National Park Service 

George Washington Birthplace National Monument 

Administrative History 

1930-2000 

Seth C. Bruggeman 

College of William & Mary 

2006
1

Preface ..........................................................................................................................................................................6

1. Early Memorialization and the Creation of a National Monument ...................................................................8

A Brief History of Popes Creek Plantation...............................................................................................................9

Memorialization of Washington’s Birthplace, 1815 – 1930 ...................................................................................12

The Colonial Revival and the Rise of Historical Preservation ...............................................................................15

The Wakefield National Memorial Association: A New Vision for Washington’s Birthplace ................................17

The National Park Service Arrives at Wakefield ....................................................................................................20

Building the Memorial Landscape, 1930-1932.......................................................................................................23

A Turbulent Prelude to Property Transfer..............................................................................................................30

The Monument is Established .................................................................................................................................32

2. Archeology and the Problem of Building X, 1881-1950.....................................................................................34

Archeology and Controversy under the War Department, 1879-1898 ...................................................................34

The WNMA’s Memorial Vision, 1925-1930............................................................................................................37

Building X Uncovered, 1930-1932..........................................................................................................................42

Archeological Planning and Controversy, 1932-1940 ...........................................................................................45

The Rodnick Report ................................................................................................................................................51

Signs and Meaning at Washington’s Birthplace.....................................................................................................57

3. Making a Monument into a Park, 1931-1940.....................................................................................................62

The Log House Tea Room.......................................................................................................................................64

Building the Monument’s Physical Infrastructure..................................................................................................69

The Rockefeller Horse Barn....................................................................................................................................72

Early Planning Difficulties and the Administration-Museum Building Debates ....................................................74

Failed Hope for a Museum Building.......................................................................................................................81

Adjacent Landowners and Land Policy, 1931-1940 ...............................................................................................84

4. Visitor Experience and Interpretation, 1932-1940.............................................................................................96

Touring the Monument During the 1930s...............................................................................................................97

Early Interpretation at Washington’s Birthplace .................................................................................................101

Louise du Pont Crowninshield and a New Interpretive Direction........................................................................105

Refurnishing the Memorial House ........................................................................................................................107

The WNMA’s New Interpretive Role.....................................................................................................................109

Annanias Johnson and an Early Living Farm ......................................................................................................110

Visitor Reactions and Racial Discord...................................................................................................................113

Visitor Fees...........................................................................................................................................................116

5. The Impact and Aftermath of World War II, 1940-1955................................................................................119
2

Visitors and Visitation during the War Years .......................................................................................................120

The War and Understaffing ..................................................................................................................................122

Community Relations............................................................................................................................................124

Post-War Recovery ...............................................................................................................................................127

New Hopes for the Log House Tea Room .............................................................................................................131

New Directions for the WNMA .............................................................................................................................133

Post-War Impact on Land Policy..........................................................................................................................137

6. Mission 66—A Prelude to Change, 1955-1966 .................................................................................................141

Visitor Experience, 1955-1966 .............................................................................................................................143

Reinstitution of Visitor Fees..................................................................................................................................145

Understaffing ........................................................................................................................................................146

Mission 66 Planning and Administrative Reorganization ....................................................................................148

Interpretation........................................................................................................................................................152

New Leadership for the WNMA ............................................................................................................................157

Land Policy...........................................................................................................................................................162

7. Living History and Modernization, 1966-1980.................................................................................................165

The 1968 Master Plan...........................................................................................................................................166

New Research for New Interpretive Directions ....................................................................................................169

The Colgate Morgan Horse Farm ........................................................................................................................171

Dwight Storke and Costumed Interpretation ........................................................................................................173

Re-inhabiting the Memorial House and Colonial Kitchen....................................................................................176

Planning a New Visitor Center .............................................................................................................................178

Archeology and Protection of Historic Resources................................................................................................181

Completing the Interpretive Landscape................................................................................................................184

Bicentennial Changes for the WNMA ...................................................................................................................186

Land Policy and Neighbor Relations....................................................................................................................188

8. Unfunded Expansion and the Problem of Changing Leadership, 1980-1995................................................194

Thomas Stone National Historic Site....................................................................................................................195

1987 Adjacent Lands Study...................................................................................................................................199

The GWBMA and the Meaning of Interpretation..................................................................................................203

Administrative Overhaul Under Dwight Storke....................................................................................................207

Living History Reborn ..........................................................................................................................................210

Interpreting Slavery ..............................................................................................................................................213

9. Recent Trends and Reorganization since the 1990s.........................................................................................217

The Turn Away from Living History .....................................................................................................................220

Recent Trends .......................................................................................................................................................224
3

Current Land Concerns ........................................................................................................................................225

The George Washington Boyhood Home at Ferry Farm......................................................................................227

The George Washington Birthplace Memorial Association .................................................................................229

Interpretation Today.............................................................................................................................................230

10. Recommendations.............................................................................................................................................234

Suggestions for Interpretive Planning ..................................................................................................................235

Administrative Obstacles to Interpretive Innovation ............................................................................................241

Appendices ...............................................................................................................................................................246

APPENDIX 1: Washington Ancestry...................................................................................................247

APPENDIX 2: Summary of Bills and Resolutions Introduced in Congress Relevant to the George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument, 1879-1950 .........................................................................................................248

APPENDIX 3: Establishing Legislation, George Washington Birthplace National Monument...........................254

APPENDIX 4: Visitation, 1931-2000 ...................................................................................................................256

APPENDIX 5: 1972 Boundary Expansion Legislation Enabling Inclusion of Shouse Tract...............................257

APPENDIX 6: 1978 Boundary Expansion Legislation Enabling Inclusion of Horner Tracts..............................259

APPENDIX 7: 1993 Boundary Expansion Legislation Enabling Inclusion of Horner Tract ...............................261

APPENDIX 8: 2002 Boundary Expansion Legislation Enabling Inclusion of Muse Tract .................................263

APPENDIX 9: 1998 Legislation Establishing Relationship with Ferry Farm......................................................264

APPENDIX 10: Superintendents of the George Washington Birthplace National Monument ............................265

Illustrations ..............................................................................................................................................................266

ILLUSTRATION 1: The Mary Jones Smith Memorial Garden, 1931...................................................................267

ILLUSTRATION 2: Boundary and Land Status Map, ca. 1944...........................................................................268

ILLUSTRATION 3: Colonial Crop Layout, 1933 ................................................................................................269

ILLUSTRATION 4: MISSION 66 Administrative Reorganization ........................................................................270

ILLUSTRATION 5: Diagrams from Thomas Harrison’s 1966 Interpretive Prospectus.......................................271

ILLUSTRATION 6: “Schematic, Visitor Center, .................................................................................................272

ILLUSTRATION 7: Administrative Organization under Dwight Storke...............................................................273

Maps .........................................................................................................................................................................274

MAP 1: 17th-Century land patents, from Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 169. .............................................275

MAP 2: Memorial Landscape, 1933.....................................................................................................................276

MAP 3: 1968 General Development Plan ............................................................................................................277

Images.......................................................................................................................................................................278

Image 1: Federal monument, ca. 1896. ................................................................................................................279

Image 2: Portrait of Josephine Wheelwright Rust, date and artist unknown. ......................................................279

Image 3: Albright, Rust, and planning team visit the Monument, ca. 1930..........................................................280

Image 4: Albright, Rust, and planning team visit Washington family burial ground, ca. 1930............................280
4

Image 5: Lowering the granite obelisk, 1930. .....................................................................................................281

Image 6: Rolling the granite obelisk to its new location, 1930.............................................................................281

Image 7: Brick kilns at Wakefield, ca. 1930. ........................................................................................................282

Image 8: Washington family burial ground surrounded by block wall erected by Colonial Dames in 1906. ......282

Image 9: FAC at Washington family burial ground, ca. 1931..............................................................................283

Image 10: May 14, 1932 Public dedication ceremonies with Secretary of the Interior, Ray Wilbur, at center....283

Image 11: War Department Engineer J. Arthur Hook excavates around the granite obelisk in 1926. ................284

Image 12: Building X uncovered, ca. 1936...........................................................................................................284

Image 13: The Memorial House with bronze tablet on stone pedestal, ca. 1931. ...............................................285

Image 14: Detail of stone pedestal with commemorative bronze tablet. .............................................................285

Image 15: U.S. post office in basement of Memorial House, ca. 1932. ................................................................286

Image 16: Postmaster Julia Washington. .............................................................................................................286

Image 17: Post office, ca. 1936. ...........................................................................................................................287

Image 18: The Log House pictured not long after construction, ca. 1932. ..........................................................287

Image 19: The Log House Tea Room main dining room, ca. 1932. .....................................................................288

Image 20: Superintendent’s home pictured not long after construction, ca. 1932. ..............................................288

Image 21: Hough’s “temporary museum” in Memorial House basement, ca. 1932-1940...................................289

Image 22: Approach road, ca. 1931. ....................................................................................................................290

Image 23: Approach road (Rt. 204), 2004 (photo by author)...............................................................................290

Image 24: Aerial view of approach road, granite obelisk, parking lot, and Memorial House. ............................291

Image 25: Aerial view of Popes Creek, Memorial House, cedar grove, and footbridge, ca. 1932.......................291

Image 26: Superintendent Phillip Hough. ............................................................................................................292

Image 27: Superintendent Hough leads a tour. ....................................................................................................292

Image 28: A visitor signs the guest register inside the Memorial House, date unknown......................................292

Image 29: A costumed WNMA member serves cider and gingerbread on Washington’s Birthday.....................293

Image 30: Approaching the Washington family burial ground, ca. 1932.............................................................293

Image 31: Potomac River beach parking lot, ca. 1932........................................................................................294

Image 32: Potomac River beach parking, 2004 (photo by author).......................................................................294

Image 33: War Department Potomac River pier built in 1896 and removed in 1934. ........................................295

Image 34: Memorial House with bear skin rug from Yellowstone National Park, 1932. ....................................295

Image 35: The Memorial House as redecorated by Louis Crowninshield, ca. 1940............................................296

Image 36: Early costumed interpretation in the Memorial House, 1937.............................................................296

Image 37: Visitors tour the colonial crops demonstration area, ca. 1935...........................................................297

Image 38: World War II brought numbers of military personnel to the Monument including these sailors walking 

along a park road. ................................................................................................................................................297

Image 39: Monument staff retrieve a spent naval parachute flare, ca. 1941. ......................................................298

Image 40: Assembly plans for greenhouse purchased by Louis Crowninshield. ..................................................298
5

Image 41: WNMA member stands amid corn with greenhouse in background, ca. 1952. ...................................299

Image 42: The WNMA sell plants from their greenhouse inside the Memorial House, ca. 1952. .......................299

Image 43: NPS Director Hartzog celebrates the opening of the Monument’s Morgan Horse Farm on October 8, 

1969. .....................................................................................................................................................................300

Image 44: Aerial views of the Morgan Horse Farm. ............................................................................................301

Image 45: Inside the Colonial Kitchen sometime after 1972...............................................................................302

Image 46: The Visitor Center under construction in 1976, view from Popes Creek. ..........................................303

Image 47: The Visitor Center complete, view from parking lot...........................................................................303

Image 48: Old entrance station reused as chicken coop (photo by author). ........................................................304

Image 49: The Washington home foundations outlined with oyster shell, Memorial House in background.......304

Image 50: Costumed and un-costumed staff work side by side (photo by author)................................................305

Guide to Sources and Works Cited........................................................................................................................306
6

Preface 

The creation of the George Washington Birthplace National Monument on January 23, 1930 

marked a pivotal moment in the history of the National Park Service (NPS). Although the NPS already 

managed a variety of historic sites—in additional to its wealth of parks acquired primarily for their natural 

splendor—Washington’s Birthplace represented a bold new foray into public history, what Director 

Horace Albright referred to as going “rather heavily into the historical park field.”1

 Never before had the 

NPS managed a site so deeply entwined within the popular iconography of the nation’s historical 

conscience. Nor had the NPS ever experimented with historical reconstruction on the magnitude of the 

Wakefield National Memorial Association’s architectural tribute to George Washington’s family home.2

 

Washington’s Birthplace cemented the NPS’s commitment to historic preservation, laid the groundwork 

for consolidation of other federal historic sites under the NPS, and has consequently influenced the 

development and maturation of the Service’s historical vision.3

There is another story to tell about Washington’s Birthplace. The Wakefield National Memorial 

Association (WNMA), born of the Colonial Revival and bred on the commemorative zeitgeist of the 

1920s, brought considerable interpretive weight to bear on the Park during its first decades. The collision 

of those two forces ignited a controversy with considerable implications for the future of the Monument. 

Consequently, the Monument has, during its seventy-five years, vacillated between high positions at the 

forefront of interpretive innovation and low points amid the murky backwaters of marginal significance. 

In between exists a fascinating story about memory, community, and the decisions made about both in the 

service of our country’s historical imagination. Beyond satisfying the requirements of the project at hand, 

 

1

 Horace Albright cited in John Ise, Our National Park Policy, a Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 

1961), p. 325. 

2

 Hal Rothman provides an excellent discussion of the Park’s significance during the formative years of NPS 

expansion into historic preservation in America’s National Monuments, the Politics of Preservation (Lawrence: 

University Press of Kansas, 1989), pp. 197-202. 

3

 Barry Mackinstosh argues that acquisition of Washington’s Birthplace—as well as Colonial National Monument in 

Virginia and Morristown National Historical Park in New Jersey—effectively “overcame” congressional opposition 

to the NPS’s involvement in managing historical parks that had until then been overseen primarily by the U.S. War 

Department. This being the case, NPS’s success at Washington’s Birthplace led to the National Parks Act of 1933 

which placed all federally owned historic properties under NPS management. See Barry Mackintosh, The National 

Park Service (New York & Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1988), pp. 36-39. 
7

I hope that this administrative history of Washington’s Birthplace encourages others to rediscover the 

Park’s significance to NPS history. 

I owe my own fortunate discovery of Washington’s Birthplace to Rich Lowry and Heather Huyck 

who first approached me about undertaking this project. They, together with Paul Weinbaum, Clifford 

Tobias, and Carol Cook facilitated the project, read drafts, and patiently led me through the complexities 

of researching and writing an administrative history. I received a variety of assistance from the College 

of William & Mary including help from Kim Phillips who facilitated the later stages of this project and 

research assistance from Merit Kaschig. At the Birthplace, Superintendent Vidal Martinez also read 

drafts of this report while providing valuable guidance and even more valuable good humor. Steve 

McCoy too read a draft of this report and proved an apt contact person. Rijk Morawe and Vickie Stewart 

tolerated my continual requests for access to the Monument’s archives. Mimi Woodward, Linda George, 

and Ellen Martin took time out of their all-too-busy schedules to put me in touch with the Monument’s 

recent administrative records. I am especially indebted to Dick Lahey, Andrew Packet, Roberta Samuel, 

and John Frye for providing ready opportunities to not talk about my research. 

Numerous individuals answered questions and gave generously of their own time to 

accommodate my requests for interviews. My thanks go to George Church, John Donahue, John Frye, 

Chester Harris, Betty Horner, Janice Frye, John Karish, Jimmy Latane, Vidal Martinez, Roberta Samuel, 

Dwight Storke, Mimi Woodward, Russell Smith, Boyd Sponaugle, and Wayne Saunders. Finally, I 

received endless assistance from the staffs of the National Archives and Records Administration’s sites in 

Washington, DC, College Park, MD, and Philadelphia, PA. David Nathanson led me to valuable material 

in the NPS History Collection at the Harpers Ferry Center and Tom Durant let me invade his office for a 

day. 
CHAPTER 1 

Early Memorialization and the Creation of a National Monument 

Philip Hough1

 arrived on February 16, 1932 at the George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument just in time to celebrate the birthday of the Park’s namesake. Repairs to damage caused by the 

harsh winter of 1932 occupied the new superintendent’s first days but, having recently left a post as 

Assistant Chief Ranger at Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Hough was no stranger to harsh 

weather and certainly reveled in the otherwise exciting atmosphere at the Birthplace.2

 The Wakefield 

National Memorial Association (WNMA) had just completed its decade-long effort to construct what they 

called a “replica” of the house in which George Washington was born. The project attracted widespread 

public interest resulting, in part, from the involvement of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., who had visited the 

monument just two weeks prior to Hough’s arrival.3

Beyond Rockefeller’s role, Americans hardly needed a reason to be excited about George 

Washington in 1932. Not since the days of the Early Republic had reverence for the esteemed first 

president reached such a fever pitch. Led by U.S. Representative Sol Bloom—a veritable P.T. Barnum of 

governmental propaganda—The United States George Washington Bicentennial Commission saturated 

the country with Washingtonia in part to celebrate his birthday, but also in hopes of cheering a nation hit 

hard by economic depression.4

 Bloom applauded the WNMA’s patriotic zeal in raising funds through 

 

1

 In a 1950 letter to Director Drury, Louise du Pont Crowninshield spells Hough’s name “Hoff” suggesting a 

probable pronunciation of the Superintendent’s last name. Betty Horner and Chester Harris, who did have brief 

contact with the first Superintendent—pronounce the name “huf.” See Crowninshield to Drury, 10 January 1950, 

Folder “master plan d1815” in NPS Records Box 8 of 25, George Washington Birthplace National Monument 

Archives (GEWA), and Betty Horner, interview with author, 30 July 2004. 2

 Superintendent’s Monthly Report (SMR), February 1932, NPS Records, GEWA. 

3

 SMR, January 1932, NPS Records, GEWA. 

4

 Bloom’s story is a fascinating one in its own right. A natural born publicist and entrepreneur, Bloom began his 

long career by securing a seat on the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair Commission at the young age of twenty one. 

Unsurprisingly, the commission put Bloom in charge of selecting concessions for the Fair’s famous Midway. For a 

fun and fascinating account of this early phase of Bloom’s career, see Erik Larson, The Devil in the White City (New 

York: Vintage Books, 2003). Washington mania spread even beyond the United States when the Bicentennial 

Commission convinced eighty-one countries to observe the president’s birth resulting in, among other idiosyncratic 

monuments, a bust of Washington in Saigon and the dedication of Washingtonstrassse in Germany. See Karal Ann 

Marling, George Washington Slept Here, Colonial Revivals and American Culture, 1876-1986 (Cambridge, 

Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press, 1988), p. 329. 
9

public subscription. The Monument basked in the media glow created by movie crews, press corps, 

visiting dignitaries, and a highly publicized mail drop by famed aviator Major James Doolittle.5

 

In a 1932 issue of the NPS’s publication, Historical Notes, NPS Assistant Historian Elbert Cox explained 

that although much of the Washington hype was “for purely commercial reasons,” the NPS’s contribution 

was different: “At George Washington Birthplace National Monument the restoration of the longneglected old Wakefield estate will picture for the visitor the birthplace of more than two hundred years 

ago.”6

 The George Washington Birthplace National Monument opened amid this spirit of celebration and 

promised to recreate for the country the scene of its most beloved hero’s birth. Fulfilling that promise, 

however, would prove more difficult than anyone could predict. 

A Brief History of Popes Creek Plantation7

George Washington’s birth occurred during a time of relative calm in colonial America. British 

control of the eastern colonies had more or less stabilized with the breaking of Native American power 

east of the Appalachians. Colonists—Virginians foremost among them—had begun to exert their own 

political will by way of assemblies. This move to self-government resulted, in part, from the prosperity 

 

5

 Marling offers a good overview of the glitz and fanfare generated by Sol Bloom’s commission and also indicates 

that Bloom kept quiet about the Monument’s congressional appropriation in his praise of public subscription. 

Marling, George Washington Slept Here, p. 348. Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes addressed the crowd at the 

May inaugural ceremony and Hough reported later that summer that “Major James Doolittle sped over 

Washington’s birthplace on the official bicentennial flight and dropped a package of mail at 8:45 am. Between 

dawn and dusk on this date major Doolittle covered nearly all the land seen by George Washington in his life time in 

the country.” For other descriptions of the Monument’s opening, see Robert White’s account of the February 11, 

1932 birthday celebration and Hough’s account of the February 22, 1932 bicentennial celebration both in File H16 

“Special Reports,” NPS Records Box 6 of 25, GEWA. Fragments of the streamers tied to Doolittle’s package are 

attached to SMR, July 1932, GEWA. File “A8215 Annual-February 22” in NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA 

contains various correspondence regarding the dedication ceremony and periodical coverage of bicentennial events. 

6

 Elbert Cox, “Virginia Editorial” in Historical Notes 6:2 (March-April 1932) pp. 1-2 in folder “Colonial National 

Monument,” NPS Records Box 14 of 25, GEWA. 

7

 The early history of the area surrounding Washington’s Birthplace is discussed at length in Oculus, John Milner 

Associates, Inc., Cultural Landscape Report, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Westmoreland 

County, Virginia, Cultural Landscape Report, 2 vols., July 1999. The cultural landscape report offers a thorough 

mix of original research and secondary scholarship and, given that the scope of the present project does not include 

the years preceding the arrival of the NPS at Popes Creek, I rely on it at length here. Charles E. Hatch, Jr., Popes 

Creek Plantation, Birthplace of George Washington (The George Washington Birthplace National Memorial 

Association, 1979) offers insight into these early years as does Charles B. Hosmer, Jr., Preservation Comes of Age, 

From Williamsburg to the National Trust, 1926-1949, Volume I (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 

1981). Also see Joy Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief: Archaeology and Meaning at George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument” in Paul A. Shackel, ed. Myth, Memory, and the Making of the American Landscape

(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001) and Sandra Gioia Treadway, “Popes Creek Plantation, Birthplace of 

George Washington” in Virginia Cavalcade 21 (Spring 1982), pp. 192-205. 
10

afforded Chesapeake tobacco planters by an ever-flourishing Atlantic economy. That economy relied on 

forced labor and expanded dramatically during the early eighteenth century as continued importation of 

slaves augmented an already naturally expanding population of forced laborers. Washington’s early 

years at Wakefield unfolded during a period not yet complicated by slave revolt (Stono Rebellion, 1739), 

the first Great Awakening (1740s), or the series of trade-disrupting battles initiated by King George’s War 

(1744-48). 

The short-lived calm of the 1730s, however, followed a preceding century of upheaval. The lands 

surrounding Washington’s Birthplace, until the middle of the seventeenth century, laid within the realm of 

the Powhatan Confederacy wherein the Pissasekcs favored the shores of Popes Creek and the Potomac for 

seasonal oyster harvesting camps.8

 European colonization and, consequently, displacement of native 

peoples began in the early 1650s when Henry Brooks became one of the first white settlers to take up 

permanent residence in what the Virginia Assembly declared Westmoreland County in 1653. Though 

densely forested and interspersed by swamps and marshland, the Brooks tract lay strategically between 

Bridges Creek and Popes Creek with ready access to the Potomac River and, beyond, the Atlantic Ocean. 

Brooks recognized his geographic advantage within an increasingly profitable Atlantic trade network and 

wasted no time settling on his 1,020 acres, doing so even before the issue of his 1657 land patent (Map 

1).9

Brooks almost immediately parceled out his tract, selling portions to two parties by 1656. 

Nathaniel Pope, finding life for Protestants increasingly uncomfortable among Maryland’s Catholic 

majority, bought the second tract to establish a more stable home place for his daughter Anne and son-inlaw John Washington. In 1664, the newlyweds made a home at Bridges Creek and so began the familial 

presence commemorated today. John Washington expanded his holdings by purchasing, among other 

tracts, a 150-acre parcel previously given to Lydia and Lawrence Abbington by Henry Brooks. The 

portion of that land purchased by Augustine Washington, Sr. from Joseph Abbington in 1694 now 

 

8

 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.3-2.5. 9

 Ibid., pp. 2.4, 2.8, 2.10-2.11 
11

constitutes the Monument’s core historic area. Nearly a half dozen home sites existed on what is now 

Monument property within a mere decade of Brooks’ original patent.10 It is easy to forget amid the Park’s 

present rural calm that by mid-seventeenth-century standards the land between Popes and Bridges Creeks 

bustled with activity and was poised to witness an explosion of commercial prosperity in the years ahead. 

 The Washington family (Appendix 1) invested their late seventeenth-century tobacco profits in 

further land expansion. John’s son Lawrence inherited a substantial tract of his father’s land and 

purchased an additional thousand acres, all of which passed to Lawrence’s son, Augustine, in 1698. The 

plantation reached a height of prosperity and efficiency under Augustine’s ownership. Through further 

land acquisitions by way of marriage to Jane Butler in 1715 and a full purchase of the Abbington tract in 

1718, Augustine consolidated the family enterprise into a single massive operation and, in 1727, brought 

his family to live at Popes Creek in a style befitting a wealthy landowner. The house they occupied—

renovated and expanded in 1722—is represented today by the Monument’s Memorial House.11 Although 

George Washington left Popes Creek at age three and spent the majority of his boyhood years about forty 

miles west of Wakefield at Ferry Farm, Virginia, his early years at Popes Creek can be understood as the 

culmination of a much greater story involving the Anglicization of the Chesapeake Bay region within the 

greater context of a new world order based on the circulation of goods, people, and cultures throughout 

the Atlantic World. 

 Although George Washington revisited his birth site in later years and refined there the surveying 

skills that later contributed to his military and entrepreneurial successes, the histories of George 

Washington and of Popes Creek Plantation more-or-less diverged by the 1740s. George’s half brother 

Augustine Washington inherited the family estate in 1743 and passed the land in 1762 to his son, William 

Augustine Washington, who renamed the plantation “Wakefield.” The Washington family’s tenure on 

the old Abbington tract ended on Christmas Day 1779 when fire destroyed the house where George 

Washington was born, an event responsible for the name “Burnt House Point” still in use today. William 

 

10 Ibid., pp. 2.11, 2.15, 2.17, 2.19. 

11 Ibid., pp. 2.20, 2.24-2.25. 
12

Washington temporarily removed the family to a nearby farm called Blenheim. He built a new family 

seat (Haywood) in 1784 near the mouth of Bridges Creek. Although William Washington salvaged brick 

from the old building for his new home, he left nothing but charred remains to mark the site of George 

Washington’s birth.12

Memorialization of Washington’s Birthplace, 1815 – 1930 

 Washington family property changed hands frequently during the years following the destruction 

of the birth home. Economic pressures prompted crop diversification, and consequently, significant 

changes in the social and agricultural landscape throughout the latter eighteenth century and into the 

nineteenth. All the while, a profound spirit of reverence emerged among the citizens of the Early 

Republic for the leaders of the American Revolution. In this spirit in 1815 George Washington Parke 

Custis (George Washington’s adopted grandson) traveled to the site of the old Washington plantation to 

memorialize the birth site of his legendary namesake.13 Various accounts tell the story of Custis 

constructing a small marker from the bricks of a crumbling chimney atop what he presumed to be the 

location of Washington’s birth home. Although it is likely that Custis missed his mark and despite 

evidence that a local farmer relocated the makeshift memorial some years later, the Custis memorial came 

to be recognized in local lore and custom as the exact site of Washington’s birth.14 Just prior to the Civil 

War, Lewis Washington further legitimized the Custis site by deeding a sixty-foot square lot-—

presumably the birth house location—and the Washington family’s nearby burial ground to the 

Commonwealth of Virginia under the condition that the sites be protected and appropriately marked. 

Although the Commonwealth defaulted on its end of the agreement given the more pressing concerns of 

 

12 Ibid., p. 2.31. 

13 Relying largely on Hatch’s Popes Creek Plantation, Paul Carson provides a succinct overview of early 

memorialization at Wakefield in Carson, “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s 

Birthplace” in Northern Neck of Virginia Historical Magazine, December 1986, pp. 4111-4115. Also see Oculus, 

Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.35-2.37. 14 See Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” pp. 199-201 and Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, pp. 64-69 for 

descriptions of Custis’ visit. Also see Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.37-2.38. 
13

war, this transfer of deed marked the beginning of government involvement in the memorialization of 

Washington’s birth site.15

 Realizing that Civil War-ravaged Virginia could hardly do justice to the spirit of the transfer, a 

patriotic post-war U.S. Congress appropriated $3,000 for a land survey and sent a party of officials led by 

Secretary of State William M. Evarts to inspect the site and determine a course of action during the 

summer of 1879.16 Evarts and his party traveled down the Potomac River and met, among others, John E. 

Wilson (the former owner of the Wakefield parcel given to Virginia) at Bridges Creek on October 31, 

1879. Accounts of this trip indicate that the Custis stone no longer stood at the presumed birthplace site 

though a crumbling chimney did remain. Evarts, having considered the testimony of Wilson and other 

locals, accepted the chimney as belonging to the original building and thus the best approximation of its 

location. The exploratory party returned to Washington and Evarts requested that Congress appropriate 

$30,000 to accomplish the necessary memorialization. Congress followed suit on February 26, 1881 and 

on April 21, 1882, Virginia Governor William E. Jameson officially conveyed the property it had 

received from William Lewis Washington in 1858 to the United States.17 As with other federally-owned 

historic sites of the time, Washington’s Birthplace became the responsibility of the U.S. War Department, 

which placed it under the supervision of the Army Corps of Engineers. 

Evarts, recognizing a need for further Congressional appropriation to improve access to the site 

by means of water and land, delayed construction of the monument. In the meantime, the new Secretary 

of State, James G. Blaine, approved construction plans drawn by Boston architects Home and Dodd on 

April 24, 1881. The plans proposed moving the Washington family burial vault to the presumed site of 

Washington’s birth, adjacent to the crumbling chimney, where both would be enclosed by a granite 

surround including bronze doors and a grill for viewing. John E. Wilson, an adjacent landowner and 

 

15 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.36, 2.44. 16 The appropriation was authorized by H.J. Res. 94, 46th Congress, and would be worth approximately $55,000 

today based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. Oculus, 

Cultural Landscape Report, p. 2.41. 17 The appropriation would be worth about $550,000 today, based on adjustments for inflation according to 

Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, pp. 70-71. See H Res. 315, 46th

Congress. 
14

Washington family representative, opposed the plan and successfully agitated for a reconsideration of the 

burial ground treatment.18 In 1893, Congress approved plans for construction of a 50-foot memorial 

granite obelisk and a wharf granting access to the site by boat from the Potomac River. John Crawford & 

Son of Buffalo, New York designed the thirty-five ton obelisk. Including construction of an iron fence, 

landscaping, and construction of foot paths, the entire project cost $12,057. Following completion of the 

monument in 1896, the Corps of Engineers Office of Public Buildings and Grounds maintained the site 

under the supervision of a caretaker appointed by the War Department (Image 1).19

 Scant records render unclear exactly what transpired at the site during the first two decades of the 

twentieth century. If the War Department’s activity elsewhere is any indication, we can surmise that the 

monument remained relatively unchanged during these years. The War Department had become 

something of a default custodian of historic properties in the postbellum United States following its 1861 

seizure and subsequent restoration of the Robert E. Lee home in Arlington, VA. The unintended 

consequence of the Lee home restoration was the eventual use of the War Department as a protector of 

federally-acquired historic properties including Civil War battlefields at Chattanooga, Gettysburg, Shiloh, 

and Vicksburg. But the War Department tended its properties—including Wakefield—inconsistently and, 

in some cases, with relative abandon.20 Private funds supported occasional improvements as in 1906 

when the Colonial Dames in Virginia constructed a thirty-six-foot square concrete block wall around the 

Washington family burial vault. Two of the original family gravestones as well as the names of seventeen 

other family members were set into a cement floor poured on each side of the vault.21 Save this 

improvement, no development occurred during the War Department’s tenure though cursory 

 

18 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.45; v. 2, p. C-2. John E. Wilson—who had married William 

Augustine Washington’s granddaughter Betty—inherited the land at Wakefield in 1867 from his father, John F. 

Wilson, thus bringing the land back into Washington family ownership. See Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 63. 

19 See S.J. Res. 102, 52nd Congress. The project would cost about $260,000 today, based on adjustments for 

inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, 

pp. 2.45, 2.46 and v. 2, p. C.2. See NPS Records Box 17 of 25, GEWA for a large-format facsimile of 1889 Corps 

of Engineers map with schematic drawings of the granite shaft. 20 Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, pp. 469-77. 21 Dr. Augustine Latane performed this work; see Hough to Mr. Wilhelm, 10 April 1939, in “master plan d1815” in 

NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 
15

archeological investigations during 1881-82 did fuel significant debate concerning the actual location and 

character of the Washington birth home (see chapter 2). 

The Colonial Revival and the Rise of Historical Preservation 

The War Department’s early forays into historic preservation—as at the Lee home and at 

Washington’s Birthplace—unfolded against the backdrop of a larger movement in the United States 

generally referred to as the Colonial Revival. Most scholars attribute the beginning of the Colonial 

Revival to a sort of nostalgic patriotism widespread during the 1850s and 60s.22 The long-rising sectional 

tensions of the decades preceding the Civil War coincided with the deaths of the last of the great leaders 

of the Early Republic.23 Some Americans associated the deaths of these leaders with the unraveling of the 

republic and sought to preserve national integrity by honoring the dead through preservation of their 

homes. The historic house movement dedicated itself to sites associated with George Washington, 

specifically his wartime headquarters in the Hasbrouk House at Newburgh, New York, in 1850 and at his 

adult home in Mount Vernon, Virginia, in 1853.24 The Mount Vernon case proved especially influential. 

Throughout the country, wealthy women had come to recognize historic preservation as a means by 

which to publicly express their patriotism and political will prior to congressional approval of the 19th

Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1919. At Mount Vernon, just such a group of women banded 

together in 1860 and raised enough money to purchase Washington’s home for this purpose. The success 

of and publicity surrounding this effort inspired other women's associations to restore historic homes 

throughout the eastern states during the latter quarter of the nineteenth century.25

 Although the Civil War briefly stifled the historic preservation movement, it did not extinguish 

the nation’s fascination with all things colonial. During these years, the U.S. Sanitary Commission raised 

 

22 Joel J. Orosz, Curators and Culture, the Museum Movement in America, 1740-1870 (Tuscaloosa and London: The 

University of Alabama Press, 1990), p. 180. 23 John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison, for example, all died between 1820 

and 1840. 

24 John A Herbst, "Historic Houses," in Warren Leon and Roy Rosenzweig, eds., History Museums in the United 

States: A Critical Assessment (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1989), p. 98. 25 See Marling, Washington Slept Here, pp. 53-84 on the Mount Vernon restoration and pp. 85-114 for a discussion 

of the historic house movement. Patricia West provides an especially insightful discussion of the Mount Vernon 

Ladies’ political motivations in Domesticating History, the Political Origins of America’s House Museums

(Washington & London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999). 
16

money for the care of Union soldiers through a series of charity events called Sanitary Fairs. Sanitary 

Fairs frequently offered paying visitors the opportunity to dine in simulated colonial kitchens where 

costumed women served period food.26 The first of these appeared in 1864 at the Brooklyn and Long 

Island Sanitary Fair and, unsurprisingly, opened on George Washington’s birthday. Post-war variations 

on this theme included the Martha Washington Tea, a prim and proper affair during which ladies in 

colonial dress served tea to one another as in 1873 during a celebration of the Boston Tea Party. 

Charitable teas grew increasingly elaborate and featured grand balls and elegant pageants. The popularity 

of teas spread throughout the country and, by 1875, the Mount Vernon Ladies Association sponsored its 

own teas in Richmond and Baltimore.27

 The 1876 International Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia further popularized the colonial 

revival. Among the most popular exhibits at the Centennial Exposition was the New England Farmer’s 

Home colonial kitchen. Nearby, the Philadelphia Patent Office presented a recreation of Washington’s 

Morristown, New Jersey headquarters in which the general’s clothes laid draped across period furniture as 

if awaiting his return.28 The Centennial Exhibition revealed to the general public for the first time on a 

large scale the evolving influence of the Colonial Revival and the emergence of life-like tableau as a form 

of historical representation. The effect was twofold. Presentations of colonial life fueled popular 

patriotism throughout the beginning of the twentieth century while encouraging refinements of the 

representational techniques later made famous at Colonial Williamsburg and ultimately used at 

Washington’s Birthplace. Perhaps more importantly, amid the commercial boom of the postwar era, 

displays of colonial life at the Centennial Exhibition served as a kind of three-dimensional catalog 

simultaneously arousing interest in and making available for sale colonial reproductions of furniture and 

other domestic furnishings.29 Public desire for colonial-style bric-a-brac ballooned during the latter years 

 

26 Rodris Roth, "The New England, or ‘Olde tyme,’ Kitchen Exhibit at Nineteenth-Century Fairs" in Alan Axelrod, 

ed., The Colonial Revival in America (New York & London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1985), pp. 160-61. 27 Marling, George Washington Slept Here, p. 44. 28 Ibid., p. 27. 

29 West, Domesticating History, p. 42. 
17

of the nineteenth century thereby creating a willing market for the very products and experiences offered 

by a new wave of historic homes and museums. 

 The Colonial Revival carried with it ideological overtones. Historian Mike Wallace argues that 

labor-related violence at the end of the nineteenth century motivated a xenophobic moneyed elite to seek 

ways to “Americanize” an ethnically diverse working class. The Colonial Revival, he argues, sought to 

acculturate immigrants through exposure to historic homes, war shrines, soldier monuments, and other 

patriotic monuments.30 For the wealthy descendents of America’s first families who desired to remind the 

nouveau riche of its incivility, this project included a reinvestment in genealogy and resulted in a turn in 

period rooms and museums toward a more “dignified” past, what historian Celia Betsky describes as a 

shift “from the spinning wheel to the spinet.” Thus, unlike the 1876 Centennial Exhibition’s popular 

colonial kitchen display, Chicago’s 1893 Columbian Exhibition featured genteel sitting rooms in private 

historic homes.31 By 1924, when the Colonial Revival found its fullest expression in the famed American 

Wing of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the movement’s ideological disposition had become evident. 

R.T.H. Halsey, the American Wing’s first curator, understood his exhibit as a defense against the “foreign 

ideas utterly at variance with those held by the men who gave us the Republic.” 32 Although the motives 

and methods may have changed in the seventy years since the Mount Vernon ladies began their work, the 

belief in the moralizing powers of historical objects—especially as an antidote to modernity—had not. 

The Wakefield National Memorial Association: A New Vision for Washington’s Birthplace 

The influence of the Colonial Revival spread to Washington’s Birthplace by way of Josephine 

Wheelwright Rust (Image 2). Rust was born just a few miles away at Oak Grove in 1864 to a 

 

30 Mike Wallace, "Visiting the Past: History Museums in the United States" in Mickey Mouse History and Other 

Essays on American Memory (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), pp. 7-8. 31 Celia Betsky, "Inside the Past: The Interior and the Colonial Revival in American Art and Literature, 1860-1914" 

in Alan Axelrod, ed., The Colonial Revival in America (New York & London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1985), p. 

266. For an excellent discussion of the manner in which domestic textile production changed over time and 

resonated in gender roles and cultural interactions (especially turn-of-the-century mythologies concerning 

eighteenth-century lifeways), see Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, The Age of Homespun: Objects and Stories in the Creation 

of an American Myth (New York: Knopf, 2001). 32 William B. Rhoads, "The Colonial Revival and the Americanization of Immigrants" in Axelrod, pp. 348-49. For a 

good discussion of the American Wing, Halsey, and the ideological underpinnings and wide influence of both, see 

Wendy Kaplan, “R.T.H. Halsey, An Ideology of Collecting American Decorative Arts” in Winterthur Portfolio 17:1 

(Spring 1982) pp. 43-53. 
18

Confederate surgeon who traced his lineage to Colonel John and Anne Pope Washington. Although she 

spent the majority of her adult life in Richmond, Virginia and Washington, DC the Westmoreland County 

native maintained close ties to her Washington family roots.33 In 1923, Rust banded together a number of 

wealthy associates, mostly women, to form the Wakefield National Memorial Association (WNMA). 

Incorporated on January 18, 1924, the group resolved to build a replica of Washington’s birth home atop 

his birth site, restore his family’s burial ground, and make the site a prominent national attraction.34 The 

group’s first public meeting on February 22, 1924 in Washington, DC’s Memorial Continental Hall, 

included addresses by Chief Justice William Howard Taft, Senator Simeon D. Fess, and Senator Claude 

A. Swanson who had, in 1922, lobbied unsuccessfully for the creation of an eastern park. By the early 

part of 1926, the WNMA had raised enough money to pay $12,000 (about $125,000 today) for seventy 

acres surrounding the Government’s 11-acre monument including rights of way and fifty feet of land 

encircling the Washington family burial ground.35

Like other well-respected ladies associations of the time, the WNMA had friends in high places. 

It recruited U.S. Fine Arts Commissioner Charles Moore to be its vice president and made Charles 

Hoppin, a noted Washington family genealogist, its historian. Moore’s involvement ensured the WNMA 

a voice in governmental circles and Hoppin’s influence eventually secured a lucrative audience with John 

D. Rockefeller, Jr. In 1926, New York Senator James W. Wadsworth, Jr. and Virginia Representative 

Schulyer O. Bland introduced a bill granting the WNMA congressional authorization to enact their plans. 

 

33 Although this report does not explore Rust’s life and family history in detail, future study would certainly benefit 

from a consideration of how her family’s Confederate leanings informed Rust’s later notions about history and 

memorialization of George Washington in the Northern Neck of Virginia. See “Tribute to Mrs. Josephine 

Wheelwright Rust presented by Dalton W. Mallory on the occasion of the unveiling of her portrait” (approximately 

1994) in folder “A3615” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

34 The minutes of the WNMA’s first meeting also indicate its interest in building “a log cabin as emblematic of the 

home of the first settlers.” This structure would become the Log House Tea Room. “Minutes of the First Meeting 

of the Wakefield National Memorial Association, June 11, 1923,” Wakefield Files, FAC Records, RG 66, National 

Archives Building, Washington, DC (NAB). 

35 Swanson cosponsored an unsuccessful bill to establish the Appalachian National Park in Virginia. He was more 

successful in 1928 with legislation expanding the then new Shenandoah National Park. See Ise, Our National Park 

Policy, p. 252, 257. Josephine W. Rust, “Wakefield National Memorial Association, Report of the President,” 11 

June 1930, in Box “GEWA—Annual Reports,” Harpers Ferry Center Archives, Harpers Ferry, WV (HFCA). This 

figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 

to 2003. 
19

President Calvin Coolidge signed it into law on June 7, 1926 and thereby granted the WNMA permission 

to “build...a replica of the house in which George Washington was born.” 36

The WNMA’s granting legislation set the stage for construction of the memorial landscape but it 

also included two provisions that would complicate events at the Monument in the years to come. First, 

the Congress expected the WNMA to build a “replica” of Washington’s birth home. Whether or not the 

WNMA did build a true replica, as we will see, fueled controversy at the birthplace well into the 1940s. 

Secondly, the act required that both the United States Fine Arts Commission (FAC) and the Secretary of 

War give advance approval to all WNMA plans. During the early days of historic preservation, the 

FAC’s involvement was intended to provide interpretive guidance (i.e. an assurance of some degree of 

authenticity) otherwise unavailable from the War Department. That an FAC commissioner—Charles 

Moore—was vice president of the WNMA made this provision, at the time, a mere formality. 

The War Department’s role presented a larger stumbling block. Despite the WNMA’s legislative 

mandate, the War Department still operated the Monument on behalf of the federal government and had 

its own ideas about how to appropriately memorialize George Washington. The WNMA had already 

butted heads with the War Department in 1925 over the latter’s construction of what the WNMA 

considered to be a historically inappropriate concrete access road. Tensions reemerged when the WNMA 

hired Washington, DC architect Edward W. Donn, Jr. in 1927 to draft plans for a Memorial House, a 

stylized log cabin, and for restoration of the Washington family burial ground. 37 Secretary of War 

Dwight Davis dismissed the WNMA’s plans and indicated to Rust in a January 31, 1928 letter that the 

War Department would seek its own appropriation to hire an architect and devise memorialization plans. 

Davis succeeded in securing the appropriation and an architect, but the War Department’s plans called for 

 

36 See HR 6985, HR 10131, S 2299, HR 7369, and HJ Res. 198, 69th Congress. 37 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.53. Donn previously worked on the restored Woodlawn Plantation 

at Mount Vernon. Oculus, v. 1, p. 2.54. A folder titled “lands” in NPS Records Box 16 of 25, GEWA, contains a 

large format 17 February 1926 map of Wakefield drawn by the Corps of Engineers showing land obtained by the 

WNMA in relation to surrounding area with details concerning ownership of properties along the approach road. 

The map also includes fairly detailed drawings of Latane family property with its various buildings. A map of 

proposed development commissioned by the WNMA in December 1927 attests to their grandiose expectations and 

includes a large airstrip adjacent to what is now Route 204 as well as a channel cut through Popes Creek to 

accommodate large vessels. See 1927 map in folder “2.11 Wakefield Development—War Dept.,” NPS Records 

Box 6 of 25, GEWA. 
20

an exorbitant $450,000 (about $5 million today)—an unlikely sum to be granted by Congress. Unable to 

devise a sufficiently affordable plan to compete with Rust’s vision, Davis relented and the WNMA 

obtained more-or-less carte blanche at Wakefield by 1929.38

The WNMA’s legislative victories and Donn’s preliminary drawings of the memorial landscape 

helped the group generate public interest in its project, but the real boon to public relations and financial 

feasibility came with the involvement of John D. Rockefeller, Jr. In July 1928, historian Charles Hoppin 

presented Rockefeller with “a leather covered book containing, indexed, every available map, picture and 

other matter relating to Wakefield.”39 Hoppin’s gift evidently convinced Rockefeller of the practicability 

of the WNMA’s project. The wealthy industrialist purchased 267 acres adjacent to the birth site for 

$115,000 and placed it within his River Holding Company for release to the WNMA on January 7, 1930, 

at which time Rockefeller expected the group to have raised an equivalent purse through public 

subscription.40 Rockefeller’s involvement certainly legitimized the WNMA’s vision, but satisfying his 

request for matching funds would prove more difficult than Rust and her associates expected. 

The National Park Service Arrives at Wakefield 

By the end of 1929, the WNMA seemed to have established itself as the sole guardian of 

Washington’s legacy at Popes Creek. Even the War Department acknowledged the group’s supremacy 

when Secretary of War James W. Good formally approved the WNMA’s construction plans on April 30, 

1930.41 But the WNMA was still not the only organization interested in making a mark at Washington’s 

 

38 Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” pp. 205-06. This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for 

inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. For greater detail concerning Davis’ 

resistance to the WNMA, see Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.55-2.57. Folder “WNMA A42” in 

NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA, contains a variety of relevant correspondence between the WNMA and the War 

Department. Also see Beasley, pp. 206-07. 

39 Rust, “Wakefield National Memorial Association, Report of the President.” 40 See “Wakefield, Birthplace of George Washington,” Report No. 45 accompanying S. 1784, 71st Congress. 

$115,000 would be equivalent to about $1.25 million today based on adjustments for inflation according to 

Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. Rockefeller had previously and more famously funded the 

restoration of Colonial Williamsburg and therefore already had experience with projects like the WNMA’s 

restoration of the Wakefield property. He also had experience funding NPS projects and contributed large sums to 

Acadia National Park in Maine and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in Tennessee. See Barry 

Mackintosh, The National Parks: Shaping the System, (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC, Produced 

by Harpers Ferry Center, National Park Service, 1991), p. 23. 

41 Rust, “Wakefield National Memorial Association, Report of the President.” 
21

Birthplace. The National Park Service, created in 1916, had until the late 1920s focused its attentions on 

the preservation and protection of primarily natural resources in the western states. All the while, NPS 

Assistant Director Horace Albright envisioned an expansion of the NPS’s mission to include protection of 

the nation’s historical resources. Having succeeded Director Stephen Mather in 1928, Albright had 

already initiated plans to create Colonial National Monument (Virginia) and now, aware of the events 

unfolding at Wakefield, recognized that NPS control of Washington’s Birthplace would further his vision 

of a historically-minded NPS.42

His timing was perfect. The WNMA had acquired power, prestige, and the promise of funding 

through its association with Rockefeller. It could not, however, fulfill its promise to match his 

contribution. Despite attempts to garner interest in its project through various publications and 

picturesque post cards depicting the not-yet built Memorial House, the WNMA simply could not make 

ends meet through public subscription.43 Rust turned once again to Congress for assistance. She 

convinced Representative Bland to hurry yet another appropriation bill through the House on behalf of the 

WNMA and Virginia Senator Claude A. Swanson followed suit in the Senate. Albright acted quickly and 

called in a favor from his friend and supporter, Michigan U.S. Representative Louis Cramton.44 In floor 

debate, Cramton argued that Rockefeller would only deliver on his end of the deal with some guarantee 

that the Wakefield restoration would be authentic and well maintained. He proposed that only if the 

WNMA deeded its Wakefield interests to the NPS—the only organization, according to Cramton, capable 

of ensuring Rockefeller’s wishes—should Congress further fund the group’s project. 

This was an attractive argument in 1930 because, at that time, congress preferred to avoid 

allocating funds to buy park land. Unlike in the west, where the federal government owned wide 

 

42 For a discussion of the NPS’s earliest parks in the west, see Mackintosh, The National Parks, pp. 12-24. Ise 

discusses Albright’s evolving vision for historical parks in Our National Park Policy, p. 344. 43 Folder “Transfer to Govt.” in NPS Records Box 6 of 26, GEWA contains one such 1927 postcard depicting the 

future Memorial House. This file also contains Ella Loraine Dorsey’s “Restoration of Wakefield—Birthplace of 

Washington” which is typical of the promotional literature produced by the WNMA at this time. 44 See S 1784, 71st Congress. Cramton had already showed an interest in historic preservation with his involvement 

in the restoration of the Lee home during the 1920s. See Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, VI, p. 2-58. Cramton 

also demonstrated commitment to Albright’s vision for the NPS when he proposed the “Cramton Bill” that, when 

signed into law in December 1930, created Colonial National Monument. Visit http://www.nps.gov/colo/ for a 

history of Colonial National Monument. 
22

expanses of land, opening a park in the east required land purchase and so congress smiled on 

opportunities to involve private donors.45 Rockefeller—given his net worth and tract record with the NPS 

in Yosemite and on his own project in Colonial Williamsburg—appeared to be the perfect candidate. 

Cramton’s congressional peers accepted his argument and the WNMA, faced with no other alternative but 

financial ruin, agreed to the bill.46 With that, Congress appropriated $15,000 to relocate the granite 

obelisk erected in 1896 and an additional $50,000 to support the WNMA’s construction plans (a total of 

about $715,000 today). Presidential approval on January 23, 1930 formally established the George 

Washington Birthplace National Monument (Appendix 3).47

Albright was careful to involve himself in drafting the Monument’s founding legislation. He 

knew that no credible record of the original building’s appearance existed and that various archeological 

investigations sponsored by both the War Department and the WNMA raised suspicions concerning the 

location and physical orientation of the Memorial House (see chapter 2). Still, the WNMA hoped to 

complete its work in time to celebrate Washington’s 200th birthday and, no less significantly, channel 

national excitement created by Sol Bloom’s Bicentennial Commission into public fanfare for the 

Monument. Albright shared this desire and envisioned Washington’s bicentennial as the perfect 

opportunity to publicly reveal his new vision for the NPS. The Director betrayed his eagerness (and flair 

for public relations) to publicize the Wakefield project by publishing two accounts of the project in the 

New York Times in 1931.48

 

45 Macintosh, The National Park Service, p. 35. 46 Rust’s account of these hearings indicates that the WNMA worked in collaboration with the U.S. Bicentennial 

Commission to propose the appropriation bill that Bland and Swanson presented to Congress. See Rust, “Wakefield 

National Memorial Association, Report of the President.” 

47 This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics 

from 1800 to 2003. See Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 154-55 for a discussion of the variable and often 

inconsistent rationale underlying the differences between national monuments and national parks. Barry 

Mackintosh explains that national monuments “include areas with at least one resource of national importance. 

[They are] usually smaller than national parks.” See Mackintosh, The National Park Service, p. 19. President 

Hoover created the Monument by signing S. 1784, 71st Cong., approved January 23, 1930. 48 See Horace Albright, “Wakefield Washington Shrine Was Begun After Long Study” in New York Times, 19 July 

1931, p. XX6 and Horace Albright, “Washington’s Boyhood Homes: The Place Held by Wakefield” in New York 

Times, 29 March 1931, p. X16. Albright’s final report, “A Report on the Rehabilitation of the Birthplace of George 

Washington by Horace Albright, January 14, 1932,” is in folder “Transfer to Govt.” in NPS Records Box 6 of 26, 

GEWA. 
23

Not willing to compromise the public relations boon presented by this opportunity, Albright never 

questioned the WNMA’s plans to build a replica house. He did, however, build a safeguard into the 

Monument’s founding legislation. When President Hoover signed S. 1784, he did not immediately 

transfer the WNMA’s property to the NPS. Instead, the bill provided financial support for the 

organization to build “a replica of the house in which George Washington was born” and for “restoring 

and improving the gardens and grounds...and erecting such other buildings as shall be deemed 

necessary.” Upon completion of these tasks, “said building and all lands owned by the [WNMA] shall 

...be conveyed to the United States as a gift for administration, protection, and maintenance.”49 Until that 

point, then, the NPS exercised no official role in decisions concerning construction of the memorial 

landscape. Retention from HR 10131 of the provision requiring the FAC to approve construction plans, 

and the addition to this provision of approval by the Secretary of the Interior, did place ultimate 

responsibility for the quality of the work done at Wakefield into the hands of government entities, but it 

also freed the NPS of any responsibility for the WNMA’s work.50

Building the Memorial Landscape, 1930-1932 

Despite his precautions, Albright was not completely comfortable allowing the WNMA’s plans to 

unfold at Wakefield wholly unsupervised. At an April 12, 1930 WNMA meeting, Albright suggested that 

the group take advantage of the surveying services of NPS engineer O.G. Taylor who, until then, served 

 

49 Note that this clause refers to transfer of “said building.” It is unclear whether the singular “building” refers to 

collective construction—i.e. the totality of building activity—or only to the Memorial House. Questions regarding 

ownership of the Log House Tea Room and, to a lesser extent, the Colonial Kitchen strained relations between the 

NPS and the WNMA in later years and may very well have resulted from the ambiguous wording of this legislation. 

50 Hatch provides the best overall account of events occurring between the formation of the WNMA and the creation 

of the George Washington Birthplace National Monument. See Popes Creek Plantation, pp. 478-93. Presuming 

that Albright was fully aware of the building controversies surrounding the location and character of the original 

birth house, his guiding hand in the creation of S. 1784 intentionally and officially safeguarded the NPS from 

whatever criticism might arise in years to come. Albright’s legislative slight of hand may have protected the NPS 

from direct criticism, but it failed to take into account another potential pitfall that continues to create administrative 

dilemmas. S. 1784 makes no provision for the functional or legal relationship between the WNMA and the NPS 

following transfer of property from the former to the latter. As Albright would soon discover, the WNMA had no 

intention of walking away from their grand achievement, even if it did officially belong to the U.S. Government. 
24

as a resident engineer at Yosemite National Park.51 The WNMA agreed to this—and additionally agreed 

to consult with NPS landscape architects—though it is unclear how formal a role the WNMA expected of 

NPS agents. Rust, for instance, referred to Taylor as a “liaison officer,” suggesting that she understood 

him to be more of a go-between than an integral planner. Nonetheless, Donn had already made 

substantial progress on plans for the memorial landscape.52 He envisioned a cedar-lined approach to the 

monument leading to and encircling the repositioned granite obelisk beyond which visitors proceeded to 

parking areas along the left side of the entry road. This plan placed the Memorial House, a kitchen 

building, and an ornamental garden just beyond the parking lot behind a brick wall enclosure. Donn also 

anticipated in his design a trail network similar to that which currently parallels the Popes Creek shore 

line.53 In a further elaboration of Donn’s vision, Rust noted that the WNMA desired a new base for the 

granite obelisk to replace the old “funeral design of the 1890s.” Moore agreed that, “the monument is of 

a design once used in cemeteries, but now generally regarded as inappropriate even for such uses. It is 

manifestly inappropriate to mark a birthplace.” Rust also indicated that the Memorial House was to be 

used as a museum and that the Colonial Kitchen would “contain the heating plant and other conveniences, 

and quarters for the caretaker (Images 3 & 4).”54

Construction commenced during the summer of 1930. James O. Caton & Sons moved the granite 

obelisk and re-cut its base and pedestal between August and December 1930.55 Given the technology 

 

51 Minutes of the Meeting of the Wakefield National Memorial Association, 12 April 1930, Wakefield Files, FAC, 

RG 66, NAB. 

52 Rust, “Wakefield National Memorial Association, Report of the President.” See drawing “WAKEFIELD, 

showing development of the eleven acres owned by the government of the United States—suggested by Edward W. 

Donn, Jr., Architect,” 19 February 1929, Wakefield Files, FAC, RG 66, NAB. Donn’s drawing includes plans for 

the birth site, the log house, camping areas, a dock at Duck Hall, and his proposal for a lavish new base for the 

granite obelisk. 

53 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.58-2.59. 54 Charles Moore to Josephine Rust, 1 December 1927, in folder “Transfer to Govt.,” NPS Records Box 6 of 26, 

GEWA. Mrs. Harry Lee Rust, Sr., “Restoration of George Washington’s Birthplace,” 15 December 1930, 

Wakefield Association Files, FAC, RG 66, NAB. 

55 S. 1784 provided $15,000 for removal of the granite obelisk, but it did not specifically make that money available 

to the WNMA. Therefore, it is likely that the War Department contracted directly with James O. Caton & Sons. 

See O.G. Taylor, “Condensed Report of Restoration Work to Date,” 10 September 1930, Wakefield files, FAC, RG 

66, NAB. Oculus makes reference to the vague details of this operation in Cultural Landscape Report, n. 183, p. 

2.59, especially with regard to the handling of the base pedestal and what is referred to as the “base extension 

stone.” 
25

available in 1930 and the remote location of the Monument, moving the granite obelisk presented a 

considerable challenge and the process became something of a local spectacle. Using nothing more than 

an enormous wooden derrick and human muscle power, workers gently lowered the massive obelisk onto 

a series of greased logs and rolled it toward its new site. Using the derrick once again, workers raised the 

obelisk and repositioned it atop its new base (Images 5 & 6).56

The WNMA next turned its sights toward constructing the Memorial House. On December 12, 

1930, Rust and associates contracted J.J. Jones and Conquest of Richmond to construct the Memorial 

House and Colonial Kitchen at a cost of $45,000 (about $500,000 today).57 With characteristic flair, 

Albright intervened behind the scenes and encouraged Assistant Director Arthur Demaray to suggest that 

Rockefeller’s representative and Colonial Williamsburg notable, Kenneth Chorley, lend the assistance of 

his brick makers. Chorley agreed and sent contractors Todd & Brown, Inc. to Wakefield on July 8, 1930, 

where they erected a kiln above suitable clay deposits between six hundred and one thousand feet west of 

the Memorial House construction site (Image 7).58 The crew made more than enough bricks by 

November 20, 1930 and, thus supplied, builders worked throughout the year using the native clay brick 

and completed construction of the Memorial House in the summer of 1931.59

 

56 File “D46 monument shaft and curbing,” NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA, contains all work descriptions and 

blueprints relevant to the relocation of the monument shaft and later curbing including blueprints illustrating new 

base configurations. Horace Albright visited Wakefield during the removal of the granite obelisk and filmed 

portions of the work. Albright’s film is silent, but a recorded interview with one of the men who worked on the 

removal crew conveys some sense of the enormity of the task and the excitement generated by the project. See 

Albright Videotape, HMA-4 (Old Part #2), “West,” Harpers Ferry Center Graphic Collections and Archive for 

Interpretive Media (HFCPC). An anonymous undated (presumably mid-1970s) interview with a Mr. Combs is 

stored in the film projection room of the George Washington Birthplace National Monument Visitor Center and 

describes Combs’ involvement in the removal of the granite obelisk. 

57 This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics 

from 1800 to 2003. 

58 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.59-2.60. 

59 For a description of the brick-making process, see Taylor, “Report on Brick Making,” Annual Report to the 

Director, NPS Records, RG 79, NAB. Also see mention of the process in tribute to Mrs. Josephine Wheelwright 

Rust presented by Dalton W. Mallory on the occasion of the unveiling of her portrait (presumably 1994) in folder 

“A3615” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. As with the removal of the granite obelisk, Albright filmed the 

brick makers at work. See Albright Videotape, HMA-4 (Old Part #2), “West,” HFCPC. 
26

Construction of the memorial landscape occasionally gave rise to disagreement between the 

WNMA and the NPS.60 Donn and Rust had planned from the beginning to include lodging facilities and 

a store on the Monument’s grounds. Landscape architect Charles Peterson—the first NPS landscape 

architect assigned to the eastern parks—became involved with the Wakefield project at Albright’s request 

and reluctantly approved the WNMA’s plans to build a lodge at Duck Hall (what would eventually 

become the Log House—see chapter 3). He was less willing to accept a store at the Memorial and 

considered the idea “startling,” adding “it would be easy to do something terribly wrong with this 

building.” Peterson protested vehemently when the WNMA explained their plans to add a refreshment 

stand at the Memorial House arguing that “the dignity of Washington’s Birthplace must be maintained at 

all costs.” 61 

His anger is unsurprising considering the even larger problem he contended with the previous 

year concerning the Park’s Colonial Garden. Recognizing that his concurrent responsibilities at Colonial 

National Monument would cut into work at Wakefield, Peterson requested that the NPS assign another 

landscape architect to the project. The NPS transferred landscape architect Vivian Roswell Ludgate from 

the San Francisco office and in November 1930 Peterson asked him to research colonial gardens in order 

to design a plot to abut the Memorial House. Ludgate proposed that the Colonial Garden be divided into 

two sections filled with period-specific plants and surrounded by a brick walk and boxwoods believed to 

have been grown from cuttings taken from Popes Creek during Washington’s lifetime.62

Little did he or Peterson know that the WNMA already had very specific plans for the garden. 

The WNMA, prior to the NPS’s involvement and in efforts to raise money to match the Rockefeller 

donation, had taken financial gifts from wealthy donors who hoped to associate their own names with the 

memorial landscape. Rust explained in her June 1930 presidential report that “the four rooms on the first 

floor of the Birthplace have been taken as memorials.” The entire state of Connecticut received a room 

 

60 Folder “d32 landscaping” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA, contains descriptions of original landscaping, 

road work, fence construction, and 1931 contract with Davey Tree Experts. 

61 Peterson to Demaray, 26 June 1931 and 11 August 1931, NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

62 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.61-2.62, including n. 194. 
27

on the second floor in thanks for the $5,000 (about $53,000 today) contribution sent by Governor 

Trumbull in 1929. Even the chimneys were dedicated to wealthy donors. Finally, Rust very specifically 

indicates that “Mrs. J.S. Moore and her children, Mrs. William Dusenberry Sherrard and Messrs. Moore, 

will restore the old-fashion flower garden.”63

So, when Ludgate presented his plan at a November 1930 meeting, Rust spoke out in opposition. 

She returned several days later with WNMA member Mary Eva Moore Sherrard and an independent 

landscaper hired by the WNMA.64 Sherrard’s mother—Mary Smith Jones Moore—had died since paying 

for the privilege of restoring the “old-fashion flower garden,” but her daughter remained intent on 

fulfilling the memorialization. Specifically, Sherrard desired a prominent central location for a sundial 

erected as a memorial to her own family (Illustration 1). She suggested that “we could drop the idea and 

word ‘Colonial’ and conceive of a flower garden with seats placed where we could enjoy the central 

sundial...we would like to have the Sun-Dial in the center of a round plot with paths radiating from it.”65 

Peterson informed Albright of the situation and, clearly pushed beyond his willingness to compromise, 

the Director wrote directly to Rust determined to convey some sense of the NPS’s commitment to 

authenticity and historical professionalism: 

We are trying to put something in Wakefield that will be as nearly as possible what existed there 

when Washington was born. We are trying to follow the same general principles of landscaping 

that are being followed at Williamsburg. If we do anything less than this we are bound to receive 

criticism...The thing that disturbs me more than anything else that Mrs. Sherrard said is that part 

of her statement—“above all we want the memorial tablet in a conspicuous place and we want a 

beautiful garden and not a sentimental one.” The underlining is mine. She seems to be more 

interested in memorializing Mary Smith Jones Moore than she is George Washington. Don’t you 

 

63 Rust, “Wakefield National Memorial Association, Report of the President.” Rust lists the recipients but does not 

indicate which rooms belonged to who: Jere Hungerford Wheelwright, by his son Jere Hungerford Wheelwright, Jr.; 

Mrs. William Ruffin Cox, by the Colonial Dames of America in the State of Virginia; Mary Ball Washington, by the 

Committee of the Northern Neck of Virginia; and Jane Barr Newton, by her great, great grandchildren Sara and 

Alice Worthington. Curiously, the Commonwealth of Virginia did not receive a memorial room despite Governor 

Byrd’s involvement in appropriating $5,000 for restoration of the burial ground and an additional $10,000 for 

construction of the memorial landscape. For donations of $2,000 Henrietta (Dawson) Ayres Sheppard secured a 

chimney for her parents Richard Johnson Ayres and Elizabeth Hack (Dawson) Ayres and Mrs. James W. 

Wadsworth, Jr. and her sister Mrs. Payne Whitney bought a chimney for their father, former Secretary of State John 

Hay. Modern price figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index 

statistics from 1800 to 2003. 

64 Ludgate to Director, 17 Nov. 1930, in folder “D32 Landscaping,” NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

65 Sherrard to Rust, 12 April 1931, Wakefield files, FAC, RG 66, NAB. Also cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape 

Report, v. 1, p. 2.63. 
28

think we might let Mrs. Sherrard’s donation go by the board and try to raise the money 

elsewhere?66

Rust did offer to return Sherrard’s money and Sherrard supposedly accepted. By December 1931, work 

in the garden commenced according to Ludgate’s plan and included construction of a hand-hewn picket 

fence.67 Almost two years later, however, Sherrard remained “very bitter in her denunciation of the 

restored colonial garden” and Superintendent Hough echoed Peterson’s suggestion in a letter to WNMA 

interim President, Maude Worthington, that “in view of this apparent fundamental misunderstanding... 

would it not be well...to return Mrs. Sherrard’s donation and pursue the development of our garden in 

accordance with our approved plans and instructions.”68

The Colonial Garden fiasco speaks volumes about the difference of interpretive vision held by the 

two organizations and demonstrates that the NPS, despite its reliance upon the WNMA for grass roots 

support and financial backing, was determined to stay the course promised to Congress by Cramton and 

Albright. Moreover, the garden situation revealed the difficulties faced by collaborating with an 

association funded almost entirely by donors. Peterson understood the disagreement as a mandate to 

avoid future conflict and suggested that “the Landscape Division will have to place itself in the position 

of the earnest, but somewhat boorish prophets of Israel, who were continually predicting calamities.”69

Divergent opinions also surrounded the WNMA’s renovation of the Washington family burial 

ground. The WNMA initially sought to create a tomb at the burial ground reminiscent of the tomb at 

Mount Vernon and Moore envisioned circular brick paths and dense plantings surrounding the 

 

66 Albright to Rust, 17 April 1931, in folder “D32 landscaping,” NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

67 See Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.63 and SMR, December 1931. 68 Hough to Worthington, 26 April 1934, Box 2219, file 601-10 National Park Service Records, RG 79, National 

Archives at College Park, MD (NACP). 

69 Albright had discovered that because some of the money donated to the WNMA came from the Commonwealth 

of Virginia, the Virginia Art Commission would have to approve the plans for the Wakefield development. The size 

of the Monument with its intricate money trail and ominous interpretive complexities further concerned Assistant 

Directors Arno Cammerer and Arthur Demaray who, along with Albright, continually relied on the Fine Arts 

Commission safeguard to prevent direct criticism of the NPS’s role at Wakefield. Hosmer, Preservation Comes of 

Age, pp. 485-86. Peterson to Albright, 27 April 1931, Loose folder d32 landscaping, NPS Records Box 9 of 25, 

GEWA. 
29

gravesites.70 By 1930, Donn had formulated the “sarcophagus like tomb” plan visible today and, between 

1930 and 1931, he directed the removal of the concrete and cement work added by the Colonial Dames in 

1906 and re-set the two original gravestones behind the original burial vault (Image 8). William A. Gault 

& Son, Inc. of Baltimore excavated the area prior to restoration and made detailed drawings of thirty-two 

gravesites, twenty of which lay outside of the vault and some beyond the walled enclosure.71 The 

Episcopal Bishop of Washington, Reverend James E. Freeman led the recommitment services that 

witnessed the remains of these bodies—“each in a silk bag tagged with a silver label bearing the 

coordinate measurements of the original location”—replaced in the vault restored with original bricks 

reclaimed from the site. Gault & Son covered the vault with a three thousand pound lid and added a new 

Aquia freestone table stone on April 27, 1931. 72 A new wall, built with bricks left over from construction 

of the Memorial House, enclosed the grave site and opened onto a gravel path stretching between the 

burial ground and the approach road along attractively landscaped grounds (Image 9). 

All the while, the NPS landscape division had developed its own plans for renovation of the 

burial ground. Rust requested a copy of the NPS’s plans and Peterson requested a copy of the WNMA’s 

plans in November 1930. Peterson, however, did not comment on the WNMA’s plans until April 1931, 

well after work had begun on the burial ground site. In a letter to Albright, Peterson expressed his 

concern about the “advisability of placing this extremely formal plan out by itself in the middle of a 

Virginia corn field.”73 Moore caught wind of Peterson’s criticism and himself wrote to Albright claiming 

that the WNMA’s plans reflected typical graveyards of the colonial period. Peterson remained 

suspicious—especially given that this very same argument allowed construction of what he considered a 

 

70 Moore to Albert Bushnell Hart, Harvard University, 17 February 1928, Wakefield Association files, FAC 

Records, RG 66, NAB. See Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, 2.67-2.68 for details concerning early plans 

for the burial ground. 

71 Gault & Son used a Latane family home as a staging site for their work and hung the temporarily exhumed 

Washington family remains in sacks suspended from a bedroom ceiling. The Latanes later joked about hosting the 

entire Washington family all at once. Thanks to Brooke Blades, former MAR archeologist, for bringing this story to 

my attention. 

72 Rust, “Wakefield National Memorial Association, Report of the President.” Also see Oculus, Cultural Landscape 

Report, v. 1, p. 2.71. 73 Peterson to Albright, 9 April 1931, GEWA. Cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.69 though no 

specifics are provided concerning the location of this letter within the GEWA. 
30

highly suspect Memorial House (see chapter 2)—and dispatched Ludgate to photograph “any additional 

colonial burying grounds” to determine exactly what was typical of the period. 

But Peterson misunderstood the WNMA’s intent. He assumed that the WNMA intended all 

commemorative improvements at Wakefield to resemble as best as possible the landscape as it appeared 

during the life of George Washington. The WNMA, however, sought only to replicate the Memorial 

House and its immediate surroundings. Elsewhere, the WNMA saw fit to build on as monumental a scale 

as possible to pay homage to Washington in a way that the Memorial House—which they considered to 

be a much too humble monument by itself—could not. The opposing camps eventually agreed at a 

meeting on May 11, 1931 to minimize the grand planting scheme originally envisioned by the WNMA.74 

As with the Colonial Garden, the treatment of the burial ground revealed the differences between the 

interpretive visions of the NPS and the WNMA. 

A Turbulent Prelude to Property Transfer 

As the memorial landscape took shape, it appeared that Albright’s skillful politicking and his 

careful negotiation of divergent interpretive visions had resulted in a victory for his own historical vision. 

The practical details of that vision, however, did not unfold as smoothly. In the months leading up to the 

official transfer of the WNMA’s property to the Department of Interior, no one was sure exactly how 

much land was involved in the deal. This may have been due to the omission of an acreage tally in the 

establishing legislation (Appendix 3). As of 1930 Albright counted 11.88 government acres, 100 acres 

purchased by the WNMA, and 254 acres from Rockefeller’s River Holding Company for a total of 355.88 

acres. When Rockefeller finally submitted his deed in February 1931, he did so for a tract of 273 acres—

nine acres more than Albright originally expected. A monthly report for April 1931, however, counted 

the gift worth 265 acres. Two months later, when President Herbert Hoover signed legislation extending 

 

74 See Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.69-2.70 for summary of these events and citations of relevant 

correspondence. 
31

the Monument’s boundaries to include the Rockefeller tract, the official acreage tallied 394.47 including 

the WNMA land deeded in June 1931.75

Other logistical difficulties plagued the transfer process. The Secretary of War notified Secretary 

of the Interior Harold Ickes that Major Brehon Somervell of the War Department had prepared to transfer 

funds and property to the NPS on February 28, 1930.76 Two months passed, however, and the transfer 

remained incomplete because, according to Somervell, “some minor charges against the 

appropriation...were made during the month of March.” The War Department had evidently incurred 

additional expenses—most likely in connection with removal of the granite obelisk—after having already 

initiated transfer of monies remaining from the S. 1784 appropriation to the NPS. Newly appointed NPS 

Director Arno Cammerer, eager to avoid delays, dashed off an immediate response to Somervell assuring 

him that funds would be redistributed back to the War Department when and as needed.77

 These logistical complications—as common as they may have been throughout the park system—

point to the logistical complexity of coordinating a four-party land transfer and perhaps an administrative 

inability to facilitate such a large project. Other events added to the confusion. Amid all the chaos, Mary 

Pomeroy of Washington, DC contacted Kenneth Chorley announcing her desire to sell a ninety-acre tract 

with a seven-room house allegedly part of the original Wakefield farm. Chorley referred the letter to 

Albright who passed it to Associate Director Arthur Demaray who responded a week later that the 

government was not interested in purchasing more land but was curious about the location of the 

property. It is not clear whether the veracity of Pomeroy’s claim was in doubt or if the government 

 

75 SMR, April 1931. Details concerning acreage cited in anonymous summary of property exchange and legislative 

matters bearing on the Monument, date unknown though presumably written in 1935, (Box 2219) 550-610, National 

Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. The superintendent’s June 1931 monthly report notes that “on June 22 the 

Association deeded their entire real estate holdings, consisting of about 100 acres of land in three separate parcels to 

the United States...the transfer of this property at this time was made to enable the government to re-locate and 

construct the highway between the birth site and the burial ground.” 

76 Secretary of War to Secretary of the Interior, 28 February 1930, (Box 2219) 550-610, National Park Service 

Records, RG 79, NACP. 

77 Somervell to Department of Interior, 4 April 1930, and Cammerer to Somervell, 4 April 1930, (Box 2219) 550-

610, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 
32

simply did not have the money or patience to contemplate additional land transactions, but discussion of 

the Pomeroy tract does not appear in subsequent correspondence.78

Additionally, the government did not know exactly what land it held title to. In October 1931, 

Raymond Washington “having been made somewhat uneasy by our activities in the neighborhood,” 

informed Associate Engineer Robert P. White—then Acting Supervisor of the monument—that he held a 

lease to the very spot where NPS planners were preparing to build staff quarters and roads.79 White wrote 

to Engineer O.G. Taylor earlier that year about the “sprit of unrest and dissatisfaction on the part of the 

[neighboring] Latane brothers” regarding government changes to a Wakefield access road. In this case, 

Taylor was not even able to locate the deed granting right of way to the government.80 And only a month 

before the official public transfer ceremony, some doubt arose concerning the validity of the 

government’s claim to the land surrounding the Washington family burial ground. The source of this 

claim is unknown, but Assistant Director Conrad Wirth assured all involved that the NPS did have right 

to the tract in question.81

The Monument is Established 

 

78 Pomeroy to Chorley, 28 May 1930; Chorley to Albright, 2 June 1930; Demaray to Pomeroy, 7 June 1930, (Box 

2219) 550-610, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

79 Taylor to Director, 27 October 1931: “Inasmuch as one contemplated site for our new residences and monument 

utilities area is on the Raymond Washington tract and the two Y branches of the road leading to the Duck Hall 

property traversed this same tract we may find that we are in a position which will not allow us to go ahead as freely 

as we had contemplated. It is my impression though that this tract of land was deeded to the United States...that 

being the case there would be nothing to actually prevent us going ahead as we pleased, but even so if we do go 

ahead and build what we wish to build we should respect, insofar as possible, all the promises which Mrs. Rust 

made at the time of the purchase from Raymond Washington.” Also see the 1934 special use permit granting the 

Washington family use of the tract of 31.5 acres formerly owned by them for occupying the old homestead and 

farming adjacent lands of the tract at a $2.00 lease. Both documents in file “D34 Raymond Washington Place,” 

NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

80 Taylor to White, 13 August 1931, file “D34 Raymond Washington Place,” NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

81 See W.M. Lanier to Albright, 31 March 1933, folder “Transfer to Govt.,” NPS Records Box 6 of 26, GEWA, and 

anonymous summary of property exchange and legislative matters bearing on the Monument, date unknown though 

presumably written in 1935, (Box 2219) 550-610, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. Questions 

persisted even beyond the dedication ceremony though and, in March 1933, W.M. Lanier wrote to Albright 

suggesting that the NPS claim was invalid given that it was the Washington heirs, not the state of Virginia, who 

originally deeded the land to the United States in 1832. This accusation also faded in time, but each of these 

incidents demonstrate the extent of the confusion surrounding the Monument’s establishment and suggest that, in 

their hurry to take one more step toward fulfilling Albright’s vision, the NPS moved at a pace sometimes more 

reckless than brisk. 
33

 Despite various disagreements, controversies, and residual tensions, the WNMA and the NPS had 

jointly satisfied all legislative requirements for property transfer by the summer of 1931. The WNMA 

agreed to commence with the transfer of its land and property holdings and legally transferred their deed 

to the government on June 22, 1931. As if on cue, Josephine Rust died four days later.82 Her death 

stunned the NPS and the WNMA and left serious questions concerning the future of the Birthplace in the 

minds of both. Nonetheless, work continued at the Monument and, indeed, much remained to be done. 

The WNMA had yet to construct its log lodge at Duck Hall and the NPS had not even begun to build the 

offices, houses, and physical infrastructure required by a staff and superintendent and, most importantly, 

the visiting public. Superintendent Phillip Hough, who arrived in time to witness the first celebration of 

Washington’s birthday in the Memorial House and later enjoyed the pomp and circumstance surrounding 

the public transfer ceremony on May 14, 1932, would come to play a pivotal role in deciding the course 

of development at Popes Creek. He would do so, however, without first-hand knowledge of the various 

development and interpretive controversies that unfolded prior to his arrival. Unbeknownst to him, 

Hough would soon inherit the complicated legacy of these controversies and find himself embroiled 

within one of the most difficult interpretive challenges in NPS history. 

 

82 “Tribute to Mrs. Josephine Wheelwright Rust presented by Dalton W. Mallory on the occasion of the unveiling of 

her portrait” (approximately 1994) in folder “A3615” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA, p. 4. 
CHAPTER 2 

Archeology and the Problem of Building X, 1881-1950 

Neither Hough nor the crowds of visitors gathered to celebrate the dedication of Washington’s 

Birthplace would have had any reason to suspect, amid the excitement and pristine weather of May 14, 

1932, that questions concerning the authenticity of the Wakefield restoration lingered in the minds of 

important parties to that project.1

 WNMA vice president Mrs. Anthony Wayne Cook and Secretary of the 

Interior Ray Wilbur delivered glowing patriotic speeches honoring the restoration effort and the memory 

of George Washington whose two hundredth birthday gave special importance to the celebration. 

WNMA members dressed in colonial costumes and served refreshments to visitors as a military band 

rounded out the festivities (Image 10).2

 Unsurprisingly, neither Cook nor Wilbur mentioned the 

unidentified foundations recently discovered only a few hundred feet from the Memorial House. The 

implications of that discovery may not have been fully appreciated by either Wayne or Wilbur, but the 

uncovering of what was termed Building X marked the latest chapter in a controversy at least forty years 

in the making. Although disagreements concerning the design of the memorial landscape may have 

variously intensified relations between the WNMA and the NPS, the discovery of Building X forced 

representatives of each to choose sides in an interpretive battle that has only recently subsided. 

Archeology and Controversy under the War Department, 1879-1898 

 Complications identifying the actual site of Washington’s birth arose well before either the 

WNMA or the NPS even existed. Following the 1879 Congressional appropriation that sent Secretary of 

State Evarts down the Potomac River to determine a suitable course of action at Wakefield, it had become 

 

1

 There is no way to determine, with available documents, what Hough knew about the various controversies 

surrounding construction of the Memorial House upon his arrival at Popes Creek. Considering that his sympathies 

clearly laid with the WNMA, it is evident that any briefing by the NPS prior to his arrival did not convince Hough 

that there was any reason to question the assumptions underlying the design and construction of the Memorial 

House. 

2

 For correspondence and reports regarding bicentennial celebrations at GEWA, New York Times coverage of the 

dedication ceremony, the address delivered by Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur, information regarding traffic 

flow through the Park during the event, letters from W.A.R. Goodwin and Kenneth Chorley of Colonial 

Williamsburg, and a memo indicating that the event featured reenactors of both slaves and gentry, see (Box 592) 

files 832 and 857, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. A wealth of documents produced by the 

Bicentennial Commission, scripts of bicentennial pageants performed at GEWA, and costumes worn during those 

performances are stored available at GEWA. 
35

accepted in governmental circles that the Custis stone had indeed marked the site of Washington’s birth, 

even though the stone no longer existed at the time of Evarts’ visit. Northern Neck resident John E. 

Wilson and others showed Evarts where the stone would have been—next to the remains of the crumbling 

chimney—and convinced him to memorialize that site. Evarts returned to Washington and obtained an 

additional appropriation to draft plans for the site. The Department of State sent Civil Engineer F.O. St. 

Clair to Popes Creek between 1881 and 1882 with an eye toward “determining the character of the substrata.” No records of these first archeological excavations at Wakefield remain although correspondence 

indicates that St. Clair uncovered “pieces of china, hinges and a candle...a silver teaspoon...[and] a 

bunch of keys.”3

St. Clair never intended to verify the location of the birth house, but his work did stir the concerns 

of local residents. Wilson and R.J. Washington spoke with St. Clair about his work and, upon learning of 

the government’s plan to enclose the old chimney, protested in a May 5, 1881 letter to the new Secretary 

of State, James G. Blaine, that “this chimney was never a part of the original building; and is 45 to 50 feet 

from the nearest point of the foundations of the old mansion.”4

 It is unclear why Wilson, who had 

identified the site for Evarts in the first place, launched this protest. It is possible that Evarts simply 

misunderstood Wilson’s initial identification. In any event, relying on Evart’s confidence that the old 

chimney marked the true spot and additionally believing that the sixty-foot-square parcel transferred to 

the Government did indeed outline the foundations of the original house, Blaine turned a deaf ear to 

Washington and Wilson’s protest.5

 St. Clair did determine through his survey that the amount of government land at Wakefield 

would not support adequate memorialization and so submitted two proposals to yet another new Secretary 

of State, Frederick F. Frelinghuysen, on March 12, 1882. He suggested that the government acquire 

 

3

 Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 71. Hatch cites Hoppin, “The House in Which George Washington was Born,” 

in Tyler’s Quarterly Historical Magazine 8:2 (October 1926), p. 100. Rodnick, “Orientation Report,” p. 40 cited in 

Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 202. 

4

 Rodnick, “Orientation Report,” p. 26 cited in Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 72. This also discussed in 

Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 202. 

5

 See Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 202 and Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 72. Hatch indicates that 

no Federal records remain documenting “how this suggestion was handled.” 
36

either an additional eleven acres and a 100-foot right-of-way to Bridges Creek or a three-hundred-squarefoot parcel around the presumed birth site and a fifty-foot right-of-way. Frelinghuysen granted a 

compromise: eleven acres and a fifty-foot right-of-way. The government purchased twenty-one acres 

from Wilson on July 10, 1883, making for slightly more than eleven acres encompassing the birth site and 

the right of way.6

 Work stalled, however, without ready access to the remote rural site. Not until 

February 25, 1893 did Congress appropriate the necessary funds to build a wharf on the Potomac River. 

That appropriation also granted the War Department authority to construct its memorial granite obelisk. 

 Memorialization efforts resumed in 1895 and Army Engineer Corps Colonel John M. Wilson 

arrived at Wakefield to supervise erection of the granite obelisk. Bureau of Public Parks and Grounds 

Captain John Stewart served as the primary on-site supervisor and, consequently, led archeological 

investigations preceding construction of the monument. Wilson revised Evarts’ previous construction 

plans and, rather than creating a granite surround to support the obelisk, preferred laying a concrete slab 

atop the presumed location of the birth site.7

 He requested that Stewart excavate the site in preparation 

for construction, but Stewart’s findings only raised further concern. Stewart focused his investigation on 

the center of the original sixty-square-foot Lewis Washington tract, the spot popularly believed to be 

where Custis placed his memorial stone in1815. What he discovered there did not resemble anything 

reminiscent of a wealthy landowner’s home. Instead, Stewart uncovered a two-room brick foundation 

approximately thirty feet long and twenty feet wide. The foundation suggested a building oriented along 

an east-west axis.8

 Stewart’s findings disappointed local residents whose collective memory recalled and expected a 

much larger building. Historian Charles Hatch notes that the excavation prompted a host of apologies and 

explanations by the War Department and historian David Rodnick later observed that “the excavation in 

1896 must have surprised many of the people in that neighborhood is evidenced by the rumors that rose 

 

6

 Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 72. 7

 Ibid. 

8

 Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” pp. 202-203. Beasley notes that “Stewart made only two maps of his 

excavations, with no mention of any associated artifacts.” Also see Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, pp. 73-74. 
37

later that the monument was placed on the wrong site.”9 Despite these concerns, the government 

continued with its plans to build the Potomac River wharf and granite obelisk. Struck by the discrepancy 

between Stewart’s findings and local memory, John E. Wilson once again criticized the government’s 

work in an October 4, 1898 letter, arguing that Stewart had failed in “uncovering all of the foundations.”10 

Wilson did not necessarily question the location of the foundations, but he did consider something amiss 

about the orientation of the building documented by Stewart.11 Even so, the granite obelisk had been 

erected and thus came to mark physically and in the minds of visitors the precise spot of George 

Washington’s birth. Wilson’s protests between 1881 and 1896 indicate that the Government did hear 

credible challenges to their acceptance of the Custis stone legacy. It is not clear why they ignored 

Wilson, but the decision to do so resonated for another sixty years at Washington’s Birthplace. 

The WNMA’s Memorial Vision, 1925-1930 

 Construction of the granite obelisk marked the beginning of a quiet period at the monument. That 

changed with the WNMA’s arrival in the early 1920s. The WNMA’s intent to build a “replica” house 

revived concerns about the actual location and orientation of the original house. Charles Moore—

WNMA Vice President and Fine Arts Commissioner—expressed his own concern in 1926: “the location 

has never been investigated; and there is reason to believe that the monument which ostensibly marks the 

site [is] built over the ruins of an outhouse, one chimney of which was standing within the memory of 

persons now living.”12 Moore contacted the Army Corps of Engineers, which, under Major James 

O’Connor, had been put in charge of constructing an approach road to the monument. Moore requested 

that the Corps perform excavations at the birth site, but O’Connor responded that their funding extended 

 

9

 Cited in Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 75. 10 Ibid., p. 73. 

11 Wilson wrote, “About the fronting of the house—the only land approach was from the west—Popes Creek and 

one of its arms cutting off all access from the other three directions. The foundations of a double chimney at the 

west end seem to prelude [sic] the supposition that was the front. If it fronted north it would look across an arm of 

Popes Creek toward the dwelling place one-half mile off of a family of Wicklifs who emigrated to Kentucky about 

the close of the last century. Looking toward the south is a large expanse of level ground, the present fertility of 

which shows the effect of old manuring and the presence to this day of bulbs of several varieties of flowering plants, 

seem to indicate that the garden and orchard were in that direction.” Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, n. 66, p. 82. 12 Cited in Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 84. 
38

only to construction of the approach road.13 Moore then petitioned the United States Engineer’s Office to 

have the site re-excavated prior to altering the memorial landscape. Secretary of War Dwight Davis 

granted the WNMA a permit to conduct the work with private funds and assigned the task to War 

Department Engineer J. Arthur Hook who arrived at Popes Creek on April 9, 1926. Hook’s probing 

(literally—he did not excavate, but rather used a probing stick) pointed to discrepancies between the 

archeological record and local memories of the site. Hook returned on May 10—this time under the close 

supervision of Josephine Rust—and excavated around the obelisk’s iron fence enclosure (Image 11). 

Hook discovered pottery sherds, broken buckles, a clay pipe, and various broken china and glass. 

Elsewhere he uncovered two faint pillar imprints, oyster shell deposits, and pine bark and crushed stone.14

The WNMA enjoyed working with Hook and Rust described him as “painstaking, interested and 

efficient.”15 Moreover, Hook’s work made a positive impact on WNMA coffers. Hook uncovered 

several pieces of salt-glaze ware that he took to the Smithsonian Institution where Dr. Walter Hough used 

them to create a reproduction of “the famous Boar’s Head platter and other pieces.” The Lenox Company 

fashioned a line of dishware from the reproductions and paid the WNMA—desperate at the time to match 

Rockefeller’s substantial contribution—a five percent commission on sales which added up to nearly 

$5,200 (about $56,000 today) by the end of April 1928. Having discovered no additional foundations, 

however, Hook could no more argue for an alternative location for the Washington birth site than he 

could corroborate claims that the obelisk marked the true site.16

Despite Rust’s excitement over Hook’s work, Charles Moore remained concerned about the 

possibility of creating an actual replica of Washington’s birth site at Popes Creek. Toward the end of 

 

13 Moore to O’Connor, 25 April 1925, and O’Connor to Moore, 15 June 1925, Wakefield Association files, FAC 

Records, RG 66, NAB. 

14 Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 205, Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 84. Hook described his first day 

of work in Hook to War Department, 9 April 1926, Wakefield Files, FAC, RG 66, NAB. Folder “miscellaneous 

notes, ” in NPS Records Box 14 of 25, GEWA contains an 8 1⁄2 “ x 11” drawing of Hook’s 1926 excavations. 

15 Rust, “Wakefield National Memorial Association, Report of the President.” 16 The modern value of the commission reported by Rust is based on adjustments for inflation according to 

Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. Regarding Hook’s work, see Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 

84. David Rodnick’s supplemental notes to his “Orientation Report” indicate that Hook was asked only to make 

measurements of the site; all archeological work was performed at his own personal expense and out of curiosity. 

See “Supplemental notes” appendix of Rodnick’s final report, HFCA. 
39

1926, Moore revealed in a letter to historian Lyon G. Tyler a startling difference of approach to the 

WNMA’s project: 

It is proposed by the Wakefield National Memorial Association to maintain the outlines at least of 

these foundations. The rest house and museum which the Association expects to build will be 

erected on a convenient site, but not on the birthplace site, which will show the outlines of the 

house. The new structure will show a house of the period, but of course, will not attempt to 

reproduce the Washington house.17

Moore certainly did not speak on behalf of the entire WNMA—which remained firmly committed to 

building an exact replica of the birth house—and one can only imagine Rust’s outrage had she known that 

Moore entertained an alternative plan. Even at this early date, important individuals party to the 

Wakefield project had grave doubts about its wisdom. 

Hook released his findings in three published reports. One of his reports emphasized the 

disconnect between the archeological record and local beliefs concerning the location and orientation of 

the birth site.18 The War Department, unsettled by Hook’s evaluation and skeptical about the WNMA’s 

plans, sent its own representatives in 1927—including landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr.—

to assess the viability of the WNMA’s plan. Olmsted’s involvement reveals the severity of the War 

Department’s concern. As inheritor of his father’s landscape design legacy (Olmsted, Sr. is famous for 

designs including New York’s Central Park and Chicago’s 1893 Colombian Exhibition), Olmsted, Jr. 

championed scenic preservation during the early twentieth century and even drafted portions of the 1916 

Act of Congress that authorized creation of the NPS. NPS Director Stephen Mather frequently called 

upon his expert advice and, in many ways, Olmsted, Jr. is responsible for the NPS’s persistent efforts to 

preserve significant landscapes by facilitating—not blocking—public access. 19

 

17 Moore to Tyler, 10 November 1926, Wakefield Association files, FAC Records, RG 66, NAB. Also cited in 

Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, n. 155, pp. 2-52 – 2-53. 18 Rodnick cited in Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 205. 

19 Ethan Carr, Wilderness by Design, Landscape Architecture and the National Park Service (Lincoln & London: 

University of Nebraska Press, 1998), pp. 5-6. Carr discusses Olmsted’s contributions to the history of NPS 

landscape design. Prior to visiting the Birthplace, Olmsted had just completed a project at the Lincoln Boyhood 

Home. See chapter 1 of Jill York O’Bright, “”There I Grew Up...,” A History of the Administration of Abraham 

Lincoln’s Boyhood Home” 1987, <www.nps.gov/libo/adhi/adhi1.htm> (15 May 2006). 
40

At Wakefield, Olmsted, Jr. declared that construction of a replica house on the original site would 

not only be unwise but would constitute a serious interpretive blunder by giving visitors the impression 

that the reconstruction was in fact the actual house in which George Washington was born. Olmsted 

communicated these concerns directly to Charles Moore in a March 18, 1929 letter.20 Additional pleas 

for caution came from Colonial Williamsburg visionary W.A.R. Goodwin. Despite these weighty 

admonitions, the WNMA did not relent and once Congress transferred the federal holdings at Wakefield 

from the War Department to the Department of the Interior on January 23, 1930, Rust no longer needed 

permission from the War Department to continue with her project. 

The WNMA’s persistence is astonishing in hindsight given the inconclusiveness of its own 

historical research. Washington family genealogist and WNMA Historian Charles Hoppin could not 

produce any primary documentation verifying the birth home’s structural characteristics, location, or 

orientation. Hoppin admitted as much in 1926: “No picture of it [the house] or any part of it, and no list 

of anything that was in the house, indicative of either the size, style or character of the house, has ever 

been published, or in any way authentically presented in this country.”21 Hoppin seems to have been less 

concerned with determining the character of the house than with discrediting competing claims, 

particularly the popular depiction put forth in Benson J. Lossing’s Field Book of the Revolution, which 

Hoppin called “utterly discredited and hopelessly inadequate .”22 So, by 1927, despite several excavations 

and extensive textual research, the WNMA had no other source for their memorial vision than local lore, 

the presumed placement of the Custis stone, and George Corbin Washington’s 1813 demarcation of the 

sixty-foot square supposedly corresponding with the outline of the house’s foundations. 

 Undeterred, the WNMA hired Washington, DC architect Edward Donn, Jr. to weave these 

various fragments of historical hearsay into plans for what the Association’s granting legislation specified 

to be a replica of the actual birth house. Donn’s first attempt featured a twenty by forty foot building 

 

20 Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 205. 

21 Cited in Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 85. 22 Hoppin cited in Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 85. Hoppin assails Lossing and Currier and Ives for spreading 

misinformation in his typically venomous fashion in Charles Arthur Hoppin, “Was Washington Born in a Cabin?” in 

Antiques (February 1931), pp. 98-101. 
41

aligned along an east-west orientation. Donn simply could not make this proposal match the foundations 

excavated at the site. He drafted a new plan for an even larger building to completely contain the old 

foundations. The WNMA accepted it on October 17, 1927. The new plan proposed a fifty by thirty-eight 

foot building constructed along a north-south orientation. 23 As designed, the Memorial House was 

significantly larger than the foundations excavated in 1896 and oriented at a right angle to them. 

Nonetheless, the Washington family descendents accepted the plan as reflecting the sum of local memory 

and lore. Mrs. John B. (Mary Minor) Lightfoot—a niece of George Washington Ball—recalled a picture 

of the house owned by her uncle that featured ten dormers, four chimneys, and native brick exterior walls. 

Hoppin considered the correspondence between Lightfoot’s distant memory of the long-lost image and 

Donn’s plans the ultimate stamp of authenticity.24 That the WNMA did not pay similar attention to oral 

history with regard to the location of the house—recall John E. Washington’s protests—is striking. 

Finally, during the course of his preparatory excavations, Taylor discovered the foundation of a 

small chimney fifty feet west of the obelisk. All parties involved agreed that the chimney was in fact the 

one George Washington Parke Custis reported to be still standing in 1815. The WNMA incorporated the 

new discovery into its plans to build a reproduction colonial kitchen. Curiously, as Joy Beasley points 

out, tradition held that Custis erected his makeshift monument immediately adjacent to the chimney—not 

fifty feet away. That nobody recognized this discrepancy is remarkable and points to the precarious 

nature of planning leading to the creation of the memorial landscape at Washington’s Birthplace.25

The WNMA moved forward and by 1930 had obtained Congressional approval to continue with 

their work. O.G. Taylor excavated at the site of the proposed Memorial House one last time in September 

1930 only to confirm the findings documented in 1881-82, 1896, and 1926. This would be the last time 

these foundations would ever be seen as FAC approval of the WNMA’s building plans approved 

destruction of the old foundations to make way for construction of the Memorial House. NPS landscape 

 

23 Folder “miscellaneous notes,” NPS Records Box 14 of 25, GEWA contains a large-format copy of Donn’s 20 

October 1930 proposed plans for the reconstructed memorial house. 

24 Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 85. 25 Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 206. 
42

architect Charles Peterson railed against the destruction. He called it “One of the most culpably 

destructive operations of which I have ever heard...a great archeological crime.” NPS Assistant Director 

Arno Cammerer wrote to Albright concerning Peterson’s reaction and expressed his hope that “Peterson 

will consider his opinions privately and not give voice to them publicly to our and his embarrassment.”26 

Albright did not intervene on behalf of the NPS and the WNMA proceeded with construction in 1930. 

The WNMA’s construction of the Memorial House amid conflicting evidence regarding its 

original location and design raises questions about the group’s vision for the Monument. In part, the 

WNMA’s stubbornness implies a distrust of the then new field of historical archeology. It is also clear 

that the WNMA, under Rust, favored a sort of memorialization not wholly mediated by a concern for 

authenticity. Almost a decade after completion of the Memorial House, historian David Rodnick 

suggested that Rust had actually “prevailed upon the architect [Donn] to pattern the restoration along the 

lines of Twiford,” Rust’s own childhood home. 27 Whatever motivations informed the Memorial House’s 

design, it is undeniable that the WNMA created what would become the most challenging and 

consequently single most influential interpretive challenge bearing on the administration of the 

Monument to the present day. The inescapable irony and fortunate consequence of this oversight rests in 

the WNMA’s unwitting preservation of the actual birth site foundations by way of its own stubborn 

adherence to the Custis stone legacy. 

Building X Uncovered, 1930-1932 

Even before work began on the Memorial House, however, Donn noticed a curious mound some 

hundred feet south of the building site and requested that Taylor dig an exploratory trench. Taylor 

uncovered the foundations of yet another building, this one far more substantial than the 1896 discovery. 

He described the discovery in a September 30, 1930 report to the FAC: 

Only one foot under the surface a chimney foundation was discovered. Excavating was 

continued so far as we had any lead until we had uncovered a ‘U’ shaped building of considerable 

size. The long side is the bottom of the ‘U’, and it is 58 feet long and 19 feet wide. The 

 

26 Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 209. 

27 David Rodnick, “Orientation Report on the George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Westmoreland 

County, Virginia,” report prepared for the National Park Service, October 17, 1941, HFCA. 
43

foundations are 18 inches thick and a cross wall, without any opening, divides the cellar unto two 

rooms. The bottom of the cellar walls are from 5 to 7 feet below the surface, and there is a cellar 

fireplace in the extreme ends of each room (Image 12).28

Donn, startled by the size of the foundations (significantly larger than the presumed birth house 

foundations), sketched a plan of what the structure may have looked like and asked Hoppin for his 

opinion. Hoppin, ever concerned about protecting the reputation of the WNMA and not at all willing to 

delay construction of the Memorial House, brushed aside the obvious significance of the foundations 

Taylor referred to as “Building X.” He replied on October 24, 1930 that, “I do not believe that there is 

anything whatever, or ever was anything, that can or ever could alter the site of the birthouse...I have no 

particular interest in the other buildings located elsewhere other than that their existence at one time or 

another proves that the birthouse was solely used as a residence for the members of the Washington 

family.”29

Hoppin’s response did not allay Donn’s concerns. The Memorial House contractor, Edwin 

Conquest, remarked to a WNMA member during construction of the house that “Mr. Donn states that it is 

not his idea that the present building is to represent an exact reproduction of Washington’s birthplace.” 

Moreover, Donn expressed his desire to Albright that visitors might “stop using the word replica to 

describe the building he had designed as typical of the period.”30 Later correspondence, however, seems 

to have convinced the architect of Hoppin’s position. Hoppin suggested that Building X actually 

represented a collection of outbuildings used to store belongings listed in a 1762 Washington household 

inventory that could not have all fit in the actual birth house. He further argued that servants likely 

occupied the outbuildings. Donn eventually accepted Hoppin’s arguments given that, from the 

Architect’s point of view, Building X could not have been a family residence because it had evidently 

begun as a single-room building. Donn also argued that the excavated fireplaces were not large enough 

for use in kitchens and so pointed to a non-domestic purpose for Building X.31

 

28 Cited in Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 88. 

29 Ibid. 

30 Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, p. 490. 31 Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, pp. 88-89. 
44

 Donn only voiced his change of opinion, though, after completion of the Memorial House in a 

December 10, 1932 letter to NPS Landscape Architect Charles Peterson.32 Although Taylor uncovered 

Building X nearly two months prior to the beginning of work on the Memorial House, heated controversy 

surrounding the decision did not arise until after completion of the House.33 This is not to say that 

suspicions had not already been roused. Moore, Donn, and Taylor all had reservations about the exact 

location of the house. As historian Joy Beasley argues, the very term “Building X” indicated an at least 

partial recognition of the site’s probable importance. After all, other sites uncovered during preliminary 

archeological investigations included a so-called “ice house” and the “barn site,” although no more 

evidence existed to support these conclusions than what had been discovered at the Building X site. 34 

Given these very real concerns, it is unclear why neither the NPS nor the WNMA took steps to further 

investigate the location of Washington’s birth house. In hindsight, Donn’s justification of the Memorial 

House’s location rings strikingly naïve for an architect supposedly well versed in colonial Virginia 

architecture, regardless of the nascent state of historical archeology during that period. Hoppin’s 

arguments clearly served to protect the famously irascible historian’s own reputation. 

Most notable among the voices missing from these early conversations are those of Josephine 

Rust and Horace Albright. Rust had fallen ill by the time of the Building X discovery and would soon 

die; it is likely that the WNMA sheltered her from controversy during her last days. Albright’s silence 

regarding the Building X question is understandable in hindsight. The WNMA sought to complete its 

project by 1932 in time for the Washington Bicentennial, which had already begun to generate national 

excitement. The Director understood that the free publicity afforded by the Bicentennial would bolster 

the NPS’s debut on the historic preservation scene. Given the NPS’s lack of resources, both human and 

financial, Albright had no choice but to follow the WNMA’s lead to have the site ready in such short 

order. Moreover, the fields of historic preservation and historical archeology had only begun to be 

professionalized by the early 1930s and it was not then immediately evident what was at stake at 

 

32 Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 88. 33 Rodnick, “Orientation Report,” p. 63. 

34 Ibid. 
45

Wakefield.35 The NPS certainly did not possess the sort of professional staff necessary to undertake such 

a project and perhaps underestimated the WNMA’s determination and ability to leave its own mark on the 

Monument. 

So, as work commenced on the Memorial House, Taylor backfilled the Building X site and at the 

Monument’s formal dedication ceremony on May 14, 1932, speeches by Secretary of the Interior Wilbur 

and WNMA Vice President Mrs. Anthony Wayne Cook lauded the fruits of their cooperative effort 

without raising the specter of archeological controversy.36 But rumors began circulating even before the 

Monument’s dedication. In a 1932 memo to the Director, NPS Chief Historian Verne Chatelain described 

“read doubt [in media circles] that the birth site itself is correctly located, not to mention the house.” 37 If 

Albright and the NPS did in fact look the other way for the sake of expediency, Chatelain demonstrated 

that their decision to do so had already begun to reap repercussions. Indeed, the decisions and events of 

1930 to 1932, especially as they bear on interpretation, continue to resonate today. 

Archeological Planning and Controversy, 1932-1940 

Excavations leading to construction of the Memorial House and to the discovery of Building X 

constituted only two archeological fronts during the WNMA’s memorialization campaign of 1930 to 

1932. Before transferring its property to the NPS in 1931, yet while still enjoying the services of NPS 

Engineer Taylor, the WNMA turned its attention to the Washington family burial ground. Taylor 

uncovered another foundation just under two hundred feet southeast of the burial ground. Taylor and the 

 

35 Historical archeology, unlike traditional archeology, which studies the artifacts of pre-historic life, is concerned 

with the material remains of modern cultures. As practiced in the United States, “modern” generally refers to the 

years proceeding European discovery and settlement of North America. The NPS employed a number of qualified 

archeologists by the 1930s, especially given the importance of archeology in the southwestern parks. It would have 

had difficulty, however, finding individuals capable of appreciating the archeological subtleties—such as postholes 

and garbage pits—typical of the often impermanent construction common in colonial Virginia. The classic 

introduction to historical archeology is James Deetz, Invitation to Archaeology (Garden City, NY: The Natural 

History Press, 1967). For a more recent discussion of historical archeology, especially with regard to its emphasis 

on colonialism and capitalism, see Charles E. Orser, Jr., A Historical Archaeology of the Modern World (New York 

& London: Plenum Press, 1996). It is evident, however, that by 1937 the NPS recognized at least some difference 

between history and archeology—a survey of park resources issued that year inquires about “historical and

archeological data” (italics are mine). See Ethan Carr, Wilderness by Design, p. 274. 36 See copy of address by Mrs. Anthony Wayne Cook at the 14 May 1932 transfer ceremony in folder “Transfer to 

Govt.,” NPS Records Box 6 of 26, GEWA. This file also contains a variety of periodical coverage of the opening 

ceremonies. 

37 Chatelain to Bryant and Demaray, 5 March 1932, file “publicity matter” in NPS Records Box 17 of 25, GEWA. 
46

WNMA presumed this fourteen-by-twenty-foot brick foundation to be part of the Colonel John 

Washington homestead. Additional findings in the area, including a casement window, suggested the 

presence of an even larger house.38

Following the transfer of Monument property to the government, the NPS assumed control of all 

archeological explorations although the WNMA still financed various digs. This was the case in 1934 

when a reinvestigation of the John Washington site near the burial ground revealed a 1679 coin and 

personalized bottle seals.39 Further excavations closer to the Potomac River revealed another brick 

foundation assumed to mark an outbuilding associated with the original Henry Brooks homestead. 

Although relevant to the Monument’s mission, these digs—some distance away from the birth site—may 

have been intended to draw attention away from controversy surrounding Building X. An additional, 

purely accidental discovery on March 30, 1935, however, refocused attention back on the core historic 

area. Park staff happened upon a fourteen-foot square brick floor and foundation just west of the Colonial 

Kitchen. Hough and his staff assumed this structure to be the remains of a smokehouse.40

Interest in archeological resources was certainly not limited to Washington’s Birthplace. In fact, 

the 1935 Historic Sites and Building Act made identification and preservation of archeological resources 

a federal mandate in the parks. The Act’s requirement that parks survey historic and archeological sites, 

investigate them, and erect tablets and, in some cases, restore lost structures resonated at a park whose 

archeological context had created so much concern only years prior.41 Superintendent Hough, spurred by 

the discovery of foundations near the burial ground and eager to once and for all lay to rest the Building X 

controversy, sought desperately for ways to sponsor a park-wide archeological survey. A Virginia 

Economic Relief Act (VERA) program looked promising during the fall of 1934. VERA offered as much 

labor as necessary for the project but could only provide $42 per month for a supervisor, not enough to 

 

38 Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 89. 

39 Ibid. 

40 Ibid. 

41 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 358 and Mackintosh, The National Parks, pp. 51-52. 
47

employ a qualified archeologist.42 Undeterred and motivated by the smokehouse discovery, Hough 

drafted a full-fledged archeological program in March 1936. He proposed to investigate seven sites and 

to launch an “exploratory survey near the mansion house for Henry Brooke’s [sic] dwelling” with labor 

provided by CCC camp SP-19 and supervised jointly by historian Oscar F. Northington, Jr. and assistant 

architects Stuart Barnette and H. Summerfield Day.43

Director Cammerer approved the plan on March 25, 1936, and work began that spring. Much to 

Hough’s dismay, the excavations at Building X supported exactly the conclusion he had hoped to dispel. 

Excavations revealed, “a substantial multi-cellared brick foundation enclosing an ash and burned rubble 

layer...strongly suggest[ing] that Building X, rather than the foundation sealed beneath the Memorial 

House, was the true Wakefield. An additional 14,000 artifacts unearthed at the site further supported this 

conclusion.”44 Still convinced that the Memorial House did, indeed, mark the original birth site, Hough’s 

excitement to uncover Building X cooled by the fall of 1936 and sources suggest that the superintendent 

may have attempted to cover up the evidence. Acting Chief of research A.P. Stauffer reported that, 

although he and the committee appointed to inspect the foundations (including Regional Historian Roy 

Appleman, Day, Barnette, and Northington) “were strongly of the opinion that the foundations should be 

left uncovered until the committee has an opportunity to examine them again,” Hough pushed vigorously 

to backfill the discovery.45 Ironically, Hough’s obstinacy in this matter may very well have undermined 

his own archeological agenda. The real significance of Building X could not be disguised forever and 

 

42 Hough: “An offer was made by the Virginia Relief Administration to supply as much labor as we need for 

archaeological research, but the top wages they can offer for a supervisor is $42 per month. This means but one 

thing and that is we will be unable to secure competent direction. The National Park Service states that they cannot 

supply supervision for our archaeological project; hence this entire opportunity is lost for the balance of this year at 

least, and for the third time we have lost the benefit of free labor.” SMR, July 1935, GEWA. Hough provides 

further details concerning this situation in his December 1934 monthly report and 1935 annual report. $42 is 

roughly equivalent to $550 today based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics 

from 1800 to 2003. 

43 For Hough’s notes regarding various archeological finds prompting his proposal and comments concerning the 

necessity of additional archeological work for drafting a master plan, see SMR, March 1935 & May 1935, and 

Superintendent’s Annual Report (SAR), 1935, GEWA. See Rodnick, “Orientation Report,” p. 69 for a thorough 

discussion of work performed under Hough’s plan. Additional details are contained in SAR, 1936, GEWA. 

44 Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 212. 

45 Stauffer to Branch Spalding (unidentified NPS official), 19 October 1936, file “H2215 Historical Research 

GEWA” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 
48

Hough would eventually have to come to terms with the reality of the archeological situation at Popes 

Creek. 

Other problems complicated Hough’s archeological program. There was no shortage of labor 

though, according to Hough, “the CCC boys haven’t much instinct to punish themselves.” Additionally, 

supervision remained partial as Day apparently vanished from the scene and Northington and Barnette 

spent alternating weeks at Wakefield and Fredericksburg. Budget cutbacks resulted in the termination of 

Hough’s archeological program by the end of 1936.46 Hough attempted to revive the program but 

admitted in April 1937 that “much to our regret it appears as though our archeological program has 

completely collapsed by failure to secure a supervisor. It does seem a shame that since we can get free 

labor from a CCC camp that for lack of a supervisor the entire opportunity is lost.”47 Hough had good 

reason to be upset. Although skepticism concerning the Wakefield restoration had always existed at 

various levels of the NPS, Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes himself found the results of Hough’s 

1936 archeological program too provocative to ignore. 

Determined to settle the Memorial House’s status as a replica, Ickes requested an investigation by 

A.P. Stauffer of the Branch of Historic Sites regarding the construction of the Memorial House and by 

Stuart Barnette regarding the authenticity of the building. The current whereabouts of these reports are 

unknown and, in fact, both vanished relatively soon after being submitted. Fortunately, Ickes’ 

administrative assistant Leona Graham did copy portions of Stauffer’s report for Assistant Secretary 

Burlew on July 9, 1937. Although not complete, Graham’s memo—which begins, “Conclusion: that the 

 

46 SMR, April 1936 and December 1936, GEWA. Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 213. 47 SMR, April 1937, GEWA. Hough further described the situation: “Here we are frankly disappointed since with 

free labor available we are obliged to do nothing because no supervisor can be supplied. The monument is about to 

receive delivery of a special truck and spend over $600 of our funds for this work, yet it seems now there won’t be 

any work to do. Attempts are being made to interest the Association in obtaining the cooperation of the Carnegie 

Institution, who might supply the supervision, since the Park service cannot furnish such a man. Archeology is felt 

to be our basic opportunity for research, since all the records so far studied have produced so little information. 

Here in the ground some day will be found most of the information to be had about this place.” SMR, May 1937, 

GEWA. 
49

design at Wakefield is not authentic”—indicates that backfilling was not enough to keep the specter of 

Building X long out of view.48

Graham’s memo shows us that Stauffer criticized the WNMA for proceeding with its work 

without any documentation of the original house. He pointed out that the Association only attempted a 

replica “as nearly as may be practicable.” Moreover, Barnette’s report—according to Stauffer—“raises 

serious question as to whether the restoration is even typical of Colonial Virginia dwellings.” Stauffer 

argued that although the WNMA’s granting legislation specifically called for the erection of a replica, 

both the FAC and the NPS had been complicit in allowing “deviation from the statutory requirements 

respecting authenticity of design.” The NPS’s defense against Stauffer’s accusations of complicity is also 

summarized in Graham’s memo. It was the WNMA’s responsibility, after all, to observe its own 

congressional mandate. And had not the FAC been named by congress to approve all construction plans 

(a condition wisely inserted by Albright into the original legislation)? Finally, “there was...lacking the 

professional historical approach [then] that appears to prevail in the Service today.” Indeed, the NPS 

Branch of Historic Sites and Buildings had not even come into being as of 1931. And, most importantly, 

the WNMA’s granting legislation did not even require the NPS to become involved in the project until 

after the Association had completed construction of its replica building. 

Finally, Stauffer criticized the WNMA for not paying due attention to the archeological work 

undertaken by Hook and Taylor. Why did the WNMA—including Donn—ignore archeological evidence 

that clearly revealed the Memorial House plans to be inaccurate? Graham’s memo suggests that the 

Association’s determination to complete the Memorial House in time for Washington’s 200th birthday 

“would preclude careful historic research or consideration of archeological findings.” But the memo also 

questioned Rust’s own motivations and raised the question of Twiford and its likely influence on the 

Memorial House design. 

 

48 Untitled folder in NPS Records Box 16 of 25, GEWA contains file no. 112, “statements as to original place” 

containing testimonials by local residents regarding the location of the original house. This file also contains the 9 

July 1937 Graham memorandum. Graham indicates that Barnette submitted his report on May 10, 1937. 
50

These reports convinced Ickes that, if nothing else, the marker identifying and explaining the 

Memorial House’s significance could no longer claim the structure to be either a replica or a reproduction 

of Washington’s birth house. Thus began a long and heated controversy between the NPS and the 

WNMA with regard to the authenticity of the Memorial House and its consequent interpretation.49 In a 

last attempt to verify the authenticity of the Memorial House, FAC chairman and WNMA official Charles 

Moore requested that noted historical architect Fiske Kimball—whom Moore considered “the best 

authority on Colonial architecture”—offer his opinion on the Building X question. Kimball concluded in 

September 1937 that the foundations beneath the Memorial house were “inadequate for those of 

Washington’s birthplace” and that there was “no escape from the belief that [Building X remains] were 

the foundations of the mansion house.”50

These various reports galvanized relations between Hough, NPS officials, and the WNMA. 

Hough and the WNMA clung tenaciously to the belief that the Memorial House was in fact a replica of 

Washington’s birth house. The curious disappearance of so many official documents concerning the 

controversy left their position relatively unassailable. As noted above, only excerpts remain from Ickes’ 

requested evaluation. Moreover, no official reports of the 1936 excavations had reached NPS files. 

Stuart Barnette—who had become primarily responsible for the project—never submitted a final report 

and had since relocated to another project. During the spring of 1939, Acting Supervisor of Historic Sites 

Francis Ronalds confronted Chief of the Branch of Plans and Design Thomas Vint about the situation: “In 

view of the primary importance of Washington’s Birthplace and the many problems presented by the 

existence of such large and pretentious foundations as those of Building X, it is suggested that Mr. 

Barnette be asked to complete his report and measured drawings at an early date.”51 Vint recognized the 

particular sensitivity of this problem especially as it bore on the then very public controversy surrounding 

Building X. Within a week he sent another memo increasing the pressure on Acting Regional Director 

 

49 Rodnick, “Orientation Report,” p. 88. 

50 Rodnick, “Orientation Report,” p. 89 and Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 213. 51 Ronalds to Vint, 11 May 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park Service NE Region, 1936-1952, RG 

79, National Archives, Mid-Atlantic Region, Philadelphia, PA (NAMAR). 
51

Herbert Evison to account for the oversight adding that “it seems to me vitally important that a full and 

complete record of this archeological work be placed in the records in order that no criticism of this 

service’s responsibilities in this regard can be offered.” Evison responded bluntly that Barnette had been 

relocated to Salem, Massachusetts, and would not be able to recommence work on the report for some 

time.52

The Rodnick Report 

 Bureaucratic complications aside, Hough’s 1935 archeological program had uncovered 

substantial evidence to support the argument that Building X was indeed the remains of Washington’s 

actual birth house. Even so, neither Hough nor the WNMA were willing to accept the findings. In early 

1939 the superintendent explained his position to Harry Lee Rust, the WNMA’s secretary and Josephine 

Rust’s widower. Hough understood that the NPS had “come to the conclusion that the present memorial 

mansion does not mark the site of the house in which George Washington was born,” but he still believed 

that “Mr. Custis must have been correct in 1815.” 53 The superintendent managed to coordinate a 

conference in January 1939 to reconsider the problem. The result was yet another plan for a large-scale 

archeological investigation to settle the Building X question and, in Hough’s mind, once and for all put to 

rest any suspicions that the Memorial House did not mark the actual site of Washington’s birth.54 By 

September 1941, the program began, “calculated to reveal the entire story of the homes of John and 

Augustine Washington at Bridges and Popes Creeks respectively. It is anticipated that the work will 

extend through several years and will be obliged to temporarily destroy the beauty of our grounds while 

trenching work proceeds.” CCC SP-19 senior foreman and historian, David Rodnick arrived at the site on 

 

52 Vint to Evison, 20 May 1939, includes attached copy of a memo dated 11 May 1939 from Ronalds; Evison to 

Director Cammerer, 26 May 1939 (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park Service NE Region, 1936-1952, 

RG 79, NAMAR. 

53 Hough to Rust, 14 January 1939, file “H2215 Historical Research GEWA” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 

54 Hough declared in his 1940 Annual Report that the “Monument needs a complete archeological research program, 

followed by the reconditioning of the several outbuildings in order to present a more authentic picture of the colonial 

home place.” 
52

August 28 and took charge of the program. Hough greeted Rodnick’s arrival with enthusiasm and felt 

assured that “this long needed work we feel will greatly improve our knowledge of the area.”55

 Rodnick’s work certainly did “greatly improve” knowledge of the area, but not at all in the way 

Hough had hoped or imagined. The archeology program generated considerable local interest. The 

Fredericksburg Free-Lance Star announced “Excavations Planned to Find Exact Site of Washington 

Home.”56 Hough chaffed at that particular headline, throwing doubt as it did on his firm belief that the 

Memorial House already did mark the exact site of Washington’s birth home. But for Hough, the worst 

had yet to come. The beginning of American involvement in World War II meant the end of NPS 

cooperation with the CCC at Wakefield and, in addition to heightening an already severe labor shortage, 

brought Hough’s archeological program to a halt by December 5 when it was announced that Camp SP19 was scheduled for transfer to Quantico, Virginia.57 Faced with this change of circumstances, Rodnick 

devoted his four months of service at Popes Creek to a thorough evaluation of all documents and records 

relating to the Building X controversy. “Orientation Report on the George Washington Birthplace 

National Monument,” released in October 1941, instantly revived the Building X controversy. 58 Not 

surprisingly, the report demonstrated that Building X did in fact mark the original site. Hough bellowed 

with dismay. An article on the front page of the Washington Post asked, “was a mistake made 10 years 

ago in erecting the memorial mansion at Wakefield, Va., birthplace of George Washington?”59 A 

befuddled though defensive Hough responded, “while the bulk of the article was favorable to the 

monument, its headline and introduction cast doubt on the location of the memorial mansion, and it has 

hurt the place.”60

 

55 SMR, September and August, 1941, GEWA. 

56 “Excavations Planned to Find Exact Site of Washington Home” in Free-Lance Star (October 27, 1941). 57 SMR, December 1941. 

58 Copies of Rodnick’s report are available in several locations including the GEWA and library, the National 

Archives in College Park, MD, and at the Harpers Ferry Center in Harpers Ferry, WV. The Harpers Ferry Center 

possesses the most complete Rodnick materials including drafts of the report, addenda, and Rodnick’s own handwritten research notes. 

59 Edward T. Folliard, “CCC Spades Stir Controversy On Washington's Birth Site; Controversy On Wakefield 

Stirred Anew” in The Washington Post (Oct 26, 1941), pp. 1, 2. 60 SMR, October 1941, GEWA. 
53

 In reality, Rodnick’s report did not forward any conclusions or evidence that had not already been 

in circulation at one time or another. It did however condense all the various debates surrounding 

Building X into one official document while providing a very frank and oftentimes condemnatory 

evaluation of the motivations and decision-making processes leading to and following the construction of 

the Memorial House. No one had, until this point, publicly and officially held the WNMA accountable 

for its work at Wakefield and, even more significant, no one prior to Rodnick—save A.P. Stauffer whose 

report to Ickes mysteriously vanished—had so blatantly challenged Hoppin’s authority in the matter. 

Rodnick took special pains to dismiss the tentative conclusions arrived at by Hough and others following 

the 1935 excavations at Wakefield. Given that these conclusions found their only official expression in 

Hough’s September 1936 monthly report suggests that the superintendent may have taken specific 

umbrage with this portion of the report. Rodnick devoted several pages to dispelling Hough’s notion that 

Building X could not be the original site due to its obvious structural accumulation over time, its 

orientation overlooking Popes Creek, a lack of building hardware uncovered during excavation, and the 

presence there of nineteenth-century artifacts.61 The report specifically discredits Hoppin’s various 

unsubstantiated statements about the history of the original house. It also sheds serious doubt on the 

credibility of the NPS’s own handling of research materials with specific reference to the lost StaufferBarnette report.62 

Needless to say, reactions to the Rodnick report within the NPS were many and varied. Recently 

minted Director Newton B. Drury dashed off a letter to WNMA President Louise du Pont Crowninshield 

even before formal review of the report had ended. Drury indicated that the evidence would demand “the 

formulation of a plan for exhibition of those foundations” and that the Memorial House would eventually 

“house and display the many pieces of Washingtonia” donated by the WNMA as well as artifacts 

excavated at the site.63 Fiske Kimball, when asked his opinion, reiterated his long-standing belief that 

Building X was the original house and suggested to Supervisor of Historic Sites Ronald Lee that once 

 

61 Rodnick, “Orientation Report,” pp. 76-81. 

62 See Rodnick, “Orientation Report,” p. 80 on Hoppin and pp. 86-88 on the missing documents. 

63 Drury to Crowninshield, 21 November 1941, file “homesite controversy” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 
54

Moore and Hoppin “have passed from the scene, it might be good to pull down the memorial mansion.”64 

Kimball also suggested creating a model of the “whole group, which could be exhibited and serve as a 

corrective of any misconceptions.” 

Regional Supervisor of Historic Sites Roy Appleman’s official comments lavished the report with 

praise. Following several minor suggestions for adjusting grammar and tone (Appleman seemed eager to 

slightly lesson the blow to the WNMA, at least on paper), he concluded: 

Finally, I wish to say that in my opinion this report reaches a very high degree of objectivity and 

of careful scientific analysis of available facts and that it is something of a masterpiece in its 

synthesis and presentation of the various materials, a great proportion of which was somewhat 

confused and difficult to integrate. This report is the best of its kind that I have seen prepared by 

park Service personnel.65

Appleman’s remarks capture the general tone of the NPS’s reaction. Lee forwarded the comments to 

Drury with an attached note asking, “will you see if Mr. Albright’s article can be located...we should 

begin prep. [sic] of memo to secty. [sic].” Lee referred to Albright’s 1931 New York Times piece lauding 

the authenticity of the reconstruction at Wakefield.66 Rodnick’s report reverberated throughout the NPS 

and those in power quickly turned their thoughts to damage control and reputation maintenance. 

 Most striking, however, are Hough’s various responses. Although the Superintendent filed a 

formal response in January 1942, he labored long and hard over the form and style of his response. 

Rodnick’s report more-or-less officially discredited Hough’s belief that the Memorial House marked the 

site of the birth house. Not surprisingly, the superintendent did not relinquish his position without some 

difficulty. Hough explained as much in his official response: “what comments to make on this report is a 

matter over which I have thought a great deal. I have written at least six memoranda, only to believe that 

none were adequate.” He continues: 

 

64 Kimball to Lee, 18 December 1941, (Box 2214) file 207, National Park Service Records, Central Classified Files, 

RG 79, NAB. 

65 Roy Appleman official comments, 5 January 1942, (Box 2214) file 207, National Park Service Records, Central 

Classified Files, RG 79, NAB. 

66 Albright actually wrote two such articles for the New York Times, it is not clear which one Lee referred to. See 

Horace Albright, “Wakefield Washington Shrine Was Begun after Long Study” in New York Times, 19 July 1931, p. 

XX6; and Horace Albright, “Washington’s Boyhood Homes: The Place Held by Wakefield” in New York Times, 29 

March 1931, p. X16. 
55

As I view the matter what we primarily need is a decision of policy. It should be determined for 

once and for all whether the place is a Memorial – or a Restoration. 

Shortly after Mr. Chatelain took office as the first Historian in the Park Service it was decided 

that we were a memorial. It is the only safe ground upon which we can stand. For nearly ten 

years we have interpreted the place as a Memorial and nearly 600,000 visitors have enjoyed it as 

such. We feel that criticism now of the place as an unauthentic restoration is unwarranted, ill 

timed and unfortunate. 

If and when the time comes that research can prove what the home in which Washington was 

born was like, we feel that the proper thing to do is to gracefully remove the Memorial Mansion 

and construct a replica. Until such time comes we should continue to interpret the building as a 

Memorial House. We feel that to do otherwise is to lose sight of the larger values of the 

Monument and our responsibility to the public. After all, we have custody of Washington’s 

Birthplace – and it is our duty to protect and administer it for the benefit and enjoyment of the 

people. 

Our greatest value is the inherent quality of the place. It has fine esthetic and sentimental value 

as well as historic association. We do have certain positive values which cannot be denied, and 

they should be protected. 

The work of building and furnishing the Memorial mansion has been done by patriotic and 

unselfish ladies as a tribute to George Washington and his parents. Under the circumstances no 

one could have done better. That their efforts have been successful seems amply vouched for by 

the thousands upon thousands of expressions of appreciation received from the public. 

The public, as I view it, is the jury which will say finally what is right and what is wrong, and 

after all it is the public whom we are employed to serve. 67

A note attached to a copy of Hough’s response—presumably in the superintendent’s handwriting—

includes what appear to be additional thoughts on the Building X situation: “Suggest the mansion be not 

taken down, at least not in the immediate future;” “that the mansion be considered a museum housing 

period furniture;” and “that attention be focused on building X as the birthplace.” 

 Hough’s response clearly conveys a sense of disappointment and a concern for preserving both 

the integrity of the Monument and its relationship with the WNMA. Earlier drafts of his response are 

significantly less restrained. In one draft, Hough accused Rodnick of bias claiming, “it is evident that the 

author performed this work while Acting on the preconceived conclusion that the present Memorial 

mansion had been built on the wrong site.” Another attempt speaks to what must have been a tense 

 

67 Hough to Director Drury, 7 January 1942, (Box 2214) file 207, National Park Service Records, Central Classified 

Files, RG 79, NAB. 
56

relationship between researcher and superintendent declaring “I have done my best to play ball with Dr. 

Rodnick.” An especially bitter draft claimed outright ineptitude: 

Apparently the present program is dedicated to disprove Washington’s Birthplace without 

evidence—only on conclusions of inexperienced men or men of limited research, timid men who 

may be scholarly but are of limited vision and appreciation...Instead, what we need is a member 

of the Mon. [sic] staff, in sympathy with the finer aspects of this place, dedicated to learn the 

simple truth—to proceed slowly with as little disruption of the place as possible...After all, this is 

Washington’s Birthplace, and it has been dedicated to the use and enjoyment of the people. It is 

our duty to protect it and make it useful to the people. What is presented should be direct and 

affirmative. Since there appears no possibility of ever being able to offer a restoration—why 

discredit the present memorial buildings. It is bound to alienate the Association ladies who have 

done a fine job here in a purely patriotic spirit, at considerable cost of time and money. None 

have sought personal credit—only meaning to honor George Washington and his parents.68

Hough’s emphasis here on the public’s role as jury and on the importance of honoring the WNMA’s 

contribution is significant. Although his official response, when considered in light of previous less 

measured drafts, demonstrated the superintendent’s willingness to resolve the matter by way of policy, its 

call to defer to public opinion—a significant theme within the drafts as well—suggests the beginnings of 

a divide between Hough’s interpretive vision and the NPS’s own increasingly professional vision. 

Hough’s inability to accept Rodnick’s conclusions reveals his reluctance to accept the validity of new 

modes of historical investigation—specifically, historical archeology. 

 Surprisingly enough, despite the quality and vigor of Rodnick’s report, doubts persisted beyond 

Hough’s own reservations. Although debate concerning Building X remained on the back burner during 

the war years, responses to Rodnick’s report resurfaced soon thereafter. In 1947, regional archeologist 

J.C. Harrington cautioned the Regional Director against making any final conclusions “until full and 

complete information on the site is secured.”69 Although it is not clear what more information could be 

secured—two excavations had already more-or-less ravaged the site—Harrington’s position surely 

bolstered Hough’s feelings on the subject. Still, there is evidence that even Hough had come to doubt his 

 

68 See unlabeled file in NPS Records Box 17 of 25, GEWA, for a variety of correspondence regarding Rodnick’s 

report. Of most interest are several drafts of Hough’s official response to Rodnick’s report that are far more 

impassioned that the official response. Additional copies of these various drafts can be found in a manila envelope 

in NPS Records Box 21 of 25, GEWA. 

69 Harrington to Regional Director, 27 August 1947, file “history” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 
57

own position on Building X by the late 1940s. In a letter to a fellow superintendent, Hough outlined his 

argument and wondered if its premises were legitimate: 

If you have been good enough to follow me thus far, may I ask you as a friend, this question. 

You majored in History, and I want to ask you as an Historian, do you consider this case a good 

case? I had good training in science and I’ll admit that it isn’t scientifically sound. But I can’t 

help but feel that the case is true none the less. Have I got a point worth taking up with my 

historical superiors to see if we may say on the sign that the memorial house marks the site of the 

original house?70

Still, to whatever extent Hough may have questioned his own rationale, it is clear that he still held dear to 

his original position. A visitor handbook penned by Hough in 1951 makes no mention of Building X as a 

possible site of the birth house and somewhat elliptically remarks “there are various possible solutions, 

but none are conclusive.”71 The NPS also remained, on paper at least, ambivalent about the Building X 

controversy. Not long after Hough’s death, however, an anonymous letter to park ranger and historian 

Carl Flemer revealed that “as it stands we are almost positive that the site of the birth home is...where 

building “x” is located” and that “one of the first things the new superintendent will have to do will be to 

revise all signs which are not correct.”72

Signs and Meaning at Washington’s Birthplace 

 Both Hough’s letter to superintendent Hummel and the anonymous letter to Carl Flemer refer to 

perhaps the most immediate problem resulting from the discovery and study of Building X: how to word 

the interpretive sign in front of the Memorial House. Though the wording of a sign may seem 

inconsequential, the Memorial House placard came to mark the metaphorical battleground upon which the 

WNMA and the NPS fought to assert their understandings of the historical value of the Memorial House. 

In 1931, Moore requested that Donn cast an inscribed metal tablet to be placed in front of the Memorial 

 

70 The recipient is identified only as “Hummel.” This is most likely Edward A. Hummel who served as 

superintendent of Colonial National Historical Park from 1946 to 1952. Hough to Hummel, 25 February 1947, file 

“H22-Misc. Historical data” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 

71 “Material For a 56-Page Historic Handbook on George Washington Birthplace National Monument by Philip R. 

Hough, Superintendent,” submitted to Regional Director, Region One, 11 January 1951 in NPS Records, Box 6 of 

25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA, p. 19. 

72 Anonymous to Flemer, 16 February 1954, file “early correspondence, in-coming” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 
58

House explaining the significance of Washington’s birth site and the WNMA’s role at Wakefield.73 

Donn agreed and the WNMA approved the following inscription at its November 30, 1931 meeting: 

George Washington was born on this spot February 22, 1732, in a house built by his father, 

Augustine Washington, about 1718. He devised the estate to his son Augustine (1720-1762), in 

1743. From 1743 to 1748 George Washington here spent a portion of his youth. In 1762, the 

estate passed to William Augustine Washington, the last occupant of the house, which burned 

December 25, 1780, and was never rebuilt. His grandson Lewis W. Washington in 1858, 

conveyed the site of the birthplace to Virginia, and in 1882, Virginia conveyed it to the United 

States. A monument erected in 1896, marked the site until removed to its present location in 

1931. In 1923 the Wakefield National Memorial Association was organized to recover the lands 

of the Washingtons and to restore the birthplace of George Washington and the burial ground of 

his ancestors. The Association under the presidency of Mrs. H.L. Rust, Sr. with the consent of 

the government, accomplished its object, Edward W. Donn, Jr., F.A.I.A., being the architect. The 

golden book of Wakefield records the names of the patriotic givers. In February 1932, an estate 

of 367 acres was turned over to the United States Department of the Interior National Park 

Service, to be administered forever as the George Washington Birthplace National Monument at 

Wakefield. The house is not a copy of the original: it is typical of Virginia houses of the period

[italics added].74

That Moore asked Donn to write the inscription rather than WNMA historian Charles Hoppin is telling 

and understandable in hindsight. Historian Charles Hosmer notes that “Hoppin had never respected 

Moore’s sense of history.”75 Hoppin’s frequent tirades in the press and in private correspondence 

demonstrate that the cantankerous historian rarely respected anyone’s sense of history save his own. But 

Hoppin found Moore especially frustrating. Despite his continued support of the WNMA, Moore had 

always questioned the veracity of the Memorial House. That Moore exercised a veto on the WNMA by 

way of his affiliation with the FAC no doubt added to the threat perceived by Hoppin. Still, Hoppin could 

not contain his rage upon reading the last sentence of Donn’s inscription. Where Donn had done his best 

to succinctly explain a complicated design process, Hoppin perceived a direct and pointed refutation of 

his own research. 

The WNMA mounted its bronze tablet with Donn’s inscription atop a stone pedestal in front of 

the Memorial House in 1931 (Images 13 & 14). Soon thereafter, Hoppin launched a campaign to have the 

placard removed and enlisted the assistance of W. Lanier Washington who still chaffed at the claim that 

 

73 Hosmer provides the best account of these events in Preservation Comes of Age, beginning on p. 490. 74 See Flemer notebooks as cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.20. 75 Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, p. 492. 
59

the Birthplace had been deeded to the government by the Commonwealth of Virginia and not by the 

Washington family (see chapter 1). Washington dashed off a scathing letter of complaint to WNMA 

Vice President Mrs. Anthony Wayne Cook in 1932 explaining his own grievance and requesting that 

Hoppin be granted authority in the matter.76 Although Washington signed this letter, its tone is 

suspiciously reminiscent of Hoppin’s own style and it is possible that Hoppin penned the letter himself on 

behalf of Washington. 

Authorship notwithstanding, the complaint had its desired effect and soon drew Horace Albright 

into the fray. Ever one to avoid a controversy, Albright discussed the matter with Associate Director 

Demaray and, recognizing the lingering volatility of Hoppin’s besmirched reputation, agreed in early 

1933 to have the placard removed going as far as to wipe the slate clear by having Hough’s own 

correspondence on the sign crisis removed from NPS files.77 WNMA President Worthington asked that 

Hough take down the sign and place it in storage. Hough did so and additionally removed the stone 

pedestal and concrete base—which weighed over a ton—on January 30, 1933.78

In the wake of the 1931-33 sign crisis, the NPS tread lightly on matters of memorialization by 

means of placards and signs. In 1934, for example, the Daughters of the Cincinnati requested permission 

to plant a memorial tree at the Monument. Demaray explained to Hough that “there is no objection to the 

planting of a tree but we must avoid tablets and ceremonies which form the beginning of a long series.”79 

Caution alone, however, could not solve the problem of how to accurately and equitably explain the 

Memorial House to the public. The NPS made its own attempt to solve this problem, and on May 5, 1938 

posted a new sign with both more measured language and with the approval of Secretary Ickes: 

George Washington Birthplace National Monument established January 23, 1930. The memorial 

house was erected 1930-1931 by the Wakefield National Memorial Association under the 

authority of Congress. George Washington was born near this site on February 22, 1732. The 

original home built by his father Augustine, 1723-1726, was occupied by him until 1735. 

 

76 Washington to Cook, 19 September 1932, file “early correspondence, in-coming” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 77 See SMR, April 1932, GEWA; and Albright to Worthington, 7 January 1933, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park 

Service Records, RG 79, NACP. Curiously, Hough thought the central issue in the sign crisis “hinges on the point 

as to who gave title to the federal government in 1882”—see SAR, January 1933, GEWA. 78 SMR, January 1933, GEWA. 

79 Demaray to Hough, 9 March 1934, in (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 
60

According to family tradition the house was burned during the Revolutionary War. This house is 

neither a reproduction nor a facsimile of the original. Its design follows a Virginia type 

plantation house of the eighteenth century.80

The NPS may have gone ahead with the new sign expecting that the WNMA, under the leadership of 

President Crowninshield, would be more amenable to a frank account of the Monument. If so, the NPS 

evidently overestimated Crowninshield’s influence. Still sensitive about the credibility of their restorative 

project, the WNMA erupted in anger.81

In January 1939, the WNMA bypassed the NPS completely and wrote directly to Senator Carter 

Glass complaining that the sign “is in direct opposition to the aims and objectives of the” Association and 

“neither does it agree with Secretary Wilbur’s speech of acceptance when this property was presented to 

the United States government by the above named association in 1932.” Responses arrived from Senator 

Glass and Assistant Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Cloperman, but neither satisfied the WNMA.82 

Undeterred, the WNMA turned to their old mainstay, Charles Hoppin. In typical fashion, Hoppin issued 

a scathing letter to Josephine Rust’s widower—who had since become the WNMA’s secretary—

attempting to discern exactly what the situation was at Washington’s Birthplace and further inquiring as 

to the status of the Log House for which Hoppin presumed the NPS was attempting a hostile takeover.83 

Some portion of this outcry must have caught the NPS’s ear for in October 1939, following a visit to the 

Park, Acting Assistant Director J. R. White wrote to Hough, “the wording of the sign at the park entrance, 

particularly where it says, “This house is neither a reproduction nor a facsimile of the original,” is most 

deterrent to travel. I shall take up with the Director the possibility of changing the wording on this 

 

80 See Flemer notebooks as cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.20. 81 In his May 1938 SMR, Hough remarked, “The new sign...has distinctly met with unfavorable reaction by the 

public. However, we believe that it is necessary—like it or not—and that the simple truth should hurt no honest 

person.” This comment may suggest a shift in Hough’s opinion of the Building X controversy. 82 Ames to Glass, 7 January 1939, in file “WNMA Members and Meetings” in NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s1960s Records, GEWA. 1 March 1939 “Minutes of the WNMA (Northern neck Branch),” Wakefield National 

Memorial Association Records, 1923-1985, Series III, Secretary’s Files, Unprocessed Material, Box 18 of 37, 

GEWA. 

83 Hoppin to Rust, 1939, in file “WNMA member and Meetings” in NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s 

Records, GEWA. 
61

sign.”84 Records do not reveal whether or not the NPS changed the text of their new sign, but they do 

indicate that the sign was removed in 1946.85 Not until March 1953 did the Monument erect a sign that, 

though humorously vague, satisfied the WNMA: 

George Washington was born in a house on these grounds, February 22, 1732, and spent the first 

three years of his life here at his father’s plantation on Popes Creek. According to tradition, the 

birthplace house, the appearance of which is unknown, was burned on Christmas Day, 1779. The 

present memorial house was built by the Wakefield National Memorial Association under 

authority of an Act of Congress approved in 1926. Here one may feel, and catch the spirit of, the 

Colonial Virginia that molded Washington, the boy and the man.86

Conflict between the WNMA and the NPS regarding how to appropriately word what, by any 

other account, might seem like an insignificant sign, reveals a staggering difference of perspective at 

Washington’s Birthplace. The WNMA perpetuated a commemorative mode of history typical of and 

popularized by the Colonial Revival in this country. Its commitment to Custis’s legacy reveals a desire to 

commemorate not just George Washington, but also the entire trajectory of Washington commemoration 

at Popes Creek. The WNMA sought to figure itself as an important contributor to a long history of 

Washington commemoration and, to that end, the Memorial House was a fitting monument. The NPS, on 

the other hand, valued the birthplace because it offered an opportunity to instruct the public about the 

realities of Washington’s life in colonial Virginia. Authenticity—not commemoration—was of utmost 

importance to the NPS’s project. The sign conflict therefore reveals a contest of meaning at 

Washington’s Birthplace—a battle between two organizations to define how the public should understand 

the past. Disagreement about how to do history at Washington’s Birthplace, as we will see in the 

following chapter, consequently filtered into the practical challenges of creating a National Park. 

 

84 “Park entrance” in this context refers to the entrance to the core historic area which was more-or-less immediately 

in front of the Memorial House. White to Hough, 17 October 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park 

Service NE Region, Central Classified Files, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 

85 File “D66 Signs, Markers” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA contains lengthy correspondence regarding 

problem of narrative sign at entrance to memorial house during the 1940s. 

86 See Flemer notebooks as cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.20. 
CHAPTER 3 

Making a Monument into a Park, 1931-1940 

Amid the various controversies surrounding Building X, the NPS initiated its own program for 

making what had been a remote monument into an accessible public facility. Responsibility for 

overseeing that project first fell to Associate Engineer Robert White until Phillip Hough arrived in 1932 

and assumed control as the Park’s first full-time superintendent. Harold Broderick joined the staff as 

senior gardener on December 7, 1931, and Mrs. Henry Mason, employed by the WNMA, served as 

hostess and default supervisor of the Memorial House. Aside from Hough and Broderick, the NPS 

employed only one other full-time laborer and hired day laborers when necessary.1

Understaffing constituted a significant problem throughout the Park system during the 1920s and 

30s when early hopes for a self-sustaining NPS faded as visitation increases outpaced congressional 

generosity.2

 White complained about understaffing as early as April 1931 when, aside from himself, only 

one other full-time laborer attended “to all the various duties of maintenance and protection.”3

 The 

addition of gardener Broderick may have eased the problem, but not for long. NPS Office Order No. 234, 

issued in 1932, required each park to designate a point-of-contact for wildlife issues. Hough assigned the 

responsibility to Broderick thereby reducing the amount of time the gardener could devote to gardening.4

 

By late 1932, Hough complained of “embarrassing” conditions wherein administrative, clerical, 

landscaping, and Memorial Mansion duties fell to only three regular employees, none of whom were 

trained as rangers or historians. 

The Monument’s size and interpretive complexity required the attention of maintenance 

personnel, landscape technicians, trained visitor guides, historians, and a clerical staff equipped to 

 

1

 SMR, July, November, and December 1931, GEWA. 2

 Carr, Wilderness by Design, pp. 87, 90. Understaffing characterized the difficult financial times of the 1930s, and 

the NPS struggled similarly at other parks. At the Abraham Lincoln Birthplace, for example, “there was no clerk; 

Mrs. Cissell did part-time typing and filing with no pay. The Superintendent's son hired as a laborer, acted in the 

position of guard and ranger, and a room in Superintendent Cissell's private residence served as the Park office.” 

See chapter five of Gloria Peterson, “An Administrative History of Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic 

Site” 1968, <www.nps.gov/abli/adhi/adhi5.htm> (15 May 2006). 

3

 SMR, April 1931, GEWA. 

4

 SMR, February 1932, GEWA. 
63

manage an emergent park bureaucracy. Although day laborers could be had at low rates from the 

surrounding community, they were no substitute for trained NPS rangers. Hough found some relief in a 

seasonal ranger-historian program akin to a modern internship wherein college students met the public 

and performed small research projects. 5 Still, the Monument needed year-round help. 

 Although the Great Depression meant hard times for parks, visitation throughout the system 

continued at a steady pace creating a difficult situation where parks were required to manage persistent 

strains on resources with diminishing funds.6

 In this way, the Monument’s popularity placed significant 

demands on its developing infrastructure. Approximately 120,000 visitors had come to Wakefield 

between the summer of 1931 and the end of 1933 and Hough found himself overwhelmed, for example, 

“by visitors insisting on leaving their names and addresses to receive [information] folders.”7

 Preparation 

of materials for a visitor guide consequently occupied a substantial portion of the superintendent’s time. 

The Monument also became popular among after-hours trespassers. During a single week in 1933, 

Monument staff turned away trespassers on four consecutive nights and, in one instance, intercepted a 

man who removed a length of fence “to get a party of ladies into the grounds.” 8 A typical workday at the 

Monument therefore often extended well into the night. 

Congressional appropriations for public works projects stimulated development throughout the 

NPS and eventually eased the Park’s labor shortage. The arrival of Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) 

Camp SP-19 at nearby Westmoreland State Park in October 1933 promised some labor relief by way of 

the National Recovery Act.9

 Hough considered the CCC’s arrival “of outstanding importance to us” and, 

 

5

 Temporary ranger-historians did wear NPS uniforms and presumably received some sort of compensation for their 

services. Hough took special interest in these individuals, often staying in touch and even corresponding by mail 

with those who would come to serve overseas during World War II (see wartime monthly reports). 

6

 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 326. The NPS actually expanded during the Depression. Americans looking for 

affordable vacations filled national parks and Washington recognized the power of these sites to bolster faith in 

American values. Ethan Carr attributes President Roosevelt’s consolidation of the system in 1933 to a conscious 

investment in American identity. See Carr, Wilderness by Design, pp. 255-56. 7

 SMR, May 1933, GEWA. 

8

 SMR, April 1933, GEWA. 

9

 The CCC played a vital role in rescuing the NPS from the ravages of economic collapse. By 1935, the 

organization operated six hundred camps like SP-19 with nearly 120,000 workers. Of the 6,000 professionals hired 

to supervise CCC projects, many became life-long NPS employees thereby fundamentally influencing the NPS’s 

character in years to come. See Mackintosh, The National Parks, p. 46. 
64

on December 16, put sixty-nine corpsmen to work on various maintenance projects around the 

Monument. Federal relief, by way of the Civil Works Program, also provided a temporary tour guide. 

The local Virginia reemployment committee selected Robert Bruce Mass of Mount Holly, Virginia, to 

provide visitor services at the Monument and Hough set Mass to “learning the story of Wakefield” soon 

after his arrival. 10 Nonetheless, the Monument’s popularity during 1932 and 1933 continued to push staff 

and facilities to the extreme limits of their operational capacity. 

 Operating shorthanded proved especially challenging during these early years given that daily 

tasks required supervision and coordination of efforts to construct roads, buildings, landscapes, and 

utilities. Moreover, given that the NPS had only begun to operate in the eastern states, NPS bureaucratic 

channels remained tenuous at best. White’s November 1931 report refers to the delay in receiving cost 

accounts due to the “recent installation of the system of forwarding copies from the disbursing office.” 

The Monument’s accounts remained under the authority of Colonial National Monument until being 

localized on February 4, 1933, while disbursing power remained at Yorktown.11

 Continued collaboration with the WNMA also distracted NPS planners who, by 1932, sought to 

devote their sole attention to NPS-specific projects. Ludgate for example, had urged the WNMA to move 

quickly with its landscaping plans and advised them to expect exorbitant contractor fees. The WNMA 

did neither. Having drawn up a series of tentative landscape plans and gaining approval from the FAC in 

early 1932, the WNMA solicited bids for the work which far exceeded the Association’s $10,000 (about 

$135,000 today) limit causing Ludgate to remark in a letter to the Director, “evidently my preliminary 

suggestions were received lightly, and by their objections to their high prices, they are reacting as I 

expected.”12

The Log House Tea Room 

 

10 SMR, December 1933, GEWA. 

11 SMR, February 1933, GEWA. 

12 Ludgate to Director, 7 January 1931, Folder “d32 landscaping,” NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. This figure 

is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 

2003. 
65

 Beyond landscaping, the WNMA busied itself with a host of other projects. In May 1932, for 

example, it established a post office in the basement of the Memorial House (Image 15). Julia 

Washington (Image 16) served as Acting Postmaster and, on the first day of operation, dispatched 350 

letters primarily for collectors desirous of the Monument’s unique Washington’s Birthplace 

cancellation.13 In October 1936, the post office relocated to its own small building built specifically for 

that purpose adjacent to the parking lot thus freeing the Memorial House basement for use by the NPS 

(Image 17).14 The WNMA also installed metal barriers in the interior doorways of the Memorial House 

in July 1932 thus allowing visitors to view rooms and their contents while eliminating the chance of 

theft.15

Most prominent among the WNMA’s ongoing development projects was the Log House Tea 

Room. The Association planned to build the combination restaurant, gift shop, and lodge at Duck Hall in 

memory of Josephine Wheelwright Rust (Map 2).16 The WNMA justified their construction of a rustic 

log building by claiming that a “log house stood on this tract originally,” though it is unclear what historic 

structure they had in mind.17 The Duck Hall area had, in fact, been occupied during the colonial period 

although the particulars of that habitation were lost, in part, to the archeological caprice of development 

under the NPS. Construction of the picnic area destroyed the last remains of a brick building standing as 

late as 1931. Hough’s 1934 archeological explorations revealed a double fireplace at the site, though 

neither the NPS nor the WNMA made any effort to investigate further. Even the discovery of two graves 

at the Log House site, revealed in preparation to install a fuel-oil tank, did not motivate either 

organization to action.18

 

13 The WNMA intended the basement location to be temporary and planned on moving the post office to the Log 

House at a later date. See SMR, May 1932, GEWA. 

14 SMR, October 1936, GEWA. 

15 SMR, July 1932, GEWA. 

16 For discussion of the Log House during construction and comments regarding its intent as a tribute to Rust, see 

SMR, March, April, and July 1932, GEWA. 

17 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.66. The Oculus report surmises that the WNMA’s reference to a 

log house may mean the residence of Aitheson Gray, a former resident at Duck Hall. See n. 211. 18 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.78-2.79. Hough described the discovery in his July 1932 SMR: 

“In sinking the fuel oil tank at the log lodge two old graves were encountered. One skull was taken to the national 
66

The WNMA once again employed the Jones & Conquest construction firm and work began on 

the Log House Tea Room in April 1932. Furnishings and equipment arrived in October and on the 31st

, 

Director Albright signed a formal contract making Mrs. Henry Mason—the former Memorial House 

hostess—the official log house operator.19 The Monument’s granting legislation required that the 

WNMA transfer all of its property and holdings to the NPS once it had completed its work. The spirit of 

that legislation would seem to suggest that the Log House and its contents instantly became NPS property 

upon its completion, even though the WNMA funded the entire operation. Records reveal no discussion, 

however, of the legality of Log House proprietorship at the time of its opening. Albright’s hiring of 

Mason as the business’s operator demonstrates that the NPS treated the WNMA as a concessioner at 

Wakefield although the NPS’s relationship with concessioners varied dramatically across parks.20 The 

vagaries of this arrangement would come back to haunt Monument staff after World War II. 

The Log House opened its doors on December 1, 1932, in the midst of a harsh winter and, 

consequently, slow business season (Images 18 & 19). The WNMA conceived the Log House as a place 

where visitors coming from some distance might lodge while exploring the Monument. Implicit in this 

idea was the assumption that the Birthplace would host a significant number of traveling visitors and that 

neighboring businesses were not sufficient to serve their needs. As it turned out, the Park did attract a 

large number of traveling visitors, but few made it a final destination. Most visitors made brief stops at 

 museum for classification. In the absence of Dr. Hrdliska in Alaska, his Assistant Dr. Stuart pronounced it that of a 

colored woman who had been buried at least 100 years. The skull was left at the museum for further study.” 

19 It is not surprising that the WNMA was not able to sponsor construction of an administration or museum building 

in 1933 considering the expense it must have incurred by furnishing the Log House with nearly one hundred pieces 

of custom-made solid black walnut furniture, a complete stock of table linen and bedding, and kitchen equipment 

able “to feed an unlimited number.” SMR, October 1932, GEWA. Also see SMR, December 1932, GEWA for 

comments regarding the Log House’s opening. File “H3015B log house” in NPS Records Box 7 of 25, GEWA 

contains a report concerning construction of the Log House with good photos and some correspondence regarding 

the fate of the house during the war with one letter from Albright discussing the location of the house and justifying 

the location of residences (because the women, who would most likely be northerners, would prefer to live close to 

one another). Hough mentions Mason’s contract in his October 1932 SMR, GEWA. 

20 John Ise discusses the complexities and inconsistency of NPS concessioner policy in the years immediately 

preceding the creation of the Monument. He also notes that the NPS’s language replaced “concessionaire” with 

“concessioner” during NPS’s first years. See Ise, Our National Parks Policy, pp. 209-12. Despite the ambiguity of 

arrangements at the Monument, it is important to note that the Log House was not atypical in that women have 

played a historically prominent role in operating NPS park concessions. See Polly Welts Kaufman, National Parks 

and the Woman’s Voice, A History (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996), pp. 153-54. 
67

the Monument while traveling between Washington, DC and Williamsburg, Virginia. Although a traveler 

could make that trip today by car in approximately three hours, doing so prior to construction of Interstate 

95 took considerably longer and the Monument made for a perfect midway rest stop on that trip. 

Although needing restrooms and light snacks, day-trippers did not usually seek lodging or elaborate 

meals. 

The Log House Tea Room, by way of its own slow business, created financial strains for the 

Monument. During a period when financial support was desperately needed for park development, the 

WNMA poured its money into a poorly planned business. In addition to furnishings and cooking 

equipment, expenditures also included grounds maintenance and general upkeep.21 The removal of 

Mason from the Memorial House to the Log House additionally worsened Hough’s staffing concerns, 

leaving no employees able to devote all their time to monitoring the building. By the end of 1934, it was 

evident that the Log House could not generate enough revenue to cover its own expenses and the WNMA 

announced its inability to further subsidize the operation.22 Despite a brief surge in business during 1937, 

the Log House remained unviable and increasingly tasked the Monument’s already limited staff and 

resources as the WNMA came to rely on Hough to maintain the place.23

The Log House’s failure should not have surprised anyone at the time. The Depression created 

difficult times for concessioners throughout the Park system and despite a 1934 NPS-sponsored 

advertising campaign to boost visitor interest in park concessions, concessions in even the most popular 

parks—including Yellowstone and Glacier—were forced to close down.24 The WNMA’s insistence on 

operating a concession within this context must have frustrated Hough whose monthly reports reveal his 

 

21 For example, the WNMA hired laborers to cut grass and otherwise maintain the Log House grounds. SMR, 

January 1933, GEWA. 

22 SMR, November 1932 and Annual Report, 1934, GEWA 

23 Take, for example, this: “I sent Mrs. Mason the lawn mower the following day and hope you were able to haul it 

up for her from wherever the express is left. I have heard nothing from her and am afraid the grass will be so tall it 

will be difficult to mow. If it is impossible to use a machine, I shall have to ask you to have someone scythe it off so 

that it can be started right. I think the outside appearance of the log house is vital to our securing revenue from it. 

Nobody likes to go to a place that is unkempt and unattractive. I hope you were able to have the fence whitewashed 

and the chairs repaired.” Crowninshield to Hough, 3 May 1938, file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in 

Ancient Box 6, GEWA. 

24 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 356. 
68

suspicion that Mason was personally at fault for the Log House’s failure given what he perceived as her 

lack of business savvy.25 The situation came to a head after Hough received a series of complaints 

described in a 1940 letter to Mason: 

On Sunday night a party of four people from Collingwood, N.J., came here intending to have 

dinner, spend the night and have breakfast. They were very much disappointed to find the log 

house closed at seven o’clock. They had been your overnight guests before and had come here 

especially to patronize the log house. 

 On Monday night two people came here to have dinner at the Log House and were 

disappointed at 6:30 to find the place closed up. They have been former patrons on a number of 

occasions. 

 When we last talked over this matter you agreed to keep the Tea Room open while the 

Monument was open. We are open until dark, which at this season means about 8:30 pm, and we 

are disappointed in having people make such complaints to us. We do not like to have people go 

away with regrets as to our service to the public. Within the past two months at least a dozen 

parties have come to me in the evening to express their disappointment in not being able to spend 

the night at the Log House. This, we hope will not go on. It should be so that we can recommend 

the Log House as a place to stay with the assurance that service will be available. I hope that you 

will arrange to keep open until dark with us, so that we may know whether or not to send you 

patrons, in the early evening hours.26

The WNMA had become, by way of the Log House and in the eyes of the public, an auxiliary of the NPS 

and so it is understandable that Hough would be upset with its failures of service. Nonetheless, the letter 

also demonstrates Hough’s unrealistic expectation that everyone involved with the Monument invest the 

same hours typical of his own remarkable commitment to the place. 

The rigors of long service may also have contributed to Hough’s foggy recollection of his 

previous conversations regarding the WNMA’s commitment at the Log House. Mason responded four 

days later that, “the last time we discussed the matter we agreed on six o’clock as the closing hour and I 

have never closed earlier, unless my clock was wrong. Often it is 6:30 or later.” She added, “I don’t see 

how I can comply with your request to stay open as long as you keep Wakefield open, because I would 

not be able to keep any help, and I certainly cannot undertake the work without it...If I lived here it would 

 

25 Hough kept a close eye on activities at the Log House and determined that its failure resulted primarily from a 

lack of advertising, excessive overhead considering its scant clientele, and poor location. Experiments with limited 

hours during the winter months did little to help the situation. Hough’s reports are full of comments regarding the 

Log House, see specifically SMR, July 1934, November 1934, January 1935, December 1935, October 1936, April 

1937, and May 1937, GEWA. 

26 Hough to Mason, 25 June 1940, file “D34 log house tea room concession part II,” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, 

GEWA. This file also includes a wealth of documents regarding operation of the Log House including rates and 

monthly financial reports. 
69

be different, but this I cannot do, nor could anyone else and have room for overnight guests...The many 

nights I have spent here, have been in the public rest room, which I do not think you would find many 

willing to do.”27

 Mason resigned at the end of 1940. Hough accepted her resignation though he urged Mason to 

reconsider and indicated that he would not seek out a new lessee until she was absolutely sure of her 

decision.28 The eight-year Birthplace veteran remained firm, however, and listed insufficient pay and 

inadequate assistance among her reasons for leaving. 29 Mason’s resignation left Hough in a quandary 

about the Log House. Within three days of her final letter, Hough drafted his own to the Director 

requesting a conference with the Chief of Park Operations, explaining that “the Log House as it is cannot 

be an attractive business prospect, and how to improve it will be quite a problem.”30

 Mason’s departure sent waves through the WNMA, especially given that Assistant Director 

Demaray and his wife were expected to attend an upcoming meeting of the WNMA at the Log House 

while visiting the Birthplace. Crowninshield wrote to WNMA member Mrs. A.E. Carver that she was 

“terribly upset about the Log House situation” and asked for suggestions to solve the problem.31 The 

Wakefield ladies did host a lunch for Demaray, but finding a permanent solution to the Log House 

problem remained. Director Drury informally agreed with Crowninshield that the WNMA should retain 

operation of the facility—presumably through lease to another member—but nothing came of the 

agreement.32 The arrival of World War II diverted attention and resources away from the problem and the 

Log House remained boarded up and unused during the duration of the war. 

Building the Monument’s Physical Infrastructure 

 

27 Mason to Hough, 29 June 1940, in file “D34 log house tea room concession part II,” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, 

GEWA. 

28 Hough to Mason, 26 November 1940, in Ibid. 

29 Mason to Hough, 3 December 1940, in Ibid. 

30 Hough to Director, 7 December 1940, in Ibid. 

31 Crowninshield to Carver, 10 March 1941 and Crowninshield to Carver, 11 March 1941 in file “WNMA member 

and Meetings” in NPS Records Box 6 of 25, GEWA. 

32 See 26 April 1941 “Minutes of the WNMA (Northern Neck Branch),” Wakefield National Memorial Association 

Records, 1923-1985, Series III, Secretary’s Files, Unprocessed Material, Box 18 of 37, GEWA. 
70

 The NPS undertook an array of its own construction projects between 1932 and 1940 that, 

combined with the WNMA’s contributions, outlined the general shape of the Monument as it exists today. 

The majority of these projects unfolded without controversy. Within the core historic area, for instance, 

the Park contracted J.R. Lassiter in 1932 to construct a 400-foot wooden footbridge across Dancing 

Marsh.33 The bridge connected the core historic area to the WNMA’s Log House and to picnic grounds 

beyond. Monument staff in September 1932 cleared away the brick kilns erected in 1931 to make way 

for a new utility building.34 Hough planted an orchard of plum and cherry trees along the north side of the 

Memorial House in 1939, which, according to tradition, had existed during the early nineteenth century, 

and, more importantly, created visual separation between the house and bathroom facilities.35 And 

throughout the first decade of operation at the Monument, Hough developed a historic crops 

demonstration area adjacent to the entrance road between the granite obelisk and the parking area. 

Monthly reports suggest that the colonial crops delighted visitors and reveal the superintendent’s 

particular fondness for the project (see chapter 4). 

 NPS planners worked beyond the core historic area as well. Charles Peterson planned a road and 

a traffic circle for Duck Hall Point in 1932 to accommodate visitors to the WNMA’s Log House. 

Peterson also designed a picnic area for Duck Hall including rustic tables and benches built by the Anchor 

Post Fence Company of Washington, DC to plans used by the National Capital Parks.36 In conjunction 

with these projects, the Park constructed a boat pier at Duck Hall Point in 1936 hoping that boat rentals 

might eventually entertain visitors while generating revenue for the Park.37 The plan failed after a month 

because “the young man [hired to rent the boats] preferred to sleep his time out—hence the project was a 

 

33 Hough described this project in his May and July 1932 SMRs: “Lassiter...constructed a pile driver on the 

job...the 250-pound weight, made of a section of gum log is raised by the concerted heave of four Negroes.” Upon 

completion of the bridge in July 1932, “staining was accomplished in an extremely economical manner by simply 

brushing it with muddy water. The effect is gray and very closely simulating the appearance of weathered wood.” 

It is not surprising that the bridge required frequent maintenance throughout its existence. 34 See SMR, September 1932, GEWA. The kilns yielded approximately 20,000 unused bricks. Hough used some to 

build walkways at the new residences and stacked the remainder for later use. He also dumped “many loads of 

bats...in the old clay pit.” 

35 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.11. 36 Ibid., v.1, p. 2.78 and v. 2, p. c.15. 

37 SMR, May 1936, GEWA. See Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.79-2.80 for a discussion of planned 

development for a larger pier and to dredge Popes Creek that did not come to fruition. 
71

complete failure.”38 If visitors could not enjoy boat rentals, they could enjoy a series of nature trails. The 

Monument constructed clay and gravel nature trails in the Duck Hall area between 1935 and 1939 with an 

eye toward making “unpaved meandering walks...since the system encompasses much of the scenic 

beauty and interest for the nature student.”39 These years also witnessed the construction of paved roads 

and parking lots near the core historic area, the Washington family burial ground, and Bridges Creek 

landing near the Potomac River beach. The NPS utilized either gravel-covered bituminous paving or 

bituminous-treated gravel for these projects. The primary parking area near the Memorial House 

provided spaces for two hundred vehicles.40

Peterson and Ludgate also went to some lengths to create period-correct fencing for the 

Monument where wood post-and-wire fences had previously stood under the War Department’s tenure. 

Settling on a combination of stake-and-rider and more traditional Virginia fences, the Monument 

constructed fences—often using CCC labor for this purpose—between the core historic area and the 

historic crops demonstration area, at the Monument entrance, and around the Rockefeller Horse Barn to 

create pasturage for Morgan Horses. Ludgate outlined guidelines for on-going maintenance of the fences 

and for general upkeep of Monument property and landscape in a grounds maintenance plan.41

 Other projects proved more contentious. Peterson and Senior Assistant Director A.E. Demaray 

proposed in 1931 that employee residences should be situated in the decentralized fashion of traditional 

Virginia country houses. Peterson explained his reasoning: 

Regarding the locations of the houses for government employees at Wakefield, I had hoped, as I 

mentioned to Mr. Albright, that these could be decentralized and placed on the ground as Virginia 

country houses would be. My idea in this is that our employees would be living the same kind of 

home life as other Virginia people in the neighborhood. One thing that would be unfortunate 

would be that a group of northerners should come in and live in a little isolated village to 

themselves, spending all weekend and other possible intervals in Washington or some place 

further north. It seems to me that the success of the Wakefield administration locally is going to 

 

38 The young man in question was hired by G.W. Tate of Colonial Beach to whom the NPS granted a special use 

permit to run the operation. SMR, July 1936, GEWA. 

39 “George Washington Birthplace National Monument Master Plan,” 4 sheets, U.S. Department of the Interior, 

1939, rev. 1940, cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.15. 40 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.16. 41 See Oculus, pp. c.17-c.18 and “Grounds Maintenance Plan George Washington Birthplace National Monument,” 

no date, cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, pp. c.21-c.22. 
72

depend on how well our new employees are going to fit themselves in to the community. 

Certainly Virginia country life is a pleasant thing as lived by the old families in the Northern 

neck, and if our new people will take a sympathetic attitude towards it they are going to have a 

much better time. 42

Peterson’s concern for relations between NPS staff and local residents is remarkable in hindsight, 

especially given that this very issue remains a concern at the Monument (see Chapter 8).43 His 

suggestion, however, found opposition with other NPS planners who considered centralized utility 

connections a more important determiner of location. Peterson chafed at this opposition in a letter to 

Demaray, adding that “there is not much use in our making general plans if this is to be the procedure.” 44 

Nonetheless, the NPS went ahead with construction plans in 1932 and grouped the two residences 

together west of Dancing Marsh and well out of sight of the Memorial House.45

Allen J. Saville, Inc. won the contract to build the two residences and their garages in 1932 and 

finished work by August (Image 20).46 The houses—frame buildings on brick foundations—shared a 

garden and gravel paths completed in 1933 as well as a tennis court built in April 1934 with CWA labor.47 

That year, the Monument added a long hedge of wax myrtle between the garages in addition to mountain 

laurel, sweet bay magnolia, dogwoods, and huckleberries.48 Though ample, the new residences, like the 

Memorial House, were at times unbearably hot in the Virginia summer and nearly always overrun with 

mice. Hough and gardener Broderick took to keeping “score” and by the end of 1932 Hough had trapped 

thirty-four mice whereas Broderick boasted over forty.49 Hough requested an additional residence in 

1933 but did not succeed in obtaining authorization to have plans drawn. 

The Rockefeller Horse Barn 

 

42 Peterson to Demaray, 26 June 1931, folder “d32 landscaping,” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

43 Betty Horner, for instance, is very sensitive to various superintendents’ decisions to live away from the Monument 

and it is evident that she is not alone in this respect among other adjacent landowners. Betty Horner, interview with 

author, 30 July 2004. 

44 Peterson to Demaray, 11 August 1931, folder “d32 landscaping,” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. “Mr. 

Vint” refers to Thomas Vint, Chief of the Branch of Plans and Design. 45 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.16. 46 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.66-2.67. 47 SMR, April 1934, GEWA. 

48 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.16. 

49 SMR, November 1932, GEWA. 
73

 Hough did win one significant construction victory during the late 1930s. In May 1937, John D. 

Rockefeller, Jr. offered to donate three of his retired carriage horses—one Morgan stallion and two 

mares—to Washington’s Birthplace.50 Hough jumped at the opportunity with an eye toward breeding the 

Morgan stallions to produce saddle mounts for other parks within the NPS. Following talks with the 

NPS, Hough secured a promise that if the horses were donated that CCC camp SP-19 would arrange for 

construction of a horse barn, paddock, and fencing. Rockefeller donated the horses that July, but Hough 

still did not have a barn. Planning delays resulted from concerns about disturbing archeological resources 

in the wake of Rodnick’s work. Regional Director Carl Russell commented on construction plans in a 

letter to the Director, arguing that the “stable is located too close to the historic area...where considerable 

archeological investigation must yet be done.”51 Nonetheless, with horses en route and an obligation to 

accommodate the benefactor who had played such an important role in the creation of the Monument, the 

NPS proceeded with plans to build the horse barn near the Memorial House. Following some difficulty 

locating lumber, construction under CCC supervision continued throughout the winter of 1937 and by 

February 1938, the project had been completed.52

 Concern regarding the horse barn’s location also resulted from fears that the core historic area 

was becoming too congested with non-memorial buildings. The NPS had constructed a utility building—

the Park’s primary maintenance facility prior to 1973—only a few hundred feet west of the Memorial 

House. Charles Peterson considered the colonial-style structure as “a valuable addition to the Colonial 

plantation picture” even with its three distinctly modern skylights.53 But a horse barn immediately 

adjacent to the utility building cluttered the landscape. Acting Regional Director Herbert Evison wrote to 

the Director in October 1937 and explained that Regional Director Roy E. Appleman wanted all of the 

 

50 SMR, May 1937, GEWA. 

51 Russell to Director, 13 October 1937, cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.10. 52 See Acting Associate Director Tolson to Hough, 30 October 1937; Hough to Director, 26 February 1938; and 

Acting Assistant Director F.T. Johnston to Regional Officer, 28 July 1937, in file “D34 Barn,” in NPS Records Box 

9 of 25, GEWA. 

53 Peterson to Hough, 16 July 1932, cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.10. 
74

utility buildings removed from the historic area.54 Hough agreed and, in a 1938 letter to the Regional 

Director, suggested that the Park plant additional trees to conceal the area because “as one approaches the 

Monument, the most prominent feature is the end of the Utility Building and this should be deemphasized.”55 By the end of 1939, whether due to concern about clutter or archeology, Hough could not 

find a single NPS official willing to acknowledge his request for a small temporary addition to the horse 

barn. Materials sat spoiling on the ground and nobody could convince the CCC camp to perform the 

work earlier promised.56 Care and maintenance of the Rockefeller horses quickly fell down the list of 

priorities at Washington’s Birthplace once the donation had been executed to Rockefeller’s satisfaction 

and the Monument disposed of the horses within only a few years as a result of wartime economic woes. 

Early Planning Difficulties and the Administration-Museum Building Debates 

 Despite its fate, construction of the horse barn constituted a singular victory within a larger battle 

to create a long-term building plan for the Monument. Rockefeller’s involvement helped Hough 

circumvent the archeological concerns then blocking other building initiatives. Herbert Evison raised this 

very issue in a memo concerning the Rockefeller barn project: 

The building of the horse stable serves to emphasize, in Mr. Appleman’s opinion, the necessity 

for the establishment of a well considered and sound historical policy for the development and 

interpretation of George Washington Birthplace National Monument. A master plan for the 

historical area is an urgent need. Until this is provided, development at Wakefield can only be 

haphazard and possibly unfortunate. This historical master plan cannot be prepared until the 

historical documentary research, to which Mr. Northington has given some time, is pressed to a 

conclusion and extensive archeological work has been done. The problems to be solved by 

archeological investigation at Wakefield are extremely important and require the supervision of a 

trained and competent archeologist...we believe that a distinct obligation rests upon the National 

Park Service to provide for carrying out the basic historical and archeological investigation 

necessary for an historically sound development of this important site and its interpretation to the 

public. We consider it one of the most pressing problems in any of the historical areas in the 

region.57

 

54 Evison to Director, 27 October 1937, cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.11. 55 Hough to Regional Director, 26 January 1938, cited in Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 2, p. c.10. 56 Assistant Supervisor of Recreation and Land Planning Fred Johnston to Hough, 18 January1939; Hough to 

Regional Director, 15 February 1939; Acting Assistant Regional Director J.H. Gadsby to Hough, 17 February 1939; 

Acting Associate Regional Director E.M. Lisle to Director, 24 March 1939 in file “D34 Barn,” in NPS Records Box 

9 of 25, GEWA. 

57 Memo from Herbert Evison, no date (probably 1937) or recipient, in file “D34 Barn,” in NPS Records Box 9 of 

25, GEWA. 
75

Evidently, the promise of good relations with Rockefeller made the archeological problems at Popes 

Creek significantly less “pressing.” 

 Still, the problems of operating without a master plan remained. The NPS invested significant 

effort in creating a standardized planning protocol for parks during the 1920s. By 1932, master plans for 

national parks and monuments included a park development outline, a general plan, and a six-year 

program expressed visually in a series of large drawings. Horace Albright himself stressed the 

importance of these plans to shaping the future of the entire park system.58 NPS Office Order No. 228 

required submission of these plans from each park, but the Monument’s peculiar situation compromised 

its ability to comply. Hough explained that, “because of our unusual situation, in which the Wakefield 

National Memorial Association is by Congress authorized to make the Wakefield restoration in 

cooperation with the National Park Service, the matter of a master plan should be undertaken jointly with 

them.” Not able to submit a master plan, the superintendent did draft a tentative six-year program “which 

if nothing else will serve as a target with the hope that it will lead to discussions which will be helpful.”59 

Hough understood the difficulties he faced without a guiding document and in October 1933 wrote to 

Director Arno Cammerer that “the development and approval of a Master Plan for this monument is a 

vital need and a problem which should be undertaken as early as possible.”60

Cammerer agreed and, in November 1933, a committee composed of both NPS representatives 

and WNMA members drafted a development outline intended to initiate the master planning process.61 

The development outline did not, however, yield a master plan. NPS officials remained reluctant to 

commit to those aspects of a plan that Hough considered most vital, specifically construction of an 

 

58 Linda Flint McClelland, Building the National Parks, Historic Landscape Design and Construction (Baltimore & 

London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), pp. 301-02. McClelland provides a thorough overview of the 

history of park planning, see pp. 291-323. Also see Carr, Wilderness by Design, pp. 7-8, 197 especially with regard 

to Thomas Vint’s impact on landscape design in the NPS. 

59 Hough to Cammerer, 13 May 1933, (Box 2219) file 600.02, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. This 

letter includes the attached plan which is insubstantial, though does refer to a proposed weaving house, tobacco 

barn, and farmers produce stand. 

60 Hough to Cammerer, 25 October 1933, (Box 2219) file 600.01, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

61 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.85. Oculus argues that the development outline reveals the 

influence of Thomas Vint’s Western Field Office landscape style at the Monument by way of Vint’s agents, Charles 

Peterson and Roswell Ludgate. 
76

administrative building and a museum even though Albright committed to providing an office building in 

1931.62 Although the NPS continually argued that construction of additional buildings and, consequently, 

master planning required thorough archeological investigation, it also continually failed to provide a 

suitable supervisor for this work. Inability to do so most likely resulted from NPS-wide pressures 

stemming from the rapid expansion of the Service into eastern historical sites during the early 1930s.63 

Charles Hosmer argues that the debate concerning where to locate new buildings at Wakefield stemmed 

directly from controversy surrounding the discovery of Building X in 1931.64

The need for additional workspace at the Monument, however, was pressing. By 1933, Hough 

had passed his Colonial Kitchen office to the Park clerk and relocated to what a visiting equipment 

engineer from the museum division described as “a crude basement room in the mansion house. This 

room has such a low ceiling that in places it is impossible to stand upright, and so damp that it certainly 

must be unhealthy. Every inch of space has been used and along the sides are cabinets of drawers 

containing sherds and artifacts.” The situation was so bad that a 1935 storm flooded Hough’s office 

leaving the floors and walls saturated for over a month and causing extensive damage to artifacts and 

files.65 

 Recognizing Hough’s need, the WNMA involved itself in the project and had already begun 

making preliminary inspections with regard to locating a new office building in December 1932.66 

President Worthington and her associates favored constructing the administration building atop the 

Building X foundations, although Charles Moore objected that “telephones, typewriters...should not be 

 

62 Hough to R.A. Wilhelm, 10 April 1939, file “master plan d1815,” in NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. Hough 

reported that “long needed, long promised, and necessary development of the monument has failed to materialize. 

Proper office facilities, which Director Albright in 1931 committed the Park Service to provide, and in spite of A-1 

priority for the past eight years, have not reached a stage where we can get a plan for such a structure. All efforts of 

this office to get research done, to the end that a development plan can be approved, have again been denied for 

1940.” It is unclear whether the commitment referred to by Hough was made formally or not. SAR, 1933, GEWA. 63 Memo for field officers from Cammerer, 29 October 1934, file “d32 landscaping” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, 

GEWA. 

64 Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, pp. 492-93. 65 Museum Division Equipment Engineer A.B. Russell to Dr. C.P. Russell, 8 April 1936, (Box 2223) file 833.05, 

National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. It may have been this very incident that is responsible for gaps in 

archived correspondence from this period. SMR, September 1935, GEWA. 66 The WNMA’s preliminary inspections are mentioned in SMR, December 1932, GEWA. 
77

allowed within the picket fence” and Albright seems to have preferred locating the structure near, though 

not atop the original building.67 Correspondence between Albright, the WNMA, and landscape architect 

Charles Peterson suggests, however, that the WNMA was less than forthright with Hough concerning 

their construction plans. In a letter dated March 17, 1933, Hough told Albright about a meeting he had 

with WNMA President Worthington and Vice President Moore during which “the talk plainly indicated 

that the WNMA is planning to build the structure [administration building] this spring.”68 Earlier that 

month, however, Peterson expressed concern to Albright regarding the WNMA’s plans, having been 

previously informed by WNMA Architect Donn that work on the plans had stopped due to financial 

concerns and that Worthington “seemed disinclined to talk about the matter.”69 Albright dashed off a 

polite though pointed inquiry to Worthington and must have been taken aback by her response: “there is a 

financial side to the undertaking which I hope we can work out satisfactorily. The log house equipment 

cost more than was anticipated and contributions to our association's funds have slowed up considerably 

as was to be expected in these times.”70

It is unclear how NPS officials reacted to this discovery, but a letter dated March 20, 1933 from 

Assistant Director Demaray to Hough made no mention of the affair and concluded with an abrupt: “we 

have not heard from either Worthington or Moore. There is nothing further to be done until we do.”71 It is 

also not clear why Demaray kept Hough in the dark, though the superintendent evidently realized the 

setback by the summer of 1933 when, in a monthly report, he referred to preliminary plans for an office 

 

67 In a 5 January 1933 memo to himself, Albright noted that “the ladies would like to have the building put on the 

foundations of the old house which were discovered just west of the cemetery. I discussed the disadvantages of 

using these old foundations and suggested that they be left intact, putting the new building a little in the rear of these 

foundations, the building however, to be of the same size as the foundations indicated the former house was. There 

seems to be no objection to going ahead with the plans for the new building, this to be placed somewhat in the rear 

of the old foundations” in (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP.; Hough to Albright, 

17 March 1933, (Box 2223) file 870.1 part 2, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. Albright’s reference to 

a site “just west of the cemetery” is confusing and perhaps an error as no other secondary or primary account 

references this as an option for the administrative building. 

68 Hough to Albright, 17 March 1933, (Box 2223) file 870.1 part 2, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

69 Peterson to Albright, 3 March 1933, (Box 2220) file 620, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

70 Worthington to Albright, 13 March 1933, (Box 2220) file 620, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

71 Demaray to Hough, 20 March 1933, (Box 2223) file 870.1 part 2, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 
78

and museum building “which it is hoped to finance in the public works program.”72 Hough was not alone 

in his search for funds to construct administrative facilities. Congress had capped the amount parks could 

spend on administrative facilities at $1,000 in 1912. Recognizing that this was not nearly enough to 

accommodate park operations anywhere, let alone at the NPS’s largest parks, Director Mather 

successfully negotiated an increase to $1,500 in 1918. The cap stayed there until 1940, though, and 

Hough and his fellow superintendents sought creative ways to generate funds for adequate administrative 

facilities.73

 On October 25, 1933, Hough wrote directly to Albright requesting a meeting with him, Demaray, 

Peterson, Chatelaine, Moore, and Donn. Demaray agreed to a meeting on the condition that Hough 

submit a development outline to the proposed committee.74 Peterson also agreed that Wakefield needed a 

master plan “even though it has been better furnished in the past with general plans than any other project 

we have in the east” suggesting a reluctance to commence planning given “the great pressure which we 

are under for producing working plans at this time.”75 Hough submitted his outline—a markedly 

uncontroversial one—and Director Cammerer issued a direct invitation and explanatory note to Charles 

Moore of the WNMA.76 By all measures, it appeared that by 1933 Hough had successfully initiated the 

master planning process. Although it is unclear what resulted from this first master plan meeting, a memo 

dated June 15, 1937 from Acting Regional Historian Rob Roy MacGregor and Associate Historian Roy E. 

Appleman to Resident Landscape Architect Raymond B. Poeppel, indicates that little to no progress had 

been made because “it is the opinion of the writers that such a plan cannot intelligently be prepared at the 

 

72 SMR, June 1933, GEWA. 

73 Congress raised the cap to $3,000 in 1940. See Ise, Our National Parks Policy, p. 207. 74 Hough to Albright, 25 October 1933, (Box 2219) file 600.01, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

Demaray to Hough, 30 October 1933, (Box 2219) file 600.01, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

75 The pressure he refers to no doubt resulted from the reorganization of August 10, 1933 during which the historical 

parks and national monuments formerly managed by other federal agencies were transferred to the NPS. Peterson to 

Hough, 27 October 1933, (Box 2219) file 600.01, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. For a brief 

discussion of the significance of this reorganization, see Mackintosh, The National Parks, pp. 28-29. 76 Hough’s outline makes no reference to either the museum or administration building although it is quite possible 

that the archived outline is partial. Cammerer to Moore, 29 November 1933, (Box 2219) file 600.01, National Park 

Service Records, RG 79, NACP. Although Albright retired in August 1933, it appears that he remained involved in 

the planning process. Additionally, correspondence regarding this bout of master planning suggests that Hough’s 

timing was clearly intended to take advantage of WPA funding and labor support. See file “master plan d1815” in 

NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 
79

present time because of pending historical research and needed archaeological work.” 77 Correspondence 

concerning master planning ends abruptly at this point and did not resume until the end of 1938. 

Chief of Operations Colonel John R. White revealed that plans for Hough’s administration 

building would be cut from that winter’s Department of the Interior appropriation bill to Congress in 

December 1938.78 A sympathetic Crowninshield responded, “I am very distressed about the Wakefield 

situation. I am wondering if my being in charge there now could account for the antagonism of the 

Administration. All my family are of course very much against it but one would think that people could 

not be so unfair as to make a historic site suffer for the opinions of some one’s second cousins.” 

Crowninshield was referring to the activities of the American Liberty League, an organization funded by 

the Du Pont family for the purpose of resisting what it perceived as President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s 

socialist tendencies.79 Given financial difficulties throughout the NPS and considering the continual 

controversies surrounding Building X and construction at Washington’s Birthplace, it is doubtful that 

politics played a significant role in dashing Hough’s plans. At the end of 1938, Hough urged 

Crowninshield to remind Director Cammerer that using the Colonial Kitchen as NPS office space 

contradicted the language of the Park’s founding legislation.80

Her doing so may very well have changed the NPS’s attitude for, still bereft of an archeological 

report, Hough pushed on and called for additional conferences in January 1939 that surprisingly resulted 

in the selection of four proposed sites for an administration building. At that time, it appears that the 

regional historian favored a location at the entrance to the monument next to the granite shaft.81 Hough, 

however, preferred placing the building next to the parking lot. He eventually bowed to pressure from the 

 

77 MacGregor and Appleman to Poeppel, 15 June 1937, (Box 2219) file 600.01, National Park Service Records, RG 

79, NACP. 

78 Demaray to Crowninshield, 5 November 1938 and Hough to Crowninshield, 15 November 1938, file “Mrs. F.B. 

Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 6, GEWA. Also see Hough to Director, 6 December 1938, (Box 

2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

79 For a history of the American Liberty League, see George Wolfskill, The Revolt of the Conservatives: A. History 

of the American Liberty League, 1934-1940 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962). 80 Hough to Crowninshield, 26 December 1938, file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 6, 

GEWA. 

81 Wilhelm to Regional Landscape Architect, 11 August 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park 

Service NE Region, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 
80

Regional Office and agreed to the former location under duress, “since it appears at this time to be the 

best solution of this problem.”82

An April 1939 memo from the Acting Associate Regional Director instructed the superintendent 

to set aside portions of the annual budget for architectural services—$900 to $1200 (about $12,000 to 

$16,000 today)—indicating some confidence that action would be taken on one of these options.83 

Whatever assurance Hough derived from this memo faded three months later when then Regional 

Director of Historic Sites Roy Appleman suggested a third option involving relocation of the entire 

parking area in addition to placing the proposed structure next to the granite shaft.84 Planners returned to 

their drawing board and various proposals circulated throughout 1939 until Hough, when asked to 

comment on the proposals, suggested a compromise: “Couldn’t we build an office now where we need it, 

and move it in ten years or so to its permanent location when that time comes?”85 Hough’s compromise 

struck a chord and Regional Director Hillory Tillotson immediately issued a memo to him requesting a 

comprehensive statement justifying the location. That February, Ludgate seconded Hough’s idea and on 

March 8, 1940, Director Cammerer approved plans for a temporary administration building. Construction 

began in July.86

 

82 The conferences leading to these decisions included Hough, Supervisor of Historic Sites Ronald F. Lee, Associate 

Research Technician Porter, Landscape Architect Harry Thompson, Architect A.B. Good, Architect Sutton, 

Regional Landscape Architect Ludgate, and Regional Supervisor of Historic Sites Roy Edgar Appleman. See 

Hough to Wilhelm, 2 September 1939; Hough to Regional Director, 20 September 1939, and Appleman’s technical 

review submitted to planning committee all in (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park Service NE Region, 

1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR.. 

83 Acting Associate Regional Director to Hough, 7 April 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park 

Service NE Region, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation 

according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 84 Appleman to planning committee, 18 July 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park Service NE 

Region, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. The proposed building is alternatively referred to as an administrative 

building and a combined administrative museum building suggesting that talks favored a single structure although 

there may have been confusion and/or varying expectations regarding exactly what the building’s ultimate purpose 

would be. 

85 Hough to Regional Director, 1 December 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park Service NE 

Region, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 

86 Tillotson to Hough, 9 December 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park Service NE Region, 1936-

1952, RG 79, NAMAR. Tillotson’s memo confirmed discussions of December 8 regarding location for the 

temporary administration building, included prints showing alternate locations proposed by Hough and Regional 

Supervisor of Historic Sites, and requested that a comprehensive statement justifying the location be prepared to 

forward to the Director. Also see Ludgate to Tillotson, 4 December 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National 

Park Service NE Region, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 
81

Failed Hope for a Museum Building 

 Although Hough won a qualified victory in the battle for an administrative building, he lost his 

fight for a museum building. The superintendent wrote to Crowninshield later that year noting that 

despite the Director’s full sympathies, securing further appropriations for a museum building was 

unlikely.87 This came as quite an upset for Hough who had always championed the museum idea and, 

given that museums were common in the parks, had every reason to expect approval for one at 

Washington’s Birthplace.88 Beginning in 1932, Hough collected and displayed a variety of natural history 

specimens including shark teeth, vertebrae, shell fossils, petrified shellfish, and Native American artifacts 

in a portion of the Colonial Kitchen. Within months, however, the superintendent reported, “exhibit 

space is now surpassed by available artifacts.” Colonial National Monument donated a number of CCCbuilt storage cases in 1935 but the size of Hough’s collection still exceeded available display space.89 In 

1936 Hough initiated a museum program and obtained the Services of J. Paul Hudson as curator to 

formulate a museum plan. Hudson set to cleaning, classifying, and recording artifacts and in December 

1936 began drafting a museum development plan.90 Museum activities proceeded at a quick pace 

throughout 1937 and in March 1938 Hudson submitted “An Historical Museum for George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument, Prospectus and Tentative Exhibit Plan” to Hough who approved it and 

forwarded it to the Director later that year.91 The plan called for a variety of wall displays, artifact cases, 

 

87 Hough to Crowninshield, 18 December 1940, file “homesite controversy” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 88 Regarding museums in the early parks, see Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 200-202. If other parks were any 

example, Hough had every reason to expect positive response for funds to construct a museum. Both Stephen 

Mather and Horace Albright encouraged the construction of museums to further the NPS’s interpretive and 

educational goals. Western parks featured museums as early as 1918. Architect Herbert Maier’s designs for 

Yosemite’s museums during the late 1920s established a prototype for museums throughout the Park system. See 

Carr, Wilderness by Design, pp. 143-44. 

89 SMR, October 1932, GEWA. Hough reported, “through a cooperative gesture by the Colonial National 

Monument, this monument will have several relic storage cases made at Yorktown by CCC men. At present our 

storage facilities are inadequate and we are in real need of proper means to keep our ever increasing quantity of 

relics.” SMR, May 1935, GEWA. 

90 SMR, October and December 1936, GEWA. 

91 J. Paul Hudson, “An Historical Museum for George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Washington’s 

Birthplace, Virginia, Prospectus and Tentative Exhibit Plan” in Old Files Box 6, GEWA. See file “D6215” in NPS 

Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA, for the complete text of Hudson’s 1936 preliminaries to a museum exhibit and 

justification for a museum. See file “1930s-1950s” in NPS Records Box 7 of 25 for final approved bound version of 

Hudson’s 1938 GEWA Historical Exhibit Plan with illustrations. 
82

and dioramas. Most striking, though, is the plan’s inclusion of a rather large building, reflecting Hough’s 

desire for a dedicated museum structure. 

Hough’s plans collapsed when NPS officials levied harsh criticism on Hudson’s work. Assistant 

Historian Charles Porter criticized the exhibit for giving undue emphasis to Native American history. He 

additionally suggested that the museum make clear that the Building X controversy resulted not just from 

the NPS’s involvement, but also from events stretching back into the War Department’s stewardship and 

prior—a suggestion keeping with the NPS’s early policy of safeguarding the Monument against 

criticism.92 Hudson’s plan did not even make it into drafts of the 1939 master plan and, according to 

Regional Director Tillotson, “will undoubtedly have to undergo reconsideration and revision.”93

Hough sought a last resort with WNMA President Crowninshield. Minutes from a 1938 WNMA 

meeting suggest that Hough had already at that date encouraged the group to agitate for the construction 

of an office and museum building and Crowninshield motioned to have the group’s secretary make a 

direct appeal to Secretary Ickes.94 At Hough’s suggestion, Acting Associate Director Tolson informed 

Director Newton Drury that the WNMA might be willing to purchase materials for a museum building if 

the CCC constructed it.95 Drury wrote to Crowninshield suggesting that a donation of $2,500 (about 

$33,000 today) would enable the CCC to construct a suitable building that would otherwise cost the NPS 

 

92 Porter’s criticism is harsh at times and can be seen in his “Technical Review,” Branch of Historic Sites, 28 June 

1938, (Box 2223) file 833.05, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

93 Tillotson added “from these comments it will be seen that the 1940 edition of the master plan cannot represent any 

material progression in development or interpretative planning...it will rather be a record brought to date of 

revisions made since the previous plan submissions.” Tillotson to Hough, 19 May 1940, (Box 2219) file 600.01, 

National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. A 26 August 1939 memo from Ralph Lewis regarding the 1939 

master plan includes comments from regional technicians stapled to the title and index sheet of the plan. Among 

these, the regional landscape architect recommends a cooperative study by historians, the museum division, and the 

superintendent to settle six general questions regarding the interpretive program. “While agreeing with the 

desirability of this study, we call attention to the fact that points 2 (the Park story) and 4 (the need for a museum 

building) were given quite thorough study during the seven months in which a museum curator was assigned to this 

monument. Referring to the Branch of Historic Sites comment, the interpretive statement therein recommended 

might well include an abstract from the curator’s reports to indicate the status of museum planning as it pertains to 

general development plans”—includes handwritten comment at top stating “this report was not very favorably 

received by branch and historical site.” See (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park Service NE Region, 

1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 

94 See 25 April 1938, “Minutes of the WNMA (Northern Neck Branch),” Wakefield National Memorial Association 

Records, 1923-1985, Series III, Secretary’s Files, Unprocessed Material, Box 18 of 37, GEWA. 

95 Tolson to Drury, 28 November 1940, (Box 2223) file 870.1 part 2, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 
83

$5,000.96 Drury acted too fast and his proposal raised the ire of NPS officials who considered $5,000 an 

extreme underestimate of the cost involved and who additionally cautioned against entering into 

premature dealings with the WNMA.97 Furthermore, there still did not exist a permanent development 

plan and NPS officials certainly did not want to enter into an entirely new building controversy so soon 

after settling the administration building problem.98 As with so many outstanding concerns at the 

Monument, World War II put an end to debate concerning Hough’s museum building and not until the 

late 1950’s did the Monument reconsider Hudson’s museum plan. 

 Ironically, Hough’s attempts to secure a museum building ultimately forced him to pack up the 

very artifacts he hoped to display. The WNMA had always intended to furnish the Colonial Kitchen, like 

the Memorial House, with colonial furniture but could not do so as long as Hough maintained his artifact 

display.99 Once the Director approved plans for the temporary administration building and it became 

clear that Hough’s office would no longer be in the Memorial House basement, the WNMA jumped at the 

opportunity to rid their Colonial Kitchen of Hough’s artifacts. At a 1940 WNMA meeting, 

 

96 Drury to Crowninshield, 3 December 1940, (Box 2223) file 833.05, National Park Service Records, RG 79, 

NACP. This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index 

statistics from 1800 to 2003. 

97 Ludgate wrote “there is a question in my mind regarding the adequacy of the amount of $5,000 for the 

construction of the proposed museum...An administrative decision on the above points should be made in 

Washington before the Service goes too far in its commitments to Mrs. Crowninshield and the WNMA.” Ludgate to 

Regional Director, 16 December 1940, (Box 2223) file 833.05, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. The 

Acting supervisor of research and interpretation supported Ludgate’s concern: “The tentative exhibit plan 

[presumably Hudson’s plan] which has been approved for this museum calls for a single exhibit room approximately 

19 feet x 38 feet. At a rough estimate, $2500-3000 will be needed to purchase exhibit cases and $4800 to prepare 

the exhibits. Since this area has a valuable collection of artifacts, adequate storage space above the basement also 

should be included in the building.” Ned Burns to Regional Director, 20 December 1940, (Box 2223) file 833.05, 

National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

98 This sentiment found particular expression in a memo from Acting Regional Director Fred Johnston. “As you 

know, there has not been a definite administrative decision concerning permanent development of this area and 

naturally the addition of another building of such scope as the proposed museum building seems to be prolonging a 

procedure for adding structures to what at present is understood to be a temporary development program. It is the 

feeling of this office that definite decision concerning a permanent development program for George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument should be made before any additional buildings are considered for the area.” 

Johnston to Director, 18 December 1940, (Box 2223) file 833.05, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

99 Hough was lucky to have use of the Ancient Kitchen in the first place: “The construction of a small office 

building will only release one back room in the colonial style kitchen outbuilding, built and donated by the WNMA 

as an auxiliary house museum nine years ago to portray a colonial cooking establishment. The WNMA has been 

desirous for years now to furnish the structure in accordance with the purpose for which they built it; but the Park 

service has never provided space for the administration of the monument and we commandeered the kitchen for this 

foreign purpose immediately after it’s completion.” SMR, December 1939, GEWA. 
84

Crowninshield asked the group to allocate funds to make the Memorial House basement ready for 

archival storage. Accordingly, the WNMA allocated $500 (about $6,500 today) that May for Hough’s 

use.100 This expenditure must have frustrated Hough considering that the WNMA had previously refused 

to contribute to the administration building effort. Nonetheless, Hough attempted to make the best out of 

the situation and lobbied for plans to make the basement display area accessible to visitors. Given a 

variety of safety issues and space limitations, however, Hough’s proposals came up empty and by July 

1940 he resolved to restrict public access in hopes that this action might further press the case for a 

museum building.101 Still, the fate of Hough’s prized artifacts left the superintendent dismayed and in a 

eulogy of sorts, he wrote: 

To our sorrow, the temporary museum set up in the kitchen for the past 8 years was moved to 

retirement in the basement of the memorial mansion. The relic materials discovered here are 

what place the stamp of authenticity on the place more than any other factor and should not 

remain hidden from the people. The time has come when another structure should be rebuilt on 

the mansion grounds in order to show the archeological findings (Image 21).102

A great deal had changed at Wakefield since 1931 and Hough certainly learned in those ten years exactly 

what difficulties he faced as a superintendent and administrator, but it is his lament of the banished 

artifacts that symbolizes the greater loss of hope for an overall planning document and interpretive 

strategy. 

Adjacent Landowners and Land Policy, 1931-1940 

Beyond NPS planners and WNMA members, Hough also worked closely with the Monument’s 

neighbors and adjacent landowners. The most prominent of these were the Muse and Latane families. 

The Muse family owned several parcels of land both abutting and surrounded by Monument property. 

The Latane family, having sold portions of their land to Rockefeller’s River Holding Company, leased 

 

100 See 26 April 1940 “Minutes of the WNMA (Northern neck Branch),” Wakefield National Memorial Association 

Records, 1923-1985, Series III, Secretary’s Files, Unprocessed Material, Box 18 of 37, GEWA. Also see Hough to 

Regional Director, 18 May 1940, (Box 2223) file 833.05, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. This 

figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 

to 2003. 

101 Hough commented, “by thus closing the temporary museum it is hoped that some sort of action, omitting the 

alteration of the steps, can be had and the work prosecuted.” SMR, July 1940, GEWA. 102 SMR, October 1940, GEWA. 
85

their former possessions back from the government after creation of the Monument to grow crops and 

pasture livestock.103 The Latanes farmed land surrounding the Washington family burial ground and a 

parcel stretching from a Muse property access road to the Potomac River. Adhering to the traditional 

three-year crop rotation plan, the Latane operation blended well with the intended setting at Washington’s 

Birthplace and the NPS constructed fences (first barbed wired and later split rail) to facilitate sheep and 

cattle grazing.104

Even so, adjacent landowners, who had always enjoyed more-or-less unmitigated control of their 

land, now found themselves confronted with a host of practical dilemmas consequent to bordering 

federally-protected lands. The problem of red foxes ranked high on this list. Several of the Park’s 

neighbors derived substantial income from poultry sales and regularly hunted fox to prevent predatory 

damage to their stock. The arrival of the NPS at Wakefield meant imposition of restrictions against 

hunting on government property. Foxes thus found refuge on NPS property. Hough explained, in a 1935 

wildlife report, that protecting foxes “places us almost in the light of harboring pests.”105 When the Muse 

family requested permission to hunt fox across Monument property, Hough denied the request, but only 

after consultation with Director Cammerer.106 Cammerer issued a somewhat blunt response to both 

Hough and Muse arguing that adjacent landowners must “protect their property, by getting it under cover 

at night or by other means. It seems to me that this is an obligation that Mr. Muse is seeking to avoid by 

destroying the government’s property—the foxes.”107 

The situation climaxed in 1941when Mrs. Robert Muse drafted a petition “in which the 

superintendent was described as unreliable, unsympathetic, and just generally no good, and whose 

dismissal was demanded.” Although other adjacent landowners opted not to sign the petition, tensions 

 

103 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.76. 104 Ibid., pp. 2.76-2.77. 105 1935 Annual Wildlife Report, George Washington’s Birthplace National Monument, in unmarked file, NPS 

Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA. 

106 Hough to Cammerer, 27 December 1935, in unmarked file, NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, 

GEWA. 

107 Cammerer to Hough, 10 January 1936, in unmarked file, NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, 

GEWA. 
86

remained high and Hough visited Washington for a meeting with Associate Director Demaray and Victor 

Cahalane of the Fish and Wildlife Commission.108 Demaray declined to change the regulations and 

suggested that Hough “lead a normal existence by not getting up too early in the morning,” meaning that 

the NPS could not enforce unseen violations, especially if they occurred prior to eight o’clock in the 

morning. Hough surely chaffed at Demaray’s encouragement to turn the other cheek, but the 

superintendent obeyed and the problem ended by 1942. 

 All the while, an even worse problem developed for both the Park and the Latane family. The 

Monument had become infested with Japanese beetles by 1937. Records indicate that the problem was so 

bad that extra labor had to be hired just to collect and dispose of the insects.109 Once traps and hand 

harvesting failed to significantly reduce the infestation, the NPS approved a plan to treat the infected 

areas—especially along the boundary adjacent to the Latane property—with an extremely poisonous 

concentration of lead arsenate. Hough described the grisly aftermath in a letter to entomologist James 

Cooper: 

There is a terrible situation right now, I think as a result of the arsenic treatment. The Latanes 

turned in their herd of registered or registerable Hereford cattle in on the field, one corner of 

which had been treated, and it looks like they would lose the works—as well as four horses. At 

present 3 horses are dead and 1 missing—11 cows are dead and the whole herd is sick. There 

were about 35 of the Herefords. The stock was turned in on Saturday the 13th, and the first 

sickness was noted on the afternoon of Wednesday the 17th...Some of the cattle writhe in agony 

for hours and some just drop dead without notice. I am as sorry for the Latanes as a man can be, 

both for their financial loss and for the fact that they appear to have no redress, since they were 

given plenty and ample notice that the field was poisoned. They were on the ground while the 

work was being done, and seem to have used very poor judgment in doing what they did.110

As it turns out, Hough too was guilty of exercising “very poor judgment.” The field treated with poison 

also provided the Monument with its primary source of hay, a necessity for the recently constructed 

 

108 Demaray requested the meeting after receiving a formal letter of complaint regarding hunting regulations signed 

by Mr. Mrs. Robert Muse, Mr. And Mrs. Harry Muse, Mr. And Mrs. Fred Muse, Mr. And Mrs. James Latane, Mr. 

And Mrs. William Latane, Mr. And Mrs. Lawrence Latane, Lawrence Washington, Elsie Washington, Mary 

Johnson, and Ellen Washington. See Hough’s account of this entire affair in a memo for the superintendent’s 

personal files, 10 October 1941, folder “Foxes N1419” in NPS Records Box 14 of 25, GEWA. 

109 File “N 34 insects and other invertebrates” in NPS Records Box 14 of 25, GEWA contains two reports regarding 

the Japanese beetle infestation during 1937 that explain the problem in detail with good photographs. Also see the 

included “summary report” prepared by Ivan H. Smalley for additional information and even better photographs of 

the process of spreading lead arsenate. 

110 Hough to Cooper, 18 November 1937, file “N4215 Weather Studies & Reports” in NPS Records Box 14 of 25, 

GEWA. 
87

Morgan Horse farm.111 The financial burden of now having to buy hay from local farmers became so 

great by 1940 that Hough sought to renegotiate the Park’s lease agreement because, “it does not seem like 

good economy to lease out most of our good fields (150 acres) for $25 [about $330 today] per year and 

then spend six times that much for hay which we could raise on part of that land.”112 Although the Latane 

family bore this development with surprising good will, it is impossible to gauge what damage the entire 

affair cast upon relations between the NPS and its neighbors at Wakefield. 

Forging harmonious relationships with adjacent landowners represented just one aspect of 

creating a land policy to protect what Hough increasingly came to recognize as the Monument’s most 

vital resource, its scenic beauty.113 As early as 1931, Associate Engineer Robert P. White—then Acting 

supervisor of the Monument—complained that the monument approach was being “exploited by 

undesirable buildings” and lamented that “despite all efforts to prevent it, an electric transmission line 

was constructed on the approach road to Wakefield to within one half mile of the birth site.”114 White 

warned Albright in 1931 that plans to purchase land abutting the approach road might draw the ire of the 

Latane brothers, but that he supported the idea and additionally suggested that the government purchase 

the Muse property “which lie practically in the middle of the holdings here.”115

 

111 Tillotson to Cooper, 9 March 1939, and Hough to Tillotson, 25 February 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the 

National Park Service NE Region, Central Classified Files, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 

112 Hough to Director, 25 April 1940, (Box 76) file 13, Records of the National Park Service NE Region, Central 

Classified Files, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR.. This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation 

according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 113 This may seem an obvious premise from which to assert a land policy, but keep in mind that the Monument was a 

historic site—not a natural park. Moreover, its primary historical contribution—the Memorial House and its 

landscape—was totally contrived and, in fact, obscured the historical landscape. Arguing that the site’s landscape 

was an essential resource was therefore difficult—did managing the memorial house and its surroundings qualify as 

“preservation” or not? Hough certainly recognized this as an important question especially into the 1940s as 

preservation came to be a primary NPS goal. In 1949, for instance, Director Drury exclaimed that “If we are going 

to succeed in preserving the greatness of the national parks, they must be held inviolate...If we are going to whittle 

away at them we should recognize, at the very beginning, that all such whittlings are cumulative and that the end 

result will be mediocrity. Greatness will be gone.” See Drury sited in Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 7. To this 

extent, though, Drury was simply restating a fundamental premise of the National Parks Act of 1916, which gave 

form to the NPS: “The service...which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and 

the wild life therein, and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave 

them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.” Also cited in Ise, p. 192. 

114 The “undesirable buildings” included a filling station and various other structures presumably of mixed 

residential and commercial purpose. SMR, April 1931, GEWA. 

115 White to Director, 15 December 1931, (Box 2213) file 201-06, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 
88

The problem of private land in national parks plagued the NPS since its earliest days. Director 

Mather had wrestled with congress for appropriations to purchase private lands at a number of parks but 

had little luck. By the end of the 1920s, congress had grown more willing to provide matching funds for 

land acquisition, but remained otherwise tightfisted.116 Unsurprisingly, the NPS was unable to act on 

either of White’s proposals and the problem of the approach road remained for Hough. In September 

1933, Charles Peterson suggested trading a plot between the Washington family burial ground and 

Dogwood Swamp for land bordering the approach road, but Hough declined citing the historic value of 

the former property. Instead, the superintendent suggested making renewal of the Latane lease at Bridges 

Creek dependent on their transfer of a small parcel abutting the approach that Hough thought might have 

archeological promise.117 Hough’s proposal did not find favor with NPS officials. A few months later, 

motivated by Elizabeth Bowie’s interest in selling her land near head of the Monument’s approach road, 

Hough suggested an outright purchase of the approach right of way along with a two-hundred foot strip 

along each side. According to Hough, $65,000 would buy the land and pay for improvements at the 

entrance.118

Hough’s proposal coincided with the emergence of another land threat. In 1934, Everett Muse 

developed his own property facing the Monument from the opposite shore of Popes Creek (Illustration 2). 

What locals referred to as “Muse’s Beach”—a combination vacation resort and campground complete 

with gambling and rumors of other sordid services—infuriated Hough who considered the place an 

“eyesore.”119 Hough requested approval for his approach road plan while seeking further assistance with 

the museum building problem. Acting Director Demaray replied that the NPS could not possibly afford a 

 

116 Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 318-19. 117 Peterson to Hough, 28 September 1933 and Hough to Peterson, 20 September 1933, (Box 2219) file 608, 

National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. SMR, November 1934, GEWA. 118 About $900,000 today based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 

to 2003. 

119 SMR, June 1938, GEWA. 
89

land purchase and suggested that “some friendly individual or organization” might help, adding, “the 

possibility of securing the area under the submarginal land program.”120

 Assistant Director Conrad Wirth wrote to Regional Officer H.E. Weatherwax on May 13, 1935 

requesting that he “make a quiet investigation” of the values of lands sought for acquisition by the 

Park.121 Weatherwax dispatched an agent who visited Wakefield and, because Hough was not present at 

the time, spoke with a member of the WNMA: 

He informed me that since the establishing of the national monument at Wakefield the people in 

the neighborhood had been speculating in real estate. Furthermore, very few, if any, of the 

properties outlined could, in his opinion, be obtained at any figure near the assessed 

valuation...More accurate details as to ownership could not be obtained for fear of arousing the 

suspicion of an already suspicious clerk. I was informed by the clerk that the buildings on the 

Morris property were shacks occupied by Negroes and that the valuation of $300.00 [about 

$4,000 today] as shown was considerably too high. 122

According to a follow-up letter of May 18, 1935 from Weatherwax to Wirth, the investigating agent 

pretended to be a private individual intending to buy property, particularly waterfront property, and “we 

do not believe that any information has been given out which would lead any of the property owners to 

think that the United States Government was interested in the property.” 

It is not evident how Hough and NPS officials reacted to this report, but it could not have been 

without some frustration and surprise. Hough met with the county assessor a month later and confirmed 

that “assessed values amount to approximately 1/4th of the actual values.”123 For two years he had been 

trying to raise much more money than he probably needed to purchase the desired lands. Hough took a 

decidedly more aggressive stance on the issue in the face of the Muse’s Beach crisis by October 1935. 

Even before he realized the potential danger from the Muse development, Hough had already sought land 

acquisition for wildlife conservation, motivated primarily by the prevalence of duck hunters in and around 

 

120 Hough to Director, 22 January 1935 and 26 March 1935 and Demaray to Hough, 10 May 1935, (Box 2219) file 

608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

121 Wirth to Weatherwax, 13 May 1935, in Ibid. 122 Ferguson (no first name) to Weatherwax, 17 May 1935, in Ibid. This figure is a rough estimate based on 

adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 123 Hough, memo for files, 11 June 1935, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 
90

Popes Creek.124 The Muse Beach crisis forced a shift in approach, however, and Hough’s correspondence 

during and after 1935 suggests urgency and fear. 

In a confidential memo to the Director, Hough indicated that in addition to the development of 

Everett Muse’s beach resort, Fred C. Muse had been approached by the Saunders Real Estate Company of 

Washington, DC who hoped to buy the property, subdivide it, and build a hotel.125 He demanded that 

“Muses Beach and the threatened subdivision of the Fred Muse farm should be nipped in the bud” and 

included testimonials from Frederic A. Delano who described Muses Beach as “an outrage” and Dr. John 

C. Merriam who offered to “back me 100%.”126 The memo continues by suggesting that $100,000 (about 

$1.3 million today) could purchase the necessary lands and that funding should be sought immediately in 

case the next administration be less friendly to appropriations.127 Most importantly, though, Hough laid 

out for the first time in an official capacity what would become the defining theme of his 

superintendency: 

The atmosphere of peace, beauty, restfulness and isolation is the best thing we have here and it 

should be protected. A cheap resort on the Everett Muse property directly in the middle of our 

view has already been started, and every passing year it will be worse and the property be worth 

more...As superintendent of the George Washington Birthplace Monument, its interests are 

closer to my heart than anything else, and I naturally do not want to see it ruined during my 

administration by the loss of our priceless heritage—our atmosphere. This should be kept by all 

means a neat, rural farm; with a sense of distance from the next place. With the presence of tincan campers already in the middle of our view from the portals of our mansion, on a small scale, 

the destruction of this environment has already started.128

Hough wrote to Crowninshield—only one day after Charles Moore warned Hough against involving her 

in anything but furnishing the Memorial House—and reiterated: “the original house is gone, but we still 

have something of the environment of the old place as manifested particularly by the view from the 

 

124 Hough wrote “It has been proposed to acquire certain adjacent lands and add them to the monument for the 

purpose of wildlife conservation as submarginal land. A map was prepared showing the lands under consideration 

with pertinent data concerning them. Instructions have been received to prepare a detailed report in this 

connection.” SMR, April 1934. 

125 Hough to Director, 28 October 1935, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 126 Frederick A. Delano had served as president of the American Civic Association and, in 1933, was appointed by 

Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes to chair of the Public Works Administration’s National Planning Board, which 

coordinated public works spending between federal, state, and local projects. See Carr, Wilderness by Design, p. 

272. 

127 This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics 

from 1800 to 2003. 

128 Hough to Director, 28 October 1935, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 
91

portals of the restored house.”129 Hough further suggested that “I think we would be justified in appealing 

to private philanthropy to save the situation here from spoliation.” 

Crowninshield responded with indifference and, for the time being, seemed to bear out Moore’s 

warning. Undeterred, Hough issued a second appeal to the WNMA, this time writing to Charles Moore: 

after all it is the Place here which is sacred. We still have some of the environment of the old 

place that was, and we should protect it just the same as natural wonders are protected in the 

National Parks. The key note of the place today is its feeling of peace, beauty and restfulness. It 

has isolation which was true of the old times, and a feeling of some distance from the next place. 

Do you not feel that...the Association might appeal to private philanthropy to eradicate these 

evils?130

Moore remained silent on the issue and so Hough continued alone. He made one last effort to enlist the 

support of Congressman Bland but to no avail and in a final 1935 letter to the Director, Hough indicated 

that the Saunders Real Estate Company offered $18,500 (about $250,000 today) to Fred C. Muse and that 

Muse might still take less if he were to sell to the government. Still, nothing came of these final efforts 

and correspondence regarding land acquisition fades with the end of 1935.131

Although there is no evidence that any of the Monument’s adjacent landowners attempted to sell 

or further subdivide their land in the years since 1935, Hough resumed his land campaign in late 1938 

when Crowninshield demonstrated heightened interest in the problem.132 The WNMA president wrote to 

the NPS Director regarding Hough’s appeals. Demaray issued a brief response indicating his recognition 

of the problem and interest in solving it. Unfortunately, the situation had worsened since 1935. By late 

1938, Everett Muse—insistent on not subdividing his land—continued to build more rental cottages on 

 

129 Moore to Hough, 20 April 1935, file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 6, GEWA. 

Hough to Crowninshield, 29 October 1935, file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield, 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 6, 

GEWA. 

130 Hough to Moore, 5 November 1935, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 131 This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics 

from 1800 to 2003. Hough to Bland, 6 November 1935; Bland to Hough, 7 November 1935; and Hough to Director, 

21 December 1935, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 132 See Hough to Crowninshield, 24 February 1937 and 5 Feb 1938, in file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-

1938,” in Ancient Box 6, GEWA Archive. 
92

Muse’s Beach and refused to sell the 170 acres for less than $50,000 (about $650,000 today).133 Hough 

again reiterated his views in a letter to Director Demaray: 

The resort now consists of about fifteen shacks, and constitutes the only disturbing element in the 

environment at the birthplace of our national hero, George Washington. Our atmosphere of 

peace, beauty, and naturalness is the key note at this shrine, and deserves protection. Since it is 

our Chief function to protect that which is placed in our care, I respectfully recommend that the 

Service sponsor a bill to buy this Muse farm of about 170 acres. While the memorial mansion 

here is essentially a memorial—to keep in remembrance the house which gave us our national 

hero—the setting is authentic and this environment would be perfect if Muse’s beach were 

eliminated. If the resort goes on and develops, it will effectively spoil the patriotic efforts that 

have been expanded here. Our naturally beautiful location with its broad, restful view, 

delightfully detached from the modern world of today, is a priceless heritage. It makes Wakefield 

what it is in its effect on visitors, hundreds of whom have been profoundly moved by their 

experience.134

Hough’s memo further indicated that although the Monument approach remained a “cluster of old cheap 

buildings and a motley collection of signs, without sufficiently prominent signs to attract our own 

intended visitors,” acquisition of the Muse Beach Resort was of the utmost importance. 

 Hough played to his new alliance with Crowninshield. He sent her a memo on the same day 

including a copy of his letter to the Director and asking, pointedly this time, “do you think the WNMA 

could raise another chest, to buy the land we need?”135 The WNMA, however, was not the organization it 

once was. Crowninshield had not maintained the nationwide membership developed by Josephine Rust 

and, consequently, the WNMA lacked its once impressive ability to generate cash.136 Crowninshield 

realized this and responded, “I really cannot undertake circularizing the Association. In fact I don’t know 

who they are and I have not got the time or the energy left but do think it is an awfully necessary project 

 

133 Demaray to Crowninshield, 5 November 1938 and Hough to Crowninshield, 15 November 1938, file “Mrs. F.B. 

Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 6, GEWA. Also see Hough to Director, 6 December 1938, (Box 

2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments 

for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 

134 Hough to Director, 6 December 1938, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 135 Hough to Crowninshield, 6 December 1938, file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 6, 

GEWA. 

136 The WNMA’s activity peaked in 1932 during celebration of Washington’s 200th birthday. At that time, Rust had 

personally courted ladies associations throughout the country in hopes of satisfying Rockefeller’s matched-funding 

request. State chapters of the WNMA thus formed and contributed financially to the restoration effort. There is no 

evidence that these auxiliary chapters of the WNMA persisted beyond Rust’s death and dedication of the 

Monument. Crowninshield did not share her predecessor’s interest in creating a nation-wide organization, but rather 

concentrated on furnishing the Memorial House and Colonial Kitchen. 
93

and I will gladly give $500 toward it if we can find any other people.”137 $500 (about $6,500 today) 

would not go far in meeting Hough’s needs and the superintendent took Crowninshield’s suggestion to 

contact Mr. H.L. Rust, Jr.—WNMA secretary and widower of Josephine Rust—for assistance though 

without success.138

 In one last glimmer of hope, Congressman Bland took renewed interest in the problem and in 

January 1939 requested that a bill be drafted adding various lands and the acquisition of scenic easements 

surrounding the Monument approach; specifically authorizing the purchase of the waterfront property 

between the Birthplace and Westmoreland State Park and requiring the Secretary of the Interior to convey 

1000 acres of this land to the Commonwealth of Virginia for state park purposes, provided that the 

Commonwealth reimburse the Federal Government for 75% of the purchase price.139 Even as the NPS 

drafted H.R. 8954 (Appendix 2), officials questioned the wisdom of Hough’s proposed acquisition. 

Associate Research Technician Charles Porter argued that the proposed addition would exceed the 

Monument’s administrative capacity given that such a large portion extended across Popes Creek and 

alternatively suggested acquiring a portion of Muse’s Beach just small enough to block development from 

view.140

Hough sought support for his position based on what he considered to be the importance of creating a 

wildlife refuge at the Monument and found, at least initially, some support for this plan.141 Hough had 

originally obtained permission in 1934 from the Washington Office and the Wildlife Division to attempt 

 

137 Crowninshield to Hough, 10 December 1938, in file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 

6, GEWA. 

138 Hough to Crowninshield, 26 December 1938, in Ibid. This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for 

inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 

139 Wirth to Burson (Director of Parks, Virginia Conservation Commission), 29 March 1939, (Box 76) file 12, 

Records of the National Park Service NE Region, Central Classified Files, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 

140 See Porter’s 24 August 1939 comments in (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park Service NE Region, 

Central Classified Files, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 

141 “At your oral request, I interviewed officials of the biological survey in an effort to ascertain if waterfowl 

shooting might be prohibited on Popes Creek...Messrs. Elmer and Earnshaw...pointed out that under existing 

regulations it would be impossible to prevent erection of blinds...they suggested...cease artificial feeding at 

monument.” Victor H. Cahalane (Chief, Wildlife Division, Branch of Research and Information) to Hough, 10 

November 1939, in (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park Service NE Region, Central Classified Files, 

1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 
94

to create a refuge for migratory geese at the birthplace.142 His new plan was somewhat more elaborate. 

First, Hough encouraged the Bureau of Biological Survey to consider creating a migratory waterfowl 

refuge at the Monument. The Bureau could then acquire park land using its own funds and without 

seeking special appropriation from Congress. 143 At the same time, Hough encouraged Congressman 

Bland to submit H.R. 8954 to allow for an expansion of the Park’s boundaries. The plan stalled when 

Bland learned that the Secretary of the Interior’s most recent report indicated that, given budget concerns, 

the bill was likely to fail. 144 Bland tried again by introducing a second bill, H.R. 18, on January 3, 1941 

(Appendix 2). H.R. 18 would authorize the secretary to accept, purchase, or condemn somewhere around 

2000 acres of land on the opposite bank of Popes Creek, otherwise known as Muse’s Beach.145 Bland’s 

bill suffered a similar fate in Congress, presumably given the already pressing financial demands of 

military buildup. Any further interest in acquiring lands at Wakefield yielded to war concerns by 1942. 

 Despite Hough’s fears, Muse’s Beach never did grow out of control and neither the Muse family 

nor any other adjacent landowners ever did sell their lands to developers. Neither Hough nor the NPS 

ever quite recognized that the Monument’s neighbors no more wanted developers controlling their land 

than they did the Federal Government. In hindsight, community pride in a shared heritage was Hough’s 

greatest ally in the battle against development. Still, Hough did not realize this and fought diligently to 

protect the landscape he considered so vital to understanding George Washington’s life, especially at a 

site so rife with interpretive conundrums. 

 Hough’s failed effort to forge a land policy and the continuing legacy of Building X eventually 

doomed his even greater desire to draft a comprehensive master plan. The Park did produce a master plan 

in 1939, but its five sheets of drawings merely suggested anticipated development and did not include any 

 

142 1934 Annual wildlife Report, George Washington’s Birthplace National Monument, in unmarked file, NPS 

Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA. 

143 Roberts to Director, 10 may 1940, file “d32 landscaping” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. This file also 

contains several maps (land acquisition) and photographs. 144 Unidentified office assistant to Cammerer, 6 January 1940, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, 

RG 79, NACP. 

145 See SMR, January 1941, GEWA. 
95

narrative suggesting an overarching vision for development.146 The plan identified the sites of various 

archeological investigations, for example, but simply and somewhat vaguely called for additional 

archeological and historical research. The plan also called for construction of a new administration 

building and a museum though Hough had already secured the fate of both through his willingness to 

settle for a temporary administration building. Most significantly, the plan called for acquisition of nearly 

1600 acres of surrounding land demonstrating the superintendent’s considerable fear of land 

development. But the 1939 master plan only constituted a partial victory for Hough. Despite his ongoing 

calls for substantial revision, the 1939 plan remained the Park’s guiding document for nearly twenty 

years. 147 Years of difficulty managing the Park without an adequate staff, the complexities of 

interpretation at a site haunted by Building X, and the onset of World War II all but crippled Hough’s 

hopes of formalizing an overarching developmental vision for Washington’s Birthplace.

 

146 These documents are typical of early master plans consisting primarily of large drawings depicting anticipated 

changes to the built and natural landscapes. See “General Plan, George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument,” Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yorktown Office—Landscape Division. February 

4, 1932. Job No. 1006. Microfiche, National Park Service Archives, Philadelphia, PA; “George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument Master Plan,” 4 sheets, Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1939 (rev. 

1940), GEWA; “General Development Plan, Part of the Master Plan, George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument,” Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Planning and Construction Division, Regional 

Office, July 1950, Drawing No. NM GWB 2004C, Microfiche, National Park Service Archives, Philadelphia, Pa; 

and “General Development Plan,” part of the Master Plan, Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Office 

of Resource Planning, November 1966 (rev. April 1967), GEWA. Also See folder “D2215, ” NPS Records Box 9 

of 25, GEWA, for 1933-1945 6-year advance plans. 

147 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.86-2. 87 provides a good summary of the 1939 master plan. The 

Park did issue a revised plan in 1941, but it remained more-or-less identical to the 1939 version. The 1941 plan 

appears in records only in passing as in the February 1952 Master Plan Development Outline in NPS Records Box 8 

of 25, GEWA. 
CHAPTER 4 

Visitor Experience and Interpretation, 1932-1940 

As archeological controversy, staffing and funding shortages, and planning debates unfolded 

behind the scenes at Wakefield, the Monument outwardly thrived during its first decade. By October 

1933, over 100,000 visitors had made the trek to Washington’s Birthplace.1

 Some of these visitors lived 

in the surrounding community and enjoyed the Monument’s Potomac River beachfront and various picnic 

areas. Hough estimated that, as of 1930, approximately 20,000 people lived within an hour drive of 

Wakefield.2

 Most visitors encountered Washington’s Birthplace while traveling from Washington, DC to 

Colonial Williamsburg and other points south. School and church groups also flocked to the Park during 

this period providing the Monument with its bulk of weekday visitors. In advance of a 1936 visit by 750 

4-H Club members, Hough explained to WNMA President Crowninshield that “my plan is to allow them 

about 25 minutes on the Mansion grounds, after which they will repair to the picnic grounds for a tug-ofwar tournament. This ought to keep them occupied and out of mischief for a while.”3

 Although tug-ofwar may not have offered the best opportunity to learn about the life of George Washington, it did 

demonstrate Hough’s willingness to accommodate large tour and school groups which, though rarely if 

ever reaching 750 people, did constitute a significant portion of early visitation. 

Prior to construction of Interstate 95 and before State Route 3—locally known as the “Kings 

Highway”—had been widened to accommodate high-speed travel, getting to Washington’s Birthplace 

was easier said than done. Hough considered the effort required to visit Wakefield a positive deterrent to 

undesirable visitors. He considered the thirty-eight mile buffer between the Monument and 

Fredericksburg “perhaps a fortunate thing as we receive a very high type of visitor and have practically no 

trouble with the type of parties looking for amusement or excitement.”4

 Visitors traveling from 

Washington, DC motored south down State Highway 1 until faced with a choice of proceeding on Route 

 

1

 Hough to Director, 31 October 1933, folder “master plan d1815” in NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 

2

 SMR, November 1934, GEWA. 

3

 Hough to Crowninshield, 15 June 1936, folder “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 6, 

GEWA. 

4

 SMR, November 1934, GEWA. 
97

3 or following Maryland State Highways 5 and 3 to Morgantown, Maryland. At Morgantown, a ferry 

transported automobiles to Colonial Beach from where thirteen additional miles along back roads and 

Route 3 led visitors to Wakefield. Traveling north from Richmond involved more-or-less the same route 

taken today variously along Routes 17 and 3, though without the predictability of paved roads. Records 

show, for example, that Monument staff spent a great deal of time keeping Route 204 passable. The 

Peninsula Bus Company brought visitors from Baltimore, Washington, Richmond, and Norfolk to the 

intersection of Routes 3 and 204 where , still two miles distant from the Monument, travelers continued 

on foot or made arrangements for transportation at a local business.5

Although this final two-mile stretch did not belong to the NPS, it did mark the beginning of the 

visitor experience and, in a way, transitioned visitors from the relative hustle of Route 3 to the rural calm 

of Washington’s Birthplace. Past a few homes and businesses near its intersection with Route 3, Route 

204 opened unto majestic farmland owned and operated by the Latane family (Images 22 & 23). This 

landscape, shaped by centuries of traditional farming techniques and dotted with grazing sheep, cattle, 

and horses, set the mood for the Monument’s historic setting.6

 The 1896 granite obelisk loomed in the 

distance and marked the formal entrance to the Birthplace. Route 204 transitioned into a park access road 

at the entrance, circled around the granite obelisk, and led visitors another quarter mile to a dirt parking 

lot located along what is now the southeastern edge of the ox yard. Visitors entered the Monument’s 

historic area on foot through a white picket fence at the northeast end of the lot where one could see the 

Colonial Kitchen some hundred feet distant and, behind that, the Memorial House (Images 24 & 25). 

Touring the Monument During the 1930s 

Hough wrote a “Historic Handbook” for the Monument in 1951. Having given tours for nearly 

twenty years—the Monument’s interpretive landscape changed little during that time—Hough’s account 

 

5

 See 1933 George Washington Birthplace National Monument visitor pamphlet, GEWA. 6

 “Many is the compliment we have received on the sheep, cattle and horses (which are not ours, but belong to the 

Latane Brothers; seen on the Latane farm before entering the monument.” There is abundant evidence that 

Wakefield was well stocked in the colonial period—exact counts being preserved in inventories of 1743 and 1762. 

This office recommends the acquisition of a few sheep and geese to lend life and atmosphere.” Hough to Director, 

31 October 1933, folder “Master Plan d1815” in NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 
98

provides a thumbnail sketch of how visitors experienced the birth site during its first decades. Hough 

personally welcomed as many visitors as he could well before they encountered the Memorial House 

(Image 26). The superintendent’s monthly reports frequently mention his preference for greeting visitors 

in person. Hough, amid his various other duties, kept a watchful eye on the parking lot from his office 

window in the Colonial Kitchen. The superintendent devoted the lion’s share of his day to running back 

and forth between the Colonial Kitchen and the parking lot. 

Having exchanged greetings, Hough led visitors into the core historic area toward the Memorial 

House along a “plain earth driveway” intended to recall a colonial wagon path. 7 He recounted the history 

of the Washington family at Popes Creek as visitors followed the path past rose bushes and winter 

jasmine. Observant visitors may have asked about the noticeably bare lawn to the right of the path 

covering the foundations of Building X though, considering his feelings about the controversy, Hough 

surely avoided lengthy discussion of the site. The dirt path led to a brick walkway joining the Memorial 

House, Colonial Kitchen, and extending beyond into the Colonial Garden (Image 27). Hough pointed out 

the hackberry tree and fig clusters in front of the Memorial House—both likely present during 

Washington’s time at Wakefield—and ushered his guests into the “land front” of the building where, 

immediately to the right, stood a registration desk (Image 28). The WNMA offered a variety of items for 

sale in the Memorial House’s central hall and accepted donations in a drop box set aside for that purpose. 

The Monument relocated WNMA sales items to an upstairs room in April 1932 prompting Hough to 

remark, “it is believed that the first impression on visitors entering the building is now much better.”8

A ranger distributed free information folders and sold various booklets and handbooks from a 

desk situated along the left wall of the entrance hall. Hough introduced his guests to the ranger who then 

commenced a tour of the Memorial House. Tours of the Memorial House during the 1930s did not differ 

dramatically from tours today. Rangers led visitors through the house, commenting on its various 

 

7

 Unless otherwise noted, the following description of a typical visit to Washington’s birthplace is derived from 

“Material for a 56-Page Historic Handbook on George Washington Birthplace National Monument” by Philip 

Hough, submitted to Regional Director 11 January 1951 in folder “1920s-1960s Records,” NPS Records Box 6 of 

25, GEWA. Also see this file for a 1933 map of GEWA and various other relevant documents. 

8

 SMR, April 1932, GEWA. 
99

furnishings and providing some sense of how the Washington family may have used the space. Nobody, 

however, desired to linger in the Memorial House prior to July 1932. In that month, the Monument 

installed screens on the Memorial House windows and doors that “while not colonial, were an urgent 

necessity in as much as flies and mosquitoes had become a great nuisance.”9

 Visitors occasionally met 

costumed interpreters in the Memorial House. Beginning in 1935, the WNMA made an annual ritual of 

celebrating Washington’s birthday by serving hot cider and gingerbread made from old family recipes 

(Image 29).10

The tour proceeded to the Colonial Kitchen, which during the 1930s served a surprising variety of 

purposes for such a small building. Hough’s prized artifact displays occupied a sizeable portion of the 

first floor. Visitors browsed archeological artifacts culled from various excavations, Native American 

arrowheads discovered in the area, and a host of fossils and shark teeth gathered throughout the 

Monument grounds. Various artifacts and reproductions arranged about the fireplace suggested a 

working colonial kitchen. Amid all of this, Hough—and later the Park clerk—kept office in what must 

have been impossibly small quarters. Upstairs, a garret-style attic—originally intended to interpret 

servants’ lives—provided living quarters for park staff. In an attempt to achieve some degree of 

separation between interpretive exhibits and administrative facilities, the Monument constructed a 

partition “in the main room of the kitchen which will screen off the doors leading to the bathroom and 

office.”11 Still, the Colonial Kitchen remained a crowded chaotic space with the “noises of typewriters, 

adding machines, and telephone bells [that] tend to spoil the desired effect.”12 

Outside the Colonial Kitchen, Rangers pointed guests toward the colonial garden. Although the 

1933 visitor’s guide promised a view “of many old fashioned herbs and plants such as were cultivated 

200 years ago” the garden remained a ragged affair during its first years of operation. Planning 

 

9

 SMR, July 1932, GEWA. 

10 For references to Hough arranging this with the WNMA and the WNMA deciding to make it an annual event, see 

22 February 1935 “Minutes of the WNMA (Northern neck Branch),” Wakefield National Memorial Association 

Records, 1923-1985, Series III, Secretary’s Files, Unprocessed Material, Box 18 of 37, GEWA. 

11 SMR, January 1937, GEWA. 

12 Hough to Wilhelm, 10 April 1939, file “Packet Master Plan D1815” in NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 
100

disagreements between the NPS and the WNMA delayed serious efforts to create an accurate garden and, 

having only one growing season to mature, several plots remained uncultivated by 1933, drawing 

negative feedback from some visitors. A walk along Burnt House Trail, which extended beyond the 

garden through a stand of native red cedars along Pope’s Creek, surely calmed the disappointed garden 

devotee. In fact, the trail pleased visitors so much that Hough proposed that it should have a management 

plan of its own.13

The guided tour of Washington’s Birthplace, to the extent that one existed, ended at the Colonial 

Garden, but visitors frequently roamed at will beyond the core historic area. A waterside trail extended 

northeast past the “water front” of the Memorial House toward the three-hundred-foot long Dancing 

Marsh footbridge. The footbridge provided a scenic walk across Dancing Marsh Creek and joined the 

core historic area with Duck Hall point where stood the WNMA’s Log House Tea Room. WNMA 

finance records and superintendent monthly reports suggest, however, that most visitors bypassed the Log 

House entirely and after using the restrooms located in what is now the Weaving Room, more likely 

returned to their cars and drove a little over a mile to see the Washington family burial ground. A 300-

foot tree-lined gravel path led from the burial ground parking lot to the resting place of thirty-one 

members of the Washington family (Image 30). The remains interred there within the stone vault 

included George’s father Augustine and his two wives, grandfather Lawrence, Colonel John Washington 

and his first wife Anne Pope, great uncle John and wife Anne, and brother Augustine Washington, Jr. and 

wife Anne. Several Aquia Creek freestone table stones and two of the burial ground’s original 

gravestones listed the dead. 

Leaving the burial ground and driving an additional half-mile down the burial ground access 

road, visitors encountered a turnaround where they might park and enjoy a picnic on a sandy Potomac 

River beach (Images 31 & 32). On a clear day, one might see from this point the outlines of President 

James Monroe’s boyhood farmstead. Remnants of the pier built by the War Department at Bridges Creek 

in 1896 extended into the river from this site until their removal in 1934 (Image 33). Visitors arriving 

 

13 Hough to Director, 31 October 1933, folder “Master Plan d1815” in NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 
101

from the Monument’s core historic area might be surprised to discover a much livelier scene at the river 

beach. Tourists and residents alike—both White and Black—swam in the Potomac, relaxed on the beach, 

and hunted sharks’ teeth in the receding tide. In fact, reports suggest that the Potomac River beach area 

was far more popular than the core historic area offering as it did a free recreational area for the entire 

Northern Neck. Leaving the beach area could be more difficult than entering. Visitors frequently mired 

their cars in the mud after heavy downpours atop the not yet paved access road and traffic circle. Those 

who did escape, unless remaining for the night or perhaps relocating to the shaded picnic ground adjacent 

to the Log House, typically left the Monument at this point. According to former Park Historian Paul 

Hudson, visitors rarely stayed long enough for prolonged tours save during spring and summer Sundays.14 

Hough later estimated that the average visitor spent just over an hour at the Monument: twenty minutes at 

the Memorial House, fifteen at the burial ground, another fifteen wandering the grounds, and only five 

minutes per visit to the Colonial Kitchen, Colonial Garden, and post office.15

Early Interpretation at Washington’s Birthplace 

Hough’s “Historic Handbook” describes how visitors moved between the Monument’s various 

interpretive areas, but it reveals little about interpretation within those areas. Historian Paul Carson 

argues “that interpretation for the first 36 years of the Park consisted of little more than a peek at museum 

displays in the kitchen, a walk through the Memorial house, and a quiet stroll to enjoy the beautiful 

solitude of the area.”16 But it was exactly these aspects of a visit to Washington’s Birthplace that placed it 

among the vanguard of historical sites in the 1930s. The Colonial Revival had popularized historical 

reconstructions by way of the colonial kitchens and costumed hostesses featured at sanitary fairs and 

charity teas. The phenomenon remained largely within the realm of popular novelty, however, until the 

late 1920 and early 1930s when the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s American Wing, Rockefeller’s 

sponsorship of Colonial Williamsburg, and the WNMA’s construction of the Memorial House legitimized 

 

14 See Hudson’s Annual Wild Life Report, George Washington’s Birthplace National Monument, 1933, in unmarked 

file (cover missing), NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA. 

15 See February 1952 Master Plan Development Outline, NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 16 Paul Carson, “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace,” pp. 4113-4114. 
102

historical reconstruction as a serious device through which to inform Americans about the past. Visitors 

to Washington’s Birthplace during the 1930s therefore witnessed a strikingly new interpretive 

undertaking. 

The goals of that undertaking, however, remained unclear or, more specifically at Wakefield, up 

for grabs. The WNMA, under the leadership of Josephine Rust, pursued its work with an eye toward 

commemoration. It sought to honor Washington through a highly symbolic commemorative landscape. 

It considered the patriotic lessons of its Memorial House and Colonial Kitchen implicit and, thus, not 

requiring the kind of careful interpretive narrative favored by the NPS. The NPS sought to convey 

accurate information about the historical conditions surrounding and informing Washington’s life. It 

likened the commemorative landscape to a picture of the past whose composition required both sensitivity 

to authenticity and a suitable ‘caption’ to organize the visitor’s experience of the site. NPS Chief 

Historian Verne Chatelain expressed so much in a 1935 paper delivered to the American Planning and 

Civic Association: 

The conception which underlies the whole policy of the National Park Service in connection with 

[historical and archeological] sites is that of using the uniquely graphic qualities which inhere in 

any area where stirring and significant events have taken place to drive home to the visitor the 

meaning of those events showing not only their importance in themselves but their integral 

relationship to the whole history of American development. In other words, the task is to breathe 

the breath of life into American history for those to whom it has been a dull recital of meaningless 

facts—to recreate for the average citizen something of the color, the pageantry, and the dignity of 

our national past.17

Despite his lofty vision, Chatelain failed to provide practical instructions for how exactly to use those 

“graphic qualities” at a site like Washington’s Birthplace. In this way, responsibility for enacting the 

NPS’s interpretive philosophy during the early 1930s fell to regional planners and park staff whom, at 

Wakefield, frequently butted heads with the WNMA. The conflict between the WNMA and NPS 

planners concerning the proper layout and purpose of the colonial garden is a case in point. Changes in 

 

17 Cited in Barry Mackintosh, Interpretation in the National Park Service: A Historical Perspective (Washington: 

National Park Service, 1986), <www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mackintosh2/index.htm> (1 May 2006). See 

specifically “Inaugurating the Program” in Chapter 2. 
103

WNMA leadership, however, eventually brought the two organizations into something resembling, 

though not always achieving, interpretive accord. 

 Chatelaine’s suggestions notwithstanding, park staff and agents on the ground at Wakefield 

during the early 1930s struggled more-or-less independently to blaze their own interpretive path. 

Interpretation, however, necessarily took a back seat to constructing an infrastructure and negotiating 

relations with adjacent landowners so that, by the end of the decade, the NPS had not even managed to 

draft an official interpretive statement stating exactly how long Washington had been associated with the 

property or to what extent it might be argued that his time there bore any influence on the general’s later 

life.18 It is therefore not surprising that early interpretive decisions often defaulted to the WNMA. This 

was especially the case with the Memorial House and Colonial Kitchen. Having built both buildings with 

their own money, the WNMA considered the house and kitchen home turf even after transfer of its 

property to the government. 

 The commemorative focus of the WNMA, however, was almost entirely concerned with outward 

appearances. The presence of light switches and electrical sockets, as noted by visitor complaints, 

indicates an indifference to authenticity within the house. Moreover, the WNMA charged its architect, 

Edward Donn, with furnishing the Memorial House and although Donn may have claimed expertise in 

colonial architecture, it is not evident that he had any training in decorative arts.19 Photographs taken by 

NPS photographer George Grant during three days in May 1932 reveal that the WNMA furnished the 

Memorial House in a style intended to evoke rather than recreate the material world of Washington and 

his family. Highly idiosyncratic buffalo hides and a bear skin rug received from Yellowstone National 

Park covered the floors of two rooms while black walnut furniture made by the same Harrisonburg, 

Virginia craftsmen who outfitted the Log House filled the Memorial House as well (Image 34). Finally, 

 

18 Associate Research Technician Charles W. Porter voiced concern regarding this deficiency in comments 

regarding the 1939 master plan: “Besides the historical base map of the Mansion area, there is a need for an 

interpretative statement indicating how long George Washington was Associated with the Wakefield area and 

pointing out what traits or qualities he may have inherited or acquired from the Virginian plantation environment 

into which he was born.” 24 August 1939, (Box 76) folder 12, Records of the National Park Service NE Region, 

Central Classified Files, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMAR. 

19 SMR, November 1931, GEWA. 
104

nine four-by-six-inch silver plates fastened to doors and walls honored cash gifts made by various 

wealthy supporters of the WNMA’s project. 20 Although the WNMA devoted itself to honoring the life of 

Washington, it never lost site of its own role in that commemorative effort and considered the interior of 

the Memorial House an appropriate venue in which to honor its own contribution. 

The WNMA’s initial furnishing of the Memorial House should not be thought of as intentionally 

inaccurate or insubstantial. On the contrary, Rust and her associates expressed through the Memorial 

House a perfect instance of the commemorative spirit fostered by the Colonial Revival. By 1930, 

however, some devotees of the Colonial Revival had begun to consider authentic recreation an ideal in its 

own right and though the Monument at Popes Creek certainly occupied a position at the forefront of 

historical interpretation, the interior of the Memorial House paled in significance to exhibits at sites like 

Colonial Williamsburg. This said, aesthetic concerns fell by the wayside during the excitement and 

sadness of 1931. Josephine Rust’s death—only four days after she signed the deed transferring the 

WNMA’s property to the government—left the WNMA in a state of organizational disarray. Associate 

Engineer White reported that “there has been no driving force behind the WNMA’s plan” since Rust’s 

death and described a “lull in the cooperative work” between the government and the WNMA.21 Charles 

Moore assumed leadership responsibilities following Rust’s death, but eventually passed the torch to 

Maude Worthington. Worthington spent most of her two years as president in England in search of 

suitable antiques with which to devise a furnishing plan for the Memorial House. Although Worthington 

did acquire a few antiques for the house, health concerns prevented her from continuing.22 Beyond 

construction and operation of the Log House Tea Room, the WNMA consequently limited its activities 

 

20 SMR, May and November 1932, GEWA. Hough remarked that the same furniture makers also provided services 

to Colonial Williamsburg. One year later, Hough initiated an effort to catalogue the Memorial House furnishings by 

listing each item on an index card. These index cards are stored at GEWA though it is not clear if they are complete 

or inclusive. See SMR, November 1933, GEWA. 21 SMR, July 1931, GEWA. 

22 See Master Plan Development Outline, February 1952, NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 
105

between 1932 and 1935 to souvenir sales and hosting social events including the annual celebration of 

Washington’s birthday.23

Louise du Pont Crowninshield and a New Interpretive Direction 

 Charles Moore recognized the Memorial House’s interpretive potential and approached Louise du 

Pont Crowninshield about assuming leadership of the WNMA. Born Louise Evelina du Pont in 1877, 

Crowninshield inherited the wealth and renown of her family’s early nineteenth-century forays into 

gunpowder production and subsequent involvement in arms and defense contracting. Crowninshield 

developed an interest in colonial furnishings as her brother, Henry Francis du Pont, redesigned and 

renovated the family’s Winterthur estate in Delaware in the fashion of a traditional European country 

house. The Winterthur Museum was then, as it is now, widely respected for its collection of eighteenth 

and nineteenth-century furnishings and period rooms. Crowninshield further associated herself with a 

number of historic preservation efforts including the Society for the Preservation of New England 

Antiquities’ restoration of the Derby House in Salem, Massachusetts; the restoration of her family home 

at Mutchanin, Delaware; and the restoration of George Washington’s sister’s Kenmore Estate in 

Fredericksburg, Virginia. After World War II, Crowninshield became one of the first trustees of the 

National Trust for Historic Preservation.24 Although not formally trained as a historian of decorative arts, 

Crowninshield had become—by way of her great interest, involvement in, and generous patronage of the 

field—a well-respected authority. As WNMA president, a figure like Crowninshield promised to 

distinguish the Monument among historic sites and, amid the controversies surrounding Building X, 

create an air of legitimacy eagerly sought by Hough. 

Considering Crowninshield’s notoriety and the extent of her various commitments, Moore must 

have been delighted when she accepted his offer in 1935. In fact, he cautioned Hough against making too 

great demands on her lest she change her mind: “She is a very busy woman and has many interests, and it 

is not desirable to bother her with such matters as the acquisition of the Muse Farms or other general 

 

23 Hough describes these early birthday celebrations in SMR, February 1935, GEWA. This report includes a lengthy 

description and photos of the birthday celebration. 

24 Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, pp. 175-76, 656, 913, 924. 
106

business of the sort.”25 Even though, as we will see, Hough did pester Crowninshield about “other 

general business of the sort,” she did not change her mind about furnishing the Memorial House and 

would, in time, become a valuable supporter of Hough’s agenda. In the meantime, she ushered in a new 

era for the WNMA and its relationship with the NPS. Her ability to do this stemmed, in part, from having 

not been involved with the WNMA in prior years. In a letter to Hough, Crowninshield referenced Charles 

Hoppin and asked, “have you ever heard of him or his papers?” Hough found a fast friend in the wealthy 

philanthropist who shared his convictions about Building X.26 Most importantly, Crowninshield 

introduced an interpretive vision in accord with the NPS’s own goals at Wakefield. 

 That vision just so happened to represent the vanguard of the Colonial Revival during the early 

1930s. Crowninshield put Washington’s Birthplace on the map of important historic preservation sites by 

linking it, though her presence, to other significant events and individuals in the field. Foremost among 

these was the American Wing exhibit at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Opened in 

1924, the American Wing presented colonial furnishings and artifacts in period rooms and constituted one 

of the most significant pillars of the Colonial Revival in this country. Crowninshield had multiple 

connections to the American Wing. Henry du Pont frequently consulted with the exhibit’s creators 

regarding his own work at Winterthur and accordingly involved his sister in these relationships. More 

directly, Crowninshield’s close friend Bertha Benkard—who would also come to significantly influence 

the direction of the Winterthur project—was directly involved in the exhibit and frequently accompanied 

 

25 Moore to Hough, 20 April 1935, file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 6, GEWA. 

26 Crowninshield to Hough, 12 July 1937, file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938” in Ancient Box 6, GEWA. 

Hough’s response is also telling with regard to past relations with the WNMA: “What he offers sounds good—

almost too good. Mr. Hoppin is a commercial gentleman, in spite of his references to his gratuitous services...Our 

historians are quite frankly irked by his continuous references to the wonderful things in his possession or at his 

disposal—but he never comes out and puts his cards on the table. We now doubt that he has much up his sleeve.” 

See Hough to Crowninshield, 25 January 1938, in Ibid. Despite being new to GEWA, Crowninshield eventually 

came to side with the WNMA regarding the location of the Memorial House as suggested in a letter to Director 

Demaray where she comments that despite that “the house is not the original one—although, I firmly believe, on the 

exact foundation.” Crowninshield to Demaray, 26 October 1938, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service 

Records, RG 79, NACP. Moreover, Crowninshield considered Rodnick’s 1940 investigation work an unnecessary 

disruption to the rural calm at GEWA. See Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, pp. 607-10. 
107

Crowninshield on visits to Wakefield.27 No sooner had Crowninshield signed on at Wakefield did Joseph 

Downs, head curator of the American Wing, visit the Park and “expressed himself in highly favorable 

terms of what the government has begun here at Washington’s birthplace and in a general way of its 

accomplishment to date.” Hough took his cues accordingly and, perhaps eager to maintain these ties with 

the American Wing, traveled north “primarily to study colonial period exhibits at the Metropolitan 

Museum of art in New York.”28

Refurnishing the Memorial House 

As of 1935, the Memorial House contained a hodgepodge of inappropriate reproduction 

furnishings and decorations. Minutes of the WNMA reveal that, immediately upon her arrival, 

Crowninshield announced her intent to keep “the relics and furniture of the period prior to 1753 when 

George Washington was a child. She wished to have only original pieces and dispose of all 

reproductions.”29 For over five years Crowninshield inundated the Monument with furnishings carefully 

selected and purchased—mostly at her own expense though also with funds generated by the WNMA 

through contributions and fund-raising events—from collections throughout the eastern states and Europe. 

Monthly reports refer to regular shipments received from Crowninshield accompanied by specific 

instructions for how each item was to be placed and maintained in the memorial house. Hough dutifully 

followed her instructions and enjoyed seeing her reactions to his work during her periodic visits to 

Wakefield.30

 

27 See SMR, October 1935 and April 1940, GEWA. Benkard—later Bertha Benkard-Rose—herself played a 

significant role in the Colonial Revival and the development of historic preservation in this country. Of most direct 

relevance to the Monument, Benkard-Rose directed the restoration of nearby Stratford Hall. She also supervised the 

restoration of Sagamore Hill, which has since become an NPS site. See “Mrs. Reginald P. Rose, 1906-1982” in 

Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (1982), pp. 15-16. 28 SMR, November 1935, GEWA. 

29 25 April 1938 “Minutes of the WNMA (Northern Neck Branch),” Wakefield National Memorial Association 

Records, 1923-1985, Series III, Secretary’s Files, Unprocessed Material, Box 18 of 37, GEWA. 

30 Acting NPS Director J.R. White thanked Crowninshield on behalf of the Service: “A few days ago I paid my first 

visit to George Washington Birthplace National Monument at Wakefield and Superintendent Hough pointed out 

with particular pride the magnificent collection of colonial furniture which has been assembled in the building. He 

told me of the great personal interest and the financial assistance that you have given in the collection of this 

furniture and I desire to express to you, both personally and officially, my appreciation. You have been very modest 

in claiming credit for this donation and I know that you have a continuing interest in the problems of development at 

Washington’s Birthplace.” White to Crowninshield, 18 August 1939, (Box 76) file 12, Records of the National Park 
108

Crowninshield’s efforts occasionally created difficulties for the Monument. Hough wrestled, for 

instance, with ways to preserve three straw beehives Crowninshield contributed for use in the colonial 

garden. Maintenance staff eventually constructed wooden boxes to protect the hives from rain and 

snow.31 Protecting Crowninshield’s furnishings also occasionally strained the Monument’s operating 

budget. Hough had not anticipated, for instance, the expense of cleaning delicate draperies, something 

that “will present a problem not provided for in our budget.”32 Nonetheless, the benefits of 

Crowninshield’s work outweighed the costs. With the arrival of Crowninshield’s furnishings—

specifically purchased for the Memorial House—Hough unburdened himself of the responsibilities of 

caring for other peoples’ property. He reported in late 1937 that “authority has been received from 

Washington to release...the items desired for removal by [WNMA member] Mrs. Amy Chandler. 

Following this removal all items of house furnishing in the memorial mansion will be here on a 

permanent basis and it will indeed be a pleasure to be responsible for no more loaned antiques.”33 The 

WNMA decided to donate all furnishings—nearly four hundred pieces—to the Monument in 1945 and 

Hough prepared an inventory to facilitate the transfer.34

Crowninshield’s refurnishing project neared completion by the end of 1940 and created a 

markedly different visitor experience within the Memorial House. The interior now did reflect, to the best 

of anyone’s knowledge, the material world of a well-to-do mid-eighteenth-century Virginia plantation 

family (Image 35). Moreover, Crowninshield completed her project by funding alternations to the 

building’s chimneys. Construction in 1931 did not include completion of the chimneys so, in October 

1940, Crowninshield had the chimneys unsealed and installed dampers to allow for fires during special 

 Service NE Region, Central Classified Files, 1936-1952, RG 79, NAMARA. Hough referenced these visits in his 

monthly reports as in October 1935 when Crowninshield “visited to install new antique furnishings for the restored 

mansion” with her friend, Bertha Benkard. 

31 SMR, April and December 1936, GEWA. 

32 SMR, September 1936, GEWA. 

33 SMR, November 1937, GEWA. 

34 SMR, December 1945, GEWA. Hough included a list of the Memorial House’s new furnishings in his 1940 

Annual Report. 
109

occasions.35 With working fireplaces, costumed interpreters could now present a fuller picture of colonial 

domestic life and so initiated a new interpretive direction at Washington’s Birthplace (Image 36). 

Crowninshield also purchased furnishings for the Colonial Kitchen, but she left her most significant mark 

on the Memorial House. Hough included a list of those furnishings donated by Crowninshield in his 1940 

Annual Report, but photographs of the Memorial House interior more fully demonstrate the dramatic 

change witnessed in that year.36

The WNMA’s New Interpretive Role 

Hough and Crowninshield worked closely together during the refurnishing of the Memorial 

House and developed a warm friendship. Hough considered Crowninshield a confidant in matters of 

policy and disagreement with the NPS. In a 1940 letter, for example, Hough urged Crowninshield to 

keep their conversations regarding the Building X controversy “within the family,” because his statements 

regarding “matters of policy...should first be approved by the Department in Washington.”37 

Crowninshield, in turn, respected Hough’s interest and careful stewardship. She expressed her pleasure 

with the Wakefield project to Director Demaray and called it “the most charming of any of the Virginia 

historic houses with the possible exception of Mt. Vernon.” 38 By 1937, the du Pont heiress had grown to 

trust the NPS’s ability to manage historic preservation and urged William Sumner Appleton—president of 

the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities—to donate the Derby House and other 

historic properties to the Service.39 

Crowninshield’s refurnishing project also provided new opportunities for the WNMA. Under 

Rust and during the excitement of Washington’s bicentennial, the WNMA enjoyed a national membership 

with chapters in several states. The shear cost of undertaking the Wakefield project required national 

support and these chapters existed, in large part, because of Rust’s ambitious nationwide public relations 

 

35 SMR, October 1940, GEWA. Renovations of the chimneys required that the main room heat register, previously 

installed in the fireplace, be moved into the far corner of the room. 

36 See SAR, 1940, GEWA for a list of furnishings then on display in the Memorial House. 

37 Hough to Crowninshield, 18 December 1940, file “homesite controversy” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 38 Crowninshield to Demaray, 26 October 1938, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

39 Hosmer, Preservation Comes of Age, p. 176. 
110

efforts. Following her death, however, only the local Northern Neck branch remained. The ladies of the 

Northern Neck found themselves unorganized and uncertain about their role in the wake of Rust’s death, 

especially as questions concerning Building X placed the WNMA’s work under scrutiny. 

The WNMA thus fashioned itself into something of an interpretive auxiliary and events 

coordinator. Beginning in 1935, celebration of Washington’s birthday became the WNMA’s primary 

focus once. By 1936, the Northern Neck branch made themselves available to Hough, given due notice, 

for any event for which he desired costumed hosts. The WNMA even occasionally went so far as to stage 

monthly meetings in full costume.40 Although celebration of Washington’s birthday lapsed for two years, 

the WNMA agreed in 1938 to make the event an annual staple, adding that “some young ladies from each 

organized county in costume” would host these events.41 When not hosting events or performing 

costumed interpretation, the WNMA attended to furnishings. Crowninshield requested that members 

replace old fabrics and launder drapes and linens when necessary. Hough loved the idea, remarking that 

“this would solve what is sure to become a problem under government methods of management.”42

 The superintendent did his part to reciprocate when possible as with his support of the WNMA’s 

Northern Neck school fundraiser. Seeking opportunities to fund Crowninshield’s furnishing program 

during the hard economic times of the late 1930s, the WNMA worked with local elementary schools to 

create a program where students contributed pennies toward the cost of an individual piece of furniture 

selected and purchased by Crowninshield. Hough helped out by visiting schools and giving talks about 

the Birthplace and the life of George Washington. The program simultaneously raised funds for the 

WNMA while cultivating interest in the Birthplace. Within a year the program achieved positive results 

and the WNMA worked with the Birthplace and local schools to make it an annual ritual.43

Annanias Johnson and an Early Living Farm 

 

40 22 February 1936 “Minutes of the WNMA (Northern Neck Branch),” Wakefield National Memorial Association 

Records, 1923-1985, Series III, Secretary’s Files, Unprocessed Material, Box 18 of 37, GEWA. 

41 25 April 1938 “Minutes of the WNMA” in Ibid. 

42 SMR, December 1945, GEWA. 

43 26 April 1937 and 25 April 1938 “Minutes of the WNMA (Northern Neck Branch),” Wakefield National 

Memorial Association Records, 1923-1985, Series III, Secretary’s Files, Unprocessed Material, Box 18 of 37, 

GEWA . 
111

 Although the Memorial House and Colonial Kitchen constituted the Monument’s primary 

interpretive spaces during the 1930s, visitors also enjoyed strolls through a colonial crops demonstration 

area. Hough initiated plans for this project almost immediately upon arriving at Popes Creek believing 

that although “these colonial crops are for display rather than profit...it is believed that if arrangements 

can be worked out, that twists of Wakefield tobacco can be sold as souvenirs at the log house.”44 The 

Monument planted two acres of tobacco in March 1933 and, by October, visitor interest convinced Hough 

that the farm should be developed further (Image 37 & Illustration 3). In fact, the superintendent hoped to 

offer an abandoned house on the Raymond Washington tract to an individual hired solely to tend to the 

crops although Hough never found a willing tenant.45

 He did, however, find Annanias Johnson. Johnson was born into slavery sometime between 1850 

and 1860 and had spent his entire life working in the fields at Wakefield. Hough hired him to tend the 

Monument’s tobacco crop in March 1933. Although elderly and in declining health, Johnson offered 

expertise in tobacco cultivation and a tangible link to what Hough considered a noble antebellum south: 

Tobacco seed beds were prepared and sown by the venerable Annanias Johnson. The old fellow, 

now 82 years old, is failing rapidly. It is doubtful that he can carry on alone this year in caring 

for the tobacco patch, since his eyesight has become so poor he cannot be trusted. It will be a 

sorry day when he passes. Annanias is the last Wakefield slave alive and is a darkey of the old 

school who can never be replaced. When he goes, his type will be only a memory in this section. 

Many is the picture that has been snapped of him by our visitors as he worked in his tobacco 

patch, and we have had people say that they appreciated him more than anything else we had on 

the place. This is true of visitors from the deep south especially. Wakefield owes him a living as 

much as anyone owes anything to anybody. He has worked all of his 82 years on the place and 

he has often said, “I’se done sweat on every foot of Wakefield.” Even if he cannot work he is 

worth a good deal just to have him around for authentic local color and interest.46

 

44 SMR, December 1932, GEWA. 

45 SMR, March and October 1933, GEWA. Hough’s March 1934 Monthly Report sheds further light on this 

proposal. Once the Director granted Hough authority to lease the old Raymond Washington house to a tenant, 

Hough specifically sought out potential African-American renters. It is unclear why he specifically sought out 

Black tenants, though possible that—since Hough desired the tenant to operate the crop demonstration area—he 

hoped to informally interpret slave life on a colonial plantation. His plan failed when Hough discovered that no 

interested African-American tenants owned cars and so could not reach schools, stores, and churches from the 

remote site. 

46 SMR, March 1942, GEWA. 
112

Although Hough expressed great affection for Johnson, going so far as pay for his cataract surgery and a 

set of false teeth, his portrayal of Johnson as a human museum piece is unsettling. 47 Moreover, Hough’s 

inclusion of cotton at the farm—an inappropriate crop for a park attempting to maintain a distinctly 

colonial character—combined with Johnson’s presence reveals that though Hough’s crop demonstration 

area may have constituted an innovative interpretive effort, its educational message suffered from a lack 

of historical understanding and thus conveyed less about the life of George Washington than it did the 

prevailing racial attitudes of the time. 

 Hough and Johnson maintained the crop demonstration area throughout the 1930s until wartime 

financial restrictions forced Hough to cut the farm from his operational budget in April 1943.48 Johnson 

died four years later. Hough honored Johnson in his May 1947 monthly report: 

Annanias Johnson 

In memoriam 

The curtain has run down on the last act of the old way of life on the “Wakefield” farm of the 

Washingtons of Westmoreland Co., Virginia. 

“Uncle” Annanias Johnson, the last “Wakefield” slave has passed away. 

On May 15th the venerable colored man died. According to the best information he had 

underestimated his age by ten years, and was in fact about 96 years old. He was born a slave on 

“Wakefield” farm and worked its acres most of his life, remembering well the days when oxen 

were the standard source of farm power, and horses were used mostly for riding and drawing 

carriages. 

He worked for the monument from 1932 until 1940 when blindness obliged him to stop. When 

about 85 years old Annanias usually walked five miles to work on the Monument, and then 

walked home. 

The old darkey used to raise patches of tobacco, cotton, and ground peas (peanuts) near the 

entrance of the Monument where many people saw these famous old crops for the first time. 

Many were the pictures snapped of this interesting old fellow with the white hair and intense 

black skin. He was all black, and proud of it, once telling the writer that his grandfather was 

captured in the African wilds and brought to this country for sale. 

 

47 Hough enlisted Crowninshield’s assistance in both cases. Hough to Crowninshield, 4 May 1938 and Hough to 

Crowninshield, 14 May 1938, file “Mrs. F.B. Crowninshield 1935-6-7-1938,” in Ancient Box 6, GEWA. Also see 

SMR, July 1942, GEWA. 

48 SMR, April 1943, GEWA. 
113

He was the last of his kind, and there never again will be a man like him at this place. We have 

no good still pictures of Annanias Johnson, but we are fortunate to have excellent kodachrome 

movies of the old ex-slave hoeing tobacco at Washington’s Birthplace to remember him by. 

Although Hough’s “kodachrome movies” of Johnson are long lost, one need not see footage of Johnson to 

recognize that, despite the Monument’s fondness for him and Hough’s special interest in interpreting 

colonial agriculture and plantation life, the particular circumstances of Johnson’s employment at the 

Monument conveyed very clear messages about race and power to visitors and staff alike. 

Visitor Reactions and Racial Discord 

The Monument logged few visitor complaints during its first years. Many visitors expressed 

special fondness for the quiet setting and natural landscape. To some extent, historical resources 

competed with less historically significant attractions for visitor interest. The Monument had acquired 

three wild turkeys from a state game farm in 1934 that, within the year, increased to fourteen. These 

feathered attractions “proved quite interesting to visitors who have never had an opportunity to see a wild 

turkey.”49 Turkeys did not cure all ills, however. Complaints suggest that the visiting public was more 

sensitive to idiosyncrasy than the NPS had expected. Concerning the historic landscape, Hough noted 

several complaints about the Monument’s lack of large trees and farm animals and some consternation 

regarding cast iron drinking fountains and overhead electric lines across the burial ground access road. 

Visitor sensitivity to historic integrity extended into the interiors of the Memorial House and Colonial 

Kitchen. Prior to Crowninshield’s refurnishing project, visitors frequently commented on the “new” 

appearance of the furniture, especially in the dining and living rooms. Unfavorable comments most 

frequently concerned electrical outlets and switches installed throughout the house.50

Despite the now generally accepted notion that interpretive interest in the lives of slaves and other 

disenfranchised Americans emerged during the 1960s and 1970s, Hough observed as early as 1934 that 

many visitors criticized the Monument’s lack of period-correct outbuildings. He mused that “I presume 

 

49 See 1934 and 1935 Annual Wildlife Reports in unmarked file (cover missing), NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s1960s Records, GEWA. 

50 Hough mentions these complaints in Hough to Director, 28 September 1934, in file “complaints,” NPS Records 

Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 
114

that our personnel has been asked a thousand times, “Where did the slaves stay?”51 Save the possible 

exception of Annanias Johnson’s involvement with Hough’s colonial crops demonstration area, the 

Monument did not explicitly interpret slavery during the 1930s. Race relations did, however, bear on 

administrative concerns regarding visitor experience at the Birthplace. After reading a landscape report, 

for instance, Director Demaray raised the issue in a 1931 letter to Albright: 

There is another matter which should be mentioned at this time. If the recreational area is 

developed at Pope’s Creek and the Wakefield Memorial Association places their proposed 

recreational building [presumably the Log House Tea Room at Duck Hall] at this location, there 

will be need of another recreational area where colored people can go. When we were at 

Wakefield this time, we went down to the old wharf on the Potomac River beyond the burial 

ground and found colored people bathing there. I understand that more and more this area is 

being utilized by colored people. I think this situation should be frankly met by encouraging the 

colored people to go to this point and by providing tables and other picnicking facilities for 

limited use by colored people.52

Historical accounts of NPS policy regarding segregation in southeastern parks are regrettably few. What 

documentation exists for Virginia parks suggests that the Federal government generally recognized local 

laws and customs regarding segregation of public facilities. In Virginia, that would have meant 

adherence to severe Jim Crow segregation codes. 53 Although NPS historians today disagree about the 

extent of formalized planning of segregated facilities during the 1930s, Demaray’s letter to Albright 

indicates that this kind of planning did occur during the 1930s.54 In fact, in 1933 the Monument did 

construct a “comfort station” behind the residential area “for the use of such colored people as may be 

 

51 Hough to Director, 28 September 1934, file “complaints” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

52 Demaray to Albright, 6 August 1931, folder “d32 landscaping” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

53 Shenandoah National Park, where discussions concerning separate facilities began around 1936, provides another 

example of segregation in Virginia parks. See U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National 

Register of Historic Places, “Skyline Drive Historic District (Boundary Increase), Shenandoah National Park, 

Skyland, Lewis Mountain, and Big Meadows,” Robinson & Associates, Inc. in association with architrave, p.c., 

architects, Washington, DC, November 4, 2002. Section 8, pp. 57-69 provides an account of the collision between 

state segregation policy and NPS anti-segregation attitudes especially with regard to the creation and operation of 

the Lewis Mountain campground and lodge/cabin area between 1936 and 1947 in Shenandoah National park. My 

thanks to Clifford Tobias for providing these references. It is imperative that a substantial study of segregation in 

the parks be undertaken by the NPS. 

54 Another example is the October 1938 issue of The Regional Review (1:4) that includes a section titled “Negro 

Recreational Program Gains Momentum” indicating that plans for segregated facilities in Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park had been approved by the Acting Secretary of the Interior. Also mentioned are preliminary studies for 

segregated camps and day use area “on federal Recreational Demonstration lands in the West Branch Section 20 

miles southwest of Richmond”; an approved master plan including “similar facilities near” Crabtree Creek 

Recreational Demonstration Area in North Carolina; and a CCC camp in the Shelby County Negro Recreational 

Area in Memphis, Tennessee. 
115

working in that section.”55 It is unclear, however, whether this structure was planned and, if so, by 

whom—the CCC may very well have built the comfort station for its own workers. 

Hough never sought approval to furnish segregated facilities for the Monument, though the option 

was clearly available by 1938 when accusations of racism generated the most substantial visitor complaint 

filed against the Park during its first decade of operation. Sister M. Dominica of Saint Augustine’s 

Convent visited the Birthplace on June 14, 1938 with the Director of the convent’s school and a party of 

African-American children.56 Although Sister Dominica had visited Popes Creek previously and enjoyed 

her visits, events turned sour on June 14: 

I was amazed when we reached the gates yesterday and were told by the superintendent that it 

was the law that colored people should be segregated from the whites on the picnic grounds. He 

then jumped into his car and escorted us to the place he claimed that was set aside for colored. It 

was about a mile from the mansion, and if we had gone much further we should have been in the 

water. There were no tables or benches such as you would expect to find in a picnic ground or 

any other conveniences. The superintendent returned later and brought two old and dirty buckets 

of water for us to drink from, also an old dirty dipper, and trash can. He told us that if we left any 

trash he could, according to law, compel us to come back and clean it up...Then too, at the tea 

room we were told that they did not sell soft drinks or ice cream, a statement which was untrue, 

but, that we could get both at the Post Office.57

Director Cammerer issued an immediate apology to Sister Dominica and requested an explanation from 

Hough. The superintendent dismissed the complaint, accused a young member of Dominica’s tour group 

of stealing, and concluded: 

All in all, this is the most unpleasant visitation we have had in the seven summer seasons I have 

been here, —and all that happened was due to the fact that they were segregated for their lunch 

only. All I can say is that that is the way its done in Virginia. If I did wrong, I’m sorry, —but 

then again if I had let them in the regular picnic ground we would no doubt be having complaints 

from the white visitors. This matter may become a real problem. I would say off-hand that not 

more than one percent of our visitors are colored, and it does not seems justifiable to maintain a 

special picnic ground for them, and if we did we would soon be swamped with colored people. 

That kind of news travels fast.58

 

55 SMR, May 1933, GEWA. 

56 Although the official NPS report does not specify, it is likely that Dominica belonged to the convent of the Saint 

Augustine Roman Catholic Church, a historically African-American church in Washington, D.C. 57 Dominica to Cammerer, 15 June 1938, folder A3615 in file “1950s reading file” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, 

GEWA. 

58 Hough to Cammerer, 16 June 1938, “1950s reading file,” folder A3615, NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 
116

These last two sentences make the issue clear. Regardless of how events actually unfolded on 

June 14, it is evident that Hough’s own racial attitudes curtailed any hopes for an inclusive visitor policy 

at Washington’s Birthplace: 

I fully realize that this place is open to all people, under definite regulations. We have never 

drawn any line except in the matter of their eating. We do not ignore colored visitors. We 

answer their questions civilly and try to give them the essential information about the place, --but 

we do not go out of our way to encourage them to come here. 

Hough received barely a slap on the wrist for this incident. Cammerer responded to Hough’s account 

with nary a word of reprimand, instead writing, “at Fort Pulaski National monument and other areas we 

have separate comfort stations for colored people...If you make arrangements as above outlined, I think 

you will have no further trouble.”59 Cammerer’s letter evidently convinced Hough that segregated 

facilities would eliminate problems like that arising amid the Dominica complaint and, consequently, the 

1939 master plan identifies a proposed “picnic area” between the Bridges Creek landing turnaround and 

the pond adjacent to the Henry Brooks site to accommodate segregated facilities.60 However, there is no 

evidence that suggests the Monument ever formally maintained segregated facilities. 

Visitor Fees 

 The vast majority of visitor complaints during this period concerned visitor entry fees.61 In spring 

1939, Secretary of the Interior Ickes approved an amendment to Title 36 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations to require that NPS sites—including Washington’s Birthplace—collect an admission fee of 

ten cents for adult visitors. The Park first collected fees on April 28 during Virginia Garden Week and 

escaped immediate protest because, in Hough’s words, “they [the visitors] were the type expecting to pay 

 

59 Cammerer to Hough, 20 June 1938, “1950s reading file,” folder A3615, NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

Cammerer to Hough, 20 June 1938, file “A 3615 Complaints about service and personnel” in NPS Records Box 9 of 

25, GEWA. Apparently Kings Mountain National Military Park encountered similar difficulties at roughly the same 

time as GEWA. See Acting Regional Landscape Architect K.A. Tapscott to Colonial National Historical Park 

Resident Landscape Architect R. A. Wilhelm, 16 July 1938, folder “master plan d1815” in NPS Records Box 8 of 

25, GEWA. 

60 See Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.86. 61 The NPS experimented with entrance fees at numerous parks throughout its first decades. For a thorough 

discussion of the significance of fees and their role in financing the parks, see Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 

619-38. 
117

anyway.”62 By the third day, however, the Monument began receiving complaints, some coming from 

“some of the best friends of Wakefield residing in our section.” Hough recognized that complaints 

regarding entrance fees had become intertwined with the sign crisis. He described the situation to the 

regional Director in a 1939 memo: “Some people are not interested in seeing the place after they read this 

sign, and they would be wanting their money back—which would lead to many difficulties. I think it is 

only fair to let people read this sign before they decide to pay an admission charge.”63 

The Regional Director did not approve Hough’s request in time, though, to avoid outcry from the 

WNMA. Amid a flurry of letters regarding the sign crisis, the WNMA resolved to officially protest the 

admission fee and contacted Representative Bland who wrote directly to Secretary Ickes. The situation 

worsened when the Washington Post mistakenly announced that a fee of twenty-five cents would be 

collected.64 Charles Hoppin joined the fray and bombarded Ickes as well as Kenneth Chorley with fee 

protests. Ickes shrugged off the protests emphasizing the Department of the Interior’s legal right to 

impose fees and urging the opposition to be patient until it could be ascertained what effect fees would 

have on visitation. Hough erected a temporary fee collection booth and gates across the entrance to the 

Memorial House lawn and, in a reluctant acceptance of defeat, the WNMA “decided to drop the matter 

until the next administration.”65

After a month of fee collection, it appeared that the policy had no impact on attendance figures. 

Moreover, the superintendent reported that the vast majority of visitors paid the fee without comment and 

that only a very small portion did so under protest. Still, Hough considered that small number enough to 

constitute a problem and wondered if increasing the number of items available for purchase at the 

Monument would not provide a better solution to the problem of revenue generation.66 Collecting fees 

 

62 SMR, April 1939, GEWA. 

63 Hough to Tillotson, 1 April 1939, in folder “master plan d1815” in NPS Records Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 

64 SMR, April 1939, GEWA. 

65 See “Minutes of the Wakefield National Memorial Association (Northern Neck Branch),” 24 April 1939 and 26 

April 1940, in Wakefield National Memorial Association Records, 1923-1985, Series III, Secretary’s Files, 

Unprocessed Material, Box 18 of 37, GEWA; Ickes to Bland, 14 June 1939, (Box 76), Records of the National Park 

Service NE Region, Central Classified Files, 1936-1952, RG 79, NACP; and SMR, April 1939, GEWA. 

66 SMR, May 1939, GEWA. 
118

also created strains on an already meager staff who could not afford to devote a ranger to fee collection 

duties. Still, the Monument continued to collect fees until 1949 when NPS policy permitted a suspension 

of the fee requirement. Hough sighed a breath of relief in his September 1949 monthly report and noted 

“many expressions of appreciation have been received from the public since this change in policy.”67

The problem of visitation fees reveals the significance of visitor concerns to Hough and his staff 

during the Monument’s first decade of operation. Hough understood that, for his park to be successful, it 

would have to speak to and accommodate a diverse visitor demographic. Just as he recognized public 

disinterest in fees, the superintendent also knew only too well that thoughtful visitors sniffed out 

idiosyncrasy at every turn. Louise Crowninshield’s arrival at Popes Creek went a long way toward 

diverting visitor attention away from the inconsistencies spawned by early furnishing efforts. Hough’s 

experiments with an early living farm also sought to divert visitor attention away from interpretive gaps in 

the commemorative landscape. In Hough’s farm concept, however, we witness the unfortunately reality 

of early twentieth-century race relations. The stories of Annanias Johnson and Sister Dominica make 

clear that Hough’s desire to accommodate a diverse public had its limits. In following years, massive 

socioeconomic changes in this country resulting from our involvement in World War II, would only 

increase the diversity of park visitors and create new challenges for Hough and his staff.

 

67 SMR, September 1949, GEWA. 
CHAPTER 5 

The Impact and Aftermath of World War II, 1940-1955 

World War II marked the beginning of a turning point in the history of Washington’s Birthplace. 

By the late 1930s, Superintendent Hough had lost some ground in his battles for land acquisition and 

building construction, but he had also demonstrated savvy for negotiating the bureaucratic tangle of NPS, 

governmental, and community stakeholders. Hough’s ability to balance those interests while maintaining 

the Monument’s physical infrastructure and seeking new interpretive directions rested on his ongoing 

effort to secure funding and labor sources when and where available. Doing so, however, become 

increasingly challenging with the advent of tensions in Europe during the late 1930s and the United 

State’s entry into that conflict during the next decade. World War II created hard times throughout the 

NPS. Congress halved park appropriations just as overall visitation peaked at nearly twenty-one million 

in 1941.1

 Newton Drury became Director in 1940, only a year before U.S. deployment abroad. Drury 

fought diligently, and largely successfully, to protect NPS resources from military acquisition. This battle 

for self preservation, however, exerted extreme pressures on small parks like Washington’s Birthplace 

which rarely had more than three permanent staff members.2

 That battle also exerted extreme pressures on an aging superintendent. Throughout the 1940s, 

Hough worked vigorously to keep the Monument afloat while lecturing throughout the community in 

support of the NPS’s work at Wakefield.3

 Although the superintendent underwent major surgery in 1942 

for treatment of various gall bladder, appendix, and stomach problems, he nonetheless remained a 

remarkable physical presence in and around the Monument.4

 Hough also took great pains to remain in 

 

1

 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 447. 2

 Regarding Drury’s commitment to preservation, see George B. Hartzog, Jr., Battling for the National Parks (Mt. 

Kisco, NY: Moyer Bell Limited, 1988), p. 81. U.S. entry into World War II translated, for the NPS, into a reduction 

of appropriations from $21 million in 1940 to $5 million in 1943 a nearly fifty-percent reduction in full-time 

employees, and reductions in overall visitation from 21 million in 1941 to six million in 1942. Moreover, NPS 

headquarters were banished to a Chicago warehouse until 1947 so as to free from in Washington for war-related 

government operations. Mackintosh, The National Parks, p. 47. 3

 See Superintendent’s 1940 Annual Report for example of Hough’s annual speaking schedule. 

4

 A telling report indicates that “the memorandum regarding physical labor by superintendents was late in this case 

as his hands were already hardened from much axe work in clearing up our trails and picnic grounds.” SMR, March 

1943, GEWA. 
120

touch with former employees deployed overseas. Monthly reports during these years include frequent 

reference to the various wartime travels of men once employed at the Park.5

 Though the rigors of 

maintaining the Monument certainly took their toll on Hough, only during his last years did the 

superintendent express real pessimism regarding the state of operations at Washington’s Birthplace. 

During the summer of 1952, an exasperated Hough quipped, “all hands were more than busy, this time 

especially the superintendent, who just could not run the area and keep up with the demands for extra 

paperwork.”6

 After two decades as superintendent of the George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument, Hough died of a sudden heart attack just days before Christmas Day 1953. 

Visitors and Visitation during the War Years 

 Hough witnessed dramatic changes during his last years at Washington’s Monument stemming 

primarily from U.S. involvement in World War II, which literally changed the face of the average visitor 

during the 1940s. Soldiers flocked to the Monument as early as August 1941and Hough believed that 

“such visits will inspire patriotism among the men of our armed forces. (Image 38)” 7 His remark 

reflected wider sentiment concerning the appropriate role of museums during wartime. Prior to the war, 

American museum professionals debated the propriety of using historic sites as tools for expressing and 

instilling patriotism. On one hand, what better venue than the museum to declare the virtues of American 

patriotism? On the other hand, the totalitarian regimes of Europe used museums precisely to forward 

nationalist ideology. Wartime cutbacks, however, encouraged superintendents and others to couch 

requests for funding in patriotic terms. The American Association of Museums, for example, declared 

their intent to “fortify the spirit on which Victory depends” in 1941 and Colonial Williamsburg offered its 

services as a site for military wartime orientation.8

In his 1940 annual report, Hough registered an official “expression of regret over the turn of 

world affairs...since this monument has always enjoyed wide international patronage” and hoped “to 

 

5

 Correspondence with men abroad brought the front home as when former ranger-historian Paul Dewitt sent a 

“bashed-in” German helmet back from Europe. SMR, September 1945, GEWA. 

6

 SMR, July 1952, GEWA. 

7

 SMR, August 1941, GEWA. 

8

 Patricia West, Domesticating History, p. 134. 
121

preserve the peacefulness of this spot, making it a place to forget the trouble of the world and where one 

may reflect upon the past in a scene of natural beauty.”9

 Decline in travel to the Monument, however, 

was not limited to international visitors. Approximately 60,000 visitors traveled to the Monument in 

1940. By the end of 1941, with increased taxes resulting from defense buildup and the regulation of 

gasoline sales, overall visitation dropped to nearly 15,000.10 Tire rationing and additional restrictions on 

unnecessary travel dropped visitation to roughly 8,000 in 1942.11 As Hough anticipated, formal entry into 

war marked significant reductions in visitation and forced would-be visitors to adapt accordingly: “One 

unusual trend in travel, and which may be developed, was the appearance of visitors on bicycles. Two 

such parties came in March, one a school group of seven boys from Connecticut.”12

The war colored relations between staff and visitors. In April 1942, for instance, a group of 

students visiting from Venezuela, Cuba, Colombia, and Spain made for a somewhat tense situation as 

they, according to Hough, “made it evident that they were of pre-Axis [sic, presumably “pro”] 

sympathies” although “none of our men entered into any argument with them.”13 A significant portion of 

visitors during this period included military personnel. In September 1942, two units of the 757th Tank 

Battalion from Camp A.P. Hill paid their respects to Washington’s Birthplace. Wakefield, being roughly 

seventy-five miles south of the camp, offered a perfect destination for the men charged with breaking in 

military vehicles requiring 150 miles of road time before deployment abroad.14 

By October 1943, perhaps in reaction to Allied victories in Italy and Russia, visitation increased 

for the first time since U.S. entry into the war.15 By spring 1945, Allied victory appeared secure and, 

along with promises of increased gasoline reserves in the near future, boosted visitation—almost 

quadrupling overnight. As hostilities waned, the Park hosted increasing numbers of servicemen returning 

from combat. By August 1945, Popes Creek began “to receive numbers of returned men—some ex 

 

9

 SAR, 1940, GEWA. 

10 SMR, October 1941, GEWA. 

11 SMR, December 1941, GEWA. 

12 SMR, March 1942, GEWA. 

13 SMR, April 1942, GEWA. 

14 SMR, September 1942, GEWA. 

15 SMR, October 1943, GEWA. 
122

prisoners of war from Germany. We do nothing to encourage them to talk about it but some men seem to 

want to tell you, so we listen with sympathy.”16 Visitation doubled once again with the end of gasoline 

rationing and the official end of hostilities in Europe and the Pacific, needless to say, spurred an 

“immediate jump” in park visitation bringing about 40,000 visitors to the Monument by the end of 1946.17 

The War and Understaffing 

 As the war altered visitation trends, it decimated hopes for an improved labor situation. All parks 

suffered from the abandonment of CCC camps beginning in 1942. Moreover, military services drew 

employees out of NPS service and though the NPS did what it could with who it could find, full-time 

employment dropped over fifty percent throughout the parks by 1943.18 Hough’s concerns regarding 

understaffing worsened on the eve of World War II as it became apparent that the CCC would not live up 

to its promises of assistance. CCC labor from Camp SP-19 stationed at Westmoreland State Park 

provided assistance with various construction, clean up, and archeological work throughout the 1930s. In 

1940, Hough secured “some necessary development achieved through splendid cooperation of [the] 

CCC” that year.19 Future collaboration looked promising. As of June 1941, the CCC indicated that it 

would assist with the construction of two buildings—a ranger quarters and a temporary museum 

building—and would provide an archeological foreman for various research.20 Hough was especially 

enthused about the latter given his desire to launch a serious long-term archeological investigation to end 

controversy surrounding the Building X foundations. The CCC seems to have promised more than it 

could deliver, though, and a disappointed Hough reported, “we have materials on hand purchased in 

December for CCC work which are now spoiling for lack of use.” 21 If labor relief was to be found, the 

 

16 SMR, August 1945, GEWA. 

17 SMR, May and August 1945, GEWA. 

18 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 448. 

19 SAR, 1940, GEWA. 

20 SMR, June 1941, GEWA. Although the NPS generally provided its own researchers for these types of projects 

during this period, it evidently benefited from the work of non-NPS staff as when historian David Rodnick—a 

senior foreman at CCC Camp SP-19—arrived on behalf of the CCC to perform research that would ultimately 

rekindle the Building X controversy. 

21 SMR, April 1941, GEWA. 
123

CCC could not be relied on to provide it. In this specific case, with regard to the spoiled materials, 

relying on the NPS could prove detrimental in the long run. 

The situation worsened with war. In December 1941, immediately following the Japanese attack 

on Pearl Harbor, Monument staff began serving watch at the air observation post in Morris’ Store. They 

devoted one night per week, from 9 pm to 7 am, to watching for attempted air raids on Washington, DC. 

Despite Hough’s willingness to support the effort, he recognized that “it leaves the men really unfit for 

work the next day.”22 Rapid enlistment following Pearl Harbor made matters worse. A valued park farm 

hand departed for service in April 1941 and the Monument’s only full-time ranger assigned to public 

contact responsibilities enlisted in the Navy that December.23 Military buildup at home also drew labor 

away from the Monument. As of January 1942, Dahlgren naval base paid new employees $3.80 (about 

$43 today) per day with the possibility of promotion every six months. The NPS simply could not 

compete with these wages and so the Monument lost one temporary laborer to Dahlgren that January and 

by February other temporary laborers began asking for raises that Hough could not provide. In October 

1943, Hough lamented the loss of his best part time laborer who left abruptly and without notice.24

By the spring of 1944, Hough determined that he could not continue the Monument’s agricultural 

program without an adequate labor force.25 Inability to continue farm operations must have devastated 

Hough who was very fond of the project and also considered it his primary means to shift visitor focus 

away from the controversial Memorial House. The superintendent sought assistance from the throngs of 

returning veterans but discovered that “those approached seem to have no intention of working this 

summer. In a way, we do not blame them, since those who have seen fighting service deserve a rest and 

should have it.”26 Hough hoped to promote temporary laborer Mackenzie Jackson to the permanent 

gardener position but doing so required hiring an additional laborer. Although the war had ended, 

 

22 SMR, December 1941, GEWA. 

23 SMR, December and March 1941, GEWA. 

24Modern equivalencies for wage figures are based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index 

statistics from 1800 to 2003. SMR, January 1942, February 1942, and October 1943, GEWA. 

25 SMR, March 1944, GEWA. 

26 SMR, May 1945, GEWA. 
124

Dahlgren continued to draw labor away from the Park.27 Hough did eventually promote Jackson, though 

without finding a replacement. Given Dahlgren’s post-war $1.19 (about $8.45) hourly wage, Hough 

could not foresee securing extra help anytime soon.28

Wartime shortages also took a toll on the Monument’s physical infrastructure. By war’s end, 

heating systems barely operated and all automotive equipment required serious maintenance. Staff 

housing, already substandard prior to the war, remained egregiously insufficient.29 A severe ice storm in 

early 1945 had washed out the old ice pond damn—the Park’s only source of water for fighting fires—

and scattered fallen tree limbs across the Monument thus razing fire hazard. Most visibly, the cedar grove 

and picnic grounds had grown over with weeds and wooded areas remained littered with deadfall. Trails 

and paths throughout the Park had grown “mostly unrecognizable” and practically useless.30 To make 

matters worse, Japanese beetles continued to plague the Park and surrounding community. In 1946, 

Hough estimated necessary repairs ranging from $12,000 to $15,000 (about $113,000 to $142,000 

today)—a far cry from scant appropriations made by the NPS that year.31

Community Relations 

 Dahlgren Naval Proving Grounds made the realities of war even more real at Washington’s 

Birthplace. About ten miles north of Wakefield, Dahlgren buzzed with activity during World War II and, 

by May 1942, literally jolted the Monument with regular ordnance volleys. Hough described a typical 

scene: 

Early in May a great many explosive shells were shot into the Potomac River from Dahlgren 

Naval proving grounds. On a number of days quite a show could be seen from the shore near the 

mouth of Bridges Creek, with some shells exploding under the surface which sent up great 

geysers of water—others exploded above the surface, sending countless fragments churning into 

the river for hundreds of feet around. This shooting killed a great quantity of fish. Following one 

 

27 SMR, September 1951, GEWA. 

28 SMR, October 1951, GEWA. 

29 The staff frequently blamed ill health on poor facilities as in Hough’s January 1942 Monthly Report: 

“Considerable sickness among our personnel has caused more sick leave taking than in any year heretofore. The 

reasons for this we think is the inefficient oil heating system in stalled by the CCC in the office building. We 

propose to remedy this by installing an old fashioned but effective wood burning stove.” 

30 SAR, 1946, GEWA. 

31 The entirety of the above is drawn from Hough’s 1946 annual report. This figure is a rough estimate based on 

adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 
125

northeast wind after a bombardment, the dead fish littered our shores with one or more carcasses 

for every lineal foot of beach front. Hardheads, perch, flounders and eels made up the bulk of the 

dead fish. While nothing can be done in this connection—since our national safety must come 

first—it is regrettable.32

The Navy erected a range station at the Monument’s Potomac River beachfront in November 1940 with 

plans drawn in conjunction with the Regional Office. Dahlgren staff, engaged in the testing of 

experimental munitions, measured flight trajectories from this station and reported the bearings by way of 

radio telephone. When artillery fire from Camp A.P. Hill—twenty miles west of Wakefield—

accompanied the Dahlgren tests, Monument staff must have felt surrounded.33

Curiosity accompanied fear as odd military-related sightings periodically broke the monotony of 

low visitation during the war years. On June 1, 1943, for example, a military aircraft circled the Park 

making “a thorough inspection of our mansion grounds” and, at one point, attempted to land on Route 

204 until turned away by an approaching school bus.34 Rumors that Dahlgren was looking for a remote 

site to test bombs sent a nervous park neighbor, Lawrence Latane, to visit Dahlgren authorities where he 

learned that although the Navy had considered taking over the Haywood farm for this purpose, its 

proximity to Wakefield ruled out the idea.35 An even more frightening incident occurred in September 

1944 when a “queer contrivance” washed up along the Monument’s shoreline. Hough contacted 

Dahlgren whose officials warned him not to approach the object given that testing included some “mighty 

dangerous stuff these days.” The unidentified object remained on the beach for six days until retrieved by 

Dahlgren troops. Not until after the war did Hough and his staff learn that Dahlgren had been engaged in 

tests of radio controlled bomb fuses. 36 

 To some extent, the Dahlgren problem brought the Park together with the surrounding 

community. An unfortunate combination of weather conditions and misfires from Dahlgren naval base 

 

32 SMR, May 1942, GEWA. 

33 SMR, November 1940 and September 1942, GEWA. 

34 SMR, June 1943, GEWA. In his October 1943 monthly report, Hough noted that “the black squares atop the 

sealed chimneys of the mansion were repainted against a possible aerial photograph which would render an odd 

appearance for the structure.” 

35 SMR, May 1943, GEWA. 

36 SMR, September 1944 and September 1945, GEWA. 
126

made the 1940s perhaps the most fire-prone decade in Popes Creek history. Given their distance from the 

nearest fire fighting facilities in Oak Grove, Virginia, residents of the Northern Neck frequently joined 

together to fight fires on neighboring farms. In September 1941, Hough deployed his firefighting gear for 

the first time in ten years to help extinguish a four-acre grass and bush fire on lands owned by Harry and 

Robert Muse.37 The first fire of any consequence on park property broke out in February 1942 when, for 

reasons unknown, four straw stacks ignited immediately adjacent to the west corner of the utility area 

damaging five panels of rail fence in the process. Several fires threatened the Park’s boundaries during 

April 1942, at one point traveling six miles in three hours and jumping across a half-mile-wide ploughed 

field. Lightning seriously damaged a utility building in August 1942, ruining tools, electrical fittings, and 

burning a hole through a water tank.38

 Most striking were incidents related to the testing of munitions at Dahlgren naval base. Hough’s 

full account of one such incident in early 1943 demonstrates the hazards presented by the naval base: 

On February 18 we all turned out to suppress a fire started in the marsh on the Harry Muse 

property in front of the mansion, caused by sparks falling from a naval parachute flare. These 

parachute flares are dropped every day when there is blue sky and are beautiful to behold. A B25 bomber makes runs over the river releasing usually four of these flares spaced a thousand 

yards or so apart. They burn about 3.5 minutes suspended by a 12-foot silk parachutes which 

drift off and usually sink in the river. There will be about 8 runs and we see 30 to 40 beautiful 

parachutes destroyed daily. Two have been salvaged on or near the monument (Image 39). 

Perhaps 5% of the flares are defective. Some do not open the chute and a blazing mass plunges 

into the river. If they hit on land they would indeed be like heavy fire bombs. Occasionally as on 

Feb. 18 the aviators are in error on their air currents and the flares drift inland. I picked up the 

cinders of the spark that set fire to the marsh. It had a strong smell of phosphorous. The fire was 

held to about 4 acres as all neighbors turned out at once and a vigorous band they were. A fresh 

wind was blowing and had the flames reached woodland anything could have happened.39

A similar incident occurred in October 1943 when naval flares set fire in two places on the Harry Muse 

farm though he stopped the blaze without assistance from park staff.40 Westmoreland County 

experienced its worst fire since 1900 in December 1943 when about two thousand acres burned west of 

 

37 SMR, September 1941, GEWA. 

38 SMR, February, April, and August 1942, GEWA. 

39 SMR, February 1943, GEWA. 

40 SMR, October 1943, GEWA. 
127

and, fortunately, at some distance from the monument.41 In addition to any improved neighbor relations 

collaborative fire fighting may have encouraged, the fire epidemic of the 1940s also spurred a concerted 

effort to modernize firefighting equipment at the Monument. With renewed funding following war’s end, 

Hough received from Petersburg National Military Park42 a GMC 1.5-ton pump truck capable of holding 

three hundred gallons of water that “relieves a considerable anxiety in these parts.”43 Within a year, the 

Park also began cooperating with the newly organized Westmoreland Country Fire Department. So 

began the Monument’s long tradition of maintaining excellent safety resources and preparedness.44

Post-War Recovery 

The end of World War II certainly relieved tensions at the Monument, but it did not alleviate all 

problems. In fact, the immediate post-war years created new problems throughout the Park system. 

While appropriations remained modest—given pressing war debts—visitation spiked. In 1946, the 

system welcomed nearly twenty two million visitors.45 The return of busses heralded this boom at the 

Monument. Thirty busses full of school children visited the Monument in May 1947. Greyhound 

resumed bus services to Wakefield from both Richmond and Washington in 1946 and indicated its 

interest in creating a permanent shuttle bus.46 The Monument also regained local interest, especially after 

the NPS stopped collecting admission fees on September 10, 1949. Hough referred to this action as 

“unquestionably...the best thing the National Park Service has done for the people here in the past ten 

years” and noted a resulting twenty-percent increase in visitation.47 By the early 1950s park visitation 

stabilized at a level that persisted for a decade. While annual visitation during the 1930s averaged 50,000 

people, it jumped to around 70,000 during the 1950s. 

Still, sustaining visitation increases proved difficult after the war. Hough attributed post-war 

visitation flux to “the increased cost of living which is so apparent to all of us, and to the general 

 

41 SMR, December 1943, GEWA. 

42 Designated Petersburg National Battlefield in 1962. 

43 See January 1947 SMR and 1947 SAR, GEWA. 

44 SMR, March 1948, GEWA. 

45 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 455. 46 SMR, January 1946 and May 1947, GEWA. 

47 See 1950 SAR and SMR, September 1949, GEWA. 
128

apprehension caused by the uncertainty of the future, due to the worldwide unrest.”48 Visitors also 

complained about the lack of directional signs along Route 3. In January 1946, a committee of county 

citizens proposed the erection of a sign at the corner of Routes 301 and 3 to direct tourists toward 

Wakefield and Robert E. Lee’s family home at nearby Stratford. This effort grew in opposition to “the 

damaging effects of the Route 17 and Williamsburg signs which seek to swell their patronage at our 

expense.”49 The travel situation had not, however, improved by 1951. Hough reiterated his complaints in 

March of that year noting that “from our constant contact with the traveling public and listening to the 

frequent complaints as to the lack of directional information along the highways, our visitation can be 

quadrupled...[if] good signs are provided.”50 Not until 1953 did the Commonwealth launch a serious sign 

program. In that year, the Historyland Highway Association convinced the Virginia highway department 

to advertise Route 3 as the Historyland Highway so as to “relieve pressure on the main north south 

highways numbered 1 and 301.” Virginia committed $36,000 (about $250,000 today) to the construction 

of new signs. Although Hough spoke before the Virginia Highway Commission in support of the 

proposal, he would not live to see the new signs.51

Neither did the end of World War II put a stop to Hough’s understaffing problem. Although, the 

February 1946 transfer of S.M. Miller from the Blue Knob Recreation Demonstration Area to fill the 

clerk position provided some relief, NPS-wide policy concerns contributed further to understaffing 

woes.52 Regulations limiting the workweek to five and a half days went into effect in July 1946 and 

created a difficult situation at the Birthplace. At no time could the Monument’s three permanent 

employees be simultaneously present on any one day of the week. This change held especially dire 

implications for grounds maintenance. Keeping up appearances at Wakefield meant taking care of 

twenty-seven acres of lawn and two gardens. One man working only five days a week proved terribly 

 

48 SMR, November 1947, GEWA. 

49 SMR, January 1946, GEWA. 

50 SMR, March 1951, GEWA. 

51 This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics 

from 1800 to 2003. SMR, May 1953, GEWA. 

52 SMR, February 1946, GEWA. 
129

inadequate for this task. Hough complained that “at Mount Vernon they use twelve men for 

approximately the same area of grounds and gardens.”53

Hough looked to Monument neighbors, especially the Latane family, for temporary solutions to 

labor shortages. In 1946, for example, the Park arranged with the Latanes “to load, haul, and stack our 

hay on a share and share basis.” Additionally, the Monument leased all of its arable land to the Latanes 

beginning in 1948 keeping only the fields abutting either side of the approach along Route 204. When 

NPS fences deteriorated beyond maintenance in 1949 and the Park could not afford to hire laborers, the 

Latanes contributed their own time and effort to the project. Hough also arranged to pay the Latanes to 

bale hay in the field rather than cutting it for storage on park property. Doing so made up in labor time 

and storage space the $28 necessary to produce 206 bales from four acres.54

Nonetheless, Hough confessed in 1948 that despite doing well for the year, “it is behind the 

scenes that our lack of means to properly protect and maintain show up sharply...[due to] operating in the 

face of increased use with approximately half of the necessary forces.” Hough pursued a variety of 

actions to lesson the blow including eliminating three horses and twenty six sheep, leasing all of the 

Park’s remaining farm land to the Latane family (save two small stretches along the approach road), and 

moving accounts handling to Fredericksburg National Military Park to simplify office work in lieu of a 

permanent clerk.55 The situation was so bad that, in 1950, absolutely no outside labor could be found to 

perform desperately needed repairs to the Rockefeller Horse Barn and post office. Ranger Joseph 

Vaughn, acting as superintendent while Hough was absent on sick leave, put ranger Carl Flemer (noted 

for his carpentry skills) in charge of the project adding that “any...employees who will have occasion to 

lend a hand on the barn will be under your supervision.”56 A second NPS-wide policy made the prospects 

of increasing the grounds force all but impossible. Following a reappraisal of staff quarters in August 

 

53 SMR, July 1946 and March 1948, GEWA. 

54 SMR, August 1946 (submitted by Acting Superintendent S.M. Miller), February 1948, March 1948, January 

1949, and August 1951, GEWA. $28 is equal to approximately $200 today based on adjustments for inflation 

according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 55 SAR, 1948, GEWA. 

56 See Regional Director to Hough, 14 June 1950; Vaughn to staff, 6 October 1950; and Vaughn to Flemer, 6 

October 1950 in file “D34 Barn,” NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 
130

1952, the NPS issued a system-wide rent increase. The superintendent remarked, “this is going to be a 

body blow to all concerned since it is exactly the same thing as a cut in wages.”57

 More visitors also meant increased security concerns throughout the Park system and vandalism 

became a serious problem at big parks including Yellowstone as well as small parks like the Birthplace.58 

Hough called for the addition of two permanent laborers in 1947 solely for “protection and maintenance 

of property” and hoped to refill the night watchman position that had remained vacant during the course 

of the war.59 He also worried about the rekindling of tensions surrounding fishing rights along the 

Potomac River. In 1947, the Maryland legislature dissolved the Mount Vernon Pact of 1786 thereby 

asserting full control of the Potomac River including those portions previously controlled by Virginia. 

The inevitable “oyster war” Hough anticipated gave him cause for concern because similar problems in 

the past had “and may again result in killings on the river.”60

 Unusually heightened security concerns continued throughout the late 1940s and 50s. Beyond a 

relatively insignificant collision between a car and the curb surrounding the granite obelisk on Christmas 

night 1948, a more disconcerting bout of vandalism began in June 1950.61 On June 19th of that year, a 

staff member noticed that someone had attempted to remove the burial ground vault lid. Had this been an 

isolated case it may have elicited little reaction but a repeated attempt that October raised curiosity. An 

additional incident occurred at the burial ground on January 12, 1951, when someone scratched the letters 

“TW” on the vault cover.62 Neither the perpetrators nor their motives were ever determined though the 

series of events made clearer than ever the need for a night watchman and additional park security. 

Illegal duck hunting also presented difficulties by the early 1950s and without patrolmen, the 

Monument remained unable to enforce game laws. On one occasion the Fish and Wildlife Service 

stepped in and apprehend a number of violators by seaplane. Arrests were made, but Hough could not 

 

57 SMR, August 1952, GEWA. 

58 Ise discusses the problem of vandalism in Our National Park Policy, p. 456. 

59 SAR, 1947, GEWA. 

60 Ibid. 

61 SMR, November 1948, GEWA. 

62 SMR, June and October 1950 and January 1951, GEWA. 
131

rely upon this kind of intervention with any regularity.63 The strangest security “threat” arose after staff 

received reports from visitors of an “animal reported looking like a monkey [that] was very lean and 

carried a 2-foot tail coiled like a clock spring. The head and face was described as flat and catlike. Color 

was brown.”64 Human trespassers presented the most serious threat. In August 1953 vandals struck 

Washington’s Birthplace once again. Intruders entered the Log House one night late that month and 

attempted to steal a deer trophy. The vandals could not fit the trophy’s antlers through the building’s 

small windows, so they absconded instead with a small lamp. Hough, unable to investigate on his own, 

contacted the FBI regarding the situation though apparently no formal investigation ensued.65

New Hopes for the Log House Tea Room 

 Hough’s inability to guarantee protection of the Log House and its property suggests that the 

WNMA’s presence at Pope’s Creek still strained already slim Monument resources. Indeed, no aspect of 

operations at Washington’s Birthplace suffered more during the war than the WNMA’s Log House Tea 

Room. Mason’s resignation in 1940 left the NPS and the WNMA in a quandary concerning the fate of 

the none-too-successful business. Hough visited Washington, DC in January 1941 to discuss the matter 

and received word during a later trip to Washington that plans were underway to incorporate a 

government-run operation dedicated solely to the operations of NPS concessions.66 Hough understood 

this to mean “that it will be some time before our hospice can be reopened.” In the meantime, the 

WNMA met with Crowninshield and Director Drury and requested that the NPS grant them rights to the 

operation. Hough’s reports indicate that a prospective operator had been selected in May 1941 though, 

having determined it too late in that season to make a go of the business, made no headway with the 

operation.67

The building remained unused during this period of indecision and, consequently, fell into ill 

repair. Not having adequate funds to repair the structure and faced with the realities of war, the WNMA 

 

63 SMR, January and February 1951, GEWA. 

64 SMR, July 1952, GEWA. 

65 SMR, August 1953, GEWA. 

66 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 356. 67 SMR, January, February, April, and May 1941, GEWA. 
132

decided to table the issue until 1942 when resources might be generated to perform necessary repairs. A 

year was not enough, however, and in March 1942 Crowninshield explained to Director Drury that the 

WNMA would not be able to keep the operation afloat and that “most of the members are against giving 

the things to the Government. They still resent the sign, the doubt on the site [Building X controversy], 

and proposed evacuation but I might be able to swing them.”68 Crowninshield’s reference to “giving the 

things to the government” refers to the WNMA’s concern regarding the fate of the furniture, cooking 

equipment, and various furnishings purchased with WNMA funds for the Log House. Her mention of 

resentment surrounding “the sign” and “doubt on the site” reveal that the Log House issue had become 

intertwined with suspicion of NPS intent to discredit the WNMA’s role at Wakefield. Drury responded to 

“confirm the understanding that no effort will be made to open the Log House Tea Room for business 

during the war, that the Association will be responsible for the maintenance and protection of the 

equipment until a decision has been reached as to its future, and that the proposal to donate the equipment 

will be held in abeyance until there is some prospect of finding a satisfactory operator.”69 The Log House 

remained boarded up between 1942 and 1946. No mention of it appears in either NPS or WNMA records 

from those years. 

Crowninshield’s reference to a “proposed evacuation” also indicates that the WNMA had known 

about NPS plans to take over the operation as early as 1942. If that revelation caused discontent, tempers 

cooled during the war years. When the WNMA held its annual meeting in April 1946, it agreed to lease 

its equipment to the new government operators “in return for a reasonable share in the profits.”70 The 

new operator, Government Services, Inc. (GSI), set to work and though delayed by its inability to employ 

an adequate staff, sent a maintenance crew to perform necessary repairs. With repairs complete and 

having hired an operating staff from the local community, GSI reopened the Log House Tea Room on 

July 19, 1946, after nearly six years of inactivity. Hough applauded the quality of the meals and service 

 

68 Crowninshield to Drury, 27 March 1942, file “WNMA member and Meetings” in NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 

1920s-1960s Records, GEWA Archive. This file contains a variety of correspondence regarding the new charter 

and efforts to incorporate during the 1940s. 

69 Drury to Crowninshield, 12 may 1942, in Ibid. 

70 SMR, April 1946, GEWA. 
133

and considered the Park “fortunate that Government Services, Inc. are taking over as certainly no small 

operator could do as well.”71

GSI did not provide the cure-all Hough hoped for. The 1947 season marked the first year of a 

five-year contract entered into between GSI and Washington’s Birthplace. GSI hired Mr. and Mrs. 

Joseph Andrews to supervise the Log House and doors opened on July 5th.

72 The late opening—delayed 

by additional maintenance—foreshadowed more serious problems. Upon closing after only four months 

of operation, the Log House reported a loss of $1,600 (about $12,000 today) and, consequently, GSI 

terminated its contract with the Andrews family.73 This poor showing stalled GSI’s interest in doing 

business at Wakefield and Hough heard rumors just prior to the 1949 season of GSI’s plans to pull out of 

Wakefield. Hough lamented that, “it is too bad that this hospice which is as attractive as any to be found 

anywhere never has had a good operator since Mrs. Mason gave it up. Someone with “gumption” could 

make it a good thing.”74 A January 1951 letter from the Acting Director to the Regional Director 

suggesting that the Log House be ended as a concession and “put to some other use” indicates that GSI’s 

withdrawal all but ended visitor accommodations at the Log House Tea Room.75

New Directions for the WNMA 

The fate of the Log House laid heavy on the hearts of those members of the WNMA who had 

been with the organization since its beginning.76 No longer affiliated with the Log House and divested of 

its claim to the Memorial House furnishings, what role remained for the WNMA? Moreover, WNMA 

ranks had dwindled over the years. Declining membership was on everyone’s mind during the May 1947 

annual meeting. Virtually all talk centered on one issue: expanding membership. Hough understood the 

 

71 SMR, May, June, and July 1946, GEWA. Also see SMR, September 1946 and 1946 SAR, GEWA. 

72 See SMR, June and July 1947 and SAR, 1947, GEWA. 

73 See 12 June 1948 memo from Hough to the Director’s office included in SAR, 1948, GEWA. This figure is a 

rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 

74 SMR, March 1949, GEWA. 

75 See 8 January 1951 letter from the Acting Director to the Regional Director suggesting that the Log House be 

ended as a concession and put to some other use in file “D34 Barn” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

76 See file “WNMA member and Meetings” in NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA for small 

composition book containing list of dues-paying members active between 1945-57. 
134

rationale behind membership expansion as an effort “to make it [the WNMA] more representative and 

useful, by encouraging admittance of associate members.”77 

Expansion did not necessarily make the WNMA more useful, though another initiative did. The 

Monument’s chronic understaffing and the increasing vandalism raised fears concerning the well being of 

valuable artifacts on display in the Memorial House. An eighteenth-century fork and several pewter 

spoons vanished in 1948. Additional antique tableware turned up missing later that year.78 With this in 

mind, the WNMA held an annual meeting in May 1949 and resolved to “employ one of its members to be 

at the memorial buildings... for three months every day, to help protect the numerous antique furnishing 

items they have donated to the government, and which with our skeleton force we are unable to properly 

protect.”79 Hough loved the idea. Two months later, he judged the WNMA’s new role a success noting 

that theft had all but ceased and that the attendant additionally proved “an excellent person for public 

contact work.” Reports indicate that the WNMA continued this role through 1952.80

At the same time, the WNMA initiated another somewhat more controversial project. In 

February 1937, the WNMA responded to the popularity of the colonial garden by starting its own cutting 

garden behind the Monument’s maintenance barn. The garden contained 432 square feet of perennials 

and a smaller portion of annuals with some herbs. The garden produced decorative arrangements for the 

Monument and a lucrative business for the WNMA, which sold cuttings to visitors.81 Following the war, 

and bereft of income from the Log House, Crowninshield sought to develop the cutting garden. She did 

so, however, without consulting Hough. In August 1951, when Hough received notice that a greenhouse 

was on its way for delivery, he brimmed with anger. Where would he put it? Who would receive the 

 

77 SAR, 1947 and SMR, May 1947, GEWA. 

78 SMR, June and October 1948, GEWA. 

79 SMR, May 1949, GEWA. 

80 SMR, July 1949 and April 1952, GEWA. 

81 It is not clear who funded and tended to the garden though it is likely that both the WNMA and NPS contributed. 

See Hough’s February 1937 Monthly Report. Also see file “n18 plant life (not forestry)” in NPS Records Box 14 of 

25, GEWA for a 1940 schedule of rates proposed for sale of surplus plant materials including a variety of seeds, 

cuttings, roots, bulbs, seedlings, herbs, and trees. 
135

proceeds from its use? And, most importantly, who would operate and maintain the greenhouse?82 The 

regional Director, equally surprised by news of the greenhouse, urged Hough to “inquire from Mrs. 

Crowninshield just what her intentions are.” By September 1951, the Regional Office did grant the 

WNMA authority to erect the greenhouse atop the cutting garden. WNMA funds hired of two laborers to 

erect the structure that November and, by February of the following year, the greenhouse was ready for 

operation despite complications resulting from a faulty heating system (Images 40 & 41).83

 The greenhouse proved an overwhelming success and briefly reinvigorated the organization. An 

October 1952 meeting appointed a horticultural committee and income from the sale of plants prompted 

the WNMA to cease its sale of candy bars, which pleased Hough as discarded candy wrappers fueled a 

growing litter problem at the Monument (Image 42). Moreover, the WNMA resolved to bankroll all 

expenses related to operation of the facility.84 Hough acknowledged, “there is no question but that a brisk 

business in living plants...can be developed here” but worried, 

It boils down to the same old question—“who is going to do the work?” We can and do produce 

plenty of surplus plant materials incidental to our regular operations—but then someone will have 

to do the processing such as potting and packaging as well as to furnish the supplies. We hope 

this will be arranged at the October meeting of the Association here.85

The WNMA did raise the issue at its October 1952 meeting and agreed to pay the Monument’s gardener 

regular overtime for extra time devoted to the green house.86 Hough agreed to this arrangement, but after 

six months of long hours for the gardener and, consequently, the Monument’s own inability to operate 

with an already short staff, Hough contacted the Regional Director and asked for a “legal decision” in the 

 

82 Hough to Regional Director, 7 August 1951, file “D34 Green-Hot House” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

Also see SMR, August 1951, GEWA. That Crowninshield proceeded without consulting Hough points to their 

informal professional relationship. Similar informality had created problems in the past. When, for example, 

Hough decided to thin the Monument’s sheep flock—previously donated by the WNMA but cared for by park 

staff—it was not clear how or what bureaucratic procedure to initiate given that disposal of any government property 

required a variety of formal requests and applications. See file “S 1415 Sheep” in NPS Records Box 14 of 25, 

GEWA, for various correspondence regarding sheep at Wakefield. This correspondence suggests that by 1950, 

when Hough sought to dispose of some sheep, it was not clear who owned them and how to dispose of them given 

that the WNMA donated the original flock. Although this did not constitute a significant problem, it does point to 

difficulties resulting from such a close and occasionally ambiguous relationship with the WNMA. 83 Regional Director to Hough, 8 August 1951, file “D34 Green-Hot House“ in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

SMR, September 1951, November 1951, February 1952, and September 1952, GEWA. 

84 SMR, October 1952, GEWA. 

85 SMR, September 1952, GEWA. 

86 SMR, October 1952, GEWA. 
136

case. 87 Crowninshield’s bold effort to reinvigorate the WNMA and generate income was, from the Park’s 

perspective, too bold and constituted a serious draw on Monument resources. The greenhouse operation 

continued for a few years as evidenced by constant complaints in Hough’s reports concerning faulty 

equipment and WNMA requests for additional space. Records do not indicate when the operation 

officially folded. 

Complications resulting from management of the greenhouse prompted the NPS to reconsider its 

relationship with the WNMA. On January 30, 1952, Regional Chief of Concessions E.V. Buschman 

visited Wakefield and met with Hough, two representative of the WNMA, and the postmaster. The 

WNMA, until this point, had operated rather freely under the rubric of its founding legislation. In 

addition to operating the Log House and participating in the furnishing and protection of the Memorial 

House and Colonial Kitchen, the WNMA sold a variety of items including books, pamphlets, souvenirs, 

snacks, and—most recently—plants (Image 42). The addition of this final item and construction of the 

greenhouse demonstrated that the NPS exercised very little official control over what the WNMA could 

or could not do and sell at Wakefield. Hough’s informal rapport with Crowninshield may have sustained 

the Monument until that point, but regional planners recognized the possibility of future complications 

not unlike the greenhouse situation. Buschman desired to consolidate all aspects of WNMA operation 

into one manageable entity and suggested that the group sign a concession permit that would regulate all 

WNMA activities related to sales. 

The WNMA chafed at the idea citing their “authority direct from Congress to build, operate and 

maintain the Memorial House here.”88 This request, coming at a time when some members of the 

WNMA still felt wrongly evicted from the Log House, damaged any residual good feelings surrounding 

the success of the green house. Buschman’s request that the group sign a revocable concession permit 

received staunch opposition. Extant WNMA records are incomplete and unfortunately do not reveal how 

negotiations with Buschman unfolded. By April 1952, however, the WNMA conceded and agreed to 

 

87 Hough to Regional Director, 20 April 1953, file “D34 Green-Hot House” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

88 SMR, January 1952, GEWA. 
137

Buschman’s terms. The Monument received signed copies of the new concession permit in August along 

with a schedule of rates for sales of plants and souvenirs.89

Although the particulars of this agreement are unavailable, records suggest an unfortunate 

aftermath. The last mention of WNMA members serving as Memorial House attendants occurs in April 

1952. A few years later, the WNMA requested that an alarm system be installed in the Memorial House 

and Colonial Kitchen to protect unattended furnishings.90 Thus, whether in protest or due to dwindling 

membership, the WNMA retreated from the core historic area following the Buschman affair. Moreover, 

the WNMA turned its attentions to George Washington-related activities beyond the purview of the NPS. 

In 1953, for instance, the WNMA channeled its funds into a garden party and travel brochure for the 

Virginia Travel Council.91 Additionally, Crowninshield stepped down as president in 1956 and died two 

years later. 92 Having lost its leader and feeling marginalized by the NPS, the WNMA once again found 

itself in an organizational crisis not unlike that of early 1932. 

Post-War Impact on Land Policy 

 Hough found his own crisis in a reawakening of land concerns following the war. The 

superintendent had abandoned his land campaigns of the late 1930s amid the buildup of military tensions 

abroad. Economic prosperity and the consequent suburbanization of the late 1940s and early 1950s, 

however, injected his concern with a sudden immediacy. In 1947, for instance, the Gouldmans brought a 

new wholesale beer business to the Wakefield Inn at the corner of Routes 3 and 204.93 Of greater concern 

was a boom in local subdivisions, especially across Popes Creek. Hough reported a substantial portion of 

Gordon and Garnett Horner’s waterfront property adjacent to Muse’s Beach subdivided into eighteen 

fifty-foot lots.94 An additional threat emerged when Bob Muse declared his intent to subdivide his 

 

89 SMR, April and August 1952, GEWA. 

90 SMR, December 1954, GEWA. Actually, efforts had been made to install an alarm system as early as 1950 

though the system proved terribly unreliable and effectively useless; see SMR, May and June 1950, GEWA for 

details regarding early installation. 

91 SMR, April 1953, GEWA. 

92 SMR, May 1955 and 1956, GEWA. 

93 SMR, July 1947, GEWA. 

94 SMR, December 1947, GEWA. 
138

property thus raising fear that new residents would use Monument roads to access private homes.95 

Moreover, the Commonwealth of Virginia had acquired a significant amount of local property through its 

construction of Westmoreland State Park. Congressman Bland explained to Associate Director Conrad 

Wirth in a June 1949 letter that residents felt that their county’s “tax potential is being cut into quite 

severely” and that local residents had complained about a lack of private sites for establishing clubs and 

hosting parties. Muse’s Beach remained among the few of these places left.96

 Hough’s struggle was not singular. By the 1950s, private owners possessed nearly 300,000 acres 

of inholdings throughout the national park system.97 But Northern Neck developers also turned an eye 

toward the water. In 1948 a group of local residents expressed interest in dredging Popes Creek to allow 

recreational boat access to Muse’s Beach and other residential points. Hough recognized a potential 

advantage for Monument visitation in the dredging proposal, but also feared that a marina immediately 

opposite Wakefield’s shoreline would jeopardize its historic viewshed.98 Congressman Bland’s 

introduction of H.R. 229 in February 1949, proposing surveys and estimates for the boat channel, met 

only disinterest.99 A second bill, H.R. 5145, introduced by Bland on June 15, 1949, did garner significant 

interest, though little of it positive. This bill, calling for the extension of Monument boundaries, received 

“immediate local opposition...as none want to sell anything to the government.”100 NPS regional 

planners visited Wakefield on July 25, 1949 specifically to discuss the bill with Hough and key adjacent 

landowners C.E. Muse and James Latane. Both landowners reiterated their unwillingness to sell their 

land to the government.101 Hough quickly realized that his nearly fifteen-year long land acquisition battle 

was quickly coming to an unsuccessful close. In his 1950 annual report, Hough recognized that despite 

 

95 See 12 June 1948 memo from Hough to the Director’s office included in SAR, 1948, GEWA. 

96 Bland to Wirth, 27 June 1949, file “F3815 legislation” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. Also see file “D32 

Landscaping” for copies of H.R. 18, 1941; H.R. 5145, 1949. 

97 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 483. 

98 SMR, July 1948, GEWA. 

99 SMR, February 1949, GEWA. 

100 SMR, June 1949, GEWA. 101 SMR, July 1949, GEWA. 
139

the desirability of acquiring more land “it would not be the best thing to resort to condemnation 

proceedings, as such would be utterly disruptive to our local public relationship.”102

 The land situation seemed to worsen every year. Bland died soon after introducing H.R. 5145 

and his successor, Representative Edward J. Robeson, Jr., refused to reintroduce the bill because of 

opposition from Westmoreland County’s Commonwealth’s Attorney Ferdinand F. Chandler.103

Additionally, Jack Goldman purchased an acre of marshland from the Commonwealth in 1950 allowing 

him to erect a duck blind in the “grassy patch” immediately in front of the Memorial House.104 Hough 

complained in 1951 about a “colored store” along Route 204 calling it a “bad nuisance and a confusion to 

visitors trying to find the entrance to Washington’s Birthplace.”105 By 1953, Hough had failed to win any 

of the land wars he had waged since 1932. In a letter to the Director, Hough expressed his frustration: 

“Apparently those who worked here during the development days were so intent on building the 

memorial building the great basic fact was overlooked. This is the birthplace of George Washington, and 

all that remains today that he might recognize were he able to return would be the view. Nothing was 

done about obtaining the property that controls the environment, and which is an heritage from the 

past.”106 He did not know it then, but Hough had—as we will see—put into words exactly the rationale 

that would fundamentally alter interpretation at the Birthplace in decades to come. 

The years during World War II and immediately after rank among the most difficult in 

Monument history. Nonetheless, Hough remained stubbornly committed to the protection of 

Washington’s Birthplace from the ravages of a wartime economy, chronic labor shortages, and fierce 

assaults on his own faith in the veracity of interpretation at the Park. In early 1950, W.H. Crock Ford 

published an exposé on Hough and the Birthplace in the Richmond Times-Dispatch. “The Historic Case 

of...The Misunderstood Marker” depicts a burdened superintendent who, though having turned down 

 

102 SAR, 1950, GEWA. 103 See master Plan Development Outline, February 1952, NPS Records, Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 104 SMR, October 1950, GEWA. 105 Hough to Regional Director, 22 May 1951, file “entrance roads” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 106 From Hough’s response to the Director’s request for statements regarding protection and conservation through 

interpretation in Hough to Director, 29 September 1953, in file “K1815 interpretive activities services,” NPS 

Records Box 7 of 25, 1930s-1950s Records, GEWA. 
140

three opportunities for reassignment during his tenure at Popes Creek, struggled to maintain his 

optimism.107 Hough, embarrassed by the article, apologized to the Director and considered “the 

references to the shrug of my shoulders; the gleam in my eye; and the resolute front...particularly 

distasteful.”108

Hough spent a significant portion of his final years updating the Park’s master plan. His 1953 

Master Plan Development Outline is typical in its emphasis upon increasing available staff, protecting 

historic viewsheds, and building a visitor center and museum. It was also Hough’s last opportunity to 

influence the direction of development at Washington’s Birthplace. Hough died of a heart attack on 

December 21, 1953.109 In some ways, Hough’s death opened the way for a fresh start at the Monument 

and allowed new ideas concerning administration and interpretation into circulation. Still, that so many 

of Hough’s initiatives—including protection of historic viewsheds, creation of a living farm, and 

construction of a permanent administration building—came to fruition after his death reveal the 

remarkable foresight of the Monument’s first superintendent.

 

107 W.H. Crock ford, “The Historic Case of...The Misunderstood Marker” in Richmond Times-Dispatch, 19 

February 1950 in file “K46 Radio and Television Activities” in NPS Records Box 7 of 25, GEWA. 108 Hough to Director, 21 February 1950, file “K46 Radio and Television Activities” in NPS Records Box 7 of 25, 

GEWA. 

109 SMR, December 1953 (submitted by Acting Superintendent Joseph Vaughn), GEWA. 
CHAPTER 6 

Mission 66—A Prelude to Change, 1955-1966 

 The 1940s marked a pivot point in Monument history when the limited developmental gains of 

the 1930s succumbed to the financial and staffing demands of World War II. The early 1950s, however, 

witnessed a series of events that, by merit of their simultaneity and in conjunction with the aftermath of 

World War II, set the Monument on an entirely new developmental trajectory. Hough’s death in 1953 

marked the end of a formative era at the monument by in large defined by the first superintendent’s 

developmental vision and negotiation of relationships between the Park, the NPS, and the WNMA. 

Crowninshield’s departure from the WNMA in 1956 left the organization bereft of strong leadership for 

the first time since Rust’s death in 1931. The combined loss of these two influential figures had both 

negative and positive ramifications for Monument operations. In some ways, it allowed for creative 

responses to old problems. It also, however, wiped institutional memory from the ranks of Monument 

leadership and left the leaderless WNMA without a champion in the Park or among its own ranks. These 

changes accompanied the beginning of a new NPS-wide initiative called Mission 66. Implementation of 

the Mission 66 vision fell to a new superintendent not at all certain what to make of the WNMA and its, 

by 1955, uncertain role at Wakefield. 

Other NPS sites shared the Monument’s difficulty managing a failing infrastructure amid 

dramatic post-war visitation increases. These increases resulted from the emergence of a newly mobile 

American middle class buoyed by a post-war economic boom that enabled unprecedented numbers of 

young families to spend their leisure time traveling the nation’s new interstate highway system. Heavy 

use of facilities combined with significant wartime budget reductions left many parks in tatters thus 

opening the NPS to public criticism.1

 Director Conrad Wirth proposed a solution in 1955. Wanting to 

improve the Park system by the NPS’s fiftieth anniversary, Wirth announced the beginning of Mission 66 

on February 8, 1956. Mission 66 was proposed as a ten-year program to improve and modernize 

 

1

 The increase in visitation during this period was astonishing: from 6 million visitors in 1942 to 33 million in 1950 

to 72 million in 1960. Mackintosh, The National Park, p. 64. 
142

facilities, staffing, and resource management.2 This modernization project manifested most visibly in 

NPS architecture. Rustic New Deal-era park buildings gave way to more functional user-friendly 

structures bearing a distinct modernist aesthetic reflecting Mission 66’s emphasis on visitor experience. 

Mission 66 planners paid attention for the first time to the way visitors experienced parks, both physically 

and interpretively. Planning documents of this period frequently feature flow charts and line drawings 

depicting visitor movement through buildings and displays. 

Implementation of Mission 66 initiatives at Wakefield fell to superintendent Russell A. Gibbs, 

who entered duty on March 26, 1954.3

 Gibbs previously served at parks including Homestead National 

Monument and Hopewell Village National Historic Site, where a Masters degree in History from the 

University of Nebraska served him well.4

 The Monument almost immediately benefited from his fresh 

perspective. Instead of advocating for the construction of ranger housing as had Hough, for example, 

Gibbs suggested that the Log House be converted for this purpose. This obvious solution escaped Hough 

who could not envision the Log House as anything but a concession and perhaps remained fearful of 

WNMA backlash.5

 Over time, Gibbs’ fresh perspective eased implementation of the administrative and 

infrastructural changes resulting from Mission 66. 

 If Gibbs offered a fresh perspective on activities at the Monument, he also approached his 

responsibilities with a degree of bureaucratic detachment. Unlike Hough, who so often waxed 

philosophical about the importance of the Monument and documented every aspect of Monument 

operations through reports and correspondence, Gibbs introduced a somewhat more even-handed 

 

2

 For a summary of Mission 66 and its impact, see Mackintosh, The National Parks, p. 64-67; Ise, Our National 

Park Policy, pp. 546-50; and Hartzog, Battling for the National Parks, pp. 84-87. 3

 SMR, March 1954, GEWA. 

4

 James Berry, “Decade Required, Job With park Service Was Difficult to Gain” in Richmond Times-Dispatch, 28 

December 1959. 

5

 Hough to Regional Director, 29 January 1952, file “D2215” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. This file also 

contains advance plans drafted throughout 1955 demonstrating that Hough ultimately was denied permission to 

build additional park structures (residences and support buildings) and asked to make proposals for public buildings. 

In this way, Hough never won his battle for a new home and died soon after being berated for continually requesting 

construction of non-public buildings. 
143

business-like approach to the superintendency. 6 His reports and correspondence are brief, succinct, and 

impersonal in ways that reflect larger shifts in the NPS stemming from a burgeoning post-war NPS 

bureaucracy. Therefore, the 1950s mark a transitional point in the quantity and tone of Monument 

records, creating challenges for the researcher attempting to explain the administrative context within 

which the Monument operated during the post-war era. 

Visitor Experience, 1955-1966 

Records do suggest, however, that Gibbs made visitor experience a primary concern. Gibbs 

communicated with Historian Frank Barnes about the problem of contacting Monument visitors with such 

a limited staff. Barnes relayed Gibbs’ worries to the Regional Chief of Interpretation in 1954, remarking 

that Gibbs considered a dedicated contact station “as [a] top need at the area” especially during the winter 

season when provisions for official contact remained solely within the Memorial House. Although a 

staffed sentry box near the granite obelisk traffic circle welcomed visitors during the summer, it also put 

demands on a continually shorthanded staff. Barnes suggested that the Colonial Kitchen be converted for 

visitor contact, but Mission 66 would provide a different solution within a few years.7

 Gibbs’ concern about visitor contact, reflects larger administrative concerns about the impact of 

increasing visitation figures. About 77,000 visitors toured the Monument in 1953. By 1961, visitation 

had skyrocketed to nearly 126,000. Washington’s Birthplace felt the pressure by 1959 when, for the first 

time in park history, an employee “had to be assigned to the parking area in order to efficiently park cars 

and provide adequate space for the visitors.”8

 The crowds included a number of dignitaries. Former 

Director Horace Albright paid a special visit in 1957 to revisit the Park that figured so prominently in his 

reinvention of the NPS. News legend Edward R. Murrow spent a day at Wakefield in 1961.9

 On August 

22, 1962, Washington’s Birthplace participated in the NPS-wide billionth visitor day and picked as their 

 

6

 Continually increasing demands created by a burgeoning NPS bureaucracy, however, can also be blamed for the 

significant reduction/impersonal nature of Monthly Reports. 

7

 Barnes to Regional Chief of Interpretation, 17 September 1954, file “D32 Landscaping” in NPS Records Box 9 of 

25, GEWA. 

8

 SMR, February 1959, GEWA. 

9

 SMR, March 1957 and September 1961, GEWA. 
144

honorary billionth visitor Dr. Robert E. Moddy, Chairman of the Boston University History Department. 

Although visitation dropped back to about 72,000 by 1965, a second upswing occurred during the end of 

the decade bringing nearly 133,000 to Wakefield in 1968. 

 As Hough discovered in the years following World War II, more visitors meant more problems 

and, unfortunately, even after Hough’s tenure not all visitors received fair and equal treatment. In June 

1960, for instance, Monument employee Edward Saunders was arrested and briefly jailed for “bothering a 

colored school group at the picnic area.” Gibbs accompanied Saunders to court and concluded his brief 

comments on the event with a dismissive “there are hopes that this may tend to subdue these “mammy 

cats [sic].”10 That Saunders was allowed to remain on staff after this event and that Gibbs received no 

reprimand for inclusion of such an appalling racial epitaph in an official NPS report speaks volumes about 

attitudes toward racial discrimination at the time. The lack of a formal complaint on behalf of the 

assaulted party further suggests that victims of prejudice did not feel comfortable seeking redress. 

 A very different visitor complaint reached the Director’s office in 1959. Mrs. C.C. Warfield 

visited the Park on August 13, 1959 and expressed utter dismay at what she encountered there. Mrs. 

Warfield claimed to have been an original member of the WNMA and though not having visited the 

Monument in twenty-eight years, leveled vehement criticism on the Park and its staff for interpretive 

shortsightedness and disregard for visitor comfort. She criticized the color of the Memorial House’s 

walls, the treatment of its wooden floors, and its shabby decorations. Warfield also complained about a 

guide’s claim that the house was an approximation rather than an exact reproduction of the Washington 

birth home. Gibbs and his staff dismissed Warfield’s remarks as nothing more than the rantings of a 

confused old lady.11 What they failed to understand was that Warfield’s complaints demonstrated the 

persistence of old ideas about proper commemoration. Hough would have immediately recognized 

Warfield’s motivation as originating with early interpretive efforts at the Monument and, though not 

necessarily agreeing with the woman, would have diffused the situation in a mannerly way. It is thus 

 

10 SMR, June 1960, GEWA. 

11 Gibbs to Regional Director, 31 August 1959, file “1959 Reading files” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

Also see SMR, August 1959, GEWA for a brief account. 
145

evident that the deaths of Hough and Crowninshield left a massive void in the staff’s institutional 

memory. 

Reinstitution of Visitor Fees 

The lack of formal complaints during this period may be somewhat misleading for it is evident 

that numerous visitors expressed dismay regarding the institution of visitor fees. Having ceased fee 

collection in 1949, the NPS again requested that its parks collect entrance fees in 1954. Washington’s 

Birthplace began collecting fees on July 1.12 Public dissatisfaction, especially among local residents, 

became evident soon thereafter and by December 1954, Gibbs complained about “visitors to the grounds 

who avoided, to the best of their ability, payment for tickets at the mansion.” Some visitors went to great 

lengths to avoid the fees as in July 1957 when one visitor smuggled in two others in the trunk of a car.13

Gibbs attributed the problem, in part, to the lack of a ticket collection booth at the Monument’s 

entrance. Mission 66 funds allowed for the construction of a ticket booth in 1960, but improved 

collection procedures did not soothe the public’s distaste for fees.14 The Department of Interior’s 

requirement of NPS sites to generate revenue by way of visitor fees simply did not make sense to visitors 

unaware of the Monument’s role within a larger NPS. In 1965, for instance, the Secretary of the Interior 

proposed an additional fifty-cent usage fee for picnic grounds on top of the base fifty-cent park entrance 

fee. Had this proposal been enacted, picnickers at the Birthplace would have paid a dollar to use facilities 

significantly less accommodating than those offered at nearby Westmoreland State Park for a mere thirtyfive cents.15 Insomuch, this episode demonstrated that NPS planners—struggling to accommodate the 

needs of more and more diverse parks—had become increasingly less present at the Monument and 

consequently less aware of its particular community context. 

 

12 SMR, June and July 1954, GEWA. For a larger discussion of fee collection in parks as a method for offsetting 

operating costs, see Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp. 633-38. 13 SMR, December 1954 and July 1957, GEWA. 

14 SMR, June 1960, GEWA. 

15 George Schesventer to Superintendent, Fredericksburg National Military Park, 20 March 1965, file “1965 

Reading File” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 
146

 Although this particular fee did not go into effect, the standard entrance fee did rise over time. 

Until the mid-1960s, visitors could enter the Park for twenty-five cents per person. A 1965 Congressional 

order raised the fee to fifty cents for all visitors sixteen years old and above.16 Although there is no 

evidence of correlation, visitation dropped dramatically during this period and the superintendent secured 

permission to keep the Park open longer in hopes of attracting more visitors. Beginning on July 4, 1965 

visitors could enter the Park anytime between 8 am and 9pm. By the end of the month, though, it was 

clear that increased hours did not boost visitation. Departing seasonal rangers ended the experiment in 

August and the superintendent determined that though a fair number of people visited between five and 

six p.m., few visited between six and nine.17 

Understaffing 

 The difficulties experienced with fee collection reveal the ongoing problem of operating with an 

inadequate staff. Gibbs had already complained about staff shortages in April 1954. The situation 

worsened in July when, during a single week, a recent hire opted not to work at the Monument, the 

administrative aide resigned, and a third position remained vacant for want of decent applicants.18 

Temporary appointments filled these positions for a period but limited funds forced an early termination 

of seasonal employees in July 1955.19 The situation did not improve in following years and Gibbs 

frequently found himself working side by side with the maintenance and grounds keeping crew. 

Responsibility for mowing lawns actually fell to office support staff for a period.20 By 1964, 

Westmoreland County had been classified as an economically depressed area and thus qualified for relief 

under the 1962 Accelerated Public Works Act. The APW channeled Federal money into state public 

works projects thus enabling the Park to complete a variety of minor maintenance tasks including the 

 

16 Schesventer to Bixler Tours, 5 April 1965, in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

17 SMR, July and August 1965 in file “1965 Reading File” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. The introduction 

of an NPS conservation sticker—which functioned more-or-less like today’s Golden Eagle Pass—further 

complicated the situation. See Schesventer to Regional Director, 23 August 1965, file “1965 Reading File” in NPS 

Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

18 SMR, April and July 1954, GEWA. 

19 SMR, August 1954, June and July 1955, GEWA. 

20 SMR, August 1959 and April 1961, GEWA. 
147

demolition of the long-abandoned Raymond Washington buildings.21 Even so, problems with 

understaffing persisted and extended to interpretation and visitor contact. By the end of Mission 66, 

Washington’s Birthplace still reported the burial ground, Colonial Garden, and Colonial Kitchen officially 

unattended, noting that “no personnel are assigned to any of the above areas but when the man on duty is 

not busy at the mansion he does go to the colonial Garden and Kitchen to help the visitor.”22

 Similar concerns extended to law enforcement. NPS sites have, since 1940, been required to 

enforce or allow enforcement of state laws on federal land even when state law extends beyond federal 

regulations.23 Various acts of vandalism, tampering with the Washington family burial vault, trespassing 

by hunters, theft of antiques, and even one occasion where two boys were apprehended using tools and 

equipment housed in the utility building, occurred throughout the 1950s and early 1960s.24 Trespassing 

usually involved hunting violations or speeding motorists who proved especially troublesome during this 

period.25 Traffic enforcement required road patrols but Gibbs could not devote any staff to regular 

patrolling. The superintendent frequently reminded the local sheriff and state patrolmen that given the 

Park’s limited jurisdiction, local law enforcement maintained authority within park boundaries and should 

extend their patrols to include Washington’s Birthplace.26 Gibbs reported in 1961 that “several times in 

recent months we have been visited by local, state and federal game wardens. They have been 

particularly interested in reported shooting over baited blinds and illegal duck species. More recently 

 

21 See file “1964 Reading File” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA for variety of documents regarding the APW 

including an undated and unsigned document titled “information on conditions affecting employment” concerning 

Westmoreland County’s economic situation. Also see SMR, January 1964, GEWA for description of work done 

with APW assistance. 

22 Schesventer to Regional Director of Operations, 3 April 1965, file “1965 Reading File” in NPS Records Box 10 of 

25, GEWA. 

23 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 441. 24 See SMR, April 1955; August 1958; May 1959; March 1962; January 1963; August 1963, GEWA; and 

Schesventer to Director, 6 December 1963, file “1965 Reading File” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 25 SMR, December 1959, GEWA. 

26 See “Calendar Year 1959 Law Enforcement Summary,” 7 January 1960, file “Daily correspondence calendar year 

1960” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. File “w30 jurisdiction” in NPS Records Box 14 of 25, GEWA 

contains correspondence from mid-1950s regarding questions of jurisdiction at the Monument and leading to 

discovery that the federal government maintained only proprietary jurisdiction—the right to enforce federal laws on 

property owned by the government. Given that the government did not own all of the land within its boundaries—

including the Monument’s route 204 approach—it was not always evident when rangers could or could not enforce, 

for example, traffic regulations. Gibbs also inquired about race laws and received a response indicating that federal 

non-discrimination policy applied to all government property regardless of state laws. 
148

their interest has been the alleged market in night shooting.”27 Still, enforcement and protection remained 

a significant problem at Wakefield throughout the 1960s and into the 1970s. 

 Of even greater concern was the Monument’s decades old physical infrastructure. The footbridge 

built in 1932 across Dancing Marsh had grown weak and gave way during a storm in 1963.28 Utility 

failures outpaced regular maintenance schedules. For instance, Gibbs replaced the water heater in the 

Memorial House in October 1954.29 Replacing one part of the heating system, though, revealed the 

inadequacy of the remaining components and thereby required further repairs. This all occurred 

coincidentally with failures of the ice pond water pump and demonstrates the extent to which an unlucky 

combination of mechanical failures could quickly plunge the Monument into dire financial straits. Gibbs, 

in a memorandum to the Regional Director, remarked on this “unusual run of bad luck with our utilities 

this year mainly because of their age.” 30 One equipment problem even jeopardized public health. Gibbs 

reported in 1961 that the residence area septic tank “effluent has not flowed through the absorption 

trenches for many years,” referring to correspondence from 1934 concerning the same problem. Gibbs’ 

own attention to the problem came only after a staff member noticed a “pond of sewage” behind the 

residences.31 In many ways, that “pond of sewage” symbolized the state of the Monument’s physical 

plant during the Mission 66 years. 

Mission 66 Planning and Administrative Reorganization 

In 1955, Director Wirth inaugurated Mission 66 by requesting that each park submit a 

development plan. Gibbs and staff set to work in 1955 and within a year had crafted a Mission 66 

proposal not unlike Hough’s previous master plan drafts. The Monument’s Mission 66 prospectus reads 

 

27 SMR, January 1961, GEWA. The “alleged market in night shooting” most likely involved the hunting of deer—

illegal on Federal property—after hours. 

28 The original footbridge had been “sealed” with river mud and, unsurprisingly, required partial reconstruction in 

1939. See SMR, August 1939, GEWA. Also see Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.87. The bridge was 

not rebuilt after its destruction in 1963. 

29 SMR, October 1954, GEWA. 

30 Gibbs to Regional Director, 16 March 1959, file “1959 Reading files” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. $1 

in 1959 was approximately equal to $6 today. This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation 

according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 31 Gibbs to Regional Director, 16 May 1961, file “Reading File—1961 Calen Year” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, 

GEWA. 
149

like a wish list culled from the previous twenty years of superintendents’ complaints and requests.32 It 

includes proposals for a new administrative and museum building to serve as the primary contact point for 

visitors and to provide space for the sale of WNMA items. Other familiar themes include requests for an 

expanded archeological program and aggressive land acquisition policy to ward off intrusive 

development. A proposal for a modest two-stop wayside exhibit appears here marking the beginning of 

what would later develop into a substantial wayside program. The prospectus highlights the need to 

dredge Popes Creek in order to prevent sediment buildup and indicates a need for increased patrol forces 

to regulate access to the Potomac River beach. Most striking about the prospectus is its references to 

improving visitor circulation. The Monument, especially under Hough, had always encouraged visitors to 

roam the grounds at will. The 1956 prospectus, however, typifies Mission 66 thinking in that it suggests 

that giving order to the visitor experience, especially by building an adequate visitor center, would 

improve the site’s interpretive value. The proposal allocates $224,500 for a 4,500-square foot visitor 

center and lists the project as a top park priority.33

The final Mission 66 plan—reviewed and revised by the Regional Office—preserved the sprit of 

the prospectus, though with slight modifications.34 The final version, for instance, calls for the erection of 

new highway markers to alleviate motorist confusion en route to Wakefield. It emphasizes development 

of a utility area and calls for the construction of two employee residences. Most significantly, the final 

Mission 66 document reduces proposed allocations for utility work and building construction, leaving the 

final estimate about $13,000 (about $81,000 today) short of what the Monument requested.35 Still, the 

report did focus more attention on visitor experience. Traffic counting and money handling procedures, 

 

32 For various references to planning status, see SMR, July 1955 and March 1956, GEWA. “George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument, Mission 66,” 20 April 1956, in folder “A-98 Mission 66” in NPS Records Box 21 of 

25, GEWA. 

33 This is equal to about $1.5 million today based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index 

statistics from 1800 to 2003. 

34 “Mission 66 for George Washington Birthplace National monument” in folder “A-98, Mission 66,” NPS Records 

Box 21 of 25, GEWA. 

35 This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics 

from 1800 to 2003. 
150

for instance, received increased attention during 1960 and 1961.36 Immediately after the study and 

perhaps in the wake of increased complaints about the frequently muddy walk between the parking lot 

and the Memorial House, work began on a brick path between the two areas.37 Making plans into reality 

proved difficult, though, and by 1963 it became evident that hopes to complete Mission 66 development 

at Washington’s Birthplace by 1966 were entirely unrealistic. Regional Director Elbert Cox wrote to 

Gibbs that year indicating that though minor road work and various utility and building improvements 

would occur on schedule, some aspects of the development plan would have to wait for completion until 

1973.38

Even so, Mission 66 encouraged the development of an entirely new and revised master plan 

during the early 1960s.39 Upon approval of the Park’s Mission 66 prospectus, Director Conrad Worth 

requested that the Park update its master plan and development outline “into agreement therewith.”40 

Gibbs and staff set to work and Acting Director Hillory Tolson, approved the new master plan on 

September 7, 1961—Gibbs added to the document throughout the next two years.41 The 1961-63 master 

plan, not unlike the Monument’s Mission 66 prospectus, gives voice to concerns dating back to the 

earliest years of Hough’s superintendency. It calls for additional archeology, seeks to acquire inholdings 

to prevent development, requests a visitor center, and reemphasizes the importance of protecting natural 

resources and viewsheds in ways that foster interpretation of the eighteenth-century landscape. 

Although Mission 66 is generally recognized as having its greatest impact on physical landscapes 

at NPS sites, the project had far greater implications for administrative organization and management 

practice at Washington’s Birthplace. After World War II, the NPS developed a complex bureaucracy, in 

 

36 See SMR, April 1960; May 1961; and June 1961, GEWA for comments regarding improvements to traffic 

counting practices. 

37 See SMR, May 1958 and May 1961, GEWA. 

38 Cox to Gibbs, no date, file “A 9815, Mission 66” in NPS Records Box 21 of 25, GEWA. 

39 See file “1963 reading file” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA for various correspondence regarding master 

planning during this period. 

40 Wirth to Regional Director, Region One, 17 May 1957, HFCA. 

41 “Master Plan for the Preservation and Use of George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Mission 66 

Edition,” 7 September 1961. I have not located a complete draft of the final plan, which is divided into three 

volumes. Portions of Volume I and III are located in an unlabeled green folder HFCA. A draft version of various 

portions of Volume I is in folder “Master Plan D18” in NPS Records, Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 
151

part as a way to monitor and maximize resources in the face of wartime cutbacks. Hough complained 

during his latter years about increased paper work resulting from NPS interest in boosting park 

accountability. Between 1951 and 1954, Hough frequently corresponded with NPS officials regarding 

requirements for submission of annual reports and seems to have had some difficulty understanding the 

motivation for these reports and the protocol for their submission.42 

Superintendent Gibbs, although assisted by Administrative Aide Sherman W. Perry beginning in 

1954, felt similarly about the growing bureaucracy. Mission 66 added to the perceived burden. Gibbs 

remarked in a 1959 report about “an unusual number of reports submitted” including a quarters 

reappraisal, an inventory of non-expendable property, a survey of surplus items, and an outline of needed 

research projects. 43 Monthly reports from these years reference administrative tasks not previously 

mentioned. In late 1960, for example, disposal of “useless” records occupied a good portion of the 

administrative workload.44 Within months, Gibbs reported to the Regional Director that he had 

established a centralized file plan intended to “speed up files operation, reduce cost, and [to facilitate] the 

proper safeguarding of valuable record material.”45 Most telling, with regard to bureau-wide 

administrative changes made at Washington’s Birthplace, is Gibbs’ 1961 remark that “our bookcases do 

not have enough vertical space to accommodate the NPS administrative Manuals and the Handbooks so 

they have been arranged on top of the filing cases as the shelf.”46

Gibbs delegated much of this work to his administrative aide. Prior to 1956, the superintendent 

directly supervised everyone employed at the Monument. Although his administrative aide assisted with 

clerical duties, the superintendent retained first contact with all employees on all issues and matters 

pertaining to operation of the Monument. With the advent of Mission 66, however, the Regional Director 

 

42 See SAR, 1951, GEWA for reference to a letter from Director Demaray to all field offices regarding submission 

of Annual Reports with rationale for doing so. SAR,1953-1954, GEWA include reference to correspondence 

between Hough and the Regional Office regarding misunderstandings about when and why to file annual reports—

Hough noted that none had been filed since 1948. 

43 See SMR, December 1954, GEWA regarding Perry’s addition and SMR, January 1959, GEWA for Gibbs’ 

remarks concerning excessive reports. 

44 SMR, December 1960, GEWA. 

45 Gibbs to Regional Director, 11 February 1961, file “Reading File—1961 Calen Year” in NPS Records Box 10 of 

25, GEWA. 

46 SMR, December 1961, GEWA. 
152

requested that Gibbs initiate an administrative reorganization. The superintendent responded in the 

summer of 1956 with an addendum to the Mission 66 prospectus.47 Gibbs’ addendum included a revised 

chart that, though indicating plans for increased staffing, most importantly reorganized the relationship 

between the superintendent and park staff by way of the administrative aide. The reorganization posited 

the administrative aide as an intermediary who, by undertaking most duties related to daily management 

of the Park, reported to the Superintendent who consequently had more time to focus on larger issues 

(Illustration 4). 

Administrative reorganization reflected NPS-wide changes unfolding, in part, as a result of 

Mission 66’s goal to modernize NPS sites by 1966. It also bolstered the Monument’s justification for a 

new administrative facility. Discussions regarding additions to the temporary administration building 

built in 1940 had begun well before Mission 66. Preliminary planning for an addition began after 

Hough’s redrafting of the master plan in 1950.48 Regional planners visited the monument in 1954 to 

review proposed additions but, again, no plans were agreed upon for another decade.49 When it became 

evident that the visitor center and the administration building called for in the Park’s Mission 66 

prospectus would not materialize in due time, Gibbs—needing space for all those new administrative 

manuals—settled for a small addition of storage space to the temporary administration building and 

solicited construction bids in 1964.50 The Park would not receive a new administration facility until the 

1976 Bicentennial. 

Interpretation 

 

47 See Gibbs to Regional Director, 19 June 1956, in folder “A-98 Mission 66,” in NPS Records, Box 21 of 25, 

GEWA. 

48 At that time, Hough suggested incorporating the old iron gate from the original 1896 granite shaft surround. Ever 

concerned to maintain some sense of institutional history, Hough had saved the gate from requisition during a 

wartime scrap metal drive, but his idea apparently found no support with planners and work on additions to the 

administration building stalled as well. Hough to Regional Director, 2 August 1950, in file “D34 Administration 

Building” in NPS File Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

49 These included R.F. Lee and Ralph Lewis. SMR, November 1954, GEWA. 50 Gibbs to Regional Director, 25 March 1964, file “1964 Reading File” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

Also see W. Mikell (Acting Regional Chief of Operations and Maintenance) to Gibbs, 25 February 1964, NPS 

Records Box 17 of 25, GEWA regarding plans and specifications for additions to administration building and file 

“ADDITION to office, proposed plans” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA for blueprints and bid materials for this work. 
153

Although the Monument did not get a new administrative building during the Mission 66 years, it 

did win a small victory in another longstanding battle. After years of lobbying for a plan to display 

artifacts excavated during the Monument’s early years, Superintendent Hough finally caught the attention 

of the Chief of Historical Investigations, H.L. Peterson. Peterson visited Hough on February 10, 1954 

and agreed that a plan should be devised to display the “real treasure of authentic Washington items.” 

Peterson shared his impressions with Chief Historian Herbert Kahler who requested that the Regional 

Director consider the problem.51

Although Hough died amid these discussions, Gibbs arrived in time to dust off Paul Hudson’s 

1938 museum plan and received approval to convert one side of the Colonial Kitchen into a display area 

for artifacts.52 The plan more-or-less recreated the state of affairs prior to 1940, before the WNMA 

refurnished the building under Crowninshield. WNMA pressure no longer a consideration, Gibbs 

renovated the building in August 1954 and requested that Paul Hudson—since relocated to Colonial 

National Monument—provide temporary assistance with design and set up of the small museum. 53 

Creating and installing displays, however, proved more expensive than anyone expected. Hudson’s plan 

called for five artifact cases and six wall displays. The Park could certainly not foot the bill for this and 

so Hudson secured a promise of funding from the Eastern National Park and Monument Association.54 

This promise turned out to be less credible than Hudson anticipated, though, and the Park received word 

that the ENPMA might not be able to make good on their part of the deal until as late as 1957.55 

Concluding a summary of the situation in a letter to the Regional Chief of Interpretation, Hudson quipped 

“we will pay the bills, but the next time I will not let my enthusiasm for a small area run away with me.”56 

With some inordinate stroke of luck, the Park did pay its bills by convincing the WNMA to cover the 

 

51 Peterson to Chief Historian Herbert Kahler, 16 February 1954; and Kahler to Elbert Cox, 17 February 1954, 

HFCA. 

52 These planners included “Mesrs. Hudson, Smith, and Ludgate” and, later, “Mr. Buffmire from the museum 

laboratory.” See SMR, March and May 1954, GEWA. Also see various relevant correspondence in file “D32 

landscaping” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

53 SMR, June-September, 1954, GEWA. 

54 James Holland (Executive Secretary) to Herbert Kahler (President, ENPMA), 1 September 1954, file “D32 

landscaping” in NPS Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA. 

55 Holland to Kahler, 22 September 1954, in Ibid. 

56 Hudson to Charles Harrison, 24 September 1954, in Ibid. 
154

expense and on October 12, 1954, Paul Hudson and artist Sidney King added some final touches and 

opened the room to the public to what Gibbs described as “many encouraging comments on the 

displays.”57

 During a brief visit following completion of the new artifact display, Kahler determined that the 

Memorial House Furnishings had never been properly catalogued. Hough’s record keeping system had 

become outdated and inaccurate and Gibbs struggled unsuccessfully to update the system. NPS Chief of 

Interpretation Ronald Lee suggested that Museum Curator Vera Craig be temporarily reassigned from 

Morristown National Historical Park to the Monument in order to create a standard accession and catalog 

procedure for the Memorial House and Colonial Kitchen furnishings. Lee additionally suggested that 

Craig place permanent catalog numbers on the furnishings and that the entire project be funded though the 

NPS’s Museum Branch’s program for the preservation of scientific and historic collections with possible 

contributions from the Monument.58

Craig arrived at the Monument in March 1955 and spent several weeks creating individual 

information cards for nearly nine hundred items on display in the Memorial House and Colonial 

Kitchen.59 Harry Waldrus, a museum preservation specialist with the Museum Branch, accompanied 

Craig and determined that the Memorial House suffered from more than inadequate documentation. 

Waldrus identified numerous examples of rodent and insect damage, rotting and decaying wood and 

textiles, rusting flatware and wall fixtures, and decomposing historic letters set on desks for display 

purposes.60 Waldrus offered a list of suggestions for correcting these problems. Gibbs considered the 

project a great success and lauded Craig and Waldrus in a March 30, 1955 letter to the Director.61 He also 

contributed the assistance of his own administrative aide, who invested considerable time drafting a 

 

57 SMR, October 1954, GEWA. Sidney King created interpretive paintings for parks throughout the east, most 

famously at Colonial Jamestown. 

58 Chief of the Division of Interpretation Ronald Lee to Elbert Cox, 8 December 1954, in HFCA. 

59 SMR, March and July 1955, GEWA. 

60 Wandrus to Chief, Museum Branch, 23 March 1955, HFCA. 

61 Gibbs to the Director, 30 March 1955, HFCA. 
155

catalogue book of information compiled by Craig.62 Gibbs later praised the book as a useful interpretive 

tool for seasonal ranger historians who otherwise would not have time to learn about the antique 

collection in any significant detail.63 The museum team determined the replacement cost of all antiques 

valued over $50 to be nearly $73,000, a significant asset and no doubt a prominent collection for such a 

small park.64 

Even so, by 1961, Gibbs realized that the Park’s inability to afford a permanent trained historian 

prevented the Monument from creating an up-to-date interpretive plan.65 A study undertaken that year 

provides a glimpse of the Park’s interpretive dilemma. In conjunction with a management training 

program in Washington, D.C., six rangers from various parks set out to demonstrate how the NPS might 

better evaluate the effectiveness of programming at historic sites. The group attended a ranger activities 

conference and a conference of the chiefs of interpretation, and determined that NPS attention to visitor 

experience suffered throughout the system because parks failed to recognize the variety and complexity of 

visitor needs.66 The team tested its hypothesis at Washington’s Birthplace. Their methodology was 

simple: visit the Park as tourists, record immediate impressions of the visit, and communicate with park 

staff only after concluding the study. Despite being a mere training exercise, this study is significant in 

that it represents the earliest official effort to understand the visitor experience at Washington’s 

Birthplace—the results were anything but glowing. 

 To some extent, the problems cited by the review committee are not at all surprising. The 

committee had difficulty just finding the Park given a lack of highway directional signs. It initially 

mistook George Washington’s boyhood home at Ferry Farm for Washington’s Birthplace. Additional 

confusion resulted upon arriving at the Monument where entry signs did not make clear how or where to 

 

62 SMR, April 1955, GEWA. 

63 SMR, February 1956, GEWA. 

64 About $460,000 today based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 

to 2003. SMR, April 1958 and October 1959, GEWA. 

65 Gibbs to Director, 20 January 1961, file “Reading File—1961 Calen Year” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

66 Robert R. Jacobsen, Richard G. Cover, Bruce W. Shaw, Richard A. Elasdel, Keith E. Miller, and Edward J. 

Widmer, “A Study of Visitor Impressions at George Washington’s Birthplace National Monument and 

Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park,” April 1961, p. 1 (GEWA library). 
156

pay entrance fees. The committee took issue with the lack of trash receptacles and sanitary facilities at 

the burial ground and at the Potomac River beach front. It found the picnic area even more disconcerting 

with “vehicles driving through the luncheon area” and “fireplace and tables...either in...poor or unsafe 

condition.” 

More significant, in hindsight, was the committee’s experience of the core historic area: “We felt 

that the information at this point was hard to assemble. Most of the required information was present, but 

it was scattered and difficult to understand and it does not immediately invite one to tour the mansion 

grounds.”67 This portion of the report sheds a very different light on the complaints filed by Mrs. 

Warfield whose confusion regarding where to park and how to access the Memorial House was so 

flippantly dismissed by Superintendent Gibbs and his staff. The report’s last sentences, however, offer 

the most damning critique: 

In our opinion we learned very little of George Washington’s childhood...The MISSION of the 

George Washington Birthplace National Monument, as presently stated, is “to commemorate the 

birth and boyhood of George Washington and to present the story of his family background in 

these formative years. A pleasant pastoral scene is presently being maintained. With this 

exception we believe that the MISSION is not being fulfilled.68

The review committee recommended installation of a sign and trailside exhibit to solve these problems. 

Gibbs used the report as a way to stimulate the planning process in hopes of getting “squared 

away on just what our Service’s Mission 66 plans are.”69 Only by the end of Mission 66 programming 

would Gibbs’ requests be answered. In March 1965, Regional Curator Elizabeth Albro, Regional Chief 

of Interpretation and Visitor Services Charles Shedd, Regional Historian Thomas Harrison, and the 

Monument’s management assistant met to discuss an interpretive prospectus and furnishing plan for the 

Birthplace.70 Although the team did make progress toward both, Gibbs would not be present to see either 

 

67 Jacobsen et al., “A Study of Visitor Impressions,” p. 6. 

68 Ibid., pp. 6-7. 

69 Gibbs to unknown recipient, in file “Reading File—1961 Calen Year” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

This is perhaps the first time that Gibbs used formal correspondence as forum to express discontent with lack of 

planning at the Park—a practice Superintendent Hough engaged in regularly. 

70 SMR, March 1965 in “1965 reading file” in NPS Records, Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 
157

the results or the even larger interpretive changes that would soon launch the Monument in an entirely 

new direction. 

New Leadership for the WNMA 

The WNMA experienced its share of ups and downs during the previous thirty years, but the 

Mission 66 era witnessed one of the WNMA’s most significant periods of reinvention. In 1954, while 

acquainting himself with the Park and with an eye toward creating additional staff residences, 

Superintendent Gibbs turned his attention toward the defunct Log House Tea Room. No one, however, 

could determine who actually owned the Tea Room. Gibbs could not find any indication within park 

records of formal ownership on behalf of the NPS or the WNMA. Gibbs eventually did determine that 

the NPS held title to the building and, by 1957, he had performed enough maintenance and rehabilitation 

work to make the Log House suitable for seasonal ranger quarters.71 Considering the extent of 

controversy surrounding the Log House in previous years, it is remarkable that no one—especially no one 

among the WNMA—challenged Gibbs’ plans. The absence of resistance speaks to the waning influence 

of the WNMA on Monument planning initiatives. The WNMA’s influence decreased as Crowninshield 

became less visible in the years between Hough’s death and her own. Gibbs received word of 

Crowninshield’s death on July 12, 1958, and immediately contacted officers of the WNMA. His remark 

that “this may have some effect on the operation or continuance of the WNMA” reveals a certain 

prophetic understatement.72

 The WNMA had remained active during the mid 1950s, but the NPS’s redefinition of the 

organization as a concessionaire in 1952—combined with Crowninshield’s increasingly distant 

leadership—had taken its toll on morale. Annual meetings, once held in the Log House, now took place 

in the superintendent’s office thus implying subservience to the NPS.73 The lion’s share of WNMA 

activity involved maintenance of the greenhouse. The WNMA poured its funds into the small nursery 

 

71 Gibbs to Regional Director, 4 June 1954, file “WNMA member and Meetings” in NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 

GEWA. SMR, April 1957, GEWA. 

72 SMR, July 1958, GEWA. 

73 SMR, May 1957, GEWA. 
158

operation. It constructed lattice sun shades in June 1955, built display shelves in 1957, and added a small 

patio and additional door to the post office building in 1958 to accommodate increased plant sales.74 The 

greenhouse promoted a substantial business—especially with the addition of boxwoods to its inventory—

and in 1965, the superintendent lobbied on behalf of the WNMA for the doubling of facilities devoted to 

raising and selling plants.75 The WNMA also continued the tradition of serving spiced cider and 

gingerbread in colonial costume to visitors on George Washington’s birthday between 1955 and 1960.76

 Without strong leadership, however, the WNMA considered disbandment at its 1958 annual 

meeting. The group postponed discussion of disbandment until the following year and began 

investigating the legal steps necessary to dissolve the WNMA. Gibbs advised “the President how they 

may donate their assets to the National Park Service,” by suggesting that the organization transfer its 

assets to the National Park Trust Fund Board or to the Eastern National Park and Monument Association 

through which funds could be specifically earmarked for Washington’s Birthplace.77 The WNMA did 

not, however, take steps to disband at their 1959 annual meeting. Instead the Association initiated a 

campaign to increase its membership.78 The immediate rationale for this change of direction is unclear. 

The National Trust for Historic Preservation’s coincidental creation of an award for distinguished 

contributions to the field of historic preservation in honor of Crowninshield may have revived the 

WNMA’s pride in its own accomplishments at the Monument.79 No matter the reason, the WNMA 

rallied and sought new ways to assert itself at Washington’s Birthplace. 

 The question of leadership remained. Until Crowninshield’s death, the group had always enjoyed 

the strong leadership of prominent national figures able to negotiate with government and local officials 

 

74 SMR, June 1955; October 1956; July and August 1957; and June 1958, GEWA. File “WNMA member and 

Meetings” in NPS Records Box 6 of 25, GEWA, contains WNMA meeting minutes from 23 October 1956. 

Unfortunately WNMA records do not reference the green house operation at any length. 75 Schesventer (Management Assistant) to Superintendent, Fredericksburg National Military Park, 11 January 1965, 

file “1965 Reading File” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. . 

76 See February SMRs for summary of Washington Birthday events. 

77 Gibbs to Mrs. James Jesse, 28 October 1958, file “WNMA Members and Meetings” in NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 

GEWA. Also see SMR, October 1958, GEWA. 

78 SMR, April 1959, GEWA. 

79 Hardinge Scholle (Properties Officer of National Trust for Historic Preservation) to Gibbs, 2 October 1958, file 

“WNMA member and Meetings” in NPS Records Box 6 of 25, GEWA. 
159

while injecting the WNMA with their own noblesse oblige. If the WNMA was to reinvent itself, it would 

have to do so under local leadership—the ladies of the Northern Neck would have to assume complete 

and total responsibility for the direction of the WNMA. At the 1960 annual meeting the WNMA elected 

a new batch of officials all from the local community. Janie Mason (former operator of the Log House 

Tea Room) assumed the presidency; Mrs. Neale Sanders became the vice president with the assistance of 

Mrs. J.R. Carver as second vice president and Mrs. E.T. Ames as third vice president; Mrs. James Latane 

became the secretary; and Mrs. Margaret Lowery assumed the duties of treasurer.80 Thus staffed, the 

WNMA emerged as something of a community action group and amended its by-laws in such a way as to 

allow membership by invitation only. Former WNMA member Betty Horner recalls that during this 

period, WNMA members deliberated behind closed doors over the suitability of membership candidates 

who waited for a decision in an adjacent hallway.81

Within a year, the WNMA launched its first earnest initiative since reorganization. On January 

30, 1962, Mason wrote directly to Secretary of the Interior Stewart L. Udall indicating that “the ladies of 

the Wakefield Memorial Association would like to have their legal status determined by the National Park 

Service, as to the furniture purchased by the WNMA and placed in the Log House when the Log House 

was in operation as a “Tea Room.” A reply from the assistant secretary of the interior including a copy of 

a letter from former Secretary Ray Wilbur demonstrating that the NPS had received the furniture as a 

donation from the WNMA in 1932 did not satisfy Mason. She countered that the Log House had not yet 

been equipped or furnished in 1932 and that its contents thus remained the property of the WNMA.82 

These exchanges marked only the beginning of a prolonged battle and, consequently, a low point in 

relations between the NPS and the WNMA. 

 The Regional Office, eager to head off debate concerning ownership of the Log House, urged 

Gibbs to examine the WNMA’s records which, by merit of its 1952 concessionaire agreement with the 

 

80 SMR, April 1960, GEWA. 

81 Betty Horner, interview with author, 30 June 2004. 

82 Mason to Udall, 30 January 1962, unlabeled file in NPS Records Box 17 of 25, GEWA. This file contains brief 

correspondence relating to the WNMA’s inquiry regarding ownership of the Log House and its furnishings. Gibbs 

to Regional Director, 7 August 1962, file “1962 Yellows” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 
160

NPS, should have been made freely available to the superintendent. In fact, the records never had been 

made available to the NPS and, furthermore, it was not clear that the WNMA itself knew of their 

whereabouts. Gibbs did eventually succeed in locating some records “covering many years...stored in 

numerous cardboard boxes on a member’s back porch. They are not being made available to us for 

examination. We have offered to index and store them. There should be much information useful for the 

museum catalog and card files.”83 Mason heard about Gibbs’ interest in the WNMA’s records and 

launched a counter strike to block the perceived invasion of privacy. She protested Section 10 of the of 

the Association’s concession permit, arguing that the organization’s records were “no business of the 

government” and that the agreement “gives too much power to the Superintendent.” Mason additionally 

threatened to involve her son, a lawyer, in further discussions about the Association’s legal relationship 

with the NPS. 84 In hopes of reaching a compromise, the NPS proposed a series of small changes to the 

concession permit including the waving of a franchise fee given the “Association’s excellent record of 

assistance to the National Park Service and this area as avowed in their certification of incorporation.” 

The NPS did not, however, relinquish its ownership of the Log House or its furnishings. Neither did it 

retract its request for access to WNMA records. 

 The WNMA grudgingly accepted the changes to the concession permit, perhaps after Mason 

received further confirmation from Acting Regional Director Raymond Mulvany that the NPS assistant 

solicitor determined all furnishings to be the possession of the government.85 Even so, a special 1962 

meeting to collect signatures for the permit, Gibbs noted that Mason, though still pushing the WNMA’s 

case for ownership of the Log House furnishings, did not mention the response she had previously 

received from the assistant secretary of the interior suggesting that he too had received a copy of the 

letter.86 In April 1963, when Mason did finally admit to receiving the letter, she dismissed it as inaccurate 

 

83 Gibbs to Regional Director, 17 April 1962, file “1962 Yellows” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. Also see 

SMR, April 1962, GEWA. 

84 Gibbs to Regional Director, 3 July 1962, file “1962 Yellows” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

85 See Mulvany to Mason, 19 December 1962; and Assistant Solicitor Bernard Meyer to the Director, 27 November 

1962 in HFCA. 

86 See file “1962 Yellows” NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA and SMR, December 1962, GEWA. 
161

and pledged to search through the WNMA records, warning that her son, lawyer George Mason Jr., was 

prepared to appeal the case to Congressman Smith.87 The WNMA finally did permit access to its records, 

but it is likely that Mason’s own inspection of the materials resulted in the removal of key documents. 

Regional Officer C.C. Thomas performed an audit of the WNMA’s records a year later and determined 

that, in fact, a number of records were missing.88

Although the WNMA did not win its battle to reclaim ownership of the Log House furnishings, it 

is evident that some portion of the items donated had vanished over the years. In part, this resulted from 

NPS failure to demand accountability of the WNMA in previous years. Gibbs attempted to catalogue the 

items and compare the inventory with what Superintendent Hough recorded in 1940, but “there appears to 

be no way to trace them or to account for them.”89 Correspondence regarding the Log House ebbed in the 

years following the handover of WNMA records. Gibbs submitted a summary of the situation to the 

Regional Director in 1964 suggesting that, given its troubled history, the Log House might be best put to 

housing park staff.90

As the Mission 66 era came to a close, the Log House remained in limbo and relations between 

the WNMA and the NPS hit an all-time low. Remarkably, lingering tensions surrounding the Building X 

controversy continued to color the relationship. In February 1964, Gibbs took the bold step of suggesting 

to the Regional Director that the Park’s new information folder be frank about the Building X foundations 

despite the fact that “some members [have]...always objected to the wording of the sign seen as the 

visitor approaches the Memorial mansion. They insist that the house is on the exact site of the 

birthhome.”91 That same month, the WNMA refused to host Washington’s birthday celebration and, had 

 

87 Gibbs to Regional Director, 22 April 1963, file “1963 reading file” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

88 SMR, October 1963 and January 1964, GEWA. If the current condition of the WNMA’s meeting minutes is any 

indication of the state these records were in upon their turn over, it is evident that significant portions of minutes and 

correspondence are missing considering serious chronological gaps. Gibbs suggested as much in his January 1964 

Monthly Report: “The WNMA records are being examined and a filing arrangement started from the dozen or so 

cardboard Boxes of material. There appears to be very little information that might be useful for our museum card 

records.” 

89 Gibbs to Regional Director, 11 December 1963, file “1963 reading file” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

90 Gibbs to Regional Director, 12 March 1964, in Ibid. 

91 Gibbs to Regional Director, 29 February 1964, in Ibid. 
162

Gibbs’ wife not volunteered to host the event, February 23 would have marked the first lapse in 

observation of the General’s birthday since 1932.92

Land Policy 

In addition to museum planning and working with the WNMA, Gibbs inherited yet another of his 

predecessor’s ongoing concerns during the Mission 66 years. The mid-1950s witnessed a variety of 

businesses open or change hands on and near the Monument’s approach along Route 204. In February 

1956, for instance, Preston Balderson sold an acre of land at the intersection of Routes 3 and 204 to a 

Washington, DC resident who subsequently opened an antique shop there.93 Hugo Sorivi announced his 

plans to open the “Wakefield Inn” at the intersection a month later and applied for a permit to sell wine 

and beer at the establishment.94 Non-commercial building also increased along the approach road. Two 

new residences appeared along Route 204 by 1958 and G.M. Johnson placed a trailer on another parcel 

giving rise to rumors that he intended to build a dance hall there. Gibbs was not alone in his fears 

regarding development of Route 204. James Latane considered buying a portion of the land simply to 

prevent the construction of a “bar and dance hall.” Roadside development reflected Westmoreland 

County’s improved economic situation during the mid-1950s, but it also jeopardized Mission 66 land 

planning as nearly all of the new buildings occupied the proposed “buffer strip area” earmarked within 

boundary expansion plans for acquisition in the Park’s Mission 66 prospectus. 95

Other land concerns fostered cooperation between the Monument and its neighbors. Local 

residents presented a petition in April 1959 to the NPS and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers requesting the 

dredging of Popes Creek to prevent additional sediment accumulation. Their campaign succeeded and 

within a year a channel had been cut through the creek.96 Conversely, community action could also take 

 

92 SMR, February 1964, GEWA. Also see 6 October 1966 WNMA meeting minutes in file “WNMA” in NPS 

Records Box 16 of 25, GEWA for summary of various social activities, plans for purchases, and light maintenance 

to house and furnishings. 

93 SMR, February 1956, GEWA. 

94 SMR, March 1956, GEWA. 

95 SMR, April 1958 and September 1959, GEWA. Also see file “1959 Reading files” in NPS Records Box 10 of 

25, GEWA with special regard to Gibbs to Regional Director, 17 February 1959. 

96 SMR, April 1959 and September 1960, GEWA. 
163

the form of collective inaction. Despite the impressive ability of the Park and local community to quickly 

and collectively protect county property against fire, neither Gibbs nor local residents moved too quickly 

in June 1960 in response to a fire at ‘Piggy’ Wall’s “shack” on Route 204. Though the community fire 

squad prevented the blaze from reaching nearby woodlands, they did not manage to save Wall’s home 

leaving Gibbs to comment, “this complete removal of the eye sore takes care of an unsightly problem of 

some years.”97

 Although Gibbs recognized that Mission 66 planning might be jeopardized as a result of local 

development and despite the relatively cordial relations he enjoyed with adjacent landowners, the 

superintendent was not able to take decisive action with regard to land policy. His inability resulted, in 

part, from a greater inability to locate necessary land deed information stemming from poor file 

management systems and a loss of institutional memory. This is not to say that Gibbs did not try. In fact, 

these years mark the beginning of a new approach to land policy that would resonate for many years to 

come. By early 1959, Gibbs had begun to update the Park’s boundary status report in order to evaluate 

the likelihood of fulfilling Mission 66 goals. Given the development activity described above, it became 

evident that outright acquisition of property along the approach road might not be the most effective land 

policy. Gibbs suggested to the Regional Director that the NPS consider protecting land adjacent to Route 

204 by entering into scenic easement agreements with adjacent landowners.98 The Regional Office 

expressed interest in Gibbs' easement proposal and encouraged him to further develop the idea. 

At the same time, however, a NPS-wide request to compile accounting records for all real 

property—including land—led to Gibbs’ discovery that the Monument’s files lacked important land 

ownership records.99 The Regional Office sent J.R. McConaghie to assist with the boundary and land 

status report but missing records complicated the process.100 Gibbs and his staff were not able to generate 

accurate land value estimates, as “there has been very little land of any kind sold in this vicinity in some 

 

97 SMR, June 1960, GEWA. 

98 Gibbs to Regional Director, 28 January 1959, file “1959 Reading files” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 

99 Gibbs to Director, 10 February 1959, in Ibid. 

100 SMR, May 1959, GEWA. 
164

years.” Moreover, the report’s suggestion of proposed additions did not even address the land west of 

Bridges Creek along the Potomac River that “has been placed in the hands of a real estate dealer for sale 

or possibly housing development.”101 It had become apparent by 1960 that Washington’s Birthplace 

lacked the ability to take decisive action with regard to land policy given its remarkable unawareness of 

its own land history. The Regional Office attempted to help in this regard and dispatched Clifford 

Harriman and E.J. Clancy to the Westmoreland County Court House “to determine what additional study 

would be necessary for the Legislative Program.”102 Still, that Mission 66 did not produce a coherent land 

policy for the Monument points to a history of poor record keeping and suggests that the Monument itself 

lacked the resources and perhaps the foresight to take full advantage of the program’s resources. 

 It appears, therefore, that Mission 66 did not ultimately have a significant direct impact on goings 

on at Washington’s Birthplace. Regional Curators did assist interpretation by cataloging artifacts and 

devising furnishing plans. And Mission 66 administrative and record-keeping changes certainly 

influenced the amount and type of work done by park staff. But chronic understaffing compromised the 

Park’s ability to meet the demands of increased visitation by new kinds of visitors. And without a 

dedicated administrative building or a long-term management plan, the Park would remain unable to 

become a modern historic site. Moreover, Park management took a dramatic turn in 1964. 

Superintendent Gibbs left the superintendency that year and, rather than replace him, the NPS shifted 

administration of the Monument to the Fredericksburg & Spotsylvania County Battlefields Memorial 

National Military Park and Cemetery on August 9, 1964 under the guidance of Superintendent George 

Schesventer. As we will see in the following chapter, although Mission 66 did not modernize 

Washington’s Birthplace, new leadership did encourage a spirit of reinvention that heralded dramatic 

changes in the decade to come. 

 

101 Gibbs to Regional Director, 18 May 1960, file “Daily correspondence calendar year 1960” in NPS Records Box 

10 of 25, GEWA. 

102 See SMR, February and March 1962, GEWA and Gibbs to Regional Director, 20 January 1962, file “1962 

Yellows NPS Records” in NPS Records Box 10 of 25, GEWA. 
CHAPTER 7 

Living History and Modernization, 1966-1980 

Mission 66 succeeded in modernizing the national parks by improving roads, building visitor 

centers, and updating park bureaucracies. At the same time, and in large part as a result of George 

Hartzog’s directorship (1964-1972), the NPS witnessed impressive growth. Under Hartzog, the park 

system added sixty eight parks. Natural resource management received new focus, especially beginning 

in 1963 with the release of the so called Leopold Report that encouraged preservation of natural 

landscapes. The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 gave birth to the National Register of 

Historic Places that enabled the NPS to protect historic landmarks in both public and private ownership. 

The Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965 encouraged land acquisition throughout the park 

system. And, in 1964, Secretary of the Interior Stewart L. Udall requested that the system be organized 

into natural, historical, and recreational parks. Director Hartzog responded with the 1972 National Park 

System Plan that divided historical sites into thematic categories in hopes of identifying and filling gaps 

in the NPS’s collection of historical parks.1

Hartzog’s emphasis on expanding and improving historical parks inspired significant changes in 

the way NPS sites interpreted historic resources.2

 The roots of NPS interpretive thinking concerning 

historic sites date back to 1930 when Horace Albright created the Branch of Research and Education. 

Congress supported Albright’s vision in 1932 by voting over $22,000 for employees to develop 

“educational work.”3

 By 1941, the NPS employed a number of geologists, biologists, historians, and 

museum experts to craft its interpretive programs and increasing numbers of university students used the 

parks as living laboratories.4

 As we have seen at Washington’s Birthplace, however, interpretive 

programming remained more-or-less unchanged at many historic sites since the early 1930s. 

 

1

 Mackintosh, The National Parks, pp. 64-67. 2

 For Hartzog’s thoughts on the impact of Mission 66, environmentalism in the NPS, and Udall’s classification of 

park types, see Battling for the National Parks, pp. 84-89, 102-103. 3

 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 345. 4

 Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 446. 
166

That changed during the 1960s. In response to the Leopold Report, parks increasingly sponsored 

environmental educational programs and environmental interpretation that stressed the historical 

significance of natural landscapes.5

 Emphasis on natural landscapes, especially at rural sites like 

Washington’s Birthplace, created opportunities to experiment with living history.6

 With the example of 

John D. Rockefeller’s Colonial Williamsburg restoration in mind, American museum professionals began 

discussing the possibility of creating living agricultural museums during the 1940s.7

 Real interest in 

developing the living farm concept emerged during the 1960s following historian Marion Clawson’s 

proposal “that we establish in the United States a system of living operating historical farms, to portray 

some of the main elements of U.S. agricultural history.”8

 Clawson’s proposal accompanied and drew 

strength from new directions in historical methodology. The ‘New Social History,’ with its interest in the 

lives and stories of the disenfranchised and working poor, legitimized Clawson’s mandate, which 

consequently struck a chord in Washington. 9

The 1968 Master Plan 

 

5

 Mackintosh, The National Parks, p. 65. 6

 European folklorists first breathed life into the living history concept as collectors of regional folklore and material 

culture found academic peers among a new breed of social historians who shared an interest in preserving what they 

perceived to be a vanishing pre-industrial way of life. Artur Hazelius’ Skansen museum, opened near Stockholm, 

Sweden in 1891, is often recognized as the first outdoor living history museum. John D. Rockefeller’s Colonial 

Williamsburg and Henry Ford’s Greenfield Village both opened during the late 1920s and represent the first 

significant examples of the outdoor village model in the United States. Concerning the origins of the outdoor 

museum, see Mark B. Sandberg, Living Pictures, Missing Persons: Museums, Mannequins, and Modernity

(Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2003). 

7

 Warren Leon and Margaret Piatt, "Living-History Museums" in Warren Leon and Roy Rosenzweig, eds., History 

Museums in the United States, A Critical Assessment (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1989), p. 

70. The years between 1945 and 1965 witnessed an explosion of museums and historic sites that embraced some 

form of living history interpretation. These include but are not limited to The Farmers' Museum, New York (1944), 

Old Sturbridge Village, Massachusetts (1946), Plimoth Plantation, Massachusetts (1947), Shelburne Museum, 

Vermont (1947), Museum Village, New York (1950), Old Salem, North Carolina (1950), Historic Deerfield, 

Massachusetts (1952), Landis Valley Museum, Pennsylvania (1953), Hagley Museum, Delaware (1957), Hope 

Lodge, Pennsylvania (1957), Hancock Shaker Village, Massachusetts (1960), Erie Canal Museum, New York 

(1962), Quiet Valley Living Historical Farm, Pennsylvania (1963), and Strawberry Banke, New Hampshire (1965) 

8

 Marion Clawson, “Living Historical Farms: A Proposal for Action” in Agricultural History 39:3 (April 1965), p. 

110. 

9

 For discussions of the impact of 1960s and 1970s cultural upheaval on the development of living history, see Cary 

Carson, “Living Museums of Everyman’s History” in Harvard Magazine 83 (July-Aug. 1981): 22-33; John D. 

Krugler, "Behind the Public Presentations: Research and Scholarship at Living History Museums of Early America" 

in William and Mary Quarterly Third Series 48 (July 1991): 347-386; and Mike Wallace, "Museums and 

Controversy" in Mickey Mouse History and Other Essays on American Memory (Philadelphia: Temple University 

Press, 1996). 
167

 Clawson’s article found favor with Secretary Udall who appointed Roy E. Appleman to 

investigate relevant NPS opportunities. Director Hartzog urged Appleman to work with speed on the 

initiative so as to compete with the Smithsonian’s own fledgling initiatives.10 Appleman and others met 

in 1966 to identify parks especially suitable for experimentation with living history—Washington’s 

Birthplace made the short list. Monument staff had already begun revising their master plan when 

Appleman made a personal visit to Wakefield to discuss the new initiative. Park historian Thomas J. 

Harrison revised the Park’s interpretive prospectus in January 1966.11 The prospectus suggested that the 

time had come to exert greater control over visitor movement through the Park and thus, greater control 

over the historical message conveyed to visitors. Integral to this plan was completion of the long-awaited 

visitor center that, in 1966, still lingered on the distant horizon. Harrison also called for a series of 

wayside exhibits to further organize the visitor’s experience. Detailed flow diagrams illustrate what 

Harrison had in mind (Illustration 5). 

 Roy Appleman reviewed a draft of the plan in 1967 and requested that Ernst Christensen revise it 

to include a plan for a living farm.12 Christensen wrote to the superintendent that, 

Such a farm should be designed to depict typical farming practices used during the middle of the 

eighteenth century in that part of Virginia. It should be as historically accurate as possible. It 

should avoid both the zoo atmosphere and the pitfall of an animal show that would detract from 

 

10 The Smithsonian Institution’s Curator of Agriculture, John Schlebecker, was first to respond to Clawson’s 

mandate. He initiated the Living Historical Farms Project which proposed to evaluate extant Smithsonian programs 

with living farm potential in search for an opportunity to create a nation-wide program. The project did not produce 

any concrete results, but it did promote additional interest in the living farm idea and encouraged emergent living 

history programs like that at Darwin Kelsey’s Old Sturbridge Village in Massachusetts. Kelsey’s conversion of an 

old farm into a working farm museum demonstrated the perfect interpretive fit between operational historic farms, 

costumed interpretation, and hands-on exhibits. A symposium at Old Sturbridge Village in 1970 resulted in the 

creation of the Association for Living Historical Farms and Agricultural Museums (ALHFAM). That organization, 

operating under the auspices of the Smithsonian, grew quickly into the most prominent supporter of living history 

museums in the United States and, as such, bore various degrees of influence on virtually every living history 

operation begun in following years. Jay Anderson suggests that the 1974 issue of Museum News “is a benchmark 

for the living history movement. With this issue of the journal of the American Association of Museums, historical 

simulation became respectable as a medium of museum interpretation.” See Robert Ronsheim, "Is the Past Dead?" 

in Jay Anderson, A Living History Reader, Volume One, Museums (Nashville: American Association for State and 

Local History, 1991). Hartzog discusses his early impressions of living farms in Battling for the National Parks, p. 

144. 

11 See 1966 rough draft of Thomas J. Harrison, “Interpretive Prospectus for George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument,” in unlabeled black folder in Seth Box 4, GEWA. 

12 See Carson, “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace,” p. 4115. 
168

the monument’s...endeavor to provide the sights, sounds and the way of life seen, heard, and 

experienced by the child, boy, and young man, George Washington.13

Park staff drafted a new master plan in accordance with Christensen’s recommendations and, in 1968, the 

Park issued not its first, but definitely its most elaborate guiding document to date. The plan shifted 

interpretation away from commemoration of Washington—à la the hero worship typical of the Colonial 

Revival—toward understanding the historical context of Washington’s early life. In addition to calling 

for “presentation of the farm as the boy Washington knew it,” the plan proposed additional archeological 

research, self-guided nature walks, seasonal interpretation of waterfowl populations, a sizeable visitor 

center, improved law enforcement, and a variety of lesser improvements. Although the plan did not 

specifically identify Building X as the actual site of Washington’s birth, it did lean in that direction and 

demanded that further archeological work be performed to clarify the issue. 

In hindsight, the 1968 master plan was extremely ambitious. An attached general development 

plan—begun in 1966 and subsequently revised in 1967—demonstrates the Monument’s desire to remove 

non-interpretive structures from the core historic area. It called for the demolition of a comfort station, 

storage shed, stables, utility shed, post office, parking area, and the old temporary administration building. 

Most significantly, the plan outlined development for a substantial living farm facility. As of 1968, the 

Monument leased about 170 acres of land to adjacent landowners through special agricultural permits. 

The master plan proposed to honor those permits until and if the Monument desired to expand its farm 

operation which would be located in and around the Muse family inholding (Map 3). Finally, the plan 

repeated requests from previous master plans for acquisition of lands along Route 204 and—in a 

surprising return to the pre-war era—revival of the Log House as a restaurant and lodge.14

Raymond Freeman, Acting Assistant Director of Cooperative Activities, withheld approval of the 

plan’s proposed boundary extensions and land acquisitions and requested that the Regional Director 

 

13 Christensen to Superintendent, Fredericksburg National Military Park, 25 July 1967, cited in Carson, “The 

Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace,” p. 4115. 

14 Interest in resurrecting the Log House followed proposals to create a “Potomac Heritage Trail” intended to link 

the Monument with Ferry Farm, Williamsburg, and Yorktown. It is not clear who proposed the heritage trail though 

it is evident that the proposal never came to fruition. See Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, pp. 2.88-2.89 for 

details concerning this proposal and additional descriptions of the 1968 master plan. 
169

investigate alternatives leading to scenic control of lands marked for acquisition. Freeman argued that 

Congress would probably not grant boundary extensions predicated on expensive fee acquisition of 

desired lands. Rather, he suggested that the Monument explore cooperative agreements with other state 

and local governmental agencies, easements with “options to buy later,” and any other means suggested 

by the Regional Director. Additionally, Freeman argued against reviving the Log House Tea Room lest it 

fall victim to its previous fate. He suggested that the building be used as quarters for seasonal hires and 

for other management purposes.15

The most dramatic response to the 1968 master plan occurred during August 19-20, 1968 when 

the largest interpretive planning conference “ever assembled in the Service” met at Washington’s 

Birthplace to discuss the Park’s new direction.16 Topics of discussion ranged from proposed interpretive 

exhibits for the new visitor center to ideas concerning wayside exhibits. Attendees agreed that Memorial 

House furnishings should be made “more human in aspect” and less like a museum so that “the 

furnishings suggest activities.” Discussion concerning the Living Farm is notable for what was not 

ultimately included in the landscape. Planners argued that “the Living Farm should be related more to the 

water—with fish nets, fish barrels, net house, wharf and boats” though these features never did appear. 

Most significantly, the conference put forth in plain language evolving attitudes about the Building X 

controversy: “we will probably have to get off the pot on calling this Building “X”. If it is the site where 

GW was born, we should summon a little more dignity and call it the Birthplace Site.”17

New Research for New Interpretive Directions 

The 1968 master plan prompted three research projects deemed essential for interpretive 

planning. The first of these, a critical assessment of past archeological work, echoed the orientation 

report submitted by David Rodnick over two decades before. The NPS hired Bruce Powell in 1968 to 

 

15 Freeman to Chief, Office of Resource Planning-WSC, 13 July 1967, in Box GEWA 1, Cultural Resources 

Bibliography, NPS Harpers Ferry Center (Willow Springs), Charles Town, WV. 16 This meeting included Bill Holliman, Don Jackson, Bob Walker, Bob Nash, Ernst Christensen, Don Benson, Rick 

Krepela, Al Swift, Charles Hatch, Charles Shedd, and Alan Kent—“Others joined the group from time to time.” See 

Kent to Shedd, 22 August 1968, HFCA. 

17 Ibid. This memo summarizes discussions held at the conference on the afternoon of August 20, 1968. 
170

evaluate all past archeological work including Rodnick’s report and to make recommendations for future 

studies. Unsurprisingly, Powell’s conclusions more-or-less repeated those of the Rodnick report. The 

final report cautioned against additional historical reconstructions pending further investigation of already 

developed areas. Most importantly, Powell did not mince words regarding Building X and suggested 

“that Building X be re-excavated, stabilized, and permanently exhibited to the public...I also recommend 

that it be identified as the birth site of George Washington.”18

 Former Ranger-Historian Charles Hatch’s Chapters in the History of Popes Creek Plantation

appeared shortly after Powell’s report.19 Hatch’s volume is the most substantial study of Washington 

family history within the Northern Neck of Virginia. Though originally written as an interpretation 

handbook, Hatch’s book has since been edited and published. Hatch’s account ends with the 

establishment of the Monument under the NPS, but his book remains the most thorough treatment of 

Monument history and, as such, an invaluable resource. Finally, Robert Nash’s interpretive prospectus 

rounded out this triumvirate. Nash distilled the main themes put forth in the 1968 master plan into a 

series of guides for each interpretive unit (e.g. the Memorial Mansion, the Colonial Kitchen, and the 

Living Farm) and created something of a how-to guide for would-be tour leaders.20 Together with the 

master plan, these documents guided staff in their efforts to recreate Washington’s Birthplace and on June 

18, 1968, public ceremonies marked the official opening of the Park’s Living Farm.21

 The cumulative results of research stemming from the master plan found formal expression in a 

development concept plan proposed in August 1970 and approved in May 1971.22 The development 

concept plan touched on a number of changes to the master plan, put forth a detailed approach to 

implementing living history at the Birthplace, and stressed the importance of all staff being in costume 

 

18 See Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” pp. 214-15. 

19 Hatch first entered duty at the Monument as a student technician in June 1937, just prior to entering the doctoral 

program in history at the University of Virginia. Hough commented that “it is hoped he may find time for research” 

in SMR, June 1937, GEWA. 

20 Carson, “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace,” pp. 4117-4118. 

21 ““Living” Colonial Farm at George Washington Birthplace to Open June 18,” press release for 16 June 1968, in 

Box “GEWA-Annual Reports” in HFCA, Harpers Ferry, WV. 

22 Development concept, 1970, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, NPS Files Box 19 of 25, 

GEWA. 
171

when visible to the public.23 It included a list of implementation details leading to complete isolation of 

the core historic area through “removal of the existing parking lot, administration office, and Post Office, 

as intrusions on the “living farm” theme.” This final adjustment permitted full expression of the 

motivations underlying the living farm concept. The development concept plan also called for improved 

utilities with special emphasis on construction of a more substantial water system to accommodate 

increased demand for fire protection and additional facilities including a new Morgan Horse Farm. Most 

importantly, the development concept plan proposes the “positive interpretation of “Building X” as the 

birth site.” Although it was evident by the early 1970s that interpretation leaned in this direction, the 

mandate had not been formalized until this point. 

The Colgate Morgan Horse Farm 

 The development concept plan describes the addition of a Morgan horse breeding farm as integral 

to “new interpretive approaches” at the Monument. 24 As of 1968, the NPS raised Morgan horses at a 

facility built for that purpose at Point Reyes National Seashore, California. Director Hartzog envisioned a 

bi-coastal system with a second site to provide horses for the eastern parks. Hartzog called NPS Regional 

Chief of Interpretation and Visitor Services Chester Harris on January 20, 1968 and indicated that Mrs. 

Richard M. Colgate—wife to the toothpaste mogul—desired to visit the Monument with the expressed 

 

23 Development concept, p. 13. 

24 Although planners may have forgotten the Park’s previous forays into horse breeding, there was certainly nothing 

new about the idea in 1970. Although Hough’s attempt to raise Morgan stallion mounts for the Capitol Parks Police 

failed during the 1940s amid wartime cutbacks, murmurs of reinvigorating the horse farm emerged soon after the 

war. As early as 1951, the U.S. Park Police requested that Washington’s Birthplace once again consider raising 

Morgan colts for police mounts. Although continual budget restrictions stymied this idea, interest again resurfaced 

in the mid 1960s. In October 1965, a representative of the Regional Office’s Division of Resource Management and 

Visitor Protection visited the Monument “to inspect it as to its possibilities of being made into a remount and 

training station for horses that will be used by mounted ranger patrols in other Parks.” There is some speculation 

that NPS Director George Hartzog’s own equestrian interests motivated this renewed interest in horse breeding at 

Popes Creek. The file “716 Horses” in NPS Records Box 14 of 25, GEWA covers the history of horse operations at 

Wakefield from 1933 to 1966. For various references to raising horses at the Monument, see SMR, October 1951 

and October 1965, in file “1965 reading file” in NPS Records, Box 10 of 25, GEWA. Concerning Hartzog’s 

personal interest in the horse farm, see John Donahue, interview with author, 14 May 2004 and Dwight Storke, 

interview with author, 20 May 2004—apparently Hartzog enjoyed horseback riding at the Park. The 

correspondence of his appointment to the directorship in 1964 and renewed interest in the horse farm at the same 

time seems to point in this direction. 
172

interest of donating horses and funds to support a ranch there.25 Harris accompanied Colgate to the Park 

the following day. She approved of the site and, on October 8, 1969, the Park officially dedicated its new 

Morgan Horse Farm with twelve Morgan horses donated by Colgate and officially accepted by Director 

Hartzog during public ceremonies (Images 43 & 44).26

Hartzog claimed that the horse farm, in addition to providing mounts for the NPS, would 

“enhance the ‘living farm’ concept of the National Monument” and the 1971 development concept plan 

casts the operation in a similar interpretive light. Even so, the ranch—built between the staff residence 

area and the Washington Family burial ground—stood well beyond walking distance of the core historic 

area. Its modern buildings—including a barn, four paddocks, a clay-surfaced training ring, and six 

pasture sheds—did not fit within any definition of an eighteenth-century aesthetic.27 Moreover, the horse 

farm remained operationally separate from both the core historic area and the Park’s Living Farm 

operation. Former Interpretive Specialist and Superintendent Dwight Storke recalls that the new facility 

hired its own employees and required little assistance from Monument employees. Unfortunately, records 

concerning the legal and administrative circumstances of the farm’s initial organization are unavailable. 

A January 1971 cooperative agreement between the NPS and the Eastern National Park and Monument 

Association (ENPMA), however, does support Storke’s account by indicating that the ENPMA assumed 

primary responsibility for administering the horse farm. The cooperative agreement indicates that the 

ENPMA formally received Colgate’s donation and agreed to “maintain the...horses...and to provide for 

their complete care while in the custody of the Service.” “Care,” in this context, included funding 

expenses related to showing horses, stud services, and record keeping.28

 

25 Chester Harris, interview with author, 28 January 2005. 

26 See “Morgan Horse Farm Dedication at Washington’s Birthplace October 13” press release, 8 October 1969, in 

Box “BEWA-Annual Reports,” HFCA. 

27 See Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.90. 28 “Cooperative Agreement between the National Park Service and the Eastern National Park and Monument 

Association,” 29 January 1971, in Seth Box 1, GEWA. The 1971 cooperative agreement does suggest that the farm 

had been operated under the supervision of the ENPMA since its inception, though without an agreement from 1968, 

it is impossible to know—although this agreement may very well be a revision of a prior agreement. Neither the 

GEWA nor the ENPMA possess records from the operation. The Monument continued to operate under the 

management of the Fredericksburg National Military Park during these years, though that park does not retain any 

records relating to the horse farm. The ENPMA’s Acting Chairman Harold L. Peterson signed the cooperative 
173

It is also unclear exactly how long the horse farm existed. A 1999 cultural landscape report indicates that 

the farm remained active until 1976.29 Annual superintendent reports tell another story. According to 

Superintendent Marlo Acock’s reports, the farm ceased “production and training of mounts for park 

rangers and park policemen” in 1972 and had, during that year, been fully integrated into the Park’s living 

farm concept with a decision to provide working harness teams, pack horses, and riding horses from the 

horse farm’s stock for the Living Farm operation.30 By the end of the following year, Acock reported 

incorporating “the personnel and resources of the former Morgan Horse Farm into the interpretive and 

maintenance programs. This was done through a successful herd reduction, conversation of the horse 

farm into the maintenance and utility area, and the movement of personnel into the divisions of area 

services and visitor services.”31 It appears that the horse farm only operated between 1968 and 1972.32

Dwight Storke and Costumed Interpretation 

Though short-lived, the Morgan Horse Farm left a substantial imprint on the landscape that 

consequently facilitated the Monument’s desire to remove non-interpretive activities from the core 

historic area. Until 1973, the Park’s maintenance facilities occupied a large barn built in 1932 adjacent to 

the Memorial House. Dwight Storke—then serving as Chief Ranger—and Superintendent Marlo Acock 

recognized the opportunity presented by the vacant stables and, keeping in line with the development 

concept plan’s mandate to isolate the historic area, relocated maintenance operations to the larger 

 agreement along with the Southeast Regional Director, David D. Thompson. Therefore, records of the horse farm 

operation may exist at NARA facilities in Atlanta although though archivists assure me that there are no remaining 

records relating to the Birthplace in Atlanta. 

29 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v.1, p. 2.90. 30 SAR, 1972, in Box GEWA, HFCA. 

31 SAR, 1973, in Box GEWA, HFCA. 

32 The circumstances surrounding its closing are equally unclear. Storke claims that the Horse Farm became a 

financial liability for the NPS as a host of variables including marginal breeding success eventually cost the farm 

more than it could provide in service to the NPS. Correspondence reveals that the ENPMA denied the farm’s 

requests to purchase a show cart to boost visibility and attract potential breeders thereby supporting Storke’s 

account. Chester Harris further suggests that Director Hartzog found purchasing grown horses on an as-needed 

basis more economical than raising horses at two separate ranch facilities. Seth Box 1, GEWA contains denied 

requests for ENPMA support of show horses. Chester Harris, interview with author, 28 January 2005. Dwight 

Storke, interview with author, 20 May 2004. 
174

buildings constructed for the Morgan Horse Farm.33 Acock’s 1972 annual report indicates that the move 

occurred that year and created additional space for interpretive activities in the old maintenance building. 

Despite the advantage of more commodious facilities, the relocation prevented maintenance staff 

from quickly and regularly attending to the needs of the core historic area. By 1970, however, costumed 

interpreters had already been encouraged to “perform a greater percentage of the normal maintenance 

tasks [including cleaning of the Memorial House and attending to crops and livestock] of the area using 

the methods and tools of the eighteenth century.”34 Realizing this, Storke worked toward redefining 

maintenance job descriptions to include interpretive activities. So, by the mid 1970s, employees hired as 

maintenance personnel donned costumes and formed the front-line interpretive force at Washington’s 

Birthplace. Paul Carson notes, “ultimately this situation would lead to a gradual transition of farm 

workers from being employed as laborers on the maintenance staff to interpreters on the interpretive staff 

over the next few years.”35 In 1973, for the first time, all interpretive staff donned “fully documented 

period clothing” and so fulfilled the living history concept envisioned by the various planning initiatives 

undertaken between 1968 and 1971. 

Dwight Storke played a significant role in bringing those initiatives to fruition. Storke, whose 

family had owned property in the area for over three hundred years and claimed ancestral ties to the 

Washington family, studied history and education in college. He joined the NPS and studied living 

history interpretive methods at the Horace M. Albright Training Center at Grand Canyon National Park. 

When Storke entered into service at Washington’s Birthplace in 1971, he brought a wealth of local 

knowledge and contagious enthusiasm to the Living Farm project. In addition to rearranging the Park’s 

maintenance and interpretive departments, Storke championed daily tour programs, almost singlehandedly created the Park’s domestic crafts program, and streamlined all aspects of costumed 

 

33 Former Superintendent John Donahue notes that, because of this building exchange, GEWA’s maintenance 

facilities are among the best in the NPS for a park of its size. See John Donahue, interview with author, 14 May 

2005, and Dwight Storke, interview with author, 20 May 2004. 

34 Management Assistant James R. Walker, “Annual Report of Information and Interpretive Services, 1969” in Box 

GEWA, HFCA. 

35 Carson, “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace,” p. 4119. 
175

interpretation. Superintendent Marlo Acock granted Storke a $200 (about $900 today) special 

achievement award in 1972 for his work as interpretive specialist and for “special achievement in the 

formulation and operation of the living history interpretive program.”36

Storke’s own personal background and long-standing relationship with residents of the Northern 

Neck proved invaluable to development of the living history program. Friendly with the WNMA, Storke 

encouraged the group to assist with costumed interpretation inside the Memorial House and at various 

craft demonstrations throughout the Park. Warmed by their new increasingly visible role at the 

Birthplace, the WNMA provided funds for purchase of more accurate costumes for themselves and for 

park employees.37 Additionally, Storke staged a three-day orientation program for interpretive staff that 

included a “seminar on methods and attitudes necessary to effectively interpret the feeling of the Colonial 

Era” and a packet containing historical information about the Washington family. Storke rounded out his 

orientation program with visits to other living history sites. 38

A three day-program, though impressive for the time, was not enough to fully orient new 

interpreters to the “feeling, attitude, and historical information they would need to effectively interpret 

George Washington’s Birthplace to the visitors.”39 Former employee Janice Frye hired on as one of the 

first costumed interpreters at the Birthplace during the summer of 1972. Fresh out of high school at that 

time, Frye recalls enjoying her new job, but remembers very little about preparing to give costumed tours 

of the Birthplace.40 Ranger Roberta Samuel describes learning how to do the job by trial and error and by 

observing other employees’ successes and failures. The situation could become downright uncomfortable 

when, as in Samuel’s case, costumed African-American interpreters suffered racial slurs from both Black 

and White visitors. Even the least historically savvy visitor must have recognized the not-so-subtle 

suggestion that an African-American interpreter in costume evoked slave life, and this well before formal 

 

36 SAR, 1972, in Box GEWA, HFCA. This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according 

to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 

37 Carson, “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace,” p. 4119. 

38 Dwight Storke, “An 18th Century Summer at George Washington’s Birthplace,” included with SAR, 1972, in Box 

GEWA, HFCA. 

39 Ibid. 

40 Janice Frye, interview with author, 21 January 2005. 
176

attempts at interpreting slavery. It was not uncommon for visitors to offer to “buy” Samuel. Although 

she took this abuse in stride and did not seek redress through the Monument, one can only imagine how 

difficult it must have been to deal with this daily barrage, especially without formal training.41

Re-inhabiting the Memorial House and Colonial Kitchen 

 Despite these early growing pains, the new Living Farm and the core historic area witnessed an 

explosion of costumed interpretive activity during the early 1970s. Storke and his interpretive program 

adhered closely to suggestions set forth in the 1971 development concept plan. By 1972, costumed 

interpreters prepared Washington family recipes in the Colonial Kitchen, often with vegetables from the 

Colonial Garden, and offered samples to visitors (Image 45).42 Kitchen interpreters also made beeswax 

candles and soap and described procedures for stringing lemons for drying, washing wool, and drying 

herbs. Costumed interpreters stationed in the Memorial House demonstrated quilting, spinning, flower 

arranging, carding, needlepoint, and pewter polishing. A few hundred feet southwest of the Memorial 

House, in the field where Hough once staged portions of his colonial crop demonstration, a costumed oxdriver discussed and demonstrated eighteenth-century techniques for using draught animals. Most 

significantly, 1972 marked the first year in Monument history that guides offered regularly scheduled 

tours of the core historic area. The rise of living history at Washington’s Birthplace created a structured 

visitor experience unlike any the Park had offered during its previous forty years. 

 Living history demonstrations in the Memorial House and Colonial Kitchen satisfied, in part, the 

development concept plan’s suggestion that the Memorial House be made less like a museum and more 

like a lived-in home. Rooms in those two buildings, however, remained decorated more-or-less as Louise 

Crowninshield had furnished them during the late 1930s and early 1940s. In 1965, Assistant Regional 

 

41 See Roberta Samuel, interview with author, 25 May 2004. 

42 Dwight Storke, “An 18th Century Summer at George Washington’s Birthplace,” included with SAR, 1972, in Box 

GEWA, HFCA. Prepared items included Washington cake, ginger cakes, sweet potato buns, batter break, sugar 

cakes, apple pie, sweet rolls, colonial salad, apple fritters, loaf break, born muffins, spice balls, biscuits, Washington 

bread pudding, Washington incomprehensible puddings, tea cakes, corn meal cakes, Washington French rolls, 

Washington pickled cucumbers, blackberry pie, upside-down cake, and cooked beets. 
177

Director Lisle requested that a furnishing plan be created for the Memorial House.43 It is not clear what 

prompted Lisle’s request—Vera Craig’s 1955 cataloging project may have motivated it—nor is it evident 

what if any role the Monument played in making this request. Director Hartzog created a new Division of 

Interpretation and Visitor Services the previous year and it is possible that the division’s Chief, Bill 

Everhart, sought to address as many long-standing projects as possible in his quest to bring interpretive 

planning up to speed with the infrastructural improvements of Mission 66. Ralph Lewis, Chief of the 

Branch of Museum Operations, suggested that Craig be dispatched once again to perform the study but 

there is no evidence that the proposal ever came to fruition. 

 The NPS selected Washington’s Birthplace in 1973 as an official location for celebration of the 

upcoming Bicentennial, thus making the Park eligible for portions of the $100 million allocated to the 

NPS as part of the Bicentennial development program.44 Taking advantage of this opportunity, the 

Monument requested furnishing studies for both the Memorial House and the Colonial Kitchen from the 

then barely one-year-old Denver Service Center (DSC).45 The creation of the DSC—a centralized 

planning, design, and construction project management office—typified the NPS’s increased 

specialization in planning and design during the 1970s. Where physical development previously fell to 

park and regional planners, now matters of facilities management required consultation with DSC 

planners. Sarah Olson, of the DSC’s historic preservation team, submitted “Historic Furnishing Study, 

the Ancient Kitchen and Colonial Garden” in April 1974. The sixty-page report provides a succinct 

summary of the Wakefield story as it bears on the Colonial Kitchen and provides information concerning 

colonial cooking tools and practices. The study does not make specific recommendations, but rather 

provides a glimpse of how an eighteenth-century Northern Neck kitchen might appear and function. 

 

43 See Chief of Branch of Museum Operations Ralph Lewis to Regional Director, Southeast Region, 26 October 

1965, in Box GEWA 1, Cultural Resources Bibliography, NPS Harpers Ferry Center (Willow Springs), Charles 

Town, WV. 

44 See Merrill J. Mattes, “Landmarks of Liberty, a Report on the American Revolution Bicentennial Development 

Program of the National Park Service” (draft), Washington: Department of the Interior, 1989. 45 See file “GWB Furnishing Study Draft” and Sarah Olson’s November 1974 “Historic Furnishing Study, the 

Ancient Kitchen and Colonial Garden” in file “folder” in NPS Records Box 17 of 25, GEWA. 
178

Though the Monument seems to have had no problems working with the DSC on the Colonial 

Kitchen study, the Memorial House study proved altogether disastrous. DSC Supervisory Historian 

Edwin Bearss contacted the Monument in April 1973 to confirm initiation of the study by DSC Historian 

George J. Svejda.46 In the meantime, Svejda—who had already been cited for poor performance—had 

been transferred to the National Capital Parks and, prior to his transfer, submitted only a partial draft of 

the study he previously claimed to be nearly complete.47 The DSC contacted recently appointed 

Superintendent Don Thompson in December 1974 and explained that “the Furnishing Study by G. Svejda 

received in October is professionally worthless...we admit that the only way to get the Furnishing Study 

you need is to start over again. We believe that $10,000 would do it, assuring that a competent employee 

is assigned, and that’s the only kind we have left!”48 Thompson wrote to Regional Curator William 

Jedlick who forwarded the inquiry to Regional Director Chester Brooks. Brooks contacted the DSC and 

requested a copy of Svejda’s unfinished report to determine “whether we should complete a new 

Furnishing Study ourselves or whether funds should be allocated to contract for a new Furnishing Study 

though you.”49 After considering Svejda’s materials, Brooks evidently settled for the first option and 

Jedlick submitted an “Interim Furnishing Study and Plan” in April 1977.50 Jedlick’s draft study included 

recommendations for exhibition of rooms within the Memorial House keeping with the suggestions put 

forth by the development concept plan. 

Planning a New Visitor Center 

 

46 Bearss to Acock, 9 April 1973, in NPS Records, Box 17 of 25, GEWA. 

47 See series of correspondence regarding Svejda’s performance: DSC Historic Preservation Team Acting Manager 

John Luzader to DSC Acting Manager Donald Benson, 11 October 1974, and Benson to WASO Deputy Director, 15 

October 1974, in NPS Records, Box 17 of 25, GEWA. Merrill Mattes describes these years as difficult for DSC 

because, despite substantial demands to undertake Bicentennial development projects, federal staffing limitations 

and an under qualified employee pool complicated project assignment. See Mattes, “Landmarks of Liberty.” 

Svejda’s case may have been more complex, though. Svejda had previously been embroiled in a 1965 controversy 

surrounding interpretation of African American immigration at the Statue of Liberty National Monument during 

which at least one Congressman called for his resignation. See Barbra Blumberg, “Celebrating the Immigrant, an 

Administrative History of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, 1952-1982, 1985, Cultural Resource 

Management Study No. 10, Division of Cultural Resources, North Atlantic Regional Office, p. 33. 

48 DSC Historic Preservation Team Manager Merrill J. Mattes to Superintendent Don Thompson, 24 December 

1974, in NPS Records, Box 17 of 25, GEWA. 

49 Thompson to Jedlick, 6 January 1975, and Brooks to Mattes, 18 January 1975, in ibid. 

50 I have not seen this report. GEWA archive technician Vickie Stewart reports it to be in her files. 
179

 Although the Monument’s core historic area had always been construed as an interpretive 

landscape—by superintendents and visitors alike—creation of the Living Farm transformed that 

landscape in ways that shifted interpretive focus away from the Memorial House and toward what had 

become a living, functional landscape. Removal of maintenance facilities to the old Morgan Horse Farm, 

for instance, allowed conversion of the old building into a demonstration shed where interpreters 

practiced and discussed eighteenth-century crafts. Additions called for in the 1968 master plan, including 

conversion of restrooms into a spinning and weaving room and construction of a corncrib, oxen shed, 

small tobacco barn, and various livestock pens, also created a landscape more evocative of an eighteenthcentury plantation.51 The Monument additionally revived Hough’s colonial crops demonstration concept 

(though not then attributed to Hough) in 1973 and planted 140 acres in hay and other crops to provide 

feed for livestock and to interpret colonial agricultural practices.52 In sum, these additions permitted 

Monument staff to use the landscape as a tool by which to interpret George Washington’s lived 

experience rather than, as had been done more-or-less until that point, to simply honor his memory. 

The old temporary administration building remained the sole obstacle preventing full realization 

of the development concept plan. Removing maintenance facilities to the old Morgan Horse Farm and 

converting the restrooms adjacent to the Memorial House into a spinning and weaving room initiated the 

development concept plan’s call for isolation of the core historic area. Administrative offices—though 

small—still occupied a prominent position near the Memorial House. Hough and others had repeatedly 

called for a new administrative building since the 1940s. Mission 66 promised to provide a visitor 

center—to accommodate administration and visitor orientation—but there is no evidence of plans drawn 

in direct conjunction with Mission 66 initiatives. Harrison’s January 1966 tentative interpretive 

prospectus outlined at length how a visitor center might function, but it did not include schematics. 

The first tentative schematic for a visitor center grew out of the August 19-20, 1968 interpretive 

planning conference convened at the Monument to discuss the 1968 master plan and its interpretive 

 

51 See Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.92. 52 SAR, 1973, in Box GEWA, HFCA. 
180

implications (Illustration 6).53 Chief of Design and Construction H. Reese Smith, distributed the 

schematic—based, he noted, on discussions at the interpretive conference and from review of Harrison’s 

prospectus—in September 1968 for review and inclusion in the Park’s new interpretive prospectus. The 

schematic portrays a long low brick building including a lobby, administrative offices, exhibit area, 

concession and post office facilities, and a large audio-visual theatre. Arrows and dotted lines indicate 

intended movement of visitors through the visitor center reflecting, again, discussions at the interpretive 

conference and the continued influence of Mission 66 design philosophy.54

 Reactions to the schematic appear to have been largely favorable although correspondence 

throughout 1968 indicates some concern over the size of the audio-visual theatre and its seating 

configuration.55 The proposal made its way into the Park’s 1971 development concept plan and includes 

plans for elaborate visual displays like this device intended for the lobby: 

a rear-projection 16mm silent film which would run for several minutes. Its purpose will be to 

show the lifecycle of the “living farm,” and it will follow the seasons at the farm, showing the 

visitor that he is seeing but one segment of a much larger story. As the most logical time to see 

this exhibit would be after the visitor has completed his tour of the historic farm, the device will 

be mounted in the wall of the Visitor Center, and the image will be projected to the outside 

through the use of a mirror. When inclement weather would prevent the visitor from standing 

outside for a long period of time, the mirror could be changed, and the image projected inside the 

lobby.56

 

53 Chief of Design and Construction H. Reese Smith to WASO Chief of Planning and Interpretive Services William 

Ingersoll, 16 September 1968, in Box GEWA 1, Cultural Resources Bibliography, NPS Harpers Ferry Center 

(Willow Springs), Charles Town, WV. 

54 These early schematics—very similar to plans finalized during the 1970s—communicate the design cues typical 

of Mission 66 visitor centers built throughout the Parks during the 1960s. For a discussion of design philosophy 

during this period, see Sarah Allaback, Mission 66 Visitor Centers, The History of a Building Type (Washington, 

DC: Government Printing Office, 2000), pp. 6-38. This does not necessarily mean that the Monument’s visitor 

center falls within the period of significance associated with Mission 66. Allaback argues that that period properly 

spans the years 1945 to 1972, when reorganization and leadership change fundamentally altered service operations. 

See pp. 267-68. 

55 See Fredericksburg Battlefield Superintendent William Holloman to Regional Director, Southeast Region, 8 

October 1968; Acting Assistant Regional Director of Operations Fred Arnold to Director Regional Director, 16 

October 1968; Rick Krepela to Alan Kent, 4 November 1968; and Acting Chief of Planning and Interpretive 

Services William Ingersoll to Chief of Design and Construction, 27 December 1968, in Box GEWA 1, Cultural 

Resources Bibliography, NPS Harpers Ferry Center (Willow Springs), Charles Town, WV. 56 Development Concept, 1970, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, NPS Files Box 19 of 25, 

GEWA, p. 6. 
181

The development concept plan also details an elaborate orientation film involving three screens on which 

various projected images communicated different themes to the accompaniment of recorded sounds 

(“sounds of the plantation, the animals, the slaves, the children laughing, etc.”) and a narrated voice over. 

Archeology and Protection of Historic Resources 

 Discussions concerning the proposed visitor center unfolded concurrently with the NPS’s 

unveiling of its system-wide Bicentennial development program that promised financial support for the 

project. Planning requirements leading to alterations of historic structures and landscapes, however, had 

grown significantly more complicated since the Monument’s construction during the early 1930s. The 

nationwide developmental frenzy of the post-war years threatened historic resources throughout the 

country and Congress responded with the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966. NHPA 

required that the Secretary of the Interior, by way of the NPS, compile a National Register of Historic 

Places including all historic parks. The act further required that state historic preservation officers review 

any federal actions affecting sites listed on the register.57 NHPA Section 106 required that any alteration 

or development of registered or Register-eligible sites be preceded by careful consideration and 

documentation.58

 At Washington’s Birthplace, this meant a reexamination of the archeological record. 

Bicentennial development—based on proposals put forth in the 1968 master plan and 1971 development 

concept plan—involved demolition of the old administrative building, removal of the old parking lot, and 

construction of the visitor center and a new parking lot. In 1974, the DSC contracted Southside Historical 

Sites, Inc. of Williamsburg, VA under the direction of Norman Barka to perform preliminary excavations 

in advance of the construction work.59 Preliminary investigations focused on the area encompassing the 

Colonial Garden revealed “a possible wing of the birth house,” an artifact-rich colonial trash pit, traces of 

a previously unidentified structure, and evidence of prehistoric activity.60 Additional archeology at the 

 

57 Mackintosh, The National Parks, p. 72. 58 See Barry Mackintosh, “The National Park Service and Cultural Resources” CRM 4 (1999). 

59 See SAR, 1974 in Box “GEWA-Annual Reports” in HFCA, and Mattes, “Landmarks of Liberty.” 

60 Mattes, “Landmarks of Liberty.” 
182

site of the proposed visitor center and parking lot revealed a substantial prehistoric shell midden 

demanding careful construction of the parking area to avoid disturbing the resource.61

 Beyond satisfying Section 106 compliance requirements, the 1974-75 excavations figure 

prominently in the history of archeological study at Washington’s Birthplace. Later review determined 

that evidence of an earth-fast structure (a common style of early impermanent tidewater architecture) in 

the Colonial Garden—“along with the presence of an apparent root cellar within it”—likely points to the 

presence of a slave quarter adjacent to the birth house.62 Never before had evidence of slavery been 

accounted for at Popes Creek in any formal way. In fact, it is doubtful that archeologists would have 

recognized the presence of post-hole architecture or have known what it indicated prior to the early 

1960s. Barka and his team, then on the very forefront of the still developing discipline of historical 

archeology, identified a historical resource with remarkable significance bearing on both the Park and on 

colonial Virginia’s role within the Atlantic World. 63

 Though not necessarily tied to the Bicentennial development program, NHPA Section 106 

compliance review also raised questions about the Washington family burial ground. The 1971 

development concept plan curiously omits mention of the burial ground—a prominent stop on the 

standard birthplace tour in years past. This oversight may have resulted from conundrum then growing 

around appropriate treatment of the original Washington family grave markers set into the ground during 

the WNMA’s construction of the memorial burial vault. Concerns over the proper treatment of the 

original markers extended well back into the first years of the Monument. Superintendent Hough, 

recognizing that erosion might eventually render the stones illegible, made charcoal rubbings of their 

inscriptions in 1935.64 Within ten years the superintendent realized that he was right in anticipating 

further damage to the stones. The problem received attention from the Regional Office in 1947 when 

regional Engineer W.E. O’Neil, Jr. recommended that the Park experiment with colorless waterproofing 

 

61 Oculus, Cultural Landscape Report, v. 1, p. 2.94. 62 Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” p. 215. 

63 See field notes from 1974 archeological work in NPS Records Box 17 of 25, GEWA. 

64 Hough’s rubbings can be seen in file “H18 Gravestones” in NPS Records Box 7 of 25, GEWA. 
183

compounds as had been used at Fort Pulaski National Monument to preserve gray savannah brick.65

Hough experimented in 1947 with protective coatings of polyninyl acetate donated by the Dupont 

Company.66 This treatment apparently did not achieve the intended results. Wm. A. Gault & Sons of 

Towson, Maryland, visited the Monument in 1963 to rehabilitate the table stones erected in conjunction 

with the WNMA’s restoration of the burial ground and commented on the continual deterioration of the 

original grave markers.67

 A team of regional officers and technicians from the recently created Harpers Ferry Center for 

Interpretive Media (HFC) compiled a list of three preservation options following a host of meetings and 

visits to the birthplace in 1974. The stones could be preserved on location; protected by some sort of 

transparent cover; stored off-site in a protective covering and replaced with new stones; or actually built 

into the walls of the Visitor Center as a permanent display. Superintendent Don Thompson showed 

interest in the third option but, by November 1974, shared Interpretive Specialist Dwight Storke’s 

preference for on-site preservation.68 Discussions regarding what once would have been an 

uncontroversial problem grew heated amid the NPS’s increasingly serious commitment to the 

preservation of historic resources. In the spring of 1975, Assistant to the Regional Director Charles 

Shedd issued a sharp response to the HFC: 

I do see a need for in-place preservative treatment, and perhaps better protection from non-NPS 

vandalism; to remove the stones for use as museum curiosities is desecration; to remove the 

stones to storage and substitute them with fake ones is pointless. I believe that we should 

preserve historic remains by means that are feasible, sensible and proper. While removing 

gravestones in order to preserve them is feasible, I think it is neither sensible nor proper. I hope 

we can resist the temptation to, in the name of historic preservation, rob the dead of the 

memorials their loved ones placed to mark their resting places. Incidentally, the Statue of Liberty 

has turned green. Where was the NPS?69

 

65 W.E. O’Neil, Jr. to Director, 25 September 1947, in Box “GEWA-Annual Reports,” HFCA. 

66 Hough’s relationship with Crowninshield and her membership in the du Pont family most likely facilitated this 

donation. SMR, December 1947, GEWA. 

67 SMR, October and November 1963, GEWA. 

68 See Betsy Hunter to Art Allen, 11 November 1974 and Thompson to Manager (Harpers Ferry Center), 10 October 

1974, file “curatorial info and correspondence” in NPS Records Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 

69 Shedd to Director, NPS, 24 April 1975, file “GEWA burial ground” in Seth Box 1, GEWA. 
184

Shedd’s response reveals that the NPS did not necessarily think with one mind concerning the practice of 

historic preservation during the 1970s. His argument registered with planners who, at a May 1975 

meeting, further deliberated over the cost of various treatments and their consequent effects on the 

historic landscape only to decide “not to provide any preservation treatment to the stones and leave them 

in place.”70

Completing the Interpretive Landscape 

Similar controversy did not attend design and construction of the Visitor Center. Working from 

the 1968 schematic and with ideas put forth in the master plan and 1971 development concept plan, DSC 

Architects Jud Ball and George Hoffman, in coordination with Landscape Architect Merrick Smith, 

drafted preliminary plans for the new building. Architect Robert Campisi and Landscape Architect Don 

Fox finalized the plans and produced a set of working blueprints. The DSC contracted the project to 

Boyer and Henderson, Inc. of Williamsburg, Virginia. W.C. Stratt, Inc. of Fredericksburg, Virginia 

handled construction of roads, utilities, and the parking lot whereas G. Elvin Grinder Construction 

Company of Indian Head, Maryland constructed the new trail system. 71

 The DSC selected Daniel Peterson in 1974 to supervise all of these projects and to answer design 

questions. 72 Work commenced on the Visitor Center in 1975 at a steady clip and with Peterson’s 

assurances of a January 1976 completion date. A number of factors delayed construction. Heavy rains 

and freezing temperatures slowed work on all projects at one time or another. In October 1975, detection 

of an oil leak from a tank buried adjacent to the Visitor Center attracted the attention of the Coast Guard 

which required the contractor to test the tank for leaks. The Coast Guard then turned the situation over to 

the state Water Control Board which required further tests. Both groups determined in November 1975 

that the tank was not faulty after all. As if tank-related delays were not enough, Pearson had to call for a 

brief work stoppage on October 8 while a film crew worked on an orientation film for the Visitor Center’s 

 

70 Memo for files by Arthur Allen, 23 May 1975, file “curatorial info and correspondence” in NPS Box 19 of 25, 

GEWA. 

71 Mattes, “Landmarks of Liberty.” 

72 SAR, 1974, in Box GEWA, HFCA. 
185

audio-visual theatre. Work crews completed the job in April 1976 and final inspection occurred on May 

7, 1976—four months after the intended deadline, though just in time to accommodate summer crowds 

gathering to celebrate the Bicentennial. Construction of the Visitor Center cost $721, 480 (about $2.3 

million today) (Images 46 & 47). 73

The completed Visitor Center resembled a mirror image of the 1968 schematic with a slight 

reorientation of the audio-visual theatre. The design intent, however, remained intact. Where the old 

administrative offices occupied a space within eyeshot of the Memorial House, the new Visitor Center sat 

along Popes Creek at some distance and immediately behind a bluff separating the structure and all of its 

attendant activities from the core historic area. Administration, cultural resources, and the WNMA’s gift 

shop and post office all found a home there and for the first time in park history, all divisions save 

maintenance shared a single roof. The Visitor Center epitomized the sort of functional modernism typical 

of Mission 66 buildings with its reliance on concrete superstructure and prefabricated structural units, 

orientation with an eye toward visitor flow, low profile, and its earthy brick exterior.74

Where visitors entering the Monument once drove directly toward the Memorial House, they now 

veered to the right at the granite obelisk and parked in a lot out of sight of the historic area. The Visitor 

Center, positioned at the foot of the parking area and overlooking Popes Creek, provided an initial 

reference point for visitors and resumed the services previously offered at the entrance station (which, 

consequently, found new life as a chicken coop (Image 48)). Here, visitors paid fees, collected park 

information, and engaged uniformed rangers stationed at a central desk. Information desk daybooks kept 

by rangers during the late 1970s and stored in the Monument’s archives provide glimpses into the daily 

routines—and frequent monotony—of desk attendants.75 The filming that interrupted construction of the 

 

73 For documents regarding construction of the Visitor Center, see bottom right drawer of large filing cabinets 

immediately outside GEWA Kitchen; NPS Records Box 17 of 25, GEWA for 60s/70s correspondence and progress 

reports; and GEWA Bicentennial file maintained by NPS Bicentennial Coordinator Lawrence B. Coryell. This 

figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 

to 2003. 

74 See Allaback, Mission 66 Visitor Centers. 75 See Visitor Center day books in NPS Records Box 23 of 25, GEWA. Contrary to what one might expect, the day 

books provide very little information concerning day-to-day operations at the Monument. 
186

visitor center resulted in “A Childhood Place,” produced by Rick Krepela of the HFC and shown in the 

Visitor Center’s 110-seat sloped auditorium. HFC technicians Ike Ingram and Ben Miller created a 

number of interpretive exhibits for the Visitor Center lobby.76

The new trail system, leading visitors out of the Visitor Center, into the core historic area, and 

back again, received final inspection on June 15, 1976. Keeping with the goal of aesthetic and 

developmental separation, the trail system directed visitors away from the Visitor Center and into the core 

historical area without ever allowing simultaneous views of both until, “arriving at the historic ground, 

the visitor first views the outline of the birthplace structure traced in oyster shell” (Image 49). The trail 

system not only achieved the desired separation, but also emphasized the birth house foundations over the 

Memorial House—a significant shift in interpretation at the Birthplace. Wayside exhibits, designed by 

HFC technician Ray Price, lined the trail and explained significant viewsheds while providing important 

historical background.77

 A few additional improvements funded by Bicentennial program funds rounded out the 1974-75 

construction itinerary. A high-capacity water tower finally alleviated the Monument’s dependence upon 

an unreliable water pump at the ice pond. A new sewer system and fire protection improvements satisfied 

long-standing needs as well. Finally, rehabilitation of the Log House including the construction of a new 

comfort station marked the first substantial upgrades to that building in years.78 These improvements, 

combined with construction of the trail system, the parking area, and the Visitor Center, readied the 

Monument for celebration of the nation’s Bicentennial and created the scene and facilities experienced by 

visitors today. 

Bicentennial Changes for the WNMA 

 

76 Mattes, “Landmarks of Liberty.” 

77 Ibid. 

78 Ibid. This said, Management Assistant James Walker’s 1969 annual report of information and interpretive 

services indicates that the Log House had undergone some renovation leading up to the opening of the Living Farm 

and that “on February 22...the Log House was opened to the public for the first time since the early 1940s.” It is 

unclear what these renovations included though, given the extent of the 1974-75 work, it is doubtful that they were 

substantial. File “WNMA agreements” in NPS Records Box 18 of 25, GEWA includes blue prints from this period 

displaying first floor layout of log house with a proposed kitchen addition. 
187

In ways reminiscent of Washington’s 1932 Bicentennial, the American public found itself swept 

up in the patriotic celebrations surrounding the 1976 Bicentennial. Visitation boomed during the 1970s, 

peaking at nearly 205,000 in 1974. The Bicentennial year itself did not prove as lucrative as expected, 

bringing in only 136,000 visitors, but the Monument nonetheless celebrated with a variety of special 

programs and activities all against the backdrop of its new interpretive landscape and Visitor Center. 79

The WNMA also found itself thrust into a significant period of change along with the rest of the 

Park during the late 1960s and 1970s.80 Creation of the Living Farm provided new roles for the WNMA 

at Washington’s Birthplace. Even so, following President Mason’s campaign to reclaim the Log House 

furnishings and amid a continual loss of elder members, the organization suffered a fifty-percent drop in 

membership between 1971 and 1973.81 Involvement of remaining members in interpretive activities—

especially within the Memorial House—caused Superintendent Don Thompson to realize that the 

WNMA’s 1952 concession permit was not only inappropriate, but potentially problematic given that it 

did not specify the relationship between the WNMA and the NPS as it bore on activities beyond the sale 

of souvenirs and operation of the post office. 

Thompson summarized the situation in a 1976 memo to the Regional Director. He reported that 

the “working relationship with the Ladies is good despite many of the Ladies’ disinterest in the Park’s 

programs and some of the older members’ natural feelings of proprietorship,” but “the WNMA is wearing 

the wrong hat. Historically, the role is of a cooperating association and not as a concessionaire.”82 

Dwight Storke describes this as a very difficult period for relations with the WNMA. As Thompson 

suggests, elder members of the group considered any formalization of their relationship to the Park 

 

79 NPS records Box 15 of 25, GEWA contains a list and descriptions of Bicentennial activities including a 1974 reenactment, 1975 essay and poster contexts, Washington’s Birthday, living history school days, Storke’s marionette 

program, special visitation day for disabled children, and a candlelight open house. 

80 Although the 1970s brought significant changes to the group, very few records produced by or concerning the 

WNMA remain in GEWA today. This may be a result of the WNMA’s waning activity during these years as well 

as its cool relationship with the Park. 

81 The WNMA counted 63 members in 1971 and only 29 in 1973. See blue folder in NPS Records Box 20 of 25, 

GEWA. 

82 Thomson to Regional Director, 17 September 1976, NPS records Box 15 of 25, GEWA. Also see Chester Harris 

(Regional Chief of Interpretation and Visitor Services) to H. Harston Smith, 17 October 1975, file “curatorial info 

and correspondence” in NPS Box 19 of 25, GEWA. 
188

beyond the very vague description provided in the granting legislation, as an invasion of WNMA rights 

and representative of the government’s attempt to limit the group’s role at the Monument.83

The WNMA underwent internal changes as well. Betty Horner indicates that many of the elder 

members had passed away and so a new, younger generation of members began to fill the organization’s 

ranks.84 This demographic shift may very well have been responsible for the WNMA’s increasing 

willingness to reconsider its relationship to the Monument. In 1979, after discussions with Thompson and 

Storke (a long time acquaintance of the elder members and their families), the WNMA agreed to 

reorganize once again as a cooperating association, thereby ceding their concessionary self-determination 

though regaining the opportunity to make more specific their interpretive role at the Monument. With its 

change of status, the group also changed its name to The George Washington Birthplace Memorial 

Association (GWBMA), reflecting its cooperative relationship with the NPS. A clause in their new 

agreement⎯“the Ladies must be considered in plans and decisions of the Park especially as they affect 

the Memorial Mansion area”⎯suggests movement in this direction. 85 The change seems to have been for 

the better as the GWBMA increased its membership dramatically by the end of the following year.86

Land Policy and Neighbor Relations 

 Although the Monument’s foray into living history gave rise to a new sense of optimism and 

possibility at Washington’s Birthplace, it also set into motion a series of events that would eventually 

compromise what had become relatively stable relations with adjacent landowners. The Park had relied 

for decades on its adjacent landowners—especially the Latanes—to help preserve the Monument’s 

historical setting by continuing to work their land with more-or-less traditional farming techniques. In the 

case of the Latanes, the Park had issued annual special use permits at a nominal fee for the family to farm 

about 125 acres of Monument property. This all changed, however, with the advent of the Living Farm. 

In 1968, the Park did not reissue James Latane’s special use permit but rather expanded the Living Farm 

 

83 Dwight Storke, interview with author, 20 May 2006. 

84 Betty Horner, interview with author, 30 June 2004 

85 GEWA Statement for Management, 1979, NPS Records Box 15, GEWA. 

86 The WNMA boasted 70 members by 1980. See blue folder in NPS Records Box 20 of 25, GEWA 
189

onto the land he previously farmed. The change, according to the Regional Director, “has...antagonized 

him. He feels that ample notice was not served him in view of the fact that he has fertilized and improved 

the soil over the years which to him represents a goodly sum of money and much work.”87 Although 

Latane’s anger is understandable, the NPS’s refusal to reissue the use permit was perfectly legal and had 

always been a possibility. Nonetheless, as Hough and Gibbs had feared in the past, poor relations with 

neighbors generally translated into reduced flexibility with regard to possibilities for future land 

acquisition. Indeed, after losing access to park property, Latane “expressed complete opposition to any 

further expansion of the birthplace and refused to consider any offer [to sell his land].”88

 He was not alone. Pursuant to the 1968 Master Plan, the Monument initiated an investigation into 

the possibility of land acquisition. The Park identified thirteen tracts desired for acquisition as of the 

beginning of 1970. The largest included land owned by James Latane (245 acres), Charles Muse (150 

acres), and Gordon Horner (123 acres).89 Having assessed local property values, NPS representatives 

personally confronted landowners—often while at work in their fields—to discuss their willingness to 

negotiate sales. Successful preliminary negotiations with Catherine Shouse regarding purchase of her 

inholding convinced land agents that other neighbors might be easily persuaded. Government agents 

scoured the area making offers to other landowners, but were “met with total resistance...They are very 

clannish and none of them are interested in selling...necessary legislation should be pressed. While it is 

hoped it will not be necessary to resort to it, condemnation authority should be requested in the 

legislation.”90 Considering the history of suspicion among adjacent landowners regarding what was often 

perceived as the NPS’s outright land greed, unwillingness to negotiate land exchange should not have 

come as a surprise. Moreover, the heavy-handed approach of tromping through fields and cornering 

owners on their own property certainly did not facilitate positive relations. Several years later, 

 

87 J. Leonard Volz (Regional Director) to Director, 30 January 1970, file “Paperwork Information” in Seth Box 6, 

GEWA. 

88 Ibid. 

89 Walker to Superintendent, Fredericksburg NPS Group, 28 January 1970, file “Paperwork Information” in Seth 

Box 6, GEWA. 

90 J. Leonard Volz (Regional Director) to Director, 30 January 1970, file “Paperwork Information” in Seth Box 6, 

GEWA. 
190

Superintendent George Church explained to the Regional Director that park neighbors had grown 

“nervous” from memories of “appraisers marching through their fields in the early 1970s.”91

 Aggressive land policy of this sort was not uncommon prior to 1971. Public Law 91-646, signed 

on January 2, 1971, created the Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies 

Act of 1970 (Relocation Act). The Relocation Act established and standardized procedures to ensure that 

the government pays fair market value for desired lands. It also provided relocation benefits such as 

covering sellers’ moving expenses, not forcing sellers to leave their property immediately upon sale, and 

not requiring sellers to pay rent while in residence on land sold to the government. Prior to creation of the 

Relocation Act, the NPS dealt with land acquisition on a case-by-case basis with no overarching 

standardized policy, thereby giving rise—as at Washington’s Birthplace—to occasional lapses of good 

judgment.92

 The public relations blunder resulting from land assessments during the 1970 threatened to 

deprive the Monument of an ideal opportunity to fulfill its land acquisition program. Floor debate 

concerning HR 10086—an omnibus bill proposing boundary expansions for several parks—had already 

begun as of late 1971. Superintendent Acock worked hard to reestablish credibility within the community 

by encouraging “staff and wives [to participate] in public relations activities...Tangible results have 

included an approved resolution by the Wakefield National Memorial Association in support of the 

Birthplace land acquisition program and the acceptance of the land acquisition program by the 

Westmoreland County Board of Supervisors.”93 The Association drafted a formal resolution encouraging 

the “Congressional Delegates of the State of Virginia and those of the Congress of the United States...[to] 

encourage the legislation required to insure that the Birthplace...will be left unimpaired for future 

generations.”94

 

91 Church to Regional Director, 17 May 1982, file “Paperwork Information” in Seth Box 6, GEWA. 

92 My thanks to former Northeast Region Realty Officer Boyd Sponaugle for discussing with me the finer points of 

NPS realty concerns. 

93 SAR, 1972 in Box “GEWA,” HFCA. 

94 Resolution, 14 October 1971, NPS Records Box 20 of 25, GEWA. 
191

Securing boundary expansions and land acquisitions during the early 1970s involved more than 

simply earning community support. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), for 

instance, required that boundary expansion requests be accompanied by a study of the potential 

environmental impact of that expansion. Monument staff worked to generate an environmental impact 

statement for a legislative support data package in time for inclusion within HR 10086.95 The DSC 

contributed a cost estimate survey to the package and, with the other supporting materials and the support 

of the GWBMA and the Westmoreland County Board of Supervisors, the Monument submitted its 

package in time for inclusion within HR 10086. Following Senate approval of the omnibus bill, President 

Nixon signed it into law on April 11, 1972. The Monument received authorization for boundary 

expansion and a $57,000 (about $250,000 today) allocation to facilitate purchase of lands within the 

expanded boundary (Appendix 5).96 In part, this was only a small victory for the Monument’s overall 

land acquisition plan as it expanded boundaries only to include the 62.3-acre inholding sold to the 

government by Catherine Shouse in 1972. 97 Nonetheless, expansion under the omnibus bill enabled the 

Monument’s first legislatively approved land acquisition since its establishment in 1930. 

 Expansion efforts continued throughout the 1970s. The Monument continued to push for 

boundary expansion and land acquisition in 1973 though with the specific purpose of preventing 

development and protecting historic viewsheds. A June 1973 support package cites as its justification the 

impending development heralded by nearby subdivisions, a need to protect the approach road from 

development and deter “private access...now provided over park maintained roads” (presumably referring 

to the Muse situation discussed in chapter 6), and a desire to protect waterways so as to preserve the 

historic setting and migratory waterfowl habitats. 98 The support package also cites shoreline erosion as a 

significant problem and suggests that studies be issued to determine the extent of damage. Superintendent 

 

95 SAR, 1972 in Box “GEWA,” HFCA. 

96 This figure is a rough estimate based on adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics 

from 1800 to 2003. 

97 J. Leonard Volz (Regional Director) to Director, 30 January 1970, file “Paperwork Information” in Seth Box 6, 

GEWA. Public Law 92-272 (11 April 1972) allowed for a boundary adjustment and purchase of the Shouse tract, 

increasing total holdings to 455.98 acres. See “Legislative Support Data, June 1973” in Seth Box 1, GEWA. 

98 See “Legislative Support Data, June 1973” in Seth Box 1, GEWA. 
192

Hough first expressed concern about shoreline erosion in 1932, but 1973 marks the first time that the 

topic reemerged as a significant concern requiring substantial study.99

 The GWBMA once again issued a resolution in support of the Monument’s effort citing 

“immediate danger of a subdivision or subdivisions being initiated on adjacent and surrounding 

properties.”100 Representative Thomas N. Downing, with the continued support of the Westmoreland 

County Board of Supervisors, also set to work on the pending legislative package.101 Once more, the 

Monument drafted an environmental impact study and released it for public review in June 1974. The 

complete legislative proposal requested an expansion of boundaries to facilitate acquisition of 722 acres 

of privately-owned land and 390 acres of state land by first right of refusal in the event the landowner 

wanted to sell. The NPS had recognized that, given their discussions with adjacent landowners, outright 

and immediate purchase would not work in the case of Washington’s Birthplace. Superintendent Acock’s 

1974 annual report indicates that although the Park’s environmental impact study passed initial 

Department of the Interior review and had been distributed for comment, a final version had not yet been 

received as of the end of the year.102 A 1975 park expansion omnibus bill presented a new opportunity to 

move the legislation forward and Representative Downing introduced HR 9986 on October 2, 1975. 103

In its final version, H.R. 9986 sought to authorize the acquisition of 1,065 acres for the Birthplace 

at an estimated cost of $3,820,000 (about $13 million today).104 Evidently too ambitious, the proposed 

expansion died in Congress. Continued negotiations with Gordon and Garnett Horner, however, did 

result in the acquisition of two small inholdings totaling roughly eighty acres in 1978. The National 

Parks and Recreation Act of that year included the acquisition in its legislation and increased the 

Monument’s allowable holdings to 538.23 acres (Appendix 6). Acquisition of this tract and the Shouse 

 

99 Hough referred to local claims that shorelines wore away “at the rate of three feet a year.” Although Hough 

mapped a 1,400-foot stretch of shoreline in order to study the problem, it is not clear if he ever completed the study 

or if documentation of this study exists. See SMR, October 1932, GEWA. 

100 Resolution, 4 January 1973, in Seth Box 1, GEWA. 101 SAR, 1973, in Box GEWA, HFCA. 102 SAR, 1974, in Box GEWA, HFCA. 103 Regional Director Chester Brooks to Associate Director (Legislation, WASO), 26 June 1975, file “Legislative 

Support Data” in Seth Box 1, GEWA. 

104 Robert Landau to Legislative Counsel, 19 February 1976, in Ibid. This figure is a rough estimate based on 

adjustments for inflation according to Consumer Price Index statistics from 1800 to 2003. 
193

tract, however, paled in comparison with the Park’s intended goal of an over one thousand-acre expansion 

and consequently led park planners to reconsider their approach to land acquisition during the 1980s. 
CHAPTER 8 

Unfunded Expansion and the Problem of Changing Leadership, 1980-1995 

 The Monument’s investment in living history during the late 1960s and 1970s was not unique. 

Living history programs grew throughout the park system during the mid-1970s. It did, however, mark a 

critical turning point in the history of a park that had long wrestled with crises of authenticity and public 

relations stemming from the Memorial House and its uneasy relationship with Building X. The 

Monument’s Living Farm shifted visitor attention away from the Memorial House thereby creating a 

degree of interpretive freedom previously unavailable at the Birthplace. In this regard, although costumed 

interpretation proliferated throughout the park system and beyond, it played a particularly important role 

at Washington’s Birthplace. Consequently, the Monument had earned, by the late 1970s, a reputation 

throughout the NPS for interpretive excellence. That reputation attracted George Church to the Park in 

1981 as the replacement for Superintendent Don Thompson.1

 With the assistance of Interpretive 

Specialist Dwight Storke, Church continued to invest in living history. Storke himself received 

impressive recognition in 1984 when Regional Director James Coleman, Jr. visited the Park to present 

him with the prestigious Freeman Tilden award for interpretive excellence.2

 But even as Church and Storke sought new ways to explore the possibilities presented by living 

history, shifts in Interior Department and NPS leadership conspired to chart a different path for parks 

during the 1980s. In response to the expansionist tendencies of NPS leadership during the 1970s, 

Director Russell Dickenson—appointed in 1980—favored a shoring up of extant resources over the 

addition of new parks. James G. Watt, who President Ronald Reagan appointed as Secretary of the 

Interior in 1981, supported Dickenson’s vision and encouraged the NPS to invest increasingly scant 

Federal funding in efficient management of park resources.3

 The 97th and 98th Congresses complied with 

both by investing over a billion dollars into extant park resources by way of the Park Restoration and 

 

1

 George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 

2

 SAR, 1984 in Box “GEWA” in HFCA. 

3

 See Secretary Watt’s 1981 “Letter on National Park Management” in Lary M. Dilsaver, ed., America’s National 

Park System, the Critical Documents (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1994). 
195

Improvement Program. Dickinson’s replacement, Director William Penn Mott, shifted NPS focus back to 

growth and interpretation beginning in 1985, but not before Secretary Watt returned to the parks 

responsibility for undertaking all functions mandated by the National Register, the Natural and Historic 

Landmarks Programs, and the Land and Water Conservation Fund.4

 These new responsibilities presented considerable challenges, however, at a small park like the 

Monument that did not have a dedicated resource manager. At Washington’s Birthplace, performance of 

resource management tasks became a collateral duty shared by all park staff.5

 At the same time, the 

number of available staff had decreased. According to former Park Historian Paul Carson, the 

Monument’s pool of interpretive staff thinned significantly following the Park’s celebration of the 

nation’s Bicentennial. 6 Unfortunately, programmed bicentennial funds had also expired and, with a 

national energy crisis unfolding during the late 1970s and early 80s, soaring operating costs made staff 

expansion all but impossible. 7 To make things worse, positive gains in public exposure during the 

Bicentennial attracted crowds to the Park’s beaches and recreational facilities during the early 1980s. 

Increased visitor usage of park facilities raised operating costs even further and threatened to divert 

valuable funding away from the protection of park resources. 8 Perhaps most significantly, these 

emergent challenges threatened the Park’s living history program at a time when the Memorial House’s 

interpretive dominance had only just been checked. 

Thomas Stone National Historic Site 

 Although the Monument had become accustomed over the years to operating with limited staff 

and finances, the early 1980s introduced an entirely new challenge. In 1977, Secretary of the Interior 

Cecil D. Andrus appointed William J. Whalen as NPS Director. Whalen maintained close ties with 

 

4

 Responsibility for these functions had been consolidated and centralized within the Heritage Conservation and 

Recreation Service during the late 1970s, but Mott considered that arrangement inefficient. Regarding changes in 

NPS leadership during the 1970s and shift away from expansion during the 1980s, see Mackintosh, The National 

Parks, p. 86. 5

 Thanks to GEWA Resource Manager Rijk Morawe for clarifying this problem. 

6

 Carson, “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace,” p. 4121. 

7

 SAR, 1979, in Box “GEWA” in HFCA. 

8

 This particular problem is discussed in Statement for Management, George Washington Birthplace National 

monument, 1979, NPS Records Box 15 of 25, GEWA. 
196

California Representative Phillip Burton who, as chairman of the House subcommittee on parks, 

championed expansion of NPS holdings.9

 Their influence secured enactment of the National Parks and 

Recreation Act of 1978 that authorized fifteen new parks, including Thomas Stone National Historic Site 

(THST). One of the four Maryland signers of the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Stone 

constructed a house in Charles County, Maryland, in the early 1770s. The building and its dependencies 

fell out of family ownership in 1936 and the house burned on January 1, 1977. When the NPS acquired 

the site, it had no plan for its future, let alone any idea about who might manage it. Associate Regional 

Director of Cultural Resources John Bond asked Superintendent Thompson if he would accept 

responsibility for the Park. Chief Ranger Dwight Storke assured Thompson that Monument staff could 

handle the additional responsibility and so THST fell under park management in 1981.10

 Nearly forty-five minutes distant by car and accompanied by a mere $3300 budget, the new park 

presented significant administrative difficulties for Monument staff. The site’s limited budget did not 

allow for substantial improvements. Development—facilitated by the NPS’s Williamsport Preservation 

Training Center in Williamsport, Maryland—plodded along through the 1980s. George Church recalls 

that, by the end of his superintendency in 1989, THST occupied more of his time than Washington’s 

Birthplace.11 THST emerged as one of the most pressing problems facing administration in 1990 and 

demanded “efforts to secure funding so that Thomas Stone NHS can become a viable park.”12 A 

substantial funding package from the Commonwealth of Virginia permitted the Monument to open the 

site in 1992 with temporary facilities.13 

 

9

 Mackintosh, The National Parks, pp. 85-86. 10 Ibid. and George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 

11 The 1986 Operations Evaluation, for instance, cites THST as being responsible for increased necessity for the 

Superintendent’s physical presence on park grounds and even suggests that “a decision needs to be made for 

managing Thomas Stone as a separate entity.” This report also connects THST directly with “an increase in 

workload.” See Operations Evaluation, 1986, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, file “operations 

evaluation” in Seth Box 4, GEWA and addendum to same in Seth Box 6, GEWA. For documents concerning 

restoration and maintenance of THST during the late 1980s and early 1990s, see file “H30 Historic Structures & 

Sites” in Seth Box 5, GEWA. 

12 1990 Operations Evaluation, file “A54 Operations Evaluation IN-House” on top shelf of Central File Notes 

overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 

13 See Dwight Storke, interview with author, 17 May 2004; and 1992 Operations Evaluation, file “1992 In House 

Operations Evaluation” on top shelf of Central Administrative Files, overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 
197

The Monument’s maintenance staff suffered the brunt of THST’s day-to-day impact. Inclusion of 

THST forced the maintenance department to split its budget between two parks, one of which required 

regular eighty-mile round trip visitations. The Monument’s maintenance division thus managed to 

maintain one park at relatively high standards while performing a majority of the work necessary to open 

another. Moreover, communication with and supervision from project support staff at the DSC was not 

always forthcoming and created yet another management hurdle.14 In 1998, after years of operating on a 

shoestring budget, THST received a $360,000 budget increase.15 The completed facility opened to the 

public on November 1, 1997, and the 1998 budget increase funded site-specific hires thereby reducing the 

strain on Monument resources. Until 1998, however, THST constituted a significant draw on Monument 

resources. 

 Managing two parks was especially difficult at a time when frequent changes in NPS leadership 

meant rapid succession of often contradictory planning mandates. Although THST fell under Monument 

management at a time when Director Whalen pursued an expansionist vision for the NPS, the practical 

realities of operating a second park only became evident under Director Russell Dickenson who, 

following his appointment in 1980, pushed to limit expansion and, consequently, resources allocated to 

support new acquisitions. When President Regan appointed James G. Watt as Secretary of the Interior, 

Watt and Dickenson worked together to convince the 97th Congress to curtail appropriations to new 

parks.16 Therefore, just as THST came under Monument management, heightened emphasis on 

accountability and eliminating fiscal waste within the NPS—initiatives intended to correct the very 

excesses typified by THST—placed even greater administrative and, thus, financial demands on the 

Monument.17 

 

14 In 1994, Mimi Woodward responded to a survey concerning the role of the Denver Service Center with regard to 

improvements at THST and indicated that poor communication and supervision from Denver complicated work at 

the new park. See Woodward’s responses to the 17 May 1994 survey in file “A2623 Reports Situation” in Central 

File Notes, GEWA. 

15 Ibid. 

16 Mackintosh, The National Parks, p. 86. 17 George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 
198

It fell to Superintendent George Church to handle what, in every respect, looked like a 

management crisis. To combat financial shortfalls, the NPS issued requests for parks to seek new 

opportunities for outside funding and to utilize volunteer labor whenever possible.18 Church took the 

suggestion seriously and in 1983 made a public request for assistance. He sent letters to members of the 

surrounding community encouraging them to consider ways to support a park that, he reminded everyone, 

required “no fee to visit.”19 Church recalls an abundant and positive response to requests for assistance 

during the 1980s.20 The local community was especially generous with volunteer assistance. The NPS’s 

Volunteers in Parks (VIP) Program provided assistance on the farm, in the craft shops, and occasionally 

helped direct traffic for special interpretive programs.21

 Church also negotiated a variety of useful money-saving exchanges with Mary Washington 

College in Fredericksburg, Virginia. College interns assisted with cleaning and documenting artifacts 

under the supervision of Regional Curator Alice Guerrant.22 Several excavations throughout the years 

had resulted in a huge collection of historic objects though only those artifacts considered unique or 

unusual ever found there way into public display and seldom, if ever, were they used to “tell the story” of 

Popes Creek Plantation.23 The Park successfully petitioned for funds to revamp archeological displays for 

Washington’s 250th birthday celebration.24 With assistance from the Mary Washington interns, Guerrant 

 

18 George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 

19 News release, 1 November 1983, NPS Records Box 20 of 25, GEWA. The mailing included a gifts brochure 

outlining several areas of need including improving programs and facilities, protecting people and resources, and 

sponsoring the care of plantation animals. Specific items include “help with costumed interpretation on the Colonial 

Farm,” “provide unique entrance sign, $3,500,” “plant flowering shrubs, $25,” “outline birthhouse site with brick 

$3,500.” 

20 George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 

21 Annual Statement for Interpretation and Visitor Services, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, 

1984, in Seth Box 4, GEWA. The local press also covered the Monument’s struggle to raise funds and generate 

volunteer interest. See “Washington’s Birthplace seeking contributions from private donors” in Times Dispatch 

(1983) and “Donations to Washington Birthplace now accepted” in Westmoreland News (1983), file “K3415 

Newspaper Articles GEWA” in Seth Box 4, GEWA. File “P94 Volunteer Employment Program,” Third Drawer of 

Central Administrative Files overflow filing cabinet, GEWA contains a wealth of information regarding the VIP 

program at GEWA in addition to documents concerning internship agreements with Mary Washington College. 22 Annual Statement for Interpretation and Visitor Services, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, 

1984, in Seth Box 4, GEWA. 

23 Carson, “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace,” p. 4123. 

24 It is not evident that this effort clarified the story for visitors. Clifford Tobias recalls visiting the Birthplace in 

1991 and noting that visitors remained relatively indifferent to the artifacts displayed in the visitor center, although 
199

completed the project in 1985, having cleaned, documented, and stored nearly 100,000 artifacts thus 

making the collection available for the first time to serious researchers.25 This work represented an 

increased recognition of the value of all archeological artifacts within the Park’s collection including, as 

Joy Beasley points out, “those associated with American Indians and African-Americans.”26

Church also negotiated an agreement during the summer of 1985 wherein, in exchange for 

payment of heating bills, the College utilized the infrequently used Log House for lectures and study 

sponsored by the Mary Washington Center for Historic Preservation.27 Church remembers this agreement 

fondly recalling it to be “such a deal.”28 The deal ended in 1995 when, rumor has it, students staged a 

paint gun battle and ensnared several cows in the crossfire. James Latane recalls confronting a professor 

who organized a footrace on Latane land without obtaining prior permission. Latane also notes that the 

Park had placed so many conditions on its use of the Log House that the College struggled to stage its 

own events there.29 The College only met at the Log House three times in 1994 before ending their 

agreement with the Park.30 The Park resumed complete control of the building on March 7, 1995.31

1987 Adjacent Lands Study 

Amid this period of precarious expansion, protection of historic viewsheds once again ranked 

high among Monument planning priorities. The failed land program of the 1970s had left unsatisfied the 

1968 master plan’s call for protection of the Monument approach and other viewsheds. Other privately 

owned land abutting the Park still retained agricultural zoning rights thereby permitting owners equipped 

with a conditional use permit to “conduct unfavorable types of business” or to build residential structures 

 they seemed to be interested in the large time line displayed on the nearby wall. Tobias to Seth Bruggeman, 

electronic mail, 3 March 2004. 

25 Carson, “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace,” p. 4123. 

26 Beasley, “The Birthplace of a Chief,” pp. 215-16. 

27 See George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004; and “College, Park Service dedicate cabin outpost in 

Westmoreland” in Free Lance Star (1985), file “Newspaper Articles GEWA” in Seth Box 4, GEWA. 28 George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 

29 James Latane, interview with author, 22 July 2004. 

30 Management Team Meeting minutes, 16 December 1994, file “MTM’s 1995” in third drawer of Central 

Administrative Files overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 

31 Acting Superintendent Lawrence Trombello to John Wiltenmuth (Director, Physical Plant, Mary Washington 

College), 24 February 1995, file “blue” in third drawer of Central Administrative Files overflow filing cabinet, 

GEWA. 
200

on plots as small as 25,000 square feet.32 Though the superintendent acknowledged the Westmoreland 

County Planning Commission and the Board of Supervisors’ favorable attitude toward protection of 

historic and natural sites, he feared that local attitudes might change with time and shifts in leadership. 

Moreover, state laws permitting duck and goose hunting on Popes Creek continued to impede the Park’s 

ability to maintain aesthetic continuity and thus brought fears of additional intrusions by way of land 

development into sharp relief.33

 In 1982, the NPS had issued a revision of its 1979 Land Acquisition Policy to correspond with 

the themes established in the Department of the Interior’s own proposed Land Protection Policy. Unlike 

the 1979 document, the revision emphasized the use of “less-than-fee land protection methods, such as 

easements and zoning, with acquisition of fee title being considered only when alternatives are 

inappropriate or inadequate.”34 The new proposal required that all parks having non-federal inholdings 

prepare “land protection plans” and that these plans “reflect the emphasis on less-than-fee alternatives.” 

Church, in a memo to the Regional Director, expressed an eagerness to create a protection plan.35 Only 

recently had Church been “raked...over the coals” by Florence Muse for suggesting that her family might 

do well to let some of their land go fallow. He explained to the Regional Director that past land practice 

made for a situation in which any discussion of land concerns with neighbors required the utmost of 

delicacy and tact. 36 

 In some instances, as with the Muses, the Park extended use of Monument property in exchange 

for various maintenance tasks. In 1983, Goodwin Muse agreed to maintain a government access road—

including dragging the roadway surface twice a year, fixing potholes, and clearing snow and ice—in trade 

 

32 Statement for Management, 1979, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, NPS Records Box 15 of 

25, GEWA. This file includes copes of the 1979 boundary-expansion legislation. 

33 Ibid. 

34 Director to Regional Directors, 15 April 1982, file “L1415 Land Protection Plan Instructions” in GEWA overflow 

file storage, second drawer (from top), GEWA. 

35 Church to Regional Director, 17 May 1982, in ibid. 

36 George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 
201

for continued use of twenty-two acres of park farmland.37 In some ways, though, cooperative 

relationships became increasingly complicated during the 1980s, especially in the wake of NEPA. 

Church explained to Muse in late 1982 that “we have had new more stringent requirements placed on us 

for the recording and use of pesticides on federal property” and indicated that park staff could make 

unannounced inspections “at any time.”38 Church recalls discovering numerous open cans of unlabeled 

pesticides while inspecting a Latane farm outbuilding and realizing that management of land leases had 

become a bigger responsibility than he ever anticipated.39

 Church’s response to the Regional Director with regard to alternative land protection practices 

also reveals some movement in this direction prior to or coincidentally with the release of the NPS’s 1982 

Land Acquisition Policy. Early efforts of this type resulted, by 1986, in “a quiet arrangement with the 

Virginia Outdoor foundation” wherein the foundation, not the Park, initiated discussions with landowners 

concerning the use of agricultural leases to protect park viewsheds.40 Regional Officers visited the Park 

frequently during this period. Among these was Historical Architect Reed Engle who, according to 

Church, played a pivotal role in the study. Engle recognized that the Monument’s various land concerns 

merited more attention than what might be offered in a standard management plan. His encouragement 

led to the drafting of an additional study conducted in 1986 and released in 1987 under the title 

“Conserving the Setting of George Washington Birthplace, an Adjacent Lands Study.”41

 The Adjacent Lands Study argued that the land surrounding Washington’s Birthplace was not 

merely a natural landscape, but also a historic landscape—a material relic of the eighteenth century—and 

should be protected like any other historic resource. Church used the study as an opportunity to launch a 

widespread public relations campaign and several newspaper articles appeared soon thereafter. An article 

 

37 Church to Muse, 11 January 1983, file “A44 Memorandum of Agreement H Goodwin Muse” in Central File 

Notes, GEWA administrative offices. 

38 Church to Muse, 14 December 1982, in Ibid. 

39 George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 

40 See response to questionnaire issued by the Southeast Region (most likely during fiscal year 1986) in file 

“operations evaluation” in Seth Box 4, GEWA. 

41 Jonathan L. Doherty, An Adjacent Lands Study, Conserving the Setting of George Washington Birthplace (U.S. 

Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Mid-Atlantic Regional Office, Division of Park and Resource 

Planning, October 1987). 
202

in the Westmoreland News, for instance, featured responses from a variety of prominent local figures 

including Betty Horner who said “It’s true there’s been no growth yet...but many landowners can’t make 

it to the meetings called to discuss the Park’s future and they’re concerned about whether the Park Service 

might reach out for more land...I think if you went to see each one...and sat down and said you’d like to 

have first refusal on their property, I think that would be the way to go.”42 Some landowners remained 

skeptical about the NPS’s intent. Lawrence W. Latane, Jr., who had donated four hundred acres in two 

easements, remarked, “I think they have good ideas...but...if they don’t get the preservation of views, 

I’m pretty sure they will come in and get the land.”43

 The Adjacent Lands Study formalized a long-developing approach toward land policy, pointed 

out various threats from development to the historic landscape, and suggested ways by which the NPS 

and its neighbors could cooperate. It did not establish a clear agenda for action and, in fact, left 

implementation more-or-less up to the Park. Still, considering the Park’s planning history, these were 

significant accomplishments. In a letter to the president of the National Parks and Conservation 

Association (NPCA), Regional Director James Coleman, Jr. suggested that “the approach used at George 

Washington’s Birthplace can also be used at other units of the National Park System.”44 The study also 

encouraged community action. Church suggested to Betty Horner—who then served as a chairperson on 

the Westmoreland County Planning Commission—that she interpret the Park’s plan as a mandate for the 

county to consider, during development of its own comprehensive plan, extension of wetlands zoning 

ordinances, support for public sewers and water in agricultural areas prone to development, and amending 

the county’s zoning ordinance to “reduce the density of housing in agricultural zones” and prevent 

construction of “golf courses, mobile homes, various commercial uses and advertising signs.”45

 

42 “Park Service looking for help preserving setting” in Westmoreland News, 19 November 1987, p. 10. 43 “Protecting Washington’s View, National Park Service seeks to preserve setting of birthplace” in Free Lance Star

(November 1987). 

44 Coleman to Paul Pritchard, 9 November 1987, file “L32 GEWA Boundary” in Seth Box 4, GEWA. 

45 Encouraging construction of public sewers and water utilities “means commercial and retail development can be 

directed to use specific limited areas thereby preserving more open space and the rural character of the county.” See 

Church to Betty Horner, 28 April 1988, file “Westmoreland County / Northern Neck” in Seth Box 6, GEWA. 
203

The Adjacent Land Study made an impression on the community, including Betty Horner whose 

family put twelve acres of land up for sale in 1990. The superintendent immediately contacted the 

Regional Office and the Conservation Fund who encouraged Congressman Herbert Bateman to introduce 

a bill in the House of Representatives approving purchase of the parcel in addition to another 113 acres 

through easement. The bill stalled in the Senate.46 Interest in the acquisition resurfaced during the spring 

of 1993 under the Presidential Sites Land Protection Initiative. Bateman introduced HR 819 on February 

4, 1993 to expand the Monument’s boundaries to facilitate acquisition of the Horner Tract. The bill 

passed the House and became S 326 co-sponsored by Senators John Warner and Charles Robb. Storke 

notified the National Park Trust that year that “there is legislative initiative pending or likely to arise...to 

add 12 acres to monument property.”47 S 326 succeeded in the Senate and became public law on May 3, 

1993 (Appendix 7). Boundaries expanded, the Monument now waited for negotiations with the Horners 

to unfold. Betty Horner and her brother-in-law Garnett Horner eventually accepted an offer from the 

Conservation Fund in 1995, thereby bringing twelve acres into the boundaries of the Monument.48 

Following the purchase, the superintendent reported that “this has prevented potential development that 

would have added unacceptable pressures on resources and larger traffic flows not related to visitation.”49

The GWBMA and the Meaning of Interpretation 

 Although the Park succeeded in community outreach with regard to land policy, maintaining its 

relationship with the GWBMA proved another challenge altogether. On one hand, the GWBMA had 

become an increasingly young and politically active organization. Betty Horner herself belonged to the 

Association and, in her capacity as county planning commissioner, extended the Association’s interests 

beyond the Monument. On the other hand, though, the Association remained committed to its own 

 

46 “House Agrees to expand Washington Birthplace Parkland,” The Journal (20 November 1991). File “L1417 

Acquisition of Land (Boundary Adjustments)” in Central File Notes, GEWA, contains a variety of documents 

relevant to the acquisition of the Horner tract including the congressional testimony of adjacent landowners, WNMA 

members, and Betty Horner. 

47 Storke in response to inquiry from National Park Trust regarding Presidential Sites Land Protection Initiative, 29 

March 1993, file “L30 Land Use” in Seth Box 3, GEWA. 

48 Management Team Meeting minutes, 4 October 1995, file “MTM’s 1995” in third drawer of Central Files 

overflow filing cabinet, GEWA: 

49 SAR, 1996, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in Central Files, GEWA. 
204

standards of appropriate commemoration and confusion regarding the GWBMA’s role at the Birthplace, 

especially in the wake of its 1979 reorganization, created an uneasy situation. 

The GWBMA had always understood its purpose and responsibilities at the Monument as being 

specifically linked to the Memorial House. The Park’s turn toward living history during the 1960s and 

70s only reinforced this assumption by giving Association members new opportunities to be present 

within the building. As we have seen, however, the NPS sought to limit overall emphasis on the 

Memorial House. These conflicting goals increasingly collided. In June 1982, for example, the 

GWBMA—which had created its own furnishing committee—met with Regional Curator William 

Jedlick, Chief Ranger Dwight Storke, and Cultural Resources and Interpretation Manager Gina Moriarty. 

When asked for his thoughts on the status of the Memorial House, Jedlick explained that though a 

furnishing study was needed and that some work was required to make the building’s furnishings 

consistent with what George Washington would have experienced, there was really nothing the GWBMA 

could or should do to help the process along. Rather, Jedlick suggested that the GWBMA devote its 

energies to other interpretive activities so as to de-emphasize the Memorial House’s traditionally 

prominent place on the commemorative landscape.50

Jedlick’s suggestion triggered a flurry of dismay among GWBMA members. One member 

responded that the GWBMA had never done anything but support interpretation. Although the NPS 

understood “interpretation” to mean all various interpretive activities at the Monument, the GWBMA 

considered “interpretation” to mean only those activities that occurred in the Memorial House. Nobody at 

the meeting that day recognized this subtle though highly problematic misunderstanding—a 

misunderstanding that had been over fifty years in the making. The meeting intensified when the 

GWBMA accused the Park of not involving the Association’s furnishing committee in decisions 

regarding the Memorial House. Moriarty responded that the GWBMA had no authority to make changes 

in the Memorial House and could not, as it had on occasion, rearrange artifacts without permission from 

 

50 Audio recording of 27 June 1982 GWBMA furnishing committee meeting with Mid-Atlantic Regional Curator, 

Bill Jedlick, Chief Ranger Dwight Storke, and Cultural Resources and Interpretation Manager Gina Moriarty, 

GEWA. 
205

the Park. Exasperated, one Association member explained, “we feel like all we are needed for is to make 

money...[but] we are supposed to be an arm of the Park Service.” The NPS did, in fact, rely on the group 

primarily to make money and it hoped that money would support other interpretive programming and 

various maintenance projects. Still, the GWBMA struggled to maintain its sense of purpose. Toward the 

end of the meeting, a dismayed member lamented, “I just want to know what our role is.” 51

It had become increasingly difficult for the Association to understand its role at the Monument as 

decades old arrangements succumbed to changes felt throughout the Northern Neck. As of 1983, for 

example, the GWBMA continued to manage the post office that had been in continual operation at the 

Park since 1932. During those five decades, no matter what the nature of the relationship between the 

two groups, the GWBMA always maintained unquestioned control of the post office. The post office 

itself served as something of a community gathering point where adjacent landowners picked up mail and 

exchanged niceties with park staff and GWBMA members. With no more than ten regular postal 

customers, however, Church could not justify continuing the operation and informed community 

members of its discontinuation in 1983.52 Church justified the change by explaining that the space 

previously occupied by the post office would be put to making the GWBMA’s bookstore “the definitive 

book store on George Washington.” He assured customers that the GWBMA would continue to maintain 

a contract station where the unique Washington’s Birthplace postage cancellation might still be 

obtained.53 But Church’s assurances offered little consolation to long-time post office customers and it 

soon became apparent, as Church recalls, that “we really stepped on some toes.”54 

 Local resident John Chewing spoke for the betrodden in an August 1983 letter to Virginia Senator 

Paul Trible on behalf of the post office’s regular customers: 

The people of Washington’s Birthplace need help. 50 years ago, the Post Office and the National 

Park Service started together. A building was erected to house the gift shop and the post office. 

 

51 Some debate surfaced during this meeting regarding whether or not the Memorial House stood on the exact spot 

of Washington’s birth thereby revealing that the WNMA had not even come to terms with the Building X 

controversy. 

52 Church to Payne, 5 May 1983, file “A94 Post Service” in Seth Box 4, GEWA. 53 Church to park residents and postal customers, 6 May 1983, in Ibid. 

54 George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 
206

Now the Park Service has given the post office until Sept. 19 to vacate the building, the Post 

office having no place to go, is closing. The space the post office was in is 7 feet. How can a 

space so small be of so much value to the Park? and do away with an institution of postal service. 

We cannot do anything on our own and I know you are busy, but if you could help us, the people 

of Washington’s Birthplace would be most grateful. We feel we are asked to give up so much for 

so little gain for the Park.55

Senator Trible evidently contacted the Acting Deputy Director of the U.S. Postal Service with regard to 

Chewing’s complaint. According to Church, the post office was quite happy to oblige his request to 

reduce postal services to the Birthplace given the excessive expense involved in serving so few 

customers. Therefore, it is no surprise that the Acting deputy Director responded in support of the 

decision, noting that “the space the post office now occupies...will be redesigned to better present the 

George Washington story...The postal operation now occupies twenty percent of the building 

space...[and] is open on a limited basis...Fewer than a dozen local patrons are served, in addition to park 

visitors,” and adding that lock boxes would accommodate remaining customers.56 There is no further 

discussion of the problem in park documents and this final exchange seems to have drawn debate to an 

official close. Nonetheless, tempers—especially among the GWBMA—continued to run high and 

Church believes that the group “never forgave us.”57 

Without any claim to the Memorial House and having lost with the post office its last claim to 

autonomy at the Birthplace, the GWBMA retreated into marginality. At an April 1984 meeting, the 

GWBMA proposed, voted on, and accepted an amendment to its bylaws officially recognizing itself as a 

general-purpose non-profit organization with the sole purpose of supporting the Birthplace through its 

operation of the bookstore.58 Relations between the Association and the NPS thereafter remained largely 

relegated to the business of store operations. Immediately prior to his retirement, Church expressed 

concern regarding operation of the shop. The gift shop earned little to no profit during the previous year 

and would have collapsed had it not been for subsidization through the GWBMA. Church suggested a 

 

55 Chewing to Trible, 6 August 1983, in file “A94 Post Service” in Seth Box 4, GEWA. 56 David Wright to Trible, 16 September 1983, in Ibid. 

57 George Church, interview with author, 17 May 2004. 

58 Notice of meeting of the WNMA, 12 April 1984, in NPS Records Box 20 of 25, GEWA. 
207

reevaluation of pricing guidelines and inventory selection.59 Thus motivated, the GWBMA endeavored to 

improve the operation and funded a significant expansion during 1990 and 1991. Reports indicate that 

following a December 1991 ribbon cutting ceremony, the expanded shop produced a substantial return on 

sales and boasted a more diverse inventory “that appropriately met park interpretive themes.”60 GWBMA 

activity centered on the gift shop during the decade and in 1996 the GWBMA voted to donate its various 

historical records to the Park archives. In some ways, especially given the heated debate concerning 

handing over of records during the 1950s, this donation marked a symbolic end of the GWBMA as a 

significant independent entity at the Monument.61

Administrative Overhaul Under Dwight Storke 

The GWBMA’s decline during the 1980s coincided with a larger shift of focus away from 

interpretation and toward securing badly needed financial support at a time when the Monument and its 

staff seemed more thinly stretched than every before. The Park’s Living Farm suffered accordingly. 

Throughout the park system, post-Bicentennial financial shortfalls put pressure on parks to demonstrate 

that their expensive living history programs supported basic goals.62 As early as 1973, Northeast Region 

Interpretive Specialist Frank Barness suggested that “our currently over-stressed living history activities 

may just possibly represent a tremendous failure on the part of our traditional interpretive programs—

above all, a cover-up for lousy personal services.”63 Barnes also recognized the extent to which the 

theatrics typical of living history frequently compromised the Parks’ ability to interpret serious historical 

issues. Specifically, he cited the Booker T. Washington National Monument’s failure to present the harsh 

realities of slavery and the “impression of fun” conjured by simulated encampments and firearms 

 

59 Church to Carl F. Flemer, III, 3 January 1989, file “A42 Cooperating WNMA general Correspondence” in Central 

File Notes, GEWA. 

60 See file “A42 Cooperating WNMA Annual Reports” in second drawer of Central Files overflow filing cabinet, 

GEWA. The WNMA performed additional refurbishments in 1997. See Annual Report for George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument Association, “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in Central Files, GEWA 61 John Donahue to Cathy Perry, 1 October 1996, file “A42 Cooperating WNMA general Correspondence” in 

Central File Notes, GEWA. That the Association donated its records in 1996 further points to an incomplete 

handing over of records during the 1950s 

62 National Park Service, “Comprehensive Interpretive Planning” (Fall 2000), p. 3. 

63 Cited in Chapter 3 of Barry Mackintosh, Interpretation in the National Park Service: A Historical Perspective

1986, <www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mackintosh2/index.htm> (15 May 2006). 
208

demonstrations at battlefield parks.64 Barnes was not alone. NPS historians Robert Utley, Roy 

Appleman, and John Luzader all expressed concern regarding the frequency with which living history 

demonstrations failed to encourage an understanding of parks and their significance. As time went on, it 

became increasingly apparent that, though living history demonstrations certainly attracted a large visiting 

public, they often made for questionable educational experiences, especially when overzealous costumed 

interpreters strayed too far from intended interpretive themes.65

But what must have seemed like constantly shifting prerogatives in Washington enabled one last 

window of opportunity for those committed to living history in the parks. William Penn Mott replaced 

Director Dickenson in 1985 and, unlike his predecessor, favored an expansionist stance predicated on 

substantial investment in interpretation and public education.66 Mott’s vision found especial favor with 

Dwight Storke who was integral to the creation of the Living Farm during the late 1960s. Storke had left 

the chief ranger position at Washington’s Birthplace during the mid-1980s to accept the superintendency 

of Richmond National Battlefield Park. He returned, however, to replace Church as superintendent of the 

Monument in 1989. Encouraged by Mott’s reinvestment in interpretation, Superintendent Storke set to 

making living history a primary focus at the Birthplace. 

Ironically, almost immediately following Storke’s appointment, the winds of change blew once 

again through Washington and newly elected President George H.W. Bush replaced Mott with James M. 

Ridenour in 1989. Ridenour again turned the tide and recommitted the NPS to conservative expansion 

and cautious expenditure. Even so, Storke worked with Ridenour-era initiatives to bolster the Park’s 

 

64 Mackintosh, Interpretation in the National Park Service. 65 Mackintosh also references this problem in Interpretation in the National Park Service. Warren Leon and 

Margaret Piatt refer to this phenomenon as an “almost-religious belief in living-history re-creation” in “Living 

History Museums” in Leon and Rosenzweig, History Museums in the United States, p. 83. For a discussion of how 

living history presentations are always already ideological, see Mark Leone, "The Relationship Between Artifacts 

and the Public in Outdoor History Museums" in Jay Anderson, A Living History Reader, Volume One, Museums

(Nashville: American WNMA for State and Local History, 1991), p. 180. David Glassberg raises several questions 

living history advocates frequently fail to consider with regard to educational accountability in his critique of Jay 

Anderson’s Time Machines. See David Glassberg, “Living in the Past” in American Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 2 

(Summer, 1986), pp. 305-310. For one of the most frequently cited considerations of problems common to living 

history interpretation, see Richard Handler and Eric Gable, The New History in an Old Museum, Creating the Past 

at Colonial Williamsburg (Durham, NC and London: Duke University press, 1997). 66 Mackintosh, The National Parks, pp. 86-87. 
209

Living History program. In the spirit of reducing expenses, Storke focused on the VIP Program and, in 

1990, the Park received over four thousand hours of volunteer time. VIP reports throughout the decade 

suggest that continuation of the Living Farm and craft demonstration areas relied almost wholly on 

volunteer labor.67 Seeking further revenue, Storke increased programming at the Log House conference 

center by hosting training sessions for regional staff and other Federal groups in addition to continuing 

the Mary Washington College agreement.68 

 Storke also initiated a significant administrative reorganization. Previously, maintenance and 

resource management staff reported to separate managers. Storke created a new supervisory park ranger 

position responsible for coordinating efforts between both interpretation and resource management staff.69 

This change not only facilitated inter-division communication, it also improved attention to visitor 

services—a primary goal of Storke’s superintendency—by bringing the collective efforts of these 

operational units under the supervision of an individual specifically charged with creating ways to 

improve the visitor experience at Popes Creek.70 Storke additionally clarified the organization of the 

Park’s three divisions—administration, maintenance, and resource management—by appointing a 

leadership position within each (Illustration 7). This change permitted pay equity among the three 

division leaders thereby adding to employee morale and leadership incentives.71

 Within this larger reorganization, Storke set to modernizing his core administrative unit and, in 

1989, hired Mimi Woodward to be the Park’s Administrative Officer. Woodward had previously worked 

 

67 See 1990 Operations Evaluation on top shelf of Central Administrative Files, Overflow filing cabinet, GEWA and 

file “P94 VIP Reports” in third drawer of Central administrative files overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 68 1992 Operations Evaluation, file “1992 In House Operations Evaluation” on top shelf of Central Administrative 

Files, overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 

69 SAR, 1991, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in central Administrative files, GEWA. This change would 

eventually make a physical impact at the Park as when, in 1992, Stroke remodeled a space in the rear of the craft 

workshop to serve as an office for resource management and law enforcement use. See SAR, 1992, file “A2621 

Annual Narrative Report” in central Administrative files, GEWA. 70 SAR, 1991, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in Central Administrative Offices, GEWA. Also see 

organizational chart in file “1992 In-House Operations Evaluation” on top shelf of Central Administrative Files 

overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 

71 This wave of upgrades raised the Maintenance Foreman from WS-8 to WS-9 and the Administrative Officer from 

GS-7 to GS-9. The Supervisory park Ranger remained a GS-11. Storke also regraded other positions including one 

laborer position and the gardener position. See 1992 Operations Evaluation, file “1992 In House Operations 

Evaluation” on top shelf of Central Administrative Files, overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 
210

at the Park from 1981 to 1986 and already distinguished herself as a capable administrative technician. 

Given her proven skills and good relations with regional offices, Storke enticed Woodward back to the 

Monument and recalls that she introduced a marked professionalism to the job. In the Park’s 1990 

Operations Evaluation, Regional Director James Coleman observed that “reorganization and enhancement 

of the Administrative Division, both in appearance and methodology, is consistently excellent.72 

Living History Reborn 

Stork put this freshly streamlined administrative unit to the work of reviving the Park’s living 

history program. In 1990, he issued statement of purpose (SOP) that established strict guidelines 

regarding the use and care of park-provided costumes.73 The new SOP required that everyone working in 

the historic area—whether maintenance or interpretive personnel—wear accurate period dress and 

maintain historically acceptable behavior therein. Storke expanded the interpretive division a year later 

by adding two rangers, an interpretive specialist, a chief ranger, and by reclassifying the Park’s primary 

farmer and demonstrator from a maintenance position to an interpretation position.74 The Monument’s 

Living Farm slowly regained its previous intensity. As of 1992, the Monument cultivated an acre of corn, 

a quarter acre of tobacco, and twelve acres of hay. Additionally, it boasted ten cows, four hogs, nine 

sheep, six hens, and two horses.75 Livestock demonstrations proved especially popular among visitors 

due, in part, to Ranger Andrew Packett’s work toward establishing an entirely registered herd of Devon 

milking cattle. Packett, who received the Freeman Tilden Award for interpretive excellence, worked 

extensively with other living farm operators throughout the East to arrange exchanges of animals, crops, 

and seeds typical of the eighteenth century.76

 Storke, following an especially fortuitous though unexpected encounter with representatives of 

the Drackett Company in 1992, secured an $80,000 donation for restoration of the Park’s long-neglected 

 

72 1990 Operations Evaluation, file “A54 Operations Evaluation In-House” in Central file Notes, GEWA. 73 Venuto to Interpretive Staff, 13 March 1990, in NPS Files 23 of 25, GEWA. 

74 SAR, 1992, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in central Administrative files, GEWA. 75 From response to 1992 Crop and Livestock Survey, file “L30 Land Use” in Seth Box 3, GEWA. 

76 SAR, 1992, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in central Administrative files, GEWA. 
211

Burt House Point Trail. 77 The trail, a short loop encircling the stand of red cedars adjacent to the 

Memorial House, was first established during the early 1930s but had since fallen out of use. The funding 

earned the Birthplace a prime spot amid advertisement copy pushing the NPS’s Great American Clean-up 

Campaign that year.78 More importantly, the money supported a new interpretive direction at the 

Birthplace. Until 1992, Monument staff had not purposely emphasized any aspect of the memorial 

landscape. Indeed, most superintendents all the way back to Hough had done everything possible to shift 

visitor interest away from the memorial landscape and toward the interpretive story told about George 

Washington. Storke, however, recognized that the early history of the NPS was itself worthy of 

interpretation—especially as it bore on efforts to interpret George Washington’s Birthplace—and so set to 

restoring what he referred to as the first historic trail in a national park. A May 15, 1993 ribbon cutting 

ceremony marked the official reopening of Burnt House Point Trail.79

Storke had even bigger plans for the money. In addition to restoration of the trail, he envisioned a 

reconstruction of the 400-foot Dancing Marsh footbridge that once joined the historic area with the Log 

House. Originally built in 1931, the bridge had long since washed away but, using old photos, Historical 

Architect Jeffrey Pascale suggested that a new bridge could be built in relatively short order for 

approximately $90,000 of which $60,000 would come from the Drackett donation.80 The reconstructed 

bridge never materialized and, though briefly reconsidered in 1995, it remains unclear exactly what 

happed to the portion of the Drackett contribution earmarked for this purpose.81 

 

77 Dwight Storke, interview with author, 20 May 2004. 

78 See Superintendent’s 1992 Annual Report, “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in Central Administrative Files, 

GEWA and 1992 Operations Evaluation, Central Administrative Files, top shelf of overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 79 Although Storke refers to this as “the first historic trail in a national park,” it has never been classified as a 

national trail like, for example, the Appalachian Trail. The significance here lies in Storke’s reconsideration of the 

memorial landscape following years of interpretive movement away from the core historic area. The trail opening 

ceremonies were unusually elaborate. See a guest register, photocopies of newspaper articles, and several ceremony 

programs, NPS Records Box 23 of 25, GEWA. 

80 Pascale to Chief, Park Historic Preservation Division, MARO, 21 January 1995, file “H2215 Triple XXX (photos, 

etc.)” in Seth Box 3, GEWA. 

81 Minutes from a 1995 GEWA management team meeting include mention of this project though make no reference 

to previous attempts and failures thus pointing again to an ongoing problem with lapses of institutional memory at 

the Birthplace. See file “MTM’s 1995” in third drawer of Central Administrative Files, overflow filing cabinet, 

GEWA. Some of the money may have been used for rehabilitation of the Dancing Marsh Trail during 1993. See 
212

 Storke also initiated an overhaul of the Park’s series of wayside exhibits. A variety of wayside 

exhibits had been installed at the Park during the 1970s. These trailside signs interpreted various features 

of the built and natural landscape with captions written to approximate what Washington may have 

thought about Popes Creek. Aside from their questionable educational value, the signs showed signs of 

deterioration and decay by the late 1980s. Chief of Interpretation and Resource Management Louis 

Venuto proposed in 1989 that a new series of between fifteen and twenty outdoor wayside exhibits be 

constructed at “key historic and natural sites in the Park. These signs would provide basic orientation and 

some historic information.”82 Regional Director James Coleman agreed in his 1990 Operations 

Evaluation that wayside exhibits required attention and suggested that the Park request by way of 

Regional Chief of Interpretation Russell Smith that the Harpers Ferry Center produce the signs.83 The 

Park had produced a full-length plan in 1993 including justifications and descriptions of the proposed 

exhibits.84 Records indicate that installation of the exhibits began in 1994 and continued into 1995 when, 

with funding provided by a grant from the Chesapeake Bay Foundation EPA Office, the Park installed a 

final wayside exhibit at the Potomac River. 

Storke next turned his attentions toward developing the Monument’s artifact collection and in 

1990 initiated efforts to convert the Park’s museum catalog records into the Automated National 

Cataloging System (ANCS).85 Doing so complied with cultural resource management initiatives and 

facilitated Storke’s desire to move the artifact collection back into the basement of the Memorial House.86 

With approval for the cataloging project, the regional office contracted out the work to Espey, Huston & 

Associates in 1992.87 No sooner had the contracting firm completed work on the first phase of the 

cataloging project than Storke set to moving the collection. By 1992, all catalogued artifacts had been 

 correspondence regarding this lesser-known trail in file “N16 Management of Natural Resources” in Seth Box 5, 

GEWA. 

82 Venuto to Philip Semisch, 28 September 1989, NPS Records Box 23 of 25, GEWA. 

83 1990 Operations Evaluation on top shelf of Central Administrative Files, Overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 84 Refer to file “D24 Cyclic Maintenance Project List” in Seth Box 5, GEWA for this plan in addition to various 

correspondence, reports, and other materials produced in support of the plan. 

85 See 1990 Operation Evaluation comments by Regional Director James Coleman in folder “A54 Operations 

Evaluation IN-House,” Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 

86 See 1990 Operations Evaluation on top shelf of Central Administrative Files, Overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 

87 1992 Operations Evaluation, Central Administrative Files, top shelf of overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 
213

returned to their old home in a newly remodeled storage space in the Memorial House basement.88 Still, 

problems arose delaying the project and resulting in unexpected expenses. Espey, Huston & Associates 

technician Alain Outlaw explained that although thousands of artifacts had been assigned accession 

numbers during the 1970s, “unfortunately the numbers were never marked on those objects or their 

containers.”89 Despite these difficulties, the firm did eventually complete cataloging of the final 25,000 

artifacts and Storke added them to the collections in the Memorial House basement in 1993.90 With this, 

storage of the artifact collection returned to more-or-less its late 1930s status and, with the exception of 

the addition of a steel security cage in 1997, all saved documents concerning the Monument’s history 

reside as they have since 1976 in the basement of the Visitor Center.91

Interpreting Slavery 

Portrayal of the lives of slaves at Popes Creek ranked among the most significant interpretive 

efforts at the Monument during the 1980s and 1990s. Visitors expressed interest in slavery during the 

1930s and various references to the possibility of interpreting slavery at the Monument appear in planning 

documents dating to the 1970s, but longstanding trepidation throughout the American museum 

community about interpreting slavery prevented any real efforts to interpret slavery anywhere in this 

country until the 1980s.92 The Park devoted an entire day in 1984 to special activities concerning the 

lives of slaves on Popes Creek Plantation.93 Though only a small foray into interpretation of slavery and a 

cautious one at that—a 1984 report refers to “examination of slavery in the interpretive program” as a 

 

88 SAR, 1992, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 

89 Contracting Officer Technical Representative Martha Walker to MARO Contracting Officer Mildred Johnson, 30 

August 1993, file “Blue” in third drawer of Central Administrative Files overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 

90 SAR, 1993, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 

91 SAR, 1997, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 

92 Early reports concerned with identifying opportunities to interpret African-American history within the Park 

system routinely bypassed the Monument. “A Summary Report of thirty Sites Determined to be Significant in 

Illustrating and Commemorating the Role of black Americans in United States History” prepared by the AfroAmerican Bicentennial Corporation in December 1973 makes no mention of Washington’s Birthplace. Joseph E. 

Harris led a Howard University research team in a September 1978 study titled “Afro-American History 

Interpretation at Selected National Parks” that also neglected the Birthplace. This is especially unfortunate as 

archeological work under Norman Barka during 1974-75 had produced tangible evidence of a possible slave 

residence in the Colonial Garden area. 

93 “Starring role to go to slaves’ way of life in program at park” in Richmond Times Dispatch, 1984, file “K3415 

Newspaper Articles GEWA” in Seth Box 4, GEWA. 
214

“controversial issue”—the program represented an important step at a park that had historically ignored 

the role of African Americans in colonial Virginia.94 The same report calls for a general background 

study: 

Also needed is a study of the functions and lifestyle of the slaves and the indentured servants. 

Where did they live? What did they eat? How was their treatment? Did these things vary slave 

vs. servant or even house slave vs. field slave? What religious practices were they allowed? 

What, if any, recreational diversions did they enjoy? What kind of clothing did they wear?95

An additional study by University of Maryland Eastern Shore Historian Hayward Farrar prepared for the 

Mid-Atlantic Regional Office in February 1990 made several recommendations for interpretation at the 

Park, calling specifically for reference of slavery in an informational brochure, reconstruction of slave 

quarters at the Monument, and the involvement of scholars in directing those initiatives.96

The Park responded to those reports in 1992 when it celebrated the opening of its first substantial 

effort to interpret slavery based on research compiled primarily by the Park’s interpretive specialist Paul 

Carson. A local newspaper announced the opening of the Park’s Household Slave Quarters Room that 

“will show visitors the way African-Americans lived their lives on the plantation.”97 Despite garnering 

substantial press coverage, the reconstructed slave quarters seem to have fallen short of their mark. 

Ranger Roberta Samuel, reflecting on the exhibit, notes that “people don’t even realize that’s what it’s 

supposed to be.”98 It is not clear what, if any, support Carson received in his research program. 

Concurrently, Regional Chief of Interpretation Russell Smith had to exert considerable pressure on HFC 

planners to include material concerning slavery in the Park’s new visitor brochure.99 That the NPS’s 

 

94 See file “operations evaluation” in Seth Box 4, GEWA. NPS Records Box 23 of 25, GEWA contains a variety of 

documents referring to various initiatives to interpret the lives of the disenfranchised and underrepresented at Popes 

Creek and suggests that staff member Paul Carson played an important role in the development of multicultural 

programming. 

95 Annual Statement for Interpretation and Visitor Services, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, 

1984, in Seth Box 4, GEWA. 

96 Hayward Farrar, “African-American History at the Hampton, Booker T. Washington Birthplace, George 

Washington Birthplace, Jamestown and City Point National Historic Sites,” February 1990. 97 “New Exhibit Opens at Birthplace,” The Journal, 29 January 1992, file “K3415 Newspaper Articles” in Seth Box 

5, GEWA. This Box contains a variety of articles regarding multicultural events at the Monument during this 

period. 

98 Roberta Samuel, interview with author, 26 May 2004. 

99 See Interpretive Specialist Ron Thomson to Smith, 5 March 1993; Smith to Regional Director John Reynolds, 5 

March 1993, and Russell Smith, interview with author, 14 December 2004. 
215

primary interpretive media center remained disinclined to discuss slavery as late as 1993 indicates the 

difficulty park interpretive specialists interested in interpreting slavery must have encountered during this 

period.100

 It appears that whatever efforts resulted from Carson’s project faded by the mid-1990s. 

Superintendent John Donahue visited the Park immediately preceding his replacement of Dwight Storke 

and asked an interpreter about slaves at Popes Creek. The interpreter replied, “they had slaves here, but 

the slaves really enjoyed being here...no slave ever escaped.”101 With this experience in mind, Donahue 

used money provided in 1996 by a NPS grant and through a cooperative agreement with George 

Washington University to sponsor a review of the Monument’s interpretive program. The review team—

including Historians James Horton and John Vlach and graduate students from the university’s American 

Studies Program—found the Birthplace dreadfully lacking and cited significant problems with the living 

history program including ill-prepared and uninformed interpreters.102 Additionally, an NPS interpretive 

review conducted a year later involving several NPS and Monument staff resulted in similar conclusions 

about the Monument’s interpretive program and stressed the discontinuity of the historic area’s various 

exhibits and the Park’s overall failure to fully communicate that the Memorial House is not the actual 

building in which Washington was born.103

 This was certainly not the first time questions were raised regarding the effectiveness of 

interpretation, especially regarding the Memorial House. Storke himself recognized the problem and 

noted that despite the shell outline used to identify the foundations of the actual birth house, “the birth site 

itself is of minimal impact and remains lost in the perceptions of most visitors.”104 Storke also recognized 

the Monument’s shortcomings regarding multi-cultural interpretation. He realized that “permanent 

 

100 For an especially insightful discussion of the political ramifications of interpreting race at national park sites, see 

West, Domesticating History, pp. 129-58. Also see CRM volume 20, no. 2 (1997) for several articles concerning 

interpretation of slavery at NPS sties. 

101 John Donahue, interview with author, 14 May 2004. 102 Historical Interpretation and the National Park Service at George Washington Birthplace National Monument, 1 

November 1996, RPT-014, GEWA Library. 

103 Interpretive Review, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, 13 February 1997, RPT-007, GEWA 

Library. 

104 Storke to Jeffrey Marion, 13 August 1992, file “N22 Research Programs” in Second Drawer of Central 

Administrative Files overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 
216

exhibits on the untouched land Native Americans knew prior to colonization and exhibits that address the 

work of servants and slaves need to be added. Visitors of varying cultures should SEE that more than one 

type of human being was responsible for colonizing the New World.” Nonetheless, changes of this 

variety did not come easy at Popes Creek. Even armed with interpretation review studies, Storke’s 

replacement had difficulty convincing staff members of the importance of interpreting slavery and recalls, 

“people [being] adverse to getting too much into the slave issue.”105 Nonetheless, the emergence of 

efforts to interpret slavery during this period is significant and speaks to the effectiveness of new trends in 

interpretive and cultural resource management planning. 

 

105 John Donahue, interview with author, 14 May 2004. 
CHAPTER 9 

Recent Trends and Reorganization since the 1990s 

 Although Superintendent Dwight Storke managed to reinvigorate the Monument’s Living Farm 

during the 1980s, the golden years of living history had come to and end. Director Mott’s interest in 

bolstering interpretation and public education briefly revived front-line interpretation at the Monument, 

but his replacement, Director James M. Ridenour, pushed the NPS into a new era of fiscal conservatism 

and self assessment beginning in 1989. Ridenour believed that the NPS’s interests had been too freely 

surrendered to Congress. Acquisitions like THST, he argued, represented the kind of “pork barrel 

politics” undertaken by congressmen eager to garner favor with constituencies.1

 Rather than expand 

acquisitions, Ridenour encouraged environmental protection, cooperation with public and private 

organizations to protect land, and avoidance of property condemnation except when absolutely necessary. 

The new director focused the NPS on technology initiatives such as creating a service-wide electronic 

mail system. Moreover, Ridenour championed the creation of a centralized office of strategic planning in 

Denver and initiated a host of planning projects designed to take stock of operations during the NPS’s 

seventy-fifth anniversary.2

Superintendent John Donahue brought with him a similar set of management goals to the 

Monument when he replaced Dwight Storke in 1994. He immediately pledged to review and upgrade, 

where necessary, every staff position in the Park.3

 It just so happened that this announcement 

corresponded with the NPS’s Ranger Careers Program and so, determining that all Monument rangers had 

fulfilled their duties for some time at high levels of performance, Donahue instantly upgraded all rangers 

to the GS-9 pay rating. Administration and Maintenance staff expressed some dismay that their ranks had 

not been upgraded, so Donahue began a review process that would eventually span nearly his entire 

superintendency and resulted in the upgrading of almost all Monument employees. Donahue explains 

 

1

 James M. Ridenour, The National Parks Compromised: Pork Barrel Politics and America’s Treasures

(Merrillville, IN: ICS Books, Inc, 1994), pp. 78-83. 

2

 Ridenour, The National Parks Compromised, pp. 59, 63, 71, 210. Also see Mackintosh, The National Park, p. 87. 3

 Unless otherwise noted, see John Donahue, interview with author, 14 May 2004 for the following account. 
218

that an unfair rating system existed at the Park wherein the Park employed, for example, mechanics 

assistants, but no mechanics. He thus envisioned grade review as being necessary for fostering a 

professional work environment, though he made clear to his employees that grade hikes would mean a 

reduction in seasonal hiring. 

Donahue’s superintendency also marked the end of military presence at the Birthplace. The Navy 

had maintained a range finding station at the Potomac River beach since the 1940s. Built during World 

War II, the small structure permitted Dahlgren military personnel to evaluate munitions testing but had 

fallen out of regular use since the 1970s and thus constituted an unsightly mar on the historic landscape. 

Donahue took an aggressive approach to the problem and wrote to a Dahlgren official in 1995 indicating 

the Monument’s “preference at this time is to restore the historic scene which will require the termination 

of the memorandum of understanding.”4

 Talks began in September 1995 and eventually resulted in the 

relocation of Dahlgren’s testing facilities outside of park boundaries.5

 Taken in combination with Dwight 

Storke’s previous restoration of the Burnt House Point trail, removal of the range station represented a 

second step toward restoring the Monument’s landscape to its pre-war appearance. 

But even as Donahue undertook to streamline park operations, shifts in Washington once again 

heralded a new regime of administrative changes. Director Roger G. Kennedy replaced Director 

Ridenour in 1993 and set into motion a system-wide overhaul of long-standing NPS administrative units. 

The Monument’s position within the NPS structure had remained relatively constant since its inclusion 

within the Mid-Atlantic Region in 1973. During the summer of 1994, however, Donahue announced to 

his staff that the Monument had become part of the new Northeast Field Area.6

 The Northeast Field Area 

 

4

 Donahue to Joan Markley, 16 May 1995, “reading file” on third shelf of Central File Notes overflow filing cabinet, 

GEWA. 

5

 See file “MTM’s 1995” in third drawer of Central Administrative Files, overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 6

 See Recommendation for Restructuring the National Park Service, July 1994, file “A64 Organization ReOrganization/Streamlining” in Seth Box 3, GEWA. Donahue explained the concept of “clustering” during a 6 April 

1995 management team meeting and further explained the significance of being included within the Northeast Field 

Area at a 9 August 1995 meeting. See minutes for both in file “MTM’s 1995” in third drawer of Central Files 

overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 
219

combined what had been the North Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic region into one unit and centralized 

regional support for the Park in the Chesapeake System Support Office. 

The reorganization triggered downsizing within Regional Offices, which subsequently translated 

into more administrative work for Monument staff. 7 Combined with ongoing system-wide efforts to 

improve use of computer technology in the parks—something Donahue eagerly supported—the 

administrative reorganization created problems at a park as historically resistant to computerization as 

Washington’s Birthplace. Monument division leaders found themselves having to perform routine 

administrative tasks previously delegated to the Administrative Officer and her staff. As a result, Mimi 

Woodward’s administrative unit increasingly functioned as an enforcer of administrative regulations and, 

needless to say, frequently fell out of favor with the Park’s various divisions. 

Woodward recalls one occasion when the NPS required all parks to use a new inventory control 

software package. The software proved so cumbersome and so ill-suited to its purpose that Woodward 

created an alternative property inventory that required extra labor hours and ultimately created increased 

friction among division leaders.8

 In 2000, the superintendent reported that: 

Information management needs have become overwhelming over time. Demands by Washington 

and Regional offices require parks to purchase bigger, faster, and different software and hardware 

in order to accomplish the myriad of tasks and reports. Printer cartridges, though taken 

individually may not seem like a large purchase, but when two parks the size of GEWA and 

THST purchase cartridges for a one-year period, the cost is over $3500. This is one of the many 

examples of increased costs over time.9

To make things worse, communications with the regional office had evidently suffered with the 

reorganization. In December 1994, for example, the Park could not find a single regional officer to 

answer urgent questions concerning the Monument’s law enforcement jurisdiction status.10 In this way, 

 

7

 Mimi Woodward, interview with author, 2 July 2004. 

8

 Ibid. 

9

 SAR, 2000, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in Central Files, GEWA. 

10 Questions concerning jurisdiction arose during a 16 December 1994 management team meeting: “We have been 

operating under the premise that our park jurisdiction is proprietary. Mike Greenfield at Fredericksburg and 

Spotsylvania has been researching Federal Jurisdiction status of parks in Virginia. It appears that most of the Park 

would be under Exclusive jurisdiction with some under concurrent. This situation exists at other NPS sites in 

Virginia. For the time we are to continue working under “good faith” of proprietary jurisdiction while the Regional 

Law Enforcement Specialist pursue this further.” SAR, 2000, file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report” in Central 

Files, GEWA. 
220

Donahue’s arrival at Washington’s Birthplace occurred amid serious problems concerning 

communications, NPS expectations, and the Park’s ability and willingness to accommodate change. 

The Turn Away from Living History 

Most significantly, however, Donahue did not consider living history essential to interpretation at 

Washington’s Birthplace. He felt that interpretation prior to his arrival was headed “completely in the 

wrong direction” and, although living history demonstrations may have livened the historical setting, they 

did nothing to shift interpretive focus away from the idiosyncratic Memorial House.11 Donahue issued a 

memo to park staff after six months at the Birthplace conveying his impressions of the operation: 

I also want to remind everyone that the natural and the cultural resources within our sites are 

woven together like the threads of a quilt. They cannot be separated without destroying the 

whole, nor can they be prioritized. The land and waters and wildlife of these sites deserve and 

will receive the same protection here as they do in Yellowstone National Park.12

Donahue’s insistence on placing cultural and natural resources on equal footing at the Birthplace marked 

a new direction for park staff. The Park was certainly no stranger to environmental stewardship. Just 

before his departure, for example, Dwight Storke had the Monument added as a reserve site within the 

Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve System by facilitating a relationship with the 

Virginia Institute of Marine Science.13 Still, having a background in NEPA compliance, Donahue’s 

particular interest in environmental policy left a distinct mark on park activities and, by 1998, resulted in 

the Monument being recognized as a model park for compliance with environmental laws.14 In 1999, 

Donahue took resource management a step further by dividing what had long been a joint law 

enforcement and resource management position into two separate positions and, for the first time in park 

history, hired a dedicated natural resources manager.15

 

11 John Donahue, interview with author, 14 May 2004. 

12 Donahue to GEWA/THST staff, 3 January 1995, file “Blue” in Third Drawer of Central Administrative Files 

overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. 

13 1990 Operations Evaluation on top shelf of Central Administrative Files, Overflow filing cabinet, GEWA. Also 

see file “A44 memorandum of Agreements VIMS” in Central file Notes, GEWA. 

14 FY 1998 Annual Narrative Report, Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 15 Thanks to GEWA Resource Manager Rijk Morawe for clarifying this matter. 
221

 This is not to say that Donahue slighted cultural resources. In fact, the Monument sponsored its 

most comprehensive cultural resource report under Donahue’s administration. Work on the Monument’s 

cultural landscape report (CLR) began in 1995 in coordination with the Northeast Region’s Philadelphia 

Support Office and the OCULUS cultural resource management consulting firm. It was a good time to 

undertake a reassessment of park resources, especially historic resources. In 1991, the NPS had been 

directed by Public Law 101-628 to revise its thematic framework for interpreting history to reflect the 

substantial impact of New Social History on historical knowledge and methodology. The NPS released 

its revised framework in 1994 thereby requiring historical parks to revise their own interpretive programs 

accordingly.16 Liz Sargent, an OCULUS project leader, recalls that the CLR also grew out of longstanding calls in park planning documents, including the 1966 interpretive prospectus, for extended 

studies of the Park’s historic landscape.17 She also notes that the early 1990s witnessed an increased 

interest in Colonial Revival architecture as parks developed during the 1930s had “just exceeded the 50-

year ‘historic’ mark, and various individuals and organizations around the country were exploring a 

context for the Colonial Revival.” 

 Sargent also points out that uncertain times within the NPS motivated initiation of the project. 

During the course of the project, 

We witnessed various NPS initiatives that promoted centralization through the upgrading of the 

Denver Service Center, the subsequent downgrading of DSC, the rise of the role of the regions 

and the subsequent decline of the role of the regions, with a concurrent rise of the role of the 

individual park. We also experienced a government shutdown during the project. All of this 

made it very difficult for the NPS personnel to anticipate the future.18

Amid this climate of uncertainty, the CLR promised improved funding opportunities for the Park. 

Treatment projects proposed in the CLR enabled the Park to generate cost estimates useful for submitting 

funding requests. Sargent notes that Shaun Eyring, Northeast Regional Historical Landscape Architect, 

 

16 NPS, “History in the National Park Service, Themes and Concepts” (Washington, DC: 1994), 

<www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSThinking/revthem.htm> (18 May 2006) . 

17 My thanks to Liz Sargent for answering questions concerning the 1999 CLR. Her response to my questions is the 

basis for this account of events and motivations surrounding creation of the study. 

18 Liz Sargent to Seth Bruggeman, electronic mail, 25 January 2005. 
222

played a central role in developing the CLR’s scope of work thereby ensuring that the Park would receive 

a useful tool for “securing future management and maintenance monies.” 

Although vital for preservation of park resources and development of interpretive programming, 

resource management initiatives of this variety did not garner as much public interest as had the Living 

Farm. The long-term rehabilitation of the Washington family burial ground is a case in point. In 1982, 

the Park received cyclic authorization to replace the lids on two memorial sarcophagi constructed by the 

WNMA at the burial ground in 1932.19 Work continued at the burial ground in 1984 with removal of two 

original grave stones for conservation treatment—a three year undertaking by the HFC.20 In 1992, the 

Regional Office earmarked $30,000 for repointing and repairs of the brick wall surrounding the burial 

ground. The Park worked with the Williamsport Preservation Training Center on this project and by the 

end of 1993 had completed the task.21 Despite the significance of this project and the remarkable 

financial and personnel resources required to satisfy related Section 106 compliance, coordinate efforts 

with contractors, and physically perform the work, visitors and community members alike bemoaned 

what they perceived as a waning of activities at the Monument during the 1980s and 1990s.22 

 Despite the public misperception, behind-the-scenes planning activities struggled to keep in step 

with national mandates. The Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA) required that 

federal agencies incorporate performance management goals—goals targeting measurable outcomes 

rather than recognizable efforts—into their planning strategies. The NPS responded to GPRA by issuing 

a strategic plan in 1997 that required individual parks to develop performance plans in accord with the 

NPS’s own performance goals. With a recently completed CLR in hand, the Park set to drafting its own 

strategic plan. Acting Superintendent David Herrera coordinated the effort following Superintendent 

 

19 SAR, 1982, in Box “GEWA” in HFCA. 

20 SAR, 1984, in Box “GEWA” and 1987 in Box “GEWA-Annual Reports” in HFCA. 

21 See Chief, Park Historic Preservation Division, MARO, to Chief, Williamsport Preservation Training Center, 7 

December 1992, file “H30 Historic Structures & Sites” in Seth Box 5, GEWA. Task Directive, Preservation of 

Cemetery Walls, Phase I, GEWA, 19 April 1993, file “D18 Planning Program” on top shelf of Central Files 

overflow filing cabinet, GEWA, provides an extensive description of the project. Also see SAR, 1993, file “A2621 

Annual Narrative Report” in Central Files, GEWA. 22 See Betty Horner, interview with author, 30 June 2004, and Janice Frye, interview with author, 21 January 2004. 
223

Donahue’s acceptance of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area superintendency in March 

2000. Herrera and his planning team incorporated findings from the CLR, a 1999 Interpretive Plan, a 

1994 Collections Management Report, a 1999 analysis of the condition of park structures and facilities, 

and field observations compiled during monitoring of exotic plants and wildlife. The Park submitted its 

2000-2005 Strategic Plan on April 15, 2000.23 The plan stresses the problem of understaffing and 

underfunding as had nearly every planning document produced by the Park throughout its history. It also 

refers to excessive demands resulting from NEPA and NHPA, Section 106 compliance as primary factors 

affecting performance. Moreover, its long-term goals focus on protecting and managing natural and 

environmental resources, preserving museum collections and historic resources including archeological 

sites and materials, and improving visitor experience and facilitating staff diversity. 

But, even though the Strategic Plan pledges to ensure that “visitors understand and appreciate the 

significance of the Park,” the decline of the Park’s Living Farm complicated the public picture at 

Washington’s Birthplace. To this day, visitors still encounter remnants of the living history program, but 

those remnants—consisting of infrequent costumed demonstrations, glimpses of generally non-working 

heritage livestock24, and costumed and uncostumed rangers working side by side within the memorial 

landscape—are more often confusing than informative (Image 50). Moreover, the juxtaposition of the 

Memorial House and the outlined foundations of Washington’s actual birth house also confuses visitors.25 

After seventy-five years of efforts to de-emphasize the Memorial House, the WNMA’s primary 

contribution to the memorial landscape continues to dominate visitor experience leading many to leave 

the Park thinking—as Frederick Law Olmsted predicted in 1929—that the Memorial House is the original 

building or, at least, a replica of it. As throughout the Monument’s history, today’s administrative 

 

23 Strategic Plan for George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Fiscal year 2001-2005, approved by 

Acting Superintendent David P. Herrera, 15 April 2000, in file “A64 GPRA Strategic Plans 2001-2005,” Central 

Administrative Files, GEWA. 

24 The monument’s heritage breed livestock program is the most visible remnant of the living farm and continues to 

garner attention. See Rob Hedelt, “Bringing Back Old Breeds” in The Free Lance-Star, 2 December 2004: C1, C12. 25 For a brief discussion of this problem, see Comprehensive Interpretive Plan, George Washington Birthplace 

National Monument, March 1999. 
224

challenges and planning decisions result largely from a complicated and often ambiguous interpretive 

context. 

Recent Trends 

Managing those challenges currently falls to Donahue’s replacement, Superintendent Vidal 

Martinez. Martinez entered duty in 2000 just as the Regional Office chose the Monument as a test site for 

its new Management Assistance Program (MAP).26 MAP reviews identified for new superintendents 

pressing park management issues through periodic on-site evaluation. The Monument’s MAP team 

provided Martinez with a punch list of recommendations upon his arrival. It identified several primary 

management concerns including a need to improve community relations, the importance of obtaining a 

general management plan, a review of planning documents, the desirability of archeological work, and the 

need for a management position review. 

Martinez took the list seriously and continues to do so, but also discovered other problems. For 

one, Washington’s Birthplace had grown invisible to the visiting public amid a competing landscape of 

popular Civil War attractions. Official signage referred to the birthplace as Popes Creek Plantation thus 

rendering unclear the site’s association with George Washington. Martinez himself confused Ferry Farm 

with the Monument during his first trip to the area. He determined to make Washington’s Birthplace 

widely recognizable to the general public and has since involved himself in the resurrection of the 

Westmoreland County Tourism Council and, in 2001, arranged for the George Washington’s 

Fredericksburg Foundation to fund an interpretive wayside exhibit at a local welcome center and rest stop 

along Interstate 95.27 No less significant is the amount of Martinez’s time required by Thomas Stone 

National Historic Site. Despite great gains during the previous decade, THST continues to draw on 

Monument resources. Martinez estimates that he still devotes thirty percent of his time to management of 

THST.28

 

26 Vidal Martinez, interview with author, 2 July 2004. 

27 See response to Resources Planning and Restructuring Report, Phase II, 20 July 2001 in file “A64 Workforce 

Planning and Restructuring;” Central Files, GEWA administrative offices. 

28 Vidal Martinez, interview with author, 2 July 2004. 
225

Superintendent Martinez arrived in time to lead the Monument through the aftermath of yet 

another dramatic system-wide reorganization of NPS units. Robert G. Stanton replaced Director Kennedy 

in 1997 and initiated a new reorganization to address problems with Kennedy’s system. This second 

reorganization created NPS support offices and park clusters designed to make support services and 

resources more accessible to parks. On one hand, these changes benefited the Monument by placing more 

decision-making responsibilities in the hands of the superintendent thus encouraging peer review and 

improving accountability at the Park level. Moreover, the reorganization encouraged several successful 

resource-sharing initiatives between the Monument and other parks within its cluster. As of 2001, the 

Monument received contracting services from Shenandoah National Park for procurement required by 

large projects. Shenandoah National Park also provided the Services of its Virginia Invasive Vegetation 

Management Team beginning in 2001 to address what had grown into a serious problem at the Park.29 In 

return, the Monument contributed the services of its administrative officer to the NPS-wide Introduction 

to Park Program Management instructional team that trains field-level employees in the Northeast 

Region. The resource accessibility sought by the reorganization has not, however, always panned out. 

The Monument occasionally struggles to obtain technical support from within its cluster, especially with 

regard to contracting and personnel management. This problem results, in part, from the cluster’s host 

park’s inability or unwillingness to provide services to other parks when they find themselves 

shorthanded.30

Current Land Concerns 

Relationships with adjacent landowners also remain a concern. Park neighbors still, in some 

cases, recall the Park’s disastrous 1970s land campaign and remain cautious, if not guarded, about future 

land negotiations with the NPS.31 The Park has its own concerns and continually worries about the 

 

29 The Virginia Invasive Vegetation Management Team has since been reorganized into the Northeastern Exotic 

Plant Management Team. Thanks to Rijk Morawe for clarification. 30 Resources Planning and Restructuring Report, Phase II, 20 July 2001 in file “A64 Workforce Planning and 

Restructuring;” Central Files, GEWA administrative offices. 

31 James Latane recalls at least one NPS representative being disciplined for his or her involvement in the 1973 

scenario and personally attributes the heavy-handed land practices of the 1960s and 1970s to “empire building” 
226

possibility of adjacent landowners allowing development that might draw on the Park’s resources or 

otherwise interfere with historic viewsheds. Acquisition of remaining inholdings remains a top priority. 

Following acquisition of the Horner tract in 1995, 115 acres of land owned by the Muse family remained 

within park boundaries. Goodwin Muse willed the land to his wife Florence following his death in 1999. 

Shortly thereafter, the Park discovered that Florence Muse had advertised the land for sale without 

notifying the Park. Superintendent Martinez spoke with Muse and, following additional conversations 

with the Conservation Fund, determined that she would be willing to sell the land to the NPS. The Park 

required a boundary adjustment before entering into negotiations and so called upon long-time supporter 

Congressman Herbert Bateman. Bateman died, however, while developing a legislative proposal and as 

efforts consequently stalled, Muse continued to seek out buyers and passed portions of the land to another 

member of the Muse family.32 Amid the delay, misunderstandings concerning road access and land 

maintenance raised tensions.33

 Martinez approached Bateman’s replacement, Congresswoman Jo Ann Davis, after her election 

in 2000. Davis recognized the desirability of acquiring the land and drafted her own legislative proposal, 

HR 3449. The bill passed the House and, with the support of Senators George Allen and John Warner, 

passed in the Senate becoming public law 107-354 in 2002 (Appendix 8). Public Law 107-354 

authorized an expansion of the Monument’s boundaries to include the 115-acre Muse tract. To date, 

however, no action has been taken toward purchasing the land. Martinez identifies a lack of funding as 

the primary difficulty facing acquisition. Moreover, since 2002, Muse has contracted with a real estate 

broker who continues to advertise the land for sale to private buyers and, on one occasion, attempted to 

 within the Park. James Latane, Jr., interview with author, 22 July 2004. Betty Horner recalls the 1970s similarly, 

saying that “we kept abreast of what was going on over there for our own protection,” adding that now, “we all feel 

they have their eye cast around.” See Betty Horner, interview with author, 30 June 2004. 32 Larry Muse—son to Goodwin and Florence—acquired a portion of the property at this time and, in turn, took over 

the special use permit previously issued to Goodwin Muse in which Muse was allowed use of the land in trade for 

preservation of the historic setting by way of mowing and general maintenance. Larry Muse eventually defaulted on 

this agreement therefore burdening the Monument with additional grounds keeping responsibilities. See 2000-2001 

correspondence between Martinez, Larry Muse, and the Farm Service NPS in file “A44 Memorandum of Agreement 

H. Goodwin Muse,” Central Files, GEWA Administrative offices. 33 GEWA failed to fulfill road access and land maintenance provisions established during the transfer of the Shrouse 

tract. See 14 June 2001 complaint regarding GEWA’s failure to maintain access to Muse’s Neck Cemetery in file 

“A36 Complaints,” Central Files, GEWA Administrative offices. 
227

divide the tract into several parcels for individual sale. The Monument worked with Regional Realty 

Officer Boyd Sponaugle to address this problem and determined that a new land survey must accompany 

efforts to purchase the land. Without the survey, and still without adequate funding, the fate of the Muse 

inholding remains uncertain and constitutes a significant administrative concern.34

In some cases, land loss rather than land acquisition constitutes a primary concern. The Park 

initiated an erosion control study in 2001 to determine the extent of damage to cliffs along the Potomac 

River and along the Popes Creek shoreline.35 This was not the first time the Monument identified 

problems associated with erosion. Superintendent Hough first expressed concern about shoreline erosion 

in 1932. 36 Not until 1973 did the problem attract any significant attention.37 Despite the 2001 

preliminary study and others like it throughout the Monument’s history, the Park has not yet determined a 

plan of action to address the erosion problem. Shoreline erosion is not unique to the Monument. NPS 

Regional Chief Scientist John Karish recalls working on similar problems at Richmond National 

Battlefield Park and at Assateague Island National Seashore, noting special successes at the latter.38 

The George Washington Boyhood Home at Ferry Farm 

An entirely different matter of land acquisition added to these concerns in 2002. The possibility 

of adding George Washington’s boyhood home at Ferry Farm on the Rappahannock River to the 

Monument has figured in planning initiatives since the mid 1970s. Virginia congressman William Scott, 

responding to Ferry Farm’s placement on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, introduced 

 

34 Vidal Martinez, interview with author, 2 July 2004. Also, file “L1417 Land Acquisitions-Muse Property,” Central 

Files, GEWA administrative offices, contains a variety of relevant newspaper articles in addition to several more 

folders in this series full of documents concerning the Muse property acquisition through the 1990s and early 2000s. 

35 Annual Narrative Report, 200, in file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report,” Central Files, GEWA administrative 

offices. Despite the Monument’s numerous attempts to study the erosion problem throughout its history, I have not 

located any comprehensive survey or account of these studies. NPS Northeast Region Hydrologist Alan C. 

Ellsworth summarizes the erosion problem as well as concerns attending other matters of natural resources at the 

Monument in “George Washington Birthplace National Monument (GEWA) Natural Resource Synthesis,” prepared 

for the GEWA GMP project, 15 July 2003. 

36 Hough referred to local claims that local shorelines wore away “at the rate of three feet a year.” Although Hough 

mapped a 1,400-foot stretch of shoreline in order to study the problem, it is not clear if he ever completed the study 

or if documentation of this study exists. See SMR, October 1932, GEWA. 

37 The Park initiated a small-scale erosion-monitoring program in 1973 but it is not clear whether that program 

produced any results or was ever completed. 

38 John Karish, interview with author, 29 December 2004. 
228

legislation to make Ferry Farm a national historic site. The legislation required that a committee—

including NPS Virginia State Office Director Charles Marshall, the superintendent of Fredericksburg and 

Spotsylvania National Military Park, and Monument Management Assistant Marlo Acock—evaluate the 

feasibility of acquiring the site. The committee suggested several possibilities for managing the proposed 

site, including management by the Monument, but the NPS did not take any action in the face of 

opposition from the site’s private owners and did not at that time consider the site vulnerable to imminent 

threat.39

 Ferry Farm remained untouched until 1990 when its owners sought a deal to allow commercial 

development on the property. Stafford County, Virginia, acquired the site’s core historic area as part of 

this deal and hired Espey, Huston & Associates to evaluate the site’s archeological resources.40 In 1996, 

the threat of a proposed shopping center triggered a grass-roots preservation campaign resulting in a fullpurchase by the Kenmore Association of both the county’s portion of the site and that remaining 

vulnerable to commercial development. The Kenmore Association sponsored a series of archeological 

investigations beginning in 1997 that continue today. 

While under the Kenmore Association’s ownership, Ferry Farm once again attracted NPS 

interest. Virginia Senator John Warner introduced S 2086 in 1998 to acquire a less than fee interest in 

eighty-five acres encompassing Ferry Farm. The bill became law as Section 509 of Public Law 105-355 

and, beyond authorizing a conservation easement and a limited cooperative agreement with the Kenmore 

Association, required that the NPS again evaluate Ferry Farm’s feasibility for inclusion within the 

National Park System (Appendix 9). The resulting 2002 Special Resource Study determined that Ferry 

Farm, although nationally significant, would not contribute substantially to the system’s ability to 

interpret George Washington and so, for the time being, does not merit inclusion within the National Park 

System. Still, the NPS retains monitoring responsibilities at the site by way of its cooperative agreement 

 

39 See National Register of Historic Places nomination form, pp. 12-13. The NRHP form refers to a June 1972 

study. The Harpers Ferry Center holds a report titled “Proposed George Washington Boyhood Home, Ferry Farm, 

Suitability-Feasibility Report” dated 1974. 

40 See Alain C. Outlaw et al. of Espey, Huston & Associates, Inc., “A Study of the Architecture, the History and the 

Archaeology of George Washington’s Ferry Farm,” January 1993. 
229

with the Kenmore Association—rechartered as the George Washington’s Fredericksburg Foundation in 

1999—and thus the future of the NPS’s relationship with Ferry Farm by way of the Monument remains 

uncertain.41

The George Washington Birthplace Memorial Association 

 The 2002 boundary expansion demonstrated an ongoing interest in protecting viewsheds and 

natural and historical resources, but it also revealed an ongoing difficulty with the GWBMA. Following 

Congressman Bateman’s death, Martinez sought support from the local community in his effort to 

convince Congresswoman Davis of the importance of acquiring the Muse inholding. He approached the 

Westmoreland County Board of Supervisors, which agreed to support Martinez by writing letters of 

support and by testifying in Washington, DC.42 The Monument’s 2000 MAP review suggested that 

opportunities be sought to foster a more productive relationship with the GWBMA and so Martinez also 

approached the Association for support in his legislative campaign.43 Although the GWBMA agreed to 

sign a letter written by Martinez, they were not willing to take a more active role and declined to 

contribute materially to the legislative campaign. 

The Association’s reluctance to assist Martinez is not surprising given the history of relations 

between the two organizations. The current manifestation of the organization that was responsible for 

raising Washington’s Birthplace to national acclaim during the late 1920s and early 1930s, the 

GWBMA—renamed the George Washington Birthplace Association (GWBA) in 2004—has since been 

relegated to managing a book and souvenir store. Ill feelings left over from conflict between the two 

groups during the early 1980s likely persist among older members who feel as if the organization was 

unjustly divested of its last claims to authority at the Birthplace. The GWBA’s current president, Jan 

Beckett, a co-owner of Northern Neck Heritage Tours, has demonstrated an interest in widening the 

 

41 See National Park Service, “George Washington Boyhood Home, Special Resource Study and Environmental 

Assessment,” July 2002. 

42 Betty Horner, who then sat on the Board of Supervisors, assisted generously with this effort and traveled to 

Washington on behalf of the Monument. 

43 Vidal Martinez, interview with author, 2 July 2004. 
230

association’s scope of activities. Martinez hopes that the GWBA will eventually serve as an advocate for 

protection of the entire Monument. 

Interpretation Today 

Current interpretive programming at the Monument adheres to goals put forth in the Park’s 

Comprehensive Interpretive Plan (CIP). The NPS outlined new procedures in 1995 for enabling parks to 

undertake their own comprehensive interpretive planning projects.44 Superintendent Donahue initiated 

the process at Washington’s Birthplace and approved a CIP on March 4, 1999. The plan, developed with 

input from Monument staff and representatives of the Philadelphia and Boston Support Offices, 

complemented the Monument’s Cultural Landscape Report, also completed in 1999. Taken together, the 

two present a radical departure from previous interpretive activities. 

 The CIP proposes a number of interpretive redirections specifically intended to move away from 

living history. It proposes to “shift from generic colonial plantation interpretation...to George 

Washington’s life and accomplishments;” “shift from focusing on Washington’s young years to his entire 

life of achievement;” and “create an integrated and complete park experience that goes beyond the 

commemorative area.”45 The plan offers a single primary interpretive theme—“George Washington was 

the transcendent leader of the American Revolutionary era whose actions were crucial to the 

establishment of the United States as an independent nation founded on principles of universal liberty”—

and three sub themes with emphasis upon the impact of Atlantic World colonial society on Washington’s 

character and career, popular commemoration of Washington since his death, and the inconsistency 

between Washington’s use of slave labor and his espoused ideology of universal liberty. The plan 

identifies the interpretive conundrum presented by the Memorial House’s tendency to wrest visitor 

attention away from the actual birth site, suggests that efforts be made to recreate portions of the 

commemorative landscape as it appeared when built during the 1930s, encourages outreach and 

curriculum-based education programming, and calls for continued archeological investigations. 

 

44 NPS, “Comprehensive Interpretive Planning” (Washington, DC: 2000), <www.nps.gov/hfc/products/ip.htm#> (18 

May 2006). 

45 Comprehensive Interpretive Plan, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, March 1999. 
231

 Work toward this final goal by way of a cooperative agreement with the Colonial Williamsburg 

Foundation has been especially productive in recent years and has set the Monument on a path toward 

filling vital gaps in the archeological record at Popes Creek. A team led by Joe Jones, Julie Richter, 

Elizabeth Grzymala, and Paul Moyer undertook a comprehensive survey of the Monument’s 

archeological resources in 1999. This initial foray contributed to a critical analysis of identified resources 

by R.G. Gilmore, Paul Moyer, and Carrie Alblinger in 2001. This project is especially important in that 

it, for the first time, positively identified and documented what had previously only been suspected of 

being eighteenth-century slave quarters. Moreover, this study documented a small late seventeenthcentury farmstead as well as a variety of indications of Native American occupancy. Finally, Jameson 

Harwood and Marley Brown, III conducted an evaluation of threatened archeological resources in 2002 

demonstrating that not only does Monument property contain vast archeological resources of significance, 

but that those resources face daily threats and must be stabilized for purposes of preservation and 

interpretation.46

 The Monument has also been particularly successful in satisfying its curriculum-based education 

programming goals by securing outside grant monies. In 2001, the Park partnered with the National Park 

Foundation and received grant money to pay for educational materials used by teachers and students 

during park visits.47 In conjunction with five other historic sites and a host of school systems and the 

College of William & Mary, the Park shared in a three-year $1 million education grant from the U.S. 

Department of Education for teaching American history in 2002. This award enabled the Monument to 

work with the Westmoreland County Public School System to develop standards-based educational 

 

46 See Joe B. Jones et al., Comprehensive Archaeological Survey of George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, College of William and Mary, March 1999); 

R.G. Gilmore, et al., An Archaeological Assessment of George Washington’s Birthplace National Monument

(Williamsburg, VA: The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, March 2001); and Jameson M. Harwood and Marley 

R. Brown, III, An Archaeological Evaluation of Threatened Cultural Resources within the George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument, Colonial Williamsburg Archaeological Reports (Williamsburg, VA: The Colonial 

Williamsburg Foundation, Department of Archaeological Research, April 2002). 

47 See response to Resources Planning and Restructuring Report, Phase II, 20 July 2001 in file “A64 Workforce 

Planning and Restructuring;” Central Files, GEWA administrative offices. 
232

programming and teacher workshops.48 The Park, in partnership with the Northern Neck Tourism 

Council, received a $14,000 grant from the Chesapeake Bay Gateways program in 2003 leading to 

additional collaboration with Richmond County, Essex County, and Westmoreland County Public 

Schools.49 Among the Monument’s most popular educational initiatives is “How Math and Science 

Changed George Washington’s Life,” a standards of learning-based program for middle school students 

developed by park Ranger Andrew Packett in conjunction with Richmond County Public Schools with 

funding from the Exxon Foundation, the National Park Foundation, and the NPS’s Parks as Classrooms 

program. The Park achieved all of this without, as recommended by the CIP, hiring an education 

specialist. Ranger Andrew Packet provided substantial support for educational programming but recently 

left the NPS thus raising questions concerning the success of continued programming.50

 The CIP’s other two primary suggestions, recreating the 1930s memorial landscape and revising 

interpretive treatment of the Memorial House—perhaps the most ambitious of the proposals—receive 

mixed attention at the Park. Dwight Storke anticipated these suggestions when he spearheaded 

restoration of Burnt House Point Trail in 1992 and sought unsuccessfully to rebuild the Dancing Marsh 

Bridge. Superintendent Martinez has expressed similar interest in replacing modern traffic gates with 

1930s-style structures and presenting the granite obelisk as it appeared when first erected. Although the 

CLR also urges the Park in this direction, there is no formal plan for recreating the commemorative 

landscape. Nor has interpretation of either the Memorial House or the outlined foundations of the original 

house undergone any significant change. The CIP suggests substantial changes in this regard, going as far 

as to suggest inverting the standard tour so that visitors enter the Memorial House from the water side so 

that upon exiting they view the original foundations without the distracting backdrop of an erroneous 

 

48 Annual Narrative Report, 2003, in file “A2621 Annual Narrative Report,” Central Files, GEWA administrative 

offices. 

49 Ibid. 

50 The 1999 CIP recommends the hiring of an educational specialist although, at that time, the Park did not have 

funding to establish the staff position and wondered if it would not be more appropriate to create a position for a 

historian. A year later, the Park reported that “these programs are very popular with the schools and require much 

staff time to develop and to present. The demand for curriculum based interpretive programs is growing. Until the 

Park has funding for an educational specialist, these programs will draw staff and resources away from the 

traditional park users and daily interpretive operations.” See Annual Narrative Reports, 2000 and 2001, in file 

“A2621 Annual Narrative Report,” Central Files, GEWA administrative offices. 
233

reconstruction. Nonetheless, the problems Associated with interpreting the Memorial House have 

remained relatively constant for seventy-five years.
CHAPTER 10 

Recommendations1

 The suggestions put forth by the CIP are worthy and merit consideration, but also raise serious 

concerns when considered in light of the Monument’s overall history of interpretive planning. A critical 

review of that history—in part the goal of this administrative history—demonstrates the centrality of 

interpretive decisions to all other administrative concerns at the Birthplace throughout its history. Nearly 

every administrative decision made during the past seventy-five years concerning land acquisition, 

staffing, resource distribution, landscaping, construction, and public relations has, in one way or another, 

grown out of the Park’s various attempts to define its place within the legacy of George Washington and 

the commemoration of him. The lion’s share of developmental difficulties experienced by the Park 

between its founding and the living history explosion of the Bicentennial period, for example, can be 

directly attributed to the then uncertain status of the Memorial House and its relationship to “Building X.” 

Now that the NPS positively interprets the Building X foundations as the actual site of Washington’s 

birth, it is necessary that the Park aggressively pursue a bold new interpretive approach. The CIP’s goals 

aim to fix problems created by the historically rocky relationship between the Monument’s 

commemorative and historic resources. But, to effectively do so, the Park must accept that relationship as 

a topic worthy of interpretation in its own right. The Monument must embrace a flexible interpretive plan 

that seriously considers the historic, commemorative, and historiographical significance of the Park as it 

bears on our nation’s history and past efforts to portray that history. 

 In part, the Monument’s inability to move beyond these interpretive difficulties results from the 

very ambiguity of its own interpretive statements. Since the beginning of interpretation at Washington’s 

Birthplace, the NPS has deployed extremely imprecise though suggestive language to describe its 

interpretive mission for the very reason that an extremely imprecise though suggestive building marked 

the site it interpreted. Superintendent Hough masterminded this approach by invoking the power of place: 

 

1

 This chapter includes suggestions based on my own observations of the Monument and its operation between 2004 

and 2005. These suggestions result, in part, from lengthy informal discussions with park staff and visitors. 
235

“after all it is the Place here which is sacred. We still have some of the environment of the old place that 

was, and we should protect it just the same as natural wonders are protected in the National Parks.” 2

 The 

1987 Adjacent Lands Study used similar rationale to encourage protection of the Monument’s natural 

landscape. To that end, invoking the power of place is useful for promoting environmental stewardship. 

But interpretive messages that associate George Washington’s character with the Monument’s 

landscape—a message still conveyed at the Park today—are no longer necessary now that methodological 

advances in history and archeology make it possible to pose interpretive messages in a very clear, precise 

language that raise the Monument above the level of shrine. 

 Ironically, early commemorative efforts left such a strong mark on all subsequent interpretation 

that even documents like the CIP, that attempt to break the pattern, unwittingly perpetuate a historical 

sensibility reminiscent of the Colonial Revival. How, for instance, can a park accurately and responsibly 

interpret Washington’s “entire life of achievement” at a site that claims barely three years of the man’s 

infancy? And what exactly is a “transcendent” leader? In this way, the CIP’s goals are often vague, 

occasionally unsupportable, and at times, conflict with other stated management goals. For example, the 

Park’s 2000 Resources Management Plan—drafted in conjunction with the CLR and coincidentally with 

the CIP—pledges the Monument to “preserve the natural and cultural resources that are represented at the 

Park and those resources which are essential for commemorating George Washington’s birth [italics 

added].”3

 So, where the CIP promises to interpret Washington’s entire life, the Park’s resource manager 

is only committed to protect resources relevant to his birth. It is not at all surprising that a tour of the 

Monument remains a confusing affair, that park staff are themselves not necessarily in agreement about 

the purpose of their park, and that there seems to be no singular interpretive direction at the Monument 

today. 

Suggestions for Interpretive Planning 

 

2

 Hough to Moore, 5 November 1935, (Box 2219) file 608, National Park Service Records, RG 79, NACP. 

3

 Resources Management Plan, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, approved by Acting 

Superintendent Lawrence P. Trombello, 2 February 2000. 
236

 Historian and Martin Van Buren National Historic Site Curator Patricia West argues that “there 

are implications in the history of historic house museums for interpretive and curatorial planning.” She 

suggests that, 

A reformed vision of the function of the “administrative history” would include an account of 

what obstacles the museum’s history presents to full interpretation, explain why certain 

interpretive avenues were pursued with gusto while other languished or even had their material 

remains destroyed by the museumization process. It would clarify what intentions and wishes 

former constituencies brought to bear on the museum’s development and would align these 

historical influences with those of the communities we wish to reach today.4

West’s work is especially relevant to Washington’s Birthplace and this administrative history is, to some 

extent, a response to her suggestions. Having considered the Monument’s history as an obstacle to 

interpretation, realizing why the Park chose its various interpretive directions, and seeing how its 

“constituencies” have variously brought pressure to bear on the Park, it is important to determine a course 

of interpretive action that will make these historical influences apparent and understandable to the visiting 

public. Doing so is an interpretive and administrative task. 

 In order to pursue a responsible interpretive path, the Monument must unburden itself of two 

long-standing interpretive themes. First, emphasizing the Monument’s natural landscape as a historic 

resource and seeking to understand George Washington by understanding that landscape as an artifact of 

his time is not effective. This is the approach Superintendent Hough heralded in the face of the Building 

X controversy, that the Park’s Living Farm formalized, and that the 1987 Adjacent Lands Study made 

policy. It is well intentioned, but is predicated on two erroneous assumptions: that the landscape remains 

relatively unchanged since the eighteenth century and that one can understand Washington’s “character” 

by understanding the landscape. What is significant about the landscape is how much it has changed

since Washington’s time. Significant changes stemming from crop diversification, industrialization, and 

demographic shift (especially with regard to racial and socioeconomic composition) are everywhere 

reflected in the landscape surrounding Washington’s Birthplace and tell a significant story about the 

country’s development that does not receive substantial interpretation at the Monument. Linking 

 

4

 West, Domesticating History, p. 162. 
237

landscape to character—a prominent theme in guided tours and in the Visitor Center film—lacks critical 

heft and suggests that interpretive messages developed during the late 1960s and 1970s still hold sway at 

the Birthplace. 

 Secondly, it should not be the Park’s responsibility, as recommended in the CIP, to use the 

Monument as a lens through which to examine the entirety of Washington’s life. The Monument has 

wrestled with its significance since its inception for the very reason that the site did not play a terribly 

important role in Washington’s life. Being able to claim only the first three years of Washington’s life 

and an occasional return visit renders the Monument relatively insignificant with regard to understanding 

the man, his life, or his accomplishments. It must be kept in mind that the significance attached to the site 

originally grew out of a very specific ideological context prevalent during the Colonial Revival and 

expressed at Popes Creek by the WNMA. To this extent, the NPS continues to pursue an interpretive 

mission shaped by the WNMA’s commemorative vision and, to that extent, the Monument still conveys 

something of the shrine. The Monument must accept that its ability to interpret Washington’s life pales in 

comparison to sites like Mount Vernon where Washington’s imprint on the land is visible and where his 

imprint on the world reached maturity. 

 In other words, the fact of Washington’s birth is perhaps the least significant aspect of George 

Washington’s Birthplace National Monument. What is significant is the story of why Washington was 

born where he was when he was. The Monument possesses a rich collection of historic resources suitable 

for interpreting the realities of eighteenth-century European settlement, Native displacement, and the 

emergence of an Atlantic World witness to an unprecedented mingling of free and enslaved peoples of 

remarkably diverse origins. Focusing specifically on Washington’s birth or attempting to speak 

specifically about the course of his life does injustice to the interpretive possibilities present at Popes 

Creek. Positing the landscape as a primary contributor to the man’s character severely understates the 

entirely more tangible and recognizable impact of the historical circumstances of his birth on his 

understanding of self, property, and duty. Not until the monument seriously considers these themes will it 

free itself of the interpretive limitations indicative of the past seventy-five years. 
238

 The Monument must also recognize that its interpretive messages are always already racialized. 

The story currently told at Popes Creek is the story of how White Americans remember George 

Washington. The Memorial House and the surrounding commemorative landscape—built in large part by 

poor Black and White Americans for the enjoyment of predominantly well-off White tourists—are 

themselves artifacts of a markedly racialized history. Interpretive handling of slavery at Popes Creek is 

woefully inadequate and frequently inaccurate. Visitors do not leave understanding the omnipresence of 

enslaved labor in the eighteenth century or the very real differences between early eighteenth-century 

bondage and the more readily recognizable plantation slavery of the mid-nineteenth century. This is not a 

problem that can be solved by simply building a more substantial slave quarter. An interpretive message 

concerning slavery cannot be added to an extant interpretive program for the very reason that slavery and 

race relations must be integral to every story told about Popes Creek in order to achieve any level of 

accuracy and interpretive integrity. The CIP alludes to this but is too reserved in its mandate for 

additional discussion of slavery at the Monument. 

 To this end, the Monument would do well to turn its interpretive gaze back on itself. By merit of 

its own legislative mandate and the commemorative gusto of its early planners, the Monument has 

remained committed to the life of a single man. Consequently, it has made virtually no effort to tell a 

remarkably important story about itself. The history of Washington’s Birthplace is foremost a story about 

how Americans construct and remember their past. The Monument occupies an especially conspicuous 

role in that story given that it was at Popes Creek in 1930 that the Federal Government first decided to 

play a substantial role in how that past is remembered. Disagreements between the NPS and the WNMA 

concerning how to go about presenting Washington’s Birthplace to the public point to rifts between how a 

government and its governed desire to be remembered. The avenues for inquiry in this regard are 

considerable: Who writes the past? Who does not? How is it decided what stories to tell? What stories 

are not told and why? The creation of Washington’s Birthplace National Monument in no way marks the 
239

beginning of public history in this country, but it does represent a significant flashpoint in its development 

and should be considered and interpreted at the Birthplace today.5

 Within this story, however, is another equally significant story about the people responsible for 

building Washington’s Birthplace. Hundreds of patriotic women’s associations formed between the midnineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth, but few were as successful as Josephine Rust’s 

WNMA in establishing a substantial goal and achieving it. Moreover, by building the Memorial House, 

the WNMA figured itself as a powerful force in the early days of historic preservation and remained on 

the vanguard under the leadership of Louise Crowninshield. It is absolutely essential that the Monument 

interpret this history and pay consideration to the significant and often primary role of women in 

preserving the nation’s collective memory by way of historic preservation. Equally important is 

recognizing the implications of the WNMA’s encounter with the NPS at Wakefield. Each brought to the 

project very different notions about the past and how to present it to the public. Today’s juxtaposition of 

the Memorial House and the oyster-shell outline above the original foundations (Image 49) speaks 

volumes about these differences and offers a wonderful and striking opportunity to discuss the 

significance of the Colonial Revival, the influence of its women leaders, and the rapidly changing 

technologies of historical investigation that brought the NPS’s professional male staff into confrontation 

with a remarkably powerful ladies association.6

 Requisite to telling any important story about Washington’s Birthplace is a radical reinvention of 

the Memorial House. The Memorial House bears no tenable relationship to the structure it signifies or to 

the lives of the people it is used to interpret. At best, it and its contents serve tribute to the efforts of the 

WNMA, that organization’s particular historical vision, and the efforts of others to re-present that vision. 

 

5

 To the extent that I advocate a reflexive approach to future interpretation, I do not agree with the CIP’s 

recommendation that the Monument pursue opportunities to reconstruct the 1930s commemorative landscape. 

Although preservation of that landscape is desirable, the Monument cannot and should not suffer any more 

reconstructions. The WNMA’s 1930s building agenda and the 1970s Living Farm project created more than enough 

interpretive veneers at Popes Creek. 

6

 The Monument must tell a more substantial story about the role of women throughout its history—interpreting 

domestic activities is not nearly adequate. A positive move in this direction would demonstrate how the ladies 

associations—including the WNMA—of the Colonial Revival perpetuated the very notion of republican 

motherhood forged during the late eighteenth century. 
240

At worst, it breeds ambiguity and perpetuates misconceptions about the reality of plantation life in the 

eighteenth-century. As presented, it will continue to draw attention away from the original birth site 

foundations and will always be mistaken by some as the actual house or a replica of it. All past efforts to 

de-emphasize the Memorial House have failed for the very reason that no sign, wayside exhibit, or 

interpretive presentation is powerful enough to contain the Memorial House’s commanding presence or 

wipe it from popular memory. Nothing less than a physical alteration will serve that purpose, a deshrinification. 

 The CIP suggests inverting the typical tour route so that visitors experience the original 

foundations without the Memorial House in the background. This is a wise suggestion though alone not 

enough to achieve the desired effect. Virtually all aspects of the visitor experience convince visitors that 

the Memorial House is in fact the real thing. The Visitor Center film—a wonderful artifact of 1970s 

public history—provides no guidance in this regard and, if anything, posits the Memorial House as the 

site’s main attraction.7

 Moreover, the very layout of the Park as designed during the Bicentennial 

renovations, physically prioritizes the Memorial House in a way that suggests that it should be the focal 

point of visitor experience. 

 A possible solution would convert the Memorial House into an interpretive extension of the 

Visitor Center. Leaving the Visitor Center, visitors would walk directly to the Memorial House where, 

having entered through the river side, they would browse exhibits concerning the history of the Park with 

specific displays about the WNMA, the arrival of the NPS, and interpretive efforts since including the 

Living Farm. These displays would replace the furnishings in all but one room. Furnished rooms always 

convey a sense of historical immediacy that visitors interpret as authentic if not original. One room 

 

7

 In many ways, the Visitor Center film constitutes a primary obstacle to effective interpretation at the Monument. 

Visitors watch the film before entering the Monument’s historic area. Their initial understanding of the site and its 

significance is therefore shaped by a film that omits any reference to the history of the Monument (it showcases the 

Memorial House and makes no reference to the actual house foundations), poses highly ambiguous and oblique 

references to forced labor, and romanticizes eighteen-century plantation life with a sentimental first-person 

narration. The interpretive themes expressed by guides who attempt to de-romanticize colonial life and focus 

attention on the birth site foundations therefore run counter to the information first presented to visitors upon their 

arrival. The Monument must produce a new orientation film and, until then, cease showing the current film. 
241

should remain furnished in order to interpret the WNMA’s role at the Monument. The remaining rooms, 

however, should serve to explain that the Memorial House is not a replica but rather a tribute to the real 

building whose original foundations can be viewed after leaving the Memorial House. 

Administrative Obstacles to Interpretive Innovation 

 Any seemingly simple reconfiguration of the Memorial House will be considered radical and, 

presumably, radically controversial. Three factors will bear significantly on any move in this direction: 

interpretive inertia, a potential backlash from the community and visiting public, and the continual though 

occasionally limiting presence of the GWBA. Any dramatic reinvention of the Memorial House will 

sacrifice years of planning and expense invested in its presentation. Seventy-five years of singular focus, 

however, should not eclipse the severity of the interpretive problems manifest in the current 

configuration. Moreover, members of the immediate community and surely scores of visitors who have 

fond memories of the Birthplace will chafe at any alteration of the Memorial House. Revision of the 

Memorial House will be perceived as an act of governmental tampering with local history. Nonetheless, 

the NPS cannot sacrifice integrity for the sake of public opinion and a change of this caliber should be 

recognized as an effort to make the Memorial House not only more effective as an interpretive tool, but 

more inclusive to groups traditionally neglected by its implied narratives. 

 The role of the GWBA will be most difficult to negotiate. It is no longer clear from where the 

GWBA derives its authority to involve itself in matters of interpretive planning. Its cooperative 

agreement with the NPS provides for an advisory role, but not one that is in any way binding. The 

Monument must determine whether or not the GWBA still derives authority from its 1926 granting 

legislation. If not, then the superintendent might be advised to make a more aggressive stance in 

determining and possibly renegotiating the GWBA’s role at the monument. Any attempt to interpret the 

WNMA’s significant part in the Monument’s history can only serve to bring the GWBA into more 

prominent focus and should be presented to the organization in these terms. 

 Adjacent landowners and community members previously involved with the GWBA are also 

likely to oppose substantial interpretive recalibration. Some neighbors lament the passing of the 
242

Monument’s Living Farm. Betty Horner considers the downscaling of costumed interpretation a sure sign 

of managerial malpractice and suggests that others share her feelings.8

 This negative public perception 

demonstrates the Monument’s failure to adequately communicate to community members and visitors 

alike the reasons for shifts in interpretive programming. It also reveals why tensions concerning land 

acquisition linger in local memory even after thirty years. The Monument, with its continual fear of local 

land development, fails to recognize that its most effective weapon against development is its neighbors’ 

own sense of history and identity. Residents of the Northern Neck are fiercely proud of their heritage. 

Moneyed land-owning residents who trace their ancestry to the nation’s earliest leaders have no more 

interest in selling their land to developers than does the Park. Adjacent landowners construe the 

Monument’s fears concerning development as an insulting refusal to recognize the interests and values of 

the community. Nothing short of continued investments in public relations and perhaps a prominent 

exhibit on the history of the Northern Neck and its families will allay these tensions. 

 Concerns regarding the demise of the Living Farm and future interpretive directions are not 

limited to neighbors. The Monument’s staff also harbors concern and, in some cases, confusion about the 

Monument’s mission and significance. Some employees remain wed to the living farm model so popular 

during the previous two decades and consider a reduction of costumed interpretive activities equivalent to 

a failure of vision. The influence of Dwight Storke, whose managerial style found tremendous favor with 

the staff and the community, is palpably present at the Monument and some employees associate his 

departure with the beginning of a downward spiral. Not enough has been done to communicate NPSwide changes in management strategies and interpretive priority to the entire staff. Unfortunately, some 

employees understand the Monument’s flux as an entirely isolated phenomenon tied directly to the whims 

of the superintendent. This perspective fails to recognize the impact of NPS-wide trends and the very real 

administrative difficulties faced by superintendents. 

 All Park employees must understand and share common interpretive goals. Not all employees 

share a common understanding of the Park’s significance. Some consider the Monument primarily 

 

8

 Betty Horner, interview with author, 30 June 2004. 
243

significant as a site to honor Washington, others cite the importance of understanding Washington’s life 

and achievements, and few fully understand the larger significance of Washington’s Birthplace within the 

context of early American history. Moreover, only a small minority agree that the history of 

commemorative efforts at the Birthplace merit serious interpretive attention. Disagreement concerning 

the significance and, consequently, the mission of the Monument constitutes a substantial barrier to 

affecting change and demonstrates the persistence of previous interpretive strategies no longer officially 

embraced by the CIP. 

Disagreement of this variety also speaks to the desirability of a creating a full-time historian 

position. The Monument desperately needs a committed and knowledgeable historian able to 

communicate historical significance, explain interpretive rationale, and function as keeper of the 

Monument’s institutional memory. At present, the Monument cannot quickly and accurately respond to 

questions concerning the history of interpretive programs, land acquisition, building construction, 

commemoration, or planning initiatives. In this regard, a historian is necessary not only to communicate 

and reinforce the Park’s mission, but also to facilitate management of historical information frequently 

called upon for purposes of planning, maintenance, and resource conservation. The long-term expense in 

labor hours of redundant efforts necessary to fulfill these responsibilities under the current arrangement 

certainly exceeds the cost of hiring a full-time historian.9

 Ready access to the Monument’s archives for all employees might also lend toward explaining 

interpretive themes and park significance. The Birthplace possess an incredibly rich and largely 

underutilized collection of primary materials concerning the Washington family, its residence at Popes 

 

9

 The absence of a device through which to safeguard institutional memory has long complicated planning efforts at 

the Monument. The successive deaths of Superintendent Hough and Louise Crowninshield, for instance, left a 

massive void in the staff’s institutional memory and, beyond simply representing a symbolic end to an old period of 

park development, foreshadowed the very sort of institutionalized amnesia that has since prevented park 

superintendents from learning from the successes and mistakes of their predecessors. In some cases, this problem 

caused tensions as in 1954 when nobody was sure who owned the Log House and the WMNA launched a campaign 

to reclaim its contents. Boundary disputes and land concerns also bring this problem into relief. When a member 

of the Muse family complained about the Park’s handling of the family’s cemetery in 2003, the Park—rather than 

consulting its own records—resorted to contacting former employee Janice Frye to determine exactly what was at 

stake. More recently, the Park asked me to help compile a brief history of maintenance operations at the employee 

residences in response to concerns regarding the possibility of a needed repair disturbing archeological resources. 

The frequency of these kinds of requests emphasizes the need for a permanent staff historian. 
244

Creek, twentieth-century efforts to commemorate Washington, and the NPS’s substantial role in shaping 

early approaches to public history. Unfortunately, limited resources have rendered the Park unable to 

organize its holdings. The situation has improved. As late as 2000, curatorial and archive management 

constituted a collateral duty for rangers otherwise engaged in interpretation. Superintendent Martinez 

transferred these responsibilities to the resource management division and, using Student Career 

Employment Program funds donated by each division, hired a student intern from Mary Washington 

College’s Historic preservation program to manage the collection.10 

Despite this positive change, the collection still languishes amid financial and staffing shortages 

that hinder access. The archive curator would benefit significantly from guidance provided by a historian 

versed in the periods of significance touched upon by the collection. Moreover, organizing the collection 

and making it more readily accessible to research historians might lead to exciting cooperative projects. 

Scholarly interest in the history and development of public history, historic preservation, and historic 

house museums is on the rise in this country. The monument should capitalize on this trend by 

organizing its archives and aggressively advertising their availability to scholars whose own research 

might positively benefit the Park’s interpretive and educational goals. Making these holdings more 

accessible to park staff would also lend toward generating a greater awareness of the Park’s significance 

and history.11

 A number of NPS regional employees who have at one time or another worked with the 

Monument refer to it as something of a hidden gem within the National Parks System. The Monument 

certainly is a gem, but by no means should it remain hidden. Various interpretive programs have only 

begun to explore the wide range of possibilities manifest in the Birthplace. The stories capable of being 

told there are stories of utmost significance and, fortuitously, of especial relevance to current trends in 

 

10 Vidal Martinez, interview with author, 2 July 2004. 

11 A reinvention of the Memorial House as an interpretive extension of the Visitor Center might involve centralizing 

all archival materials in the house and creating a research room on the second floor not unlike the configuration of 

the Westmoreland County Museum and Library in Montross, VA (which was designed after the Memorial House 

and built in honor of Josephine Wheelwright Rust). The Monument’s archeological holdings already reside in the 

Memorial House basement. Uniting material and textual holdings in a central research space would lend 

substantiality to the utility of the collection for researchers. 
245

historical scholarship. With some foresight and substantial effort, the Monument can once again launch 

itself into the forefront of interpretation as it has periodically throughout its past. Doing so, however, will 

require more than a mere revision of current strategies. It will require a wholesale reconsideration of the 

Monument’s significance and a redeployment of resources, both cultural and natural, toward goals 

understood and shared by the Park, its neighbors, and the visiting public. Despite various disagreements 

among all of these groups, the Monument is especially fortunate in that its various constituencies do share 

very deep commitments to the place where we remember George Washington. Commitment breeds 

growth when nourished by good will and sound memory. The future of George Washington’s Birthplace 

National Monument lies in coming to terms with its own history, telling that story, and allowing itself to 

grow from the experience. 
246

Appendices
APPENDIX 1: Washington Ancestry*

John Washington 

b. 1631/2 

d. 1677 

Anne Pope 

b. about 1658 

d. 1668/9

Augustine Warner 

b. 1642/43 

d. 1681 

Mildred Reade 

b. unknown d. unknown 

William Ball 

b. 1615 

d. about 1680

Ha

b

d. 

Lawrence Washington 

b. 1659 d. 1698 

Mildred Warner 

b. about 1686 

d. 1701 

Joseph Ball 

b. about 1649 d. about 1711 

Mary Johnson 

b. unknown 

d. 1721 

Augustine Washington 

b. about 1694 

d. 1743 

Jane Butler 

b. 1699 d. 1729 

Mary Ball 

b. 1708/9 

d. 1789 

Butler Washington 

b. 1716 

d. in infancy 

Lawrence Washington 

b. 1718 d. 1752 

Augustine 

Washington, Jr. 

b. 1719/20 

d. 1762 

Jane Washington 

b. 1722 d. 1737 

George Washington

Betty Washington 

b. 1733 d. 1797 

Samuel Washington 

b. 1733 d. 1781 

John Augustine Washington 

b. 1735 d. 1787 

Charles Washington 

b. 1738 d. 1799 

(married 1731)

*Adapted from Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, pp. x-xi.
248

APPENDIX 2: Summary of Bills and Resolutions Introduced in Congress Relevant to the George 

Washington Birthplace National Monument, 1879-1950 

HJ Res. 94 1879 46th Congress 

Joint resolution directing a monument be erected to mark the birthplace of George Washington. 

H 6/10/79 1890 Harris (VA) passed 

S 6/10/79 1888 Considered and passed 

H 6/19/79 2195 Approved by president (6/14/79) 

H Res. 315 1880-81, 84 46th Congress 

Joint Resolution Amending and re-enacting joint resolution, approved June 14, 1879, directing a 

monument to mark the birthplace of George Washington 

H 4/28/80 2823 Petition relating to a monument to commemorate the birthplace of 

Washington proficing the committee be discharged and it be referred to 

Library. 

H 6/3/80 4117 Harris (VA) passed House; Letter of Secretary of State in reference to a 

monument to mark the birthplace of George Washington and 

introduction of HJ Resolution 315 

S 6/3/80 4101 Referred in Senate to Public Buildings and Grounds 

S 6/9/80 4308 Reported without amendment 

H 1/7/81 455 Petitions of citizens of Westmoreland County, VA, for the improvement 

of Pope’s Creek. 

S 2/22/81 1913, 

1918 

Passed Senate 

H 3/1/81 2292 Approved by president (2/26/81) 

H 5/19/84 4311 Relative to additional appropriations for a wharf and roadway as a means 

of approach to the monument at George Washington Birthplace; H Doc. 

160. (48th Congress) 

SJ Res. 115 1887 49th Congress 

Amending and re-enacting joint resolution approved June 14, 1879 directing a monument to mark the 

birthplace of George Washington, as amended and re-enacted February 26, 1885—Resolved by the 

Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress Assembled. 

S 2/28/87 2373 Library 

SJ Res. 89 1888 50th Congress 

Amending and Re-enacting joint resolution approved June 14, 1879, directing the erection of a monument 

to mark the birthplace of George Washington, as amended and re-enacted February 26, 1881. 

S 6/4/88 4873 Cameron (PA) Library; Resolved, that the Secretary of State be, and he 

is hereby, requested to inform the House of Representatives what steps, 

if any, have been taken to accomplish the object set forth in said 

resolution (HJ Res. 94, 46th Congress). 
249

H 7/16/88 6368 Brown (VA) Military Affairs; H Misc. Doc. 523. 

SJ Res. 11 1891-92 52nd Congress 

To provide for the construction of a wharf and roadway as a means of approach to the monument to be 

erected at Wakefield, VA, to mark the birthplace of George Washington. 

S 12/14/91 45 Hoar (MA) Public Buildings and Grounds 

H 3/25/92 2581 Petition for monument to George Washington referred to Library 

SJ Res. 102 1892-1897 52nd, 54th, and 55th Congresses 

To provide for the construction of a wharf as a means of approach to the monument to be erected at 

Wakefield, VA, to mark the birthplace of George Washington 

H 7/20/92 6429 Daniel (VA) Library 

S 7/20/92 6448 Reported without amendment 

S 2/10/93 1411 Passed senate 

H 2/11/93 1488 Referred in House to Library 

H 2/17/93 1744 Reported without amendment (H Rept. 2527) 

H 2/22/93 2009 Passed House 

S 2/25/93 2148 Approved by President (2/25/93) 

54th Congress 

H 3/6/96 2552 Request for appropriation for employment of a watchman for monument 

at Wakefield, Virginia; Appropriations (HR Doc. 284) 

S 2/8/97 1634 1665 Report on completion of projects authorized at Wakefield, 

Virginia; Library (S Doc. 114) 

S 3/1/97 2523 Estimate of appropriation for Government wharf at Wakefield, VA; 

Appropriations (S. Doc. 170) 

55th Congress 

H 12/8/97 42 Appropriations (H Doc. 114) 

HR 11420 1916 64th Congress 

To improve the birthplace of George Washington 

H 2/12/16 2488 Cary (WI) Appropriations 

HR 16025 1919 65th Congress 

To improve the birthplace of General George Washington 

H 2/18/19 3738 Cary (WI) Appropriations 

H 2/24/19 4191 Amended in House to provide wharf; Bland (VA) 

HJ Res. 42 1921 67th Congress 

Authorizing and directing the construction of a road from the monument marking the birthplace of 

George Washington, in Westmoreland County, VA, to the State highway running from Fredericksburg, 

VA, to Montross, VA 
250

H 4/12/21 175 Bland (VA) Roads 

S 1914 1924 68th Congress 

Authorizing the appropriation of $15,000 for the purpose of constructing suitable roads upon the 

Government-owned grounds at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, VA, and for the purpose of improving 

and maintaining said grounds. 

S 1/14/24 919 Swanson (VA) Military Affairs 

HR 5264 1924 68th Congress 

Authorizing the appropriation of $15,000 for the purpose of constructing suitable roads upon the 

Government-owned grounds at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, VA, and for the purpose of improving 

and maintaining grounds. 

H 1/11/24 873 Bland (VA) Military Affairs 

H 3/8/24 5185 Amendment of Bland (VA) to bill for repairs to fences and cleaning up 

and maintaining grounds around monument. Amendment to construct 

road within the reservation so as to provide a means of access to the 

memorial—to connect with State of Virginia road to boundary of 

reservation. Amendment to report of Chief of Engineers for year 1923 

on page 2061. 

HR 6985 1926 69th Congress 

Giving consent of the United States to the Wakefield National Memorial Association to build upon 

Government-owned grounds at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, VA, and for the purpose of improving 

and maintaining said grounds. 

H 1/6/26 1610 Bland (VA) Military Affairs 

S 2299 1926 69th Congress 

Granting the consent of Congress to the Wakefield National memorial Association, Westmoreland 

county, VA, a replica of the house in which George Washington was born, and for other purposes. 

S 1/8/26 5257 Wadsworth (NY) Public Buildings and Grounds 

HR 7369 1926 69th Congress 

Granting the consent of Congress to the Wakefield National memorial Association to build, upon 

Government-owned land at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, VA, a replica of the house in which 

George Washington was born, and for other purposes. 

H 1/11/26 1878 Bland (VA) Military Affairs 

HJ Res. 198 1926 69th Congress 

Authorizing certain funds appropriated for the reservation and monument at Wakefield, VA, to be made 

available for certain repairs to ex highways and lanes in said reservation. 
251

H 3/11/26 5443 Bland (VA) Appropriations 

HR 10131 1926 69th Congress 

Granting the consent of Congress to the Wakefield National Memorial Association to build, upon 

Government-owned land at Wakefield Westmoreland County, Virginia, a replica of the house in which 

George Washington was born, and for other purposes. 

H 3/8/26 5257 Bland (VA) Military Affairs 

H 4/15/26 7553 Reported without amendment 

H 5/3/26 8625 Passed House (H Rept. 898) 

S 5/4/26 8681 Referred in Senate to Military Affairs 

S 5/24/26 9883 Reported without amendment (S Rept. 910) 

H 6/17/26 11460 Approved by President (6/7/26) 

S 3513 1926 69th Congress 

Granting the consent of Congress to the Wakefield National Memorial Association to build, upon 

Government-owned land at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, VA, a replica of the house in which 

George Washington was born, and for other purposes. 

S 3/11/26 5374 Wadsworth (NY) Public Buildings and Grounds 

SJ Res. 75 1926 69th Congress 

Authorizing certain funds appropriated from the reservation and monument at Wakefield, Virginia, to be 

available for certain repairs to existing highways and lanes on said reservation. 

S 3/17/26 5759 Swanson (VA) Appropriations 

SJ Res. 15 1927 70th Congress 

Authorizing certain funds appropriated for the reservation and monument at Wakefield, VA to be made 

available for certain repairs to existing highways and lanes on said reservation. 

S 1/9/27 351 Swanson (VA) Appropriations 

HR 12807 1928 70th Congress 

To improve the birthplace of George Washington at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, VA 

H 4/9/28 6136 Bland (VA) Military Affairs 

S 4531 1928 70th Congress 

To improve the birthplace of George Washington at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, VA 

S 5/22/28 9429 Swanson (VA) Military Affairs 

S 1166 1929 71st Congress 

Appropriating money for improvements upon the Government-owned land at Wakefield, Westmoreland 

County, VA, the birthplace of George Washington 

S 5/20/29 1497 Swanson (VA) Appropriations 

HR 3038 1929 71st Congress 
252

Appropriating money for improvements upon the Government-owned land at Wakefield, Westmoreland 

County, VA, the birthplace of George Washington. 

H 5/16/29 1442 Bland (VA) Appropriations 

S 1218 1929 71st Congress 

Appropriating money for improvement at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, VA, the birthplace of 

George Washington. 

S 5/21/29 1597 Swanson (VA) Library 

HR 3211 1929 71st Congress 

Appropriating money for improvements upon the Government-owned land at Wakefield, Westmoreland 

County, VA, the birthplace of George Washington 

H 5/21/29 1687 Bland (VA) Appropriations 

S 1784 1929-30 71st Congress 

Appropriating money for improvements upon the Government-owned land at Wakefield, Westmoreland 

County, VA, the birthplace of George Washington. [to move monument] 

S 10/1/29 4091 Swanson (VA) Library 

S 11/13/29 5832 Reported without amendment (S Rept. 45) 

S 12/19/29 955 Amended and passed Senate 

H 12/21/29 1078 Debated 

H 1/20/30 1991, 

1995 

Amended and passed House 

S 1/21/30 2020 Senate concurs 

S 1/24/30 2266 Approved by President (1/23/30) 

HR 4655 1929-31 71st-72nd Congresses 

Appropriating money for improvements upon the Government-owned land at Wakefield, Westmoreland 

County, VA, the birthplace of George Washington 

H 10/17/29 4643 Bland (VA) Appropriations 

H 1/27/30 2487 Supplemental Estimate of appropriations to carry out Act of January 23, 

1930; Appropriations (H Doc. 272) 

72nd Congress 

H 3/21/31 A 1662 Extension of Remarks, Bland (VA), “The Work of the Wakefield 

National Memorial Association.” 

 

HR 9641 1932 72nd Congress 

To provide for the restoration of the first monument erected in memory of George Washington 

H 2/23/32 4580 Lewis (MD) Military Affairs 

HR 8954 1940 76th Congress 

To provide for the addition of certain lands to the George Washington Birthplace National Monument, in 

the State of Virginia, and for other purposes. 

H 3/18/40 3032 Bland (VA) Public Lands 
253

HR 18 1941 77th Congress 

To provide for the addition of certain lands to the George Washington Birthplace National Monument, in 

the State of Virginia, and for other purposes. 

H 1/31/41 11 Bland (VA) Public Lands 

HR 5145 1949 81st Congress 

To provide for the addition of certain lands to the George Washington Birthplace National Monument, in 

the State of Virginia and for other purposes. 

H 6/14/49 7686 Bland (VA) Public Lands 

 

 

 

 
254

APPENDIX 3: Establishing Legislation, George Washington Birthplace National Monument 

(Public-No. 34-71st Congress) 

(S. 1784) 

An Act Authorizing an appropriation for improvements upon the Government-owned land at Wakefield, 

Westmoreland County, Virginia, the birthplace of George Washington. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United _States_ 

of America in Congress assembled, That there is hereby authorized to be appropriated, 

out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $65,000, 

which shall be used and expended as follows: The sum of $15,000 shall be used in 

moving the monument erected by the United States and now located upon the plot of 

ground owned by the United States at Wakefield, Westmoreland County, Virginia, to 

another site on said plot of ground; and the sum of $50,000 shall be paid to the 

Wakefield National Memorial Association of Washington, District of Columbia, a 

corporation created by and existing under the laws of the State of Virginia for use by 

the said association (a) in erecting on the Government-owned land at Wakefield, 

Westmoreland County, Virginia, the building permitted by Act of Congress entitled 

"An Act granting the consent of Congress to the Wakefield National Memorial 

Association to build upon Government-owned land at Wakefield, Westmoreland 

County, Virginia, a replica of the house in which George Washington was born, and 

for other purposes," approved June 7, 1926; (b) in restoring and improving the 

gardens and grounds at Wakefield, Westmoreland County Virginia; and (c) in erecting 

such other buildings as shall be deemed necessary: Provided, That the plans for all 

said buildings and gardens to be constructed or restored hereunder and the location of 

said monument shall be subject to the approval of the Fine Arts Commission and the 

Secretary of the Interior, and the expenditure of said funds shall be subject to the prior 

approval of the Secretary of the Interior: Provided further, That said building and all 

lands owned by the Wakefield National Memorial Association shall on completion of 

the restoration be conveyed to the United States as a gift for administration, 

protection, and maintenance as hereinafter provided. 
255

Sec. 2. That the said premises and all structures thereon shall constitute the George 

Washington Birthplace National Monument at Wakefield, Virginia, which is hereby established 

and set apart for the preservation of the historical associations connected therewith, for the 

benefit and enjoyment of the people and the said national monument shall be hereafter 

administered by the National Park Service under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior 

subject to the provisions of the Act of August 25, 1916 (Thirty-ninth Statutes, page 535), as 

amended. 

Sec. 3. All Acts or parts of Acts inconsistent with the provisions of this Act are 

repealed to the extent of such inconsistency. 

Approved, January 23, 1930. 
256

APPENDIX 4: Visitation, 1931-2000 

0.00

50,000.00

100,000.00150,000.00200,000.00250,000.00

19311933193519371939194119431945194719491951195319551957195919611963196519671969197119731975197719791981198319851987

Total Visitors (from park register until 1951) Estimated visitors ( + 20%) Official NPS Records From 2000 NPS Statistical Ab
257

APPENDIX 5: 1972 Boundary Expansion Legislation Enabling Inclusion of Shouse Tract 

13. George Washington Birthplace∗

An Act to provide for increases in appropriation ceilings and boundary changes in certain units 

of the 

national park system, and for other purposes. (86 Stat. 120) 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in 

Congress assembled, 

TITLE III-BOUNDARY CHANGES 

SEC. 301. The Secretary of the Interior is authorized to revise the boundaries of the 

following units of the national park system: 

(4) George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Virginia: to add approximately 

62.3 acres; 

SEC. 302.The boundary revisions authorized in section 301 shall 'become effective upon 

publication in the Federal Register of a map or other description of the lands added or excluded 

by the Secretary of the Interior. 

SEC. 303. Within the boundaries of the areas as revised in accordance with section 301, 

the Secretary of the Interior is authorized to acquire lands and interest therein by donation, 

purchase with donated or appropriated funds, exchange, or transfer from any other Federal 

agency. Lands and interests therein so acquired shall become part of the area to which they are 

added, and shall be subject to all laws, rues, and regulations applicable thereto. When acquiring 

any land pursuant to this Act, the Secretary (i) may tender, to the owner or owners of record on 

the date of enactment of this Act, a revocable permit for the continued use and occupancy of 

such land or any portion thereof subject to such terms and conditions as he deems necessary or 

(ii) may acquire any land pursuant to this Act subject to the retention of a right of use and 

occupancy for a term not to exceed 25 years or for the life of the owner or owners. Lands and 

interests therein excluded from the areas pursuant to section 301 may be exchanged for nonFederal lands within 'the boundaries as revised, or they may be transferred to the jurisdiction of 

any other Federal agency or to a State or political subdivision thereof, without monetary consideration, as the Secretary of the Interior may deem appropriate. In exercising the authority in this 

section with respect to lands and interests therein excluded from the areas, the Secretary of the 

Interior may, on behalf of the United States, retrocede to the appropriate State exclusive or 

concurrent legislative jurisdiction subject to such terms and conditions as he may deem 

appropriate, over such lands, to be effective upon acceptance thereof by the State. Any such 

lauds not so exchanged or transferred may be disposed of in accordance with the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949, as amended. 

 

∗

 See Laws Relating to the National Park Service, Supplement III, February 1963 to December 1972 (1974). 
258

SEC. 304. For the acquisition of lands and interests in lands which are added to the areas 

referred to in section 301, there are authorized to be appropriated such sums as may be 

necessary, but not more than the following amounts : 

George Washington Birthplace National Monument, $57,000. 

Approved April 11, 1972. 
259

APPENDIX 6: 1978 Boundary Expansion Legislation Enabling Inclusion of Horner Tracts 

11. George Washington Birthplace 

An Act to authorize additional appropriations for the acquisition of lands and interests in lands 

within the Sawtooth National Recreation Area in Idaho. (92 Stat. 3467) (P.L. 95-625) 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in 

Congress assembled, 

TITLE III-BOUNDARY CHANGES 

SEC. 301. The boundaries of the following units of the National Park System are revised as 

follows, and there are authorized to be appropriated such sums as may be necessary, but not exceed the 

amounts specified in the following paragraphs for acquisitions of lands and interests in lands within areas 

added by reason of such revisions: 

(7) George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Virginia: To add approximately eighty-two and twenty-five 

one-hundredths acres as generally depicted on the map entitled "Boundary Map, George Washington Birthplace 

National Memorial, Virginia", numbered 332-30,000-B and dated September 1978: $450,000. 

SEC. 302. Within twelve months after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Secretary shall 

publish in the Federal Register a detailed map or other detailed description of the lands added or excluded 

from any area pursuant to section 301. 

SEC. 303. (a) Within the boundaries of the areas as revised in accordance with section 301, the 

Secretary is authorized to acquire lands and interests therein by donation, purchase with donated or 

appropriated funds, exchange, or transfer from any other Federal agency. Lands and interests therein so 

acquired shall become part of the area to which they are added, and shall be subjected to all laws, rules, 

and regulations applicable thereto. When acquiring any land pursuant to this title, the Secretary may 

acquire any such land subject to the retention of a right of use and occupancy for a term not to exceed 

twenty-five years or for the life of the owner or owners. Lands owned by a State or political subdivision 

thereof may be acquired only by donation. 

(b) (1) Lands and interests therein deleted from any area pursuant to section 301 may be 

exchanged for non-Federal lands within the revised boundaries of such area, or transferred to the 

jurisdiction of any other Federal agency or to a State or political subdivision thereof, without monetary 

consideration, or be administered as public lands by the Secretary, as the Secretary may deem appropriate. 

(2) In exercising the authority contained in this section with respect to lands and interests therein 

deleted from any such area which were acquired from a State, the Secretary may, on behalf of the United 

States, transfer to such State exclusive or concurrent legislative jurisdiction over such lands, subject to 

such terms and conditions as he may deem appropriate, to be effective upon acceptance thereof by the 

State. 

(c) It is the established policy of Congress that wilderness, wildlife conservation, and park and 

recreation values of real property owned by the United States be conserved, enhanced, and developed. It 

is further declared to be the policy of Congress that unutilized, underutilized, or excess Federal real 

property be timely studied as to suitability for wilderness, wildlife conservation, or park and recreation 

purposes. To implement this policy, the Secretary, the Administrator of General Services, and the 

Director of the Office of Management and Budget shall establish a system with appropriate procedures to 

permit the Secretary full and early opportunity to make such studies and propose appropriate 

recommendations to disposing agencies for consideration in connection with determinations of further 

utilization or disposal of such property under existing law. Each affected executive agency is authorized 
260

and directed to provide to the Secretary such advice and information relating to such studies as the 

Secretary may request. 

SEC. 304. The authorities in this title are supplementary to any other authorities available to the 

Secretary with respect to the acquisition, development, and administration of the areas referred to in 

section 301. 

Approved November 10, 1978. 
261

APPENDIX 7: 1993 Boundary Expansion Legislation Enabling Inclusion of Horner Tract 

XI. NATIONAL MONUMENTS∗

1. George Washington Birthplace 

PUBLIC LAW 103-25-MAY 3, 1993 

Public Law 103-25 

103d Congress 

An Act 

To revise the boundaries of the George Washington Birthplace National Monument, and for other 

purposes. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States ofAmerica in 

Congress assembled, 

SECTION 1. ADDITION TO NATIONAL MONUMENT. 

The boundaries of the George Washington Birthplace National Monument (hereinafter referred to 

as the "National Monument") are hereby modified to include the area comprising approximately 12 acres, 

as generally depicted on the map entitled "George Washington Birthplace National Monument Boundary 

Map", numbered 332/SO,O11A and dated September 1992, which shall be on file and available for public 

inspection in the appropriate offices of the National Park Service, Department of the Interior. 

SEC. 2. ACQUISITION OF LANDS. 

Within the boundaries of the National Monument, the Secretary of the Interior (hereinafter referred to as the 

"Secretary") is authorized to acquire lands, or interests therein, by donation, purchase with donated or appropriated 

funds, or exchange. 

SEC. 3. ADMINISTRATION OF NATIONAL MONUMENT. 

In administering the National Monument, the Secretary shall take such action as is necessary to 

preserve and interpret the history and resources associated with George Washington, the generations of 

the Washington family who lived in the vicinity, and their contemporaries, as well as 18th century 

plantation life and society. 

 

∗

 From Laws Relating to the National Park Service, Supplement VII, January 1991 to December 1994 (2001), p. 

361. 
262

SEC. 4. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. 

There are authorized to be appropriated such sums as may be necessary to carry out this Act. 

 

Approved May 3, 1993. 

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY—S. 326: 

HOUSE REPORTS: No. 103-55 (Comm. on Natural Resources). 

SENATE REPORTS: No. 103-14 (Comm. on Energy and Natural Resources). 

CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, Vol. 139 (1993): 

Mar. 17, considered and passed Senate. 

Apr. 20, considered and passed House. 
263

APPENDIX 8: 2002 Boundary Expansion Legislation Enabling Inclusion of Muse Tract 

PUBLIC LAW 107-354, December 17, 2002 

Public Law 107-354 

107th Congress 

An Act 

To revise the boundaries of the George Washington Birthplace National Monument, and for other 

purposes. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in 

Congress assembled, 

SECTION 1. ADDITION TO NATIONAL MONUMENT. 

The boundaries of the George Washington Birthplace National Monument (hereinafter referred to 

as the ``National Monument'') are hereby modified to include the area comprising approximately 115 

acres, as generally depicted on the map entitled ``George Washington Birthplace National Monument 

Boundary Map'', numbered 332/80,023 and dated October 2001, which shall be on file and available for 

public inspection in the appropriate offices of the National Park Service, Department of the Interior. 

SEC. 2. ACQUISITION OF LANDS. 

Within the boundaries of the National Monument, the Secretary of the Interior (hereinafter 

referred to as the ``Secretary'') is authorized to acquire lands, or interests therein, from willing owners by 

donation, purchase with donated money or appropriated funds, or exchange. 

SEC. 3. ADMINISTRATION OF NATIONAL MONUMENT. 

In administering the National Monument, the Secretary shall take actions necessary to preserve 

and interpret the history and resources associated with George Washington, the generations of the 

Washington family who lived in the vicinity and their contemporaries, and 18th century plantation life 

and society. 

Approved December 17, 2002. 

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY–H.R. 3449 (S. 1943): 

HOUSE REPORTS: No. 107-631 (Comm. on Resources). 

SENATE REPORTS: No. 107-267 accompanying S. 1943 (Comm. on Natural Resources). 

CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, Vol. 148 (2002): 

 Sept. 24, considered and passed House. 

 Nov. 19, considered and passed Senate. 
264

APPENDIX 9: 1998 Legislation Establishing Relationship with Ferry Farm 

PUBLIC LAW 105-355 (Section 509), November 6, 1998 

Public Law 105-355 

105th Congress 

SEC. 509. GEORGE WASHINGTON BIRTHPLACE NATIONAL MONUMENT, VIRGINIA. 

(a) Acquisition of Easement.--The Secretary of the Interior may acquire no more than a less than fee 

interest in the property generally known as George Washington's Boyhood Home, Ferry Farm, 

located in Stafford County, Virginia, across the Rappahannock River from Fredericksburg, Virginia, 

comprising approximately 85 acres as generally depicted on the map entitled ``George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument Boundary Map'', numbered 322/80,020, and dated April 1998, to 

ensure the preservation of the important cultural and natural resources associated with Ferry Farm. 

The Secretary of the Interior shall keep the map on file and available for public inspection in 

appropriate offices of the National Park Service. 

(b) Management of Easement.--The Secretary shall enter into a cooperative agreement with Kenmore 

Association, Inc., for the management of Ferry Farm pending completion of the study referred to in 

subsection (c). 

(c) Resource Study.--Not later than 18 months after the date on which funds are made available to 

carry out this section, the Secretary of the Interior shall submit to the Committee on Energy and 

Natural Resources of the Senate and the Committee on Resources of the House of Representatives a 

resource study of the property described in subsection (a). The study shall— 

(1) identify the full range of resources and historic themes associated with Ferry Farm, including 

those associated with George Washington's tenure at the property and those associated with the 

Civil War period; 

(2) identify alternatives for further National Park Service involvement at the property beyond 

those that may be provided for in the acquisition authorized under subsection (a); and 

(3) include cost estimates for any necessary acquisition, development, interpretation, operation, 

and maintenance associated with the alternatives identified. 

(d) Agreements.--Upon completion of the resource study under subsection (c), the Secretary of the 

Interior may enter into an agreement with the owner of the property described in subsection (a) or 

other entities for the purpose of providing programs, services, facilities, or technical assistance that 

further the preservation and public use of the property. 

Approved November 6, 1998. 

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY--H.R. 3910: 

CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, Vol. 144 (1998): 

 Oct. 10, considered and passed House. 

 Oct. 14, considered and passed Senate. 

WEEKLY COMPILATION OF PRESIDENTIAL DOCUMENTS, Vol. 34 (1998): 

 Nov. 6, Presidential statement. 
265

APPENDIX 10: Superintendents of the George Washington Birthplace National Monument*

Name Title From To

Oliver G. Taylor Engineer 1/30/30 5/24/31 

Robert P. White Acting Superintendent 5/25/31 2/14/32 

Philip R. Hough Superintendent 2/15/32 12/22/53 

Russell A. Gibbs Superintendent 3/26/54 8/01/64 

George Schesventer† Superintendent 11/08/64 7/29/67 

James R. Walker Management Assistant 10/08/67 9/17/70 

Marlo G. Acock‡ Management Assistant 10/04/70 1/05/74 

Don R. Thompson Superintendent 1/06/74 12/13/80 

Dwight C. Storke, Jr. Acting Superintendent 12/14/80 2/21/81 

George D. Church Superintendent 2/22/81 10/21/89 

Dwight C. Storke, Jr., Superintendent 10/22/89 06/30/94 

John Donahue Superintendent 06/26/94 3/11/00 

David Herrera Acting Superintendent 3/08/00 7/29/00 

Vidal Martinez Superintendent 7/30/00 present 

 

* Historic Listing of National Park Service Officials, May 1, 1991 Revised May 1, 1991, as 75th Anniversary 

Edition, by Harold P. Danz, Associate Regional Director, Administration, Rocky Mountain Region [Washington, 

DC:] U S Department of the Interior/National Park Service, pp. 109-10. 

†

 Administered by Superintendent, Fredericksburg & Spotsylvania County Battlefields Memorial National Military 

Park and Cemetery from August 9, 1964. 

‡

 Administration under supervision of the Virginia State Office, December 12, 1971 to July 29, 1977. 
266

Illustrations
267

ILLUSTRATION 1: The Mary Jones Smith Memorial Garden, 1931 (courtesy of the Denver Service Center, Technical Information Center). 
268

ILLUSTRATION 2: Boundary and Land Status Map, ca. 1944 (courtesy of the Denver Service Center, Technical Information 

Center). 
269

ILLUSTRATION 3: Colonial Crop Layout, 1933 (courtesy Denver Service Center, Technical 

Information Center). 
270

ILLUSTRATION 4: MISSION 66 Administrative Reorganization 

Organization prior to 1956: 

Superintendent 

Gardener Laborer Historians 

(Tour Leaders) 

Seasonal 

Ranger Historians

Administrative Aid

Superintendent 

Administrative Aid

Gardener

Laborer

Seasonal 

Ranger Historians Seasonal Laborer

Historians 

(Tour Leaders) 

Organization after 1956: 
271

ILLUSTRATION 5: Diagrams from Thomas Harrison’s 1966 Interpretive Prospectus 
272

ILLUSTRATION 6: “Schematic, Visitor Center, George Washington Birthplace National Monument” from Interpretive Prospectus, revised 17 June 1969, in Box “GEWA-Annual Reports.” NPS Harpers Ferry Center Archives, Harpers Ferry, WV. 
273

ILLUSTRATION 7: Administrative Organization under Dwight Storke 
274

Maps
275

MAP 1: 17th-Century land patents, from Hatch, Popes Creek Plantation, p. 169.
276

MAP 2: Memorial Landscape, 1933 
277

MAP 3: 1968 General Development Plan 
278

Images∗

 

∗

 All images courtesy of GEWA Archives unless otherwise noted. 
279

Image 1: Federal monument, ca. 1896. 

Image 2: Portrait of Josephine Wheelwright Rust, date and artist unknown. 
280

Image 3: Albright, Rust, and planning team visit the Monument, ca. 1930. 

Image 4: Albright, Rust, and planning team visit Washington family burial ground, ca. 1930. 
281

Image 5: Lowering the granite obelisk, 1930. 

Image 6: Rolling the granite obelisk to its new location, 1930. 
282

Image 7: Brick kilns at Wakefield, ca. 1930. 

Image 8: Washington family burial ground surrounded by block wall erected by Colonial Dames in 

1906. 
283

Image 9: FAC at Washington family burial ground, ca. 1931. 

Image 10: May 14, 1932 Public dedication ceremonies with Secretary of the Interior, Ray Wilbur, 

at center. 
284

Image 11: War Department Engineer J. Arthur Hook excavates around the granite obelisk in 1926. 

Image 12: Building X uncovered, ca. 1936. 
285

Image 13: The Memorial House with bronze tablet on stone pedestal, ca. 1931. 

Image 14: Detail of stone pedestal with commemorative bronze tablet. 
286

Image 15: U.S. post office in basement of Memorial House, ca. 1932. 

Image 16: Postmaster Julia Washington. 
287

Image 17: Post office, ca. 1936. 

Image 18: The Log House pictured not long after construction, ca. 1932. 
288

Image 19: The Log House Tea Room main dining room, ca. 1932. 

Image 20: Superintendent’s home pictured not long after construction, ca. 1932. 
289

Image 21: Hough’s “temporary museum” in Memorial House basement, ca. 1932-1940. 
290

Image 22: Approach road, ca. 1931. 

Image 23: Approach road (Rt. 204), 2004 (photo by author). 
291

Image 24: Aerial view of approach road, granite obelisk, parking lot, and Memorial House. 

Image 25: Aerial view of Popes Creek, Memorial House, cedar grove, and footbridge, ca. 1932. 
292

Image 26: Superintendent Phillip Hough. Image 27: Superintendent Hough leads a tour. 

Image 28: A visitor signs the guest register inside the Memorial House, date unknown. 
293

Image 29: A costumed WNMA member serves cider and gingerbread on Washington’s Birthday. 

Image 30: Approaching the Washington family burial ground, ca. 1932. 
294

Image 31: Potomac River beach parking lot, ca. 1932. 

Image 32: Potomac River beach parking, 2004 (photo by author). 
295

Image 33: War Department Potomac River pier built in 1896 and removed in 1934. 

Image 34: Memorial House with bear skin rug from Yellowstone National Park, 1932. 
296

Image 35: The Memorial House as redecorated by Louis Crowninshield, ca. 1940. 

Image 36: Early costumed interpretation in the Memorial House, 1937. 
297

Image 37: Visitors tour the colonial crops demonstration area, ca. 1935. 

Image 38: World War II brought numbers of military personnel to the Monument including these 

sailors walking along a park road. 
298

Image 39: Monument staff retrieve a spent naval parachute flare, ca. 1941. 

Image 40: Assembly plans for greenhouse purchased by Louis Crowninshield. 
299

Image 41: WNMA member stands amid corn with greenhouse in background, ca. 1952. 

Image 42: The WNMA sell plants from their greenhouse inside the Memorial House, ca. 1952. 
300

Image 43: NPS Director Hartzog celebrates the opening of the Monument’s Morgan Horse Farm 

on October 8, 1969. 
301

Image 44: Aerial views of the Morgan Horse Farm. 
302

Image 45: Inside the Colonial Kitchen sometime after 1972. 
303

Image 46: The Visitor Center under construction in 1976, view from Popes Creek. 

Image 47: The Visitor Center complete, view from parking lot. 
304

Image 48: Old entrance station reused as chicken coop (photo by author). 

Image 49: The Washington home foundations outlined with oyster shell, Memorial House in 

background. 
305

Image 50: Costumed and un-costumed staff work side by side (photo by author). 
306

Guide to Sources and Works Cited 

Citation of Archival Material Archives and Record Groups 

Because duplicate copies of many of the documents cited in this administrative history exist in 

more than one archive and because this report is primarily intended to assist NPS staff engaged in 

planning activities bearing on the Birthplace, I have made every effort to identity precise locations of 

documents, especially those that reside at the Birthplace. Citations are therefore cumbersome at times, 

but should ease on-site location of valuable material. The vast majority of sources consulted in 

preparation of this administrative history reside in one of the following five archives: 

1. George Washington Birthplace National Monument Archives (GEWA) 

The Monument maintains a small though extensive archive of documents, textiles, and 

archeological artifacts spanning the entire history of occupation at Popes Creek. Holdings are especially 

rich with regard to the NPS’s own history and its early dealings with the WNMA. The document 

collection, although roughly organized according to NPS record-keeping procedure, is chaotic and a 

partial finding aid does not accurately reflect the collection’s breadth. Moreover, a wealth of important 

documents remains unprocessed. References to “Seth Box,” “Old Files,” and “Ancient Files” throughout 

the administrative history point to uncataloged materials in temporarily labeled boxes. Reference to 

“central administrative files” indicates material stored in the Monument’s active files within its 

administrative office. 

2. National Archives and Records Administration—Mid-Atlantic Region (Philadelphia) (NAMAR) 

Of Particular interest at NAMAR are the records of the National Park Service, Northeast Region, 

Record Group 79. Significant material concerning the Birthplace resides in primarily three records series: 

Central Classified Files, 1936-1952; General Correspondence, 1952-1966; and Eastern Office of Design 

and Construction—Philadelphia Planning and Service Center—General Correspondence Files, 1954-66. 

NAMAR holdings provide important insights into planning developments during the 1950s and early 

1960s. 

3. National Archives at College Park, MD (NACP) 

Citations of NACP material refer to the records of the National Park Service, Northeast Region, 

Record Group 79. Of special interest within Entry 7, Central Classified Files, are files 74, 101.1, 101.2, 

206-08, 207, 207-002.3, 501.1, 600-02, 600.1, 601-09, 604, 608, 611, 620, 660-04.1, 740-02, 832, 833-

05, 857, 867, 900-01, 900-02, 900-05, 900-05.1, 900-06.1, and 901. NACP materials are especially 

useful for documenting correspondence between Monument staff, regional officers, and WNMA 

members during the first two decades of operation. 

4. National Archives Building, Washington, DC (NAB) 

 NAB contains important materials within the Records of the Commission of Fine Arts, Record 

Group 66. Documents referred to in this administrative history reside within entry 17 of records series 

Project Files, 1910-1952. NAM holdings are relatively scant with regard to Monument operations, but do 

provide valuable insights into the relationship between the FAC, the WNMA, and the NPS at Popes 

Creek. 

5. NPS Harpers Ferry Center (HFCA & HFCPC) 
307

The Harpers Ferry Center (HFC) includes two physically separate archive sites, both with 

material relevant to the Monument’s history. The HFC Archives (HFCA) in Harpers Ferry, WV contains 

a variety of documents including annual reports, correspondence, and potions of various planning 

documents. This material primarily covers the last thirty years of monument operations. The HFC’s 

Graphic Collections and Archive for Interpretive Media (HFCPC) in Charles Town, WV houses a variety 

of materials from the Cultural Resources Bibliography Collection—including David Rodnick’s original 

hand-written notes and annotated manuscript—a number of images, and video footage of the early 

Monument filmed by Horace Albright. 

Superintendents’ Reports 

Superintendents’ reports, both annual (SAR) and monthly (SMR), provide vital insight into dayto-day operations at the Birthplace and are especially useful for understanding the NPS’s early 

relationship with the WNMA. Some reports include uncatologed photographs and other ephemera of 

special interest to the researcher. The reports are not centralized, but the following list details their 

various locations: 

Annual Reports (SAR)

Pre-1933: RG 79, entry 7, file 207-002.3, NACP. 

1933-1948, 1950: Box “Annual Reports,” GEWA. 

1969, 1972-1974: Box “GEWA,” HFC. 

1975: Old Files box #6, file “A 2621 Reports-Annual,” GEWA. 

1979-1988: Box “GEWA,” HFC. 

1989 to present: Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 

Monthly Reports (SMR)

1930-32: RG 79, entry 7, file 207-002.3, NACP. 

April 1931 to March 1956: Box “Monthly Reports,” GEWA. 

January 1957 to October 1964: NPS Records Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA. 

January 1965 to November 1965: NPS Records Box 10 of 25, 1965 reading file, GEWA. 

NPS Plans, Reports, and Studies Concerning GEWA 

This study relies on a host of planning documents and studies prepared by NPS regional offices, 

Monument staff, and independent contractors. The following list includes the majority of those materials 

organized by topic with, when available, information regarding their location at GEWA. 

Archeology

Gilmore, R.G., et al. An Archaeological Assessment of George Washington’s Birthplace National 

 Monument. Williamsburg, VA: The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, March 2001. 

Harwood, Jameson M. and Marley R. Brown, III. An Archaeological Evaluation of Threatened Cultural 

 Resources within the George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Colonial Williamsburg 

 Archaeological Reports. Williamsburg, VA: The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 

 Department of Archaeological Research, April 2002. 
308

Jones, Joe B., et al. Comprehensive Archaeological Survey of George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument. Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, College of William and 

 Mary, March 1999. 

Outlaw, Alain C., et al. of Espey, Huston & Associates, Inc. “A Study of the Architecture, the History 

 and the Archaeology of George Washington’s Ferry Farm.” January 1993. 

Establishment

Albright, Horace. “A Report on the Rehabilitation of the Birthplace of George Washington by Horace 

Albright, January 14, 1932.” File “Transfer to Govt.,” NPS Records Box 6 of 26, GEWA. 

Taylor, O.G. “Report on Brick Making,” Annual Report to the Director, NPS Records, RG 79, National 

 Archives, Washington, DC. 

Interpretation 

“Annual Statement for Interpretation and Visitor Services” (1984). George Washington Birthplace 

National Monument. Seth Box 4, GEWA. 

 “Comprehensive Interpretive Plan” (March 1999). George Washington Birthplace National Monument. 

Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 

Farrar, Hayward. “African-American History at the Hampton, Booker T. Washington Birthplace, George 

Washington Birthplace, Jamestown and City Point National Historic Sites” (February 1990). 

GEWA Library. 

Harrison, Thomas J. “Interpretive Prospectus for George Washington Birthplace National Monument 

(draft)” (1966). Seth Box 4, GEWA. 

“Historical Interpretation and the National Park Service at George Washington Birthplace National 

 Monument” (1 November 1996). GEWA Library. 

Hough, Philip. “Material for a 56-Page Historic Handbook on George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument by Philip R. Hough, Superintendent” (11 January 1951). GEWA. 

“Interpretive Review” (13 February 1997). George Washington Birthplace National Monument. GEWA 

Library. 

Jacobsen, Robert R., Richard G. Cover, Bruce W. Shaw, Richard A. Elasdel, Keith E. Miller, and Edward 

J. Widmer. “A Study of Visitor Impressions at George Washington’s Birthplace National 

Monument and Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National military Park” (April 1961). GEWA 

library. 

Management Plans

“Strategic Plan for George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Fiscal year 2001-2005” (15 April 

2000). File “A64 GPRA Strategic Plans 2001-2005,” Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 

“Statement for Management, George Washington Birthplace National monument” (1979). NPS Records 

Box 15 of 25, GEWA. 
309

Master Plans and Addenda

“General Plan, George Washington Birthplace National Monument” (4 February 1932). Department of 

the Interior, National Park Service, Yorktown Office (Landscape Division) Microfiche. 

NAMAR. 

“General Development Plan, Part of the Master Plan, George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument” (July 1950). Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Planning and 

Construction Division, Regional Office. NAMAR. 

 “Master Plan Development Outline” (February 1952). George Washington Birthplace National 

Monument. NPS Records, Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 

 “George Washington Birthplace National Monument, MISSION 66” (20 April 1956). File “A-98 

MISSION 66,” NPS Records Box 21 of 25, GEWA. 

 “Master Plan for the Preservation and Use of George Washington Birthplace National Monument, 

MISSION 66 Edition” (7 September 1961). I have not located a complete draft of the final plan, 

which is divided into three volumes. Portions of Volume I and III are located in an unlabeled 

green folder in the HFC library archives. A draft version of various portions of Volume I is in 

file “Master Plan D18,” NPS Records, Box 8 of 25, GEWA. 

“Development concept” (1970). George Washington Birthplace National Monument. NPS Files Box 19 

of 25, GEWA. 

Operations Evaluations

“Operations Evaluation” (1986). George Washington Birthplace National Monument. File “operations 

evaluation” in Seth Box 4, GEWA. Addendum to same in Seth Box 6, GEWA. 

“Operations Evaluation” (1988). George Washington Birthplace National Monument. File “A54 

Operations Evaluation IN-House,” Central File, GEWA. 

 “Operations Evaluation” (1990). George Washington Birthplace National Monument. File “A54 

Operations Evaluation IN-House,” Central File, GEWA. 

“Operations Evaluation” (1992). George Washington Birthplace National Monument. File “A54 

Operations Evaluation IN-House,” Central File, GEWA. 

Resource Management 

Doherty, Jonathan L. An Adjacent Lands Study, Conserving the Setting of George Washington 

Birthplace. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Mid-Atlantic Regional 

Office, Division of Park and Resource Planning, October 1987. 

Ellsworth, Allan C. “George Washington Birthplace National Monument (GEWA) Natural Resource 

Synthesis” (15 July 2003). Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 

Hudson, J. Paul. “An Historical Museum for George Washington Birthplace National Monument, 

Washington’s Birthplace, Virginia, Prospectus and Tentative Exhibit Plan” (1936). Various 
310

copies located at NACP and GEWA. File “1930s-1950s,” NPS Records Box 7 of 25, GEWA 

contains the final approved bound version of Hudson’s 1938 GEWA Historical Exhibit Plan with 

illustrations. 

National Park Service. “George Washington Boyhood Home, Special Resource Study and Environmental 

Assessment” (July 2002). 

Oculus, John Milner Associates, Inc., Cultural Landscape Report, George Washington Birthplace 

National Monument, Westmoreland County, Virginia (2 vols.), July 1999. 

Olson, Sarah. “Historic Furnishing Study, the Ancient Kitchen and Colonial Garden” (November 1974). 

File “folder,” NPS Records box 17 of 25, GEWA. 

“Resources Management Plan” (2 February 2000). George Washington Birthplace National Monument. 

Central Administrative Files, GEWA. 

“Resources Planning and Restructuring Report, Phase II” ( 20 July 2001). George Washington Birthplace 

National Monument. File “A64 Workforce Planning and Restructuring;” Central Administrative 

Files, GEWA. 

Rodnick, David. “Orientation Report on the George Washington Birthplace National Monument, 

Westmoreland County, Virginia” (17 October 1941). Various copies located at NACP, GEWA, 

and HFC. The HFC copy includes various drafts, extra material, and Rodnick’s hand-written 

research notes. 

“Task Directive, Preservation of Cemetery Walls, Phase I, GEWA” (19 April 1993). George Washington 

Birthplace National Monument. File “D18 Planning Program,” Central Administrative Files, 

GEWA. 

WNMA Reports and Publications

Hoppin, Charles. “The House in Which George Washington was Born.” Tyler’s Quarterly Historical 

 Magazine 8, no. 2 (October 1926). 

———. “Was Washington Born in a Cabin?” Antiques (February 1931). 

Mallory, Dalton. “Tribute to Mrs. Josephine Wheelwright Rust presented by Dalton W. Mallory on the 

 occasion of the unveiling of her portrait” (approximately 1994) in folder “A3615” in NPS 

 Records Box 9 of 25, GEWA Archives. 

Rust, Josephine W. “Wakefield National Memorial Association, Report of the President,” 11 June 1930, 

 in box “GEWA—Annual Reports,” NPS Harpers Ferry Center Archives. 

Rust, Mrs. Harry Lee Sr. “Restoration of George Washington’s Birthplace,” 15 December 1930, 

 Wakefield Association Files, FAC, RG 66, National Archives, Washington, DC. 

Taylor, O.G. “Condensed Report of Restoration Work to Date,” 10 September 1930, Wakefield files, 

 FAC, RG 66, National Archives, Washington, DC. 

Wildlife Reports
311

“Annual Wildlife Report” (1932). George Washington’s Birthplace National Monument. NPS Records 

Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA. 

“Annual Wildlife Report” (1933). George Washington’s Birthplace National Monument. NPS Records 

Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA. 

“Annual Wildlife Report” (1934). George Washington’s Birthplace National Monument. NPS Records 

Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA. 

“Annual Wildlife Report” (1935). George Washington’s Birthplace National Monument. NPS Records 

Box 6 of 25, 1920s-1960s Records, GEWA. 

Film and Video 

Albright Videotape, HMA-4 (Old Part #2), “West” in the NPS Historic Photograph Collection, Harpers 

Ferry Center, Harpers Ferry, WV. 

Secondary 

Colonial Revival

Betsky, Celia. "Inside the Past: The Interior and the Colonial Revival in American Art and Literature, 

 1860-1914." In The Colonial Revival in America, edited by Alan Axelrod. New York & London: 

 W.W. Norton & Company, 1985. 

Kaplan, Wendy. “R.T.H. Halsey, An Ideology of Collecting American Decorative Arts.” Winterthur 

 Portfolio 17, no. 1 (1982): 43-53. 

Larson, Eric. The Devil in the White City. New York: Vintage Books, 2003. 

Marling, Karal Ann. George Washington Slept Here: Colonial Revivals and American Culture, 1876- 

 1986. Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London: Harvard University Press, 1988. 

“Mrs. Reginald P. Rose, 1906-1982.” Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (1982): 15-16. 

Orosz, Joel J. Curators and Culture, the Museum Movement in America, 1740-1870. Tuscaloosa & 

 London: The University of Alabama Press, 1990. 

Rhoads, William B. "The Colonial Revival and the Americanization of Immigrants." In The Colonial 

 Revival in America, edited by Alan Axelrod. New York & London: W.W. Norton & Company, 

 1985. 

Roth, Rodris. "The New England, or ‘Olde Tyme,’ Kitchen Exhibit at Nineteenth-Century Fairs." In The 

 Colonial Revival in America, edited by Alan Axelrod. New York & London: W.W. Norton & 

 Company, 1985. 

Wolfskill, George. The Revolt of the Conservatives: A. History of the American Liberty League, 1934- 

 1940. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962. 

GEWA
312

Beasley, Joy. “The Birthplace of a Chief: Archaeology and Meaning at George Washington Birthplace 

 National Monument.” In Myth, Memory, and the Making of the American Landscape, edited by 

 Paul A. Shackel. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001. 

Carson, Paul. “The Growth and Evolution of Interpretation at George Washington’s Birthplace.” 

Northern Neck of Virginia Historical Magazine (1986): 4111-4115. 

Hatch, Charles E., Jr. Popes Creek Plantation, Birthplace of George Washington. The George 

 Washington Birthplace National Memorial Association, 1979. 

Treadway, Sandra Gioia. “Popes Creek Plantation, Birthplace of George Washington.” Virginia 

 Cavalcade 21 (Spring 1982): 192-205. 

Historic Preservation and House Museums

Herbst, John A. "Historic Houses." In History Museums in the United States: A Critical Assessment, 

 edited by Warren Leon and Roy Rosenzweig. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 

 1989. 

Hosmer, Charles B., Jr. Preservation Comes of Age, From Williamsburg to the National Trust, 1926- 

 1949. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1981. 

Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. The Age of Homespun: Objects and Stories in the Creation of an American 

 Myth. New York: Knopf, 2001. 

Wallace, Mike. "Museums and Controversy." In Mickey Mouse History and Other Essays on American 

 Memory, edited by Mike Wallace. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996. 

———. "Visiting the Past: History Museums in the United States." In Mickey Mouse History and Other 

 Essays on American Memory, edited by Mike Wallace. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 

 1996. 

 

West, Patricia. Domesticating History: The Political Origins of America’s House Museums. Washington 

 & London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999. 

Historical Archeology

Deetz, James. Invitation to Archaeology. Garden City, NY: The Natural History Press, 1967. 

Orser, Charles E., Jr. A Historical Archaeology of the Modern World. New York & London: Plenum 

 Press, 1996. 

Living History

Carson, Cary. “Living Museums of Everyman’s History.” Harvard Magazine 83 (July-Aug. 1981): 22- 

 33. 

Clawson, Marion. “Living Historical Farms: A Proposal for Action.” Agricultural History 39, no.3 

(1965): 110. 

Glassberg, David. “Living in the Past.” American Quarterly 38, no. 2 (Summer, 1986). 
313

Handler, Richard and Eric Gable. The New History in an Old Museum, Creating the Past at Colonial 

 Williamsburg. Durham, NC and London: Duke University press, 1997. 

Krugler, John D. "Behind the Public Presentations: Research and Scholarship at Living History Museums 

 of Early America." William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series 48 (July 1991): 347-386. 

Leon, Warren and Margaret Piatt. "Living-History Museums." In History Museums in the United States, 

 A Critical Assessment, edited by Warren Leon and Roy Rosenzweig. Urbana and Chicago: 

 University of Illinois Press, 1989. 

Leone, Mark. "The Relationship Between Artifacts and the Public in Outdoor History Museums." In A 

Living History Reader, Volume One, Museums, edited by Jay Anderson. Nashville: American 

Association for State and Local History, 1991. 

Ronsheim, Robert. "Is the Past Dead?" In A Living History Reader, Volume One, Museums, edited by Jay 

Anderson. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1991. 

Sandberg, Mark B. Living Pictures, Missing Persons: Museums, Mannequins, and Modernity. Princeton 

 & Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2003. 

NPS History

Afro-American Bicentennial Corporation. “A Summary Report of thirty Sites Determined to be 

Significant in Illustrating and Commemorating the Role of black Americans in United States 

History” (1973). 

Allaback, Sarah. Mission 66 Visitor Centers, The History of a Building Type. Washington, DC: 

 Government Printing Office, 2000. 

Blumberg, Barbra. “Celebrating the Immigrant, an Administrative History of the Statue of Liberty 

 National Monument, 1952-1982, 1985, Cultural Resource Management Study No. 10, Division of 

 Cultural Resources, North Atlantic Regional Office 

Carr, Ethan. “Mission 66 and “Rustification.”” CRM 22, n. 9 (1999): 16-19. 

———. Wilderness by Design: Landscape Architecture and the National Park Service. Lincoln: 

University of Nebraska Press, 1998. 

Cox, Elbert. “Virginia Editorial.” Historical Notes 6, no. 2 (1932). 

Dilsaver, Lary M. America’s National Park System, the Critical Documents. Lanham, MD: Rowman & 

Littlefield Publishers, 1994 

Harris, Joseph E. “Afro-American History Interpretation at Selected National Parks” (September 1978). 

Hartzog, Jr., George B. Battling for the National Parks. Mt. Kisco, NY: Moyer Bell Limited, 1988. 

Ise, John. Our National Park Policy, a Critical History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1961. 

Mackintosh, Barry. “The National Park Service, A Brief History” (1999). 
314

 <www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPSHistory/briefhistory.htm> (27 March 2005). 

———. The National Parks: Shaping the System. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC, 

 Produced by Harpers Ferry Center, National Park Service, 1991. 

———. “The National Park Service and Cultural Resources.” CRM 22, no. 4 (1999). 

———. Interpretation in the National Park Service: A Historical Perspective. Washington: National 

 Park Service, 1986. <www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mackintosh2/index.htm> (1 May 

2006). 

Mattes, Merrill J. “Landmarks of Liberty, a Report on the American Revolution Bicentennial 

Development Program of the National Park Service” (draft). Washington: Department of the 

Interior (1989). 

McClelland, Linda Flint. Building the National Parks, Historic Landscape Design and Construction. 

Baltimore & London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. 

“Negro Recreational Program Gains Momentum.” The Regional Review 1, no. 4 (October 1938). 

O’Bright, Jill York. “”There I Grew Up...,” A History of the Administration of Abraham Lincoln’s 

Boyhood Home” (1987). <www.nps.gov/libo/adhi/adhi1.htm> (18 May 2006). 

Peterson, Gloria. “An Administrative History of Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site” 

(1968). <www.nps.gov/abli/adhi/adhi5.htm> (18 May 2006). 

Ridenour, James M. The National Parks Compromised: Pork Barrel Politics and America’s Treasures. 

 Merrillville, IN: ICS Books, Inc, 1994. 

Robinson & Associates, Inc. in association with architrave, p.c., architects. “Skyline Drive Historic 

District (Boundary Increase), Shenandoah National Park, Skyland, Lewis Mountain, and Big 

Meadows.” Washington: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National 

Register of Historic Places (2002). 

Periodicals 

 I cite a variety of newspaper articles throughout the administrative history, most of which I 

discovered in the clippings files at GEWA. Unfortunately, many of those articles do not include full 

publication information. GEWA’s highest profile periodical coverage came by way of Horace Albright 

who wrote “Washington’s Boyhood Homes: The Place Held by Wakefield.” New York Times, 29 March 

1931, sec. X, p. 16.; and “Wakefield Washington Shrine Was Begun After Long Study” in New York 

Times, 19 July 1931, sec. XX, p. 6. Other articles of interest appear in the Fredericksburg Free-Lance 

Star; The Washington Post; the Richmond Times-Dispatch; Westmoreland County’s Westmoreland News; 

and the Northern Neck’s The Journal. 

Interviews 

Church, George. Former Superintendent, GEWA. 17 May 2004. University of Mary Washington, 

 Fredericksburg, VA. 

Donahue, John. Superintendent, Delaware Water Gap National Recreational Area (former 
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 superintendent, GEWA). 14 May 2004. Delaware Water Gap National Recreational Area. 

Frye, Janice. Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park Ranger and Historian (former 

 GEWA interpreter and Muse family member). 21 January 2005. 

Frye, John. Ranger, GEWA. 26 May 2004. GEWA. 

Harris, Chester. Retired Regional Chief of Interpretation. 28 January 2005. Telephone interview. 

Horner, Betty. Adjacent landowner. 30 June 2004. Horner residence. 

Karish, John. Northeast Region Chief Scientist. 29 December 2004. Telephone interview 

Latane, James. Adjacent landowner. 22 July 2004. GEWA. 

Martinez, Vidal. Superintendent, George Washington Birthplace National Monument. 2 July 2004. 

 GEWA. 

Samuel, Roberta. Ranger, GEWA. 26 May 2004. GEWA. 

Smith, Russell. Superintendent, Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park (former 

 Northeast Region chief of Interpretation). 14 December 2004. Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania 

 National Military Park. 

Storke, Dwight. Former Superintendent, GEWA. 20 May 2004. GEWA. 

Woodward, Wilma. Administrative Officer, GEWA. 2 July 2004. GEWA. 

Previously-Recorded Interviews 

GEWA possesses several uncataloged audio recordings of interviews with adjacent landowners 

and Northern Neck residents witness to the early years of development at Washington’s Birthplace. Of 

particular interest is an interview with a Mr. Combs likely recorded during the mid-1970s regarding the 

removal of the granite obelisk; a 16 July 1976 interview with Stanley Coates concerning goings-on at the 

Monument during the early 1930s; a ca. 1976 interview with adjacent landowner James Latane, Sr.; and a 

15 September 1993 interview with Goodwin Muse.