1-1

Introduction

The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides 

basic knowledge for the student pilot learning to fly, as well 

as pilots seeking advanced pilot certification. For detailed 

information on a variety of specialized flight topics, see 

specific Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) handbooks 

and Advisory Circulars (ACs).

This chapter offers a brief history of flight, introduces the 

history and role of the FAA in civil aviation, FAA regulations 

and standards, government references and publications, 

eligibility for pilot certificates, available routes to flight 

instruction, the role of the Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI) 

and Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) in flight training, and 

Practical Test Standards (PTS). 

Introduction 

To Flying

Chapter 1
1-2

Figure 1-2. Glider from 1852 by Sir George Cayley, British aviator 

(1773–1857).

Figure 1-1. Leonardo da Vinci’s ornithopter wings.

History of Flight

From prehistoric times, humans have watched the flight of 

birds, longed to imitate them, but lacked the power to do 

so. Logic dictated that if the small muscles of birds can lift 

them into the air and sustain them, then the larger muscles 

of humans should be able to duplicate the feat. No one knew 

about the intricate mesh of muscles, sinew, heart, breathing 

system, and devices not unlike wing flaps, variable-camber 

and spoilers of the modern airplane that enabled a bird to 

fly. Still, thousands of years and countless lives were lost in 

attempts to fly like birds.

The identity of the first “bird-men” who fitted themselves 

with wings and leapt off a cliff in an effort to fly are lost in 

time, but each failure gave those who wished to fly questions 

that needed answering. Where had the wing flappers gone 

wrong? Philosophers, scientists, and inventors offered 

solutions, but no one could add wings to the human body 

and soar like a bird. During the 1500s, Leonardo da Vinci 

filled pages of his notebooks with sketches of proposed 

flying machines, but most of his ideas were flawed because 

he clung to the idea of birdlike wings. [Figure 1-1] By 

1655, mathematician, physicist, and inventor Robert Hooke 

concluded the human body does not possess the strength 

to power artificial wings. He believed human flight would 

require some form of artificial propulsion. 

The quest for human flight led some practitioners in another 

direction. In 1783, the first manned hot air balloon, crafted by 

Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, flew for 23 minutes. Ten days 

later, Professor Jacques Charles flew the first gas balloon. A 

madness for balloon flight captivated the public’s imagination 

and for a time flying enthusiasts turned their expertise to the 

promise of lighter-than-air flight. But for all its majesty in the 

air, the balloon was little more than a billowing heap of cloth 

capable of no more than a one-way, downwind journey. 

Balloons solved the problem of lift, but that was only one of 

the problems of human flight. The ability to control speed 

and direction eluded balloonists. The solution to that problem 

lay in a child’s toy familiar to the East for 2,000 years, but 

not introduced to the West until the 13th century. The kite, 

used by the Chinese manned for aerial observation and to test 

winds for sailing, and unmanned as a signaling device and as 

a toy, held many of the answers to lifting a heavier-than-air 

device into the air. 

One of the men who believed the study of kites unlocked 

the secrets of winged flight was Sir George Cayley. Born 

in England 10 years before the Mongolfier balloon flight, 

Cayley spent his 84 years seeking to develop a heavier-thanair vehicle supported by kite-shaped wings. [Figure 1-2] The 

“Father of Aerial Navigation,” Cayley discovered the basic 

principles on which the modern science of aeronautics is 

founded, built what is recognized as the first successful flying 

model, and tested the first full-size man-carrying airplane.

For the half-century after Cayley’s death, countless scientists, 

flying enthusiasts, and inventors worked toward building 
1-3

Figure 1-3. First flight by the Wright brothers.

Figure 1-4. Benoist airboat.

a powered flying machine. Men, such as William Samuel 

Henson, who designed a huge monoplane that was propelled 

by a steam engine housed inside the fuselage, and Otto 

Lilienthal, who proved human flight in aircraft heavier than 

air was practical, worked toward the dream of powered flight. 

A dream turned into reality by Wilbur and Orville Wright at 

Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903.

The bicycle-building Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio, had 

experimented for 4 years with kites, their own homemade 

wind tunnel, and different engines to power their biplane. 

One of their great achievements was proving the value of the 

scientific, rather than build-it-and-see approach to flight. Their 

biplane, The Flyer, combined inspired design and engineering 

with superior craftsmanship. [Figure 1-3] By the afternoon of 

December 17th, the Wright brothers had flown a total of 98 

seconds on four flights. The age of flight had arrived. 

History of the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) 

During the early years of manned flight, aviation was a 

free for all because no government body was in place to 

establish policies or regulate and enforce safety standards. 

Individuals were free to conduct flights and operate aircraft 

with no government oversight. Most of the early flights were 

conducted for sport. Aviation was expensive and became the 

playground of the wealthy. Since these early airplanes were 

small, many people doubted their commercial value. One 

group of individuals believed otherwise and they became 

the genesis for modern airline travel.

P. E. Fansler, a Florida businessman living in St. Petersburg 

approached Tom Benoist of the Benoist Aircraft Company 

in St. Louis, Missouri, about starting a flight route from St. 

Petersburg across the waterway to Tampa. Benoist suggested 

using his “Safety First” airboat and the two men signed an 

agreement for what would become the first scheduled airline 

in the United States. The first aircraft was delivered to St. 

Petersburg and made the first test flight on December 31, 

1913. [Figure 1-4]

A public auction decided who would win the honor of 

becoming the first paying airline customer. The former 

mayor of St. Petersburg, A. C. Pheil made the winning bid 

of $400.00 which secured his place in history as the first 

paying airline passenger.

On January 1, 1914, the first scheduled airline flight was 

conducted. The flight length was 21 miles and lasted 23 

minutes due to a headwind. The return trip took 20 minutes. 

The line, which was subsidized by Florida businessmen, 

continued for 4 months and offered regular passage for $5.00 

per person or $5.00 per 100 pounds of cargo. Shortly after the 

opening of the line, Benoist added a new airboat that afforded 

more protection from spray during takeoff and landing. 

The routes were also extended to Manatee, Bradenton, and 

Sarasota giving further credence to the idea of a profitable 

commercial airline.

The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line continued throughout 

the winter months with flights finally being suspended when 

the winter tourist industry began to dry up. The airline 

operated only for 4 months, but 1,205 passengers were 

carried without injury. This experiment proved commercial 

passenger airline travel was viable. 

The advent of World War I offered the airplane a chance 

to demonstrate its varied capabilities. It began the war as a 

reconnaissance platform, but by 1918, airplanes were being 

mass produced to serve as fighters, bombers, trainers, as well 

as reconnaissance platforms. 
1-4

Figure 1-6. The transcontinental airmail route ran from New York to 

San Francisco. Intermediate stops were: 2) Bellefonte, 3) Cleveland, 

4) Bryan, 5) Chicago, 6) Iowa City, 7) Omaha, 8) North Platte, 9) 

Cheyenne, 10) Rawlins, 11) Rock Springs, 12) Salt Lake City, 13) 

Elko, and 14) Reno.

Figure 1-5. The de Haviland DH-4 on the New York to San Francisco 

inaugural route in 1921.

Aviation advocates continued to look for ways to use airplanes. 

Airmail service was a popular idea, but the war prevented 

the Postal Service from having access to airplanes. The War 

Department and Postal Service reached an agreement in 1918. 

The Army would use the mail service to train its pilots in 

cross-country flying. The first airmail flight was conducted 

on May 15, 1918, between New York and Washington, DC. 

The flight was not considered spectacular; the pilot became 

lost and landed at the wrong airfield. In August of 1918, the 

United States Postal Service took control of the airmail routes 

and brought the existing Army airmail pilots and their planes 

into the program as postal employees. 

Transcontinental Air Mail Route

Airmail routes continued to expand until the Transcontinental 

Mail Route was inaugurated. [Figure 1-5] This route spanned 

from San Francisco to New York for a total distance of 

2,612 miles with 13 intermediate stops along the way. 

[Figure 1-6]

On May 20, 1926, Congress passed the Air Commerce Act, 

which served as the cornerstone for aviation within the 

United States. This legislation was supported by leaders in 

the aviation industry who felt that the airplane could not 

reach its full potential without assistance from the Federal 

Government in improving safety. 

The Air Commerce Act charged the Secretary of Commerce 

with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic 

rules, licensing pilots, certificating aircraft, establishing 

airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. 

The Department of Commerce created a new Aeronautics 

Branch whose primary mission was to provide oversight for 

the aviation industry. In addition, the Aeronautics Branch 

took over the construction and operation of the nation’s 

system of lighted airways. The Postal Service, as part of the 

Transcontinental Air Mail Route system, had initiated this 

system. The Department of Commerce made great advances 

in aviation communications, as well as introducing radio 

beacons as an effective means of navigation.

Built at intervals of approximately 10 miles, the standard 

beacon tower was 51 feet high, topped with a powerful 

rotating light. Below the rotating light, two course lights 

pointed forward and back along the airway. The course lights 

flashed a code to identify the beacon’s number. The tower 

usually stood in the center of a concrete arrow 70 feet long. 

A generator shed, where required, stood at the “feather” end 

of the arrow. [Figure 1-7]

Federal Certification of Pilots and Mechanics

The Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce 

began pilot certification with the first license issued on 

April 6, 1927. The recipient was the chief of the Aeronautics 

Branch, William P. MacCracken, Jr. [Figure 1-8] (Orville 

Wright, who was no longer an active flier, had declined the 

honor.) MacCracken’s license was the first issued to a pilot 

by a civilian agency of the Federal Government. Some 3 

months later, the Aeronautics Branch issued the first Federal 

aircraft mechanic license.

Equally important for safety was the establishment of a system 

of certification for aircraft. On March 29, 1927, the Aeronautics 

Branch issued the first airworthiness type certificate to the 

Buhl Airster CA-3, a three-place open biplane. 

In 1934, to recognize the tremendous strides made in aviation 

and to display the enhanced status within the department, 
1-5

Figure 1-7. A standard airway beacon tower.

Figure 1-8. The first pilot license was issued to William P. 

MacCracken, Jr.

Figure 1-9. The third head of the Aeronautics Branch, Eugene 

L. Vidal, is flanked by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (left) and 

Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace (right). The photograph 

was taken in 1933. During Vidal’s tenure, the Aeronautics Branch 

was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce on July 1, 1934. The 

new name more accurately reflected the status of the organization 

within the Department of Commerce.

the Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air 

Commerce. [Figure 1-9] Within this time frame, the Bureau 

of Air Commerce brought together a group of airlines and 

encouraged them to form the first three Air Traffic Control 

(ATC) facilities along the established air routes. Then in 1936, 

the Bureau of Air Commerce took over the responsibilities 

of operating the centers and continued to advance the ATC 

facilities. ATC has come a long way from the early controllers 

using maps, chalkboards, and performing mental math 

calculations in order to separate aircraft along flight routes.

The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938

In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil 

aviation responsibilities to a newly created, independent 

body, named the Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA). This 

Act empowered the CAA to regulate airfares and establish 

new routes for the airlines to service. 

President Franklin Roosevelt split the CAA into two 

agencies, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and 

the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). Both agencies were 

still part of the Department of Commerce but the CAB 

functioned independently of the Secretary of Commerce. 

The role of the CAA was to facilitate ATC, certification of 

airmen and aircraft, rule enforcement, and the development 

of new airways. The CAB was charged with rule making 

to enhance safety, accident investigation, and the economic 

regulation of the airlines. Then in 1946, Congress gave the 
1-6

Figure 1-10. First Administrator of the FAA was General Elwood 

Richard “Pete” Quesada, 1959–1961.

CAA the responsibility of administering the Federal Aid 

Airport Program. This program was designed to promote the 

establishment of civil airports throughout the country.

The Federal Aviation Act of 1958

By mid-century, air traffic had increased and jet aircraft had 

been introduced into the civil aviation arena. A series of 

mid-air collisions underlined the need for more regulation 

of the aviation industry. Aircraft were not only increasing in 

numbers, but were now streaking across the skies at much 

higher speeds. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 established 

a new independent body that assumed the roles of the CAA 

and transferred the rule making authority of the CAB to the 

newly created Federal Aviation Agency (FAA). In addition, 

the FAA was given complete control of the common civilmilitary system of air navigation and ATC. The man who 

was given the honor of being the first administrator of the 

FAA was former Air Force General Elwood Richard “Pete” 

Quesada. He served as the administrator from 1959–1961. 

[Figure 1-10]

Department of Transportation (DOT)

On October 15, 1966, Congress established the Department 

of Transportation (DOT), which was given oversight of the 

transportation industry within the United States. The result 

was a combination of both air and surface transportation. Its 

mission was and is to serve the United States by ensuring a 

fast, safe, efficient, accessible, and convenient transportation 

system meeting vital national interests and enhancing the 

quality of life of the American people, then, now, and into 

the future. At this same time, the Federal Aviation Agency 

was renamed to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 

The DOT began operation on April 1, 1967.

The role of the CAB was assumed by the newly created 

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), which was 

charged with the investigation of all transportation accidents 

within the United States. 

As aviation continued to grow, the FAA took on additional 

duties and responsibilities. With the highjacking epidemic 

of the 1960s, the FAA was responsible for increasing the 

security duties of aviation both on the ground and in the air. 

After September 11, 2001, the duties were transferred to 

a newly created body called the Department of Homeland 

Security (DHS).

With numerous aircraft flying in and out of larger cities, the 

FAA began to concentrate on the environmental aspect of 

aviation by establishing and regulating the noise standards 

of aircraft. Additionally in the 1960s and 1970s, the FAA 

began to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon 

flying. 1970 brought more duties to the FAA by adding 

the management of a new federal airport aid program and 

increased responsibility for airport safety.

Air Traffic Control (ATC) Automation

By the mid-1970s, the FAA had achieved a semi-automated 

ATC system based on a marriage of radar and computer 

technology. By automating certain routine tasks, the system 

allowed controllers to concentrate more efficiently on the 

vital task of providing aircraft separation. Data appearing 

directly on the controllers’ scopes provided the identity, 

altitude, and groundspeed of aircraft carrying radar beacons. 

Despite its effectiveness, this system required enhancement 

to keep pace with the increased air traffic of the late 1970s. 

The increase was due in part to the competitive environment 

created by the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978. This law 

phased out CAB’s economic regulation of the airlines, and 

CAB ceased to exist at the end of 1984.

To meet the challenge of traffic growth, the FAA unveiled 

the National Airspace System (NAS) Plan in January 

1982. The new plan called for more advanced systems 

for en route and terminal ATC, modernized flight service 

stations, and improvements in ground-to-air surveillance 

and communication.
1-7

Figure 1-11. President Jimmy Carter signs the Airline Deregulation 

Act in late 1978.

The Professional Air Traffic Controllers 

Organization (PATCO) Strike

While preparing the NAS Plan, the FAA faced a strike 

by key members of its workforce. An earlier period of 

discord between management and the Professional Air 

Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) culminated in a 

1970 “sickout” by 3,000 controllers. Although controllers 

subsequently gained additional wage and retirement 

benefits, another period of tension led to an illegal strike in 

August 1981. The government dismissed over 11,000 strike 

participants and decertified PATCO. By the spring of 1984, 

the FAA ended the last of the special restrictions imposed to 

keep the airspace system operating safely during the strike.

The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978

Until 1978, the CAB regulated many areas of commercial 

aviation such as fares, routes, and schedules. The Airline 

Deregulation Act of 1978, however, removed many of 

these controls, thus changing the face of civil aviation in the 

United States. After deregulation, unfettered free competition 

ushered in a new era in passenger air travel.

The CAB had three main functions: to award routes to 

airlines, to limit the entry of air carriers into new markets, 

and to regulate fares for passengers. Much of the established 

practices of commercial passenger travel within the United 

States went back to the policies of Walter Folger Brown, the 

United States Postmaster General during the administration 

of President Herbert Hoover. Brown had changed the mail 

payments system to encourage the manufacture of passenger 

aircraft instead of mail-carrying aircraft. His influence 

was crucial in awarding contracts and helped create four 

major domestic airlines: United, American, Eastern, and 

Transcontinental and Western Air (TWA). Similarly, 

Brown had also helped give Pan American a monopoly on 

international routes.

The push to deregulate, or at least to reform the existing laws 

governing passenger carriers, was accelerated by President 

Jimmy Carter, who appointed economist and former professor 

Alfred Kahn, a vocal supporter of deregulation, to head the 

CAB. A second force to deregulate emerged from abroad. 

In 1977, Freddie Laker, a British entrepreneur who owned 

Laker Airways, created the Skytrain service, which offered 

extraordinarily cheap fares for transatlantic flights. Laker’s 

offerings coincided with a boom in low-cost domestic flights 

as the CAB eased some limitations on charter flights, i.e., 

flights offered by companies that do not actually own planes 

but leased them from the major airlines. The big air carriers 

responded by proposing their own lower fares. For example, 

American Airlines, the country’s second largest airline, 

obtained CAB approval for “SuperSaver” tickets.

All of these events proved to be favorable for large-scale 

deregulation. In November 1977, Congress formally 

deregulated air cargo. In late 1978, Congress passed the Airline 

Deregulation Act of 1978, legislation that had been principally 

authored by Senators Edward Kennedy and Howard Cannon. 

[Figure 1-11] There was stiff opposition to the bill—from the 

major airlines who feared free competition, from labor unions 

who feared nonunion employees, and from safety advocates 

who feared that safety would be sacrificed. Public support was, 

however, strong enough to pass the act. The act appeased the 

major airlines by offering generous subsidies and it pleased 

workers by offering high unemployment benefits if they lost 

their jobs as a result. The most important effect of the act, 

whose laws were slowly phased in, was on the passenger 

market. For the first time in 40 years, airlines could enter the 

market or (from 1981) expand their routes as they saw fit. 

Airlines (from 1982) also had full freedom to set their fares. 

In 1984, the CAB was finally abolished since its primary duty 

of regulating the airline industry was no longer necessary.

The Role of the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA)

The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)

The FAA is empowered by regulations to promote aviation 

safety and establish safety standards for civil aviation. The 

FAA achieves these objectives under the Code of Federal 

Regulations (CFR), which is the codification of the general 

and permanent rules published by the executive departments 

and agencies of the United States Government. The 

regulations are divided into 50 different codes, called Titles, 

that represent broad areas subject to Federal regulation. FAA 

regulations are listed under Title 14, Aeronautics and Space, 

which encompasses all aspects of civil aviation from how 

to earn a pilot’s certificate to maintenance of an aircraft. 
1-8

Figure 1-13. Atlanta Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).

Subchapters

Aeronautics and Space

Code of Federal Regulations

A Definitions (definitions and abbreviations)

B Procedural rules (rulemaking processes,

claims, enforcement)

C Aircraft (Aircraft certification procedures [21],

Airworthiness standards [parts 25 through 33

depending on type of aircraft], airworthiness 

directives [39], maintenance [43], aircraft 

registration [47])

D Airmen (certification of pilots and Instructors 

 [61], (Medical standards [67])

E Airspace (designation of airspace

classification [71], special use airspace [73]

F Air traffic and general rules (general

operating and flight rules [91], special air 

traffic rules and airport traffic patterns [93])

G Air carriers, air travel clubs. and operators for 

compensation or hire: certification and 

operations

H Schools and other certified agencies

I Airports

J Navigational facilities

K Administrative regulations

L–M Reserved

N War risk insurance

Chapter 1. Federal Aviation Administration

Figure 1-12. Overview of 14 CFR, available online free from the 

FAA, and for purchase through commercial sources.

Title 14 CFR Chapter 1, Federal Aviation Administration, is 

broken down into subchapters A through N as illustrated in 

Figure 1-12.

For the pilot, certain parts of 14 CFR are more relevant than 

others. During flight training, it is helpful for the pilot to 

become familiar with the parts and subparts that relate to flight 

training and pilot certification. For instance, 14 CFR part 61 

pertains to the certification of pilots, flight instructors, and 

ground instructors. It also defines the eligibility, aeronautical 

knowledge, flight proficiency, as well as training and testing 

requirements for each type of pilot certificate issued. 14 CFR 

part 91 provides guidance in the areas of general flight rules, 

visual flight rules (VFR), and instrument flight rules (IFR), 

while 14 CFR part 43 covers aircraft maintenance, preventive 

maintenance, rebuilding, and alterations. 

Primary Locations of the FAA

The FAA headquarters are in Washington, D.C., and there are 

nine regional offices strategically located across the United 

States. The agency’s two largest field facilities are the Mike 

Monroney Aeronautical Center (MMAC) in Oklahoma 

City, Oklahoma, and the William J. Hughes Technical 

Center (WJHTC) in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Home to 

FAA training and logistics services, the MMAC provides 

a number of aviation safety-related and business support 

services. The WJHTC is the premier aviation research and 

development and test and evaluation facility in the country. 

The center’s programs include testing and evaluation in ATC, 

communication, navigation, airports, aircraft safety, and 

security. Furthermore, the WJHTC is active in long-range 

development of innovative aviation systems and concepts, 

development of new ATC equipment and software, and 

modification of existing systems and procedures. 

Field Offices

Flight Standards Service 

Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service promotes safe 

air transportation by setting the standards for certification 

and oversight of airmen, air operators, air agencies, and 

designees. It also promotes safety of flight of civil aircraft 

and air commerce by:

• Accomplishing certification, inspection, surveillance, 

investigation, and enforcement.

• Setting regulations and standards.

• Managing the system for registration of civil aircraft 

and all airmen records.

The focus of interaction between Flight Standards Service 

and the aviation community/general public is the Flight 

Standards District Office (FSDO). 

Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)

The FAA has approximately 130 FSDOs. [Figure 1-13]

These offices provide information and services for the 

aviation community. FSDO phone numbers are listed in the 

telephone directory under Government Offices, DOT, FAA. 

Another convenient method of finding a local office is to use 

the FSDO locator available at: www.faa.gov/about/office_

org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs600.
1-9

Figure 1-14. Aeronautical Information Manual.

web site, go to www.faa.gov. Individuals can also e-mail an 

FAA representative at a local FSDO office by accessing the 

staff e-mail address available via the “Contact FAA” link at 

the bottom of the FAA home page. Letters can be sent to: 

 Federal Aviation Administration

 800 Independence Ave, SW

 Washington, DC 20591 

FAA Reference Material

The FAA provides a variety of important reference material 

for the student, as well as the advanced civil aviation pilot. 

In addition to the regulations provided online by the FAA, 

several other publications are available to the user. Almost 

all reference material is available online at www.faa.gov in 

downloadable format. Commercial aviation publishers also 

provide published and online reference material to further 

aid the aviation pilot. 

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) is the official 

guide to basic flight information and ATC procedures for the 

aviation community flying in the NAS of the United States. 

[Figure 1-14] An international version, containing parallel 

information, as well as specific information on international 

airports, is also available. The AIM also contains information 

of interest to pilots, such as health and medical facts, flight 

safety, a pilot/controller glossary of terms used in the system, 

and information on safety, accidents, and reporting of hazards. 

In addition to accident investigation and the enforcement of 

aviation regulations, the FSDO is also responsible for the 

certification and surveillance of air carriers, air operators, 

flight schools/training centers, and airmen including pilots 

and flight instructors. Each FSDO is staffed by Aviation 

Safety Inspectors (ASIs) who play a key role in making the 

nation’s aviation system safe. 

Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI) 

The Aviation Safety Inspectors (ASIs) administer and enforce 

safety regulations and standards for the production, operation, 

maintenance, and/or modification of aircraft used in civil 

aviation. They also specialize in conducting inspections of 

various aspects of the aviation system, such as aircraft and 

parts manufacturing, aircraft operation, aircraft airworthiness, 

and cabin safety. ASIs must complete a training program 

at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, which 

includes airman evaluation, and pilot testing techniques and 

procedures. ASIs also receive extensive on-the-job training 

and recurrent training on a regular basis. The FAA has 

approximately 3,700 inspectors located in its FSDO offices. 

All questions concerning pilot certification (and/or requests 

for other aviation information or services) should be directed 

to the local FSDO.

FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam)

The FAA is dedicated to improving the safety of United 

States civilian aviation by conveying safety principles and 

practices through training, outreach, and education. The FAA 

Safety Team (FAASTeam) exemplifies this commitment. 

The FAASTeam has replaced the Aviation Safety Program 

(ASP), whose education of airmen on all types of safety 

subjects successfully reduced accidents. Its success led to 

its demise because the easy-to-fix accident causes have been 

addressed. To take aviation safety one step further, Flight 

Standards Service created the FAASTeam, which is devoted 

to reducing aircraft accidents by using a coordinated effort 

to focus resources on elusive accident causes. 

Each of the FAA’s nine regions has a Regional FAASTeam 

Office dedicated to this new safety program and managed by 

the Regional FAASTeam Manager (RFM). The FAASTeam 

is “teaming” up with individuals and the aviation industry to 

create a unified effort against accidents and “tip” the safety 

culture in the right direction. To learn more about this effort 

to improve aviation safety, to take a course at their online 

learning center, or to join the FAASTeam, visit their web 

site at www.faasafety.gov/default.aspx.

Obtaining Assistance from the FAA

Information can be obtained from the FAA by phone, Internet/

e-mail, or mail. To talk to the FAA toll-free 24 hours a day, 

call 1-866-TELL-FAA (1-866-835-5322). To visit the FAA’s 
1-10

Figure 1-16. Pilot Operating Handbooks from manufacturers.

The Aeronautical Information Manual is designed to provide

the aviation community with basic flight information and 

ATC procedures for use in the NAS of the United States. It

also contains the fundamentals required in order to fly in the 

United States NAS, including items of interest to pilots

concerning health/medical facts, factors affecting flight 

safety, etc.

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

The Aviation Instructor’s Handbook provides the foundation 

for beginning instructors to understand and apply the

fundamentals of instructing. This handbook also provides 

aviation instructors with up-to-date information on learning 

and teaching, and how to relate this information to the task of

conveying aeronautical knowledge and skills to students. 

Experienced aviation instructors also find the new and

updated information useful for improving their effectiveness

in training activities.

Aviation Instructor’s Handbook

The Airplane Flying Handbook is designed as a technical

manual to introduce basic pilot skills and knowledge that are 

essential for piloting airplanes. It provides information on

transition to other airplanes and the operation of various 

airplane systems.

Airplane Flying Handbook

The Instrument Flying Handbook is designed for use by

instrument flight instructors and pilots preparing for 

instrument rating tests. Instructors find this handbook a 

valuable training aid as it includes basic reference material 

for knowledge testing and instrument flight training.

Instrument Flying Handbook

The Instrument Procedures Handbook is designed as a 

technical reference for professional pilots who operate under 

IFR in the NAS and expands on information contained in the 

Instrument Flying Handbook.

Instrument Procedures Handbook

Figure 1-15. A few samples of the handbooks available to the 

public. Most are free of charge or can be downloaded from the 

FAA website.

This manual is offered for sale on a subscription basis or is 

available online at: http://bookstore.gpo.gov.

Order forms are provided at the beginning of the manual or 

online and should be sent to the Superintendent of Documents, 

United States Government Printing Office (GPO). The AIM 

is complemented by other operational publications, which are 

available via separate subscriptions or online. 

Handbooks

Handbooks are developed to provide specific information 

about a particular topic that enhances training or understanding. 

The FAA publishes a variety of handbooks that generally fall 

into three categories: Aircraft, Aviation, and Examiners and 

Inspectors. [Figure 1-15] These handbooks can be purchased 

from the Superintendent of Documents or downloaded (www.

faa.gov/regulations_policies). Aviation handbooks are also 

published by various commercial aviation companies. Aircraft 

flight manuals commonly called Pilot Operating Handbooks 

(POH) are documents developed by the airplane manufacturer, 

approved by the FAA, and are specific to a particular make 

and model aircraft by serial number. This subject is covered 

in greater detail in Chapter 8, Flight Manuals and Other 

Documents, of this handbook. [Figure 1-16] 

Advisory Circulars (ACs)

Advisory circulars (ACs) provide a single, uniform, agencywide system that the FAA uses to deliver advisory material 

to FAA customers, industry, the aviation community, and the 

public. An AC may be needed to:

• Provide an acceptable, clearly understood method for 

complying with a regulation.

• Standardize implementation of the regulation or 

harmonize implementation for the international 

aviation community.

• Resolve a general misunderstanding of a regulation.

• Respond to a request from some government entity, 

such as General Accounting Office, NTSB, or the 

Office of the Inspector General.

• Help the industry and FAA effectively implement a 

regulation.

• Explain requirements and limits of an FAA grant 

program.

• Expand on standards needed to promote aviation safety, 

including the safe operation of airports. 

There are three parts to an AC number, as in 25-42C. The 

first part of the number identifies the subject matter area of 

the AC and corresponds to the appropriate 14 CFR part. 

For example, an AC on certification: Pilots and Flight and 
1-11

Figure 1-17. Example of an Advisory Circular.

Figure 1-18. From left to right, a sectional VFR chart, IFR chart, and A/FD with a sample of a page from that directory.

Ground Instructors is numbered as AC 61-65E. Since ACs are 

numbered sequentially within each subject area, the second 

part of the number beginning with the dash identifies this 

sequence. The third part of the number is a letter assigned 

by the originating office and shows the revision sequence if 

an AC is revised. The first version of an AC does not have 

a revision letter. In Figure 1-17, this is the fifth revision, as 

designated by the “E.”

Flight Publications

The FAA, in concert with other government agencies, 

orchestrates the publication and changes to publications 

that are key to safe flight. Figure 1-18 illustrates some 

publications a pilot uses.

Pilot and Aeronautical Information 

Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) 

Time-critical aeronautical information, which is of either 

a temporary nature or not sufficiently known in advance 

to permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other 

operational publications, receives immediate dissemination 

via the National Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System. 

NOTAMs contain current notices to airmen, which are 

considered essential to the safety of flight, as well as 

supplemental data affecting other operational publications. 

NOTAM information is classified into two categories: 

NOTAM (D) or distant and Flight Data Center (FDC) 

NOTAMs.

NOTAM (D) information is disseminated for all navigational 

facilities that are part of the NAS, all public use airports, 

seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the Airport/Facility 

Directory (A/FD). NOTAM (D) information now includes 

such data as taxiway closures, personnel and equipment near 

or crossing runways, and airport lighting aids that do not 

affect instrument approach criteria, such as visual approach 

slope indicator (VASI). 
1-12

Figure 1-20. A typical ultralight vehicle, which weighs less than 

254 pounds.

Figure 1-19. A sample of NOTAM information available to the 

public. Most are free of charge or can be downloaded from the 

FAA website.

FDC NOTAMs contain such things as amendments to 

published Instrument Approach Procedures (IAPs) and other 

current aeronautical charts. They are also used to advertise 

temporary flight restrictions caused by such things as natural 

disasters or large-scale public events that may generate a 

congestion of air traffic over a site.

NOTAMs are available in printed form through subscription 

from the Superintendent of Documents, from an FSS, or 

online at The Pilot Web Site (http://pilotweb.nas.faa.gov/

distribution/atcscc.html), which provides access to current 

NOTAM information. [Figure 1-19]

Safety Program Airmen Notification System 

(SPANS)

The FAA recently launched the Safety Program Airmen 

Notification System (SPANS), an online event notification 

system that provides timely and easy-to-assess seminar and 

event information notification for airmen. The SPANS system 

is taking the place of the current paper based mail system. 

This transition will provide better service to airmen while 

reducing costs for the FAA. Anyone can search the SPANS 

system and register for events. To read more about SPANS, 

visit www.faasafety.gov/SPANS/default.aspx.

Aircraft Types and Categories

Ultralight Vehicles

An ultralight aircraft [Figure 1-20] is referred to as a vehicle 

because the FAA does not govern it if it:

• Is used or intended to be used by a single occupant.

• Is used for recreation or sport purposes.

• Does not have an airworthiness certificate.

• If unpowered, weighs less than 155 pounds. 

• If powered, weighs less than 254 pounds empty weight, 

excluding floats and safety devices that are intended for 

deployment in a potentially catastrophic situation.

• Has a fuel capacity not exceeding 5 gallons.

• Is not capable of more than 55 knots calibrated 

airspeed at full power in level flight.

• Has a power-off stall speed, which does not exceed 

24 knots calibrated airspeed.

Ultralight vehicles do not require any form of pilot license or 

certification if they are flown within 14 CFR 103 operating 

rules which generally limit the ultralight vehicle to uncontrolled 

airpsace and no flight over populated areas. Every person flying 

an ultralight should be familiar to the rules specified in 14 

CFR 103. 

Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) Category

In 2004, the FAA approved a new pilot certificate and aircraft 

category program to allow individuals to join the aviation 

community by reducing training requirements that affect 

the overall cost of learning to fly. The Sport Pilot Certificate 

was created for pilots flying light-weight, simple aircraft and 

offers limited privileges. The category of aircraft called the 
1-13

Figure 1-21. Some examples of LSA (from top to bottom: gyroplane, 

weight-shift control, and a powered parachute). 

Figure 1-22. Front side (top) and back side (bottom) of an airman 

certificate issued by the FAA.

Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) includes Airplane (Land/Sea), 

Gyroplane, Airship, Balloon, Weight-Shift Control (Land/

Sea), Glider, and Powered Parachute. [Figure 1-21]

In order for an aircraft to fall in the Light Sport Category, it 

must meet the following criteria:

• The maximum gross takeoff weight may not exceed 

1,320 pounds, or 1,430 pounds for seaplanes. Lighterthan-air maximum gross weight may not be more than 

660 pounds. 

• The maximum stall speed may not exceed 45 knots, 

and the inflight maximum speed in level flight with 

maximum continuous power is no greater than 120 

knots.

• Seating is restricted to single or two-seat configuration 

only.

• The powerplant may be only a single, reciprocating 

engine (if powered), but may include rotary or diesel 

engines.

• The landing gear must be fixed, except gliders or those 

aircraft intended for operation on water. 

• The aircraft can be manufactured and sold ready-to-fly 

under a new special LSA category, and certification 

must meet industry consensus standards. The aircraft 

may be used for sport, recreation, flight training, and 

aircraft rental. 

• The aircraft will have an FAA registration N-number 

and may be operated at night if the aircraft is properly 

equipped and the pilot holds at least a private pilot 

certificate with a minimum of a third-class medical. 

Pilot Certifications

The type of intended flying will influence what type of 

pilot’s certificate is required. Eligibility, training, experience, 

and testing requirements differ depending on the type of 

certificates sought. [Figure 1-22] 
1-14

Figure 1-23. A typical aircraft a private pilot might fly. 

Sport Pilot

To become a sport pilot, the student pilot is required to have 

the following hours depending upon the aircraft:

• Airplane: 20 hours

• Powered Parachute: 12 hours 

• Weight-Shift Control (Trikes): 20 hours 

• Glider: 10 hours 

• Rotorcraft (gyroplane only): 20 hours 

• Lighter-Than-Air: 20 hours (airship) or 7 hours (balloon) 

To earn a Sport Pilot Certificate, one must:

• Be at least 16 to become a student sport pilot (14 for 

glider). 

• Be at least 17 to test for a sport pilot certificate (16 

for gliders).

• Be able to read, write, and understand English. 

• Hold a current and valid driver’s license as evidence 

of medical eligibility.

Recreational Pilot

To become a recreational pilot, one must:

• Be at least 17 years old (16 to be a private glider pilot 

or be rated for free flight in a balloon.) 

• Be able to read, write, speak and understand the 

English language 

• Pass the required knowledge test 

• Meet the aeronautical experience requirements 

• A logbook endorsement from an instructor 

• Pass the required practical test 

• Third-class medical certificate issued under part 14 

CFR part 67, except for gliders and balloons—medical 

eligibility not required

As a recreational pilot, cross-country flight is limited to a 

50 NM range from departure airport but is permitted with 

additional training per 14 CFR section 61.101(c). Additional 

limitations include flight during the day, and no flying in 

airspace where communications with air traffic control are 

required.

The aeronautical experience requirements for a recreational 

pilot license

• 30 hours of flight time including at least: 

• 15 hours of dual instruction 

• 2 hours of enroute training 

• 3 hours in preparation for the practical test 

• 3 hours of solo flight 

Private Pilot

A private pilot is one who flies for pleasure or personal 

business without accepting compensation for flying except 

in some very limited, specific circumstances. The Private 

Pilot Certificate is the certificate held by the majority of 

active pilots. It allows command of any aircraft (subject 

to appropriate ratings) for any noncommercial purpose, 

and gives almost unlimited authority to fly under VFR. 

Passengers may be carried, and flight in furtherance of a 

business is permitted; however, a private pilot may not be 

compensated in any way for services as a pilot, although 

passengers can pay a pro rata share of flight expenses, such 

as fuel or rental costs. If training under 14 CFR part 61, 

experience requirements include at least 40 hours of piloting 

time, including 20 hours of flight with an instructor and 10 

hours of solo flight. [Figure 1-23]

Commercial Pilot

A commercial pilot may be compensated for flying. Training 

for the certificate focuses on a better understanding of 

aircraft systems and a higher standard of airmanship. The 

Commercial Certificate itself does not allow a pilot to fly in 

instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), and commercial 

pilots without an instrument rating are restricted to daytime 

flight within 50 nautical miles (NM) when flying for hire.

A commercial airplane pilot must be able to operate 

a complex airplane, as a specific number of hours of 

complex (or turbine-powered) aircraft time are among 

the prerequisites, and at least a portion of the practical 

examination is performed in a complex aircraft. A complex 

aircraft must have retractable landing gear, movable flaps, 

and a controllable pitch propeller. See 14 CFR part 61, section 

61.31(c) for additional information. [Figure 1-24]
1-15

Figure 1-25. Type of aircraft flown by an airline transport pilot.

Figure 1-24. A complex aircraft.

Airline Transport Pilot

The airline transport pilot (ATP) is tested to the highest level 

of piloting ability. The ATP Certificate is a prerequisite for 

acting as a pilot in command (PIC) of scheduled airline 

operations. The minimum pilot experience is 1,500 hours of 

flight time. In addition, the pilot must be at least 23 years of 

age, be able to read, write, speak, and understand the English 

language, and be “of good moral standing.” [Figure 1-25]

Selecting a Flight School 

Selection of a flight school is an important consideration 

in the flight training process. FAA-approved flight schools, 

noncertificated flying schools, and independent flight 

instructors conduct flight training in the United States. All 

flight training is conducted under the auspices of the FAA 

following the regulations outlined in either 14 CFR part 141 

or 61. 14 CFR part 141 flight schools are certificated by the 

FAA. Application for certification is voluntary and the school 

must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, 

maintenance, facilities, and teach an established curriculum, 

which includes a training course outline (TCO) approved by 

the FAA. The certificated schools may qualify for a ground 

school rating and a flight school rating. In addition, the school 

may be authorized to give its graduates practical (flight) tests 

and knowledge (computer administered written) tests. AC 

140-2, as amended, FAA Certificated Pilot Schools Directory, 

lists certificated ground and flight schools and the pilot 

training courses each school offers. AC 140-2, as amended, 

can be found online at the FAA’s Regulations and Guidance 

Library located on the FAA’s web site at www.faa.gov.

Enrollment in a 14 CFR part 141 flight school ensures 

quality and continuity, and offers a structured approach to 

flight training because these facilities must document the 

training curriculum and have their flight courses approved 

by the FAA. These strictures allow 14 CFR part 141 schools 

to complete certificates and ratings in fewer flight hours, 

which can mean a savings on the cost of flight training for 

the student pilot. For example, the minimum requirement for 

a Private Pilot Certificate is 35 hours in a part 141-certificated 

school and 40 hours in part 61 schools. (This difference may 

be insignificant for a Private Pilot Certificate because the 

national average indicates most pilots require 60 to 75 hours 

of flight training.)

Many excellent flight schools find it impractical to qualify 

for the FAA part 141 certificates and are referred to as part 

61 schools. 14 CFR part 61 outlines certificate and rating 

requirements for pilot certification through noncertificated 

schools and individual flight instructors. It also states what 

knowledge-based training must be covered and how much 

flight experience is required for each certificate and rating. 

Flight schools and flight instructors who train must adhere 

to the statutory requirements and train pilots to the standards 

found in 14 CFR part 61. 

One advantage of flight training under 14 CFR part 61 is its 

flexibility. Flight lessons can be tailored to the individual 

student, because 14 CFR part 61 dictates the required 

minimum flight experience and knowledge-based training 

necessary to gain a specific pilot’s license, but it does not 

stipulate how the training is to be organized. This flexibility 

can also be a disadvantage because a flight instructor who 

fails to organize the flight training can cost a student pilot 

time and expense through repetitious training. One way for 

a student pilot to avoid this problem is to insure the flight 

instructor has a well-documented training syllabus.

How To Find a Reputable Flight Program

To obtain information about pilot training, contact the local 

FSDO, which maintains a current file on all schools within its 

district. The choice of a flight school depends on what type 

of certificate is sought, whether an individual wishes to fly 

as a sport pilot or wishes to pursue a career as a professional 

pilot. Another consideration is the amount of time that can 

be devoted to training. Ground and flight training should 

be obtained as regularly and frequently as possible because 

this assures maximum retention of instruction and the 

achievement of requisite proficiency.
1-16

Do not make the determination based on financial concerns 

alone, because the quality of training is very important. Prior to 

making a final decision, visit the schools under consideration 

and talk with management, instructors, and students. 

Be inquisitive and proactive when searching for a flight 

school, do some homework, and develop a checklist of 

questions by talking to pilots and reading articles in flight 

magazines. The checklist should include questions about 

aircraft reliability and maintenance practices, questions for 

current students such as whether or not there is a safe, clean 

aircraft available when they are scheduled to fly. 

Questions for the training facility should be aimed at 

determining if the instruction fits available personal time. 

What are the school’s operating hours? Does the facility have 

dedicated classrooms available for ground training required 

by the FAA? Is there an area available for preflight briefings, 

postflight debriefings, and critiques? Are these rooms private 

in nature in order to provide a nonthreatening environment in 

which the instructor can explain the content and outcome of 

the flight without making the student feel self-conscious? 

Examine the facility before committing to any flight training. 

Evaluate the answers on the checklist, and then take time to 

think things over before making a decision. This proactive 

approach to choosing a flight school will ensure a student 

pilot contracts with a flight school or flight instructor best 

suited to individual needs.

How To Choose a Certificated Flight Instructor 

(CFI)

Whether an individual chooses to train under 14 CFR part 141 

or part 61, the key to an effective flight program is the quality 

of the ground and flight training received from the CFI. The 

flight instructor assumes total responsibility for training an 

individual to meet the standards required for certification 

within an ever-changing operating environment. 

A CFI should possess an understanding of the learning 

process, knowledge of the fundamentals of teaching, and 

the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot. 

During the certification process, a flight instructor applicant 

is tested on the practical application of these skills in specific 

teaching situations. The flight instructor is crucial to the 

scenario-based training program endorsed by the FAA. He 

or she is trained to function in the learning environment as an 

advisor and guide for the learner. The duties, responsibilities, 

and authority of the CFI include the following: 

• Orient the student to the scenario-based training 

system.

• Help the student become a confident planner and 

inflight manager of each flight and a critical evaluator 

of their own performance.

• Help the student understand the knowledge 

requirements present in real world applications. 

• Diagnose learning difficulties and helping the student 

overcome them. 

• Evaluate student progress and maintain appropriate 

records.

• Provide continuous review of student learning. 

Should a student pilot find the selected CFI is not training in 

a manner conducive for learning, or the student and CFI do 

not have compatible schedules, the student pilot should find 

another CFI. Choosing the right CFI is important because 

the quality of instruction and the knowledge and skills 

acquired from this flight instructor affect a student pilot’s 

entire flying career. 

The Student Pilot 

The first step in becoming a pilot is to select a type of aircraft. 

FAA rules for getting a pilot’s certificate differ depending 

on the type of aircraft flown. Individuals can choose among 

airplanes, gyroplanes, weight-shift, helicopters, powered 

parachutes, gliders, balloons, or airships. A pilot does not 

need a certificate to fly ultralight vehicles.

Basic Requirements

A student pilot is one who is being trained by an instructor 

pilot for his or her first full certificate, and is permitted to 

fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances. Upon 

request, an FAA-authorized aviation medical examiner 

(AME) will issue a combined medical certificate and Student 

Pilot Certificate after completion of a physical examination. 

Student Pilot Certificates may be issued by an FAA inspector 

or an FAA-designated pilot examiner. To be eligible for a 

Student Pilot’s Certificate, an individual must be:

• Be 16 years old (14 years old to pilot a glider or 

balloon).

• Be able to read, write, speak, and understand 

English.

• Hold a current Third-Class Medical Certificate (or for 

glider or balloon, certify no medical defect exists that 

would prevent piloting a balloon or glider).
1-17

Figure 1-26. A Third-Class Medical Certificate/Student Pilot 

Certificate.

Medical Certification Requirements

The second step in becoming a pilot is to obtain a medical 

certificate and Student Pilot’s Certificate if the choice of 

aircraft is an airplane, helicopter, gyroplane, or airship. 

[Figure 1-26] (The FAA suggests the individual get a 

medical certificate before beginning flight training to avoid 

the expense of flight training that cannot be continued due to 

a medical condition.) Balloon or glider pilots do not need a 

medical certificate, but do need to write a statement certifying 

that no medical defect exists that would prevent them from 

piloting a balloon or glider. The new sport pilot category 

does not require a medical examination; a driver’s license 

can be used as proof of medical competence. Applicants 

who fail to meet certain requirements or who have physical 

disabilities which might limit, but not prevent, their acting 

as pilots, should contact the nearest FAA office.

A medical certificate is obtained by passing a physical 

examination administered by a doctor who is an FAAauthorized AME. There are approximately 6,000 

FAA-authorized AMEs in the nation. Medical certificates 

are designated as first class, second class, or third class. 

Generally, first class is designed for the airline transport 

pilot; second class for the commercial pilot; and third class 

for the student, recreational, and private pilot. A Student 

Pilot Certificate is issued by an AME at the time of the 

student’s first medical examination. This certificate allows 

an individual who is being trained by a flight instructor to 

fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances and 

must be carried with the student pilot while exercising solo 

flight privileges. The student pilot certificate is only required 

when exercising solo flight privileges. The student certificate 

is valid until the last day of the month, 24 months after it 

was issued. 

Student Pilot Solo Requirements

Once a student has accrued sufficient training and experience, 

a CFI can endorse the student’s certificate to authorize 

limited solo flight in a specific type (make and model) of 

aircraft. A student pilot may not carry passengers, fly in 

furtherance of a business, or operate an aircraft outside of 

the various endorsements provided by the flight instructor. 

There is no minimum aeronautical knowledge or experience 

requirement for the issuance of a student pilot certificate 

other than the medical requirements for the class of medical 

certificate the student certificate is based upon. There are, 

however, minimum aeronautical knowledge and experience 

requirements for student pilots to solo.

Becoming a Pilot

The course of instruction a student pilot follows depends on 

the type of certificate sought. It should include the ground and 

flight training necessary to acquire the knowledge and skills 

required to safely and efficiently function as a certificated 

pilot in the selected category and class of aircraft. The 

specific knowledge and skill areas for each category and 

class of aircraft are outlined in 14 CFR part 61. Eligibility, 

aeronautical knowledge, proficiency, and aeronautical 

requirements can be found in 14 CFR part 61, Certification: 

Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors. 

• Recreational Pilot, see subpart D

• Private Pilot, see subpart E

• Sport Pilot, see subpart J

The knowledge-based portion of training is obtained through 

FAA handbooks such as this one, textbooks, and other sources 

of training and testing materials which are available in print 

form from the Superintendent of Documents, GPO, and online 
1-18

at the Regulatory Support Division: www.faa.gov/about/

office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs600.

The CFI may also use commercial publications as a source 

of study materials, especially for aircraft categories where 

government materials are limited. A student pilot should 

follow the flight instructor’s advice on what and when to 

study. Planning a definite study program and following it as 

closely as possible will help in scoring well on the knowledge 

test. Haphazard or disorganized study habits usually result 

in an unsatisfactory score. 

In addition to learning aeronautical knowledge, such as the 

principles of flight, a student pilot is also required to gain 

skill in flight maneuvers. The selected category and class of 

aircraft determines the type of flight skills and number of 

flight hours to be obtained. There are four steps involved in 

learning a flight maneuver:

• The CFI introduces and demonstrates flight maneuver 

to the student. 

• The CFI talks student pilot through the maneuver.

• The student pilot practices the maneuver under CFI 

supervision.

• The CFI authorizes the student pilot to practice the 

maneuver solo.

Once the student pilot has shown proficiency in the required 

knowledge areas, flight maneuvers, and accrued the required 

amount of flight hours, the CFI endorses the student pilot 

logbook, which allows the student pilot to take the written 

and practical exams for pilot certification.

Knowledge and Skill Examinations

Knowledge Examination

The knowledge test is the computer portion of the exams 

taken to obtain pilot certification. The test contains questions 

of the objective, multiple-choice type. This testing method 

conserves the applicant’s time, eliminates any element of 

individual judgment in determining grades, and saves time 

in scoring. 

If pursuing a recreational pilot or private pilot certificate, it 

is important to become familiar with 14 CFR part 61, section 

61.23, Medical Certificates: Requirements and Duration; 

14 CFR section 61.35, Knowledge Test: Prerequisites and 

Passing Grades; and 14 CFR section 61.83, Eligibility 

Requirements for Student Pilot, for detailed information 

pertaining to prerequisites and eligibility.

If pursuing a recreational pilot certificate, it is important to 

review 14 CFR section 61.96, Applicability and Eligibility 

Requirements: General, for additional detailed information 

pertaining to eligibility; and if pursuing a private pilot 

certificate, 14 CFR section 61.103, Eligibility Requirements: 

General, contains additional detailed information pertaining 

to eligibility. Sample test questions can be downloaded from 

Airmen Knowledge Test Questions: www.faa.gov/education_

research/testing/airmen/test_questions/.

Each applicant must register to take the test, and provide 

proper identification and authorization proving eligibility 

to take a particular FAA test. The option to take an untimed 

sample test will be offered. The actual test is time limited, but 

most applicants have sufficient time to complete and review 

the test. Upon completion of the knowledge test, the applicant 

receives an Airman Knowledge Test Report that reflects the 

score and is embossed with the testing center’s seal. To pass, 

a minimum score of 70 must be attained.

When To Take the Examination

The knowledge test is more meaningful to the applicant 

and more likely to result in a satisfactory grade if it is taken 

after beginning the flight portion of the training. Therefore, 

the FAA recommends the knowledge test be taken after the 

student pilot has completed a solo cross-country flight. The 

operational knowledge gained by this experience can be used 

to the student’s advantage in the knowledge test. The student 

pilot’s CFI is the best person to determine when the applicant 

is ready to take the knowledge exam.

Where To Take the Examination

The FAA has hundreds of designated computer testing centers 

worldwide that administer FAA knowledge tests. These 

testing centers offer the full range of airman knowledge tests. 

Applicants will be charged a fee for the administration of 

FAA knowledge tests. A complete list of test centers, their 

locations and phone numbers can be downloaded at “Airmen 

Certification Frequently Asked Questions” located at www.

faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_questions/ 

or www.faa.gov/licenses_certificates/airmen_certification/

airmen_FAQ/.

An applicant can also contact the local FSDO to obtain this 

information. If the student pilot chooses a 14 CFR part 141 

flight school with test examining authority, the school will 

administer the knowledge test during the curriculum. 

Practical Examination

The FAA has developed PTSs for FAA pilot certificates 

and associated ratings. [Figure 1-27] These practical tests 

are administered by FAA ASIs and DPEs. 14 CFR part 

61 specifies the areas of operation in which knowledge 

and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant. Since the 
1-19

Figure 1-27. Examples of Practical Test Standards.

FAA requires all practical tests be conducted in accordance 

with the appropriate PTS, and the policies set forth in the 

Introduction section of the PTS book, the pilot applicant 

should become familiar with this book during training.

The PTS book is a testing document and not intended to be 

a training syllabus. An appropriately rated flight instructor 

is responsible for training the pilot applicant to acceptable 

standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and 

maneuvers. Descriptions of tasks and information on how to 

perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in reference 

and teaching documents such as this handbook. A list of 

reference documents is contained in the Introduction section 

of each PTS book. Copies may obtained by:

• Downloading from the FAA website: www.faa.gov.

• Purchase of print copies from the GPO, Pittsburgh, 

Pennsylvania, or via their official online bookstore at 

www.access.gpo.gov. 

The flight proficiency maneuvers listed in 14 CFR part 61 

are the standard skill requirements for certification. They 

are outlined in the PTS as “areas of operation.” These are 

phases of the practical test arranged in a logical sequence 

within the standard. They begin with preflight preparation 

and end with postflight procedures. Each area of operation 

contains “tasks,” which are comprised of knowledge areas, 

flight procedures, and/or flight maneuvers appropriate to the 

area of operation. The candidate is required to demonstrate 

knowledge and proficiency in all tasks for the original 

issuance of all pilot certificates.

When To Take the Practical Exam

14 CFR part 61 establishes the ground school and flight 

experience requirements for the type of certification and 

aircraft selected. However, the CFI best determines when an 

applicant is qualified for the practical test. A practice practical 

test is an important step in the flight training process.

The applicant will be asked to present the following 

documentation:

• FAA Form 8710-1 (8710.11 for sport pilot applicants), 

Application for an Airman Certificate and/or Rating, 

with the flight instructor’s recommendation.

• An Airman Knowledge Test Report with a satisfactory 

grade.

• A medical certificate (not required for glider or 

balloon), and a student pilot certificate endorsed by a 

flight instructor for solo, solo cross-country (airplane 

and rotorcraft), and for the make and model aircraft 
1-20

to be used for the practical test (driver’s license or 

medical certificate for sport pilot applicants).

• The pilot log book records.

• A graduation certificate from an FAA-approved school 

(if applicable).

The applicant must provide an airworthy aircraft with 

equipment relevant to the areas of operation required for 

the practical test. He or she will also be asked to produce 

and explain the:

• Aircraft’s registration certificate

• Aircraft’s airworthiness certificate

• Aircraft’s operating limitations or FAA-approved 

aircraft flight manual (if required)

• Aircraft equipment list

• Required weight and balance data

• Maintenance records

• Applicable airworthiness directives (ADs)

For a detailed explanation of the required pilot maneuvers 

and performance standards, refer to the PTSs pertaining to 

the type of certification and aircraft selected. These standards 

may be downloaded free of charge from the FAA: www.faa.

gov. They can also be purchased from the Superintendent 

of Documents or GPO bookstores. Most airport fixed-base 

operators and flight schools carry a variety of government 

publications and charts, as well as commercially published 

materials.

Who Administers the FAA Practical Examination?

Due to the varied responsibilities of the FSDOs, practical tests 

are usually given by DPEs. An applicant should schedule the 

practical test by appointment to avoid conflicts and wasted 

time. A list of examiner names can be obtained from the local 

FSDO. Since a DPE serves without pay from the government 

for conducting practical tests and processing the necessary 

reports, the examiner is allowed to charge a reasonable fee. 

There is no charge for the practical test when conducted by 

an FAA inspector.

Role of the Certificated Flight Instructor

To become a CFI, a pilot must meet the provisions of 14 CFR 

part 61. The FAA places full responsibility for student flight 

training on the shoulders of the CFI, who is the cornerstone 

of aviation safety. It is the job of the flight instructor to train 

the student pilot in all the knowledge areas and teach the 

skills necessary for the student pilot to operate safely and 

competently as a certificated pilot in the NAS. The training 

will include airmanship skills, pilot judgment and decisionmaking, and good operating practices. 

A pilot training program depends on the quality of the 

ground and flight instruction the student pilot receives. The 

flight instructor must possess a thorough understanding of 

the learning process, knowledge of the fundamentals of 

teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the 

student pilot. He or she uses a syllabus and teaching style 

that embodies the “building block” method of instruction. In 

this method, the student progresses from the known to the 

unknown via a course of instruction laid out in such a way 

that each new maneuver embodies the principles involved 

in the performance of maneuvers previously learned. Thus, 

with the introduction of each new subject, the student not 

only learns a new principle or technique, but also broadens 

his or her application of those principles or techniques 

previously learned. 

Insistence on correct techniques and procedures from the 

beginning of training by the flight instructor ensures that 

the student pilot develops proper flying habit patterns. Any 

deficiencies in the maneuvers or techniques must immediately 

be emphasized and corrected. A flight instructor serves as a 

role model for the student pilot who observes the flying habits 

of his or her flight instructor during flight instruction, as well 

as when the instructor conducts other pilot operations. Thus, 

the flight instructor becomes a model of flying proficiency 

for the student who, consciously or unconsciously, attempts 

to imitate the instructor. For this reason, a flight instructor 

should observe recognized safety practices, as well as 

regulations during all flight operations. 

The student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training program 

commits considerable time, effort, and expense to achieve a 

pilot certificate. Students often judge the effectiveness of the 

flight instructor and the success of the pilot training program 

based on their ability to pass the requisite FAA practical test. 

A competent flight instructor stresses to the student that 

practical tests are a sampling of pilot ability compressed 

into a short period of time. The goal of a flight instructor is 

to train the “total” pilot. 

Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner 

The DPE plays an important role in the FAA’s mission of 

promoting aviation safety by administering FAA practical 

tests for pilot and Flight Instructor Certificates and associated 

ratings. Although administering these tests is a responsibility 

of the ASI, the FAA’s highest priority is making air travel 

safer by inspecting aircraft that fly in the United States. To 

satisfy the need for pilot testing and certification services, 

the FAA delegates certain of these responsibilities to private 

individuals who are not FAA employees.
1-21

Appointed in accordance with 14 CFR section 183.23, a DPE 

is an individual who meets the qualification requirements 

of the Pilot Examiner’s Handbook, FAA Order 8710.3, and 

who:

• Is technically qualified.

• Holds all pertinent category, class, and type ratings 

for each aircraft related to their designation.

• Meets requirements of 14 CFR part 61, sections 61.56, 

61.57, and 61.58, as appropriate.

• Is current and qualified to act as PIC of each aircraft 

for which he or she is authorized.

• Maintains at least a Third-Class Medical Certificate, 

if required.

• Maintains a current Flight Instructor Certificate, if 

required.

Designated to perform specific pilot certification tasks 

on behalf of the FAA, a DPE may charge a reasonable 

fee. Generally, a DPE’s authority is limited to accepting 

applications and conducting practical tests leading to the 

issuance of specific pilot certificates and/or ratings. The 

majority of FAA practical tests at the private and commercial 

pilot levels are administered by DPEs.

DPE candidates must have good industry reputations for 

professionalism, integrity, a demonstrated willingness to 

serve the public, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures in 

certification matters. The FAA expects the DPE to administer 

practical tests with the same degree of professionalism, 

using the same methods, procedures, and standards as an 

FAA ASI.

Chapter Summary 

The FAA has entered the second century of civil aviation as a 

robust government organization and is taking full advantage 

of technology, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) 

satellite technology to enhance the safety of civil aviation. 

The Internet has also become an important tool in promoting 

aviation safety and providing around-the-clock resources for 

the aviation community. Handbooks, regulations, standards, 

references, and online courses are now available at the FAA 

website. 

In keeping with the FAA’s belief that safety is a learned 

behavior, the FAA offers many courses and seminars to 

enhance air safety. The FAA puts the burden of instilling safe 

flying habits on the flight instructor, who should follow basic 

flight safety practices and procedures in every flight operation 

he or she undertakes with a student pilot. Operational safety 

practices include, but are not limited to, collision avoidance 

procedures consisting of proper scanning techniques, use of 

checklists, runway incursion avoidance, positive transfer of 

controls, and workload management. These safety practices 

will be discussed more fully within this handbook. Safe flight 

also depends on Scenario-Based Training (SBT) that teaches 

the student pilot how to respond in different flight situations. 

The FAA has incorporated these techniques along with 

decision-making methods, such as Aeronautical DecisionMaking (ADM), risk management, and Crew Resource 

Management (CRM), which are covered more completely 

in Chapter 17, Aeronautical Decision-Making. 
1-22