIDS in a multicultural Hispanic/Anglo 

population. In: Fuller, L.K., ed. Media-mediated AIDS. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton 

Press: 175–292.

Dawson, E.J.; Crano, W.D.; Burgoon, M. 1996. Refining the meaning and 

measurement of acculturation: revisiting a novel methodological approach. 

International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 20: 97–114.
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Dennis, E.E.; Wartella, E., eds. 1996. American communication research: the 

remembered history. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 232 p.

Eddy, M. 2003. War on drugs: the national youth anti-drug media campaign. 

Congressional Research Service RS21490. http://www.digitallibrary.unt.edu/

govdocs/crs/permalink/meta-crs-4346:1. (September 13, 2007).

Floyd, M. 1999. Race, ethnicity, and use of the National Park System. Social 

Science Research Review. 1(2): Spring/Summer. 24 p.

Hofstetter, C.R.; Hovell, M.F.; Myers, C.A.; Blumberg, E.; Sipan, C.; Yuasa, T. 

et al. 1995. Patterns of communication about AIDS among Hispanic and Anglo 

adolescents. American Journal of Preventative Medicine. 11: 231–237.

Huerta, E.E.; Weed, D.L. 2000. Spanish-language radio in preventive medicine 

and public health. Cancer. 83: 1805–1808.

Johnson, C.Y.; Bowker, J.M.; Cordell, H.K. 2001. Outdoor recreation constraints: 

an examination of race, gender, and rural dwelling. Southern Rural Sociology. 

17: 111–133.

Johnson, C.Y.; Bowker, J.M.; English, D.B.K.; Worthen, D. 1998. Wildland 

recreation in the rural south: an examination of marginality and ethnicity theory. 

Journal of Leisure Research. 30(1): 101–120.

Lebo, H. 2004. The digital future report. Surveying the digital future, year 

four. USC Annenberg School Center for the Digital Future. http://www.

digitalcenter.org. (March 14, 2005).

McDonald, D.; McAvoy, L. 1997. Outdoor recreation, racism and Native 

Americans [unpublished technical report]. On file with: USDA Forest Service, 

Pacific Southwest Research Station, Wildland Recreation and Urban Cultures 

Research Unit, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507. 

McAvoy, L.; McDonald, D.; Carlson, M. 2003. American Indian/First Nation 

place attachment to park lands: the case of the Nuu-chach-nulth of British 

Columbia. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration. 21(2): 84–104.

Outdoor Industry Association 2004. Outdoor recreation participation study for 

the United States. Executive summary. 6th ed. http://www.outdoorindustry.org. 

(January 7, 2005).

Parker, J.D.; Winter, P.L. 1998. A case study of communication with Anglo and 

Hispanic Wilderness visitors. Journal of Interpretation Research. 3(1): 55–59.
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Roberts, N.S. 2003. Ethnic minority visitors and non-visitors: an examination 

of constraints regarding outdoor recreation participation in Rocky Mountain 

National Park. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. Ph.D. dissertation.

Scott, D.; Herrera, S.L.; Hunt, K.S. 2004. Constraints to outdoor recreation 

among ethnic and racial groups. In: Tierney, P.T.; Chavez, D.J., tech. coords. 

Proceedings of the 4th social aspects and recreation research symposium. San 

Francisco, CA: San Francisco State University: 17–20.

Selnow, G.F.; Crano, W.D. 1987. Planning, implementing, and evaluating targeted 

communication programs: a manual for business communicators. New York: 

Quorum Books. 300 p.

Spooner, T. 2003. Internet use by region in the United States. Pew Internet & 

American Life Project. http://www.pewinternet.org. (December 8, 2005).

Struglia, R.; Winter, P.L.; Meyer, A. 2003. Southern California socioeconomic 

assessment: sociodemographic conditions, projections, and quality of life indices. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-187. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 418 p.

Tierney, P.T.; Dahl, R.F.; Chavez, D.J. 1998. Cultural diversity of Los Angeles 

County residents using undeveloped natural areas. Res. Pap. PSW-RP-236. 

Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest 

Research Station. 76 p.

Winter, P.L.; Jeong, W.C.; Godbey, G.C. 2004. Outdoor recreation among Asian 

Americans: a case study of San Francisco Bay Area residents. Journal of Park 

and Recreation Administration. 22(3): 114–136.

Wolitski, R.J.; Bensley, L.; Corby, N.H.; Fishbein, M.; Galavotti, C. 1996. 

Sources of AIDS information among low-risk and at-risk populations in five 

U.S. cities. Journal of Community Health. 21: 293–310.
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Chapter 16: Routes to Communicating 

About Outdoor Recreation With Diverse 

Publics: What We Know About Media

Patricia L. Winter,1 Jessica Skenderian,2 and William Crano3

Abstract

This paper examines the issue of outreach to diverse publics as a central concern 

to natural resource recreation management. Increasing diversity across the Nation 

has been accompanied by an underrepresentation of communities of color among 

outdoor recreation populations in natural resource settings. Mass media may be an 

excellent way to conduct outreach, but the current investment in media addressing 

diverse publics is discouraging. Patterns of media use and variations by different 

ethnic groups in levels of use, as well as various ethnic groups’ documented preference for ethnic media are presented. Purposes of media use, as well as trust and 

reliance in various sources of recreation information are also noteworthy considerations in developing an outreach strategy. Finally, we present some suggestions 

that may be of assistance to natural resource managers for reaching specific subpopulations, including the value of ethnic media, the potential utility of community 

networks such as churches, and the use of the Internet. 

Keywords: Ethnic/racial diversity, broadcast media, print media, ethnic media, 

outreach.

Introduction

Recreation Participation and Ethnic/Racial Diversity

The U.S. population is ethnically and racially diverse. According to the 2000 

Census, 69.1 percent of the population identified themselves as non-Hispanic 

White, and 12.5 percent as Hispanic or Latino descent. Irrespective of ethnicity, 

4.5 percent of the population identified themselves as Asians and Native Hawaiians/

Pacific Islanders and 12.9 percent of the population identified themselves as Black 

or African American (U.S. Census Bureau 2001). Although the United States 

has a long history of national ethnic and racial diversity, these figures represent a 

considerable increase in the non-Hispanic White population since 1950 (Cordell 

et al. 2004). 

1 Research social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station, Wildland Recreation and Urban Cultures research unit, 4955 

Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507-6099; e-mail: pwinter@fs.fed.us. 

2 Doctoral student, e-mail: jessica.skenderian@cgu.edu. 

3 Professor of psychology, School of Organizational and Behavioral Sciences, Claremont 

Graduate University,150 E 10th St., Claremont, CA 91711; e-mail: william.crano@cgu.edu.

Patterns of media 

use and variations by 

different ethnic groups 

in levels of use, as 

well as various ethnic 

groups’ documented 

preference for ethnic 

media are presented.
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Despite this diversity, White people participate in land-based outdoor recreation at much higher rates than do groups of color. For example, according to the 

National Survey on Recreation and the Environment, 37.6 percent of non-Hispanic 

Whites reported visiting a wilderness or primitive area, compared to 22.3 percent 

of Latinos, and 26.6 percent of Asian Americans (Cordell et al. 2004, 2005). In general, nonparticipants are more likely to be female, older, more ethnically diverse, 

and less affluent (Floyd 1999, Lee et al. 2001, Outdoor Industry Association 2004). 

Non-Whites have reported a lack of information as a constraint to outdoor 

recreation participation (Crano et al. 2005, Scott et al. 2004, Tierney et al. 1998). 

Winter et al. (2004) examined constraints to visiting the Golden Gate National 

Recreation Area and reported that perceived constraints were affected by income 

levels, education levels, linguistic acculturation, ethnic group (four Asian American 

cultural groups) and gender. Also among these constraints was a lack of information. A lack of information was among the top five barriers to national forest 

visitation reported by Latinos, African Americans, and Asians, but not Whites, in 

a study of Los Angeles basin residents reported by Crano et al. (2005). Similarly, 

Scott et al. (2004) reported that Latinos and African Americans were more likely 

than Whites to indicate information and access constraints as barriers to use of 

outdoor recreation facilities. However, it should be noted that a lack of information is not always reported as a greater constraint to minorities than to Whites. For 

example, Mowen et al. (2005) reported that cost, lack of public transportation, no 

way to get to parks, and fear of crime were significantly more likely to be reported 

as a constraint to park use among African Americans than Whites. A lack of 

information was not significantly different in this particular study.

Mass Media and Diverse Publics

Popular mass media may be one method of informing visitors and potential visitors 

about outdoor recreation opportunities. Print media, radio and television spots, and 

Internet sites are all ways of reaching large populations, and represent an untapped 

source for diverse communities. A study by the Association of Hispanic Advertising Agencies (2002) examined the percentage of national advertising investment 

allocated to Hispanic television and print media in comparison to the percentage of 

advertising investment allocated toward television and print media overall (Hispanic plus general market). The results indicated that to reach the Hispanic market 

effectively, at least 8 percent of an advertiser’s budget should be spent on Hispanic 

advertising; however, only 3.2 percent of total national and business marketing 

dollars is devoted to this population. In addition, although total spending for 

advertising in the United States in 2004 was about $236.7 billion, advertisements 
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specifically targeting African Americans approximated only $1.8 billion (Price 

2005). This bias in advertising spending may help to explain differences in media 

use patterns among various ethnicities.

Studies assessing media usage patterns indicate that many individuals prefer 

broadcast (i.e., television and radio) over print media (La Ferle and Lee 2005). 

Although television is the primary form of media used among most ethnic groups, 

differences regarding the use of radio, Internet, and print media have been uncovered (Albarran and Umphrey 1993, Bickham et al. 2003, Blosser 1988, Delener and 

Neelankavil 1990, La Ferle and Lee 2005). For instance, Delener and Neelankavil 

(1990) examined media preferences among Hispanic and Asian populations. 

Although they found similarities in that the participants tended to use the major 

forms of broadcast media for entertainment or news, both groups indicated that 

they preferred television more than any other medium. In regard to differences 

between the groups, they found that Latinos (69.7 percent) were more likely to use 

radio for entertainment compared to Asians (56.7 percent), and that Asians were 

more likely to use newspapers as information sources (58 percent) compared to 

Latinos (54 percent). 

In another study, La Ferle and Lee (2005) examined English language media 

use patterns among Anglo Americans, African Americans, and Hispanic Americans. They discovered that all of the groups spent the most time with the major 

forms of broadcast media and the least time with print media (i.e., least amount of 

time was spent reading newspapers). Significant differences were found among the 

groups, in that African Americans (51 percent) reported watching television more 

hours (3 or more) during a typical weekday compared to Anglo Americans (39.2 

percent) and Hispanic Americans (32.4 percent). The results also indicated that 

African Americans (47.1 percent) listened to the radio more hours (3 or more) during a typical weekday compared to Hispanic Americans (38.5 percent) and Anglo 

Americans (37.2 percent).

A recent study by Crano et al. (2005) investigated media use patterns among a 

sample of African American, White, Asian, and Latino residents of Los Angeles. 

The findings from their study mimic the results of previous research. Specifically, 

the results indicated that among the participants in that study, the most hours per 

week were spent watching television. African-Americans reported the greatest 

number of hours of television watching (20 hours) and Latino respondents reported 

the greatest number of hours listening to the radio (14.5 hours) compared to the 

other ethnic/racial groups in the study. There were no significant differences 

between ethnic groups regarding time spent reading magazines and newspapers. 

Their results also illustrated that the types of radio stations and print media differed 
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with each ethnic group; in particular African American and Latino respondents 

indicated a preference for ethnically based media (i.e., media directed toward a 

specific ethnic group that is typically written or broadcast in a language native to 

the group or targeted to a specific cultural base associated with an ethnic group) 

over mainstream media (such as English language media or media targeted to a 

White majority).

Other studies have found that various ethnic groups, such as Hispanic, African 

American, Asian American, Arab American, and Native American groups, prefer 

ethnically based media (Hsu 2002, La Ferle and Lee 2005, Los Angeles Sentinel 

2005, Vicuna 2005, Winter et al. 2004). For instance, a study conducted by the 

New California Media (2005) surveyed 1,895 Hispanic, African American, Asian 

American, Arab American, and Native American adults in the United States. The 

results indicated that 45 percent of all African American, Hispanic, Asian American, American Indian, and Arab American adults prefer ethnic television, radio, 

or newspapers in comparison to their mainstream media sources. These results 

suggest that 29 million adults (45 percent of the 64 million ethnic adults studied), 

or 13 percent of the entire adult population of the United States, prefer ethnic media 

to mainstream television, radio, or newspapers. These variations in use of media 

ethnic groups’ documented preference for ethnically based media have been linked 

to differences in perceived credibility of various outlets (Beaudoin and Thorson 

2005), levels of trust in various media sources (Sizemore and Milner 2004), and 

maintenance of culture (Dahan and Sheffer 2001, Jeffres 2000, Johnson 2000). 

The results of the New California Media study indicate that advertisers should not 

only focus on the most common form of media being used (i.e., television, radio, 

newspaper) but also consider the preferred type of media (i.e., ethnically based vs. 

mainstream media) of the targeted population. 

It is evident that differences in media use among various ethnic groups exist. 

Messages conveyed through the media must take these differences into consideration to reach ethnically diverse audiences successfully (Campanelli 1991, Marin 

1994). La Ferle and Lee (2005) argued that a clear understanding of media use 

patterns associated with ethnic groups will “help make better media decisions 

and ensure the effective communication of advertising messages” (p. 141). This is 

particularly important in social marketing contexts, in which advertising is used to 

communicate programs and public services that are offered to all ethnicities, such 

as messages that the Forest Service might want to promote to publics.
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Sources of Information Relied Upon and Trusted

Another consideration in selection of a communication route is identifying the 

information sources most relied upon and most trusted. In other words, aside from 

general media use, we need to understand sources that publics tell us that they 

use to gather information about outdoor recreation opportunities, as well as which 

sources they trust the most. Sources of information that recreationists rely upon 

have also been shown to differ by ethnic and racial group. In a number of studies, 

family and/or friends have been reported as recreationists’ primary sources of 

information about recreation opportunities and recreation settings (Chavez et al. 

1993, Chavez et al. 1994, Crano et al. 2005, Parker and Winter 1998, Simcox and 

Hodgson 1993). However, Latinos typically rely more on family and friends as their 

primary information source than do other ethnic/racial groups. 

For instance, Crano et al. (2005) examined the most trusted source individuals, 

who had varying ethnic/racial backgrounds, listed for outdoor recreational information. The results indicated that sources differed greatly by ethnic/racial group. For 

example, African Americans were more likely than other groups to rely on church 

as a source of information. In the same study, respondents were asked which source 

of information they trusted the most. The greatest proportion of respondents chose 

the Internet and computers as their most trusted source. The second most-trusted 

source among all groups except Whites was family and friends (among Whites the 

second most-trusted source was newspapers). 

Trust in the Internet as reported by Crano et al. (2005) corresponds with a 

national survey on Internet users that revealed the Internet as an important information source when compared to other forms of media (Lebo 2004). However, some 

caution is in order, as research has shown a lesser likelihood among Latinos and 

African Americans to have access to, and consequently to use the Internet (Spooner 

2003). Effects of restricted access among groups of color are compounded by the 

lack of ethnically targeted Web portals and targeted advertising (Singh et al. 2003). 

Although use of the Internet may be increasing, primary uses might not include 

gathering of outdoor recreation information. Spooner (2003) found that only a 

small portion of the use of the Internet is for travel information purposes. Primary 

use was related to e-mail. Similar considerations for television viewing purposes, 

and exposure to different programming should be taken into account (i.e., Busselle 

and Crandall 2002). Use of various media outlets should be considered along with 

the types of information individuals seek from that media form. In addition, the 

amount of attention paid to information types from the various sources would be 

important to know (Shah et al. 2001).
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Suggestions for Outreach

Lessons for outreach efforts of natural resource agencies are numerous. Among 

them is the importance of investing in varied media outlets, while recognizing 

that purpose of use of a particular type of media by various ethnic groups may 

determine the true effectiveness of any one outlet more than simple exposure 

levels. Further, use of ethnic media seems paramount in efforts to reach diverse 

publics. Since ethnically based sources are often judged to be more credible and 

are attended to more than other outlets among selected communities of color, 

they represent a valuable resource for information dissemination. Ethnic media 

would extend to Internet offerings as well as more traditional print and broadcast 

media. Agencies may need to develop particular Web pages that are targeted at an 

ethnically diverse audience. 

The role of media in outdoor recreation decisionmaking for communities 

of color through selection of a destination is one area where additional research 

would be of value. Although overall influence of media may be less than family 

and friends, ethnic media may prove a fruitful outlet. This information would be 

helpful to natural resource management agencies. In addition, ways to capitalize on 

community and social networks as information sources might be helpful. The work 

by Reed et al. (2003) examining the use of churches as a source of engagement of 

the African American community serves as an example of how this might be done. 

Recognition of the diversity within racial/ethnic groups also remains an important 

area of inquiry, given the documented heterogeneity within ethnic/racial groups 

(see, for example, Kakai et al. 2003, Winter et al. 2004). It is important to understand cultural differences in information-seeking behaviors to effectively reach 

and serve a diverse public (Kakai et al. 2003).

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Use of ethnic media 

seems paramount 

in efforts to reach 

diverse publics. Since 

ethnically based 

sources are often 

judged to be more 

credible and are 

attended to more than 

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selected communities 

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Bickham, D.S.; Vandewater, E.A.; Huston, A.C.; Lee, J.H.; Caplovitz, A.G.; 

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Proceedings of the 4th social aspects and recreation research symposium; San 

Francisco, CA: San Francisco State University: 17–20.

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Tierney, P.T.; Dahl, R.F.; Chavez, D.J. 1998. Cultural diversity of Los Angeles 

County residents using undeveloped natural areas. Res. Pap. PSW-RP-236. 

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Research Station. 76 p.

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and Recreation Administration. 22(3): 114–136.
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Section VII:

Measurement Studies
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Chapter 17: Approaches to Measuring 

Cultural Diversity in Recreation

Chieh-Lu Li,1 James D. Absher,2 Yi-Chung Hsu,3 and Alan R. Graefe4

Abstract

Measuring cultural diversity in recreation has become an important topic because 

of the increasing coverage of and interest in ethnicity and cross-cultural aspects 

of recreation. Introducing theories and methods from established disciplines other 

than leisure studies/recreation and park studies is necessary to understand this 

important issue. In this article, we first define recreation and examine different 

aspects/domains of recreation cross-culturally. To examine different domains of 

recreation cross-culturally, we need to have an unambiguous cultural definition as 

a basis to measure cultural variations. If the definition of culture contains cultural 

content (e.g., language, religion, family structure, cultural values), then we can 

specifically examine the influence of cultural content on recreation with various 

methods. We discuss different methods of measuring culture, emphasizing cultural 

consensus analysis to estimate the level of within-group or intracultural agreement. 

We also stress the issue of examining the homogeneity of ethnic groups as “real 

groups” from a scientific perspective. Finally, we describe approaches to measuring 

between-group or intercultural variations. 

Keywords: Culture, diversity, outdoor recreation, measurement

Recreation as Culture 

Recreation has been described as time, activity, or experience apart from obligations, such as work or family, but mostly has been approached from the activity 

standpoint (Roberts 1978). Culture can be described as shared information and the 

behaviors and artifacts that are manifestations of that information (Chick 1997). 

Recreation and culture are interrelated, as culture can be expected to influence 

recreation preferences and behaviors. From an anthropological perspective, few 

researchers study recreation, even though recreational activities (e.g., athletic 

sports, outdoor recreation participation) have been regarded as part of the universal 

human cultural repertoire. Murdock and Provost (1973), however, pointed out that 

1 Assistant professor, Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, National Chung 

Hsing University, 250, Kuo Kuang Rd., Taichung 402, Taiwan R.O.C. 

2 Research social scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station; 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507. 

3 Professor, Institute of Tourism and Recreation Management, National Dong Hwa 

University, Taiwan R.O.C.

4 Associate professor, Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management, 

The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801. 

We discuss different 

methods of measuring 

culture, emphasizing 

cultural consensus 

analysis to estimate 

the level of withingroup or intracultural 

agreement. 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

such universals rarely, if ever, represent identical culture content. In other words, 

there may be differences in recreation such as time use and activity participation 

among various cultural groups. Regardless of the cross-cultural differences that 

exist, multicultural comparative research in recreation has been rare in both the 

anthropological and leisure literature (Chick 2000). Research that leads to a better understanding of the relationship between culture and recreation can lead to 

improved knowledge about managing recreation opportunities and to enhance 

appreciation of different cultural traditions (Li et al. 2003). Despite the growing 

interest in cross-cultural aspects of recreation, there is currently no systematic 

agenda for the anthropological study of recreation (Chick 1998, Hsu et al. 2007, Li 

et al. 2007c). 

Culture Defined 

Culture is defined variously. Chick (1997) grouped cultures on the basis of their 

inclusiveness, and defined culture as mental; mental and behavioral; mental, 

behavioral, and material; or simply as information. The distinct disadvantage of the 

second and third definitions is that neither behavior nor artifacts can be explained 

in terms of culture since they are part of the definition. The final definition, while 

comprehensive, is problematic because it is difficult to extract the information 

content from observed behaviors or from artifacts (Li et al. 2007a). 

A cognitive theory of culture emerges from Goodenough’s (1957) classic definition of culture: it is that which one must know in order to function adequately in a 

given social system. For example, a highly influential definition of culture proposed 

by Goodenough (1957) is as follows: 

A society’s culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in 

order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members. Culture is not a 

material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, behavior, or emotions. It 

is rather an organization of these things. It is the form of things that people 

have in mind, their models for perceiving, relating, and otherwise interpreting them (p. 167)

Extending from Goodenough’s definition of culture, values and knowledge and 

beliefs are major components of culture and serve as key features distinguishing 

cultural groups (Chick et al. 2007). Values are mental constructs and can be defined 

as enduring beliefs about desired end states and modes of conduct (Hofstede 1980). 

That is, values are goals for living that define how we want the world to be (i.e., a 

world view) and principles that guide our behavior (Rokeach 1973). This approach 

of using values as a core to operationalize culture has also been widely accepted 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

in psychology, sociology, marketing, and tourism (Li et al. 2007b, Reisinger and 

Turner 1999, Watkins and Gnoth 2005). The cognitive theory of culture, along with 

the related methods of cultural domain analysis (e.g., cultural consensus analysis), 

enables researchers to unambiguously identify shared dimensions of meaning that 

give structure to cultural domains and simplify measuring culture.

Approaches to Measuring Culture

We contend that culture is learned and consists of specific ideas or knowledge 

that is shared within a society (Pelto and Pelto 1975). From this perspective, consensus analysis provides a way of measuring culture. Consensus analysis is well 

established as a means to investigate the degree to which a population or sample 

share similar understandings of the world (Caulkins 2001, Romney et al. 1986). 

For different types of recreation, we can imagine a variety of possible outcomes of 

consensus analysis from specific populations. These include random, patternless 

responses, bimodal distributions, overlapping subcultures, or high concordance 

agreement that can be used to identify a cultural pattern (Caulkins and Hyatt 1999). 

The key task is to emphasize the content of the culture and the selection of productive domains for measuring similarities or differences of culture in recreation. 

Using the cultural consensus model developed by Romney et al. (1986), we are able 

to (a) confirm that ideas within some domains are shared, (b) evaluate how that 

sharing is distributed, (c) estimate how a reasonably culturally competent individual 

would respond to a set of questions about that domain, and (d) evaluate the construct validity of cultural domains (Handwerker 2002). 

Examples of measuring culture using consensus analysis in leisure settings 

include Chick’s (1981) Tlaxcalan Festival study of how festival sponsorships were 

ranked in terms of what villagers called the escalafón, or graded list or scale. He 

studied the degree to which a sample of individuals in a Mexican village understood how the local festival system operated. Chick investigated the “real” ranking 

of the festivals, the degree to which individuals agreed with this “real” ranking, and 

the overall level of agreement over the ranking. His findings showed that individual 

informant rankings all correlated significantly with the overall ranking but that 

some informants were considerably more knowledgeable than others. 

Parr and Lashua (2004) studied members of the Recreation Branch of the Ohio 

Parks and Recreation Association to determine the extent of agreement among 

leisure services practitioners regarding the meaning of leisure, and to examine how 

they describe themselves and the body of knowledge related to leisure services. 

Using Anthropac data analysis software and SPSS, they found high agreement 

among members, and thus, “culturally correct” definitions of leisure. For example, 
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

respondents supported the “multidimensionality” of leisure as evidenced by their 

agreement with statements such as “leisure may have different meanings and 

values, dependent on one’s cultural background.” When analyzed along with the 

free-list data, they found the most frequently reported dimensions of leisure paralleled traditional definitions. For example, respondents had a high level of agreement with statements such as “Leisure is a state of mind,” and “Leisure is doing a 

favorite activity.” 

Li et al. (2007a) also used cultural consensus analyses to examine whether 

three nominal ethnic groups, Anglos, Hispanics, and Asians, were homogeneous 

in terms of cultural values as measured by Hofstede’s (1980) instrument when 

used in a national forest recreation setting. The authors argued that if distinctive 

ethnic subcultures exist, then they should be identifiable by specific measures of 

languages, religion, family structure, cultural values, and the like. The authors used 

Handwerker’s criteria (2002) of measuring consensus that employs principal components analysis with an unrotated solution to test for differences among the three 

ethnic groups. The results of cultural consensus analyses showed that none of the 

three ethnic groups, and none of the subgroups split by age, gender, and generations 

in the United States within the three ethnic groups, were homogeneous in terms of 

the cultural values. The authors, therefore, concluded that it is questionable to make 

comparisons of cultural values if within-group variance equals or exceeds betweengroup variance. They infer that if the homogeneity assumption of ethnic groups 

does not hold empirically, then research based on it may be fundamentally flawed. 

Later, Li et al. (2008), in their research reflections of cross-cultural study for diverse 

customers, further suggested that it is important to examine the individual dimensions of cultural content such as values or behavior patterns attributed to culture 

(e.g., perceptions of service quality, behavioral intentions) among ethnic groups if 

the nominal ethnic groups are, in fact, culturally heterogeneous.

Reliability analysis also provides a way to measure within-sample cultural 

agreement or intracultural variation (Weller and Baer 2002). It is based on the 

correlations between the individual variables and the scale calculated from that 

set of variables. The reliability coefficient (i.e., coefficient alpha or Cronbach’s 

alpha) measures the internal consistency of the scale items and reflects the extent 

to which they are measuring the same thing. It provides the degree to which the 

aggregated responses are stable and reliable estimates of “true” answers. In other 

words, it measures the degree to which subjects would give the same answers on a 

test if the test were administered repeatedly. In essence, reliability analysis provides 

information about the reliability and/or validity of the aggregated responses that can 

be estimated from the level of agreement among informants.
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5 We acknowledge the existence of other approaches to define culture or measure cultural 

diversity in recreation that rely on more qualitative or post-modernist approaches such as “fuzzy 

theory” (Lowen 1996). Although worthwhile, they are beyond the scope of this paper. We hope 

our results and concerns will be gauged subsequently from within these approaches as well.

There are other, more complex methods applicable to the issue of measuring 

culture5 (e.g., analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, standard deviation, average correlation, discriminant analysis, cluster analysis). For example, Li et al. (in 

press) used analysis of covariance to compare similarities and differences among 

census-based ethnic groups in the United States in terms of their perceptions of 

service quality while controlling for the generations in the United States as a coarse 

measure of acculturation and assimilation (the covariate). The authors concluded 

that, compared to Whites and Hispanics, Asians tended to perceive lower service 

quality in their recreational trips to a national forest. The covariate, however, 

showed no significant relationship to perceptions of service quality.

Weller and Baer (2001) have also applied some of these methods (e.g., average 

correlation) to the comparison of amounts of sharing in cultural beliefs about five 

illnesses across geographic regions and ethnic groups. They concluded that there 

was a strong pattern of shared beliefs (i.e., high levels of agreement) in the five 

illnesses selected across samples. 

Do Nominal Ethnic Groups Really Exist?

Members of ethnic groups may identify with each other and are generally recognized by others as a distinct group with a specific name. Group identities are 

constructed on the basis of various traits and experiences. Many of these characteristics are open to different interpretations. Skin color, for example, is an important 

marker of identity in many societies, but in others, it is of minimal importance. 

Some researchers stress that ethnicity is socially constructed, with people choosing a history and common ancestry and creating as much difference as possible 

from others. Many group identities, then, are not based on ascribed traits, per se, 

but on shared values, beliefs, or knowledge (Nagel 1994). Ethnicity has multiple 

definitions but most include a basic core of features. The term ethnicity is generally understood in the anthropological literature (e.g., Barth 1996 [orig. 1969]) to 

designate a population that:

• Is largely biologically self-perpetuating.

• Shares fundamental cultural values, realized in overt unity in cultural forms.

• Makes up a field of communication and interaction.

• Has a membership that identifies itself, and is identified by others, as 

constituting a category distinguishable from other categories of the same order.
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GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-GTR-210

Two basic assumptions are commonly made within ethnic leisure research: (a) 

ethnic groups are culturally homogenous, and (b) if ethnic “behavior” is observed, 

it must therefore be assumed that it is homogenous and the result of culture (Chick 

et al. 2007). However, if ethnic groups display within-group variance that equals 

or exceeds between-group variance in terms of cultural content (e.g., languages, 

cultural values), then it becomes problematic to compare the cultural content 

among groups.

Traditionally, the U.S. Forest Service, National Park Service, and other federal 

and state agencies use census categories to operationalize ethnic groups (Gobster 

2007, U.S. Census Bureau 2006). This practice has the effect of asserting that the 

concept of ethnicity shows that some groups are unitary, i.e., that they compose a 

bounded, distinctive, and solitary group and that their internal differences do not 

matter. This is a normal, and perhaps desirable, part of politics and public policy. 

However, the current uses of census practices may not identify true ethnic groups 

but rather merely assign categories (Brubaker 2006). 

We contend that ethnic groups need to be constructed from a scientific perspective. From a scientific perspective, we need to, first, have a good and clear definition 

of ethnicity. Then, if that definition includes culture, we need to know what part 

of culture is presumed to be critical. Most definitions of culture have included 

values, for example, as an important component of cultural content. But, we must 

make certain that the cultural content chosen, such as values, is, in fact, shared. 

The degree to which the nominal group categories share values can be determined 

via cultural consensus analysis or similar methods such as the comparison of 

group standard deviations and correlations. In other words, we suggest empirically 

examining the amount of sharing of cultural values or some other cultural content 

to assess whether a nominal ethnic group constitutes a real group in a scientific way 

(Chick 2006). 

We feel that if an ethnic group lacks the internal consistency of cultural 

content (e.g., language, religion, family structure, values), they are a group in 

name only. It seems to us that the concept of ethnicity is too vague if it is not 

clearly defined and examined with appropriate scientific procedures. If distinctive 

ethnic subcultures exist, then those subcultures should show cultural consensus 

in terms of cultural domains. If, however, ethnic groups fail to show consensus in 

some cultural domains presumed to constitute ethnicity, then the assumption of 

cultural homogeneity of the ethnic group is violated. If ethnic groups lack cultural 

consensus on a relevant domain, comparing them on that particular domain may be 

meaningless (Li et al. 2007a). 

We contend that ethnic 

groups need to be 

constructed from a 

scientific perspective. 

From a scientific 

perspective, we need 

to, first, have a good 

and clear definition of 

ethnicity. Then, if that 

definition includes 

culture, we need to 

know what part of 

culture is presumed 

to be critical. 
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Recreation Visitor Research: Studies of Diversity

Measuring Intergroup Diversity

According to Barth (1996), the cultural content of different cultural/ethnic groups 

might be similar, and only a few generally recognized items of symbolic values 

(e.g., ethnic identity) might actually differ among groups. To measure cultural 

variation across samples, it is necessary to determine both the within- and betweensample agreement levels (Weller and Baer 2002). For example, Moore et al. (1999) 

used a simple, understandable method where the within- and between-group agreement difference was used to indicate the level of shared beliefs among samples. 

Specifically, they used the amount by which the within-sample agreement exceeded 

the between-sample agreement to identify the proportion of beliefs not shared 

across groups, thus indicating the proportion of beliefs unique to the samples.6 They 

then attributed the unique proportion of beliefs to be culturally determined.

Conclusion

Exploring approaches to measuring cultural diversity in recreation has become 

more important because of the interest in ethnicity and cross-cultural aspects of 

recreational studies. To understand this important issue, we first need to clearly 

define and examine different aspects/domains of recreation cross-culturally. To 

examine different domains of recreation cross-culturally, we need to have an unambiguous cultural definition as a basis to measure cultural variations. If the definition of culture contains cultural content (e.g., language, religion, family structure, 

cultural values), then we can specifically examine the influence of cultural content 

on recreation with various methods. We suggest appropriate methods of measuring 

culture, such as cultural consensus analysis, to estimate the level of within-group or 

intracultural agreement. We also stress the importance of examining the homogeneity of ethnic groups as “real groups” from a scientific perspective. We described 

some approaches to measuring between-group or intercultural variations. Our 

intent is to introduce relevant theories and methods from a cultural anthropological perspective into the recreation discipline and correctively move cross-cultural 

research in recreation forward. Clearly there are other approaches and techniques 

and we look forward to future advances in this area of study.

Acknowledgment

The authors thank Garry Chick who made important contributions to the development of the manuscript and provided valuable comments on the paper.

6 Description of the mathematics of between-group agreement is beyond the scope of this 

paper. Details of the calculations are available from the authors.
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Acknowledgments

We thank the following individuals for reviewing articles for this GTR: Dale 

Blahna, Kelly Bricker, Robert Burns, Michael Butkus, Steven Burr, Susan Clayton, 

Elizabeth Covelli, Megan Cronan, Rene Dahl, Marlene Finley, Myron Floyd, 

Donald Graebner, Danielle Harris, William Hendricks, Denver Hospodarsky, 

Branden Johnson, Yeon-Su Kim, Gerard Kyle, Marcia Marx, James Murphy, 

Sterling McPherson, Eric Rosegard, Nina Roberts, Vinod Sasidharan, Ingrid 

Schneider, Sue Schroeder, Emilyn Sheffield, Kimberly Shinew, Changyou Sun, 

Joanne Tynon, Alan Watson, Peter Witt, and Chih-Kuei Yeh. We also owe thanks 

to Nancy Knap for her able assistance in paper formatting.
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