Hermetic Encapsulation of Nanoenergetic Porous 

Silicon Wafer by Parylene

by Eugene Zakar, Wayne Churaman, Collin Becker, Bernard Rod, 

Luke Currano, and John Conrad

ARL-TR-7025 August 2014

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. 
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Army Research Laboratory

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ARL-TR-7025 August 2014

Hermetic Encapsulation of Nanoenergetic Porous 

Silicon Wafer by Parylene

Eugene Zakar, Wayne Churaman, Collin Becker, Bernard Rod, 

Luke Currano, and John Conrad

Sensors and Electron Devices Directorate, ARL

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. 
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Hermetic Encapsulation of Nanoenergetic Porous Silicon Wafer by Parylene

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Eugene Zakar, Wayne Churaman, Collin Becker, Bernard Rod, Luke Currano, and 

John Conrad

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US Army Research Laboratory

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14. ABSTRACT

Parylene film is attractive for hermetic encapsulation of porous surfaces, including energetic materials, and for the protection of 

integrated circuits on large-diameter silicon substrates. Achieving uniformity and repeatability of chemical vapor deposited 

(CVD) parylene film on large-diameter wafers in a batch system is challenging. The difficulties are related to improper 

selection of the wafer attachment apparatus in the chamber, and the poor coating repeatability from run to run is attributed to 

wafer volume changes in the CVD chamber. We discuss hardware modifications and preparation methods that improve the 

predictability, uniformity, and adhesion of the parylene film on nanoporous silicon surfaces. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) 

can determine surface roughness and distinguish differences in nanoporous silicon etched surfaces. Energetic materials that are 

hygroscopic in nature need to be protected from the environment during storage to improved ignition lifetime. Parylene film is 

an effective moisture barrier for nanoporous-scale material applications. We tested the adequacy and lifetime of parylene 

protection layer for a nanoenergetic device and found the shelf life can be extended in environments with greater than 80% 

humidity.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

polymer, conformal coating, hermetic

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Eugene Zakar

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iii

Contents

List of Figures iv

List of Tables iv

1. Introduction/Background 1

2. Experimental 4

2.1 Film Repeatability ...........................................................................................................4

2.2 Film Thickness Measurement and Adhesion Quality .....................................................4

2.3 Film Adhesion Promoter and Release Agent ..................................................................5

2.4 Temperature Gradients....................................................................................................6

2.5 Film Characterization and Prediction..............................................................................6

2.6 Hermetic Encapsulation of Nanoenergetic Device .........................................................8

3. Conclusions 9

4. References 11

Distribution List 12
iv

List of Figures

Fig. 1 Picture of a) cassette holder with wafers and b) flatbed carrier ..........................................1

Fig. 2 Reflected light fringe patterns on parylene-coated wafer created in a a) conventional 

cassette and b) flatbed carrier ....................................................................................................2

Fig. 3 Chemical structures for different types of parylene ............................................................3

Fig. 4 Block diagram of the parylene CVD system.......................................................................3

Fig. 5 Trace image of patterned parylene film edge indicating a) good and b) poor adhesion .....5

Fig. 6 Chart for predicting final parylene film thickness based on dimer weight .........................7

Fig. 7 AFM images of nanoporous silicon features with a) Ra of 0.11 nm due to 5 min of 

etching and b) Ra of 0.26 nm due to 45 min of etching.............................................................8

Fig. 8 Device mounted on a wire bonded package showing circular etched nanoporous 

silicon in black color and patterned electrical wire in gold color. The white residue 

represents excess oxidizer covered by a transparent parylene encapsulation layer...................9

List of Tables

Table 1 Coating thickness according to the level height on the wafer holding apparatus.............7
1

1. Introduction/Background

Parylene is considered by many to be the best coating protection for surfaces, components, and 

devices in a wide variety of industries. Parylene coatings created by a chemical vapor deposited 

(CVD) method can be completely conformal and pinhole free. For many years, the electronics 

industry has been using parylene as a coating for electrical boards, but recently found they were 

having a great difficulty achieving uniformity and repeatability of CVD parylene films1,2 on 

large-diameter wafers in a batch system. In their process, the same holding apparatus inside the 

CVD chamber was used repeatedly, but not filled to capacity from run to run. Doing this causes 

changes in the amount of surface being exposed when the parylene material is being deposited

inside the chamber. Also, there are difficulties concerning uniformity within a large-surface 

wafer, which are related to the improper selection of the wafer holding apparatus. In batch 

production processes in the semiconductor industry, cassettes are traditionally used to hold as 

many as 25 wafers at a time. We found that cassettes produce non-uniform coatings due to edge 

effects on the wafers. We learned that wafers need to be individually placed on a flat carrier such 

that nothing comes close to its edges, and that the separation between the wafers needs to be 

much greater than the current 5-mm tolerances. Figure 1 illustrates a) a conventional cassette 

wafer holder with silicon wafers and b) a flatbed carrier we designed in-house. 

Fig. 1 Picture of a) cassette holder with wafers and b) flatbed carrier

The uniformity and surface appearance of a parylene-coated wafer can change dramatically 

depending on how it sits in the deposition chamber. Figure 2 illustrates the surface appearance of 

parylene coated on a 100-mm-diameter silicon wafer solely based on the wafer attachment 
2

methods. Differences in the fringe patterns are shown for a wafer held by a conventional cassette 

(Fig. 2a) and by a flatbed carrier (Fig. 2b). Parylene is normally transparent, but when held up 

against a reflecting light source, optical fringes in the form of rainbow colors appear and 

represent variations in the coating thickness. Each color band, in this case, roughly represents 

approximately a 10-nm change in film thickness. A large number of fringes translate to large 

variations in the coating thickness, while a small number represent a more uniform coating. The 

color fringes in the photographs were artificially enhanced to illustrate the film coating 

characteristics. We found that wafers placed in close proximity to objects (edge effects) can 

change the arrival rate of the chemical vapor deposited parylene inside the CVD chamber. After 

implementation of a flatbed carrier inside the CVD system, the number of fringes was 

significantly reduced and the patterns became equally spaced, as depicted in Fig. 2b. Later in the 

report, we discuss how changing the number of wafers and their relative positions inside the 

CVD chamber can affect coating thickness. 

a) b)

Fig. 2 Reflected light fringe patterns on a parylene-coated wafer created in a a) conventional cassette 

and b) flatbed carrier

The number of applications for parylene has grown dramatically over the past several years and 

new applications are being discovered. We highlight the important parameters for effectively

applying a parylene coating onto a nanoenergetic porous silicon (PS) substrate. Parylene is the 

trade name for a variety of CVD polymers that come in N, C, and D types, each having their own 

unique electrical and physical properties. The various chemical structures5 are shown in Fig. 3. 

Parylene N has the most basic structure, but we use parylene C, because it has an additional 

chlorine atom on the benzene ring, which produces the unique physical properties of particularly 

low moisture and low gas permeability, and it has the fastest deposition rates among this group 

of polymers.
3

Fig. 3 Chemical structures for different types of parylene

We describe the necessary preparations and improvements to equipment, and process highly 

reliable and uniformly hermetically sealed integrated circuits and devices on 4-in-diameter wafer 

substrates. The same principles can be extended to larger chamber and wafer configurations. 

Figure 4 shows a block diagram of a Union Carbide 10C deposition system currently in use at 

our laboratory. 

Fig. 4 Block diagram of the parylene CVD system

In the preparation stage, a chemical precursor “dimer” is appropriately weighed and placed into a 

source boat, which is inserted into the vaporizer tube, which is then pumped down to 

approximately 67 Pa (0.5 Torr). During the actual process, the dimer is vaporized at 175 °C. The 

dimer vapor then enters the furnace where it undergoes pyrolysis at 670 °C, forming a monomer 

vapor. Finally, the monomer vapor passes into the deposition chamber as a clear polymer film at 

room temperature. Because the deposition takes place from a gaseous source, the vapordeposited parylene layer is extremely dense and provides an excellent conformal coating on 

complex surfaces. Our existing deposition chamber is approximately 10 inches in diameter and 

12 inches high. A liquid nitrogen cold trap, located between the vacuum pump and deposition 

chamber traps, prevents the parylene vapors from clogging the vacuum pump. Although this 

system was one of the first commercially available parylene deposition systems, its configuration 

is virtually identical to many of the newer systems currently on the market but without the fully 

automated operating functions.

Vaporizer

Chamber

Cold Trap

Gate 

Valve

Vent

Valve

Vacuum

Pump

Vaporizer

Heater Sleeve

Wafer

Carrier

Source Boat

Pyrolysis

Furnace

Deposition

Chamber

Parylene N Parylene C Parylene D
4

2. Experimental

2.1 Film Repeatability

Researchers have encountered a great difficulty in predicting parylene film thickness in batch 

processes when the number of wafers loaded into the chamber changes from run to run. The 

explanation is simple, but not obvious at first. The amount of exposed surface (effective surface 

area) inside an empty chamber changes with the addition of objects. When a fixed weight of 

dimer is loaded into the vaporizer, it yields the same coating thickness as long as the total surface 

area inside the chamber remains constant. Adding more objects means more dimer is required to 

compensate for the added difference in surface area. An improved approach to solve this would 

be to hold the total effective surface area inside the CVD chamber as constant as possible from 

run to run. One way to accomplish this is to design a carrier with an enormous amount of 

exposed surface plates, so the total surface parameter can be held constant. The plates should not 

be comprised of perforated surfaces. As long as the same carrier is used between runs, the 

parameters remain constant. Thus, a custom fabricated set of flatbed carriers illustrating this 

concept was assembled. The total effective exposed surface area inside the chamber, including 

the carrier, remains relatively constant no matter how many wafers are added or subtracted 

between runs. The sidewall of each wafer is only 0.5 mm and does not add to the total exposed 

surface area inside the chamber. The separation between the wafers is also much greater than the 

tolerances found in traditional cassettes. A use of an existing rotating mechanism for the carrier 

assembly inside the chamber also provided improved film uniformity. 

2.2 Film Thickness Measurement and Adhesion Quality

A physical scanning method was used to measure the coating thickness after deposition. The 

parylene film must first be patterned to create an edge for the actual measurement of a step 

height. In this quick and crude patterning preparation process, a Kapton masking tape was placed 

across a silicon test sample wafer before the parylene CVD process. After the parylene film 

deposition process, a sharp razor blade was used to carefully cut the parylene film along the 

edges of the Kapton tape. When the underlying tape was finally lifted, it carried away only the 

parylene portion above it, leaving the rest of the adjoining film adhering to the surface of the 

wafer. The adjoining film left a physical step imprint that could be used for thickness 

measurement. Care was exercised during peeling of the tape and film so as not to leave any 

rough edges that could distort the step height measurement. Films with good adhesion to the 

substrate did not show signs of lifting at the edges.

The film thickness was measured using an Ambios model 200 surface profilometer. An 

extremely lightweight needle, a.k.a a stylus, traveled across the patterned film edge and produced 

a step height trace measurement. Because the parylene film was a relatively soft material, a 
5

lightweight stylus force setting of 0.05 mg force prevented any film indentation, which could 

have led to false readings. Even with the low vertical stylus force, a faint mark from the 

2.5-micron radius tip stylus was visible on the film surface. A larger stylus tip radius would have 

been preferable, but one was not available at the time this work was done. 

Surface traced profiles can also indicate problematic adhesion qualities of the parylene film to 

different types of surfaces. We performed the tape lifting test on silicon and silicon dioxide 

substrates. The plot in Fig. 5a was obtained from a 10-micron-thick parylene film in good 

contact with a silicon surface sample. The trace along the parylene surface is parallel to the 

silicon surface until the edge. The edge of the parylene is well anchored to the silicon surface and 

no lifting occurred at the edge. Figure 5b shows an example of poor adhesion on a different 

material sample, in this case, silicon dioxide. The trace along the parylene film was not parallel 

and there was rise in the traced profile near the edge instead of a natural drop in the slope, 

showing poor film adhesion on a silicon dioxide surface. Although the rise exceeded the plotted 

scale of 20 microns, the stylus completed a detailed trace of the surface-lifting features. We 

explain ways of improving parylene adhesion on any material in section 2.3. 

The observed wavy surface trace above the parylene film may have been caused by the frictional 

drag of the stylus as it travelled across the film surface. A trace beyond the parylene step edge 

into the silicon or silicon dioxide substrate side shows no waviness. A wide band of gray-shaded 

markers appearing on both sides of the figure represents arbitrarily positioned markers that aid in 

averaging the surface perturbations during the measurement and height calculations. The grayshaded band marker represents 50 data points.

a) b)

Fig. 5 Trace image of patterned parylene film edge indicating a) good and b) poor adhesion

2.3 Film Adhesion Promoter and Release Agent 

Different substrate materials require surface preparation for improved parylene film adhesion. 

Parylene films are hydrophobic and will generally adhere well to other hydrophobic surfaces 

such as a clean, bare silicon surface. However, hydrophilic surfaces, such as silicon dioxide,
6

require the use of an adhesion promoter to ensure good adhesion between the parylene film and 

the surface. Thus, a widely used adhesion promoter, Silane A-174, was applied to the surface of 

the sample just prior to placing it in a parylene coater. 

From the equipment point of view, it is desirable to reduce the buildup and eventually remove 

the deposited parylene film from the chamber. Thus, the internal surface chambers were treated 

with a release agent, such as a solution of diluted Micro-90 or equivalent. Release agents were 

routinely used on the unheated internal parts of the deposition chamber to promote easier 

cleaning of the thick parylene buildup after several deposition runs.

2.4 Temperature Gradients

Temperature gradients inside the chamber during long runs are a concern because any fluctuation 

beyond ambient conditions may inadvertently trigger a response in the nanoenergetic material 

being coated. Experiments have determined that a reaction between PS and an oxidizer can start 

at temperatures as low as 250 °C. Although the chamber is supposed to be at room temperature, a 

short tube connects the chamber to the adjacent pyrolysis furnace, which is set at 175 °C. So 

while a short deposition time of 1 h had no immediate effect on the sample, the longer 3-h 

depositions were a concern. Therefore, temperature measurements were performed on the 

external metal chamber walls during actual deposition runs using an infrared thermometer to 

characterize the thermal environment. Also, a temperature reading was taken of the substrate 

carrier bed inside the chamber immediately following a run. The resulting temperature was 25 °C 

for 1-h deposition run times, but on longer runs, the maximum temperature reached was 52 °C 

near the exit port of the pyrolysis furnace and 32 °C near the exhaust port of the chamber. 

Finally, a temperature measurement of 46 °C was recorded in the middle of the carrier 

immediately after its removal from the chamber. These experimental runs determined that 

existing temperature gradients should not be of concern for most applications unless a process 

calls for absolute room temperature.

2.5 Film Characterization and Prediction

We also found the coating thickness of a parylene film depended on the location of the wafer in 

the carrier apparatus. The resultant film thicknesses for several wafers distributed on different 

levels of the modified holding apparatus for a 25-g dimer run are shown in Table 1. We verified 

that the dimer was completely consumed at the end of the run. The carrier height is 

approximately 10 in, but divided into 16 levels, the top having the lowest labeled number. 

Thickness measurements of the deposited film were taken from the center as well as the edge of 

the 100-mm-diameter wafers. Not all wafer levels were measured. 
7

Table 1 Coating thickness according to the level height on the 

wafer holding apparatus

Apparatus 

Level No.

Parylene Film Thickness 

(μm)

Center of Wafer Edge of Wafer

2 6.60 6.74

4 6.00 6.24

6 5.74 6.00

7 5.73 5.94

8 5.73 6.00

9 5.73 5.82

11 5.67 5.70

13 5.27 5.64

14 5.25 5.56

16 4.65 4.90

It is evident from the results in the table that there was a decrease in coating thickness in wafers 

located from top to bottom of the carrier apparatus. The data suggest that the parylene vapor is 

more concentrated toward the top of the chamber. A baffle on the exit side of the pyrolysis tube 

where it connects to the chamber helps distribute the vapor uniformly across the chamber, but as 

can be seen from Table 1, that baffle is not totally effective in preventing non-uniformities from 

top to bottom. Although the thickness change from top to bottom is about 30%, the central 

positions 6 through 11 of the carrier show very good uniformity. Additionally, in the central 

region of the carrier apparatus, each wafer has only a 0.25-μm variation from edge to center. We 

also observed the thickness is greater at the edge of the wafer, suggesting that the parylene vapor 

depletes toward the center during the coating process. 

Finally, we developed a chart for predicting film thickness based on the amount of parylene 

dimer loaded into the vapor chamber. Figure 6 shows a plot of parylene film thickness versus the 

starting dimer weight. The data were obtained from level 8 of the carrier. Although the plot 

shows a deviation from a straight line, the relationship is reproducible from run to run and does 

not change whether or not the carrier apparatus is partially or completely filled to capacity.

Fig. 6 Chart for predicting final parylene film thickness based on dimer weight

0

5

10

15

20

25

12.5 25 50 100

Thickness (microns)

Dimer weight (grams)

Parylene Coating Rate
8

2.6 Hermetic Encapsulation of Nanoenergetic Device

Characterization of silicon for nanoenergetic PS applications has been described previously.

3,4

When a silicon fuel source is combined with an oxidant on the nanoscale, the kinetic limitations 

of silicon oxidation are overcome and an energetic reaction is realized. Gas adsorption 

measurements and gravimetric techniques have determined the diameter of silicon pores to be in 

the range of 1–5 nm depending on the hydrogen fluoride (HF)/ethanol etching mixture 

concentration, electrolytic current, and etching time. A moisture barrier over a nanoporous

etched silicon device for energetic applications is needed in high moisture environments because 

of the hygroscopic nature of the oxidizer. Parylene films are generally known to be impervious to 

moisture and liquids, which make them attractive for hermetic sealing and can improve the 

reliability and repeatability of the kinetic reactions in these devices. 

Prior to sealing the PS and applying the oxidizer to activate the device, an atomic force 

microscope (AFM) model Veeco NanoMan V was used to determine the surface roughness of 

nanoporous silicon samples. AFM can provide detailed surface analysis data, illustrate surface 

changes on the nanometer scale, and measure average roughness (Ra) readings. Silicon samples 

were etched in HF/ethanol mixture for 5 and 45 min. AFM images of nanoporous silicon surface

are illustrated in Fig. 7 with a) Ra of 0.11 nm due to 5 min of etching and b) Ra of 0.26 nm due 

to 45 min of etching. A difference between the shortest and longest etching time, the equivalent 

of 9 times, only increased the average roughness by 2.4 times. The sample etched for 45 min 

shows evidence of indentations on the surface. Analysis from a cross-sectional view map of the 

scan (not shown here) indicates the indentation has a diameter of approximately 30 nm. The 

AFM provided a detailed illustration of the nanoporous silicon and demonstrated the different 

surface characteristics that resulted from the etching and processing conditions. 

Fig. 7 AFM images of nanoporous silicon features with a) Ra of 0.11 nm due to 5 min of etching and 

b) Ra of 0.26 nm due to 45 min of etching.

After preparation of the nanoporous silicon, an aqueous oxidizer, sodium perchlorate (NaC1O4) 

in ethanol, was applied to fill the pores, allowed to dry, and followed by a coating of parylene 

film. The NaClO4 solution is hygroscopic in nature and tends to absorb moisture from the 
9

atmosphere and must be coated with a barrier to extend the device shelf life, otherwise the device 

will not repeatedly activate with the same exothermic output when activated by a hot wire. 

Figure 8 shows a patterned device after hermetic encapsulation by parylene. The dark patterned 

circle represents nanoporous etched silicon region with gold patterned electrical hot wire running 

across. The white residue represents excess oxidizer, and a transparent parylene encapsulation 

layer is lastly applied to prevent moisture absorption. Methods to improve the mixture of 

NaClO4, its uniform coating, and residue characteristics on the surface of the device are under 

way. 

Fig. 8 Device mounted on a wire-bonded package showing circular 

etched nanoporous silicon in black color and patterned electrical 

wire in gold color. The white residue represents excess oxidizer 

covered by a transparent parylene encapsulation layer.

The parylene coating process is considered to be a room temperature controlled technique. No 

exothermic chemical reaction occurred between NaC1O4 and silicon during the room 

temperature deposition process. The parylene coating was transparent with good adhesion 

qualities and showed no evidence of lifting or pealing from the wafer surface. We tested the 

adequacy of the coated device with parylene protection and found the shelf life and energetic 

output is repeatable beyond 15 h in very high moisture environments.

3. Conclusions

Parylene films were deposited with good physical properties and thickness repeatability using the 

procedures described in this report. The films show very good uniformity across a 

100-mm-diameter wafer surface and from wafer to wafer within the centrally located sections of 

the wafer carrier. With proper maintenance of the parylene system and adjustment of the 
10

deposition procedure, the deposited films were also clear and free of any cloudiness, particles, or 

bubbling. We have also demonstrated repeatable nanoenergetic PS device performance beyond 

15 h with parylene encapsulation. AFM provided measurements of average surface roughness 

and is an excellent tool for surface analysis. 
11

4. References

1. Sutomo W, Wang X, Bullen D, Baden S, Liu C. Development of an end-point detector for 

parylene deposition process. J MEMS. 2003;12(1):64–69.

2. Fan ., Engel JM, Chen J, Liu C. Parylene surface-micromachined membranes for sensor 

applications. J MEMS. 2004;13(3):484–490.

3. Becker C, Currano L, Churaman W. Characterization and improvements to porous silicon 

processing for nanoenergetics. Adelphi (MD): US Army Research Laboratory (US);

February 2009. Report No.: ARL-TR-4717.

4. Churaman W, Currano L, Singh AK, Shankar U, Shankar R, Dubey M; Amirtharaj P, Ray

PC. Understanding the high energetic behavior of nano-energetic porous silicon. Chemical 

Physics Letters. October 2008;464(4–6): 198–201, ISSN 0009-2614.

5. SCS Parylene Properties: Specialty Coating System (SCS); 2014 [accessed July 30, 2014]. 

http://scscoatings.com/what_is_parylene/parylene_properties.aspx.
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