USDI Bureau of Land Management, Great Basin Restoration Initiative

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Grassland, Shrubland

and Desert Ecosystem Research Program, Provo, UT and Boise, ID

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bee Biology and Systematics Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR 

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID 

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Great Basin Plant Materials Center, Fallon, NV

USDA Forest Service, National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR

USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Pendleton, OR

USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, UT

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Logan, UT 

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, OR

Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, MN

Harold Wiedemann, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX

Colorado State University Cooperative Extension, Tri-River Area, Grand Junction, CO 

Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR

Boise State University, Boise, ID

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

Montana State University, Bozeman, MT

University of Nevada, Reno, NV 

Utah State University, Logan, UT

Private seed industry 

Great Basin Native Plant

Selection and Increase Project

FY07 Progress Report
Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project 

FY07 Progress Report 

March 2008 

 

 

COOPERATORS 

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Great Basin Restoration Initiative 

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Grassland, Shrubland 

and Desert Ecosystem Research Program, Provo, UT and Boise, ID 

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bee Biology and Systematics Laboratory, Logan, UT 

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR 

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, UT 

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA 

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID 

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Great Basin Plant Materials Center, Fallon, NV 

USDA Forest Service, National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA 

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR 

USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Pendleton, OR 

USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, UT 

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Logan, UT 

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, OR 

Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, MN 

Harold Wiedemann, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 

Colorado State University Cooperative Extension, Tri-River Area, Grand Junction, CO 

Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR 

Boise State University, Boise, ID 

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 

University of Nevada, Reno, NV 

Utah State University, Logan, UT 

Private seed industry
ii

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

 FY07 Progress Report 

The Interagency Native Plant Materials Development Program outlined in the 2002 Report to 

Congress (USDI and USDA 2002), USDI Bureau of Land Management programs and policies and 

the Great Basin Restoration Initiative encourage the use of native species for rangeland 

rehabilitation and restoration where feasible. This project was initiated to foster the development of 

native plant materials based on analysis of adaptive traits for use in the Great Basin and to provide 

information that will be useful to managers when making decisions about selecting appropriate 

plant materials for seedings. A second major objective is to provide the equipment and techniques 

required for reestablishing diverse native communities. 

Research priorities include: 1) improvement in the availability of native plant materials adapted to 

major bio-geographic areas of the Great Basin with an emphasis on native forbs; 2) development of 

seed technology and cultural practices required for agricultural seed increase of native forbs and 

grasses; 3) management or re-establishment of wildland shrub stands to improve seed availability 

and conserve native populations; 4) evaluation of the potential for increasing native plant diversity 

in established crested wheatgrass stands in the Great Basin while minimizing weed invasion; 5) 

investigation of the biology of native forbs, emphasizing seed germination and seedling 

establishment; 6) examination of interactions among restoration species and between restoration 

species and invasive exotics; 7) evaluation of rangeland drills and strategies for establishing diverse 

native communities; and 8) technology transfer. 

We thank our collaborators for their expertise and in-kind contributions that have made it possible 

to address the many issues involved in native plant materials development and use. We offer a 

special thanks to Durant McArthur for his continuing support and to Kelsey Sherich, Matthew Fisk, 

Nicholas Williams, Jan Gurr and Robert Cox for their tenacity and cheerfulness while completing 

this report and the 2001-2007 report to the Washington Office. 

Nancy Shaw Mike Pellant, Coordinator 

USDA Forest Service Great Basin Restoration Initiative 

Rocky Mountain Research Station USDI Bureau of Land Management 

Boise, ID Boise, ID 

nshaw@fs.fed.us Michael_Pellant@blm.gov 

 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Website: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml 

Great Basin Restoration Initiative Website: 

http://www.blm.gov/nifc/st/en/prog/fire/more/gbri.html 

NOTE: The results in this report should be considered preliminary in nature and should not be 

quoted or cited without the written consent of the Principal Investigator for the study. 
iii

Summary of 2007 Progress 

Highlights from the 2007 report are provided below. Current status of plant materials and 

restoration studies are summarized in the Appendix. 

Plant materials development: 

Common gardens studies to examine adaptive variation/seed zone development: 

• Seed collections: 109. 

• Hesperostipa comata (needle-and-thread grass) (four common gardens), Lupinus prunophilus 

(hairy bigleaf lupine) and L. arbustus (longspur lupine) (two common gardens) and other forb 

and grass species (See Appendix I) are being evaluated at multiple locations. 

• Strong differences in plant traits measured on 115 Achnatherum hymenoides (Indian ricegrass) 

accessions in two common gardens showed that genetic variation was associated with seed 

collection location. Since plant traits frequently correlated with environmental factors such as 

elevation, attitude, and minimum temperature at seed collection sites, adaptation in A. 

hymenoides appeared to be driven by the seed source environment. A second year of study is 

needed but this shows that an understanding of seed transfer zones will be required for 

revegetation efforts. 

• In the first year of a study on Pseudoroegneria spicata (bluebunch wheatgrass) strong genetic 

variation was observed among the 120 seed collection locations. Interactions with garden site 

and collection location were also strong. Thus, growth and development of P. spicata depended 

both on where the germplasm originated and on where it was evaluated. These results show a 

need for assessing seed adaptation zones for bluebunch wheatgrass revegetation in the Great 

Basin.

• Allium acuminatum (taper-tip onion) populations collected across the Great Basin and grown in 

common gardens showed strong genetic differences. Correlation of plant traits with factors such 

as elevation, temperature, and precipitation also showed that much of the genetic variation was 

associated with seed source environment. The data suggest that adaptive difference in A. 

acuminatum exist among Great Basin germplasm with the potential need for seed transfer zones. 

This will be determined with final data analysis in 2008. 

• Astragalus utahensis (Utah milkvetch) and Agoseris aurantiaca (orange agoseris), A. 

heterophylla (annual agoseris) and A. glauca (pale agoseris) are going through seed increases. 

Release may be possible in 2008, but efficient and economical seed harvesting is the main 

obstacle to commercial production at present. 

• Crepis acuminata (tapertip hawksbeard) and C. intermedia (gray hawksbeard): One new 

irrigated trial of each was established. Established gardens began flowering in the third year. 

More flowering and better survival were noted for C. intermedia. Aphids and seed predators 

reduced seed production.

• Eriogonum ovalifolium (cushion buckwheat): Some seed was produced during the first year 

from a transplanted garden. Increase of separate materials for four Level 3 ecoregions will begin 

in 2008. 
iv

• The USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center provided a report on third-year 

performance of 82 accessions of 27 commonly seeded grasses, forbs and shrubs (native and 

introduced) in a demonstration planting at the Orchard Research Site near Boise, ID. 

Plant releases: 

• Astragalus filipes (basalt milkvetch) NBR-1 Selected germplasm (12 pooled NV, OR, ID, UT, 

and CA accessions, manipulated track). This germplasm is recommended for use in stabilizing 

degraded rangelands, revegetation of disturbed areas, and beautifying roadsides in the Northern 

Basin and Range. Seed fields will be established in Oregon and Utah in 2008. 

 

Molecular genetics studies to better understand diversity in a species: 

• Genetic variation in 180 populations of 35 grass, forb and shrub species has been examined to 

explore between and within population variation. This information will improve manager’s 

ability to select plant materials for maintaining the natural variation and genetic integrity of 

seeded areas. 

• Comparison of the genetic architecture of seeded populations with that of adjacent native 

populations indicates that many of the seeded populations lie within the natural range of 

variation of native populations. 

• Artificial hybridization experiments indicate that the nonnative Linum perenne ‘Appar’ (blue 

flax) is not likely to hybridize with the native Linum lewisii (Lewis flax). 

• Molecular genetic analysis of 81 accessions of Astragalus filipes suggests two distinct 

groupings (central Nevada and British Columbia) and one ‘catchall’ population that includes 69 

accessions. 

Seed increase: 

• New initial increase plots/fields: Heliomeris multiflora (showy goldeneye), Agoseris grandiflora 

(bigflower agoseris), A. heterophylla, Townsendia florifer (showy Townsend daisy), Chaenactis 

douglasii (Douglas’ dustymaiden), Eriogonum sphaerocephalum (rock buckwheat). 

• Distribution of new materials to seed growers: Astragalus filipes (pooled sources, Northern 

Basin and Range), Ephedra viridis (green ephedra), Heliomeris multiflora, Penstemon deustus

(scabland penstemon) (pooled sources – northern Basin and Range), P. speciosus (royal 

penstemon) (pooled sources, Northern Basin and Range), Leymus cinereus (basin 

wildrye)(pooled sources, northern Great Basin), Balsamorhiza sagittata (arrowleaf balsamroot) 

(plugs). 

• Seed increase fields of Balsamorhiza sagittata and Perideridia bolanderi (Bolander’s yampah) 

are planned for 2008. Seven increase plots are being maintained at the Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center. 

• 573 lbs of stock seed were distributed to growers by the Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, the 

Utah Crop Improvement Association and the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin 

Research Center. 
v

• The Utah Crop Improvement Association Buy-back program continues to facilitate 

establishment of initial seed fields for GBNPSIP plant materials. 

Cultural practices for agricultural seed production: 

Pollinators: 

• Lomatium dissectum (fernleaf biscuitroot) was shown to be fully self-fertile but requires 

pollinators. Across a 5-state region, these consist solely of small ground-nesting floral 

specialists and sometimes floral generalists, only the latter likely to be available on-farm. 

• Generalist foragers (hummingbirds, honey bees and bumblebees) will forage somewhat 

indiscriminately between similar-looking flowers of a given genus. Observations now indicate 

that hybridization of a genus of closely-related interfertile species, the Balsamorhiza

(balsamroots), is as likely to result during the foraging trips of specialist as generalist bees. 

Consequently, using specialist pollinators will not avoid the problem of hybridization in seed 

fields. 

• Nesting habitats of the most frequent and promising group of pollinators found visiting flowers 

of GBNPSIP Great Basin forbs, bees of the genus Osmia, were compiled and reviewed, 

highlighting species whose cavity-nesting habits make them amenable to on-farm management. 

• Species of four Osmia bee species and one Hoplitis bee that effectively pollinate Hedysarum 

boreale (northern sweetvetch) and Astragalus filipes have been acquired from the wild and are 

being propagated at the USDA ARS Logan labs for evaluation and later distribution to seed 

growers, possibly in 2008. 

Seed/plant predators: 

• The Native Plant Seed Production web site is now on-line at http://wci.colostate.edu. This site 

has current information on life history and control of insect pests affecting seed production of 

plants grown for the GBNPSIP. 

• The Sphaeralcea weevil Anthonomus sphaeralciae Fall was found attacking globemallows at 

two sites. Losses exceeded 33% at one of the sites. Management studies were initiated and 

current information is posted on the Native Plant Seed Production web site. 

• A study on seed losses to invertebrate seed predators found that three forbs of the Asteraceae 

(Wyethia amplexicaulis [mule-ears], Crepis acuminata, and Agoseris glauca) have a consistent 

and high degree of seed pest damage in wildland settings. These results forewarn future seed 

producers of the need to implement Integrated Pest Management Plans (IPMP). 

Planting practices: 

• Planting trials indicate 12-inch spacing is preferable to 18-inch spacing for seed production of 

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia (gooseberryleaf globemallow) and S. parvifolia (smallflower 

globemallow). 

• Seeds of native forbs (Balsamorhiza sagittata, Crepis intermedia and Perideridia bolanderi) 

were planted at several depths to determine optimal planting depths for each in sandy or clay 

soils. Most emerged best from shallow depths (generally <0.25 inches). The high cost of native 
vi

seeds suggests that proper placement of seed is essential to maximize establishment and 

economic benefits of seedings. 

• Woven weed barrier was superior to plastic weed barrier or no weed barrier in terms of Crepis 

intermedia survival and reduction of hand weeding. 

• Hedysarum boreale and Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia did not require cold moist stratification for 

germination in a seed recovery trial while fall seeding and over winter stratification were 

essential for Eriogonum ovalifolium, Balsamorhiza sagittata, Perideridia bolanderi and Crepis 

acuminata. 

• Rhizobia strain I-49 was determined to be most appropriate for inoculation of Astragalus filipes

seed and will be made commercially available. 

• Laboratory and greenhouse tests indicated that hard seeded Astragalus utahensis germinates 

more readily when inoculated with Aspergillus or Alternaria fungi. Field data suggests that 

when fall seeded, seeds treated with Aspergillus germinated better than untreated seeds, seeds 

treated with Alternaria, or scarified seeds. 

• Five potential Rhizobia isolates from untreated Lupinus seeds will be inoculated on established 

Lupinus seedlings to assess their effects on plant growth and health. Current studies are focusing 

on developing protocols for improving Lupinus germination and seedling establishment. 

• Preliminary work indicates that inoculation with Alternaria may increase Hesperostipa comata

seed germination. 

Irrigation: 

• Growers need to have economic return on their seed plantings, but forbs may not produce seed 

every year. Due to the arid environment, supplemental irrigation may be required for successful 

flowering and seed set many years because soil water reserves may be exhausted before seed 

formation. 

• Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) systems are being tested for native seed production because 

SDI has two potential strategic advantages; a). low water use, and b). the buried drip tape 

provides water to the plants at depth, out of reach of stimulating weed seed germination on the 

soil surface and away from the plant tissues that are not adapted to a wet environment. 

• The total irrigation water requirements for these arid land species are expected to be low, but 

will probably vary by species. Irrigation requirements need to be defined for each species.

Weed control in seed increase fields (Research is conducted to identify products that could 

eventually be registered for use for native forb seed production): 

• In field trials, Prowl (H20 3.8 C) and Outlook (6.0 EC) applied as postemergence herbicides 

were tolerated by Lomatium grayi (Gray’s biscuitroot), L. dissectum, L. triternatum (nineleaf 

biscuitroot), Eriogonum umbellatum (sulfur-flower buckwheat), Penstemon speciosus, P. 

deustus and P. acuminatus (sharpleaf penstemon). P. deustus, P. acuminatus, and the Lomatium 

species were tolerant of Select as a postemergence herbicide. Further research is needed to 

identify safe application ranges and any negative interactions. 
vii

• Greenhouse studies indicate Crepis acuminata and Dalea ornata emerge well when treated with 

Olympus (0.0267 lb ai acre-1) or Plateau (0.0625 lb ai acre-1) as preemergent herbicides. 

Seed biology and technology: 

• A 20-minute treatment in concentrated sulfuric acid improved germination or Sphaeralcea

coccinea (scarlet globemallow) more than 10- or 30-minute treatments. Removal of carpels also 

improved germination. Data indicates seeds from immature schizocarps (fruits) are more 

germinable than those from mature schizocarps. 

• Viability, germination and moisture content of Wyoming big sagebrush seeds are being tracked 

through long-term storage at 3 temperatures to examine the feasibility of using the seed in the 

year(s) following harvest. 

• Seed cleaning protocols for 12 species and germination testing protocols for 3 species are 

complete; nine are in progress. 

• Lomatium dissectum seed biology and ecology studies are elucidating mechanisms regulating 

embryo growth which precedes germination and variation in stratification requirements across 

an elevation gradient. Seed dormancy was not relieved by treatment with a number of common 

plant growth regulators. 

Species interactions/Seeding to resist exotic invasives: 

• Plant invasion in semi-arid systems is linked, in part, to the ability of the native vegetation to 

sequester nitrogen. Species-diverse plant communities are expected to sequester more nitrogen 

because they are more likely to contain groups of species differing in the seasonal pattern or soil 

depth in which they capture nitrogen. Total plant biomass in a community may be more 

important for invasion resistance than the numbers or types of plant species present. Most 

nitrogen sequestered was captured by the most dominant species. Less abundant species, 

although differing in patterns of nitrogen capture, were not large enough to be significant sinks 

for nitrogen in the plant community. In weed infested areas, these findings suggest that 

establishing one or two dominant species that grow quickly may be the best strategy to inhibit 

the spread of invaders. Additional time and money spent on establishing diverse communities 

may not have a benefit in terms of reducing the spread of weeds. 

• Understanding how disturbance facilitates invasion and which species best resist establishment 

of weedy species is necessary for successfully restoring and managing Great Basin rangelands. 

Seeds of the annual Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass) and the broadleaf forb Isatis tinctoria (Dyer’s 

woad) were added to disturbances in plots supporting a grass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), forb 

(Achillea millefolium [western yarrow]), or shrub (Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis

[Wyoming big sagebrush]) monoculture. Disturbance increased weed density for all three 

growth forms in both years with the exception of P. spicata which was similar to the control in 

the second year. Results suggest that the capability of P. spicata to resist invasion may be 

related to its biomass productivity and resource utilization. 

• Examination of the impact of Bromus tectorum density on native forb establishment indicated 

that L. grayi and A. millefolium growth was not negatively impacted at B. tectorum densities less 

than 50 plants m-2, while growth of Eriogonum umbellatum and Penstemon speciosus was 
viii

reduced at all B. tectorum densities. Changes in soil water content over time indicated that the 

early germinating forbs, L. grayi and A. millefolium may have had 6-8 weeks of growth before 

soil water content began declining on cheatgrass plots. E. umbellatum and P. speciosus

germinated later and experienced greater competition for water. 

Crested wheatgrass diversification: 

• Studies of methods such as mechanical disturbance and herbicide application for controlling 

crested wheatgrass and reestablishing native species highlight the difficulty of simultaneously 

controlling crested wheatgrass, minimizing invasion of exotic species, and establishing desirable 

native species. Treatments in Utah and Oregon included controlling crested wheatgrass through 

partial and full mechanical (1-pass or 2-pass disking), partial (10 oz/ac) and full (44 oz/ac) 

glyphosate application, and seeding of native species. It appears that by addressing site 

availability (bare ground) and species availability, initial native plant establishment can be 

achieved by directly seeding native species into crested wheatgrass stands. High mortality of 

germinated seedlings demonstrates that selecting species for areas that fulfill their germination 

and emergence requirements does not guarantee their establishment and that more than one wet 

year is needed for species establishment. Hydrothermal models of native seed germination will 

allow managers to better select native species that will establish on a revegetation site. 

Restoration strategies and equipment: 

Equipment and strategies for reestablishing diverse native Wyoming big sagebrush communities 

post-fire: 

• Capabilities of the Kemmerer rangeland drill and the Truax Rough Rider minimum till drill to 

seed seeds of diverse sizes and shapes at appropriate depths to reestablish grasses, forbs, and 

shrubs on two former Wyoming big sagebrush sites are being compared at two northern Nevada 

sites. First-year (2007) emergence data (species richness, seedling density, plant cover, basal 

gap) suggests that broadcast species experienced greater emergence in plots seeded with the 

Truax Rough Rider, as compared to the Kemmerer rangeland drill. Only small differences were 

observed between the two drills in terms of densities of drilled species. 

• Drill comparisons and seeding strategies to enhance post-fire establishment and persistence of 

diverse Wyoming big sagebrush communities are being further investigated (with partial 

funding from the Joint Fire Sciences Program). Determining techniques for enhancing 

Wyoming big sagebrush and seeding rates for native grass, forb and shrub establishment, 

analysis of long-term grazing effects on sagebrush seedings, and application of new ESR 

monitoring protocols are major objectives. Treatments include seeding at 3 rates with the two 

drills, plus a fall and winter broadcast seeding. Fenced and non-fenced blocks will provide an 

opportunity for long-term monitoring of grazing effects on seeded plots. Sites near Mt. Home, 

ID and Burns, OR were seeded in fall 2007. Two additional sites will be treated in 2008. GPS 

units will be added to each drill to track seeded area, drill speed and seeding rates. 

• The Revegetation Equipment Catalog (http://reveg-catalog.tamu.edu/) provides descriptions, 

applications, photographs, and sources for more than 200 equipment items used for rangeland 

vegetation manipulation, wildlife habitat improvement and disturbed land rehabilitation. 
ix

Deliverables, Products, Technology Transfer 

Plant materials: 109 seed collections, 1 plant release, 573 lbs stock seed distributed, seed of 7 new 

materials placed with growers, 92 seed collections and more than 400 site records provided to 

the Seeds of Success Program, 42 seed collections provided to the National Seed Laboratory. 

Publications: 6 journal and 3 proceedings papers, 2 special reports, 2 plant guides, 1 tech note. 

Graduate programs: 8 M.S. and 1 Ph.D. completed, 9 programs in progress. 

Presentations: 3 international (2 invited), 42 national (32 invited), 22 regional/local (13 invited). 

Meetings: 3 symposia (2 national, 1 regional), 2 workshops and 4 field days conducted. 

Interaction with Tribes: 3 training sessions (seed collection), 1 workshop (seed cleaning), 1 tour. 

Displays: 4 (Revegetation Equipment Catalog and GBNPSIP). 

Popular articles, brochures, awards: 1 popular article, 3 additional in progress, GBNPSIP 

brochure updated, 2 national awards (Service First and National Grassland Research and 

Technology). 

Websites: 1 new (Seed predator identification and management), Revegetation Equipment Catalog 

and GBNPSIP websites updated. 

Literature Cited 

USDI and USDA. 2002. Report to the Congress: Interagency program to supply and manage native 

plant materials for restoration and rehabilitation on federal lands. U.S.Department of the Interior 

and U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 16 p. 

www.nps.gov/plants/npmd/Native%20Plant%20Materials%202002%20Report%20To%20Congress.pdf
x

Table of Contents

Durant McArthur Forb and shrub genetics research............................................1 

Stewart Sanderson 

Scott Jensen Plant materials development, cultural practices for Agoseris

Covy Jones and Lupinus......................................................................4 

Therese Meyer Native plant material development and seeding technology 

Jason Vernon for native Great Basin forbs and grasses...................................7 

Shaun Bushman Phylogeographic characterization of genetic diversity in 

Doug Johnson basalt milkvetch..............................................................24 

Kishor Bhattarai

R.C. Johnson Adapted Indian ricegrass, genetic diversity patterns of 

Mike Cashman Allium acuminatum, and genetic diversity and genecology 

Barbara Hellier of bluebunch wheatgrass....................................................29 

Nancy L. Shaw 

Brad St.Clair 

Loren St. John Establishment and maintenance of certified Generation 1 

Dan Ogle (G1) seed, propagation of native forbs, plant display nursery 

evaluation, and development of technology to improve the 

diversity of introduced grass stands.......................................41 

Robert Karrfalt Development of germination protocols, seed weight, purity, 

Victor Vankus and seed conditioning/cleaning protocols for Great Basin 

grasses and forbs.............................................................55 

James H. Cane Pollinator and seed predator studies.......................................58

Robert Hammon Insect pests of selected grass and forb species in the Great 

 Basin...........................................................................62 

Clinton C. Shock Native forb seed production in response to irrigation in 

Erik B.G. Feibert 2007...........................................................................64 

Lamont Saunders 

Clinton C. Shock Identification of herbicides for use in native forb seed 

Joey Ishida production.....................................................................78 

Erik Feibert 

Corey Ransom Developing strategies for selective herbicide use in native 

Kim Edvarchuk forb seed production.........................................................85 
xi

Jeremy James Linking species and functional group diversity to resource 

 capture and invasion resistance in Great Basin plant 

 communities..................................................................87 

Brad Geary Establishment of native plants through improved 

Scott Jensen propagation techniques and seedling disease control...................95 

Val Anderson Forb seeding depths, managing wildland shrub stands, 

Robert Johnson seed yield losses in Asteraceae, and established grasses 

 effects on shrub and forb emergence....................................101 

Thomas A. Monaco Characterizing multi-species interactions in response to 

 disturbance...................................................................108

Bruce A. Roundy Diversification of crested wheatgrass stands in Utah..................110 

Val Anderson 

Brad Jessop 

April Hulet 

Jennifer Coleman 

Bruce A. Roundy Wet thermal time modeling of seedling establishment................119 

Val Anderson 

Brad Jessop 

Jennifer Coleman 

Kert Young 

Jane Mangold Reestablishing native plant diversity in crested wheatgrass 

stands in the Great Basin..................................................131 

Harold Wiedemann Revegetation Equipment Catalog.........................................143

Nancy Shaw Native forb selection, seedling establishment, species 

Robert Cox interactions, and post-fire seedings.......................................145 

Loren St.John 

Hilary Parkinson 

Catherine Zabinski 

Melissa Scholten 

Marcelo Serpe 

Mike Pellant 

Dan Ogle 

Steve Perkins 

Jim Truax 

Stanford Young Establishment and maintenance of the buy-back program 

Michael Bouck for certified seed............................................................163 

Berta Youtie Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials development, 

 seed increase, and use......................................................170 
xii

 

APPENDIX 

Appendix I. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: 

 Status of Research Species................................................171 
1

Project Title: Forb and Shrub Genetics Research

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Durant McArthur, Program Manager

USDA-FS-RMRS Shrub Sciences Laboratory 

735 N. 500 E., Provo, UT 84606-1865 

801.356.5112, Fax 801.375.6968 

dmcarthur@fs.fed.us

Stewart Sanderson, Geneticist 

USDA-FS-RMRS Shrub Sciences Laboratory 

735 N. 500 E., Provo, UT 84606-1865 

801.356.5111, Fax 801.375.6968 

ssanderson@fs.fed.us 

Reporting for work funded, in part, by both the USDI Bureau of Land Management Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project and USDA Forest Service National Fire Plan (Cooperators USDA 

Forest Service Rocky Mountain, Pacific Northwest, and Pacific Southwest Research Stations; 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, and Brigham Young University). 

Project Description: 

This work is designed to determine the levels of genetic variation of plant species used or with 

potential for use in rehabilitation and restoration of fire impacted and other disturbed sagebrush 

steppe and pinyon-juniper ecosystems. Additional genetics work is also underway in delimiting 

seed transfer zones for restoration plant materials. The genetic variation research is designed to 

explore both within and between population variation by using isozyme and molecular genetic 

markers. It also explores the possible genetic consequences of past revegetation plantings by 

comparing the genetic architecture of source populations, seeded populations, and indigenous 

populations adjacent to the seeded populations. Work to date suggests that genetic patterns need 

to be assessed on a species by species basis and take into account pollination systems and 

population size. We briefly summarize the initial results from isozymes, DNA-based molecular 

genetics (AFLPs, ISSRs, RAPDs, cpDNA), revegetation plantings, gene flow, and seed transfer 

zones. 

Isozymes and DNA based molecular genetics 

Thirty-five species (6 shrubs, 3 grasses, and 27 forbs) and more than 180 populations have been 

examined in a series of studies. These include Artemisia tridentata, Astragalus utahensis, 

Atriplex canescens, Balsamorhiza sagitatta, Bromus carinatus, Castilleja miniata, 

Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Ericameria nauseosa), Crepis acuminata, Epilobium angustifolium 

(Chamerion angustifolium), Erigeron pumilus, Eriogonum umbellatum, Gerenium richardsoni, 

Linum lewisii, Linum perenne, Lomatium dissectum, Lomatium grayi, Lupinus 

argenteus/sericeus, Penstemon deustus, Penstemon palmeri, Penstemon speciosus, Phlox 
2

longifolia, Sphaeralcea ambigua, Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia, Hesperostipa comata, Vicia 

americana, and Viguiera multiflora (Heliomeris multiflora). 

Revegetation plantings gene flow 

Several species are being examined in this portion of the study. Results for Linum, Sphaeralcea, 

Penstemon, Artemisia, Chrysothamnus, and Atriplex are available. The results are species 

specific. Many but not all of the studied seedings show that the seeded populations lie within 

the natural range of the indigenous genetic architecture. Linum perenne in the form of ‘Appar’ 

blue flax has been seeded widely in revegetation plantings. It has not hybridized with native L. 

lewisii nor is it likely to, based on artificial hybridization experiments. 

The work of the above studies is progressing toward a summary status. The first significant 

output will be a Rocky Mountain Station General Technical Report summarizing all the 

collection and research information. From that summary more detailed publications will be 

developed and submitted to peer-reviewed outlets. The methods were reported in previous 

annual reports. 

Management Applications: 

This information, when completed and fully evaluated, will be useful for managers when they 

need to make decisions about the appropriateness of restoration seeding, e.g., will the seeding be 

appropriate in maintaining the natural variation and genetic integrity of the site under 

consideration. 

Publications: 

Freeman, D. C., E. D. McArthur, K. J. Miglia, M. J. Nilson, and M. L. Brown. 2007. Sex and the 

lonely Atriplex. Western North American Naturalist 67:137-141. 

Hansen, L. D., L. K. Farnsworth, N. K. Itoga, A. Nicholson, H. L. Summers, M. C. Whitsitt, and 

E. D. McArthur. in press. Two subspecies and a hybrid of big sagebrush: comparison of 

respiration and growth characteristics. Journal of Arid Environments. 

Kitchen, S. G. and E. D. McArthur. 2007. Big and black sagebrush landscapes. p. 73-95 in S. M. 

Hood and M. Miller, eds. Fire ecology and management of the major ecosystems of Southern 

Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-202. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. 

McArthur, E. D. and S. G. Kitchen. 2007. Shrubland ecosystems: importance, distinguishing 

characteristics, and dynamics. p. 3-10 in R. E. Sosebee, D. B. Wester, C. M. Britton, and S. 

G. Kitchen, comps. Proceedings: shrubland dynamics—fire and water. Proc.RMRS-P-47. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort 

Collins, CO. 

Miglia, K. J., E. D. McArthur, R. S. Redman, R. J. Rodriguez, J. C. Zak, and D. C. Freeman. 

2007. Genotype, soil type, and local effects on reciprocal transplant vigor, endophyte 

growth, and microbial functional diversity of a narrow sagebrush hybrid zone in Salt Creek 

Canyon, Utah. American Journal of Botany 94: 425-436. 
3

Miller, R. F., R. J. Tausch, E. D. McArthur, D. D. Johnson, and S. C. Sanderson. 2008. Age 

structure and expansion of piñon-juniper woodlands: a regional perspective in the 

Intermountain West. Res. Pap. RMRS-RP-69. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. 15 p. 

Pendleton, R. L., S. G. Kitchen, J. Mudge, and E. D. McArthur. 2008. Origin of the flax release 

‘Appar’ and its taxonomic position with the Linum perenne L. complex. International Journal 

of Plant Sciences 168: in press. 

Yu, W., L. D. Hansen, W. Fan, W. Zhao, and E. D. McArthur. 2008. Asian Journal of Plant 

Sciences. Adapation of growth and respiration of three varieties of Caragana to 

environmental temperatures. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences 7:67-72. 

Abstract: 

McArthur, E. D. 2007. Genetic considerations for wildland forb and shrub restoration plantings. 

p. 7, Abstracts of papers, Native wildflower seed production research symposium. University 

of Florida-Gainsville, Orlando, FL. 
4

Project Title: Plant Materials Development, Cultural Practices for 

 Agoseris and Lupinus

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Scott Jensen, Botanist

USDA FS RMRS Shrub Sciences Laboratory 

735 N. 500 E., Provo, UT 84606-1865 

801.356.5128, Fax 801.375.6968 

sljensen@fs.fed.us 

 

 Covy Jones 

USDA FS RMRS Shrub Sciences Laboratory 

735 N. 500 E., Provo, UT 84606-1865 

801.356.5108, Fax 801.375.6968 

covyjones@fs.fed.us 

Species Status: 

Astragalus utahensis 

Data on initial establishment, plant size, flowering phenology, seed yield, longevity and seed 

characteristics are being compiled. We anticipate a final seed harvest in 2008 will complete the 

dataset and recommendations on a release can be made. Economical harvest techniques presently 

preclude Astragalus utahensis from being a viable commercial product. 

Agoseris spp

Inventory of Agoseris seed for all species is low. In 2007 we converted a portion of our 

greenhouse for Agoseris increase and producing seed of two species, Agoseris 

aurantiaca and A. heterophylla. Both performed well without vernalization. We modified our 

production design again and continue to increase seed in preparation for field trials. Agoseris 

glauca and A. aurantiaca performed poorly in a greenhouse setting. Both species bolted few 

stems and require insect pollination. Lack of vernalization may have been responsible for poor 

performance. We are cold treating both species and will grow them outside in 2008 to take 

advantage of native pollinators. 

We perceive the crux of success with Agoseris spp. has less to do with selecting the best biotype 

and more to do with developing cultural techniques for economical production. As more seed 

becomes available our efforts will focus there. 

Hesperostipa comata 

Common gardens of needle and thread grass at Fountain Green, Orovada and Ephraim are 

yielding good establishment and phenology data. In 2008 we will emphasize seed yield and seed 

cleaning qualities. We anticipate establishing an additional garden at the Desert Experimental 

Range this winter. 
5

Lupinus spp.

Considerable effort was made in 2007 to collect several pounds of seed from Lupinus argenteus 

(Nevada source), L. prunophilus (Utah source), and L. arbustus (Nevada source) to establish a 

replicated cultural practice study at two sites. Lupinus sericeus (Utah source) was purchased 

from a local collector. The study is designed to assess stand establishment and subsequent seed 

yield from drill seeded, broadcast and plugged plots. Cost comparisons will be computed. 

Common gardens at Nephi and Fountain Green have established adequately and are providing 

data on seed characteristics, longevity, and phenology. 

New species

Several new species were collected in 2007.We will attempt to establish preliminary 

observation/data plots from plugged plants in 2008 and expand collection and work with those 

that show potential. 

Presentations: 

Jensen, S.L. 2007. Wildland seed collecting in the Great Basin. Native wildflower seed 

production research symposium. Native Wildflower Seed Production Symposium, Orlando 

FL. 

Jones, C.D., Jensen, S.L. 2007. Working with natives: lessons learned. Uncompahgre Plateau 

Project, Plant Community Restoration Workshop. Grand Junction, CO. 

Jensen, S.L. 2007. New container propagation protocols for Lupines and Agoseris and projecting 

production costs. Are some species cost prohibitive? Developing native plant materials for 

the Great Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. 

Society for Range Management 60th annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited 

presentation. 

Jensen, S.L. 2008. Fire and weed ecology in the Great Basin: The need for revegetation. 

Community awareness presentation, Orem, Utah. 

Products: 

Equipment Development and Modification 

We built 5 and 50 gallon seed driers following Robert Karrfalt’s design. These will be used to 

dry both wildland collections and increase plot harvests. 

Our mulch layer was modified to handle 6’ wide materials. The wider material is more 

conducive to our harvesting equipment. 

We installed an automated watering system in one of our greenhouses feeding both drip tape and 

overhead misters. 
6

Stock Seed Production 

An Idaho source of Agoseris grandiflora and a Nevada source of Agoseris heterophylla were 

increased in our greenhouse. Seed from this effort is again being increased in 2008 using the 

same method. 

A Nevada source of Heliomeris multiflora was increased at Fountain Green. This seed will be 

used to establish a larger increase plot. 

 

Seed Distribution to Growers 

Heliomeris multiflora and Ephedra viridis were distributed to a Sanpete County, Utah grower. 

Lupinus prunophilus and Lupinus argenteus were provided to research and increase efforts at 

Oregon State University’s Malheur Experiment Station. 

Field Tours and Workshops 

S. Jensen instructed a one day seed collection workshop to members of the Shoshoni and 

Bannock Tribes at Fort Hall Reservation. 

S. Jensen spoke at a Squarrose knapweed summer tour, Tintic Valley, UT. 

Equipment Loan 

A tractor and precision seeder was lent to a Sanpete County, Utah grower to plant Sphaeralcea

grossulariifolia, Heliomeris multiflora and Krascheninnikovia lanata. Our Flail-Vac was loaned 

to assess its utility to collect mountain big sagebrush. 

Cooperator Assistance 

Several thousand feet of weed barrier were installed at Fountain Green for Division of Wildlife 

Resource plantings. 

S. Jensen delivered a tractor and spent a week helping install a large field study in Oregon and 

Idaho that will evaluate various seed mixes when planted with the rangeland drill or the Truax 

Rough Rider drill. 

We seeded field trials of Astragalus utahensis for BYU at study plots in Nephi, Spanish Fork and 

Fountain Green. 

We made several collections of Elymus elymoides for the PNW Lab in Corvallis, OR. 
7

Project Title: Native Plant Material Development and Seed and 

Seeding Technology for Native Great Basin Forbs and 

Grass

Project Location: Utah Division of Wildlife, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, 

UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Therese Meyer 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 

Great Basin Research Center 

494 West 100 South, Ephraim UT 84627 

435.283.4441, Fax 435 283-2034 

theresemeyer@utah.gov 

Jason Vernon 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 

Great Basin Research Center 

494 West 100 South, Ephraim UT 84627 

435.283.4441, Fax 435 283-2034 

jasonvernon@utah.gov 

Project Description: 

We are working with six species of Great Basin native forbs to develop them for use in 

rehabilitation of disturbed sites. To accomplish this, we collect wildland accessions, test 

germination requirements, explore and develop cultural techniques, screen accessions for 

suitability in various locations and applications, and work with growers to implement cultural 

methods and build the seed production industry.

Project Status:

Wildland Seed Collection 

We made 28 new forb wildland collections in 2007. The collections were from eight different 

plant families (Table 1). 

We also made 20 wildland collections of grasses, and put most of the accessions into greenhouse 

plug production for transplanting to Fountain Green in 2008 for observation. The collected 

species were muttongrass (Poa fendleriana), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), Indian ricegrass 

(Achnatherum hymenoides), purple three-awn (Aristida purpurea), and Galleta grass (Pleuraphis 

jamesii). Genetic collections of Indian ricegrass were given to researchers at USDA-ARS, 

Pullman, for genetic work. 

The wildland forb seed collections have been dried and cleaned, and several have been entered 

into studies. 
8

Table 1. Collections made in 2007. 

The database now registers over 1000 wildland seed collections and several stock seed increased 

lots. 

Plant Family 

Species 

Acronym Genus Species Common Name 

Number of 

Collections 2007 

Apiaceae CYMOP Cymopterus sp. Spring-parsley 0 

Apiaceae LOGR Lomatium grayi Milfoil Lomatium 2 

Apiaceae LOGRGR Lomatium graveolens var. 

graveolens

Stinking lomatium 0 

Apiaceae LODI Lomatium dissectum Giant Lomatium 1 

Apiaceae PEBO2 Perideridia bolanderi Yampah 3 

Asteraceae BAHO Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker balsamroot 0 

Asteraceae BASA Balsamorhiza sagittata Arrowleaf balsamroot 2 

Asteraceae CRAC Crepis acuminata Tapertip hawksbeard 1 

Asteraceae CRIN Crepis intermedia Gray Hawksbeard 1 

Capparaceae CLLU Cleome lutea Yellow bee-plant 0 

Fabaceae ASUT Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch 2 

Fabaceae HEBO Hedysarum boreale Northern sweetvetch 4 

Fabaceae LABR Lathyrus brachycalyx Rydberg sweetpea 1 

Fabaceae LUAR Lupinus argenteus Silver lupine 2 

Linaceae LILE Linum lewisii Blue flax 1 

Malvaceae SPGR, 

SPCO2 

Sphaeralcea 

grossularifolia, S. coccinea

Gooseberryleaf and 

Scarlet globemallows 

4 

Polemoniaceae PHLO Phlox longifolia Longleaf phlox 2 

Polygonaceae EROV Eriogonum ovalifolium Cushion buckwheat 1 

Common Gardens 

We maintained older common garden field trials of all the forb species in Ephraim and Fountain 

Green during 2007. We continued to observe growth, seed set and plant survival in the trials. 

Based on the trial data, we have been able to narrow down the number of accessions we intend to 

focus on for all of our species. Decisions were based on seed origin to provide plant material 

appropriate for the several different ecological sites throughout the Great Basin, and also on 

plant vigor and seed production capability. These decisions guided the new common garden 

planting lists and selection of stock seed sent to growers. 

We planted new seedling plug trials of cushion buckwheat in April 2007, and gooseberry leaf, 

scarlet, and littleleaf globemallows in May 2007 at our Fountain Green farm. In November of 

2007 we direct-seeded a trial of all the Crepis acuminata and some of the C. intermedia

accessions into a nearby field trial. All trials were planted into weed barrier-covered beds with 

Netafim® drip irrigation installed on top of the weed barrier. Rainstorms in June and July caused 
9

flooding across the trials, and brought in deep mud and seed of weeds from the grazed hills 

above the trials. Some trial plants were lost to mud inundation. We dug the trial out of the mud, 

and removed the weeds. In November of 2007 we consulted with NRCS personnel regarding the 

flooding and erosion of our fields, and based on their recommendations, installed a runoff 

capture channel through the field, and planted it and the surrounding ground with grass. 

Hawksbeards 

We continued to maintain and observe the Crepis acuminata and C. intermedia trial in Ephraim 

and found the plants increasing in size and flowering in the third season. C. intermedia was again 

the predominant success story, but some of the C. acuminata accessions did appear to survive, 

grow, and flower. Aphids and other flower head predators reduced the seed production, no seed 

was collected. 

The C. acuminata and C. intermedia trial seeded in 2007 at Fountain Green consisted of 31 

accessions. This trial would experience natural winter stratification in the field and will be 

evaluated for germination and growth in spring 2008. The trial was not randomly replicated, but 

was planted as four rows of an accession per bed in 26-foot blocks, to allow combine harvest.

Cushion Buckwheat 

The buckwheat trial planted in spring 2007 consisted of 23 accessions, principally of cushion 

buckwheat (Eriogonum ovalifolium), with one to three replicates, depending on seed and plant 

plug production success. The lines chosen for the trial were those that had performed the best in 

the Ephraim trial over three years, plus new accessions acquired since the Ephraim trial was 

planted. We made field observations on morphological traits, phenology, and plant vigor 

throughout the summer and into the fall on the new buckwheat trial. The trial bloomed and 

produced some seed in the first season. Seed was not collected because it would be crosspollinated, and there was not enough to obtain useful seed-production information. 

Based on the first year’s observations, combined with observations over three years in the 

Ephraim trial, we determined that eight of the accessions from five geographic areas are superior 

(Table 2). Mapping the selections onto Omernik ecoregion maps showed the ecological 

distribution (Fig. 1.) The accessions came from Nevada and Utah, between elevations 4400 and 

6400 feet elevation. Only two of the accessions, Drum Mt. and Newcastle, were in the same 

Level 4 ecoregion. Grouping just to Level 3 ecoregions, the sites represented four ecoregions. A 

focus in 2008 will be to collect more wildland seed of these accessions, and to produce seed in 

increase gardens with adequate isolation distance from other E. ovalifolium. Two accessions of 

this species from areas north of Elko, NV, were sent out to growers in years past, and one of 

these accessions showed promise in our trials, but neither was among the best accessions. 

Attempts to track down the outcome of the grower increases have been unsuccessful due to 

personnel changes. 
10

Table 2. Eriogonum ovalifolium best accessions. 

Sitename County state elevation LEVEL4_NAM 

North Battle Mountain EROV Lander Co., NV 5445 13z Upper Lahontan Basin 

Pequop Foothills EROV Elko Co., NV 5900 13p Carbonate Sagebrush Valleys

Toano EROV Elko Co., NV 6365 13q Carbonate Woodland Zone 

Crittenden Reservoir EROV Elko Co., NV 5250 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau 

Drum Mountains EROV Millard Co., UT 5955 13c Sagebrush Basins and Slopes

FR031 to St. George EROV 

Washington 

Co., UT 4368 19f Semiarid Foothills 

Horse Canyon EROV Emery Co., UT 5450 20b Shale Deserts 

Newcastle EROV Iron Co., UT 5393 13c Sagebrush Basins and Slopes

Figure 1. Geographic distribution of superior 

Eriogonum ovalifolium accessions through Nevada 

and Utah. Polygons group sites to Omernik 

Ecoregion Level 3. See Table 2 for Level 4. 
11

Globemallow common gardens 

We made field observations and plant measurements throughout the summer and into the fall on 

the new globemallow trial in Fountain Green (Fig. 2.) 

We collected seed for seed production studies. The seed was dried, cleaned, and weighed. We 

compared seed production at three harvest points in the season, seed production between the 

accessions, seed production between species, and compared seed production from different plant 

spacings. These analyses indicate that there are significant differences in quantity of seed 

produced between the species in the trial, with the larger-statured species (Sphaeralcea 

grossularifolia, S. parvifolia) producing greater quantities of seed (Fig.3). There are also 

differences in amount of seed produced between accessions within species (data not shown) and 

this information will be incorporated, as well as Ecoregion information, into decisions about 

suitability for release to growers. 

The 12” plant spacing averaged 4.9 grams seed per plant (averaging all the globemallow species 

together), while the 18” plant spacing averaged 5.88 grams seed per plant, but this difference was 

not significant statistically. Disregarding this lack of significance, when calculated on a per acre 

basis, the 12” plant spacing would generate more seed for a better financial reward than 18” 

spacing (Fig. 4). 

Perideridia Common Gardens 

The small common garden of Perideridia bolanderi in Ephraim continued to grow in 2007, and 

we collected a small amount of seed from the trial. One accession from Nevada continued to 

outshine the other collections in plant vigor and seed production. We began planning a larger 

trial or seed increase at the Fallon PMC, but due to delays in infrastructure there, did not install 

the field in 2007. We started 12 P. bolanderi accessions in stratification in December 2007 and 

will grow plugs in the greenhouse for a trial in Fountain Green. A larger seed increase field will 

Figure 2. Globemallow trial on weed barrier 

cloth and drip system; Fountain Green, UT. 
12

Globemallow Seed Production Per Acre at $35/lb

$0.00

$2,000.00

$4,000.00

$6,000.00

$8,000.00

$10,000.00

36" X 18" 36" X 12" 22" X 18" 22" X 12"

Row and Plant Spacing

be planned, but because of concern that herbivores enjoy the seed of this species, which could be 

detrimental to seed collection, we intend to place the increase plot inside a fenced exclosure 

(perhaps Fountain Green.) 

Figure 4. Expected financial returns for growing globemallow 

agrnomically for seed production at two row and plant spacings. 

Figure 3. 2007 Fountain Green globemallow plug trial: average grams 

of seed produced per plant, by species, at 12” and 18” plant spacing. 

(Letters above bars indicate levels of significance for species at P=0.05 

if combining all spacings; difference between spacings was not 

significant when all species were combined.) 

Globemallow Seed production at 12" and 18" Spacing 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

SPCO2 SPGR SPPA SPPS

Species

Gram

s

12"

18"

a ab

b 

ab
13

Balsamroot Common Gardens 

Balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata and B. hookeri) has been difficult to establish and maintain 

in common gardens. A small planting of B. sagittata in Fountain Green as part of a cultural trial 

(discussed later in this report), and possibly two trials in Nevada (also discussed later) are the 

only plantings of these species that we currently maintain. In December 2007 we put into 

stratification 95 grams of B. sagittata seed from Box Elder Co., UT; we will grow plant plugs in 

the greenhouse to distribute to growers and will install a production field in Fountain Green. This 

accession was selected based on its relatively central geographic location at 5500’ elevation and 

on seed availability. 

Sweetvetch Common Gardens 

The trial of Hedysarum boreale and H. occidentale in Fountain Green since 2005 was tilled out 

at the end of the 2007 field season to make way for new trials. We did collect seed from the trial 

after installing short strips of woven weed barrier around blocks of plants in the spring. Weed 

barrier allowed vacuum collection of seed that shattered off the plants (Fig. 5.) Three Timp 

accessions outperformed most of the other accessions, but one accession, U6-04, from San Juan 

Co. UT, outperformed Timp. This accession will be studied further, but since it is from outside 

the Great Basin, it technically holds less interest for this project. We do not have any good 

accessions of H. boreale from within the Great Basin except several from road cuts or other 

areas that were potentially seeded with Timp prior to the collections, and these collections look 

like Timp in trial. We will seed a new trial of H. boreale and H. occidentale in Fountain Green in 

spring 2008, with some new accessions as well as the old accessions that showed some promise 

for drought tolerance and seed production. 

HEBO Average Per-Plant Seed Production

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

B6-00

B8-01

Timp SFD96UC8

U2-01

U4-03

U47-01U48-01

U49-01

U50-01

U5-01

U51-01

U54-03

U6-04

WRS-1009C

WRS-99

Lot Number

Grams/plt seed produced .

Figure 5. Seed produced on a per-plant basis on Sweetvetch, Fountain Green, 2007. 
14

Nevada Common Gardens 

Plantings made in Nevada at the two sites, Orovada and Wells, were not as successful as the 

Utah plantings. The Orovada Balsamorhiza sagittata and Crepis acuminata trials were planted 

into young but established Canby bluegrass that had been seeded the previous year. The B. 

sagittata and C. acuminata plugs may have been unable to compete with the grass, and by the 

following spring in May 2007, only a few B. sagittata and C. acuminata plants were surviving. 

Although the Canby bluegrass was successful in keeping weeds at bay, it also may have 

prevented establishment of the desired trial forbs. 

The Wells trials, without Canby bluegrass, did much better. The Crepis acuminata/C. intermedia

trial, in particular, showed fair survival. C. intermedia was much more durable than C. 

acuminata. C. intermedia averaged 38% survival (7.6 plants/20 planted per block) versus 13% 

survival of C. acuminata (2.6 plants/20 planted per block) (Fig. 6). 

CRAC and CRIN Plug Survival, Wells NV

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

CRAC CRIN

Species

Avg. # Plants .

The Wells Crepis acuminata/C. intermedia trial also demonstrated survival differences between 

accessions within the two species. Although the plug planting survival information is useful, it 

alone is not sufficient to make judgments regarding suitability of particular accessions for 

restoration projects. We will wait until more information is garnered from the other common 

garden trials on seeding success, vigor of accessions, and seed production capability. 

The Wells B. sagittata trial had poor plug survival into the second year, although it was better 

than the Orovada B. sagittata trial. There were not enough surviving plugs to continue the trial. 

Based on my experience with several attempts at transplanting B. sagittata, I feel that once B. 

sagittata seedlings begin to develop a corky root epidermis they do not transplant successfully. 

Figure 6. Crepis plant survival after one year. Trial was planted 

with seedling plugs in a Wells, Nevada exclosure. 

a

b
15

Seed Production Technology Studies: 

Spacing and Weed Barrier Study 

We installed a weed barrier and spacing study at Fountain Green in May 2006 for two of our forb 

species: Balsamorhiza sagittata and Crepis intermedia. The plants were grown in the greenhouse 

over the winter 2005-2006 and plug-planted into holes cut through the weed barrier. The trial 

was under drip irrigation with each species on a separate system. The weed barriers were 

installed by hand by digging trenches, tucking the edge of the barrier material into the trench, 

burying the edge with soil, and also using long staples through the material into the soil. This 

installation method for weed barrier material 3’ wide proved to be inadequate; wind blew the 

material off sections of the trial. The problem was exacerbated by the east-west direction of the 

rows since the prevailing winds were in a north-south direction. Additionally, a flood event in 

2007 washed through this trial and tore off some of the weed barriers. We re-installed the blownout sections several times. 

In spite of the difficulties with the installation and maintenance of the trial, the plants produced 

leaves the first season, went dormant over the summer, and re-leafed in the fall. In the spring of 

2007, some of the plants leafed out, and in March, we made plant counts. C. intermedia survived 

better than B. sagittata. Fig. 7 shows the survival percentages of C. intermedia plants (all 

spacings grouped together) on the three weed barrier treatments. 

CRIN plant survival with weed barriers

-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

No mulch Plastic Woven Lumite

Treatment

% Survival

Woven weed barrier material resulted in the highest percentage survival of hawksbeard plants, at 

about 50% survival. Non-woven, plastic weed barrier mulch resulted in the lowest survival, at 

13%. Using no weed barrier mulch resulted in 28% survival. Use of the weed barrier mulches 

reduced the amount of hand weeding necessary in the trial, whereas the “No mulch” rows 

required extensive hand weeding. 

Figure 7. Hawksbeard (Crepis intermedia) survival on two weed 

barrier mulches and no weed barrier. 

ab

b

a
16

There were not enough plants left at the designated spacing distances to conduct comparisons on 

that treatment. 

We continue to maintain the trial to study field persistence of C. intermedia and B. sagittata. 

Rhizobial Inoculant 

To explore whether inoculation of Hedysarum seed with rhizobial cultures will increase 

germination, growth, biomass, and survival, we designed greenhouse experiments. We collected 

root nodules from wildland plants of Northern sweetvetch and contracted to have rhizobia 

cultured from them. The cultures will be compared to cultures from other legumes as well as the 

“no inoculant” control in a greenhouse study to test and compare efficacy of the cultures in 

improving Northern sweetvetch growth and vigor. The study was installed and we began 

seedling counts and observations as the year ended (Fig. 8.) 

Sulfuric Acid Scarification of Scarlet Globemallow Seed 

Continuing our work to increase germination rates of globemallow seed, we studied the effect of 

a time series of concentrated sulfuric acid scarifications. Four accessions of scarlet globemallow, 

with and without carpels (indehiscent and dehiscent, respectively), were exposed to either 10, 20 

or 30 minute soak in concentrated sulfuric acid followed by a water rinse, with a water rinse as 

the control treatment. The seeds were then tested for germination (Fig. 9.) 

Twenty minutes of sulfuric acid scarification resulted in the highest germination rate and 

significantly increased the rate from that of the water rinse alone from 6% to 25%. Thirty 

minutes of acid scarification significantly increased the rate of germination over water alone, but 

may have caused some loss of viability due to seed damage. Ten minutes of sulfuric acid 

scarification also increased germination from 6% to approximately 17%, but this increase was 

not statistically significant. 

Figure 8. Hedysarum rhizobial inoculant greenhouse study. 
17

Presence of carpels on the seeds resulted in a significant decrease in seed germination (Fig. 10.) 

Carpel retention may be caused by genetic factors affecting splitting of carpels at ripening or it 

may be an artifact of schizocarp maturity, with less-mature schizocarps failing to split open. 

Many Sphaeralcea coccinea accessions tend to have indehiscent carpels, regardless of maturity, 

suggesting that there may be a genetic component. It is not clear if indehiscent carpels always 

convey lower germination on globemallow seed, but this data suggest that is the case in this 

species. 

There was a significant difference in germination between the accessions of globemallow, 

combining all seed pretreatments and carpel status (Fig. 11.) B12-03 was the only accession that 

had no carpels in any of the seed pretreatments, since it evidently is completely dehiscent, but it 

is not clear if this characteristic conveyed an increase in germination over the other species. 

Figure 9. Germination of scarlet globemallow seeds following 

seed pretreatments. 

Scarlet Globemallow Seed Sulfuric Acid Treatment

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

10 min sulfuric acid 20 min sulfuric acid 30 min sulfuric acid no pretreatment

(water rinse)

Treatment

% Germination

a

b

b

ab b
18

Average % Germ all treatments

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

B12-03 U55-05 U6-02 U8-04

Lot #

% Germination

Seed Fate Studies 

We completed a seed retrieval study on 2007 that compared direct seeding in the fall vs. in the 

spring on the six principal forbs in our project. The study solidified previous knowledge about 

seed dormancy among our study forbs. 

Figure 11. Germination of four accessions of 

scarlet globemallow seed combining all seed 

pretreatments and carpel status. 

Scarlet Globemallow Indehiscent vs. 

Dehiscent Carpels, All treatments 

Averaged

0

10

20

30

40

Carpels none

Carpels Present or Not

% Germination

Figure 10. Germination of scarlet globemallow 

seed with and without carpels, combining all seed 

pretreatments. 

a

ab

b

b

a

b
19

The study showed that sweetvetch (Hedysarum boreale) and gooseberry leaf globemallow 

(Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia) did not require cold, moist stratification to germinate seed, but the 

other forbs, cushion buckwheat (Eriogonum ovalifolium), arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza 

sagittata), olasi (Perideridia bolanderi), and tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata) did require 

stratification to break seed dormancy (Fig. 12 (a) and (b).) Other work by our group has shown 

that S. grossularifolia and other globemallows benefit from warmer temperatures to germinate 

seed, and the early spring temperatures of this study were too low to effectively stimulate S. 

grossularifolia to germinate. 

 

Figure 12. Seed fate studied through seed retrievals. (a) 

Overwintering benefited Eriogonum ovalifolium, Perideridia 

bolanderi, Balsamorhiza sagittata, and Crepis acuminata

seed, but Sphaeralcea grossularifolia and Hedysarum boreale

suffered higher mortality or absence of germination. (b)Spring 

planted seed showed dormancy breaking in H. boreale but not 

in the other species. 

Seed Retrieval: Overwintered Sept 28-March 14

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

EROV SPGR PEBO2 BASA HEBO CRAC

Species

Seed Fate

%Dead

%Hardseed

%Imbibed

%Germ

a 

Seed Fate: Spring Planting; March-April

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

EROV SPGR PEBO2 BASA HEBO CRAC

Species

Seed Fate 

%Dead

%Hardseed

%Imbibed

%Germ

b 
20

Seed Field Production Technology 

In spring of 2007 we planted an experimental production field of Scarlet globemallow in 

Ephraim at Snow Field, using woven weed barrier and sub-surface T-tape drip irrigation. The 

plants were grown as plugs in the greenhouse and planted out in the field in the spring. The 

plants flowered but produced insufficient seed in 2007, so we did not harvest. The trial will be 

maintained and, hopefully, harvested in 2008. 

Globemallow Seed Harvest Phenology 

To understand how to maximize seed harvest on the typically indeterminant-flowering 

globemallows, we studied phenology of flowering and fruit maturation, and viability of seed 

harvested at various stages of ripeness. 

We cut entire branches off littleleaf globemallow (Sphaeralcea parvifolia) on 8/15/07 and 

8/28/07, dried the stems, then separated the fruits (schizocarps) by visual examination into three 

categories: immature, medium mature and mature. We calculated the percentage by weight of 

apparently mature seed (entire, brown or black) from each maturity category, and did 

germination tests of the resultant partitions (Fig. 13.) 

Globemallow Harvest Phenology

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Immature fruit (~3%

yield seed/fruits)

Medium fruit (~40%

yield seed/fruits)

Mature fruit (~45%

yield seed/fruits)

Maturity Status

% Germination 

Although the immature schizocarp partition yielded the smallest percentage (3%) of mature seed, 

this partition germinated at the highest percentage (50%). The medium ripe schizocarps 

generated 40% mature seed by weight, but had a lower germination percentage (28%), and the 

mature schizocarps yielded the highest percentage mature seed by weight (45%) but had the 

lowest germination at 12%. We speculate that the seeds from the least mature schizocarps have 

Figure 13. Seed yields and germination rates of 

globemallow seeds harvested at different stages of maturity.
21

thinner seed coats or some other less-well developed seed dormancy feature. We also speculate 

that the riper seeds could eventually be released from dormancy, although in our germination 

study, they were not. 

Comparing percent of schizocarps in each maturity stage at the two harvest times showed that 

the earlier harvest had a higher percentage of immature schizocarps, but even the later harvest 

had some immature schizocarps, as expected with an indeterminant-flowering species (Fig. 14.) 

Evaluating germination averaged across all seeds of various maturities on branches harvested 

two weeks apart resulted in the seed from the earlier harvest having higher germination (32%) 

than seed from branches harvested two weeks later (18%) (Fig. 15.) We again speculate that 

earlier harvest arrests the dormancy-instilling process in the schizocarps. These findings are 

somewhat in contradiction of our findings in the acid scarification study, with respect to presence 

or absence of carpels and that trait’s relationship to schizocarp maturity. Further work will need 

to be done to clarify these questions, species-by-species in the globemallow group. 

Commercial Seed Production: 

We successfully grew globemallow with three new growers, one in Brigham City, UT, one in 

Price, UT, and one in Fountain Green, UT. All were able to harvest seed from their fields this 

summer. Our Forb project purchased 5.1 lbs. of seed from one of the growers, and one-quarter 

lb. seed from another grower. The Brigham City and Price growers planted using seedling plugs 

that we had produced and the Fountain Green grower direct-seeded during the summer using our 

precision seeder. All had excellent growth of the plants. The Brigham City and Price growers 

also have plantings of tapertip hawksbeard that should begin flowering in 2008. 

Globemallow Time of Harvest

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Immature Medium Mature

Stage of Schizocarp Ripeness

% of Schizocarps

Mid-Aug

Late Aug

Figure 14. Percent of globemallow schizocarps (fruits) in three stages of 

maturity harvested either in mid- or late August. 
22

Globemallow Harvest Phenology

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Date: 8/15/2007 Date: 8/28/2007

Harvest Date

% Germination .

We contracted with a grower in Connell, WA, to continue maintaining a large field of tapertip 

hawksbeard for at least another season in anticipation of obtaining seed from the field. 

We are also contracting with a grower in Vale, OR, to plant our stock seed of gooseberry leaf 

globemallow and gray hawksbeard to produce a seed increase. 

We continue to work with three additional growers in Pleasant Grove, UT, Joseph, UT, and 

Panguitch, UT, who have planted our stock seed or plugs in previous seasons. 

Gooseberry-leaf globemallow stock seed (G1) 5.1 pounds, scarlet globemallow stock seed (G1) 

4.1 oz. available to send out to larger production fields. One lb. of the Gooseberry-leaf 

globemallow stock seed was sent to Vale, OR for further seed increase. 

Four new native seed growers are working with the Great Basin Research Center. 

Results of the seed retrieval study will help growers and vegetation restoration workers 

determine the optimum time of year to seed the forbs we are developing. 

Results of the northern sweetvetch rhizobia study may increase seed production of this species in 

growers’ fields. 

Narrowing the field of potential seed accessions through common garden work, greenhouse 

studies, geographic distribution analysis, and laboratory studies has enabled us to choose certain 

seed lines to advance into grower increases. 

 

Figure 15. Globemallow seed germination (averaged across 

all seeds of various maturities on a branch) harvested 2 weeks 

apart. 
23

Presentations: 

Native seed production handouts distributed at meetings, workshops, and as PDF files emailed to 

potential growers. 

Meyer, Therese, and Jason Vernon. 2007. Native forb development for wildland restoration: 

research update from the Great Basin Research Center. Society for Range Management 60th

Annual Meeting and Trade Show, Reno, NV. 

Meyer, Therese. 2007. Meyer gave presentation for Ibapah Band Goshute Tribe about agronomic 

farming of native plants for seed. Conservation and Development Committee meeting. 

Meyer, Therese. 2007. Meyer gave a short presentation about Utah Division of Wildlife 

Resources and the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. Cannon 

Envirothon, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Meyer, Therese. 2007. Native plant development for wildland restoration: Research at Great 

Basin Research Center. Native vegetation community restoration workshop, Grand Junction, 

CO. 

Vernon, Jason. 2007. Site preparation and seedbed requirements for planting multiple species. 

Native vegetation community restoration workshop, Grand Junction, CO. 

Meyer, Therese. 2007. Co-leader of native seed workshop. Society for Ecological Restoration 

and Pacific Northwest Society of Wetland Scientists joint conference, Yakima, WA. 

Meyer, Therese. 2007. Native plant development for wildland restoration: Research at Great 

Basin Research Center. Society for Ecological Restoration and Pacific Northwest Society of 

Wetland Scientists joint conference, Yakima, WA. 

Meyer, Therese. 2007. Seeds in restoration. Society for Ecological Restoration Pacific Northwest 

Chapter and Society of Wetland Scientists Pacific Northwest Chapter joint conference, 

Yakima, WA. 

Meyer, Therese. 2007. Therese Meyer attended “Ecological Site Descriptions as a Management 

Tool” training workshop in Park City, UT. 

Posters:

Therese Meyer. 2007. Native plant development for wildland restoration: Research at Great 

Basin Research Center. Native wildflower seed production research symposium, Orlando, FL. 
24

Project Title: Phylogeographic Characterization of Genetic Diversity in 

Basalt Milkvetch 

Project Location: USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Lab, Logan, UT

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Shaun Bushman, Geneticist (Plants) 

 USDA ARS Forage and Range Research Laboratory 

 Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-6300 

 435.797.2901, Fax 435.797.3075 

 shaun.bushman@ars.usda.gov 

 Doug Johnson, Plant Physiologist 

 USDA ARS Forage and Range Research Laboratory 

 Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-6300 

 435.797.3067, Fax 435.797.3075 

doug.johnson@ars.usda.gov 

Kishor Bhattarai, Ph.D. Student 

 Department of Plants, Soils, and Climatology 

 Utah State University 

 Logan, UT 84322-4820 

 435.764.0649 

kishorbhattarai9@yahoo.com 

Project Description: 

This project is being conducted to ensure that the best selection and release strategies will be 

used to most effectively represent existing genetic variation within the widespread North 

American legume, Astragalus filipes (basalt milkvetch). Inherent molecular marker-based 

diversity and population structure was obtained from 81 previously collected accessions of basalt 

milkvetch. Seeds from these accessions were germinated in a greenhouse in Logan, UT. DNA 

was extracted from 10 plants of each accession, and the AFLP procedure was used for molecular 

marker development. 

Exploratory analysis of the molecular data from these 81 accessions was conducted using 

Analysis of MOlecular VAriance (AMOVA), which indicated significant population structure (P

< 0.001). Two groups of populations were prominent in their distinction, one group from Canada 

and another group from central Nevada (Fig. 1). No other groups of accessions were apparent. 

In support of this, Bayesian analysis conducted with the program STRUCTURE v2.1 was also 

used to explore population structure in the accessions. Between two and 16 population structures 

were tested. A general increase in fit was found as the numbers of structures increased (Fig. 2), 

and significant admixture among some populations was detected. Thus the exploratory data 

analysis suggests two distinct populations (central Nevada and British Columbia), and one 

‘catchall’ population that encompasses the vast majority of accessions. However, further indepth analyses are required to confirm the groups of accessions. 
25

Kishor Bhattarai (a M.S. student at Utah State University supported from funds on this project) 

conducted a series of greenhouse and field experiments with basalt milkvetch. Two greenhouse 

studies evaluated combinations of six rhizobial strains with several basalt milkvetch accessions 

for their N-fixation characteristics. Plants inoculated with rhizobial strain I-49 had the greatest 

nodule weight, number of nodules, and shoot N compared to plants inoculated with other 

rhizobial strains. Results showed that I-49 was the best strain across all basalt milkvetch 

accessions tested. Consequently, I-49 will be made commercially available (EMD Crop 

BioScience, 13100 West Lisbon Ave., Brookfield, WI 53005, phone: 262-957-2000). Data were 

also obtained from common garden experiments at two sites in northern Utah (Evans Farm and 

Millville). Collected accessions were evaluated for forage yield and quality, regrowth after 

defoliation, seed yield, and seed weight. Kishor used these data for his thesis, which he 

successfully defended in Spring 2007. Manuscripts summarizing the study results are being 

finalized and submitted to journals for publication. 

In consultation with those administering the Great Basin Native Seed Increase Project, it was 

determined that a pooling of basalt milkvetch accessions from across the Northern Basin and 

Range Ecoregion (Number 80) would be most useful for restoration, reclamation, and 

rehabilitation efforts in the northern Great Basin. Basalt milkvetch accessions from the Northern 

Basin and Range Ecoregion with the highest seed yields were identified. In addition, two 

accessions from these collections were excluded from NBR-1 Germplasm because they had 

detectable levels of selenium, nitrotoxin, or swainsonine. The remaining 12 selected accessions 

were not statistically different from each other for seed yield and were used to constitute NBR-1 

Germplasm. The 12 constituent accessions of NBR-1 come from sites in Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, 

Utah, and California that ranged in elevation from about 1,315 to 1,874 m (4,300 to 6,200 feet). 

The NBR-1 germplasm did not contain seed from accessions in central Nevada that were distinct 

in exploratory molecular analysis. Seed collected from the respective wildland collection sites 

for these 12 selected accessions was bulked in equal amounts to form the G0 generation of NBR1 Germplasm. 

NBR-1 Germplasm was placed in the manipulated track for release because not all original 

collections from the Northern Basin and Range Ecoregion were included as constituent 

accessions of NBR-1 Germplasm. No further selection or manipulation was conducted for any 

traits besides the above-mentioned selection for seed yield, and selection against selenium, 

nitrotoxin, and swainsonine content. NBR-1 Germplasm was approved for release by the Utah 

Crop Improvement Association and USDA-ARS. Seed of NBR-1 Germplasm will be increased 

in Oregon and Utah. 

Publications: 

Bhattarai, K. 2007. Potential of basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes Torr. Ex A. Gray) 

populations and rhizobial strains for revegetation and restoration of Intermountain West 

rangelands. Utah State University, Logan, Utah. M.S. thesis. 116 p. 

Bhattarai, K., D. A. Johnson, T. A. Jones, and D. R. Gardner. Physiological and morphological 

characteristics among ecotypes of basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes). Rangeland Ecology 

and Management. (submitted) 
26

Presentations: 

Bhattarai, K., D. A. Johnson, and T. A. Jones. 2007. Basalt milkvetch: candidate species for 

rangeland restoration in the western U.S. Abstracts of the Ecological Society of America 

annual meetings, San Diego, Calif. 

Johnson, D.A., K. Bhattarai, T. Jones, and S. Bushman. 2007. North American legumes for 

rangeland restoration, conservation, and forage production in the western United States. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for Range 

Management 60th annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 

Management Applications: 

The molecular information generated from this project is being used to genetically characterize 

collections of basalt milkvetch across six states of the western U.S. and British Columbia, 

Canada. These molecular data will allow identification of optimal germplasm releases to most 

effectively represent existing genetic variation in basalt milkvetch. These data are critical in 

determining if collections of basalt milkvetch can be treated as one unstructured population, or if 

significant differences in genetic diversity and population structure exist so that populations need 

to be grouped into several distinct populations for release. 

Products: 

Plant release 

NBR-1 Germplasm of basalt milkvetch was released for use in the northern Great Basin. When 

used in seed mixtures with adapted grasses and shrubs, basalt milkvetch will be of value in 

stabilizing degraded rangelands, revegetation of disturbed areas, and beautifying roadsides. This 

native legume will be of use where introduced species are not desired. The attractive foliage and 

flowers of basalt milkvetch make it an excellent choice for use in wildflower seed mixtures. 

Grants leveraged through GBNPSIP 

A $5,400 grant through the Center for Integrated Biology at Utah State University was leveraged 

through GBNPSIP to support the dissertation research of Kishor Bhattarai. This funding will be 

used to partially defray costs of chemicals, enzymes, DNA extraction kits, consumables, and 

DNA analyses on the project. The funding will also provide partial support for Kishor Bhattarai 

to present project results at the 2009 Annual Meeting of the Society for Range Management in 

Albuquerque, New Mexico. 

 
27

Figure 1. Neighbor-joining dendrogram of 81 basalt milkvetch accessions using analysis of molecular variance 

estimates of differences. 
28

 

2

3

4

5 6

7

8

9

10 11

12 13 14 15 16

-235000

-230000

-225000

-220000

-215000

-210000

-205000

-200000

-195000

-190000

Structures

Average Ln Likelihood

Figure 2. Log likelihood estimates of testing 2 to 16 population structures using Bayesian 

clustering in the program STRUCTURE 2.1. Increases in Log likelihood values suggest a better 

fit of data to the structure size tested. 
29

Project Title: Adapted Indian Ricegrass, Genetic Diversity Patterns of 

Allium acuminatum, and Genetic Diversity and 

Genecology of Bluebunch Wheatgrass

Project Location: Plant Germplasm Introduction and Research, USDA-ARS Western 

Regional Plant Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, WA 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist 

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station 

Box 646402, Washington State University 

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.3771, Fax 509.335.6654 

rcjohnson@wsu.edu 

 

1. Adapted Indian Ricegrass for the Great Basin 

Additional Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Mike Cashman, Biologist 

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station 

Box 646402, Washington State University 

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.6219, Fax 509.335.6654 

mjcashman@wsu.edu 

 

Project Description: 

Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides [Roem. & Schult.] Barkworth) has a major role in 

wildlife habitat and grazing in the Great Basin. Current releases of Indian ricegrass are useful but 

we know of no germplasm derived specifically from the Great Basin. Information on how Indian 

ricegrass germplasm varies across the landscape and which populations may be best adapted is 

lacking. Considering the importance of Indian ricegrass in the Great Basin plant community, 

germplasm specifically adapted to Great Basin climatic and environmental factors is critically 

needed. 

The available USDA-ARS collections of Indian ricegrass collections are primarily from the 

eastern and southern regions of the Great Basin, extending into Colorado, Arizona, and New 

Mexico. This material was established in common gardens in 2007 to relate genetic variation to 

environmental factors and develop adaptive seed zones. 

Collections of new germplasm in the northern and central Great Basin are ongoing and should be 

completed in 2008. This germplasm will form the basis of additional genecology studies and will 

include families within collection locations to assess genetic variation across the landscape. So 

far, about 45 Indian ricegrass accessions have been collected. 
30

Objectives

1. Collect Indian Ricegrass from diverse sites and ecological areas in the Great Basin in 

areas previously uncollected, especially in the northern Great Basin. 

2. Based on the current collections representing the southern Great Basin, establish common 

garden studies in contrasting environments and measure numerous phenotypic factors 

associated with growth and development. Continue this research on new material 

collected from the northern Great Basin. 

3. Compare the patterns in phenotypic variation with molecular variation among and within 

Indian Ricegrass populations collected in the Great Basin. 

4. Identify seed transfer zones along with complementary in situ conservation sites. 

5. Make source-identified plant material available for utilization through the Western 

Regional Plant Introduction Station seed repository and the National Plant Germplasm 

System. 

Table 1. ANOVA summary for 2007 Indian ricegrass common gardens at Central Ferry WA, 

2007. 

Variable Mean CV P-values‡ 

 % Irrigation 

Env. 

Location Environ*Loc 

Heading date† 191.10 6.9 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.66 

Bloom date† 179.49 6.7 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.06 

Maturity date† 205.11 6.2 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.59 

Leaf width (mm) 1.88 36.9 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.43 

Leaf length (mm) 14.86 29.6 0.93 < 0.01 0.93 

Lf length/Lf width 8.92 45.2 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.64 

Lf length*Lf width 29.64 56.2 0.12 < 0.01 0.73 

Inflorescence quantity 13.45 73.9 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.36 

Seed Quant/Inflor 9.31 121.0 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 

Culm length (cm) 25.46 21.5 0.35 < 0.01 0.51 

Inflores. length (cm) 15.16 26.6 0.13 < 0.01 0.67 

Culm lth/Inflor lth 1.78 28.7 0.96 < 0.01 0.26 

Habit (1-9) 5.49 21.3 0.32 < 0.01 0.47 

Height/Habit 8.18 52.5 0.14 < 0.01 0.72 

Leaf texture (1-9) 5.16 24.6 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.18 

Leaf abundance (1-9) 4.82 23.2 0.15 < 0.01 0.22 

Lf Text/Lf width 3.47 49.9 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.35 

Leaf roll (1-9) 4.46 37.1 0.03 < 0.01 0.36 

Dry wt. (g) 51.40 36.1 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.33 

†Day of year 

‡Differences declared significant at P<0.05 

In spring 2007, a diverse set of 120 Indian Ricegrass accessions from the USDA germplasm 

collection was planted in a two common gardens at Central Ferry, WA, one under dryland and 

the other under light irrigation conditions, forming two growing environments. Evaluation of key 
31

growth and developmental traits was completed in 2007. The data showed that collection 

location effects were all highly significant (Table1). Thus, there was considerable genetic 

variation in collections across the southern Basin and extending into Colorado. Although the 

environments (irrigated and non-irrigated) differed for the majority of traits, the environment by 

location interaction was generally not significant (Table 1). Thus, irrigation caused differences in 

plant growth and development but the relative ranking of germplasm remained similar. 

Mean values of numerous traits correlated with location climatic/environmental data (Table 2). 

Elevation, latitude, and maximum and minimum temperatures were the factors that correlated 

most often with the plant traits. The correlation between seeds per inflorescence and latitude had 

the highest individual coefficient at r=0.40. Blooming date had five significant correlations with 

climatic factors, the most of any plant trait (Table 2). These results show a linkage between 

collection location climate/environment and plant traits, indicating a good potential for 

developing adaptive seed zones in Indian ricegrass. 

This research at Central Ferry will continue in 2008. We also expect to have to have sufficient 

new locations collected in 2008 for comprehensive genecology studies of new Great Basin 

collections starting in 2009. 

Table 2. Linear correlation between traits and environmental factors for Indian ricegrass (Central Ferry 

WA, 2007) 

Trait (n=112) Elev. Slope Aspect Lat. Long. 

Max. 

Temp. 

Min. 

Temp. Precip. 

Heading date ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Bloom date 0.24* 0.20* ns ns ns -0.34** -0.35** 0.19* 

Maturity date ns ns ns 0.23* ns ns ns ns 

Leaf width -0.30** ns ns ns ns ns 0.19* ns 

Leaf length -0.22* ns ns ns ns ns 0.21* ns 

Lf length/Lf width ns -0.19* ns ns 0.28** ns ns ns 

Lf length*Lf width -0.34** ns ns 0.21* ns ns 0.23* ns 

Inflores./plant ns ns ns -0.22* ns 0.33** 0.32** -0.20* 

Seeds/Inflor -0.25** ns ns 0.40** ns ns ns ns 

Culm length ns ns -0.20* 0.19* 0.21* ns ns 0.28** 

Inflores. length ns ns ns 0.20* ns ns ns ns 

Culm lth./Inflor lth ns ns ns ns 0.22* ns ns 0.22* 

Habit ns ns ns -0.38** ns 0.26** ns ns 

Height/Habit ns ns ns 0.36** ns -0.29** ns 0.28** 

Leaf texture 0.31** ns ns ns ns ns -0.24* ns 

Leaf abundance ns ns ns 0.23* ns ns ns ns 

Lf Text/Lf width 0.24* ns ns ns ns ns -0.22* ns 

Leaf roll 0.28** ns ns ns 0.26** ns -0.24* ns 

Dry wt. -0.30** ns ns ns ns 0.19* 0.29** ns 

*,**,ns, Significant at P<0.05, P<0.01, and not significant, respectively. 
32

Presentations: 

Johnson, R.C. 2007. Uncovering adapted native germplasm for successful restoration. Society 

for Ecological Restoration Northwest/Society for Wetland Scientists joint meeting, Yakima, 

WA. 

Management Applications: 

Results from this study will be used to develop guidelines and appropriate source material for 

revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin and adjacent areas. 

Products: 

Adapted germplasm for the Great Basin conservation of germplasm within the National Plant 

Germplasm System. 

2. Genetic Diversity Patterns of Allium acuminatum in the Great Basin 

Additional Principal Investigator and Contact Information:

Barbara Hellier, Horticulture Crops Curator 

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station 

Box 646402, Washington State University 

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.3763, Fax 509.335.6654 

bhellier@ wsu.edu 

Project Description: 

Genetic information to identify locally adapted seed sources for restoration and reclamation is 

generally lacking. An understanding of the geographic and ecological distance that plant 

material should be transferred from original source populations is critically needed. Allium 

acuminatum Hook. (Taper-tip onion) is an important Great Basin forb associated with healthy 

rangeland and good habitat for sage-grouse. Studies using molecular markers and phenotypic 

traits are being conducted to determine genetic variation and seed transfer zones of A. 

acuminatum across the Great Basin. Genetic resource management strategies based on 

biological conservation principals will be developed leading to identification of candidate in-situ

reserves (sites on federal lands where key populations are located). Populations maintained insitu would provide conservation of genetic variation representing eco-geographic areas in the 

Great Basin. In addition, ex-situ conservation will be carried out at the USDA ARS gene bank at 

Pullman, WA. Gene bank conservation will provide 1) readily available, source-identified 

genetic resources for research and increase and 2) security back-up of in-situ sites. Overall, this 

project will provide information to federal agency policy makers, USDA NRCS Plant Material 

Centers, and commercial collectors/producers to improve genetic quality and production 

efficiency of this species.

Objectives

1. Collect and maintain native Allium acuminatum (Taper-tip onion) for use in restoration 

and reclamation on western public lands. 
33

2. Link ecological-geographic variation with genetic variation of Allium acuminatum to 

identify key populations for conservation and to delineate seed transfer zones. 

3. Identify candidate in-situ sites for the conservation of Allium acuminatum genetic 

variation representing eco-geographic areas in the Great Basin. 

Project Status: 

Collections

In 2005, A. acuminatum bulbs were collected from 55 populations throughout eastern Oregon, 

southern Idaho and northeastern Nevada (Fig. 1). Potential population locations were gathered 

from herbaria records and USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management 

personnel. This information was organized into a spreadsheet for field use and entered into a 

GIS-based map to aid in collection planning. We had two collecting teams of two persons each, 

one focused on Oregon and Idaho, the other team collected in Nevada. Each team followed the 

same collection protocol. First the population size and area were estimated. Then 40 to 50 bulbs 

per population were collected from across the given population. Only populations with 250 or 

more individuals were collected so in situ population integrity was not compromised. 

Collections were made from June 17 to July 2, 2005 and spanned 1430 m (4692 ft) of elevation 

and covered approximately 620 km (385 mi.) east-west and 445 km (277 mi.) north-south, 

between N 39° to 44° latitude and W 114o to 119o longitude. Allium acuminatum was collected 

in 20 of the Level IV Omernick Ecoregions across the Great Basin. 

Figure 1. Collection locations for Allium acuminatum in 2005 

representing 20 Level IV Omernick Ecoregions. 
34

Molecular Markers

Using nine primer pairs and Sequence Related Amplified Polymorphisms (SRAP) (Li and 

Quiros, 2001), 167 unambiguous polymorphic markers were scored for each of 

the 55 A. acuminatum collections. The STRUCTURE program as described by Evanno et al. 

(2005) was used with the marker data to find five main A. acuminatum groups for Great Basin 

germplasm. Although there was overlap, the groups tended to cluster in different geographic 

areas across the collection area. Thus, molecular markers showed differences among A. 

acuminatum populations from different collection locations. This means that continuing work to 

define seed zones is needed to ensure that properly adapted material is used for restoration. 

Common Gardens

Bulbs were planted in the greenhouse and vernalized at 4o

C. After plant emergence, leaf tissue 

was collected for DNA marker analysis. Plants were transplanted to the field in the spring of 

2006. Common gardens were established at Pullman, WA (780 m elevation; 46° 43’ 28.05” N 

and 117 08’ 07.94”W) and Central Ferry, WA (206 m elevation; 46° 41’ 52.78” N and 117° 39’ 

52.55” W). Four plants from each of the 55 collection sites were randomized in five complete 

blocks at both locations. Thus there were 1,100 plants established at each site. In 2006, plants 

were evaluated for the factors in Table 1. For eight of the 11 factors there were significant 

location effects (Table 1). Differences in bolting, flowering, and seed maturity dates occurred 

along with differences in leaf number, and flower and umbel characteristics. There were also 

significant garden site by collection location interactions for bolting and seed maturity dates, and 

for flower color. Thus, for these traits, where the plants were grown modified their development 

and flower color. The implication is that seed from one location planted in another will grow 

and develop differently than local material and as such may be ecologically unsuitable. 

 

Table 1. Allium acuminatum ANOVA summary from common gardens at 

Pullman and Central Ferry, WA sites and 55 collection locations (2006). 

Factor n mean CV 

Prob. 

Site 

Prob. 

Loc 

Prob. 

Site X Loc

Bolting date† 248 113 4.0 <0.001 <0.001 0.003 

Leaves/plant 467 2.17 19.5 ns‡ <0.001 ns 

Flowering date† 229 146 2.2 <0.001 <0.001 ns 

Flower color (1-9) 230 6.95 11.4 ns <0.001 0.008 

Flowers/umbel 227 15.6 38.6 0.012 0.020 ns 

Umbel dia.(mm) 227 37.1 25.6 0.023 ns ns 

Scape dia. (mm) 231 1.71 28.4 ns ns ns 

Scape length (mm) 230 99.8 28.8 ns <0.001 ns 

Seed Maturity date† 183 174.8 6.7 <0.001 0.024 <0.001 

Seeds/plant 170 15.7 70.9 0.001 ns ns 

†Day of year; ‡ns, not significant; flower color from 1, white to 8, purple 
35

The number of plots evaluated at the two sites in 2006 (Table 1) varied widely as many plants 

senesced soon after transplanting to the field. Prior to field planting, many plants showed active 

growth in the 4°C vernalization chamber and these often became dormant soon after 

transplanting. 

For 2007, plants from most plots developed and the data collected was more complete (Table 2). 

Strong location effects were observed in 2007 for all factors measured. As in 2006, the location 

by site interaction was significant for bolting and seed maturity date. For both years there were 

strong differences in plant development and morphology associated with collection location. 

Correlation between plant traits and climatic/environmental factors in 2007 was significant for 

numerous factors (Table 3). Bolting date showed relatively strong correlation between with 

elevation, maximum and minimum temperature, and precipitation. Elevation and maximum 

temperature each had four significant correlations with plant traits, and latitude, minimum 

temperature, and precipitation had three (Table 3). These data linking plant traits with 

climatic/environmental factors at their collection locations indicate that developing seed adaptive 

zones for Taper-tip onion should be possible. 

Table 2. Allium acuminatum ANOVA summary from common gardens at 

Pullman and Central Ferry, WA sites and 55 collection locations (Loc) (2007). 

Factor n Mean CV 

‡Prob. 

Site 

‡Prob. 

Loc 

‡Prob. 

Site X Loc

Bolting date† 500 107 2.6 ns‡ <0.001 0.010 

Leaf color (1-9) 497 3.02 13.1 <0.001 0.005 ns‡ 

Leaf habit (1-9) 497 7.26 8.3 0.001 <0.001 ns 

Leaf width (mm) 497 2.65 17.8 ns <0.001 ns 

Leaf length (mm) 487 127 14.3 0.244 <0.001 ns 

Leaves/plant 500 2.55 20.9 <0.001 <0.001 ns 

Flowering date† 487 147 1.46 <0.001 <0.001 ns 

Flower color (1-9) 487 7.11 17.0 0.024 <0.001 ns 

Flowers/umbel 487 28.6 31.1 0.006 0.018 ns 

Umbel dia.(mm) 487 52.4 17.1 ns 0.005 0.027 

Scape dia. (mm) 487 2.58 18.4 0.004 <0.001 ns 

Scape length (mm) 487 150 16.0 ns <0.001 ns 

Seed Maturity date† 487 175 1.7 <0.001 <0.001 0.059 

Seeds/plant 487 65.4 37.6 <0.001 <0.001 ns 

†Day of year; ‡ns, not significant; ‡ leaf habit from 1 decumbent, to 9 erect; flower color from 1, 

white to 9, purple; leaf color from 1 light green to 9 dark green. 

‡ Differences declared significant at P<0.05 
36

Table 3. Linear correlations between traits measured at Central Ferry and Pullman, WA in 2007 and 

environmental factors at collection location, 2007 (n=55). 

Traits Lat. Long. Elev. Slope Aspect 

Max. 

temp. 

Min. 

temp. 

Precip. Eco3 

Bolting ns ns 0.46** ns ns -0.50** -0.56** 0.31* ns 

Leaf color ns ns ns 0.27* ns ns ns ns ns 

Leaf habit ns ns ns -0.37** -0.30* ns ns ns ns 

Leaf length ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Leaf width -0.31* ns 0.26* ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Leaf number 0.28* ns ns ns ns -0.35** ns 0.54** ns 

Flowering ns ns ns ns ns -0.28* -0.34** ns ns 

Flower color -0.36** ns 0.32* ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Flowers/umbel ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Umbel dia. ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Scape dia. ns ns 0.29* ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Scape length ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Seed maturity ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Seeds/plant ns ns ns ns ns -0.28* -0.30* 0.42** ns 

*,**,ns, Significant at P<0.05, P<0.01, and not significant, respectively. 

Future Plans 

In 2008, data analysis will continue to determine adaptive seed zones and to guide conservation 

and revegetation decisions for A. acuminatum in the Great Basin. A manuscript for peer 

reviewed publication is expected in 2008 that will summarize results and recommendations. 

As this work is completed, informed decisions on seed transfer zones and population selection 

for potential in situ conservation/seed collection sites for A. acuminatum will be made. Then, as 

funding permits, work on seed production and stand establishment across the landscape will be 

pursued. For Allium there are two options for establishing field stands; sowing of true seed or 

dormant bulbs. Both methods are used in production of A. cepa, onion and A. sativum, garlic. 

The small size of A. acuminatum bulbs lends themselves to planting with conventional 

mechanical seeders. These two methods of stand establishment for A. acuminatum will be 

tested. Seeding rates and densities, weed control, methods for lifting bulbs from soil, and 

mechanical harvest will be examined. This will give the needed information on stand 

establishment and agronomic factors for seed production. 

Literature Cited

Evanno, G., S. Regnaut, and J. Goudet. 2005. Detecting the number of clusters of individuals 

using the software STRUCTURE: a simulation study. Molecular Ecology. 14: 2611-2620. 

Li, G. and C.F. Quiros. 2001. Sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP), a new marker 

system based on a simple PCR reaction: its application to mapping and gene tagging in 

Brassica. Theor. Appl. Genet. 103: 455-461. 

 
37

Publications: 

Johnson, R.C., B.C. Hellier, and T.J. Kisha. Collection, conservation, and seed zones for 

Tapertip onion (Allium acuminatum Hook.). in Jeff Norcini (ed.). Proceedings, native 

wildflower seed production research symposium, Orlando, Florida 

(http://nfrec.ifas.ufl.edu/Norcini/WFSympWeb/2007Sympindex.htm)

Presentations: 

 Johnson, R.C., B.C. Hellier, and T.J. Kisha. 2007. Collection, conservation, and seed zones for 

Tapertip onion (Allium acuminatum Hook.). Native wildflower seed production research 

symposium, Orlando, FL. 

Johnson, R.C. 2007. Uncovering adapted native germplasm for successful restoration. Society 

for Ecological Restoration Northwest/Society for Wetland Scientists joint meeting, Yakima, 

WA. 

Johnson, R.C.; B. Hellier, R. Adair, M. Cashman, B. St. Clair, N. Shaw, and V. Erickson. 

Uncovering adapted germplasm for the Great Basin: Tapertip onion, bluebunch wheatgrass 

and others. Developing native plant materials for the Great Basin. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project 2007 Symposium, Society for Range Management 60th annual 

meeting, Reno, NV. 

Management Applications: 

This work is providing the research needed to develop adapted germplasm for restoration in the 

Great Basin. In addition, long-term conservation and management of germplasm is being 

conducted within the National Plant Germplasm System. This provides security back-up for 

native populations that may be lost as a result of climate change and disturbances such as fire 

and invasive weeds. 

Products: 

Adapted germplasm for the Great Basin and conservation within the National Plant germplasm 

System.

3. Genetic Diversity and Genecology of Bluebunch Wheatgrass 

Project Location: Plant Germplasm Introduction and Research, USDA-ARS, 

Western Regional Plant Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, 

WA.; USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station 322 

E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, Idaho 83702; USDA Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, Oregon. 
38

Additional Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Nancy L. Shaw, Research Botanist 

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401 

Boise, Idaho 83702 

208.373.4360, Fax 208.373.4391 

nshaw@fs.fed.us 

Brad St.Clair, Research Geneticist 

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station 

Corvallis, Oregon 

541.750.7294 

bstclair@fs.fed.us 

Project Description: 

Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata [Pursh] Á. Löve) is a cool-season, long-lived, 

self-incompatible perennial bunchgrass of semi-arid regions of western North America. Many 

restoration projects using bluebunch wheatgrass rely upon the cultivars ‘Goldar’ and ‘Whitmar’, 

and to a greater extent on the newly available germplasms, Anatone and P-7. Another cultivar, 

‘Secar’, was originally misidentified and released as bluebunch wheatgrass, but is now 

recognized as a separate taxon, Snake River wheatgrass. The cultivars and germplasms have 

proven useful over a wide range of environments, with different cultivars or germplasms being 

better adapted to different areas. Goldar and Whitmar are better adapted to uplands and mesic 

sites, whereas Secar is better adapted to lower and drier areas. However, no research has 

examined genetic variation in relation to climatic factors across the Great Basin or the greater 

range of bluebunch wheatgrass in a large set of diverse populations. Questions concerning the 

suitability of cultivars will continue until this work is completed. Determining if and to what 

extent adaptive genetic variation is linked to climatic variation is needed to ensure that the proper 

germplasm is chosen for revegetation. 

Objectives

1. Determine genetic variation among bluebunch wheatgrass from a wide range of source 

environments in the inland West and Great Basin 

2. Relate genetic variation to environmental variation at collection locations 

3. Compare common cultivars of bluebunch wheatgrass to native sources 

4. Develop seed transfer guidelines. 

In 2005, seed was collected from eight western states including many locations in the Great 

Basin. In fall 2006, 127 diverse populations, each represented by two families, along with five 

cultivars, were established in common gardens at Pullman, WA, Central Ferry, WA, and at the 

USFS Lucky Peak Nursery near Boise, ID. In-depth evaluation of plants at each site was 

completed in 2007. 

In 2007, data were collected on each of 16 plant traits at three study sites (Pullman and Central 

Ferry WA, and Lucky Peak ID) resulting in approximately 4,600 data points for each trait 
39

(~73,560 total data points). Analyses of variance were completed to determine the effects of 

garden site, collection location, and the site by location interaction on the measured traits (Table 

1). 

Table 1. ANOVA summary for selected traits of bluebunch wheatgrass 

measured at Pullman and Central Ferry WA, and Lucky Peak ID, 2007 

Trait P-value† 

 CV Mean Site Loc Site x Loc 

Pt. habit, 1-9‡ 16.9 6.25 0.0100† <0.0001 <0.0001 

Leaf pubes.,1-9‡ 29.0 4.74 0.0747 <0.0001 <0.0001 

Leaf width, mm 92.7 0.55 0.4683 <0.0001 0.9893 

Leaf length, mm 23.9 14.7 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0184 

Leaf color, 1-9‡ 69.0 3.28 0.5314 <0.0001 0.1194 

Heading date 5.08 133 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0009 

Plant ht, cm 23.9 36.6 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 

Culm length, cm 21.8 40.9 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 

Anthesis date 14.1 148 <0.0001 0.0002 0.1535 

Inflor. Num 65.1 29.2 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 

Spikelets/spike 29.7 10.0 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0327 

Awn length, 1-9‡ 34.1 4.48 0.9343 <0.0001 0.0163 

Maturity date 4.7 189 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 

Dry wt., g 56.1 42.0 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 

Crown width, cm 30.8 5.53 0.0003 <0.0001 0.0183 

Regrowth wt. 99.4 8.70 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 

†P-values declared significant at <0.05. 

‡Trait was rated from 1-9 with 1 indicating decumbent habit, no leaf 

pubescence, light green color, and short awn length 

The data showed strong collection location effects for all factors measured indicating genetic 

differences were present among the populations collected at different locations. Given these 

results the prospects for genecology analysis appears good. 

The majority of traits had significant site effects as might be expected given the different 

environments at Pullman, Central Ferry, and Lucky Peak. However, 13 of the 16 traits had 

significant garden site by collection location interactions. This shows that growth and 

development of bluebunch wheatgrass germplasm cannot be predicted based on evaluation at any 

one site, and differences in adaptation among collection locations are likely. Continued data 

collection is planned for 2008. 

Presentations: 

Johnson, R.C. 2007. Uncovering adapted native germplasm for successful restoration. Society 

for Ecological Restoration Northwest/Society for Wetland Scientists joint meeting, Yakima, 

WA. 
40

Management Applications: 

Results from this study will be used to develop guidelines and appropriate source material for 

revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin and adjacent areas. 

Products: 

Adapted germplasm for the Great Basin conservation of germplasm within the National Plant 

Germplasm System. 
41

Project Title: Establishment and Maintenance of Certified Generation 1 

(G1) Seed, Propagation of Native Forbs, Plant Display 

Nursery Evaluation, and Development of Technology to 

Improve the Diversity of Introduced Grass Stands and 

Post-wildfire Seedings 

Location: NRCS Aberdeen, ID Plant Materials Center 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Loren St. John, Center Manager

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, 

P.O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210 

(208)397-4133, Fax (208)397-3104 

Loren.Stjohn@id.usda.gov 

Dan Ogle, Plant Materials Specialist, Boise, ID 

USDA-NRCS Idaho State Office 

9173 West Barnes Drive, Suite C, Boise, ID 83709. 

(208) 685-6987, Fax (208)378-5735 

Dan.Ogle@id.usda.gov 

 

Project Description: 

Production of Certified Generation 1 (G1) seed of Anatone Germplasm bluebunch wheatgrass, 

Maple Grove Germplasm Lewis flax, Snake River Plains Germplasm fourwing saltbush, and 

Northern Cold Desert Germplasm winterfat to facilitate commercial seed production. 

Propagation of native forbs for evaluation and seed increase. Evaluation of display nursery near 

Boise, ID. Assist in development of technology to improve the diversity of introduced grass 

stands by evaluating methods to introduce native species into established plant communities. 

Equipment and Strategies to enhance the post-wildfire establishment and persistence of Great 

Basin native plants. 

Project Status: 

1. Seed Production 

Anatone Germplasm Bluebunch Wheatgrass 

Currently 5.2 acres are in production. Estimated seed yield from 2007 seed crop is 1,384 

pounds. Shipped 400 pounds of Certified seed to commercial growers in 2007. 

Maple Grove Germplasm Lewis Flax

Seed fields established in 2005 (3.2 acres) and 2006 (3.2 acres) were contaminated with ‘Appar’ 

blue flax so harvested seed could not be certified. Attempts to rouge out Appar were 

unsuccessful. The field established in 2006 was used to conduct a herbicide tolerance trial in 

cooperation with the University of Idaho. No seed was shipped to commercial growers in 2006. 
42

The PMC will establish a new field in 2008 with stock seed to be provided by the FS Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. 

Snake River Plains Germplasm Fourwing Saltbush 

Estimated seed yield from 2007 crop is 24 pounds. No seed was requested by commercial 

growers in 2007. 

Northern Cold Desert Germplasm Winterfat

Estimated seed yield from 2007 crop is 8 pounds. Shipped 4 pounds of Certified seed to 

commercial growers in 2007. 

2. Propagation of Native Forbs 

The original project plan in 2005 was to propagate 8,000 plants total of Lomatium dissectum

(LODI) fernleaf biscuitroot, Lomatium grayii (LOGR) Grays biscuitroot, Lomatium triternatum 

(LOTR) nineleaf biscuitroot, Eriogonum umbellatum (ERUM) sulphurflower buckwheat, 

Penstemon deustus (PEDE) hotrock penstemon, Penstemon acuminatus (PEAC) sharpleaf 

penstemon, and Penstemon speciousus (PESP) sagebrush penstemon in the greenhouse. 

Approximately 1000 plants each of ERUM and LOTR were to be transplanted at the PMC and 

remaining plants were to be made available to cooperators for transplanting at field sites. Due to 

no plant establishment of Lomatium species and minimal success with greenhouse propagation of 

Penstemon species, no plants were made available to cooperators. All plants that were 

successfully propagated in the PMC greenhouse were transplanted at the PMC during the 2005 

growing season and direct dormant seeding of Eriogonum, Lomatium and Penstemon accessions 

were completed at the PMC in November 2005. Weed barrier fabric was installed to control 

weeds. 

On May 8, 2007 the biscuitroot and sulphurflower buckwheat plots were treated with a wick 

application of 100 percent Roundup to control weeds and on June 18 they were also hand 

weeded. On June 20, 2007 survival counts were made and seed was harvested at seed ripeness 

and the results are shown in the following table: 

 

 Survival Clean seed 

Species (percent) (pounds)

ERUM 40 4.0 

LODI 25 NA 

LOGR 70 NA 

LOTR 71 NA 

PEAC 68 8.0 (estimated) 

PEDE 58 19.0 (estimated) 

PESP 60 0.7 

By early July, the Lomatium species had gone completely dormant. None of the Lomatium plants 

have yet developed flowers. It is thought that most of their energy is still going to development 
43

of the taproot. In early November 2007 the dormant Lomatium plots were treated with a spray 

application of Roundup to control weeds that were still green. PEAC (a short-lived species) is 

beginning to die out. 

3. Orchard Display Nursery - Evaluation Summary 

Introduction

The Orchard Display Nursery was planted on November 16, 2004 in cooperation with the Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. The nursery includes 82 accessions of 27 

native and introduced grass, forb and shrub species. Each accession was planted in 7 X 60 foot 

plots. See Tilley et al. (2005) for descriptions of the species and accessions planted. The 

remaining area was planted to a cover crop mix of 50% Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass, 20% 

Bannock thickspike wheatgrass, 20% Magnar basin wildrye and 10% Snake River Plains 

fourwing saltbush. The test site is located on a loamy 10-12 inch precipitation ecological site that 

historically supported a Wyoming big sagebrush - bluebunch wheatgrass – Thurber’s needlegrass 

plant community. Total precipitation at the Orchard Test Site for water year 2005 was 9.6 inches, 

2006 was 14.4 inches and total accumulated precipitation for 2007 was 8.5 inches (USDA 2007). 

Monthly precipitation at Orchard, ID test site

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep

Inches

2005

2006

2007

Materials and Methods 

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) burned the site in the fall of 2002. The PMC staff 

sprayed the site in May 2003 and May 2004 with a Roundup/2,4-D herbicide mix to create a 

weed free seedbed. Due to limited breakdown of dead grass clumps that would inhibit proper 

seed placement with a drill and to ensure a clean seedbed, the decision was made to cultivate the 

site with a culti-packer just prior to seeding. During the first evaluation most plots contained high 

numbers of Russian thistle (Salsola sp.) and moderate amounts of bur buttercup (Ranunculus

testiculatus Crantz) plants. Russian thistle plants were approximately 2 to 3 inches tall and the 

buttercup plants had already flowered. At the time of the second evaluation, there was a heavy 
44

infestation of tumble mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum L.). Plots were consequently sprayed 

again on June 9, 2005 with 16 oz. 2,4-D and 8 oz. Clarity per acre to control the mustard. 

The first evaluation of the plots for initial establishment was conducted on April 27, 2005 using a 

frequency grid based on that described by Vogel and Masters (2001). The grid measured 

approximately 40 x 41 inches, having four 10-inch columns (to incorporate 1 drill row per 

column) and five rows, totaling 20 cells. The first grid was laid on the rows approximately two 

grid lengths (80 inches) into the plot. Counts were made of the cells that contained at least one 

plant. Grids were subsequently flipped and evaluated three more times giving a total of 80 

evaluated cells. Total area for one grid is approximately 1 m2. Total area evaluated is therefore 

approximately 4 m2. A conservative estimate of plant density (plants/m2) is the total number of 

cells containing at least one plant divided by four. The second evaluation occurred on May 25, 

2005. The 2006 evaluation was conducted on May 31, and the 2007 evaluation took place on 

May 16. The methods followed in 2006 and 2007 were the same as described above; however, 

the frame was evaluated five times for a total of 100 cells or 5 m2

. Total counts were then 

divided by five for approximate plants/m2

. Numbers for approximate plants/m2 were then divided 

by 10.8 to calculate approximate plants/ft2. It is important to note that because cells with plants 

were counted and not number of plants per cell, the best possible score is 100 hits per five frames 

which converts to 20 plants/m2 or 1.85 plants/ft2. Actual plant density may be higher than the 

numbers indicated below. All tables have been arranged with accessions ranked from highest 

plant density to the lowest at the time of the second evaluation in 2005. Data were not analyzed 

for significance. 

Native Grasses

There were forty-seven accessions of native grasses planted. Overall the native grasses 

established well considering the limited amount of precipitation received over the winter and 

early spring of 2005. Especially good stands were seen in the bluebunch wheatgrass and Snake 

River wheatgrass plots during 2005. There was a marked decrease in plant density between the 

first and second evaluations with some notable exceptions. Seven of nine bluebunch wheatgrass 

accessions and three of four Snake River wheatgrass accessions increased in density from the 

first evaluation to the second. This is possibly due to receiving 2.5 inches of precipitation during 

that period and/or from a lack of pressure by black grass bugs (Labops sp.). Most of the native 

grasses decreased steadily in density from 2005 to 2007. 

In 2005 the best performing Indian ricegrass accession was White River, having a plant density 

of 0.56 plants/ft2

 during the first evaluation and 0.17 plants/ft2 during the second evaluation. In 

2006 and continuing to 2007 there were no plants of any Indian ricegrass accessions observed in 

the evaluation grids and very few seen within their respective plots. 

In 2005 the squirreltail plots had as high as 0.54 plants/ft2 with Fish Creek. In 2006 all 

squirreltail accessions had decreased. Fish Creek maintained the best plant density with 0.26 

plants/ft2

. Densities remained essentially the same in 2007. 

Bannock thickspike wheatgrass had a density of 1.04 plants/ft2

 and stayed essentially the same at 

the second evaluation of 2005. In 2006 Bannock had dropped to nearly half of the original 

density to 0.58 plants/ft2. The 2007 evaluations showed small declines from established plots. 
45

Revenue and San Luis slender wheatgrass both showed zero plants/ft2 in 2006. Pryor slender 

wheatgrass similarly dropped in density but had 0.02 plants/ft2. In 2007 no slender wheatgrass 

plants could be found in any of the evaluated grids. 

The western wheatgrass accessions had less dramatic declines in density from 2005 to 2006, but 

still showed poor stands with Rodan having the highest density of 0.13 plants/ft2. In 2007 all 

accessions had zero plants surviving. 

The bluebunch wheatgrass accessions had the highest average densities of all the native grasses. 

All decreased slightly in density from 2005 to 2006, but still maintained good stands. P-12, 

Wahluke and Jim Creek all had densities over 1.00 plants/ft2. Columbia, Anatone, P-7 and P-15 

had densities between 0.50 and 1.00 plants/ft2 while P-5 and Goldar both shared low densities. In 

2007 densities were generally slightly lower, but still higher than all other species as a whole. 

The highest density recorded in 2007 was Jim Creek at 1.07 plants/ft2. 

Snake River wheatgrass accessions had good densities the establishment year with three 

accessions having densities greater than 1.00 plants/ft2

. Numbers declined slightly yet steadily 

over the next 2 years. In 2007 the best density was from SERDP with 0.70 plants/ft2. 

The plant densities of the basin wildrye accessions also decreased from 2005 to 2006; U108-02 

and Trailhead retained the highest densities at 0.24 and 0.26 plants/ft2 respectively. By 2007 the 

best density was achieved by Trailhead with 0.17 plants/ft2

. U108-02 and U100-01 had similar 

densities with 0.11 and 0.13 plants/ft2 respectively. 

Sheep fescue stands remained poor from 2005 to 2006 with Covar slightly increasing from 0.00 

to 0.07 plants/ft2. In 2007 Covar still had 0.07 plants/ft2, and Initial Point sheep fescue had 

decreased to 0.00 plants/ft2

. 

Thurber’s needlegrass had no plants in the evaluated grids for any year. 

All five of the Sandberg bluegrass accessions increased in density from 2005 to 2006. The best 

stands were observed in the High Plains and Mountain Home plots with respective stands of 0.54 

and 0.35 plants/ft2

. In 2007 all stands had been reduced to 0.0 plants/ft2.
46

 4/27/05 5/25/05 5/30/06 5/16/07 

Species Name or accession -------------------------------Plants/ft2------------------------------- 

 

Indian ricegrass Rimrock 0.37 0.20 0.00 0.00 

White River 0.56 0.17 0.00 0.00

Nezpar 0.42 0.17 0.00 0.00

Ribstone 0.14 0.09 0.00 0.00

Paloma 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00

Squirreltail Fish Creek 0.97 0.54 0.26 0.22

Sand Hollow 0.37 0.20 0.19 0.20

Shaniko Plateau 0.81 0.52 0.06 0.09

Toe Jam Creek 0.58 0.17 0.00 0.00

9019219 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00

Thickspike wheatgrass Bannock 1.04 1.07 0.58 0.43

Schwendimar 0.69 0.52 0.39 0.24

Critana 0.90 0.56 0.24 0.17

Sodar 0.37 0.30 0.15 0.07

Slender wheatgrass Revenue 1.00 0.93 0.00 0.00

San Luis 0.60 0.69 0.00 0.00

Pryor 0.30 0.30 0.02 0.00

Western wheatgrass Rodan 0.28 0.35 0.13 0.00

Rosana 0.05 0.20 0.04 0.00

Arriba 0.16 0.15 0.06 0.00

Bluebunch wheatgrass Jim Creek 0.83 1.02 1.02 1.07 

Wahluke 0.97 1.26 1.02 0.98

P-12 1.34 1.59 1.04 0.89

Columbia 1.30 1.23 0.84 0.83

Anatone 0.81 1.15 0.80 0.69 

P-7 0.93 1.15 0.67 0.57 

P-15 0.60 0.93 0.54 0.50 

Goldar 0.51 0.37 0.33 0.19 

P-5 0.42 0.61 0.22 0.13 

Snake River wheatgrass SERDP 1.02 0.94 0.67 0.70 

Secar 1.00 1.11 0.76 0.56 

Expedition 1.27 1.44 0.54 0.41 

E-26 0.21 0.23 0.22 0.13 

Basin wildrye Trailhead 0.60 0.52 0.26 0.17 

U100-01 0.53 0.41 0.11 0.13 

U108-02 0.56 0.57 0.24 0.11 

Washoe 0.21 0.09 0.09 0.06 

Magnar 0.28 0.22 0.04 0.04 

U70-01 0.30 0.22 0.02 0.02 

Sheep fescue Covar 0.16 0.00 0.07 0.07 

Initial Point 0.21 0.04 0.02 0.00 

Thurber’s needlegrass Thurber’s 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Sandberg bluegrass High Plains 0.25 0.00 0.54 0.00 

Sherman 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 

Mountain Home 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.00 

Toole County, MT 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 

Hanford Source 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.00 

 
47

Introduced Grasses

Although many of the introduced grass accessions had fair emergence, an outbreak of black 

grass bugs at the time of the first evaluation in 2005 was noted. The infestation appeared limited 

to the introduced grass section of the nursery. Plants were covered with yellow spots making the 

plants appear yellow-green overall. Although most of the stands of the introduced grasses 

decreased from the first to the second evaluation, many stands had recovered and increased by 

2006 indicating that many plants thought to be dead during the second evaluation in 2005 were 

still alive. However, the plants of crested wheatgrass were very small when compared to the 

other wheatgrass accessions in the nursery and still appear to be recovering from black grass bug 

pressure. The 2007 evaluation showed all established plots with reduced densities, many 

accessions dropping out completely. 

In 2006 all of the crested wheatgrass accessions increased in density or remained approximately 

where they were in 2005. Ephraim rose from 0.28 to 1.23 plants/ft2

; however, many of the plants 

were small in size due to the black grass bug infestation during the spring of 2005. In 2007 the 

best density was obtained from Nordan with 0.67 plants/ft2

. Ephraim had dropped from 1.23 to 

0.02 plants/ft2. 

Both Siberian wheatgrass accessions similarly increased from 2005 to 2006, but decreased in 

2007. In 2007 Vavilov was down to 0.26 plants/ft2 and P-27 had 0.00 plants/ft2. 

The three pubescent wheatgrass accessions decreased from 2005 to 2006 with the highest density 

in 2006 coming from Manska at 0.28 plants/ft2

. Manska continued to have the best density in 

2007 with 0.13 plants/ft2. 

Rush intermediate wheatgrass, had 0.00 plants/ft2 in 2006 and 2007. 

Prairieland and Eejay Altai wildrye had zero plants in 2006. Pearl Altai wildrye had 0.02 

plants/ft2. In 2007 Prairieland and Eejay again had 0.00 plants/ft2 and Pearl increased slightly to 

0.04 plants/ft2

. 

The Russian wildrye accessions all increased in density with the exception of Tetracan which 

decreased slightly. The best stand was recorded in the Bozoisky Select plot with 0.58 plants/ft2. 

Bozoisky select had the best stand in 2007 with 0.35 plants/ft2

. Bozoisky II had the next best 

rating with 0.26 plants/ft2. 
48

 4/27/05 5/25/05 5/30/06 5/16/07 

Species Name or accession ------------------------Plants/ft2-------------------------- 

 

Crested wheatgrass Nordan 1.30 1.19 1.10 0.67 

Roadcrest 1.30 0.07 0.52 0.19 

Hycrest 0.39 0.24 0.15 0.07 

Ephraim 0.65 0.28 1.23 0.02 

CD-II 0.56 0.24 0.20 0.00 

Douglas 0.28 0.04 0.09 0.00 

Siberian wheatgrass Vavilov 0.65 0.20 0.61 0.26 

P-27 0.09 0.02 0.33 0.00 

Pubescent wheatgrass Manska 0.69 0.65 0.28 0.13 

Greenleaf 0.60 0.59 0.15 0.09 

Luna 0.79 0.54 0.13 0.00 

Intermediate wheatgrass Rush 0.60 0.56 0.00 0.00 

Pearl 0.35 0.15 0.02 0.04 

Altai wildrye Prairieland 0.56 0.39 0.00 0.00 

Eejay 0.16 0.28 0.00 0.00 

Russian wildrye Bozoisky Select 0.72 0.54 0.58 0.35 

Syn-A (Bozoisky II) 0.21 0.13 0.24 0.26 

 Mankota 0.46 0.28 0.32 0.19 

 Tetracan 0.42 0.20 0.17 0.07 

Forbs and Shrubs

Despite some good stands in 2005, all of the forb and shrub accessions except for Eagle yarrow 

had zero plants during the 2006 evaluation. Eagle had 0.07 plants/ft2

 in the frequency grids along 

with a small stand of plants at one end of the seeded plot. In 2007 more plants of Eagle had 

either germinated from the original seeding, or seed had spread from established plants. Plant 

density for Eagle in 2007 equaled 0.24 plants/ft2

. Snake River Plains fourwing saltbush also had 

a single plant found in the plots, increasing its density from 0.00 to 0.02 plants/ft2. 

 4/27/05 5/25/05 5/30/06 5/16/07 

Species Name or accession ---------------------------Plants/ft2------------------------ 

 

Western yarrow Eagle 0.51 0.50 0.07 0.24 

Great Northern 0.19 0.09 0.00 0.00 

Utah sweetvetch Timp 0.14 0.02 0.00 0.00 

Firecracker penstemon Richfield Selection 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 

Scarlet globemallow 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Lewis flax Maple Grove 0.42 0.15 0.00 0.00 

Blue flax Appar 0.90 0.26 0.00 0.00 

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 

Fourwing saltbush Snake River Plains 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 

Wytana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Rincon 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Gardner’s saltbush 9016134 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Winterfat Hatch 0.28 0.17 0.00 0.00 

Northern Cold Desert 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Open Range 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Forage kochia Immigrant 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 
49

Cover Crop

The cover crop consisted of a four species mix which contained: 50% Anatone bluebunch 

wheatgrass, 20% Bannock thickspike wheatgrass, 20% Magnar basin wildrye and 10% Snake 

River Plains fourwing saltbush. Four grids were examined during the first evaluation in 2005, 

one on each side of the nursery, and five grids were evaluated at the time of the second 

evaluation in 2005 and the 2006 evaluation. Total plant density was estimated at 0.37 plants/ft2 at 

the first evaluation and 0.57plants/ft2

 at the second evaluation. In 2006 the cover crop density 

was 0.13 plants/ft2. Cover crop densities increased in 2007 up to 0.20 plants/ft2. 

Discussion

Despite large amounts of Russian thistle, native and introduced grasses had fair to good 

emergence and plant density during the establishment year. Germination and emergence might 

have increased with more precipitation during March and April, 2005 but emergence was good 

with the rain that was received. The majority of the plots showed decreased stands from 2005 to 

2006 and again into 2007. The low precipitation at the site, especially the lack of moisture in 

July and August every year seems to have eliminated many of the less drought tolerant 

accessions. One concern is the effect of black grass bugs on the introduced grasses. Plants 

subjected to black grass bug are normally affected by decreased seed yield and a reduction in 

palatability. Infestations rarely result in the death of established plants, but in low water years 

establishing plants may be under enough stress to kill the establishing seedlings (Hammon and 

Peairs 2001). The second evaluation in 2005 indicated a loss in plant densities; however it 

appears that many of the plants survived, although stunted, through 2006. In 2007 many more 

plants had died out leaving poor or no stands in many plots. Snake River and bluebunch 

wheatgrass had consistently good stands from essentially all accessions. Introduced species like 

crested wheatgrass and Russian wildrye also had good performers such as Nordan and Bozoisky 

select. 

Future evaluations will provide more information on plant establishment, persistence and 

longevity. The PMC staff will continue to evaluate plant performance at the site. 

Literature Cited

Hammon, R.W. and F.B. Peairs. 2001. Black grass bugs. Colorado State University Cooperative 

Extension. No. 5.575. 

[USDA NRCS] USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2007. National Water and 

Climate Center. http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/snotel/. Accessed 20 October 2006. 

Tilley, D.J., D.G. Ogle, and L. St. John. 2005. NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center Display 

Nursery, Orchard, Idaho. Aberdeen, ID Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. 10 January 2005. 

10 p. 

Vogel, K.P. and R.A. Masters. 2001. Frequency grid-a simple tool for measuring grassland 

establishment. Journal of Range Management 54(6): 653-655. 
50

4. Develop Technology to Improve the Diversity of Introduced Grass Stands 

The PMC assisted Brigham Young University (BYU) Provo, UT and the Agricultural Research 

Service (ARS) Burns, OR in developing technology to improve the diversity of introduced grass 

stands by evaluating methods to introduce native species into established introduced plant 

communities. In 2005, the PMC modified a Truax Rough Rider range drill, mixed the seed and 

rice hull mixtures and completed the first year of seedings at sites in Utah and Oregon. In 2006, 

modified seed drop boots by the manufacturer were installed on the Truax drill and the second 

year of seeding was completed. In addition to these seedings, the PMC also seeded drill 

comparison trials near Elko, NV on recently burned rangeland to compare the Truax drill to the 

Kemmerer drill, a standard range drill used by BLM. The Truax drill is designed to both 

broadcast and drill seed in the same pass so species that require broadcasting or very shallow 

planting depth were broadcast and the deeper seeded species were drill seeded in alternating 

rows. 

In 2007, seeding trials were scheduled to be planted near Elko, NV. However, seedbed 

preparation was unable to be completed. Trials have been rescheduled to the fall of 2008. 

5. Equipment and Strategies to Enhance the Post-wildfire Establishment and Persistence 

of Great Basin Native Plants

The objectives of this project are to: examine seeding techniques for Wyoming big sagebrush; 

test seeding technology for native species, particularly native forbs; compare the ability of a 

modified rangeland drill and an experimental minimum-till drill to plant native seeds of diverse 

size and to reduce surface disturbance; apply and examine the use of USGS proposed monitoring 

protocols for gauging seeding success for both the short and long term; and provide plantings for 

long-term examination of livestock on diversity in native seedings. 

The minimum-till drill (Truax Rough Rider range drill), which has been modified by PMC 

personnel, was provided by the FS Rocky Mountain Research Station. The PMC provided a 

trailer and tractor and the Utah Division of Wildlife provided an additional tractor. The modified 

rangeland drill (Kemmerer range drill) was provided by the BLM. 

The PMC mixed the seed and rice hull mixtures and calibrated the drills prior to seeding. The 

PMC also made a modification to the Kemmerer drill by replacing the existing drop tubes with 

used aluminum 3-inch diameter irrigation pipe to facilitate seed flow to the drill openers. The 

aluminum pipe provided a more slippery surface for the seed to flow. The drills were set up to 

both broadcast and drill seed in the same pass so species that require broadcasting or very 

shallow planting were broadcast and the deeper seeded species were drill seeded in alternating 

rows. 
51

Wildfire sites near Mountain Home, ID and Burns, OR were seeded during the week of October 

28, 2007. A total of approximately 184.3 acres were seeded in plots to the following mixes: 

Cover Crop Mix 

24.3 acres 

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Rimrock Indian ricegrass 4.5 5.25 

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 4.0 4.64 

Rice hulls 6.16 

Drill Mix 

80.0 acres 

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Rimrock Indian ricegrass 1.0 1.17 

Munro globemallow 0.50 0.94 

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 2.0 2.32 

Toe Jam Creek squirreltail 1.0 1.09 

Sulphurflower buckwheat 0.24 0.39 

Rice hulls 1.79 

Mountain Home 10X Broadcast Mix 

5 acres 

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac bulk seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 1.30 6.22 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.50 1.85 

Hotrock penstemon 0.09 0.16 

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.40 0.48 

Rice hulls 5.05 

Mountain Home 5X Broadcast Mix 

30 acres 

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac bulk seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.65 3.11 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.50 1.85 

Hotrock penstemon 0.09 0.16 

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.40 0.48 

Rice hulls 5.05 
52

Mountain Home Standard Broadcast Mix 

5 acres 

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac bulk seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.13 0.62 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.50 1.85 

Hotrock penstemon 0.09 0.16 

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.40 0.48 

Rice hulls 3.54 

Burns 10X Broadcast Mix 

5 acres 

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac bulk seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.95 3.25 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.50 1.85 

Hotrock penstemon 0.09 0.16 

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.40 0.48 

Rice hulls 8.03 

Burns 5X Broadcast Mix 

30 acres 

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac bulk seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.45 1.54 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.50 1.85 

Hotrock penstemon 0.09 0.16 

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.40 0.48 

Rice hulls 6.62 

Burns Standard Broadcast Mix 

5 acres 

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac bulk seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.10 0.34 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.50 1.85 

Hotrock penstemon 0.09 0.16 

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.40 0.48 

Rice Hulls 3.81 

It is planned to repeat these trials in the fall of 2008. Location of the trials to be determined 

based on areas that burn during the 2008 fire season. 
53

Publications: 

(Available online at http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/idpmc/publications.html) 

St. John, L., B. Cornforth, B. Simonson, D. Ogle, and D. Tilley. 2007. Technical Note 20: 

Calibrating the Truax Rough Rider drill for restoration plantings. Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center, Aberdeen, ID. December 10, 2007. 14 p. 

Tilley, D.J., L. St. John, and D. G. Ogle. 2007. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

activities at the Aberdeen, Idaho Plant Materials Center. Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, 

Aberdeen, ID. January 18, 2007. 1 p. 

Tilley, D.J., D. G. Ogle, and L. St. John. 2007. Parsnipflower buckwheat Plant Guide. Aberdeen 

Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. March 30, 2007. 3 p. 

Tilley, D.J. and L. St. John 2006. Orchard Display Nursery evaluation summary (2005-2006). 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. October 24, 2006. 6 p. 

Tilley, D. J. 2007. Reintroducing native plants to the American West. Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center, Aberdeen, ID. February 20, 2007. 2 p. 

St. John, L., D. J. Tilley, and D.G. Ogle. 2006. Plants for solving resource problems - Anatone 

germplasm bluebunch wheatgrass. Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. October 

12, 2006. 2 p. Release brochure. 

St. John, L., D. J. Tilley, and D.G. Ogle. 2006. Plants for solving resource problems - Maple 

Grove Flax. Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. November 13, 2006. 2 p. 

Release brochure. 

St. John, L., D. J. Tilley, and D.G. Ogle. 2006. Plants for solving resource problems - Northern 

Cold Desert Winterfat. Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho. November 15, 

2006. 2p. Release brochure. 

St. John, L., D. J. Tilley, and D.G. Ogle. 2006. Plants for solving resource problems - Snake 

River Plains germplasm fourwing saltbush. Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. 

November 7, 2006. 2 p. Release brochure. 

St. John, L. 2006. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project - 2006 Annual Report. 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.December 19, 2006. 11 p. 

Presentations: 

Tilley, D. Aberdeen PMC report of activities 2006: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project. Society for Range Management annual meeting, Reno, NV. 
54

Management Applications: 

1. Certified seed stock of Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass, Snake River Plains fourwing saltbush, 

and Northern Cold Desert winterfat produced by the PMC is available though the University of 

Idaho Foundation Seed Program and Utah Crop Improvement Association. 

2. Based on propagation studies at the PMC, sulphur-flower buckwheat, hotrock, sagebrush and 

sharpleaf penstemon appear to be able to be commercially grown, at least with the use of weed 

barrier fabric. Lomatium species are taking a long time to mature to reproductive stage and may 

not be conducive to commercial production because of the long period to reach reproductive 

capability. 

3. The Orchard Display Nursery has been established for 3 years. The best performing native 

accessions identified in 2007 are: Fish Creek germplasm bottlebrush squirreltail, ‘Bannock’ 

thickspike wheatgrass, Jim Creek germplasm bluebunch wheatgrass, SERDP Snake River 

wheatgrass, ‘Trailhead’ basin wildrye, Eagle germplasm western yarrow and Snake River Plains 

germplasm fourwing saltbush. 

Products: 

1. Certified seed stock of Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass, Snake River Plains fourwing saltbush, 

and Northern Cold Desert winterfat produced by the PMC is available though the University of 

Idaho Foundation Seed Program and Utah Crop Improvement Association 

2. Seed of sulphur-flower buckwheat and hotrock penstemon that were produced from the 

propagation studies were planted in the seed mixtures for the post-wildfire establishment study. 

3. Technical Note 20: Calibrating the Truax Rough Rider drill for restoration plantings was 

developed and should be a useful guide to calibrating the drill. 
55

Project Title: Development of Germination Protocols, Seed Weight, 

Purity and Seed Conditioning/Cleaning Protocols for 

Great Basin Grasses and Forbs 

Project Location: USDA-FS National Tree Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA

Principal Investigators: Robert Karrfalt, Director 

USDA-FS National Seed Laboratory 

 5675 Riggins Mill Road, Dry Branch, GA 31020 

 478.751.3551 

rkarrfalt@fs.fed.us 

 

Victor Vankus 

USDA-FS National Seed Laboratory 

5675 Riggins Mill Road, Dry Branch, GA 31020 

478.751.3551 

vvankus@fs.fed.us 

 

Project Description: 

The National Tree Seed Laboratory is developing seed cleaning, testing, and storage protocols 

for the species selected for the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. The 

NSL has a complete range of seed cleaning equipment so that manipulations of raw seed of 

almost any species can be performed in order to produce clean seed of high viability. 

Germination is tested over a range of temperatures and the data analyzed by response surface 

analysis to find the optimum combination of light and temperatures for optimum germination. 

Seed storage work was initiated this year also using a new technology to assess seed moisture 

conditions in preparing seed for storage. This new technology uses electronic hygrometers to 

measure the equilibrium relative humidity for the seed. Training and information on seed 

cleaning is also offered in workshops and conference presentations. 

Project Status and Products: 

• Equipment development/modification

 Seed Moisture: The relative humidity that a seed equilibrates with can be measured and used 

to determine if the seed’s moisture condition is adequate for preserving seed viability in 

storage. Traditionally this was done by oven drying methods and, when possible, electronic 

meters that were calibrated by species with oven moisture content measurements on clean 

seed. Both methods presented a number of challenges and could be expensive. The relative 

humidity method can be done on any seed in any state of preparation from raw seed just off 

the plant to highly cleaned seed. A relatively inexpensive electronic hygrometer was adapted 

to do this moisture test. This method has been presented in the presentations made this past 

year. A handbook on seed drying and storage will be prepared in 2008. Seed workers will 

be able to easily and accurately assess seed moisture in any stage of handling the seed in 

order to preserve its viability. 
56

• Workshops 

Cooperated with Nancy Shaw, RMRS, in organizing the seed cleaning workshop at Lucky 

Peak Nursery in August 2007. 

• Protocol development 

 Seed cleaning protocols were determined for the following 12 species: Agoserus glauca, 

Astragulus filipes, Balsamorhiza sagitta, Crepis acuminata, Eriogonum heracleoides, E. 

umbellatum, Lomatium dissectum, L. grayii, L. triternatum, Penstemon acuminatus, P. 

deustus, and Sphaeralcea munroana. The procedures were presented at the National 

Wildflower Seed Production Research Symposium in Orlando, FL in July, 2007 and a 

summary was published in the internet proceedings. 

• Seed testing 

 Moisture evaluations with an electronic hygrometer that can be universally applied to any 

seed lot. The procedure is being used in a sagebrush seed storage study. 

Germination conditions were identified for Lomatium dissectum, L. grayii, and L. 

triternatum. A paper on these 3 species will be published in 2008. Work is progressing on 

germination protocols for 9 other species. 

• Grants leveraged through GBNPSIP research 

 The GBNPSIP grant was combined with internal Forest Service funds to make a much 

needed purchase of germination cabinets. These cabinets provide the needed conditions to 

determine the germination protocols for the Lomatium mentioned above and are presently in 

use to determine germination protocols for the other species in the GBNPSIP. 

• Activities resulting from GBNPSIP participation 

 Participation in the Native Wildflower Seed Production Research Symposium was a direct 

result of participation in the GBNPSIP because it provided the project that was presented. 

Publications: 

The 1000 seed weight of several species were determined earlier and posted to the internet at 

http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/great_basin_native_plants.html 

Karrfalt, R.P. Seed Cleaning Research on Great Basin Forbs. In: Native wildflower seed 

production research symposium. 2007. Norcini, J.G. (editor). Program booklet. 

http://nfrec.ifas.ufl.edu/norcini/WFSympWeb/2007SymposiumProgram.pdf (accessed 2 Aug. 

2007). 

Presentations: 

Karrfalt, R. P., V. G. Vankus, and J. R. Barbour. 2007. Germination, seed weight, purity and 

seed cleaning protocols for Great Basin native plants. The development of native plant 

materials for the Great Basin: Symposium. Society for Range Management annual meeting, 

Reno, NV. 

 
57

Karrfalt, R. P. Seed cleaning research on Great Basin Forbs. 2007. Native wildflower seed 

production research symposium. Norcini, J. G., ed. Extended abstract. Online: 

http://nfrec.ifas.ufl.edu/norcini/WFSympWeb/2007SymposiumProgram.pdf. 

Karrfalt, R. P. 2007. Seed Cleaning Workshop presented at Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise ID for 

15 persons involved in native plant restoration. 
58

Project Title: Pollinator and Seed Predator Studies

Project Location: USDA-ARS Bee Biology and Systematics Lab, Logan, UT 

 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

 James H. Cane, Research Entomologist 

 USDA-ARS Bee Biology and Systematics Lab 

 Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5310 USA 

435.797.3879, Fax 435.797.0461 

Jim.Cane@ars.usda.gov 

Project Description: 

Native bees and/or honey bees are needed to pollinate nearly all of the wildflower species thus 

far studied for Great Basin plant community rehabilitation. The pollinator faunas of many of 

these candidate plant genera include one or more bee genera with potentially manageable 

species, especially species of Osmia. A minority of species attracts and is pollinated by 

honeybees or managed alfalfa leaf-cutting bees, mostly because these are warm-weather bees. 

 

Pollinator needs are being evaluated by comparing fruit and seed sets at caged flowers, openly 

visited flowers, and manually pollinated flowers. If plant reproduction proves to be pollinator 

limited, then native bee faunas are surveyed and evaluated at managed and wild flowering 

populations. If bees are sufficiently abundant, then single-visit pollination efficiencies at 

previously caged flowers can directly evidence each bee species’ contribution to seed 

production. 

 

At the same time, drilled wooden nesting blocks are placed in these habitats to acquire captive 

populations of one or more promising cavity-nesting pollinators. Currently managed bee species 

(alfalfa leaf-cutting bees, blue orchard bees, alkali bees, honey bees) are being evaluated for their 

pollination prowess with each of the target plant species as well, using our laboratory’s common 

gardens or managed stands maintained by BLM and USFS collaborators on this proposal. 

Practical management protocols and materials will be developed to sustainably manage 

pollinators on-farm. 

 

In addition, any prevalent floral herbivores and seed predators are being collected, reared and 

identified, as they subtract from the potential seed production initiated by pollinators. Lastly, 

pollination information is being disseminated to collaborators and growers, and if need be, 

populations of native cavity-nesting pollinators are acquired, increased and distributed to 

growers with guidance for the bees’ management. 

Project Status: 

A few systematic censuses of bees (as individuals per 100 flowering plants) were sampled at 

Balsamorhiza sagittata, Hedysarum boreale, and two globemallows (Sphaeralcea); the regional 

drought precluded further sampling. We planted raised, irrigated seed beds with experimental 

plantings of Sphaeralcea and Lomatium, transplanting greenhouse seedlings of Lomatium 

triternatum and L. grayii. An 8’ perimeter fence successfully excluded deer. We trap-nested 
59

widely in our mountains, but failed to obtain nests of the beardtongue pollinator Osmia 

penstemonis, even from locations where it had been taken in earlier decades. 

Pollinators, particularly bees, will be needed for seed production at most of the native forbs 

chosen for this project from the Great Basin flora. In 2007, we focused our studies of breeding 

biologies on established plants of Lomatium dissectum and Sphaeralcea growing in our 20' x 20' 

common garden plots. 

In general, bees continue to be revealed as the essential pollinators for the selected wildflower 

species. For L. dissectum, no seed results on racemes bagged to exclude pollinators. Manually 

self-pollinated plants yielded as much seed as manually outcrossed plants. Neither group was as 

productive as wild populations accessible to the small-bodied specialist bees of the genus 

Andrena that we have found associated with this species across five states. However, we did 

notice small sweat bees avidly visiting flowers of Lomatium dissectum for pollen in a different 

cage setting, so we are hopeful that these ubiquitous, often common floral generalists may serve 

to pollinate these flowers on some farms. 

For the globemallows, the seed that we were sent by a federal seed repository proved to be 

hybrid, not pure. From our manual pollinations of a limited number of caged plants, we 

nonetheless obtained considerable seed, indicative of the hybrid’s fertility. Could it be that our 

Great Basin “species” are in fact all one interfertile species? We are cooperating with Dr. Heidi 

Krantz at USU, who is studying the genetics of the three parent species, as well as our individual 

crossed plants. We have obtained what promises to be pure genotypes for our more extensive 

2008 breeding trials. 

On the topic of hybridization, I also experimented with bee foraging behavior and hybridization 

in Balsamorhiza. A number of experimental studies with foraging arrays have shown that 

generalist foragers (chiefly hummingbirds, honey bees and bumblebees) will forage more or less 

indiscriminately between similar-looking flowers of a given floral genus. We have now extended 

this observation to bees that are floral specialists, using two species of Osmia that are specialized 

for just Balsamorhiza and Wyethia. Hence, species-level specialization does not translate to 

enhanced floral constancy of individual foragers; specialists move among similar-looking 

flowers of related host species, too. 

Graduate student Katharine Swoboda completed her Master’s thesis on the pollination needs of 

Hedysarum boreale. She showed that two wild Osmia species, O. bruneri and O. sanrafaelae, 

effectively pollinate H. boreale, nest well with this floral resource, and are amenable to our 

artificial nesting substrates. We continue to increase populations of the two promising Osmia for 

commercial pollination of H. boreale. In 2007, we recovered 2000 progeny of O. sanrafaelae

from 577 overwintered bees released with commercial nesting substrates placed at Rick Dunne’s 

Wind River Farm in Worland, Wyoming, our third year of successfully increasing this bee. We 

are also able to increase populations of the native bees O. lignaria and Hoplitis albifrons, even 

when restricted to foraging at flowers of target forb species such as H. boreale. 
60

Management Applications: 

Growers of native forbs for seed who do not plan for pollination will have little seed production 

for most of the species chosen for the Intermountain West. A subset of species (e.g. Dalea 

ornata) can be handily pollinated with any one of several currently managed pollinators (honey 

bees, alfalfa leafcutting bees). More than half can be pollinated with cavity-nesting native Osmia

bee species whose numbers are being increased at this lab for distribution to growers in the near 

future. We are also finding that some ground-nesting bee species as well as bumblebees that 

effectively pollinate these forbs are increasing on some native seed farms, and may eventually be 

responsible for much of the pollination of a given forb field. 

Products: 

A study was published that surveys and compiles the nesting substrates of most of North 

America’s 140 species of native Osmia bees. It will be critical for choosing the manageable 

cavity nesters from among the various Osmia species that commonly pollinate various Great 

Basin wildflowers. Many of these Osmia species are ground-nesters, and though effective 

pollinators, have little potential for active management (although a grower or two is successfully 

favoring them on-farm by neither flooding them with rill irrigation nor churning up their nests by 

disking/plowing for weed control during bloom). 

 

Species of four Osmia bee species and one Hoplitis that effectively pollinate Hedysarum and 

Astragalus are being increased at the Logan labs for distribution to seed growers, hopefully 

beginning as soon as 2008. With our guidance, one of these, O. sanrafaelae, continues to be 

successfully increased at Wind River Farm for pollination of sweetvetch (now 2,000 

overwintering individuals). With one more successful field season, we expect to have enough 

bees, rearing experience, etc. to offer this bee to several growers of Hedysarum in Utah and 

western Colorado where this bee is native. 

Publications: 

Cane, J.H., T.G. Griswold and F.D. Parker. 2007. Substrates and materials used for nesting by 

North American Osmia bees. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 100:350-358.

Swoboda, K.A. 2007. The pollination ecology of Hedysarum boreale and evaluation of its 

pollinating bees for restoration seed production. Utah State University, Logan, UT. Thesis. 

Cane, J.H. In press for 2008. Pollinating bees crucial to farming wildflower seed for U.S. habitat 

restoration. In: R.R. James and T. Pitts-Singer, eds. Bees in agricultural ecosystems. Oxford 

University Press, U.K. 

Cane, J.H. In review. Breeding biologies, pollinating bees and seed production of Cleome lutea

and C. serrulata (Cleomaceae). 

Presentations: 

Cane, J.H. 2007. Pollinating Great Basin forbs for seed to rehabilitate western rangelands. 

Symposium: Developing native plant materials for the Great Basin. Society for Range 

Management 60th annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 
61

Cane, J.H. 2007. Bee pollination of farmed wildflowers for habitat restoration seed. 9th 

International pollination symposium, Iowa State University, Ames. Abstract. Invited plenary 

presentation. 

Cane, J.H. 2007. Bee pollination of farmed wildflowers for habitat restoration seed. 

Entomological Society of America, Pacific Branch, Portland, OR. Invited symposium 

presentation. 

Cane, J.H. 2007. Bee pollination of farmed wildflowers for habitat restoration seed. Society for 

Ecological Restoration, Northwest Chapter, Yakima, WA. Invited presentation. 
62

Project Title: Insect Pests of Selected Grass and Forb Species in the 

Great Basin 

Project Location: Colorado State University Extension, Grand Junction CO 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Robert Hammon, Extension Agent 

 Tri River Area Extension 

 PO Box 20,000-5028, Grand Junction CO 81502-5028 

 970.244.1838, Fax 970.244.1700 

 bob.hammon@mesacounty.us

Project Description: 

The goal of this project is to document insects affecting collections and field production of native 

plant seed. Insect collections from seed increase fields in the Great Basin states plus Oregon and 

Washington are forwarded to the lab in Grand Junction, CO for identification. In addition, seed 

production fields near Hotchkiss, CO that are associated with the Uncompahgre Plateau Project 

are being monitored for insect pests. 

Project Status: 

A weevil species complex composed primarily of Anthonomus sphaeralciae was found 

damaging a field of Sphaeralcea coccinea near Hotchkiss, CO. We estimated the seed loss from 

this pest to be in excess of 25%. The weevils were also found in a seed increase of Sphaeralcea 

sp. near Cortez, CO. Information on the identification and management of this native insect is 

online at http://wsprod.colostate.edu/cwis487/wci/Assets/html/Spco.html. 

A moth larva that attacks Lupinus sericeus was discovered at the Hotchkiss, CO site in 2006. It 

was misidentified as an undescribed pyralid moth in the genus Pima. Specimens were reared in 

2007, and that material forwarded to a taxonomist who identified the moth as the lima bean pod 

borer, Etiella zinckenella. Information on this pest can be viewed at 

http://wsprod.colostate.edu/cwis487/wci/Assets/html/LUSE.html. 

The western wheat aphid, Diuraphis tritici was found damaging a seed increase field of Bromus 

marginata at Hotchkiss, CO. This aphid had been found previously damaging a seed increase of 

B. marginata at the Upper Colorado Environmental Plant Center (UCEPC) at Meeker, CO. A 

second Diuraphis spp, D. nodulus has been a perennial production issue at UCEPC for the past 

decade. A key to North American Diuraphis is being developed in cooperation with 

USDA/ARS in Stillwater, OK.

Products 

Publications: 

A web site has been developed at http://wsprod.colostate.edu/cwis487/wci/seed_production.html 

for access to information regarding insects impacting native plant seed production associated 

with the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. 
63

Presentations: 

Hammon, Robert. 2007. Insects affecting collected versus field grown seed. Society for Range 

Management 60th annual meeting, Sparks/Reno, NV. Abstract. 

Hammon, Robert. 2007. Identifying management strategies for pests affecting native forb seed 

production. Native wildflower seed production symposium, Orlando FL. 

Field Tour: 

Hammon, Robert. 2007. Insects affecting native plant seed production field tour at Western 

Colorado Research Center, Rogers Mesa. Plant community restoration workshop, Uncompahgre 

Project, Grand Junction, CO. 

Management Applications: 

Seed producers can access the web site to identify potential production pests and gather 

information regarding their management. Producers are invited to share information to add to the 

site. 

Technology Transfer: 

Western Colorado Entomology, Native Plant Seed Production 

http://wsprod.colostate.edu/cwis487/wci/seed_production.html 
64

Project Title: Native Forb Seed Production in Response to Irrigation in 

2007 

Project Location: Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Clinton C. Shock, Professor and Superintendent 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu 

Erik B. Feibert, Senior Faculty Research Assistant 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

erik.feibert@oregonstate.edu 

Lamont D. Saunders, Biology Research Technician 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

lamont.saunders@oregonstate.edu 

 

Project Description: 

Native forb seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial seed 

production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A major 

limitation to economically viable commercial production of native forb seed is stable and 

consistent seed productivity over years. Variations in spring rainfall and soil moisture result in 

highly unpredictable water stress at flowering, seed set, and seed development. Excessive water 

stress during flowering, seed set, and seed development is known to compromise yield and 

quality of other seed crops. 

Native forbs are not competitive with crop weeds. Both sprinkler and furrow irrigation could 

promote seed production, but risk encouraging weeds. Furthermore, sprinkler and furrow 

irrigation can lead to the loss of plant stand and seed production due to fungal pathogens. By 

burying drip tapes at 12-inch depth, and avoiding wetting of the soil surface, we hope to assure 

flowering and seed set without encouraging weeds or opportunistic diseases. This trial tested the 

effect of three irrigation intensities on the seed yield of seven native forb species. 

Materials and Methods 

Plant establishment

Seed of the seven intermountain west forb species (Table 1) was received in late November in 

2004 from the Rocky Mountain Research Station (Boise, ID). The plan was to plant the seed in 

the fall of 2004, but due to excessive rainfall in October, the ground preparation was not 
65

completed and planting was postponed to early 2005. To ensure germination the seed was 

submitted to a cold stratification treatment. The seed was soaked overnight in distilled water on 

January 26, 2004. After soaking, the water was drained and the seed soaked for 20 minutes in a 

10% by volume solution of 13% bleach in distilled water. The water was drained and the seed 

placed in a thin layer in plastic containers. The plastic containers had lids with holes drilled to 

allow air movement. The seed containers were placed in a cooler set at approximately 34°F. 

Every few days the seed was mixed and, if necessary, distilled water added to maintain moist 

seed. In late February, seed of Lomatium grayi and Lomatium triternatum had started sprouting. 

Table 1. Forb species planted at the Malheur Experiment Station. 

Species Common name 

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulfur-flower buckwheat 

Penstemon acuminatus Sand penstemon 

Penstemon deustus Hotrock penstemon 

Penstemon speciosus Royal or Sagebrush penstemon 

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf desert parsley 

Lomatium grayi Gray’s lomatium 

Sphaeralcea parvifolia Smallflower globemallow 

Sphaeralcea grossularifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow 

Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow 

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover 

Dalea ornata Western prairie clover 

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch 

In late February, 2005, drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch depth between 

two rows (30-inch rows) of a Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1% organic matter. The drip 

tape was buried on alternating inter-row spaces (5 ft apart). The flow rate for the drip tape was 

0.34 gal/min/100 ft at 8 PSI with emitters spaced 16 inches apart, resulting in a water application 

rate of 0.066 inch/hour. 

On March 3, seed of all species was planted in 30-inch rows using a custom made plot grain drill 

with disk openers. All seed was planted at 20-30 seeds per foot of row. The Eriogonum 

umbellatum and the Penstemon spp. were planted at 0.25-inch depth and the Lomatium spp. at 

0.5 inch depth. The trial was irrigated with a minisprinkler system (R10 Turbo Rotator, Nelson 

Irrigation Corp., Walla Walla, WA) for even stand establishment from March 4 to April 29. 

Risers were spaced 25 ft apart along the flexible polyethylene hose laterals that were spaced 30 ft 

apart and the water application rate was 0.10 inch/hour. A total of 1.72 inches of water was 

applied with the minisprinkler system. Eriogonum umbellatum, Lomatium triternatum, and 

Lomatium grayi started emerging on March 29. All other species, except Lomatium dissectum, 

emerged by late April. Starting June 24, the field was irrigated using the drip system. A total of 

3.73 inches of water was applied with the drip system from June 24 to July 7. Thereafter the field 

was not irrigated. 

Plant stands for Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp., Lomatium triternatum, and Lomatium 

grayi were uneven. Lomatium dissectum did not emerge. None of the species flowered in 2005. 
66

In early October, 2005, more seed was received from the Rocky Mountain Research Station for 

replanting. The Eriogonum umbellatum and Penstemon spp. plots had the blank lengths of row 

replanted by hand. The Lomatium spp. plots had the entire row lengths replanted using the 

planter. The seed was replanted on October 26, 2005. In the spring of 2006, plant stand of the 

replanted species was excellent, except for Penstemon deustus. 

Flowering, harvesting, and seed cleaning in 2006

Eriogonum umbellatum flowering started on May 19, peaked on June 24, and ended on July 28. 

Penstemon acuminatus flowering started on May 2, peaked on May 10, and ended on May 19. 

Penstemon speciosus flowering started on May 10 and peaked on May 19. Penstemon deustus

flowering started on May 10, and peaked on May 22. 

The Eriogonum umbellatum and Penstemon spp. plots produced seed in 2006, probably because 

they had emerged in the spring of 2005. In these plots, only the lengths of row that had consistent 

stand and seed production were harvested. The plant stand for Penstemon deustus was too poor 

to result in reliable seed yield estimates. The middle two rows of each plot were harvested using 

a Wintersteiger Nurserymaster small plot combine. Penstemon acuminatus was harvested on July 

7, P. speciosus was harvested on July 13, E. umbellatum was harvested on August 3, and P. 

deustus was harvested on August 4. 

Eriogonum umbellatum seeds did not separate from the flowering structures in the combine. 

Eriogonum umbellatum unthreshed seed was taken to the U.S. Forest Service Lucky Peak 

Nursery and run through a dewinger to separate seed. The seed was further cleaned in a small 

clipper seed cleaner. 

Penstemon deustus seed pods were too hard to be opened in the combine. Penstemon deustus 

unthreshed seed was precleaned in a small clipper seed cleaner and then seed pods were broken 

manually by rubbing the pods on a ribbed rubber mat. The seed was then cleaned again in the 

small clipper seed cleaner. 

Penstemon acuminatus and Penstemon speciosus were threshed in the combine and the seed was 

further cleaned using a small clipper seed cleaner. 

Expansion and fertilization of the trials

On April 11, 2006, seed of three globemallow species (Sphaeralcea parvifolia, S. grossularifolia, 

S. coccinea), two prairie clover species (Dalea searlsiae, D. ornata), and basalt milkvetch 

(Astragalus filipes) was planted at 30 seeds per foot of row. The field was sprinkler irrigated until 

emergence. Emergence was poor. In late August of 2006 seed of the three globemallow species 

was harvested by hand. On November 9, 2006 the six forbs were flailed. On November 10, 2006 

the six forbs were replanted. 

On October 27, 2006, 50 lb P/acre and 2 lb Zn/acre were injected through the drip tape to all 

plots of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp., and Lomatium spp. On November 11, 100 lb 

N/acre as urea was broadcast to all Lomatium spp. plots. On November 11, the Penstemon 

deustus plots were replanted at 30 seeds/foot of row. On November 17, all plots of Eriogonum 
67

umbellatum, Penstemon spp. (except P. deustus), and Lomatium spp., had Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre 

broadcast on the soil surface. 

Irrigation for seed production in 2006

In April, 2006, the field was divided into plots 30 feet long. Each plot contained 4 rows of each 

of Eriogonum umbellatum, P. acuminatus, P. speciosus, P. deustus, L. dissectum, L. triternatum, 

and L. grayi. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with 4 replicates. The 

three irrigation treatments were: a non irrigated check, one inch per irrigation for a total of 4.8 

inches, and 2 inches per irrigation for a total of 8.7 inches. Four irrigations were applied 

approximately every 2 weeks starting on May 19. The amount of water applied to each plot was 

measured by a water meter for each plot and recorded after each irrigation (Table 3). At the first 

irrigation on May 19, Penstemon acuminatus had ended flowering, Penstemon deustus and 

Penstemon speciosus were flowering, and Eriogonum umbellatum was just starting flowering. 

Soil volumetric water content was measured by neutron probe. The neutron probe was calibrated 

by taking soil samples and probe readings at 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths during installation of the 

access tubes. The soil water content was determined volumetrically from the soil samples and 

regressed against the neutron probe readings, separately for each soil depth. The regression 

equations were then used to transform the neutron probe readings during the season into 

volumetric soil water content. 

Irrigation for seed production in 2007

In March of 2007, the drip irrigation system was modified to allow separate irrigation of the 

species due to differing growth habits. The three Lomatium species were irrigated together and 

Penstemon deustus and P. speciosus were irrigated together, but separately from the others. 

Penstemon acuminatus and Eriogonum umbellatum were irrigated individually. In early April 

2007, the three globemallow species, two prairie clover species, and basalt milkvetch were 

divided into plots with a drip irrigation system to allow the same irrigation treatments as the 

other forbs. 

Soil volumetric water content was measured in 2007 as in 2006. 

On April 5, irrigations for the three Lomatium species were started. On April 19, irrigations for 

Penstemon deustus and Penstemon speciosus were started. On May 2, irrigations for Penstemon 

acuminatus and Eriogonum umbellatum were started. Irrigation treatments were the same as in 

2006. The three globemallow species, two prairie clover species, and basalt milkvetch were 

irrigated together according to the treatments starting on May 16. Inadvertently, irrigation 

treatments were not stopped after 4 irrigations were applied, as in 2006. Irrigation treatments for 

all species were continued until the last irrigation on June 24. 

Cultural practices, harvest, and seed cleaning in 2007

Penstemon acuminatus and Penstemon speciosus were sprayed with Aza-Direct at 0.0062 lb 

ai/acre on May 14 and May 29 for lygus bug control. 

Lomatium grayi seed was hand harvested on May 30 and June 29. Lomatium triternatum was 

hand harvested on June 29 and July 16. The seed was separated from the stalks by hand and 
68

cleaned with a small clipper seed cleaner. Since the seed harvest and cleaning varied by species, 

the details are reported in Table 2. 

 

The three Sphaeralcea species were hand harvested on June 20, July 10, and August 13. The 

harvested seed pods were threshed in the small plot combine with an alfalfa seed concave. The 

two prairie clover species were hand harvested on June 20 and July 10. 

Penstemon acuminatus was harvested on July 9 with the small plot combine with an alfalfa seed 

concave. The seed was further cleaned with a small clipper seed cleaner. Penstemon speciosus

was hand harvested on July 23. Hand harvest for Penstemon speciosus was necessary due to poor 

seed set. Penstemon speciosus seed was separated by hand and cleaned with a small clipper seed 

cleaner. 

Eriogonum umbellatum was harvested on July 31 using the small plot combine with a dry bean 

concave. The seed was threshed by hand and cleaned with a small clipper seed cleaner. 

Table 2. Seed harvest and cleaning by species in 2007. 

Species Number of 

harvests 

Harvest 

method 

Pre 

cleaning 

Threshing 

method 

Cleaning 

method 

Eriogonum umbellatum 1 combinea none dewingerd mechanical 

Penstemon acuminatus 1 combineb

 none combine mechanical 

Penstemon deustus 1 combinea

 mechanicalc hande mechanical 

Penstemon speciosus f 1 combineb

 none combine mechanical 

Lomatium dissectum 0 

Lomatium triternatum 2 hand hand none mechanical 

Lomatium grayi 2 hand hand none mechanical 

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 3 hand none combine none 

Sphaeralcea 

grossularifolia 

3 hand none combine none 

Sphaeralcea coccinea 3 hand none combine none 

Dalea searlsiae 2 hand none dewinger mechanical 

Dalea ornata 2 hand none dewinger mechanical a

Dry bean concave 

b

Alfalfa seed concave 

c

Cipper seed cleaner 

d

Specialized seed threshing machine at U.S.D.A. Lucky Peak Nursery. In 2007, due to travel constraints, an 

adjustable hand driven corn grinder was used to thresh seed. 

e

Hard seed pods were broken by rubbing against a ribbed rubber mat. 

f

Harvested by hand in 2007 due to poor seed set. 

Results and Discussion

Precipitation in the fall of 2005 and spring of 2006 was higher than normal at the Malheur 

Experiment Station (Fig. 1). Precipitation from October 2005 through June 2006 was 15.9 

inches. The 64-year average precipitation from October through June is 9.1 inches. Precipitation 

from March through June was 6.4 inches in 2006. The 64-year average precipitation from March 
69

through June is 3.6 inches. The wet weather could have attenuated the effects of the irrigation 

treatments in 2006 (Shock et al., 2007). Of the 7 species tested, only Eriogonum umbellatum and 

Penstemon speciosus showed seed yield responses to irrigation rate in 2006 (Table 4). 

Precipitation from October 2006 through June 2007 was 6.2 inches, lower than the 64-year 

average. Precipitation from March through June was 2.0 inches in 2007. The total amount of 

water applied to the forbs was higher than planned in 2007 (Table 3). The biweekly irrigations 

were continued until June 24, instead of being terminated after four irrigations. The soil 

volumetric water content responded to the irrigation treatments (Figs. 2 to 6). 

Emergence for the two prairie clover (Dalea spp.) species in the spring of 2007 was again poor. 

Emergence for Penstemon deustus and for basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) was extremely 

poor. Astragalus filipes produced negligible amounts of seed in 2007. 

Flowering and seed set in 2007

Lomatium grayi started flowering in late March and ended in mid May. Lomatium triternatum

started flowering in mid April and ended in early June. Lomatium dissectum did not flower. 

Penstemon acuminatus and P. deustus started flowering in early May and ended in late June. P. 

speciosus started flowering in early May and ended in late June. Eriogonum umbellatum started 

flowering in early May and ended in late July. The three Sphaeralcea species (globemallow) 

started flowering in early May and continued flowering through September. The two Dalea

species (prairie clover) started flowering in early May and ended in late June. 

The three Sphaeralcea species (globemallow) showed a long flowering period (early May 

through September). Multiple harvests were necessary because the seed falls out of the pods 

once the pods are mature. 

Penstemon acuminatus and Penstemon speciosus had poor seed set partly due to a heavy lygus 

bug infestation that was not adequately controlled by the applied insecticides. Poor seed set for 

P. acuminatus and P. speciosus was also related to poor vegetative growth in 2007 compared to 

2006. 

Seed yields

In 2006, seed yield of Eriogonum umbellatum was highest with the 2-inch irrigation rate (Table 

4). In 2007, seed yield of E. umbellatum with the 1-inch irrigation rate was significantly higher 

than with the non-irrigated check. Seed yield with the 2-inch rate was not significantly higher 

than with the 1-inch rate. 

Seed yields of Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus in 2007 were substantially lower than in 

2006, possibly due to poor vegetative growth and lygus bug damage to flowering structures 

(Table 4). There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments for P. 

acuminatus in 2006. In 2007, seed yield of P. acuminatus was highest with the 1-inch irrigation 

rate. Seed yields with either the 2-inch irrigation rate or the non-irrigated check were similar and 

substantially lower. 
70

For P. speciosus in 2006 and 2007, seed yields were increased with the 1-inch irrigation rate 

compared to the non-irrigated check. Seed yields with the 2-inch irrigation rate were lower, but 

not significantly different than for the 1-inch rate. 

There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments for P. deustus in 

2006 and 2007. For P. deustus, the replanting of the low stand areas in October of 2005 and the 

replanting of the whole area in October 2006 resulted in very poor emergence and in plots with 

very low and uneven stand. 

Of the three Lomatium species, L. grayi had the most vigorous vegetative growth in 2007. L. 

dissectum had the poorest vegetative growth in 2006 and 2007 and did not flower in either year. 

Lomatium grayi and Lomatium triternatum showed a trend for increasing seed yield with 

increasing irrigation rate in 2007. The highest irrigation rate resulted in significantly higher seed 

yield than the non-irrigated check. The much greater Lomatium growth in 2007 shows promise 

for higher seed yields in future years. 

There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments for the three 

Sphaeralcea species, with Sphaeralcea parvifolia having the highest seed yield. The 

Sphaeralcea species seed yields ranged from 279 to 1062 lb/acre in 2007 without irrigation. 

There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments for the two Dalea

species, with Dalea ornata having the highest seed yield. Emergence for the two Dalea species 

was poor with plots having poor and uneven stand. 

Summary and comparison of 2006 and 2007

Precipitation from March through June was 6.4 inches in 2006 and 2.0 inches in 2007. The 64-

year average precipitation from March through June is 3.6 inches. 

For Eriogonum umbellatum, seed yield was maximized with the 2-inch irrigation rate in 2006 

and with the 1- or 2-inch irrigation rate in 2007. For Penstemon acuminatus, seed yield was not 

responsive to irrigation in 2006 and was maximized with the 1-inch irrigation rate in 2007. For 

P. speciosus, seed yields were maximized with the 1-inch irrigation rate in 2006 and 2007. For P. 

deustus, seed yield was not responsive to irrigation in 2006 and 2007. None of the three 

Lomatium species flowered in 2006. Lomatium dissectum has been very slow to develop on the 

experimental site and has not flowered. Seed yield for Lomatium triternatum and L. grayi were 

maximized by the highest irrigation rate of 2-inches in 2007. The three Sphaeralcea species and 

the two Dalea species were not responsive to irrigation in 2007. 

The poor emergence and resulting poor stand cast doubt on the accuracy of the seed yield 

response to irrigation for Penstemon deustus, the three Sphaeralcea species, and the two Dalea 

species 

Knowledge about native forb seed production would help make commercial production of this 

seed feasible. Irrigation methods are being developed at the Oregon State University Malheur 

Experiment Station to help assure reliable seed production with reasonably high seed yields. 

Growers need to have economic return on their seed plantings, but forbs may not produce seed 
71

every year. Due to the arid environment, supplemental irrigation may be required for successful 

flowering and seed set many years because soil water reserves may be exhausted before seed 

formation. 

Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) systems are being tested for native seed production because SDI 

has two potential strategic advantages; a). low water use, and b). the buried drip tape provides 

water to the plants at depth, out of reach of stimulating weed seed germination on the soil surface 

and away from the plant tissues that are not adapted to a wet environment. 

The total irrigation water requirements for these arid land species has been shown to be low, but 

varied by species. 

Figure 1. Monthly precipitation from October of the previous year through 

July for the last three years. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul

0

1

2

3

4

Precipitation (inches)

2005 2006 2007 average
72

Table 3. Irrigation treatments and actual amounts of water applied to native forbs in 2006 and 2007. Precipitation 

from March through June was 6.4 inches in 2006 and 2.0 inches in 2007. The 64-year average is 3.6 inches. 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR. 

 Actual amount of water applied 

Date 

Irrigation rates 

(inches per 

irrigation) 

Lomatium 

sp. 

Penstemon 

deustus, P. 

speciosus 

Penstemon acuminatus, 

Eriogonum umbellatum 

Sphaeralcea sp., 

Dalea sp. 

------------------------------ acre inches/acre ----------------------------- 

2006 

19-May 2 2.23 2.23 2.23 

19-May 1 1.31 1.31 1.31 

2-Jun 2 2.16 2.16 2.16 

2-Jun 1 1.23 1.23 1.23 

20-Jun 2 2.04 2.04 2.04 

20-Jun 1 1.23 1.23 1.23 

30-Jun 2 2.26 2.26 2.26 

30-Jun 1 1.12 1.12 1.12 

total 2 8.69 8.69 8.69 

total 1 4.89 4.89 4.89 

2007 

5-Apr 2 2.00 

5-Apr 1 1.28 

19-Apr 2 2.78 2.78 

19-Apr 1 1.34 1.34 

2-May 2 2.70 2.70 2.70 

2-May 1 1.40 1.40 1.40 

16-May 2 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.62 

16-May 1 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 

30-May 2 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 

30-May 1 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 

10-Jun 2 2.46 2.46 2.46 2.46 

10-Jun 1 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 

24-Jun 2 2.59 2.59 2.59 2.59 

24-Jun 1 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.41 

total 2 17.6 15.6 12.9 10.2 

total 1 9.2 7.9 6.5 5.1 
73

Table 4. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/irrigation) in 2006 and 2007. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Species Planting date 2006 

0 inch 1 inch 2 inch LSD(0.05) 0 inch 1 

 ----------------------------------------------- lb/acre -----------Eriogonum umbellatum Mar 05, Oct 05a 155.3 214.4 371.6 92.9 79.6 16

Penstemon acuminatus Mar 05, Oct 05a 538.4 611.1 544 NS 19.3 5

Penstemon deustus Mar 05, Oct 05b 1246.4 1200.8 1068.6 NS 120.3 18Penstemon speciosus Mar 05, Oct 05a 163.5 346.2 213.6 134.3 2.5 9Lomatium dissectum October 05c ---- no flowering ---- ---- no floLomatium triternatum October 05c ---- no flowering ---- 2.3 1Lomatium grayi October 05c ---- no flowering ---- 36.1 8Sphaeralcea parvifolia November 06d 1062.6 85Sphaeralcea grossularifolia November 06d 442.6 32Sphaeralcea coccinea November 06d 279.8 26Dalea searlsiaee November 06d 11.5 1Dalea ornatae November 06d 47.4 2aAreas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005.

bAreas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005 and whole area replanted in October 2006. Yields in 2006 are based on small ar

Yields in 2007 are based on whole area of very poor and uneven stand.

cWhole area replanted in October 2005. 

dWhole area replanted in November 2006. ePoor and uneven stand f LSD (0.10) 
74

Figure 2. Soil volumetric water content for Eriogonum umbellatum over time. 

Soil volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32- inch 

depths. E. umbellatum was harvested on July 31 (day 212). Malheur Experiment 

Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Figure 3. Soil volumetric water content for Penstemon acuminatus over time. 

Soil volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32- inch 

depths. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

141 159 166 173 180

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

2 inches 1 inch 0 inches

flowering starts flowering ends

141 159 166 173 180

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

2 inches 1 inch 0 inches

flowering starts flowering ends
75

Figure 4. Soil volumetric water content for Penstemon speciosus over time. Soil 

volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32- inch 

depths. P. speciosus was harvested on July 23 (day 204). Malheur Experiment 

Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Figure 5. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium triternatum over time. 

Soil volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-

inch depths. Lomatium triternatum was harvested on June 29 (day 180) and July 

16 (day 197). Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, 

OR, 2007. 

109 115 141 159 166 173 180

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

2 inches 1 inch 0 inches

flowering starts flowering ends

95 109 115 141 159 166 173 180

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

2 inches 1 inch 0 inches

flowering starts

flowering ends
76

Figure 6. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium grayi over time. Soil 

volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch 

depths. Lomatium grayi was harvested on May 30 (day 151) and June 29 (day 

180). Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Publications: 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, N. Shaw, and A. DeBolt. 2007. Seed production of 

native forbs shows little response to irrigation in a wet year. Oregon State University 

Agricultural Experiment Station Special Report 1075:13-20. 

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2006/ForbIrrigation2006.htm 

Presentations: 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, J.K. Ishida, and C.V. Ransom. 2007. Cultural practices for native 

forb seed production. Developing native plant materials for the Great Basin. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for Range 

Management 60th annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 

Shock, C.C. 2007. Subsurface drip irrigation for seed production of intermountain wildflowers. 

Native wildflower seed production symposium, Orlando, FL. 

http://nfrec.ifas.ufl.edu/norcini/WFSympWeb/ShockPPT.pdf 

Shock, C.C. 2007. Oregon progress on the adoption of microirrigation, 2007. Regional working 

group W1128: Reducing barriers to adoption of microirrigation. Honolulu, HI. Presentation 

and 4 p. report. 

Shock, C.C. 2007. Drip irrigation systems — potential for alternative crops. Winter irrigation 

workshop: Growing pains in irrigation water management, Ontario, OR. 

95 109 115 141 159 166 173 180

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

2 inches 1 inch 0 inches

flowering starts

flowering ends
77

Klauzer, J., E.B.G. Feibert, H. Parkinson, and C.C. Shock. 2007. Drip irrigation, permanent drip 

irrigation and wildflower seed production. Malheur Experiment Station annual field day, 

Ontario, OR. 

Products: 

Seed was distributed via the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project to seed 

growers. 

A handout was distributed to growers at the 2007 field day. 
78

 Project Title: Identification of Herbicides for Use in Native Forb Seed 

Production

Project Location: Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Clinton C. Shock

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu 

Joey Ishida 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

joey.ishida@oregonstate.edu 

Erik Feibert 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

erik.feibert@oregonstate.edu 

Project Description: 

Tolerance of Seven Native Forbs to Annual Applications of Postemergence Herbicides

Native forb seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial seed 

production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A major 

limitation to economically viable commercial production of native forb seed is weed 

competition. Weeds are adapted to growing in disturbed soil, and native forbs are not 

competitive with these weeds. There is a considerable body of knowledge about the relative 

efficacy of different herbicides to control target weeds, but few trials have tested the tolerance of 

native forbs to commercial herbicides. 

The trials reported here tested the tolerance of seven native forb species in successive years to 

conventional postemergence herbicides in the field. This work seeks to discover products that 

could eventually be registered for use for native forb seed production. The information in 

this report is for the purpose of informing cooperators and colleagues in other agencies, 

universities, and industry of the research results. Reference to products and companies in this 

publication is for the specific information only and does not endorse or recommend that product 

or company to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. Nor should any information and 

interpretation thereof be considered as recommendations for the application of any of these 

herbicides. Pesticide labels should always be consulted before any pesticide use. 

Considerable efforts may be required to register these herbicides for use for native forb 

seed production. 
79

Project Status: 

Methods and Materials 

Plant Establishment

Seed of seven Great Basin forb species (Table 1) received in October 2005 was planted 

November 1, 2005. The field had been disked, ground hogged, and marked out in rows 30 inches 

apart. The seven forb species were planted in individual rows 435 ft long and 30 inches apart. 

Planting depths were similar to those used in the irrigation trial (Shock et al., 2007) and varied 

by species. The crop preceding forbs was wheat. Prior to planting, one drip tape was inserted 12 

inches deep equidistant between pairs of rows to be planted. The drip tape was supplied with 

irrigation water using filtration and other common drip irrigation practices (Shock, 2006). 

2006 Postemergence Treatments

The field was staked out to make 5-ft-wide plots perpendicular to the forb rows, crossing all 

seven species using the lower 200 ft of the field. Eight treatments including the untreated check 

were replicated four times in a randomized complete block design (See Tables 2-8). Treatments 

were applied May 24, 2006 at 30 psi, 2.63 mph, in 20 gal/acre using 8002 nozzles with three 

nozzles spaced 20 inches apart. Plant injury in 2006 was rated visually on May 31, June 15, and 

June 30. 

In 2006 the trial was irrigated very little with the drip irrigation system because of ample rainfall. 

Very few plants flowered and seed was not harvested in 2006. 

Spring of 2007

By March 30, 2007, it was difficult if not impossible to distinguish any effects of the 2006 

postemergence herbicide applications on any of the seven forb species. These observations 

suggest that some degree of phytotoxic damage may be acceptable in establishing native forb 

seed fields if effective weed control is achieved. 

2007 Postemergence Treatments

The same treatments as 2006 were applied again to the same plots on April 24, 2007. The same 

application specifications as in 2006 were used in 2007. Plant injury was rated visually on May 

1, May 11, May 25, and June 12. 

Drip irrigations were applied every 2 weeks starting on April 5 and ending on June 24. Each 

irrigation applied 2 inches of water. 

Seed of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, Penstemon deustus, and Penstemon 

speciosus was harvested by hand as the seed reached maturity. The seed was cleaned and 

weighed. Lomatium dissectum, Lomatium triternatum, and Lomatium grayi did not flower in 

2007. 

General Considerations

The focus of the evaluations was forb tolerance to the herbicides, not weed control. Therefore, 

weeds were removed as needed. 
80

The effects of herbicides for each species on plant stand and injury were evaluated independently 

from the effects on other species. Treatment differences were compared using ANOVA and 

protected least significant differences at the 95 percent confidence LSD (0.05) using NCSS 

Number Cruncher software (NCSS, Kaysville, UT). 

Table 1. Forb species planted at the Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR and their 

origins. 

Species Common name Origin Year 

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulfur-flower buckwheat Shoofly Road (ID) 2004 

Penstemon acuminatus Sand penstemon Bliss Dam (ID) 2004 

Penstemon deustus Hotrock penstemon Blacks Cr. Rd. (ID) 2003 

Penstemon speciosus Royal or sagebrush penstemon Leslie Gulch (OR) 2003 

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Mann Creek (ID) 2003 

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf desert parsley Hwy 395 (OR) 2004 

Lomatium grayi Gray’s lomatium Weiser R. Rd. (ID) 2004 

Results and Discussion 

All observations made on the herbicides tested are strictly preliminary observations. Herbicides 

that were observed to be damaging to the forbs as reported here might be helpful if used at a 

lower rate or in a different environment. Herbicides that were relatively safe for the forbs in 

these trials might be harmful if used at higher rates or in a different environment. Nothing in this 

report should be construed as a recommendation. 

Eriogonum umbellatum (Sulfur buckwheat)

Sulfur buckwheat showed herbicide injury on the May 1 evaluation with Goal and Caparol as 

postemergence treatments (Table 2). There were not significant differences in injury between 

herbicide treatments on the other evaluation dates. Select and Prowl had among the lowest injury 

symptoms on the May 11, May 25, and June 12 evaluations. 

There were no significant differences in seed yield between herbicide treatments (Table 2). 

Prowl, the untreated check, and Outlook had among the highest seed yields with no statistical 

differences between any of the treatments. 

Table 2. Tolerance of Eriogonum umbellatum to postemergence herbicides applied on April 24, 2007. At 

time of herbicide applications, plants were 50% dormant. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Treatment Rate Visual estimates of foliar injury, % Seed yield 

 lb ai/acre May 1 May 11 May 25 June 12 lb/acre 

Untreated -- 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 91.7 

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 12.5 22.5 20.0 15.0 38.1 

Goal 2XC 0.125 45.0 27.5 17.5 13.8 42.6 

Select 2.0 EC + Herbimax 0.094 + 1% v/v 11.7 6.7 3.3 1.7 57.6 

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 10.0 6.3 3.8 3.8 115.0 

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 28.8 41.3 33.8 26.3 27.3 

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 2.5 18.8 15.0 15.0 75.1 

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 15.0 27.5 27.5 26.3 35.6 

LSD (0.05) 19.4 NS NS NS NS 
81

Penstemon acuminatus (Sand penstemon)

No injury symptoms were observed on the May 1 evaluation. On May 11, only Caparol resulted 

in significantly higher injury symptoms than the check (Table 3). On May 25, Caparol and 

Buctril resulted in significantly higher injury symptoms than the check. On June 12, Caparol, 

Buctril, and Select resulted in significantly higher injury symptoms than the check. 

Seed yields for Buctril, Select, Caparol, and Lorox were significantly lower than the untreated 

check (Table 3). Plots treated with Prowl, Outlook, and the untreated check had among the 

highest seed yields. 

Table 3. Tolerance of Penstemon acuminatus to postemergence herbicides applied on April 24, 2007. At time of herbicide 

applications, plants were beginning to flower. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Treatment Rate Visual estimates of foliar injury, % Seed yield 

 lb ai/acre May 1 May 11 May 25 June 12 lb/acre 

Untreated -- 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 520.4 

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 0.0 11.3 16.3 17.5 305.7 

Goal 2XC 0.125 0.0 2.5 2.5 7.5 417.8 

Select 2.0 EC + Herbimax 0.094 + 1% v/v 0.0 2.5 5.0 17.5 304.6 

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 509.4 

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 0.0 18.8 30.0 27.5 162.9 

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 0.0 0.0 2.5 8.8 502.6 

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 0.0 13.8 11.3 17.5 264.9 

LSD (0.05) NS 5.4 8.2 NS 183.4 

Penstemon deustus (Hotrock penstemon)

On the first three evaluation dates, Buctril, Goal, Caparol, and Lorox resulted in significantly 

higher injury symptoms than the check (Table 4). On the last evaluation (June 12), plants treated 

with Caparol and Lorox still showed injury symptoms. 

Seed yields for the Buctril, Goal, Caparol, and Lorox treatments were significantly lower than the 

untreated check (Table 4). Plots treated with Select, Outlook, Prowl, and the untreated check had 

among the highest seed yields. 

Table 4. Tolerance of Penstemon deustus to postemergence herbicides applied on April 24, 2007. At time of herbicide 

applications, plants were growing vegetatively. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Treatment Rate Visual estimates of foliar injury, % Seed yield 

 lb ai/acre May 1 May 11 May 25 June 12 lb/acre 

Untreated -- 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 903.1 

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 18.3 26.3 18.8 10.0 348.5 

Goal 2XC 0.125 18.0 23.8 18.8 17.5 333.0 

Select 2.0 EC + Herbimax 0.094 + 1% v/v 1.3 2.5 0.0 2.5 927.3 

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 0.0 2.5 1.3 2.5 747.6 

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 21.3 48.3 50.0 47.5 86.8 

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 0.0 1.3 7.5 10.0 835.1 

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 21.3 52.5 50.0 38.8 108.5 

LSD (0.05) 8.7 14.9 16.4 18.4 334.8 
82

Penstemon speciosus (Royal or sagebrush penstemon)

There were no significant injury symptoms for any of the treatments on the first evaluation 

(Table 5). Only Caparol and Lorox treatments showed significant injury symptoms, with Caparol 

having the most severe injury symptoms. 

Seed yields for Buctril, Goal, Caparol, and Lorox were significantly lower than the check (Table 

5). Plots treated with Select, Outlook, Prowl, and the untreated check had among the highest seed 

yields. 

Table 5. Tolerance of Penstemon speciosus to postemergence herbicides applied on April 24, 2007. At 

time of herbicide applications, plants were beginning to flower. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon 

State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Treatment Rate Visual estimates of foliar injury, % Seed yield 

 lb ai/acre May 1 May 11 May 25 June 12 lb/acre 

Untreated -- 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 55.3 

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 1.3 2.5 2.5 1.3 24.6 

Goal 2XC 0.125 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 20.9 

Select 2.0 EC + Herbimax 0.094 + 1% v/v 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 51.2 

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 52.9 

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 0.0 26.3 37.5 42.5 15.7 

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 56.6 

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 0.0 10.0 6.3 11.3 20.0 

LSD (0.10) NS 4.2 4.1 6.2 29.7 

Lomatium dissectum (Fernleaf biscuitroot)

Only plants treated with Buctril showed significant injury symptoms on the first evaluation 

(Table 6). There were no significant differences in injury between treatments on the last three 

evaluations. 

Lomatium dissectum had a very short growing period before going dormant and did not flower in 

2007. 

Table 6. Tolerance of Lomatium dissectum to postemergence herbicides applied on 

April 24, 2007. At time of herbicide applications, plants were growing vegetatively. 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Treatment Rate Visual estimates of foliar injury, % 

 lb ai/acre May 1 May 11 May 25 June 12 

Untreated -- 0 0 0 0 

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 5 2.5 3.75 5 

Goal 2XC 0.125 1.25 1.25 1.25 0 

Select 2.0 EC + Herbimax 0.094 + 1% v/v 0 0 0 0 

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 0 0 0 5 

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 1.25 1.25 3.75 7.5 

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 1.25 1.25 1.25 2.5 

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 0 0 1.25 0 

LSD (0.05) 2.2 NS NS NS 
83

Lomatium triternatum (Nineleaf desert parsley)

Only plants treated with Buctril showed injury symptoms (Table 7). 

No seed was produced by Lomatium triternatum in 2007. 

Table 7. Tolerance of Lomatium triternatum to postemergence herbicides applied on 

April 24, 2007. At time of herbicide applications, plants were growing vegetatively. 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Treatment Rate Visual estimates of foliar injury, % 

 lb ai/acre May 1 May 11 May 25 June 12 

Untreated -- 0 0 0 2.5 

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 20 63.75 88.75 92.5 

Goal 2XC 0.125 0 0 0 0 

Select 2.0 EC + Herbimax 0.094 + 1% v/v 0 0 0 0 

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 0 0 0 0 

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 0 0 0 0 

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 0 0 0 0 

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 0 0 0 0 

LSD (0.05) 2.1 2.5 1.3 2.9 

Lomatium grayi (Gray’s lomatium)

On the May 1, May 25, and June 12 evaluations only Buctril resulted in injury symptoms 

significantly higher than the check (Table 8). On the May 11 evaluation, Buctril and Caparol 

resulted in injury symptoms significantly higher than the check. 

No seed was produced by Lomatium grayi in 2007. 

Table 8. Tolerance of Lomatium grayi to postemergence herbicides applied on April 24, 

2007. At time of herbicide applications, plants were growing vegetatively. Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2007. 

Treatment Rate Injury % 

 lb ai/acre May 1 May 11 May 25 June 12 

Untreated -- 0 0 0 0 

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 15 37.5 41.25 28.75 

Goal 2XC 0.125 2.5 6.25 1.25 3.75 

Select 2.0 EC + Herbimax 0.094 + 1% v/v 0 0 0 0 

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 0 0 0 0 

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 2.5 11.25 7.5 6.25 

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 0 0 0 0 

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 0 0 0 0 

LSD (0.05) 2.7 8.8 8.8 6.7 

Summary 

All seven species tested were tolerant to Prowl and Outlook applied as postemergence treatments 

at the rate, timing and soils used in these trials. Penstemon deustus, P. specious, and the

Lomatium species were also tolerant to postemergence applications of Select at the rate, timing 

and soils used in these trials. Prowl and Outlook are broad spectrum, soil active herbicides that 

will prevent weed emergence during the season. Select is a foliar contact, grass herbicide. The 

use of these three herbicides may provide the basis for an effective weed control program for 
84

seed production of these five species. Further tests are warranted to describe the range of safety 

for these herbicides and whether or not they have any undesirable interactions. 

Literature Cited

Shock, C.C. 2006. Drip irrigation: an introduction. Sustainable agriculture techniques, Oregon 

State University Extension Service. EM8782-E. Revised October 2006. 

http://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog/pdf/em/em8782-e.pdf 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, N. Shaw, and A. DeBolt. 2007. Seed production of 

native forbs shows little response to irrigation in a wet year. Oregon State University 

Agricultural Experiment Station Special Report 1075: 21-32. 

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2006/ForbIrrigation2006.htm 

Publications: 

Shock, C.C., J. Ishida and C. Ransom. 2007. Tolerance of seven native forbs to preemergence 

and postemergence herbicides. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station 

Special Report 1075:21-32. 

Presentations: 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, J.K. Ishida, and C.V. Ransom. 2007. Cultural practices for native 

forb seed production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 

symposium. Society for Range Management 60th annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. 

Invited presentation. 

Shock, C.C., J.K. Ishida, and C.V. Ransom. 2007. Screening herbicides for use in native 

wildflower seed production in the Intermountain West. Native wildflower seed production 

symposium, Orlando, FL. 

Shock, C.C. 2007. Oregon progress on the adoption of microirrigation, 2007. Regional working 

group W1128: Reducing barriers to adoption of microirrigation. Honolulu, HI. Presentation 

and 4 p. report. 

Klauzer, J., E.B.G. Feibert, H. Parkinson, and C.C. Shock. 2007. Drip irrigation, permanent drip 

irrigation and wildflower seed production. Malheur Experiment Station annual field day, July 

11, 2007. Ontario, OR. 

Products: 

A handout was distributed to growers at the 2007 Oregon State University Malheur Experiment 

Station field day. 
85

Project Title: Developing Strategies for Selective Herbicide Use in 

Native Forb Seed Production

Project Location: Utah State University, Logan, Utah 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Corey Ransom 

 Utah State University 

 Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate 

4820 Old Main Hill 

Logan, Utah 84322-4820 

 435.797.2242, Fax 435.797.3376 

 corey.ransom@usu.edu 

Kim Edvarchuk 

Utah State University 

 Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate 

4820 Old Main Hill 

Logan, Utah 84322-4820 

 435.797.2367, Fax 435.797.3376 

 kandersen@cc.usu.edu 

Project Description: 

Native forb seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Weed control is 

essential for the commercial production of native forb seed. Weeds compete with crop plants 

reducing establishment, vigor, and seed production. In addition, some weed seeds can 

contaminate the seed crop reducing its value or introducing weeds to reclamation areas. 

Removal of weeds by hand or with cultivation is economically restrictive. 

The overall objective of this research project is to identify herbicides that can be used to control 

weeds in forb seed production with limited injury to the forbs. The forbs evaluated in this 

project include: basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), Western prairie clover (Dalea ornata), 

Searls’ prairie clover (Dalea searlsiae), and tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata). 

Materials and Methods

Forb tolerance to preemergence herbicides was tested by planting 50 seeds of each species in 1 

ft2

 flats. Seed were scarified between sheets of 80 grit sandpaper prior to planting. Seeds were 

planted 0.5 inch deep in a soil comprised of a 1:1 ratio by volume of Kidman sandy loam field 

soil and peat moss and vermiculite potting soil. Herbicides included for evaluation included: 

Kerb (pronamide), Treflan (trifluralin), Prowl H2O (pendimethalin), Outlook (dimethenamid-p), 

Sencor (metribuzin), Plateau (imazapic), Olympus (propoxycarbazone), and Chateau 

(flumioxazin). Herbicide treatments were applied in an enclosed chamber research bench sprayer 

calibrated to deliver 20 gpa at 30 psi. After herbicide application, flats were placed in trays filled 
86

with water until the soil was saturated. The flats were then lightly watered from above to 

incorporate the herbicide. Flats containing Astragalus, or Dalea species were placed directly in 

the greenhouse, while flats containing Crepis were placed in plastic bags to prevent moisture loss 

and were stored in a cooler for 3 weeks at 34o

F. Flats in the greenhouse were irrigated daily or as 

needed to maintain moist soil. Plant germination was determined by counting the emerged plants 

of each species weekly. Any herbicide injury symptoms observed on emerged plants were noted 

and photographed. Final plant stands will be the determining measurement of whether plants 

survived the herbicide applications. 

Results

Emergence for all species was very low, allowing only preliminary observation of herbicide 

affects. The number of emerging seedling differed among varieties and herbicides (Table 1). 

Plants appeared to be tolerant to some herbicides, while few plants of any species emerged in 

flats treated with Chateau. The higher levels of emergence of Dalea ornata and Crepis 

acuminata with Olympus and of Crepis acuminata with Plateau are positive as these herbicides 

could potentially be used to control downy brome in a rangeland setting. Further trials with 

improved germination will be used to develop conclusions on forb species tolerance to these 

herbicides. 

Table 1. Species germination 5 weeks after preemergence herbicide application. 

 Plant germination 

Herbicide Rate 

Astragalus 

filipes 

Dalea 

ornata 

Dalea 

searlsiae 

Crepis 

acuminata 

 lb ai/acre _______________________________no. plants/flat_____________________________

Untreated -- 3.0 6.3 0.5 1.3 

Kerb 1.0 4.3 0.3 0.0 3.8 

Treflan 0.375 4.3 4.5 0.3 4.3 

Prowl H2O 0.75 3.5 4.8 0.3 1.3 

Outlook 0.656 1.3 1.3 0.0 0.0 

Sencor 0.375 4.0 0.5 0.3 0.5 

Plateau 0.0625 1.0 1.8 0.0 5.5 

Olympus 0.0267 2.5 4.5 0.5 4.0 

Chateau 0.047 0.3 0.8 0.0 0.0 

LSD (0.05) _________________________________2.8_______________________________

Direction for 2008

Greenhouse testing will continue to evaluate preemergence herbicides and postemergence 

herbicide treatments. A field of established Astragalus filipies provided by Doug Johnson will be 

treated with postemergence treatments to determine herbicide tolerance of established Astragalus

plants. Efforts will be made to establish field trials in the fall of 2008. 

Management Applications: 

The preliminary data suggests that some of the herbicides evaluated will have selectivity on the 

tested forb species with potential for use in seed production systems. 
87

Project Title: Linking Species and Functional Group Diversity to 

Resource Capture and Invasion Resistance in Great Basin 

Plant Communities 

Project Location: USDA-ARS, Burns, OR 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

 Jeremy James, Plant Physiologist 

USDA-ARS Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center 

 67826-A Hwy 205, Burns, OR 97720 

 541.573.8911, Fax: 541.573.3042 

 jeremy.james@oregonstate.edu 

Project Description: 

Objectives

Understanding the characteristics that make plant communities less susceptible to invasion is a 

central goal of land managers. Invasibility is expected to be directly linked to the ability of the 

resident vegetation to sequester limiting resources (Stohlgren et al. 1999; Davis et al. 2000). 

Resource sequestration may be primarily driven by the most dominant species. Alternatively, 

resource partitioning may allow dominant and subdominant species to contribute to resource 

sequestration by the plant community (Grime 1987; Kahmen et al. 2006). For example, spatial 

and temporal variation in soil nitrogen (N) cycling is substantial in the Great Basin and even 

small increases in soil N availability can facilitate the establishment of invasive plants (Paschke 

et al. 2000). Communities with greater species or functional group diversity may partition N to a 

greater extent than communities with low diversity. As a result, communities with greater 

species or functional group diversity may be better able to respond to these fluctuating patterns 

of N supply and maintain lower levels of soil N through the growing season. 

The broad objective of this study was to quantify the degree to which soil N is partitioned in 

time, depth and chemical form (i.e. NO3

-

 or NH4

+

) among native species and functional groups 

(i.e. bunchgrasses and perennial forbs, Table 1) in a sagebrush steppe community and evaluate 

how these patterns of resource acquisition relate to patterns of resource capture and invasion by 

annual grasses. I hypothesized that the dominant bunchgrasses and subdominant perennial forbs 

differ in the timing, depth and form in which they acquire N. Based on expected differences in 

timing, depth and form of N capture between functional groups, I further hypothesized that plots 

with all functional groups present will be less susceptible to invasion compared to plots where a 

functional group is removed. 

Methods

This research was conducted in a sagebrush steppe community in eastern Oregon, USA (43 °22′

N, 118°22′ W, 1300 m elevation). Mean annual precipitation in Drewsey, OR, approximately 16 

km north of the site is 272 mm. The herbaceous species selected for the experiment are 

representative of the steppe communities in the Great Basin (Table 1). Bunchgrasses are the 

major herbaceous component followed by perennial forbs and annual forbs. 
88

Nitrogen partitioning by time, depth and chemical form 

To quantify temporal, spatial and chemical patterns of plant N capture I injected 15N compounds 

into the soil around naturally established target plants of the seven study species three times 

during the growing season (25 April, 23 May and 20 June 2006), at two different depths (2-7 cm 

and 17-22 cm) and in two chemical forms (NH4

+

 and NO3

-

). Each treatment combination was 

replicated five times in a randomized complete block design. Different plants were used for each 

treatment replicate. To examine how soil water content may influence the pattern of N capture by 

the study species, a second set of plants were watered with a simulated 25 mm rain event 2 days 

prior to the N injections in May and June. The water treatment was not applied in April since 

soils were close to field capacity at this time. Shoot N concentration and 15N enrichment were 

measured by continuous flow direct combustion and mass spectrometry at the UCDSIF (Europa 

Integra, London). A mass balance approach following Nadelhoffer and Fry (1994) was used to 

quantify plant 15N capture, allowing comparisons to be made among species with different 

biomass or leaf N concentration. Here, plant N capture (mg N plant-1) = mf × [(Nf -Ni)/(Nlab-Ni)] 

where mf is the mass of the N pool (mg), Nf, and Ni are the final and initial Atom % 15N of the 

sample and Nlab is the Atom % 15N of the labeled solution. Spatial, temporal and chemical 

patterns of N capture by a species were normalized by expressing N capture by a species in a 

particular treatment as a percentage of the total amount of N capture by a species in all 

treatments (McKane et al. 2002; Kahmen et al. 2006). The effect of 15N injection time, depth and 

chemical form on the relative and absolute amount of N captured by a species was analyzed with 

ANOVA (SAS 1999). 

Functional group removal plots 

Removal plots were established at two sites in the community to evaluate the degree to which the 

three most common functional groups in this system resist invasion by the annual grass 

Taeniatherum caput-medusae. Four removal treatments were applied at each site including: 1) 

Nothing removed, 2) Annual forbs removed, 3) Perennial forbs removed and 4) Bunchgrasses 

removed. Each treatment was replicated four times at each site in a randomized complete block 

design. Removal plots were 2 m x 2 m. Functional groups were removed in spring 2004 by 

brushing a 6% glyphosate solution on all species within the functional group targeted for 

removal. T. caput-medusae was seeded in fall of 2005 at 3000 seeds per m-2. T. caput-medusae 

density in the entire 2 x 2 m plot was counted in June 2006 and 2007. The effect of removal 

treatment, site and year on density of T. caput-medusae was analyzed with ANOVA. Since plots 

were repeatedly sampled, the ANOVA was conducted as a split-split-plot in time using Proc 

Mixed with site and time as the split factors (SAS 1999). 

2007 Results 

Nitrogen partitioning by time, depth and chemical form 

Water addition prior to 15N-labeling increased N capture by the study species about 1.3-fold (P = 

0.021, data not shown) but did not differentially affect the timing, depth, or form of N capture of 

the study species (P > 0.05). The timing and depth of N capture, however, differed significantly 

among species (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001 for species × time and species × depth; Fig. 1). Forbs 

acquired a greater proportion of N in April compared to May while bunchgrasses acquired a 

greater proportion of N in May compared to April (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001, respectively). 

Annual grasses captured the majority of N in April compared to May (P < 0.001). Forbs acquired 

a greater proportion of N from depth compared to bunchgrasses (P = 0.006). Annuals captured 
89

more N from shallow soil layers compared to deep soil layers (P < 0.001). All study species 

showed a tendency to acquire more N as NO3

-

 compared to NH4

+

. 

The total amount of N captured following 15N injection at different times, depths and chemical 

forms differed significantly among native species (species × time, species × depth, species × 

form, P < 0.001; Fig. 2). In all treatments, however, bunchgrasses acquired significantly more N 

than the forbs (P < 0.001). 

Functional group removal plots 

Bunchgrass removal was the only treatment that significantly increased T. caput-medusae 

density compared to the intact control plots. There was no significant effect of site or interaction 

between removal treatment and site on T. caput-medusae density (P = 0.671 and P = 0.501). 

Density of T. caput-medusae varied across years (P = 0.052) but there was no removal treatment 

by year interaction on T. caput-medusae density (P= 0.155). 

Future Plans

The initial plan for the study was to repeat 15N injection over two growing season to examine the 

degree to which variation in precipitation amounts influences species patterns of N capture. This 

approach was revised by exposing half the plants during the first year to a watering treatment. 

This doubled the sample size the first year but allowed a more explicit test of the influence of 

precipitation amount on patterns of plant N capture. Therefore, future plans involve a final 

analysis and publication of 2007 results. These findings also will provide a basis for a planned 

synthesis paper outlining traits that should be targeted by managers to increase invasion 

resistance. Greenhouse studies on individual plants also are planned to identify variation in root 

and leaf physiological traits allowing species to capture nitrogen under different levels of N 

supply. 

Table 1. List of the seven species used in this study. Species are arranged by functional group: invasive annual 

grass, native perennial bunchgrass and native perennial forb. Nomenclature follows the USDA PLANTS database 

(http://plants.usda.gov/).

Group Code Common name Scientific name 

Annual BRTE cheatgrass Bromus tectorum L. 

Annual TACA medusahead Taeniatherum caput-medusae (L.) Nevski 

Bunchgrass PSSP bluebunch wheatgrass Pseudoroegneria spicata (Pursh) A. Löve 

Bunchgrass ELEL bottlebrush squirreltail Elymus elymoides (Raf.) Swezey 

Bunchgrass POSE Sandberg’s bluegrass Poa secunda J. Presl 

Forb LOTR nineleaf biscuitroot Lomatium triternatum (Pursh) Coult. & Rose

Forb CRIN grey hawksbeard Crepis intermedia Gray 
90

20

40

60

BRTE TACA PSSP ELEL POSE LOTR CRIN

20

40

60

Annuals Bunchgrasses Forbs

15N capture (percent of each species total)

April

May

BRTE TACA PSSP ELEL POSE LOTR CRIN

Annuals Bunchgrasses Forbs

2-7 cm

17-22 cm

a)

b)

c)

d) NH4

+

NO3

- 

NH4

+

NO3

- 

NH4

+

NO3

- 

NH4

+

NO3

- 

Figure 1. 15N capture by the seven study species as influenced by the time, depth 

and form of 15N tracer addition. Based on the ANOVA results, panels (a) and (b) 

show the simple effects of time and N form on species N capture while panels (c) 

and (d) show the simple effects of depth and N form on species N capture. Plant N 

capture data are expressed as a percentage of each species total 15N capture. 

Percentages were calculated individually for each block (mean + SE, n = 10). 
91

15N capture (mg m-2) 1

2

3

April

May

June

1

2

3 2-7 cm

17-22 cm

a)

b)

Annuals Bunchgrasses Forbs

BRTE TACA PSSP ELEL POSE LOTR CRIN

1

2

3 NH4

+ 

NO3

-

c)

Figure 2. Total N capture by the seven study species as 

affected by the time (a) depth (b) and form (c) of 15N 

injections. Values in (a) are averaged over the different 

depths and chemical form of tracer addition (mean ± 

SE, n = 20). Values in (b) are averaged over the 

different times and form of tracer addition (mean ± SE, 

n = 40 for BRTE and POSE and n = 60 for the other 

species). Values in (c) are averaged over the different 

times and depth of tracer addition (mean + SE, n = 40 

for BRTE and POSE and n = 60 for the other species). 
92

T. caput-medusae (plants m-2) 100

200

300

Nothing 

removed

 Annual 

 forbs

removed

Perennial

 forbs

 removed

Bunchgrasses

 removed

a

a

a

b

Figure 3. Taeniatherum caput-medusae densities in plots where functional 

groups had been removed at two sites (mean + SE, n = 8). Different letters 

indicate differences among treatments as determined by LS-means (P < 

0.05). 
93

Literature Cited

Davis, M.A., J.P. Grime, and K. Thompson. 2000. Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a 

general theory of invasibility. Journal of Ecology 88:528-534. 

Grime, J.P. 1987. Dominant and subordinate components of plant communities-implications for 

succession, stability and diversity, p. 413-428. In: A.J. Gray, P.J. Edwards, and M.J. 

Crawley, eds. Colonization, succession and stability. Blackwell, Oxford, U.K. 

Kahmen A., C. Renker, S.B. Unsicker, and N. Buchmann. 2006. Niche complementarity for 

nitrogen: an explanation for the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning relationship. Ecology 

87:1244-1255. 

McKane, R.B., L.C. Johnson, G.R. Shaver, K.J. Nadelhoffer, E.B. Rastetter, B. Fry, A.E. Giblin, 

K. Kielland, B.L. Kwiatkowski, J.A. Laundre, and G. Murray. 2002. Resource-based niches 

provide a basis for plant species diversity and dominance in arctic tundra. Nature 415:68-71. 

Nadelhoffer K.J., and B. Fry. 1994. Nitrogen isotope studies in forest ecosystems, p. 22-44. In: 

K. Lajtha, and R. Michener, eds. Stable isotopes in ecology. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 

U.K. 

Paschke M.W., T. McLendon, and E.F. Redente. 2000. Nitrogen availability and old-field 

succession in a shortgrass steppe. Ecosystems 3:144-158. 

SAS. 1999. Statistical Software, version 8.0. SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC. 

Stohlgren T.J., D. Binkley, G.W. Chong, M.A. Kalkhan, L.D. Schell, K.A. Bull, Y. Otsuki, G. 

Newman, M. Baskin, and Y. Son. 1999. Exotic species invade hot spots of native plant 

diversity. Ecological Monographs 69:25-46. 

Presentations: 

James, J. 2007. The potential for resource-based niches to contribute to invasion resistance in a 

semi-arid plant community. Society for Range Management 60th annual meeting, Reno, NV. 

Abstract 213. 

Management Applications: 

Understanding mechanisms of invasion resistance is critical for conservation biology and land 

management. This research demonstrates that at natural levels of species abundance resource 

partitioning may facilitate species coexistence but not necessarily contribute to invasion 

resistance by the plant community. This suggests managers should not expect a general 

mechanism of invasion resistance across systems. Instead, the key mechanism of invasion 

resistance within a system will depend on trait variation among coexisting species and on how 

species abundance is distributed in the system. In short, establishing desirable species that can 

produce the most biomass during the first growing season likely will be the best way to minimize 

establishment of annual grasses. Establishing a diverse plant community will only be likely to 
94

increase invasion resistance if these additional species contribute significantly to the overall 

biomass of the community. 

Products: 

Provided part of the basis for a $ 3.6 million USDA-ARS demonstration project. 

Contributed to ongoing efforts to develop reseeding guidelines for annual grass infested 

rangeland. 

 
95

Project Title: Establishment of Native Plants Through Improved 

Propagation Techniques and Seedling Disease Control

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Brad Geary, Assistant Professor 

BYU, 263 WIDB 

Provo, Utah 84602 

801.422.2369, Fax 801.422.0008 

brad_geary@byu.edu 

Scott Jensen, Botanist 

USDA-FS-RMRS Shrub Sciences Laboratory 

735 N. 500 E., Provo, Utah 84606-1865 

801.356.5128, Fax 801.375.6968 

sljensen@fs.fed.us 

1. Increase seed germination of Astragalus utahensis by inoculation with Aspergillus and 

Alternaria fungi 

Project Description: 

Hard seeded dormancy of Astragalus utahensis prevents germination under optimal moisture 

conditions even after scarification with 98% H2SO4. Seeds inoculated with Aspergillus spp 

(Asp) and Alternaria spp (Alt) germinate rapidly (83% and 28%) over H2O (6%) in laboratory 

conditions. Therefore, Astragalus utahensis seeds were inoculated with Aspergillus and 

Alternaria fungi to determine if fungal species increase Astragalus utahensis germination in 

natural settings. 

Project Status: 

Materials and Methods 

Field tests were completed in 2007 to determine if the effects of increased germination by 

Aspergillus and Alternaria, which were observed in Petri and greenhouse conditions, could be 

observed in natural conditions. Three sites were chosen for planting with a variety of conditions: 

1- Fountain Green on cultivated ground is nestled in the mountain valleys (leeward side of the 

first group of mountains in the Wasatch range) with an elevation of 1800m, this site receives 

moisture in the form of snow and remains covered in snow for more time in spring when 

compared to the other two sites; 2- Nephi is on cultivated ground and is out on an open valley 

floor at an elevation of 1500m, snow is the main form of moisture but the area loses snow cover 

early in the spring due to elevation and location in the valley; 3- BYU research farm is on the 

windward side of the Wasatch range at an elevation of 1300m on cultivated ground, this is likely 

the most moderate site with snow and rain through the fall as well as winter and into spring. 

Sites were selected according to availability though they represent a range of elevations and 

locations throughout Utah. 
96

Results and Discussion 

Winter 2005 trials were planted in Nephi and Fountain Green. The response was erratic, but 

showed a significant effect by the scarified control at the Nephi location (Fig. 1 A). This may be 

due to the effects of stratification as well as leaching by soil moisture during the winter period, 

but was most likely due to the fact that the scarified control was planted with a mechanical 

planter and all other treatments were hand planted. Results at Fountain Green were not 

significantly different from each other (Fig. 1 B). Spring trials were planted at BYU, Nephi, and 

Fountain Green. However, they were planted in May, too late to have the benefit of any soil 

moisture that may have been prevalent early in the spring. These trials showed minimal to no 

response. This minimal response occurred despite the fact that the BYU farm was irrigated daily 

for the first month, and twice a week thereafter. This may not have been enough moisture to 

keep the seed wet and imbibing. 

A. B.

Figure 1: Germination response of Astragalus utahensis seeds inoculated with Aspergillus or Alternaria at 

differing field locations in 2005, A – Field trials in Nephi 2005; B – Field trials in Fountain Green 2005. 

Winter 2006 trials were planted at BYU, Nephi, and Fountain Green. The response was more 

defined during 2006 – 2007 growing season, showing similar patterns within the Nephi and BYU 

sites where the treatment effects were better than the control (Fig. 2 A and B). This response by 

the treatments indicates that conditions may have been optimal for fungal growth and that these 

treatments allowed greater germination because of a break-down in the seed coat. SEM 

photographs of the interaction of Alternaria at the seed coat show significant breakdown of 

integuments by the fungus. The unscarified seed lacked much of a response as would be 

expected considering that the seed coat had not been compromised enough to enhance 

germination. The scarified, water soaked control showed germination patterns consistent with 

the scarified seed, though slightly lower, indicating that there might be a minimal effects by 

leachable inhibitory substances and more of an imbibition response where seeds exposed to 

copious amounts of water build up internal pressures which serve to allow the radical to break 

through the seed coat. In the case of this distinction in-vitro tests, where soaking for 24 hrs in 

H2O occurred, showed significant responses over the scarified unsoaked seed that were placed in 

controlled moisture conditions (7 mL H2O soaked on a germination blotter paper) from the start. 

Field Trials @ Nephi F05 

%Germination

Cntrl

36.13%

Cntrl 2

4.27% Alt

2.27%

Alt 5

2.00%

Asp 

3.73% Asp 5 

2.53%

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

Treatments

Field Trials @ Fountain Green F05 

%Germination

Cntrl

8.40%

Cntrl 2

1.07%

Alt

6.00%

Alt 5

5.60%

Asp 

9.73% Asp 5 

8.00%

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

Treatments
97

The soaking treatment, though extreme, may indicate that conditions are more likely to be 

similar to those where the seed has maximum exposure to H2O, as with the soaking experiments, 

because of the snow melt and spring rains that penetrate the soil exposing the seed to a higher 

moisture regime. This allows imbibition and in turn increases internal pressures, permitting the 

radical to burst through the seed coat. Fountain Green showed minimal response to treatments 

and controls. This may have been due to suboptimal germination conditions with temperature 

playing a primary role in lack of germination and fungal involvement therein. 

A. B.

Figure 2: Germination response of Astragalus utahensis seeds inoculated with Aspergillus or Alternaria 

at differing field locations in 2006, A – Field trials in Nephi 2006; B – Field trials in Spanish Fork 2006. 

Despite the fact that spring trials were planted mid-March, in time for the seeds to have 

maximum exposure to spring moisture they yielded minimum responses. Fountain Green 

showed the most response of the three sites with no significant differences among the treatments 

(Fig. 3). The Fountain Green site may have retained more soil moisture over the course of the 

spring due to elevation and perhaps other factors. This response indicates that the best time to 

plant is in the fall and that responses are minimal when planted early spring. 

Conclusions 

Field trials showed variability between sites and inconsistency in treatment response as 

compared with the in-vitro and greenhouse trials of this study. However, when all treatments 

were planted in the same manner and planted in the fall, inoculated seeds, particularly with 

Aspergillus, seemed to do the best (Fig. 2 A and B). Availability of moisture and other factors 

during fall plantings supply a greater benefit than spring plantings. The practical application of 

inoculating Astragalus utahensis seeds for revegetation would be to utilize the treatment as a part 

of preparing seedlings rather than direct seeding, but data from Nephi and BYU Spanish Fork 

farm suggest that when seeded in the fall the fungal inoculums may increase seed germination 

and establishment. 

Field Trials @ Nephi F06

% Germination

Scar

14.80% Soak

12.13%

Alt

17.33%

Asp

20.67%

Unscar

1.20%

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

Treatment

Field Trials @ BYU F06

%Germination

Scar

15.20% Soak

13.20%

Alt

21.07%

Asp

32.67%

Unscar

4.40%

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

Treatment
98

 

Figure 3: Germination response of Astragalus utahensis seeds inoculated with 

Aspergillus or Alternaria in field trials planted in the spring of 2007. 

Products 

Publications: 

Manuscripts: 

Eldredge, S. D. 2007. Beneficial fungal interactions resulting in accelerated germination of 

Astragalus utahensis, a hard-seeded legume. Brigham Young University, Provo, UT. Thesis. 

Eldredge, S. D., B. Geary, and S. Jensen. Beneficial fungal interactions resulting in accelerated 

germination of Astragalus utahensis, a hard-seeded legume. Plant Ecology (in prep.) 

Eldredge, S., B. Geary, J. Gardner, and S. Jensen. Mechanisms of fungal accelerated germination 

of the hard-seeded legume, Astragalus utahensis by Aspergillus and Alternaria fungi. Plant 

Ecology (in prep.) 

Eldredge, S. D., and B. Geary. Seed germination as influenced by microorganisms and the 

associated natural resource management implications. Plant Ecology (in prep.) 

Eldredge, S., B. Geary, and S. Jensen. 2007. Field and greenhouse trials relating complex soil 

environments with accelerated germ responses of Astragalus utahensis to Alternaria and 

Aspergillus fungi. American Phytopathological Society. San Diego, CA. Phytopathology 

96:S32. 

Presentations: 

Eldredge, S., B. Geary, and S. Jensen. 2007. Field and greenhouse trials relating complex soil 

environments with accelerated germ responses of Astragalus utahensis to Alternaria and 

Aspergillus fungi. American Phytopathological Society annual meeting, San Diego, CA. 

Field Trials @ Fountain Green S07

% Germination

Scar

4.40% Soak

0.53%

Alt

0.80%

Asp

1.07%

Unscar

4.67%

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

Treatment

check scar

check soak

Alt

Asp

unscar
99

2. Comparison of cultured Rhizobium to commercial Rhizobium as inoculants in various 

Lupinus species to promote root nodulation and nitrogen fixation

Project Description: 

Rhizobium is important for legume plant growth and health because of the nitrogen that it 

provides for the plant. Many Rhizobium species have evolved together with their host plants to 

form important symbiotic relationships. It has been determined in some legume plant species 

that specific Rhizobium isolates help the plant to grow better through improved plant health. 

Therefore, this project explores the best way to germinate Lupinus seeds and determine if 

Rhizobium cultured directly from Lupinus plants increases plant growth over commercial 

Rhizobium products that were not collected from Lupinus species. 

Project Status: 

Materials and Methods

Using metabolism tests on artificial media, collected bacterial isolates are determined to be 

Rhizobium or another genus of bacteria. If the bacterial isolates are Rhizobium, then those 

isolates will be inoculated onto Lupinus plants that are grown in sterile rooting media. All plants 

will be monitored for growth by dry biomass and number of nodules per plant. 

Results and Discussion

Based upon growth and metabolism tests on artificial media, 5 of 14 bacterial isolates have been 

identified as possible Rhizobium isolates. These 5 isolates will be inoculated onto Lupinus

species plants. 

Lupinus seeds are not germinating and growing well in the sterile growth media. Seeds were 

started in perlite and Turface® growth media, neither seemed to have high germination and when 

seeds did germinate they died within a few weeks. Multiple treatments were explored to aid 

germination; seeds were scarified with a scalpel, soaked in ethanol, soaked in various bleach 

concentrations, boiled, soaked in giberellic acid, or a combination of treatments were applied. 

Establishing germination and seedling survival is now the primary concern before the Rhizobium

study is initiated. 

3. Improved germination of Stipa comata through fungal inoculations

Project Description: 

Sean Eldredge’s studies with Astragalis utahensis in association with Aspergillus and Alternaria

have indicated that seed germination can be enhanced with fungal infections. In germination 

trials of Stipa comata, it was observed that an increase in germination often followed a fungal 

infection of the seeds. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to, 1- determine if Aspergillus and 

Alternaria inoculated seeds can increase germination of Stipa comata, and 2 - culture out fungi 

that naturally grow on non-sterilized seeds for identification and testing to determine if there is a 

fungus that improves germination of Stipa comata seeds. 
100

Project Status: 

Materials and Methods 

Stipa comata seeds were sterilized with ethanol and bleach; seeds were rinsed in distilled water 5 

times for 30-60 seconds each time then placed on moistened blotter paper in Petri dishes. Petri 

dishes contained 20 seeds each (15 plates of 20, with 5 plates in each group). The plates were 

stratified in the refrigerator for 3 weeks. Each group of 100 seeds was then treated differently. 

One group was inoculated with an Alternaria spore solution of 1.79x106 spores/mL. The second 

group was inoculated with an Aspergillus spore solution of 1.65x106 spores/mL. The third group 

was not inoculated. 

Results and Discussion 

After 4 different germination trials, varying the time the seeds were submersed in ethanol and 

bleach and varying the concentrations of bleach, it was determined that ethanol is very effective 

at killing the seed. Seeds that are sterilized in 10% bleach without ethanol had the best 

germination. 

Seven days following inoculation with Aspergillus and Alternaria, all of the inoculated Stipa 

comata seeds had fungal infections. After 1 week, 22 seeds in the Alternaria group, 16 seeds in 

the Aspergillus group, and 15 seeds in the control group had germinated (Table 1). There were 5 

seeds in the control group that had grown a fungus after 1 week. 

After 17 days following inoculation, 40 seeds out of 100 in the Alternaria group had germinated, 

20 seeds in the Aspergillus group had germinated, and 22 seeds in the control group had 

germinated (Table 1). 

Table 1. Percent germination of Stipa comata seeds following inocuation with Alternaria and 

Aspergillus fungi. 

Post inoculation Alternaria Aspergillus Control 

Seven days 22 16 15 

Seventeen days 40 20 22 

Conclusions 

These preliminary studies were to determine if differences exist between the treatments, however 

they were not blocked or repeated properly for statistical analysis. It appears Alternaria may 

influence Stipa comata seed germination, further research will continue to determine if 

differences are significant. 
101

Project Title: Forb Seeding Depths, Managing Wildland Shrub Stands, 

Seed Yield Losses in Asteraceae, and Established 

Grasses Effects on Shrub and Forb Emergence

Project Location: Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Val Anderson 

Department of Plant and Animal Sciences 

Brigham Young University, 275 WIDB 

Provo, UT 84602 

801.422.3527, Fax 801.422.0090 

val_anderson@byu.edu 

Robert Johnson 

Department of Plant and Animal Sciences 

Brigham Young University, 275 WIDB 

Provo, UT 84602 

801.422.3311, Fax 801.422.0090 

robert_johnson@byu.edu 

Project Description: 

The following projects had activity during 2007. 

 Seeding depth study 

 Manipulation of wild bitterbrush and sagebrush stands 

 Seed yield losses due to tephritid fruit flies in Asteraceae 

 Shrub and forb establishment in a competition matrix of native and introduced grasses 

1. Seeding depth study 

 

The seeding depth study is designed to determine optimal planting depth of native forbs at depths 

of 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, and 0 inches in a clay-loam and sandy soil. There is almost no data published 

addressing this important issue for native forb species. 

The following species were investigated in 2007: 

Balsamorhiza sagitatta 

 Crepis acuminata 

 Crepis intermedia 

 Perideridia bolanderi 

This study was conducted twice during 2007 (Crepis acuminata was not repeated during the 

second run as we already had data from a previous run of the experiment.). During both runs, 

each species was planted in 6 different flats, 3 of sandy soil and 3 of clay soil. Each flat was 

planted with 5 rows of 30 seeds each (with the exception of B. sagittata which had 25 seeds per 

row due to limited seed). The rows were randomly selected for the following 5 depths: 0, 1/8”, 
102

0 1/8 1/4 1/2 1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Clay Soil Seedling Emergence

Basa

Crin

Pebo

Seed Depth Inches

% Emergence

0 1/8 1/4 1/2 1

0

2.5

5

7.5

10

12.5

15

17.5

20

22.5

25

27.5

30

Sandy Soil Emergence Response

Basa

Crin

Pebo

Seed Depth Inches

% Emergence

1/4”, 1/2”, and 1”. All flats were given 6 weeks of cold stratification prior to being placed in the 

greenhouse. Flats were watered with an automatic mist adjusted as needed to keep the soil moist. 

Figure 1. Balsamorhiza sagitatta, Crepis intermedia, and Perideridia bolanderi 

seedling emergence at different seeding depths. 

Results from the 2007 data as well as for previous years are in the process of preparation for 

publication. 
103

Management Applications: 

Typical reseeding projects using seed drills plant seed at depths that may not be optimal for 

emergence. Our research reveals that most seed emerge best at shallow depths. The challenge 

then is to plant seed at depths that provide the best moisture availability but still with acceptable 

emergence. There are thresholds where no seed will emerge. Knowing the emergence range of 

various forb species in native soils will assist in not only identifying the optimal depth per 

species, but also which species can share the same planting depth and therefore the same seed 

box in a seed drill. The high cost of native forb seed requires judicial placement of that seed at 

the depth that will most contribute to an acceptable outcome for the monetary investment. 

2. Manipulations of wild bitterbrush and sagebrush stands 

Another way to increase seed production is to manage wildland stands of important species. This 

study investigates methodologies to increase seed production in wildland stands of antelope 

bitterbrush and Wyoming big sagebrush. A combination of treatments was applied including: 

removal of competing vegetation, fertilization, and pruning. The long-term effect of beating 

versus hand stripping was also examined. 

Results of this project were reported in 2006 and published in thesis format in 2007. Also, data 

on treatment results were collected for a third season in 2007 with final results pending analysis. 

Publications:

Armstrong, J .C. 2007. Improving sustainable seed yield in Wyoming big sagebrush. Brigham 

Young University, Department of Plant and Animal Sciences, Brigham Young University, 

Provo, UT. Thesis. 28 p. 

Roberts, F.L. 2007. Investigation into seed collection practices and shrub manipulations to 

improve sustainable seed yield in wildland stands of bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). 

Brigham Young University, Department of Plant and Animal Sciences, Brigham Young 

University, Provo, UT. Thesis. 35 p. 

Presentations:

Anderson, V.J., R.L. Johnson. 2007. Maximization of Great Basin wildland forb seed production 

using variations of cultural practices. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

2007 symposium. Society for Range Management 60th Annual Meeting, Reno, NV. 

Abstract. Invited presentation. 

Johnson, R.L. and V.J. Anderson 2007. Influences on wildflower seed yields by row spacing and 

mulching practices, and improving seed production in wild populations for seed harvesting. 

Native Wildflower Seed Production Research Symposium, Orlando, Florida. Invited speaker. 

Roberts, L., V.J. Anderson, and R. L. Johnson. 2007. Investigations into seed collecting practices 

and stand manipulation to maintain seed production in wildland populations of antelope 

bitterbrush and Wyoming big sagebrush. Developing native plant materials for the Great 
104

Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for 

Range Management 60th Annual Meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 

3. Seed yield losses due to tephritid fruit flies in Asteraceae 

 

Understanding the extent of seed yield losses by seed predators in wild forb populations will help 

predict the potential seed loss of native forbs under cultivation. This project looks at seed loss 

occurring in four yellow composite species at three different sites, the insect composition of 

flower visitors, and the effect of spraying the pesticide imidachloprid for controlling seed 

predation. 

In 2007, Wyethia amplexicaulis, Crepis acuminata, and Agoseris glauca sites were sampled for 

the occurrence of flower visitors. Capitula were also sampled for rearing trials to determine the 

extent of seed damage by seed predators as well as the predator composition and predatorparasitoid relationships. Imidachloprid was applied to a sample population as a soil drench and a 

foliar spray and capitula sampled in similar fashion. For the second season in a row, a late freeze 

killed the flowers from the Balsamorhiza sites. Some 2-year summary results of seed damage 

and imidachloprid application are provided (Fig.1). 

Future plans include a follow-up study in seed predator infestation rates in Balsamorhiza

following a 2-season hypothesized seed predator decline due to late frosts. Also, there is a flower 

size preference difference observed in to sympatric pests on Wyethia amplexicaule. We intend to 

investigate that phenomenon further. 
105

Histogram: seed damage, Wyethia amplexicaule

0

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40

60

80

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5%

10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%55%

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# samples 

n=644 average=39%

Histogram: seed damage, Crepis acuminata

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60

80

100

120

140

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Histogram: seed damage, Agoseris glauca

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600

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# samples 

average=7% n=576

 Seed Damage for Wyethia amplexicaule

0.0%

5.0%

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15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

40.0%

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untreated spray drench

Imidachloprid application

% seed damage

 Seed Damage for Crepis acuminata

0.0%

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6.0%

8.0%

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% seed damage

 Seed Damage for Agoseris glauca

-2%

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2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

untreated spray drench

Imidachloprid application

% seed damage

Figure 1. Two year summary results of Wyethia amplexicaulis, Crepis acuminata, and Agoseris glauca seed 

damage and seed damage from imidachloprid application. 

Presentations:

Johnson, R.L., V.J. Anderson. 2007. Controlling insect seed damage in wildland composite 

populations in the Intermountain West. Developing native plant materials for the Great 

Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for 

Range Management 60th annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 
106

Management Applications: 

Agricultural production systems consistently deal with yield reductions due to pest species. The 

agronomic production of native species for seed production has witnessed the same phenomenon 

for those few species grown over large acreage. The question remains as to what pest problems 

can be expected in species previously not commercially grown. By looking at the occurrence of 

pests that directly affect seed yield in native populations, you can make predictions of infestation 

rates likely to be exceeded in agricultural monocultures. The fact that Wyethia amplexicaule has 

a consistent and high degree of seed pest damage in wildland settings forewarns future seed 

producers the need to implement Integrated Pest Management Plans (IPMP). The use of 

imadachloprid gives evidence of at least an average 20% reduction in seed yield losses. Other 

chemicals may prove more effective. The other species studies reveal similar requirements for 

attention to existing pest problems. 

Another approach to increasing available seed is to manage dense wild populations for wild seed 

production. Since pesticide application had positive effects on seed yield in wild stands, 

managing such stands for increased yields has merit. 

4. Shrub and forb establishment in a competition matrix of native and introduced grasses 

This project looks at the competitive effect of established grasses on seedling emergence and 

establishment of native shrubs and forbs. Seeds are cached in the interspace of established grass 

species planted at 1⁄4 meter spacings. The competitive effect is measured as pre-dawn water 

potential in the emerging plants leaf tissue. The competitive matrix comprise the following 

species: 

Sporobolus airoides (alkali Sacaton) 

Elymus salinus (Salina wildrye) 

Pseudoroegneria spicata (bluebunch wheatgrass) 

Elymus cinereus (basin wildrye) 

Psathyrostachys juncea ‘Bozoiski’ (Russian wildrye) 

Agropyron desertorum 'Vavilov' (Siberian crested wheatgrass) 

Within the grass matrix, seed caches of the following species were planted in 2007 at 1/8-1/4 

inch deep depending upon the species. 

Purshia tridentata (bitterbrush)

 Chyrsothamnus viscidiflorus (viscid rabbitbrush) 

 Amelanchier alnifolia (Utah serviceberry)

 Cercocarpus montanus (mountain mahogany)

 Achillea millefolium (yarrow)

 Penstemon strictus (Rocky Mountain penstemon)

 Sphaeralcea munroana (Munroe’s globemallow)

 Heterotheca villosa (hairy golden aster)
107

Management Applications: 

The competitive nature of some established plant species may preclude the establishment of 

additional interseeded species, especially without competitive release. Because grass species 

have cheaper seed, are more amenable to traditional revegetation practices, and have 

demonstrated an easier ability to establish in wildland settings, they often form the primary cover 

in successful restoration projects. Adding forb and shrub diversity to a standing grass cover may 

be an important next-step in restoration goals. Knowing which species can successfully be 

interseeded and established within various standing grass species will assist managers in their 

decision making processes of seed selection. Also, knowing the competitive effect of the species 

comprising the grass matrix can help determine the appropriateness of seed selection for desired 

long-term outcomes. 
108

Project Title: Characterizing Multi-species Interactions in Response to 

Disturbance

Project Location: USDA-ARS, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, Utah 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Thomas A. Monaco 

 USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Laboratory. 

 Utah State University 

 Logan, UT 84322-6300 

 435.797.7231; Fax 435.797.3075 

 tom.monaco@ars.usda.gov 

Project Description: 

Big sagebrush communities (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.) in the Great Basin have been degraded 

by the synergistic consequences of chronic disturbance and annual weed invasion (Young and 

Evans 1978). Repairing ecosystem function is an overarching goal of restoration efforts, but it 

remains unclear which species most effectively resist weed invasion and how disturbance 

mediates weed invasion. We evaluated whether disturbance similarly facilitates invasion in 

single-species grass, forb, and shrub plots. 

Project Status: 

Materials and Methods 

Experiments were conducted at Millville, UT (41°39.44’N, 111°48.88’W, 1402 m). The soil is a 

gravelly loam series. Plots (1.5 m x 1.5 m, 1 m aisles) were established in May 2003 from 

transplants reared in a greenhouse, and consisted of 24 plants in a 5 x 5 square arrangement 

equally spaced (30 cm apart), with the center plant absent. Three plot-types were randomly 

located with 30 replicates: grass (Agropyron cristatum [L.]), forb (Achillea lanulosa [Nutt.] 

Piper), and shrub (Artemisia tridentata var.wyomingensis [Beetle & A. Young] Welsh). A 

disturbance treatment was applied in mid November 2004 to 15 replications by removing four 

plants from the 1 m2 center of plots with a shovel to potentially increase above and below-ground 

resources and create safe seed sites for the two invasive species. Plots were seeded an invasive 

annual grass (Bromus tectorum L.) and an invasive forb (Isatis tinctoria L.) autumn 2004 and 

2005 (400 seeds per species). Total weed seedling density was determined in summer 2005 and 

2006. Total (non-weed) shoot dry mass, soil nitrate and solar radiation (400-700 nm) at the soil 

surface was determined for plots in summer 2006. 

Results 

Disturbance significantly increased weed density for all three growth forms except for 

Agropyron in 2006 (Fig. 1). Within a treatment, weed density was less variable in 2005 than 

2006. Weed density also sharply increased between 2005 and 2006 in all plots except Agropyron. 

In fact, weed density declined within disturbed Agropyron plots during the study. In contrast, 

Achillea and Artemisia plots had 2-3 fold greater weed density than Agropyron. Total plot nonweed shoot dry mass (g) of Achillea (1957 ± 542) was lower (P<0.01) than 
109

Agropyron (4608 ± 542), which was lower (P<0.01) 

than Artemisia (14,594 ± 542). The disturbance 

treatment did not consistently increase soil nitrate (mg 

kg-1 soil) or solar radiation at the soil surface (μmol 

m

2

s

-1). However, Achillea plots had significantly 

greater (P<0.01) mean soil nitrate and solar radiation 

(5.2 ± 0.05 and 382 ± 50) than Agropyron (1.3 ± 0.05 

and 355 ± 50) and Artemisia (0.9 ± 0.05 and 155 ± 50) 

plots, respectively. 

Conclusions

The importance of disturbance to mediating weed 

invasion is clearly corroborated by our results. The 

capability of the long-lived perennial grass (Agropyron) to resist invasion appears to be 

associated with greater biomass productivity. In contrast, high susceptibility to weed invasion of 

Achillea plots was due to significantly greater amounts of underutilized above and belowground 

resources (Davis et al. 2000). Our results agree with the general contention that disturbance 

events increase available resources or safe sites for weed invasion. Perennial grasses appear to be 

a necessary component of minimizing underutilized resources. Our results also emphasize that 

managerial efforts to reduce the recurrence of disturbance events should be a primary goal to 

reduce the impacts and prevent continual dominance of invasive annual species in the sagebrushsteppe ecosystems of the Great Basin.

Literature Cited

Davis, M.A., Grime, J.P., Thompson, K. 2000. Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a 

general theory of invisibility. Journal of Ecology 88:528-534. 

Young, J.A., Evans, R.A. 1978. Population dynamics after wildfires in sagebrush grasslands. 

Journal of Range Management 31:283-289. 

Publications: 

Leonard, E. 2007. Competition for soil nitrate and invasive weed resistance of three shrub-steppe 

growth forms. M.S. thesis, Utah State Univ., Logan, Utah. 77 p. 

Leonard, E.D., T.A. Monaco, J.M. Stark, and R.J. Ryel. 2008. Invasive forb, annual grass, and 

exotic shrub competition with three sagebrush-steppe growth forms: acquisition of a spring 

15N tracer. Invasive Plant Science and Management 1(2): in press.

Management Applications: 

This research identifies that disturbance in big sagebrush-steppe should be avoided to prevent 

weed invasion. Perennial grass establishment is critical to prevent weed invasion. 

 

Figure 1. Mean (+1 SE) weed density in 

autumn. Lowercase letters indicate differences 

(P<0.01).
110

Project Title: Diversification of Crested Wheatgrass Stands in Utah 

Project Location: Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

 Research Sites: Skull Valley and Lookout Pass, UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Bruce A. Roundy 

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept. 

275 WIDB Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 

801.422.8137, Fax 801.422.0090 

bruce_roundy@byu.edu 

 

Val Anderson 

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept. 

275 WIDB Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 

801.422.3527, Fax 801.422.0090 

val_anderson@byu.edu 

Brad Jessop 

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept. 

275 WIDB Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 

801.422.3177, Fax 801.422.0090 

bdjessop@hotmail.com 

 

 April Hulet, Graduate Student 

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept. 

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 

huletapril@hotmail.com 

Jennifer Coleman, Graduate Student 

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept. 

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 

mossytree@byu.edu 

Reporting for work funded, in part, by both the USDI Bureau of Land Management Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project and undergraduate mentoring funds, Brigham Young University. 

Project Description: 

This work is designed to determine effective ways to control crested wheatgrass and establish 

native species while minimizing weed invasion. We will report on progress for 2006 and 2007 

and state directions for 2008. 

Crested wheatgrass diversification:

Two sites in Tooele Co., Utah were selected for large-scale manipulation of crested wheatgrass 

stands. The Skull Valley site, which borders U.S. Army Dugway Proving Ground, is at an 
111

elevation of 1524 m, receives 200-254 mm of precipitation annually and has Medburn fine sandy 

loam soils. The Lookout Pass site is approximately 45 miles southeast of the Skull Valley site 

and is located on the eastern side of the Onaqui Mountains. It is slightly higher in elevation 

(1676 m) and precipitation (254-305 mm) than the Skull Valley site and has Taylorsflat loamy 

soil. Both sites were seeded to crested wheatgrass monocultures more than 10 years ago 

following wildfires. Prior to treatment, the crested wheatgrass stand at Skull Valley was not as 

vigorous as the Lookout Pass site and had an abundance of cheatgrass. 

The study is replicated in both time (year 1 = 2005; year 2 = 2006) and space, and is set up as a 

randomized block split plot design with 5 blocks. Within each block, 1 acre (0.4 ha) main plots 

were either left undisturbed (UD) or received a partial control mechanical treatment (1-way 

disking; PCM); or full control mechanical treatment (2-way disking; FCM); or partial control 

herbicide treatment (16 oz/ac [1.1 L/ha] Roundup Original Max; PCH); or full control herbicide 

treatment (44 oz/ac [3.2 L/ha] Roundup Original Max; FCH) to reduce or eliminate crested 

wheatgrass. Following wheatgrass control, main plots were divided into 0.5 ac (0.2 ha) subplots 

that were either seeded or unseeded. In both 2005 and 2006, herbicide treatments were applied in 

late May while mechanical treatments were applied in early June. Plots were seeded with a Truax 

Rough Rider rangeland drill in October 2005 and 2006. The drill was specially configured to 

drill or broadcast seed in alternating rows with the goal of drilled species being planted no deeper 

than 1.3 cm. Brillion packer wheels placed immediately after the drop tubes pressed broadcast 

species into the ground. With the exception of ‘Appar’ flax, all species used in the seed mix are 

native and, where possible, collected or grown in proximity to the study sites. Utah Division of 

Wildlife Resource supplied all seed for the study except for ‘Eagle’ yarrow. 

Table 1. Crested wheatgrass diversification study seed mix. 

 

Drill Mix PLS Bulk 

SPECIES lbs/acre lbs/acre 

Bluebunch wheatgrass - 'Anatone' 3.00 3.16 

Squirreltail - 'SID Sanpete' 2.00 2.82 

Indian ricegrass - 'Nezpar' 2.00 2.13 

Fourwing saltbush 1.00 3.48 

Lewis flax - 'Appar' 0.75 0.83 

Munro’s globemallow 0.50 0.84 

Total 9.25 13.26 

 

 

Broadcast Mix PLS Bulk 

SPECIES lbs/acre lbs/acre 

Sandberg bluegrass - 'SID OR' 0.75 0.95 

White stemmed rabbitbrush 0.25 0.75 

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.20 0.94 

Yarrow – ‘Eagle’ 0.20 0.24 

Total 1.40 2.88 
112

Data Collection Methods:

In each subplot, five transects were established and six quadrats were placed along each transect 

for a total of 30 samples per subplot or 3000 samples per site. Both transects and quadrats were 

placed in a stratified random manner by selecting a random starting point and then placing the 

transects and the quadrats at consistent intervals. At Lookout Pass, transects were spaced every 

12 meters beginning at meter 13. Quadrats were then spaced every 3 meters along the transect 

beginning at meter 8. At Skull Valley, transects were spaced every 8 meters beginning at meter 

7.5 while quadrats were spaced every 3 meters along the transect beginning at the 6 meter mark. 

Data were collected in June 2006 and May 2007 using 0.25 m2 quadrats. Within each 0.25 m2

quadrat, density was determined for all species. Percent cover for perennial species and 

cheatgrass was estimated ocularly using cover classes. Nested frequency was determined for 

cheatgrass, exotic annual forbs, and crested wheatgrass seedlings. 

Data Analysis:

Data relating to crested wheatgrass control were analyzed separately from data relating to seeded 

species. Data were also analyzed according to first year response to treatment (Year 1: treatments 

implemented 2005, data collected in 2006; and Year 2: treatments implemented in 2006, data 

collected in 2007) and repeated measurements of Year 1 plots (data collected in 2006 and 2007). 

Crested wheatgrass control variables included: mature crested wheatgrass and residual perennial 

grasses (density, cover); crested wheatgrass seedling and exotic annual forbs (density, 

frequency); and cheatgrass (density, frequency, and cover). Seeded species variables were based 

on density of seeded species which included: drill seeded grasses, broadcast seeded Sandberg 

bluegrass, drill seeded grasses plus broadcast seeded Sandberg bluegrass, total forbs, total seeded 

grasses plus total forbs, total shrubs, and total seeded species. 

We used Proc Mixed in SAS (SAS Institute 1996) to determine significant treatment effects and 

interactions. The analysis factors were site (Lookout Pass vs. Skull Valley), block (1-5), 

treatments (UD, PCM, FCM, PCH, FCH), and seeding (seeded vs. unseeded), with site 

considered fixed and both block and treatment considered random affects. We used an arcsin 

transformation to normalize the cover data. Differences were considered significant at P ≤ 0.05. 

Project Status: 

Results: 

Crested wheatgrass control. Mechanical treatments were more effective than herbicide in 

reducing mature crested wheatgrass cover (Fig. 1A and B). Compared to the control plots (UD) 

in 2006, data collected from treatments implemented in 2005 showed that two-way disking 

(FCM) decreased wheatgrass cover from 14% to 6% at Lookout Pass, and from 14% to 4% at 

Skull Valley. In 2007, data collected from the treatments implemented in 2006 showed that FCM 

reduced wheatgrass cover from 6% to 3% at Lookout Pass and from 7% to 1% at Skull Valley 

(Table 2). Compared to the UD plots, FCH (3.2 L/ha) reduced mature crested wheatgrass cover 

from 14% to 5% at Lookout Pass and from 14% to 11% at Skull Valley in 2006. In 2007, crested 

wheatgrass cover increased in the FCH plots at Lookout Pass from 6% to 8%; at Skull Valley, 

FCH reduced crested wheatgrass cover from 7% to 4% (Table 2). 
113

Mature crested wheatgrass density was not significantly different among treatments (P > 0.05) at 

either the Lookout Pass site in 2006 and 2007, or at the Skull Valley site in 2007. However, at 

the Skull Valley site in 2006, mature crested wheatgrass density decreased from 13.4 to 5.9 

plants/m2

 in FCM plots (P < 0.05; Table 2). 

 

Crested seedling density was not significantly different among treatments (P > 0.05) at either site 

in the first year post-treatment. Between 2006 and 2007 at Lookout Pass, crested wheatgrass 

seedling density increased significantly (P < 0.05) in the UD plots (4.6 to 20.7 plants/m2

) and 

PCH plots (4.3 to 12.3 plants/m2

) (Fig. 1C). Between 2006 and 2007, crested wheatgrass 

seedling density was not significantly different at the Skull Valley site between treatments (P > 

0.05; Fig. 1D). 

Weed invasion. At both sites, weed invasion was greater in mechanical treatments versus 

herbicide treatments (Fig. 1E and F). At Lookout Pass, cheatgrass density increased significantly 

(P < 0.05) between 2006 and 2007 on the PCM plots (1.2 to 10.8 plants/m2

) and on the FCM 

plots (2.1 to 29.6 plants/m2

). At Skull Valley, cheatgrass density increased significantly (P < 

0.05) between the two years on the UD plots (33.6 to 123.3 plants/m2), PCM (36.8 to 231.6 

plants/m2

), FCM (34.7 to 202.2 plants/m2) and PCH (8.9 to 55.1 plants/m2) (Fig. 1F). The overall 

increase of cheatgrass across all treatments at Skull Valley may be attributed to a fall 

germination event due to higher precipitation in September and October of 2006 (Fig. 2). Areas 

treated with herbicide had lower densities of cheatgrass relative to mechanical plots. In 2007 at 

Lookout Pass, FCM plots had significantly (P < 0.05) higher amounts of cheatgrass than both 

herbicide treated plots. At Skull Valley in 2007, mechanical treatments had significantly higher 

amounts of cheatgrass than both herbicide treated plots (Fig. 1F). 

Between 2006 and 2007, exotic annual forb density increased significantly at Lookout Pass (7.4 

to 140 weeds/m2; P < 0.05). At Lookout Pass, Alyssum alyssoides accounted for 94% of all 

exotic annual forbs encountered. Sisymbrium altissimum comprised 5.3% while Salsola iberica, 

Latuca serriola, Lepidium perfoliatum, Erodium cicutarium, and Descurainia sophia comprised 

<0.1%. Between 2006 and 2007, exotic annual forbs also increased at Skull Valley from 2.2 to 

4.8 weeds/m2

. S. iberica comprised 61% followed by S. altissimum (17.6%) and L. perfoliatum 

(11.6%). A. alyssoides comprised 8.5% while L. serriola, E. cicutarium, and D. sophia were 

<0.1%. Due to large quantities of Ceratocephala testiculata at both sites, density was not 

collected, however, it is estimated to have approximately 40% ground cover and was considered 

to be the dominant exotic annual forb. 

Seeded species. None of the crested wheatgrass control treatments affected seeded species 

emergence (Table 2). There was greater emergence of seeded species at Lookout Pass compared 

to Skull Valley. This is likely due to higher precipitation at Lookout Pass (Fig. 2). At both sites, 

seeded grasses had greater emergence than either shrubs or forbs. Drill seeded species 

encountered most frequently were the grasses bluebunch wheatgrass, Indian ricegrass, and 

squirreltail, and the forb Lewis flax. Of the species that were broadcast, Sandberg bluegrass was 

most common; yarrow was noted occasionally. Although shrubs were encountered rarely during 

data collection, seedlings of Wyoming big sagebrush were noted (Table 3). 
114

Timeline:

Data will be collected in May of 2008 on year 1 and year 2 blocks at both sites. 

Technology Transfer: 

Hulet, A., B.A. Roundy, B. Jessop, and J. Coleman. 2007. Diversification of crested wheatgrass 

stands in Utah. Developing native plant materials for the Great Basin. Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for Range Management 60th 

annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 

Hulet, A., B.A. Roundy, B. Jessop, J. Coleman. 2007. Diversification of crested wheatgrass 

stands in Utah. Utah Society for Range Management annual meeting, Price, UT. 

Poster Presentations: 

Hulet, A., B.A. Roundy, B. Jessop, J. Coleman. 2007. Diversification of crested wheatgrass 

stands in Utah. Restoring the West Conference 2007 Sagebrush Steppe Restoration, Logan, 

UT. 

Hulet, A., B.A. Roundy, B. Jessop, J. Coleman. 2008. Diversification of crested wheatgrass 

stands in Utah. Society for Range Management-AFGC annual meeting, Louisville, KY. 

Management Application: 

This study shows the difficulty of attempting to control crested wheatgrass, establish native 

species, and minimize weed invasion simultaneously. Follow-up treatments to control both 

residual and seedbank wheatgrass as well as weeds may be necessary to convert wheatgrass 

stands to native communities. 
115

Figure 1. Crested wheatgrass diversification study. Repeated measurement of Year 1 plots (treatment 

implemented 2005, data collected 2006 and 2007). Undisturbed (UD), Partial Control Mechanical (PCM), Full 

Control Mechanical (FCM), Partial Control Herbicide (PCH), Full Control Herbicide (FCH).

A B

C D

E F

Lookout Pass 

Mature Crested Wheatgrass Cover

A

BC ABC

ABC

BC BC

AB

C C BC

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07

Cover (%)

Skull Valley 

Mature Crested Wheatgrass Cover

BCD

AB

BC

A

D

CD

BCD BCD

ABC

A

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07

Cover (%)

P < 0.01 P < 0.01

UD PCM FCM PCH FCH UD PCM FCM PCH FCH

Lookout Pass 

Crested Wheatgrass Seedling Density

BC BC

C

BC

C

AB

BC

BC

C

A

0

5

10

15

20

25

06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07

Plants (m2

)

Skull Valley 

Crested Whatgrass Seedling Density

AB

AB

AB AB

B

AB AB AB

A

AB

0

5

10

15

20

25

06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07

Plants (m2

)

P < 0.01 P = 0.223

UD PCM FCM PCH FCH

Lookout Pass 

Cheatgrass Density

C BC C B BC

A

C BC C BC

0

50

100

150

200

250

06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07

Plants (m2

)

Skull Valley 

Cheagrass Density

DF

B-E C-E

A

E-F

B-D C-E

A

C-E

AB

0

50

100

150

200

250

06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07 06 07

Plants (m2)

P < 0.01 P < 0.01

UD PCM FCM PCH FCH

UD PCM FCM PCH FCH UD PCM FCM PCH FCH
116

Lookout Pass

0

20

40

60

80

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

precip (mm)

2005 2006 2007 40 yr mean

Skull Valley

0

20

40

60

80

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

precip (mm)

2005 2006 2007 55 yr mean

Figure 2. Precipitation in 2005, 2006, and 2007 and average precipitation by 

month for Lookout Pass and Skull Valley, Tooele Co., Utah. 
117
118
119

Project Title: Wet Thermal Time Modeling of Seedling Establishment 

Project Location: Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Bruce A. Roundy 

Department of Plant and Wildlife Science 

275 WIDB Brigham Young University 

Provo, UT 84602 

801.422.8137, Fax 801.422.0090 

bruce_roundy@byu.edu 

Val Anderson 

Department of Plant and Wildlife Science 

275 WIDB Brigham Young University 

Provo, UT 84602 

801.422.3527, Fax 801.422.0090 

val_anderson@byu.edu 

Brad Jessop 

Department of Plant and Wildlife Science 

275 WIDB Brigham Young University 

Provo, UT 84602 

801.422.3177, Fax 801.422.0090 

bdjessop@hotmail.com 

Jennifer Coleman 

Department of Plant and Wildlife Science 

275 WIDB Brigham Young University 

Provo, UT 84602 

801.422.8646, Fax 801.422.0090 

mossytree@byu.edu 

Kert Young 

Department of Plant and Wildlife Science 

275 WIDB Brigham Young University 

Provo, UT 84602 

Fax 801.422.0090 

Project Description: 

Soil temperature and moisture are the most important abiotic factors influencing germination, 

pre-emergence growth and emergence. Germination, pre-emergence growth and emergence 

models using thermal accumulation have been successfully developed for many weed and crop 

species (Vleeshouwers and Kropff, 2000; Grundy 2003; Forcella 2000). Thermal accumulation 

is based on the assumption that to reach a certain life stage, the plant or seed requires a certain 
120

amount of time (measured in degree days) above and below specific temperature thresholds 

where enzymatic activity ceases (Trudgill et al. 2005). Models assuming that seeds progress 

towards germination and emergence only when water is available have been more accurate in 

predicting emergence than strictly thermal models (Forcella et al. 2000). 

This project involved creating models based on thermal accumulation and a soil moisture 

threshold to predict germination rate or pre-emergence growth and survivability of 16 different 

range species, cultivars or accessions (Table 1). Each wet thermal accumulation model is based 

on germination rates determined through constant temperature trials. First, thermal accumulation 

models were used to predict species germination compared to actual germination in incubators 

programmed to mimic three diurnally fluctuating-temperature cycles. These temperature cycles 

were based on spring soil temperatures in sagebrush-dominated communities of Tintic Valley, 

Utah (Roundy et. al 2007). Secondly, seedbags of 6 of the 16 plant collections (Table 1) were 

buried in a randomized block design at two sites in central Utah (Fig.1). Seedbag germination 

was compared to model predicted germination using soil moisture and temperature data 

measured onsite. Finally, small plots adjacent to seedbags were seeded with the same species as 

were placed in seedbags (Table 1). Prior to seeding, small plots were treated with herbicide to 

control crested wheatgrass. Predicted and actual germination were compared to emergence and 

survival data in the small plots. 

Project Status: 

Germination 

Model Development

Constant temperatures. Percent and rate of germination are the main factors in determining 

percent and rate of emergence in non-dormant seeds (Forcella 2000; Vleeshouwers and Kropff 

2000). To determine the relationship between temperature and germination rate for each species 

we conducted germination trials at seven constant temperatures (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35°C) 

in incubation chambers. Thermal accumulation models were created for species: Lupinus

arbustus (Dougl. ex Lindl.) (Longspur), Enceliopsis nudicaulis, Linum perenne L. (Appar), 

Linum lewisii(Pursh), Achillea millefolium L. (Eagle and VNS White), Agropyron cristatum (L.) 

Gaertn. X Agropyron desertorum (Fisch. ex Link) J.A. Schultes (Hycrest), Agropyron

desertorum (Fisch. ex Link) J.A. Schultes (Nordan), Elymus elymoides (Raf.) Swezey (Sanpete), 

Psuedoroegneria spicata (Pursh) A. Love (Anatone), Elymus wawawaiensis J. Carlson & 

Barkworth (Secar), and Bromus tectorum L. Populations of Bromus tectorum were collected 

from Spanish Fork, Skull Valley and Lookout Pass, UT. The time required for 10, 25, and 50% 

of each species’ seed population to germinate was recorded during each constant temperature 

trial. Plotting the (time to % germination)-1 [ex: 1/(days to 10% germination)] at the 7 constant 

temperatures produces points that can be fit to a curve. The equation for the curve can then be 

used to calculate the hourly progress toward germination as a function of hourly temperature. 

Best-fitting curves for germination rate for suboptimal, optimal and supraoptimal temperatures 

were carefully selected using Table Curve® 2D (Hardegree 2006) for each species. These curves 

were the basis of the thermal accumulation model. Optimal germination temperatures were found 

to be at 25°C for most species. B. tectorum populations experienced the fastest germination rates 

at 20°C. 
121

Model Verification

Comparison with actual germination under fluctuating temperatures in incubators. Field 

conditions were simulated in the lab to test model accuracy. Incubation chambers were 

programmed with three fluctuating diurnal temperatures (Fig. 2) simulating a warm and two 

cooler springs in sagebrush-dominated communities in Tintic Valley, Utah. Thermal 

accumulation models made from constant temperatures tended to overestimate time to 

germination under fluctuating temperatures. This was especially true of forb species (Fig. 3). 

 

Seedbags. The wet thermal model was tested in the field at two sites located in north-central 

Utah. The Skull Valley site is located at 5000’ with annual precipitation ranging from 8 to 12”. 

The average annual air temperature is 8-10°C. Soils are a Medburn fine sandy loam. The 

Lookout Pass site has an elevation of 5500’. The annual average for precipitation and air 

temperature is 10-12” and 7-11°C. Soils are classified as a Taylorsflat loam. Both sites have no 

slope and are dominated by crested wheatgrass (A. cristatum). These areas were originally 

dominated by sagebrush communities. 

At both sites, four blocks (Fig.1) were established. The blocks were divided into two subplots 

and seeded in year 1 or year 2. Thermocouples measuring soil temperature and gypsum blocks 

measuring soil moisture were buried at three depths (1-3, 15-16 and 28-30 cm deep) in each 

block. These sensors were attached to microloggers that calculated hourly averages. 

Precipitation and air temperature were also measured on site. 

 

Nylon mesh seedbags of each species were buried and retrieved from each block on both sites 19 

times between October 2005 and April 2007. For Bromus tectorum, we only seeded and buried 

seed that had been collected from that site. After retrieving the seedbags, percent of germinated 

seeds was compared to model predicted percent germination (10, 25, or 50%) based on the 

surface soil moisture and water potential during each period that seedbags had been in the 

ground. 

We tested both intermittent and continuous wet thermal accumulation toward germination. 

Intermittent thermal accumulation assumes that seeds thermal accumulate toward germination 

across intermittent wet periods while continuous accumulation assumes that every time the seed 

dries out it must restart thermal accumulation toward germination. For continuous thermal 

accumulation, seeds must accumulate enough degree-days within at least one wet period to be 

predicted to germinate during that time period. Gypsum blocks do not experience the same wet 

and dry conditions that seeds do. Therefore we tested three wet thresholds for thermal 

accumulation or three base water potentials:-0.5, -1.0,-1.5 MPa. 

We analyzed model accuracy by determining whether the model accurately predicted 

germination of the 10, 25, or 50% seed subpopulations. We found that summing thermal 

accumulation across intermittent wet periods (∑ wet periods) best predicted germination (Fig 4). 

Using the -1.5 MPa moisture base threshold was more accurate than the other water potential 

thresholds (Fig. 5). The model was over 80% accurate for most species and subpopulations when 

using -1.5 MPa and summing thermal accumulation (Fig.6). Model accuracy was significantly 

less in fall and winter than spring (Fig. 7). Over 90% of inaccurate predictions were 

overestimations of time required for germination. This was seen also in our fluctuating 
122

temperature simulations conducted in the lab. This suggests that fluctuating temperatures not 

only accelerate breaking of dormancy and priming of seeds (Allen et al. 2007; Vleeshouwers and 

Kropff 2000; Forcella et al. 2000) but can also increase germination rate. At both sites, the model 

was able to predict whether seedbags would reach 10, 25, or 50% germination of for all species 

except for A. millefolium. We conducted a light requirement experiment and verified that A. 

millefolium has a light requirement that would not have been fulfilled in the seedbags. 

Small plots 

Herbicide Treatment Effect

The effectiveness of two herbicide treatments applied prior to seeding in decreasing mature plant 

crested wheatgrass cover and density and increasing seeded species germination, emergence and 

survival was evaluated. Each block of the field sites contained three rows of 6 (1 plot for each 

species) 1.2 x 1.8 m plots. Each row was given one of three crested wheatgrass control 

treatments: (1) full control herbicide, (2) partial control herbicide and (3) undisturbed. Round-up 

Original Max was applied at a rate of 44 oz/ac. for the full control and 16 oz/ac. for the partial 

control treatment. Small plots were seeded in mid-to-late October in both 2005 and 2006. 

Seedling density and survival were monitored in the spring and summer of 2006 and 2007. 

One year post-treatment. On both sites, the full control herbicide treatment significantly reduced 

mature A. cristatum cover and density in plots treated in 2005 (p=0.0006 and p=0.0164) and 

2006 (p=0.0014 and p=0.0008) in the spring following application. The herbicide application 

during a wet fall and spring (2005) was significantly more successful in reducing cover than in a 

below average year. 

Two years post-treatment. The full control herbicide application of 2005 continued to 

significantly reduce cover (p =0.0003) and density (p =0.0350) in 2007, but its effect was 

significantly less the second year after application (p<0.0001 and p=0.0158). 

We are currently analyzing effects of crested wheatgrass control on seedbed temperature and 

moisture conditions, seeded species seedling emergence and survival. 

 

Emergence and Survival

Seedbag germination rates and emergence in small plots was high (Fig. 8-11) at both sites. 

Higher mortality rates occurred at Lookout Pass in 2006 for all species due to lack of 

precipitation events in July and August. Survival in August 2007 was similar for plots seeded in 

year 1 and year 2, despite the much higher emergence in year 1 plots during 2006. For the two 

years of this study, seeded species seedling survival was much more limiting to plant 

establishment than germination and emergence. 

Future Research 2008: 

Germination 

Data Analysis

This coming year, the temperature and moisture data from sensors buried lower in the soil profile 

will be analyzed and related to seedling survival and emergence. Germination requirements of 

introduced versus native species will be analyzed. 
123

Manuscript Preparation

Two manuscripts will be prepared and submitted for peer review. 

Manuscript 1. The first manuscript will focus on wet thermal accumulation germination 

modeling. Model development and verification (lab and field) of the 14 

species/cultivars/populations will be discussed. We will also report the effect of fluctuating 

temperatures on the different species. 

Manuscript 2. The second paper will focus on the effect of the different treatments on crested 

wheatgrass cover and density, and seeded species emergence and survival. We will report how 

the soil microclimate in the upper 30 cm affected seeded species emergence and survival. We 

will also compare results of this small study to the larger ‘crested wheatgrass diversification’ 

study done in Utah. 

Seedling root growth 

Model Development

Root growth experiments to predict seedling growth and survival capability of the different 

species using thermal accumulation have been initiated and will be conducted this final year of 

the study. Clear tubes 2.9 cm in diameter by 20 cm in length will be filled with bulk sand or soil 

collected near Lookout Pass, previously sieved through a 0.6 cm screen and mixed in a cement 

mixer for uniformity. Using multiple soils will allow for determination of root response to soil 

texture and allow correlation of results from this study to field sites. Collected soil is Borvant 

gravelly loam collected at 375,322.79 E 4,453,008.66 N NAD 83 UTM 12 N. The bulk sand 

came from Standard Masonry Supply in Provo, UT. 

Seminal root penetration rate (days to 5, 10, 15, 18 cm soil depth) will be measured for 13 

species and related to degree-days of thermal accumulation, as was done for germination. Root 

depths will be measured daily to weekly in 5 replicate planting tubes, 4 blocks, and 2 soil types 

in a growth chamber programmed for 6 constant temperatures (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35°C). 

Soil or sand filled planting tubes will be placed at 45° angle inside black plexiglass chambers 

with the top of the tubes protruding. 

Planting tubes will receive three seeds of one species to ensure plant growth in each tube. Seeds 

will be placed 0.5 cm below the soil surface against the lower side of the planting tubes. The 

first germinating seed will be measured while later germinating seeds will be culled. Depth of 

root penetration into soil will be measured from the initial point of root appearance on lower side 

of the planting tube. Plants will be measured until seminal roots reach the bottom of the planting 

tubes. The plant species include: Achillea millefolium, Agoseris heterophylla (Nutt.) Greene,

Astragalus utahensis (Torr.) Torr. and A. Gray, Linum perenne, Lupinus arbustus, Elymus

elymoides, Elymus wawawaiensis J. Carlson & Barkworth (Secar), Pseudoregneria spicata, 

Agropyron cristatum (Hycrest), Agropyron desertorum (Nordan), and Bromus tectorum

(Lookout Pass and Skull Valley). Tubes will be top or sub irrigated to maintain soils near field 

capacity. 

Measuring depth of root penetration into soil over constant temperatures allows modeling of root 

depth relative to thermal time. Thermal-accumulation predicted and actual days to seminal root 

depth will be compared for seedlings grown under 3 different fluctuating temperature regimes in 

a growth chamber. 
124

Literature Cited

Allen, P.S., R.L. Benech-Arnold, D. Batlla, and K.J. Bradford. 2007. Modeling of seed 

dormancy. p. 72-112 in Bradford, K.J.; Nonogaki, H., eds.Seed Development, Dormancy and 

Germination. Oxford, UK, Blackwell Publishing. 

Bradford, K.J. 2002. Applications of hydrothermal time to quantifying and modeling seed 

germination and dormancy. Weed Science 50:248-260. 

Forcella, F. 1993. Seedling emergence model for velvetleaf. Agronomy Journal 85:929-933. 

Forcella, F., R.L. Benech-Arnold, R. Sa ́nchez, and C.M. Ghersa. 2000. Modeling seedling 

emergence. Field Crops Research 67:23–139. 

Grundy, A.C. 2003. Predicting weed emergence: a review of approaches and future challenges. 

Weed Research 43:1-11. 

Hardegree, S.P. 2006. Predicting germination response to temperature. I. Cardinal-temperature 

models and subpopulation-specific regression. Annals of Botany 97:1115-1125. 

Roman, E.S., S.D. Murphy, and C.J. Swanton. 2000. Simulation of Chenopodium album 

seedling emergence. Weed Science 48:217–224. 

Roundy, B.A., S.P. Hardegree, J.C. Chambers, and A. Whittaker. 2007. Prediction of cheatgrass 

field germination potential using wet thermal accumulation. Rangeland Ecology and 

Management 60:613-623. 

Trudgill, D.L., A. Honek, D. Li, and N.M. Van Straalen. 2005. Thermal time-concepts and 

utility. Annals of Applied Biology 146:1-14. 

Vleeshouwers, L.M. M.J. Kropff. 2000. Modelling field emergence patterns in arable 

weeds. New Phytologist 148:445-457. 

Wang, R., Y. Bai, and K. Tanino. 2006. Seedling emergence of winterfat (Krascheninnikovia 

lanata (Pursh) A.D.J. Meeuse & Smit) in the field and its prediction using the hydrothermal 

time model. Journal of Arid Environments 64:37–53. 

Presentations: 

Coleman, J., Roundy, B., and Jessop, B. 2008. Wet thermal accumulation modelling of several 

Great Basin species germination. Society for Range Management annual meeting, Louisville, 

KY. 

Coleman, J., Roundy, B., and Jessop, B. 2007. Wet thermal accumulation modelling of several 

Great Basin species germination. Society for Range Management annual meeting, 

Reno/Sparks, NV. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/PowerPoint_ 

Presentations/ColemanandOthers.pdf) 
125

Coleman, J., Roundy, B., and Jessop, B. 2006. Thermal Modeling of Range Species. Society for 

Range Management annual meeting, Vancouver, BC. 

Management Applications: 

For many range species, the environmental conditions required to germinate, establish and 

survive have not been quantified. Many laboratory studies have been able to predict different 

aspects of seedling establishment based on environmental conditions (Forcella, 1993; 

Vleeshouwers 1997; Roman et al. 2000), but there are few that have validated their models with 

actual field observations (Vleeshouwers and Kropff 2000; Forcella et al. 2000; Wang et al. 

2006). Determining the relationship between environmental conditions and a species’ 

development and survival rate will allow managers to better select range species that will 

establish in a revegetation site. Both 2005 and 2006 were relatively wet years while 2007 was a 

relatively dry year, the model was able to predict the high germination and subsequent 

emergence that occurred. The high mortality of both year plots at the end of year 2 demonstrates 

that selecting species for areas that fulfill their germination and emergence requirements does not 

guarantee their establishment and that more than one wet year is needed for species 

establishment. A model that can predict their survivability under spring and summer temperature 

and moisture conditions is needed. 
126

Table 1. Species list: ^germination was modelled; *was seeded in seedbags; +will be used in root growth study.

2005 38 - Bromus tectorum^*+ Cheatgrass Lookout Pass, UT

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Spanish Fork, UT 2005 N/A N/A ^

2005 38 - Bromus tectorum^*+ Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT

Psuedoroegneria spicata ‘Secar’ bluebunch wheatgrass UDWR-Eastern WA 2003 N/A N/A ^*+

P. spicata spp. spicata ‘Anatone’ bluebunch wheatgrass UDWR-Lot# LHSID3-445 2003 33 36 ^*+

Elymus elymoides ‘Sanpete’ bottlebrush squirreltail Sanpete Co., UT 2003 33 47 ^*+

Agropyron desertorum ‘Nordan’ desert wheatgrass UDWR Lot# 31347, MT 2003 N/A N/A ^+

A. cristatum × A. ‘Hycrest’ crested wheatgrass UDWR-Lot# 1377-9-127223 2003 33 47

desertorum^*+

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine Wells common garden 2004 N/A N/A ^+

Linum perenne ‘Appar’ blue flax UDWR-Lot# LHSIGNIA-245-1R 2003 33 36 ^*+

Linum lewisii Lewis flax Provo, UT 2001 N/A N/A ^

Enceliopsis nudicaulis Nakedstem sunray Blind Valley, 2003 N/A N/A ^+

Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch unknown 2002 N/A N/A +

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris unknown 2007 N/A N/A +

Achillea millefolium ‘VNS white’ yarrow Granite Seed, Eastern WA 2003 N/A N/A ^*+

2003 33 50 Achillea millefolium^*+ ‘Eagle’ yarrow Eastern WA

PLS Bulk

Seeding Rate

Year (lb/ha) Species Common Name/Cultivar Source Collected

2005 38 - Bromus tectorum^*+ Cheatgrass Lookout Pass, UT

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Spanish Fork, UT 2005 N/A N/A ^

2005 38 - Bromus tectorum^*+ Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT

Psuedoroegneria spicata ‘Secar’ bluebunch wheatgrass UDWR-Eastern WA 2003 N/A N/A ^*+

P. spicata spp. spicata ‘Anatone’ bluebunch wheatgrass UDWR-Lot# LHSID3-445 2003 33 36 ^*+

Elymus elymoides ‘Sanpete’ bottlebrush squirreltail Sanpete Co., UT 2003 33 47 ^*+

Agropyron desertorum ‘Nordan’ desert wheatgrass UDWR Lot# 31347, MT 2003 N/A N/A ^+

A. cristatum × A. ‘Hycrest’ crested wheatgrass UDWR-Lot# 1377-9-127223 2003 33 47

desertorum^*+

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine Wells common garden 2004 N/A N/A ^+

Linum perenne ‘Appar’ blue flax UDWR-Lot# LHSIGNIA-245-1R 2003 33 36 ^*+

Linum lewisii Lewis flax Provo, UT 2001 N/A N/A ^

Enceliopsis nudicaulis Nakedstem sunray Blind Valley, 2003 N/A N/A ^+

Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch unknown 2002 N/A N/A +

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris unknown 2007 N/A N/A +

Achillea millefolium ‘VNS white’ yarrow Granite Seed, Eastern WA 2003 N/A N/A ^*+

2003 33 50 Achillea millefolium^*+ ‘Eagle’ yarrow Eastern WA

PLS Bulk

Seeding Rate

Year (lb/ha) Species Common Name/Cultivar Source Collected

Table 1. Species list: ^germination was modelled; *was seeded in seedbags; +will be used in root growth study.

2005 38 - Bromus tectorum^*+ Cheatgrass Lookout Pass, UT

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Spanish Fork, UT 2005 N/A N/A ^

2005 38 - Bromus tectorum^*+ Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT

Psuedoroegneria spicata ‘Secar’ bluebunch wheatgrass UDWR-Eastern WA 2003 N/A N/A ^*+

P. spicata spp. spicata ‘Anatone’ bluebunch wheatgrass UDWR-Lot# LHSID3-445 2003 33 36 ^*+

Elymus elymoides ‘Sanpete’ bottlebrush squirreltail Sanpete Co., UT 2003 33 47 ^*+

Agropyron desertorum ‘Nordan’ desert wheatgrass UDWR Lot# 31347, MT 2003 N/A N/A ^+

A. cristatum × A. ‘Hycrest’ crested wheatgrass UDWR-Lot# 1377-9-127223 2003 33 47

desertorum^*+

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine Wells common garden 2004 N/A N/A ^+

Linum perenne ‘Appar’ blue flax UDWR-Lot# LHSIGNIA-245-1R 2003 33 36 ^*+

Linum lewisii Lewis flax Provo, UT 2001 N/A N/A ^

Enceliopsis nudicaulis Nakedstem sunray Blind Valley, 2003 N/A N/A ^+

Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch unknown 2002 N/A N/A +

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris unknown 2007 N/A N/A +

Achillea millefolium ‘VNS white’ yarrow Granite Seed, Eastern WA 2003 N/A N/A ^*+

2003 33 50 Achillea millefolium^*+ ‘Eagle’ yarrow Eastern WA

PLS Bulk

Seeding Rate

Year (lb/ha) Species Common Name/Cultivar Source Collected

2005 38 - Bromus tectorum^*+ Cheatgrass Lookout Pass, UT

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Spanish Fork, UT 2005 N/A N/A ^

2005 38 - Bromus tectorum^*+ Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT

Psuedoroegneria spicata ‘Secar’ bluebunch wheatgrass UDWR-Eastern WA 2003 N/A N/A ^*+

P. spicata spp. spicata ‘Anatone’ bluebunch wheatgrass UDWR-Lot# LHSID3-445 2003 33 36 ^*+

Elymus elymoides ‘Sanpete’ bottlebrush squirreltail Sanpete Co., UT 2003 33 47 ^*+

Agropyron desertorum ‘Nordan’ desert wheatgrass UDWR Lot# 31347, MT 2003 N/A N/A ^+

A. cristatum × A. ‘Hycrest’ crested wheatgrass UDWR-Lot# 1377-9-127223 2003 33 47

desertorum^*+

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine Wells common garden 2004 N/A N/A ^+

Linum perenne ‘Appar’ blue flax UDWR-Lot# LHSIGNIA-245-1R 2003 33 36 ^*+

Linum lewisii Lewis flax Provo, UT 2001 N/A N/A ^

Enceliopsis nudicaulis Nakedstem sunray Blind Valley, 2003 N/A N/A ^+

Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch unknown 2002 N/A N/A +

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris unknown 2007 N/A N/A +

Achillea millefolium ‘VNS white’ yarrow Granite Seed, Eastern WA 2003 N/A N/A ^*+

2003 33 50 Achillea millefolium^*+ ‘Eagle’ yarrow Eastern WA

PLS Bulk

Seeding Rate

Year (lb/ha) Species Common Name/Cultivar Source Collected

Block Year 

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

2005

2006

2006

2005

2005

2006

2005

2006

1

2

3

4

Figure 1: Small block diagram

Block Year 

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

Small Plots

Seedbags

2005

2006

2006

2005

2005

2006

2005

2006

1

2

3

4

Figure 1: Small block diagram
127

Fluctuating spring diurnal temperatures

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

hour of day

Temperature (C)

mid-late May

early-mid March

mid-late April

Figure 2: Three diurnal spring temperature fluctuations developed from field data collected 

during mid to late May; early to mid March; and mid-late April, in sagebrush-dominated 

communities in Tintic Valley, Utah. 

Fluctuating spring diurnal temperatures

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

hour of day

Temperature (C)

mid-late May

early-mid March

mid-late April

Figure 2: Three diurnal spring temperature fluctuations developed from field data collected 

during mid to late May; early to mid March; and mid-late April, in sagebrush-dominated 

communities in Tintic Valley, Utah. 

Fluctuating temperatures: 

days to 50% germination 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

APssp

SPssp

Elel

LPBrte

SFBrte

SVBrte

Ennu

Lile

Lipe

Luar

EAcmi

WAcmi

days to 50% germination

actual

predicted

Figure 3: Predicted vs Actual days required for 50% germination under 

fluctuating temperatures

Fluctuating temperatures: 

days to 50% germination 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

APssp

SPssp

Elel

LPBrte

SFBrte

SVBrte

Ennu

Lile

Lipe

Luar

EAcmi

WAcmi

days to 50% germination

actual

predicted

Figure 3: Predicted vs Actual days required for 50% germination under 

fluctuating temperatures
128

C C B

A B B A

A A

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

d10 d25 d50

% Agreement

-0.5 -1 -1.5

Figure 5: Percent agreement of model-predicted and actual germination in seedbags for 

19 placement and retrieval periods. A water potential threshold of -1.5 MPa was more 

accurate than -0.05 and -1.0 MPa. d10, d25, and d50 refer to the fastestgerminating 10, 25, and 50% subpopulations of seeds.

C C B

A B B A

A A

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

d10 d25 d50

% Agreement

-0.5 -1 -1.5

Figure 5: Percent agreement of model-predicted and actual germination in seedbags for 

19 placement and retrieval periods. A water potential threshold of -1.5 MPa was more 

accurate than -0.05 and -1.0 MPa. d10, d25, and d50 refer to the fastestgerminating 10, 25, and 50% subpopulations of seeds.

B B B

A

A A

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

d10 d25 d50

% Agreement

wet period Σ wet periods

Figure 4. Percent agreement of model-predicted and actual germination for 19 seedbag

placement and retrieval periods. Summing thermal accumulation across intermittent wet 

periods was more accurate than requiring thermal accumulation to restart with each wet 

period.

B B B

A

A A

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

d10 d25 d50

% Agreement

wet period Σ wet periods

Figure 4. Percent agreement of model-predicted and actual germination for 19 seedbag

placement and retrieval periods. Summing thermal accumulation across intermittent wet 

periods was more accurate than requiring thermal accumulation to restart with each wet 

period.
129

C

A A

B

C

A

B

A

C C

B

A

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Fall Winter early Spring late Spring

% Agreement

d10 d25 d50

Figure 7: Percent agreement of predicted and actual germination in seedbags for 19 

placement and retrieval periods. d10, d25, and d50 refer to the fastest-germinating 10, 

25, and 50% subpopulations of seeds. The model used continuous thermal accumulation 

across all wet periods and a water potential threshold of -1.5 MPa.

C

A A

B

C

A

B

A

C C

B

A

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Fall Winter early Spring late Spring

% Agreement

d10 d25 d50

Figure 7: Percent agreement of predicted and actual germination in seedbags for 19 

placement and retrieval periods. d10, d25, and d50 refer to the fastest-germinating 10, 

25, and 50% subpopulations of seeds. The model used continuous thermal accumulation 

across all wet periods and a water potential threshold of -1.5 MPa.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Agcr Brte Elel Pssp Lipe

% Agreement

d10 d25 d50

Figure 6: Percent agreement of model-predicted and actual in germination in seedbags for 

19 placement and retrieval periods for four grass (Agcr- crested wheatgrass, Brte= 

cheatgrass, Elel= squirreltail, Pssp= bluebunch wheatgrass) and one forb (Lipe= blue flax). 

d10, d25, and d50 refer to the fastest-germinating 10, 25, and 50% subpopulations of seeds. 

The model used continuous thermal accumulation across all wet periods and a water 

potential threshold of -1.5 MPa.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Agcr Brte Elel Pssp Lipe

% Agreement

d10 d25 d50

Figure 6: Percent agreement of model-predicted and actual in germination in seedbags for 

19 placement and retrieval periods for four grass (Agcr- crested wheatgrass, Brte= 

cheatgrass, Elel= squirreltail, Pssp= bluebunch wheatgrass) and one forb (Lipe= blue flax). 

d10, d25, and d50 refer to the fastest-germinating 10, 25, and 50% subpopulations of seeds. 

The model used continuous thermal accumulation across all wet periods and a water 

potential threshold of -1.5 MPa.
130

Lookout Pass: Year 1 plot emergence

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

3/24/2006 7/2/2006 10/10/2006 1/18/2007 4/28/2007 8/6/2007

# seedlings/m row

Agcr 

Brte

Elel

Lipe

Pssp

Skull Valley: Year 1 plot emergence

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

3/24/2006 7/2/2006 10/10/2006 1/18/2007 4/28/2007 8/6/2007

# seedlings/m row

Agcr

Brte

Elel

Lipe

Pssp

Lookout Pass: Year 2 plot em ergence 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

4/13/2007 5/3/2007 5/23/2007 6/12/2007 7/2/2007

# seedlings/m row

Agcr

Brte

Elel

Lipe

Pssp

Skull Valley: Year 2 plot em ergence

0

5

10

15

20

25

4/13/2007 5/3/2007 5/23/2007 6/12/2007 7/ 2/2007

Agcr

Brte

Elel

Lipe

Pssp

Figures 8-11: Seedling density in Lookout Pass (Figs. 8 & 10) and Skull Valley (Figs. 9 & 11), in plots seeded 

in Year 1 (2005) and Year 2 (2006); seedling survival was similar. 

Figure 8. Figure 9.

Figure 10. Figure 11.

Lookout Pass: Year 1 plot emergence

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

3/24/2006 7/2/2006 10/10/2006 1/18/2007 4/28/2007 8/6/2007

# seedlings/m row

Agcr 

Brte

Elel

Lipe

Pssp

Skull Valley: Year 1 plot emergence

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

3/24/2006 7/2/2006 10/10/2006 1/18/2007 4/28/2007 8/6/2007

# seedlings/m row

Agcr

Brte

Elel

Lipe

Pssp

Lookout Pass: Year 2 plot em ergence 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

4/13/2007 5/3/2007 5/23/2007 6/12/2007 7/2/2007

# seedlings/m row

Agcr

Brte

Elel

Lipe

Pssp

Skull Valley: Year 2 plot em ergence

0

5

10

15

20

25

4/13/2007 5/3/2007 5/23/2007 6/12/2007 7/ 2/2007

Agcr

Brte

Elel

Lipe

Pssp

Figures 8-11: Seedling density in Lookout Pass (Figs. 8 & 10) and Skull Valley (Figs. 9 & 11), in plots seeded 

in Year 1 (2005) and Year 2 (2006); seedling survival was similar. 

Figure 8. Figure 9.

Figure 10. Figure 11.
131

Project Title: Reestablishing Native Plant Diversity in Crested 

Wheatgrass Stands in the Great Basin

Project Location: USDA-ARS/Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center

67826-A Hwy 205

Burns, OR 97720

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Jane Mangold, Ecologist 

USDA-ARS/Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center 

67826-A Hwy 205; Burns, OR 97720 

541.573.4073, Fax 541.573.3042 

jane.mangold@oregonstate.edu 

 

Cooperators: 

USDA-FS-RMRS 

322 East Front Street, Suite 401Boise, ID 83702 

Malheur National Wildlife Refuge 

36391 Sodhouse Lane, Princeton, OR 97720 

USDA-NRCS, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center 

P.O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210 

 

 Truax Co., Inc. 

 4300 Quebec Ave. North 

 New Hope, MN 55428 

Oregon State University 

Dept. of Range Ecology and Management 

202 Strand Agriculture Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331-2218 

Project Description: 

This project investigates the feasibility of increasing native plant diversity in established crested 

wheatgrass stands in the Great Basin. The study location is 80 km south of Burns, OR, on the 

Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in a stand of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) 

approximately 25 years old. Objectives include: 1) determine the effect of crested wheatgrass 

control methods and revegetation on crested wheatgrass density and cover, 2) determine the 

effect of crested wheatgrass control methods and revegetation on establishment of native species, 

3) determine the effect of crested wheatgrass control methods and revegetation on cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum) density and cover, and 4) determine the effects of crested wheatgrass control 

methods and native plant establishment on seed bank, and soil nitrogen and water content. 

Procedures included varying the method and intensity of crested wheatgrass control, followed by 

seeding a mix of native shrubs, grasses, and forbs. Crested wheatgrass control treatments were 
132

tested in a randomized block, split-plot design with control method and intensity as whole plots 

and seeded vs. unseeded as split-plots. Control treatments included mechanical (disking), 

herbicide (glyphosate application), or undisturbed (no crested wheatgrass control). Control 

treatment intensity was varied by the number of passes with the disk (partial = one pass, full = 

two passes) and the rate of glyphosate application (partial = 10 oz ac-1, full = 44 oz ac-1). Half the 

plot was seeded and half the plot was left unseeded to simulate seeding failure following control 

treatment. The five treatments [full control mechanical (FCM), partial control mechanical 

(PCM), full control herbicide (FCH), partial control herbicide (PCH), undisturbed (UD)] were 

replicated across five blocks each year on 0.4 ha (1 acre) plots for a total of approximately 10 ha 

(25 acres) treated annually (5 ha [12.5 acres] seeded, 5 ha unseeded). Control and seeding 

treatments were applied 2005 and 2006. Plots were monitored 2006 and 2007. 

Surface soil and litter were collected in the spring and fall of each year and bioassayed for 

seedbank potential of crested wheatgrass, native residuals, seeded species, and cheatgrass. Soil 

sampling occurred twice each year (April and September). Cover and density of unseeded and 

seeded species was collected in June for 2 years on plots established in 2005 and for 1 year on 

plots established in 2006.

Project Status: 

Accomplishments 2007 

Seed bank and soil sampling 

Seed bank and soil was collected in 2005 (i.e. treated/seeded in 2005) and 2006 (treated/seeded 

in 2006) plots. The seed bank and soil was sampled on April 11. Five 50-cm3 sub-samples were 

collected from the top 2-cm of soil in each plot. Seed bank samples were spread in trays 

containing sterilized sand in a greenhouse at the Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center 

and monitored for seedling emergence for 6 weeks. At the end of 6 weeks, a 1000 ppm solution 

of gibberrelic acid was added to stimulate germination of any remaining seeds. Very few 

seedlings (<10 across all samples) emerged, therefore data were not analyzed. Soil was sampled 

for nitrogen and gravimetric water content by collecting 2-cm-diameter soil cores, 15-cm deep. 

Five sub-samples were collected and composited to make one sample per plot. Soil samples were 

weighed before and after drying to determine gravimetric water content and were then sent to 

Central Analytical Lab at Oregon State University for analysis of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3

-

) and 

ammonium-nitrogen (NH4

+

). 

Vegetation sampling 

The following data were collected on June 4-18 for 2005 and 2006 plots: 1) density of crested 

wheatgrass, cheatgrass, seeded species, any weedy species phenologically competitive with the 

seeded species, and any other species present; 2) cover of crested wheatgrass, cheatgrass, any 

significant weedy species, any other perennial species that was not seeded, bareground, litter, 

and rock; 3) nested frequency of crested wheatgrass seedlings, cheatgrass, and any significant 

weedy species, and 4) number of crested wheatgrass seed heads arising from culms of adult 

plants and average length (cm) of seed heads. 

Vegetation was sampled along five 18-m long transects placed 10-m apart and perpendicular to 

the seeded rows. Along each transect, 0.25-m2

 (0.5-m x 0.5-m) frames were used to sample 

vegetation. Percent foliar cover was visually estimated using the Daubenmire cover class method 
133

and density of individuals was counted in 10 frames, 2-m apart, along each transect for a total of 

50 frames per plot. The point at which to begin sampling along transects was randomly 

determined. Distinction between bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), Indian 

ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides), and bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides brevifolia) 

was difficult and therefore these three species were grouped into seeded perennial grasses. The 

other seeded species could be identified and thus were recorded individually. 

Data analysis

Data were entered into Excel, compiled, and analyzed with SAS statistical software. A PROC 

mixed split-split plot analysis was used for all analyses comparing the 2005 plots over a 2-year 

sampling period (referred to as ‘2005 plots compared across 2 growing years’ in Results). Fixed 

effects in this analysis included treatment, year, and seeding level. Block was treated as a random 

effect. A proc mixed split-plot analysis was used for all analyses comparing the 2005 and 2006 

plots (referred to as ‘2005 and 2006 plots compared across 1 growing year’ in Results). Fixed 

effects included treatment and seeding level and random effects included year and block. Seeded 

grasses, forbs, and shrubs were grouped into “seeded species” for analysis with the large 

majority of the species being perennial grasses and Lewis flax (Linum lewisii lewisii). 

Results 

Crested Wheatgrass

2005 plots compared across 2 growing years (2006 and 2007). Treatment and year interacted to 

affect crested wheatgrass density (P<0.0001; Fig. 1). In general, crested wheatgrass density 

increased from 2006 to 2007. The only exception was in the UD treatment, which remained 

constant at 6.7 plants m-2. In 2006 none of the treatments differed from the UD treatment, but the 

FCM treatment (7.7 plants m-2) displayed a higher density than the FCH, PCH and PCM 

treatments (5.7 plants m-2, 6.6 plants m-2 and 6.4 plants m-2, respectively). After 2 years, the 

FCM treatment resulted in the highest crested wheatgrass density at 14.3 plants m-2. This density 

was roughly two times higher than in any other treatment. The PCM treatment (8.5 plants m-2) in 

2007 was higher in density than the FCH (7.2 plants m-2) and UD treatments. 

Treatment and year interacted to affect crested wheatgrass cover (P<0.0001; Fig. 2). Except for 

the FCM treatment, all other treatments in 2006 were higher in crested wheatgrass cover than 

those treatments in 2007. In 2006 the FCM treatment demonstrated the lowest crested wheatgrass 

cover compared to all other treatments at 9.9%, but increased in 2007 to 12.6%. The FCH and 

PCM treatments (15.7% and 13.4%, respectively) resulted in lower cover than the PCH and UD 

treatments in 2006 (18.7% and 18.8%). This pattern continued in 2007. In 2007 the UD 

treatment was greater in cover than both mechanical treatments. 

Comparison of 2005 and 2006 plots across one growing year (2007). Year and seeding level 

interacted to affect crested wheatgrass densities (P = 0.0017; Fig. 3). Overall, the density of 

crested wheatgrass in the 2006 plots was greater than the density of crested wheatgrass in 2005 

plots. The crested wheatgrass density in the seeded plots was greater than the unseeded plots in 

2006 (9.9 plants m-2 vs. 8.5 plants m-2). 

Treatment and seeding level interacted to affect crested wheatgrass density (P = 0.0312; Fig. 4). 

Except in the FCH treatment where seeded plots were higher in density with 9.6 plants m-2 than 
134

unseeded plots with 7.3 plants m-2, crested wheatgrass density was similar between seeded and 

unseeded plots in all treatments. In the seeded plots, all treatments displayed similar crested 

wheatgrass densities except for the FCH and FCM (9.7 plants m-2) treatments, which were higher 

in density. The highest crested wheatgrass density in unseeded plots occurred in the FCM 

treatment with 9.5 plants m-2. Finally, unseeded plots of the PCM treatment were higher in 

crested wheatgrass density than the unseeded plots of the UD treatment (8.0 plants m-2 vs. 6.3 

plants m-2). 

 

Figure 1. Crested wheatgrass density (plants m-2) as affected by treatment and year in a 2005 plot comparison across 

two growing years. * denotes differences across years within a treatment. HSD separates means between treatments 

within a year. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. FCH = full control herbicide. FCM = full control mechanical. PCH = 

partial control herbicide. PCM = partial control mechanical. UD = undisturbed. 

Figure 2. Crested wheatgrass cover (%) as affected by treatment and year in a 2005 plot comparison across 2 

growing years. * denotes differences across years within a treatment. HSDa separates means between treatments 

within a year. HSDb separates means between treatments across years. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for 

explanation of treatment abbreviations. 

Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

crested wheatgrass density (plants m-2)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

2006

2007

HSD = 1.137

*

* *

*

Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

crested wheatgrass cover (%)

0

5

10

15

20

25

2006

2007

HSDa = 1.120

HSDb = 2.918

*

*

*

*

*
135

Figure 3. Crested wheatgrass density (plants m-2) as affected by year and seeding level in a comparison between 

2005 and 2006 plots across one growing year. * denotes differences across seeding levels within a year. HSD 

separates means across years within a seeding level. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of 

treatment abbreviations. 

Figure 4. Crested wheatgrass density (plants m-2) as affected by treatment and seeding level in a comparison 

between 2005 and 2006 plots across one growing year. * denotes differences across seeding levels within a 

treatment. HSD separates means between treatments within a seeding level. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 

for explanation of treatment abbreviations. 

A three-way interaction among treatment, seeding level and year affected crested wheatgrass 

cover (P = 0.0079; Fig. 5). This interaction suggested that seeded and unseeded PCH and UD 

treatments in the 2005 plots and the unseeded PCH and seeded UD treatments in the 2006 plots 

resulted in greater crested wheatgrass cover than all other treatments. All treatments in the 2005 

plots, regardless of seeding level, were higher in cover than those same treatments in the 2006 

plots, except in the seeded FCM treatment. In general, cover in both the 2005 and 2006 plots 

were similar between the seeded and unseeded plots. Exceptions to this included: in the FCM 

treatment in the 2005 plots, seeded plots had lower crested wheatgrass cover than unseeded plots 

(8.0% vs. 11.8%); in the UD treatment in the 2005 plots, seeded plots displayed a lower cover 

value than unseeded plots (17.9% vs. 19.6%); in the PCH treatment in the 2006 plots, seeded 

2005 2006

crested wheatgrass density (plants m-2)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

SEEDED

UNSEEDED

HSD = 0.892 *

plots plots

Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

crested wheatgrass density (plants m-2)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

SEEDED

UNSEEDED

* HSD = 1.411
136

plots resulted in lower cover than unseeded plots (12.4% vs. 16.3%); and in the UD treatment 

within the 2006 plots, seeded plots were greater in cover than unseeded plots (15.9% vs. 12.5%). 

Figure 5. Crested wheatgrass cover (%) as affected by treatment, seeding level and year in a comparison of 2005 and 

2006 plots across one growing year. * denotes differences between seeding levels within a treatment within a year. 

HSD separates means across treatments and years. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of 

treatment abbreviations. 

Seeded Species

2005 plots compared across two growing years (2006 and 2007). Year interacted with treatment 

to affect seeded species density (P < 0.0001; Fig. 6). In all treatments except the UD, seeded 

species densities in 2006 were greater than in 2007. The UD treatment resulted in 18.2 plants m-2

in 2006 and 2007. In 2006 the FCM displayed the highest seeded species densities with 43.9 

plants m-2 followed by the PCM treatment with 30.1 plants m-2. By 2007, none of the treatments 

differed in seeded species density. 

Comparison of 2005 and 2006 plots across one growing year (2007). Seeded species density was 

affected by the interaction between treatment and year (P = 0.0002; Fig. 7). As mentioned above, 

the FCM and PCM treatments exhibited the highest densities in the 2005 plots. In the 2006 plots, 

all treatments had similar density (mean = 26.3 plants m-2) except the comparison between the 

PCH and PCM treatments (30 vs. 22.7 plants m-2). 

Treatment

crested wheatgrass cover (%)

0

5

10

15

20

25

SEEDED

UNSEEDED

2005 2006

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

HSD = 1.551

*

* *

*
137

Figure 6. Seeded species density (plants m-2) as affected by treatment and year in a 2005 plot comparison across two 

growing years. * denotes differences across years within a treatment. HSD separates means between treatments 

within a year. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment abbreviations. 

Figure 7. Seeded species density (plants m-2) as affected by treatment and year in a comparison of 2005 and 2006 

plots across one growing year. * denotes differences across years within a treatment. HSDa separates means 

between treatments within a year. HSDb separates means between treatments across years. Error bars equal ± 1.0 

SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment abbreviations. 

Cheatgrass

2005 plots compared across two growing years (2006 and 2007). Treatment and year interacted 

to affect cheatgrass density (P < 0.0001; Fig. 8). Except in the PCH and UD treatments, which 

were similar across years, cheatgrass density tended to increase between 2006 and 2007. In 2006, 

cheatgrass densities were similar except in the FCM treatment, which exhibited a lower density 

Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

seeded species density (plants m-2)

0

10

20

30

40

50

2006

2007

HSD = 5.258

*

*

*

*

Treatment 

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

seeded species density (plants m-2)

0

10

20

30

40

50

2005 plots

2006 plots

HSDa = 6.082

HSDb = 6.570

*

* *

*
138

than the PCM treatment (52.0 vs. 104.3 plants m-2). In 2007 all cheatgrass densities were similar 

except for the PCM treatment, which was higher than the UD treatment (116.4 vs. 66.8 plants 

m-2). 

Cover of cheatgrass was affected by a three-way interaction of treatment, seeding level and year 

(P = 0.0225; Fig. 9). Treatments and seeding levels that differed between years had higher cover 

values in 2006; these treatments included the unseeded FCH (6.0% vs. 3.5%) and UD (3.2% vs. 

2.4%) and the seeded PCH (3.4% vs. 2.5%) and PCM (3.7% vs. 2.9%). The only treatment that 

increased in cheatgrass cover from 2006 to 2007 was the unseeded FCM (2.5% vs. 3.2%). 

Figure 8. Cheatgrass density (plant m-2) as affected by treatment and year in a 2005 plot comparison across two 

growing years. * denotes differences across years within a treatment. HSD separates means between treatments 

within a year. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment abbreviations. 

Comparison of 2005 and 2006 plots across one growing year (2007). Treatment, seeding level 

and year interacted to affect cheatgrass density (P < 0.0001; Fig. 10). About half of the 

treatments, regardless of seeding level, had cheatgrass densities similar to one another across the 

2005 and 2006 plots. The other half of the treatments, regardless of seeding level, had greater 

densities in the 2005 plots than the 2006 plots; these treatments included the unseeded FCH 

(106.3 vs. 21.1 plants m-2), seeded PCH (77.6 vs. 16.6 plants m-2), unseeded PCH (78.1 vs. 14.5 

plants m-2), seeded PCM (100.1 vs. 44.4 plants m-2), unseeded PCM (108.4 vs. 40.5 plants m-2) 

and seeded UD (75.5 vs. 18.5 plants m-2). In the 2005 plots, cheatgrass density within treatments 

between seeded and unseeded plots was similar except in the FCH and FCM treatments. In the 

FCH treatment, cheatgrass density in unseeded plots more than doubled that of seeded plots. The 

FCM treatment showed opposite results in which seeded plots were greater in cheatgrass density 

than unseeded plots. Between seeding levels within treatments in the 2006 plots, cheatgrass 

densities were generally similar except in the UD treatment where density in seeded plots was 

less than half the density in unseeded plots. In the 2006 plots, the seeded plots of all treatments 

were similar. In the unseeded plots, however, the density in the UD treatment was more than 

double the density in FCH, FCM and PCH treatments. 

Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

cheatgrass density (plants m-2)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

2006

2007

HSD = 47.8

*

*

*
139

Figure 9. Cheatgrass cover (%) as affected by treatment, seeding level and year in a 2005 plot comparison across 

two growing years. * denotes differences between seeding levels within a treatment within a year. HSDa separates 

means between the same treatments and seeding levels across years. HSDb separates means between treatments 

across and within years. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment abbreviations. 

Figure 10. Cheatgrass density (plants m-2) as affected by treatment, seeding level and year in a comparison of 2005 

and 2006 plots across one growing year. * denotes differences between seeding levels within a treatment within a 

year. HSD separates means between treatments across and within years. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for 

explanation of treatment abbreviations. 

Cheatgrass cover was affected by the three-way interaction between treatment, seeding level and 

year (P < 0.0001; Fig. 11). Regardless of seeding level, cheatgrass cover between the same 

treatments was similar in the 2005 and 2006 plots, except for a few treatments with higher cover 

in the 2005 plots than the 2006 plots. These exceptions included the unseeded FCH treatment 

(6.0% vs. 2.8%), the seeded PCH treatment (3.9% vs. 1.2%) and the unseeded PCM treatment 

(4.1% vs. 2.6%). In the 2005 plots, cheatgrass cover among seeded plots was similar across cheaetgrass cover (%) 0

2

4

6

8

SEEDED

UNSEEDED

2006 2007

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

HSDa = 0.620

HSDb = 1.680

*

Treatment

cheatgrass density (plants m-2)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

SEEDED

UNSEEDED

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

HSD = 37.8

 2005 plots 2006 plots

*

* *
140

treatments. In unseeded plots, the FCH treatment was higher in cheatgrass cover than all other 

treatments. In the 2006 plots, cheatgrass cover of different seeding levels within each treatment 

were similar except in the UD treatment where seeded plots displayed lower cover with 1.6% as 

compared to unseeded plots with 2.6% cover. With cover of 1.2% in the seeded plots, the PCH 

treatment was lower in cover than the seeded FCH, FCM and PCM treatments. In addition, the 

seeded UD treatment was lower than the FCH treatment. In the unseeded plots, all treatments 

displayed similar cheatgrass cover except for the FCH treatment with 2.8% compared to the PCH 

treatment with 1.3%. 

Figure 11. Cheatgrass cover (%) as affected by treatment, seeding level and year in a comparison of 2005 and 2006 

plots across one growing year. * denotes differences between seeding levels within a treatment within a year. HSD 

separates means across treatments and years. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment 

abbreviations. 

Soil NO3

-

, NH4

+

 and Water Content

Soil NO3

-

 concentration was generally affected by the main effect of year and its interaction with 

treatment. In the 2005 plots, NO3

-

 was higher in 2007 compared to 2006 (8.2 vs. 0.9 ppm, 

respectively) and the FCM treatment yielded the highest NO3

-

 at 11.7 ppm. Nitrate also increased 

from 2006 (1.7 ppm) to 2007 (11.9 ppm) in the 2006 plots. When comparing NO3

-

 concentration 

between 2005 and 2006 plots, the main effects of year and seeding were significant (P = 0.0037 

and 0.0030, respectively). Soil NO3

-

 was higher in the 2006 plots than in the 2005 plots (1.7 vs. 

0.9 ppm) and higher in the seeded plots (1.4 ppm) than in the unseeded plots (1.2 ppm). 

Soil NH4

+

 concentration was also generally affected by year. While NO3

-

 increased over time, 

NH4

+

 decreased from 12.2 ppm in 2006 to 4.2 ppm in 2007 in the 2005 plots (P < 0.0001). 

Ammonium also increased from 2006 to 2007 in the 2006 plots (2.2 vs. 5.8 ppm, respectively; P 

= 0.002). When comparing NH4

+

 between 2005 and 2006 plots, the 2005 plots had higher NH4

+

concentration at 12.5 ppm than the 2006 plots at 2.2 ppm (P < 0.0001). 

Soil gravimetric water content was only affected by year in the 2005 plots (P < 0.0001). Water 

content decreased from 19.9% in 2006 to 7.9% in 2007. 

Treatment

cheatgrass cover (%) 0

2

4

6

8

SEEDED

UNSEEDED

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

HSD = 1.435

2005 plots 2006 plots

*

*

*

*
141

Plans for 2008 

Sampling 

Vegetation cover and density of Year 2 plots will be sampled during June using the same 

methods as in 2007. 

Additional Study

We have also initiated a second study testing the effect of disking, herbicide applications, and 

their combination on crested wheatgrass and seeded species establishment. Disking treatments 

were applied fall 2007 and plots were seeded. Herbicide and herbicide plus disking treatments 

will be applied in spring 2008 with seeding of plots in fall 2008. Procedures are being tested at 

two sites, at the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge (same site as above) and the Northern Great 

Basin Experimental Range about 56 km west of Burns, OR. 

Publications: 

Fansler, V.A. 2007. Establishing native plants in crested wheatgrass stands using successional 

management. M.S. thesis. Oregon State University: Corvallis, OR. 95 pp. 

Presentations: 

Mangold, J. and V. Fansler. 2007. Increasing native plant diversity in crested wheatgrass stands. 

p. 32 in Conference program for Society for Ecological Restoration Northwest 

Chapter/Society of Wetland Scientists Pacific Northwest Chapter joint regional conference, 

Yakima, WA. 

Fansler, V., J. Mangold, M. Borman, and D. Pyke. 2007. Increasing native plant diversity in 

crested wheatgrass stands. p. 94-95 in Proceedings from Society for Range Management 60th

annual meeting and trade show, Reno/Sparks, NV. 

Mangold, J. 2007. Increasing native plant diversity in crested wheatgrass stands. Society for 

Range Management- Idaho chapter annual meeting. Boise, ID. 

 

Management Applications: 

There have been proposals and in some cases mandates to restore and direct crested wheatgrass 

stands into more diverse plant communities that meet multiple land-use objectives. Land 

managers, however, are reluctant to invest time and money into revegetation projects due to the 

high probability of failure. This study has shown that by addressing site availability and species 

availability, native plant establishment can be achieved by directly seeding native species into 

crested wheatgrass stands. When the seed bank is extremely depleted, as it was in this case, the 

availability of species propagules other than those of crested wheatgrass is critical for 

establishment of native species. If site availability appears to be adequate (i.e. plenty of bare 

ground), as was the case at our site, crested wheatgrass control may be unnecessary. Land 

managers must be prepared, however, for an increase in weedy annual species such as cheatgrass 

that may result from disturbances, even small disturbances such as those caused by a rangeland 

drill. Since this was a short-term study, it is difficult to predict the long-term success or failure of 

such management actions. As with any revegetation project, continuing monitoring and 

evaluation is critical. Addressing species performance with follow-up management will help to 
142

secure the initial investment involved with crested wheatgrass control and seeding of native 

species. 

Products 

A tour of the research plots was held on October 17, 2007 for BLM-Burns Distict, BLM-Vale 

District, and Robert Hopper from BLM-Oregon State Office. 

 
143

Project Title: Revegetation Equipment Catalog Project

Project Location: College Station, TX 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Harold Wiedemann 

4000 Stony Creek Lane 

College Station, TX 77845 

979.690.8685, Cell: 979.255.1375 

h.wiedemann@verizon.net 

Project Description: 

The Revegetation Equipment Catalog was placed on the World Wide Web in 2005. It has been 

well received nationally and internationally, and in 2006, it received a Blue Ribbon Educational 

Website Award from the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. 

The catalog gives a description, application, photograph, and sources of various types of 

equipment used for rangeland vegetation manipulation, wildlife habitat improvement, and 

disturbed land rehabilitation. In 2007, there were 10 updates listing new machines and 

addresses. This is the advantage of a web-based publication. There are over 200 items listed. 

Project Status: 

Our publicity and inquires from search engines such as Google has resulted in significant use of 

the catalog. Tracking software logged 102,858 visitors in 2007. The United States accounted for 

72% of the visitors while the remaining 28% were international. Canada (7%), United Kingdom 

(5%), Australia (2%), and India (1%) logged the highest counts of the 18 countries listed. In the 

list of categories, equipment trailers, grass drills, and tractors accounted for the most page visits. 

There have been requests for construction plans for grubbers from Australia and Texas, a source 

for purchasing Tye grass drills, and additional information for a fencing book, seed cleaning 

equipment, equipment trailers, and a new grass seed-plucking harvester. 

The Revegetation Equipment Catalog website (http://reveg-catalog.tamu.edu/) is linked from a 

number of websites, including: 

 

The Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/technology_transfer.shtml 

Great Basin Restoration Initiative: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml 

Society for Range Management: 

http://www.rangelands.org/links_plant_resources.shtml 
144

Center for Invasive Plant Management: 

http://www.weedcenter.org/restoration/restoration.html 

The website is maintained continuously. All links and vendors’ contact information are checked 

at least quarterly. 

Publicity: 

The website was publicized by a poster and live laptop demonstrations in a tradeshow booth at 

the Society for Range Management annual meeting in Reno, Nevada, and demonstrated at the 

RTEC program. 

Power-point slides of the poster were included in several technical presentations by Nancy Shaw, 

Jason Vernon, Mike Pellant, and Scott Lambert. 

The publicity poster was displayed at: 

• Wildflower Seed Production Research Symposium in Orlando, FL 

• Plant Community Restoration Workshop, Grand Junction, CO 

• The Society for Ecological Restoration Northwest/Society of Wetland Scientists Pacific 

Northwest Joint Meeting, Yakima, WA 
145

Project Title: Native Forb Selection, Seedling Establishment, Species 

Interactions, and Post-fire Seedings

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, 

ID 

 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Nancy Shaw 

USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station 

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401 

Boise, ID 83702 

208.373.4360, Fax 208.373.4391 

nshaw@fs.fed.us 

Robert Cox 

USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station 

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401 

Boise, ID 83702 

208.373.4358, Fax 208.373.4391 

robertcox@fs.fed.us 

1. Plant materials 

Cooperators: 

Clark Fleege 

 John Sloan 

 USDA FS Lucky Peak Nursery 

 Boise, ID 83716 

 208.343.1977 

 cfleege@fs.fed.us 

 jpsloan@fs.fed.us 

Loren St. John 

USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center 

P.O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210 

208.397.4133, Fax 208.397.3104 

Loren.Stjohn@id.usda.gov 

Project Description: 

Development of plant materials of Eriogonum umbellatum, Lomatium dissectum, L. grayi, L.

triternatum, Penstemon acuminatus, P. speciosus, P. deustus and identification of other forbs 
146

suitable for development. Work has been conducted at the Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise Botanic 

Garden, Orchard Research Site, and Wells Research Site. 

 

Project Status: 

Pooled material of Penstemon speciosus for the Northern Basin and Range was seeded in a 

commercial seed field in Utah (3 acres). 

Pooled material of P. deustus for the Northern Basin and Range was seeded in a commercial 

seed field in Washington (0.5 acres). 

Seed increase plots are being maintained at the Aberdeen Plant Materials Center for all seven 

species. Seed is being used for research on seeding strategies and equipment and for further seed 

increase. 

Two common gardens of Lomatium dissectum, seeded in fall 2006, were established at Lucky 

Peak Nursery and the Wells Research Site (about 40 accessions each). Data will be collected in 

2008 and 2009. Molecular genetics work with these accessions is being conducted by USDA 

ARS Pullman. 

Collaborative studies of Pseudoroegneria spicata are being conducted with USDA ARS Pullman 

and USDA FS PNW Corvallis. One common garden of 140 accessions is being maintained at the 

Lucky Peak Nursery. See report by Richard Johnson et al. (this volume) for first year results. 

Initial seed increase plots of Agoseris grandiflora, Eriogonum sphaerocephalum, Townsendia 

florifer, and Chaenactis douglasii seeded in fall 2006 at Lucky Peak Nursery produced good 

stands. Seed was harvested from the A. grandiflora and Chaenactis douglasii plots. Seed is being 

used for further seed increase. The plots will also be used for examining equipment and methods 

for harvesting small-seeded Asteraceae. 

Sixty-one collections of 13 species were harvested from wildland stands in 2007. Forty-two 

collections of five species were sent to the FS National Seed Laboratory for development of seed 

germination protocols. Ninety-two collections are being sent to the SOS collection with USDA 

ARS in Pullman, WA. 

2. Assessing the effects of grass competition on Great Basin forbs 

Additional Principal Investigators: 

Hilary Parkinson 

Montana State University 

Land Resources and Environmental Science 

Bozeman, Montana 59712 

406.599.3459 

parkinsonh@gmail.com 
147

Catherine Zabinski 

Montana State University 

Land Resources and Environmental Science 

Bozeman, MT 59712 

406.994.4227 

cathyz@montana.edu 

Project Description: 

Bromus tectorum exploits water in early spring, competing with native plants for this limiting 

resource. Competition for water is particularly pronounced for seedlings that do not have an 

established root system (Harris and Wilson 1970). Competition experiments have been 

conducted to examine the effects of B. tectorum on grasses and shrubs (Humphrey and Schupp 

2004, Melgoza et al. 1990, Harris and Wilson 1970), but to date no study has addressed its 

effects on native forbs. This experiment was designed to examine the relationship between B. 

tectorum density and native forb seedling survival and growth, and to look at the effect of 

increasing densities of B. tectorum on spatial and temporal differences in soil water. The specific 

objectives were: 

1. To identify the density of B. tectorum at which significant declines in native forb growth 

occur. 

2. To determine whether the effects of B. tectorum density vary based on the identity of the 

native forb. 

3. To determine when and at what depths differences in water content occur with increasing 

densities of B. tectorum.

Project Status: 

Methods

The experiment was conducted at two locations in southern Idaho, both within 20 miles of Boise: 

the Lucky Peak nursery (930 m elevation, annual precipitation 330 mm) and the Orchard 

Research Site (915 m elevation, annual precipitation 300 mm). The forbs species were Achillea 

millefolium L. (common yarrow), Eriogonum umbellatum Torr. (sulfur-flower buckwheat), 

Lomatium grayi (J.M. Coult. & Rose) J.M. Coult & Rose (Gray’s biscuitroot), and Penstemon 

speciosus Douglas ex Lindl. (royal penstemon). All were collected in southern Idaho at 

elevations below 1524 m (5,000’). The plots were 0.9 m x 1.5 m. Bromus tectorum was seeded in 

late September 2006 to achieve densities of 0 (control), 45, 90, 180 and 360 plants m-2. Forbs 

were seeded in two rows of four for a total of 8 plants in each plot. Ten pure live seeds were 

planted in each forb spot in late October 2006. 

To examine spatial and temporal changes in soil water content changes with increasing densities 

of B. tectorum, a neutron moisture meter was used to measure soil water content in plots seeded 

at 0 (control), 180, and 360 plants m-2 at 20, 40, 60, and 80 cm depths. Sampling began in midMarch at Orchard and late March at Lucky Peak. Plots were sampled weekly until mid-June and 

then at 2- and 3-week intervals until July 31, 2007 (13 sampling dates total at each site). At the 

Lucky Peak site, B. tectorum was harvested at peak standing biomass on May 23rd. L. grayi 

senesces in mid to late spring, so this species was collected beginning in mid-May through late 

June as it began to dry. A. millefolium, E. umbellatum, and P. speciosus were harvested in late 

July. 
148

Achillea millefolium

B. tectorum m-2

0 1-50 51-100 101-200 201-300

Biomass (g) 0

5

10

15

20 a

ab

c

bc

c

 Penstemon speciosus

B. tectorum m-2

0 1-50 51-100 101-200 201-300

Biomass (g) 0

1

2

3

4

a

b b b

 Lomatium grayi

B. tectorum m-2

0 1-50 51-100 101-200 201-300

Biomass (g) 0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

a

ab

bc

cd

d

At the Orchard site, ground squirrel herbivory, first observed in early April, reduced the size of 

B. tectorum plants by 50-90%, despite efforts to control ground squirrel populations. Orchard site 

data is still being analyzed and will not be included in this report. 

Results

Forb growth in response to B. tectorum 

At densities of less than 50 B. tectorum plants m-2, growth of A. millefolium and L. grayi were 

not significantly different than when growing alone (Fig. 1). Eriogonum umbellatum was 

reduced by 80% at B. tectorum densities of 1-100 (Fig. 1). Penstemon speciosus had the greatest 

reduction of biomass in response to B. tectorum with reduction between 92-99% for all densities 

above the control (Fig. 1). 

 Eriogonum umbellatum

B. tectorum m-2

0 1-50 51-100 101-200 201-300

Biomass (g) 0

1

2

3

4

5

a

b

bc

c c

 

Figure 1. Reduction in forb biomass at increasing densities of B. tectorum (+ SE). 

Within each graph, different letters indicate significant differences. 

Water content in response to B. tectorum

Fig. 2 shows volumetric water content at four key sampling dates; March 31st, April 27th, May 

13th, and June 13th when differences first occurred between treatments and at depths. The bars 

indicate B. tectorum densities at 0 (control), 150-180, 181-280 and 280+ m-2. These categories 

are different than the forb data above because water content was only collected in plots seeded at 

levels of 180 and 360 m-2, so the lowest B. tectorum density for water data is 150 m-2. Actual B. 

tectorum densities censused in mid-May were as high as 450+ m-2, but soil moisture in plots with 

B. tectorum density above 300 m-2 did not differ. 
149

On March 31st a difference occurred only at the 20 cm depth (between the highest level and 

control) and the amount was relatively small (0.02). Results were similar for April 5th, with 

differences increasing on April 13th. 

On April 27th, water content in the control plots was significantly greater than all plots with B. 

tectorum and the plot with 150-180 B. tectorum plants m-2 was significantly different than the 

highest density. April 27th was the first sampling date where significant differences occurred at 

the 40 cm depth between control and the highest density only. 

On May 13th water content in the control plots was significantly greater than all B. tectorum

levels at the 20 and 40 cm depths which were not different from each other and this relationship 

was maintained for all subsequent sampling dates. May 13th was the first sampling date where 

significant differences between control and B. tectorum plots occurred at the 60 cm depth. 

On June 13th water content was significantly different between the control and all levels with B. 

tectorum at 20, 40, 60 cm depths. Results were similar for July 6th and July 31st

. 

Figure 2. Soil water content by B. tectorum density and depth on four 2007 dates. 

May 13

Depth (cm)

20 40 60 80

Volumetric water content

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

a

b

b b

a

b

b b

a

b ab b

April 27

Depth (cm)

20 40 60 80

Volumetric water content 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

a

b

bc

c

a abab b

March 31

Depth (cm)

20 40 60 80

Volumetric water content 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0 BRTE m-2

165 BRTE m-2

230 BRTE m-2

280 BRTE m-2

a abab b

June 13

Depth (cm)

20 40 60 80

Volumetric water content 0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

a

b b

b

a

b

b b

a

b b

b

a a

a

b
150

Figure 3. Volumetric water content at the 20 cm depth (left Y axis) 

for all sampling dates and B. tectorum densities and accumulated 

precipitation (right Y axis) for water year 2007. 

Discussion

B. tectorum densities the first year after a fire vary widely based on prior densities, autumn and 

winter precipitation after the fire, and other factors. However, it has been generalized that 

densities are typically less than 10 plants m-2 the first year after fire, but can increase to densities 

greater than 10,000 plants m-2 within 3 years(Dalzell 2004, Young and Evans 1985). The 

response in forb biomass to increasing 

B. tectorum densities demonstrates the 

importance of seeding immediately after 

the fire when B. tectorum densities are at 

their lowest. 

Forbs responded differently to B. 

tectorum. Lomatium grayi biomass was 

the least affected by B. tectorum. A. 

millefolium and E. umbellatum were 

intermediate and P. speciosus had the 

greatest reduction in biomass. While 

predicting densities of B. tectorum is 

difficult, this data suggests that P. 

speciosus should only be used at sites 

where densities are expected to be very 

low. 

The water content data may partially explain why L. grayi was the least affected by B. tectorum. 

As noted above, large differences between the control and the highest level of B. tectorum did 

not occur until mid to late April. Species began germinating in the following order: L. grayi 

(mid-February), E. umbellatum (mid-March), A. millefolium and P. speciosus (both mid April to 

early May). L. grayi had 6-8 weeks of growth by the time differences in water content occurred, 

while P. speciosus had less than 1-2 weeks. 

Literature Cited

Dalzell, C.R. 2004. Post-fire establishment of vegetation communities following reseeding on 

southern Idaho’s Snake River Plain. Boise State University, Boise, Idaho. Thesis. 88p.

Harris, G.A. and A. Wilson. 1970. Competition for moisture among seedlings of annual and 

perennial grasses influenced by root elongation at low temperatures. Ecology 51:530-534. 

Melgoza, G., R. A. Nowak, and R. J. Tausch. 1990. Soil water exploitation after fire: 

competition between Bromus tectorum and two native species. Oecologia 83:7-13. 

Young, J.A. and R.A. Evans. 1985. Demography of Bromus tectorum in Artemisia communities. 

Pages 489-501 in D.J. White, editor. The Population Structure of Vegetation. Dr. W. Junk 

Publishers. Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Sampling Dates

Apr May Jun Jul Aug 

Volumetric water Content 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

Accumulatated precipitation (cm)

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

0 BRTE m-2 

150-200 BRTE m-2

201-300 m-2

301+ m-2

Accum. precp. (cm)
151

3. Development of procedures to break dormancy in Lomatium dissectum seeds 

Additional Principal Investigators: 

Melissa Scholten 

USDA FS RMRS, Boise, ID 83702 

and Department of Biology, 

Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725 

Marcelo Serpe 

Department of Biology, 

 Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725 

 

Project Description and Status: 

Objective 1: 

Analysis of the effect of longer periods of cold stratification on seed germination and 

characterization of the stratification requirements of different seed populations 

To determine whether cold stratification alone can induce high percent germination, we 

conducted experiments with a seed population collected in Harper-OR, elevation 4419 ft. After 

18 to 20 weeks of stratification at 4°C, these 

seeds reached a maximum germination of 85 to 

90%, thus indicating that cold stratification 

alone can break dormancy of most seeds. 

Lomatium dissectum seeds grow at different 

elevations ranging from 100 to 8000 ft. The 

cumulative duration of cold periods varies 

among these sites. We have begun to investigate 

the stratification requirements of different seed 

populations. 

Preliminary results suggest that seeds collected 

at low elevations germinate sooner than those 

collected at higher elevations (Fig. 1). However, 

the seeds collected at elevations of 2500 ft or 

higher did not reach high germination even after 

26 weeks of cold stratification. This limits the 

interpretation of the results because differences in 

germination may reflect in part differences in seed 

quality. To further investigate the stratification 

requirement of different seed populations, we began a new experiment. In June of 2007, we 

collected seeds from 10 different sites ranging in elevation from 180 to 7200 ft. These seeds have 

been in cold stratification for 7 weeks and we are measuring their germination in a weekly basis. 

This experiment involves using 10 replications per site with 100 seeds per replication. The 

increase in the sample size and the number of replications may allow us to reach a more 

definitive characterization of the stratification requirements of the different seeds populations. 

Figure 1. Effect of cold stratification on germination 

of seeds collected at sites with different elevations. 

Mean (± SD) of 3 to 5 replications with 50 seeds per 

replication. Seeds were placed at 4°C for the indicated 

times and then incubated at 15°C for 2 weeks. The 

values represent the total germination that occurred 

under cold conditions and after transfer to 15°C. 
152

Figure 2. Embryo growth of Lomatium dissectum

seeds at 4°C and different water potentials. Mean 

(±SD) of 10 replications with 5 embryos per 

replication. For a particular week, means not labeled 

with the same letter are significantly different (p < 

0.05). 

Objective 2. 

Analysis of the effects of fluctuations in temperature on seed germination. Experiments related to 

this aspect of the project are in progress. We are currently stratifying seeds at 4°C. After 8 

weeks of stratification, the seeds will be transferred to growth chambers that would provide the 

following diurnal temperature fluctuations: 17.5/12.5, 20/10, or 25/5 °C. The effectiveness of 

these treatments in triggering germination will be compared relative to control seeds kept 

constantly at 4°C and to seeds transferred to an environment with a constant temperature of 

15°C.

We have also begun to analyze the effect of 

interactions between temperature and seed water 

status on embryo growth and germination. Dormant 

seeds were placed in vermiculite equilibrated with 

different amounts of water to achieve water 

potentials of -0.03, -0.43, -0.96, and -1.63 MPa. At 

high water potential (-0.03 MPa) the embryos 

reached full length after about 12 weeks of cold 

stratification. A decrease in seed water potential 

significantly reduced embryo growth (Fig. 2). Even 

a relatively mild water stress of –0.43 MPa resulted 

in a lower growth rate than the well-watered 

treatment. Water deficits during stratification also 

affected germination. After 24 weeks of cold 

stratification, the percent germination was 78 (±15), 

41 (±11), 0, and 0% for the -0.03, -0.43, -0.96, and -

1.63 MPa treatments, respectively. 

Objective 3. 

Determination of the effects of plant growth regulators on seed germination. Attempts were 

made to reduce the period of stratification using plant growth regulators. None of the solutions 

tested had a positive effect on germination; several of the treatments significantly reduced 

embryo growth (data not shown) and germination with respect to the control water treatment 

(Table 1). In particular, treatment with gibberellic acid 3 alone or in combination with other 

hormones resulted in a marked inhibition of germination. 

 

Other experiments related to hormones are in progress. We have prepared methanol extracts 

from seeds that have been stratified for various times. Our plan is to determine the concentration 

of abscisic acid in the extracts. These may provide an insight into the mechanisms that control 

embryo growth and germination, which may allow us to design better procedures to break 

dormancy in L. dissectum seeds. 
153

Table 1. Effect of plant growth regulators on the germination of Lomatium dissectum seeds. Means ± SD of 3 

replications with 60 seeds per replication. Dormant seeds were stratified at 4°C in solutions containing the growth 

regulators indicated below. Values not followed by the same letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). 

6-Benzyl amino purine 500 μM 47.8 ± 10.5 a 

water 42.0 ± 3.9 ab 

6-Benzyl amino purine 250 μM 29.0 ± 11.8 abc 

Naphtaleneacetic acid 50 μM 23.0 ± 6.4 bcd 

Chloroethyl phosphonic acid 100 μM 22.3 ± 13.9 bcd 

Chloroethyl phosphonic acid 250 μM + 6-Benzyl amino purine 250 μM 19.3 ± 8.3 bcd 

Chloroethyl phosphonic acid 250 μM 18.3 ± 15.3 bcd 

Chloroethyl phosphonic acid 500 μM 14.3 ± 9.4 cd 

6-Benzyl amino purine 250 μM + Naphtaleneacetic acid 50 μM 13.9 ± 7.7 cd 

Gibberellic acid3 500 μM 10.8 ± 3.1 cd 

Naphtaleneacetic acid 100 μM 3.3 ± 3.8 d 

Gibberellic acid3 250 μM 1.6 ± 21.4 d 

Gibberellic acid3 250 μM + Chloroethyl phosphonic acid 250 μM 1.6 ± 1.6 d 

Gibberellic acid3 250 μM + 6-Benzyl amino purine 250 μM 0.9 ± 0.6 d 

Chloroethyl phosphonic acid 250 μM + 6-Benzyl amino purine 250 μM 

+ Gibberellic acid3 250 μM 0.0 ± 0.0 d 

4. Reestablishing diverse native Wyoming big sagebrush communities: a comparison of 

seeding equipment and techniques 

Additional Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Mike Pellant 

USDI BLM 

1837 S. Vinnell Way 

Boise, ID 83709 

208.373.3823 

mike_pellant@blm.gov 

 

Loren St. John, Brent Cornforth, 

Boyd Simmonson, and Charlie Bair 

USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center 

P.O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210 

208.397.4133, Fax 208.397.3104 

Loren.Stjohn@id.usda.gov 

Dan Ogle 

USDA NRCS Idaho State Office 

9173 West Barnes Drive, Suite C, Boise, ID 83709. 

208.685.6987, Fax 208.378.5735 

Dan.Ogle@id.usda.gov 
154

Jim Truax 

 Truax Company 

 4300 Quebec Avenue North 

 New Hope, MN 55428 

 763.537.6639, FAX 763.537.8353 

 truax@pclink.com 

 

Cooperator: 

 Tom Warren 

 USDI BLM Elko Field Office 

 Elko, NV 

Project Description: 

Objectives and Methods

To evaluate the capabilities of the Kemmerer 

rangeland drill and the Truax RoughRider 

minimum-till drill to seed seeds of diverse sizes 

and shapes at appropriate depths to reestablish 

grasses, forbs, and shrubs on former Wyoming 

big sagebrush sites, study plots were established 

at two locations near Elko, Nevada in October 

2006. Locations were selected on areas that had 

burned in 2006. One location was selected on 

the East Humboldt fire about 10 miles SW of 

Elko. The second location was selected on the 

Gopher fire, about 10 miles N of Deeth, NV, 

which is about 30 miles NE of Elko. 

At each location, 35 plots were established in 5 

blocks (7 plots per block). Two seeding rates of 

native species plus a control of no seed were 

seeded into the plots on Nov. 7-10, 2006. An 

untreated “double control” (no seed and no 

drill) was also kept to provide adequate 

comparison. Species and seeding rates are listed 

in Table 1. BLM Elko Field Office personnel were instrumental in all stages of this project, 

including planning, site selection, treatment application, and logistics. Tom Warren, Stan 

Kemmerer, Mark Coca, Brock Uhlig, Mike Mowray, and Kyle Blackburn were especially 

helpful. Seeding was done by personnel from the NRCS Plant Materials Center in Aberdeen, ID, 

including Brent Cornforth, Charlie Bair, and Boyd Simonson. The broadcast mix was seeded by 

allowing seed to fall on the soil surface in front of either the furrow-chain (Kemmerer drill) or 

the Brillion packer wheels (Truax drill). The drill mix was seeded through the drill assembly. On 

December 19, 2006, autonomous weather stations were placed at each location to record rain, 

temperature, and soil moisture. 

Seeding Rate, 

PLS/m2

Species High Low 

Broadcast mix 

Wyoming big sagebrush 15.3 9.5 

Rubber rabbitbrush 17.3 10.2 

Eagle yarrow 171.1 105.9 

Sandberg bluegrass 194.6 114.2 

Rice hulls 

Total Broadcast 398.3 239.8 

Drill seeding mix 

Fourwing saltbush 5.1 3.6 

Blue flax 33.4 23.7 

Munro globemallow 41.2 29.8 

Bluebunch wheatgrass 94.8 67.7 

Bottlebrush squirreltail 8.2 5.9 

Indian ricegrass 54.8 39.1 

Rice hulls 

Total Drill 237.5 169.8 

Total Drill + Broadcast 635.8 409.6 

Table 1. Species seeded and rates, in PLS/m2. 
155

Figure 7. Density of Indian ricegrass 

e

b

e

a

d

c

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

No Seed Low High No Seed Low High

Humboldt Gopher

Indian Ricegrass Density (plants m -2 ) .

Figure 8. Density of bluebunch 

e

b

e

a

a

a

e

d cd

e

c

b

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

No

Seed

Low

High

No

Seed

Low

High

No

Seed

Low

High

No

Seed

Low

High

Min-till Rangeland Min-till Rangeland

Humboldt Gopher

Bluebunch Density (plants m -2 ) .

Figure 9. Density of fourwing saltbush 

b

b

a

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.2

No Seed Low High

Fourwing Saltbush Density (plants m -2 ) .

Figure 10. Density of cheatgrass 

cd d

a

d

b

c

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Not Drilled Min-till Rangeland Not Drilled Min-till Rangeland

Humboldt Gopher

Cheatgrass Density (plants m -2 ) .

Figure 1. Density of Wyoming big Sage 

bc bc

a

c

a

b

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

No Seed Low High No Seed Low High

Min-till Rangeland

Wyoming Big Sage Density (plants m -2 ) 

.

Figure 2. Density of western yarrow 

efg efg fg

cd cde fg def cdef

a

dg

b

dg

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

No

Seed

Low

High

No

Seed

Low

High

No

Seed

Low

High

No

Seed

Low

High

Min-till Rangeland Min-till Rangeland

Western Yarrow Density (plants m 

Humboldt Gopher

-2 ) .

Figure 5. Density of squirreltail 

b

ab

c

a

ab ab

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

No Seed Low High No Seed Low High

Min-till Rangeland

Squirreltail Density (plants m -2 ) .

Figure 6. Density of flax 

a

b

b

d

c

d

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

No Seed Low High No Seed Low High

Min-till Rangeland

Flax Density (plants m -2 ) .

Figure 4. Density of Sandberg bluegrass 

a

b

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Min-till Rangeland

Sandberg Bluegrass Density (plants m -2 ) 

.

Figure 3. Density of rubber rabbitbrush 

bc

c

a

d

b

c

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

No Seed Low High No Seed Low High

Min-till Rangeland

Rubber Rabbitbrush Density (plants m -2 ) 

.
156

Project Status: 

Data collection for this project occurred from June 4-14, 

2007. Data were collected based on the template 

provided by Dr. David Pyke, USGS, for entry into the 

“Rangeland Database and Field Data Entry System”, a 

cooperative effort between ARS, NRCS, BLM, and 

USGS. Six 30-m transects were established 

perpendicular to the drill rows in each plot. On each 

transect, the density of all seeded species, plus 

cheatgrass and any native perennial species, were observed and recorded in four, 0.5-m2

quadrats; species richness was also recorded by noting all unique species in each quadrat. Linepoint intercept data was also collected along each transect, by placing a point every meter from a 

random starting point between 5.0 and 5.9 m along the transect (for a total of 20 points per 

transect, 120 total points per plot). Finally, basal gap intercept was collected along the same 

transects, by recording the length of all gaps longer than 20 cm, beginning at the 5-m mark and 

continuing until the 25-m mark. Data collection involved 8 field workers, and took about 2 

weeks. 

Data were analyzed with Proc Mixed in SAS, and mean separations were performed with the 

Bonferroni adjustment (P=0.01). Density of broadcast species (see Table 1 for names and rates) 

was greatest in plots that were seeded with the minimum-till drill (Figs. 1-4), while density of 

drilled species was generally not significantly different between the drill types, but did differ 

significantly between seeding rates and study locations (Figs. 5-9). Cheatgrass density was 

greatest at the Gopher study site, where it was most dense in untreated control plots, followed by 

the minimum-till plots (Fig. 10). Cover of seeded species was uniformly low, as this was the first 

growing season following seeding. Cover of exotic species, however, followed a similar pattern 

to the density of cheatgrass. In unseeded plots (either undisturbed by the drills, or disturbed by 

the drills, but with no seed), cover of exotic species was greatest in the control (not disturbed) 

and minimum-till plots, while plots that experienced the rangeland drill (with no seed) had the 

lowest cover of exotic species (Fig. 11). 

Future Plans

The plots established for this study will be followed for at least 1 more year and data will be 

collected in May or June of 2008. 

Management Applications: 

Land managers will benefit from the information produced by this study by using the results to 

aid in post-wildfire restoration planning. The results of this study should allow managers to 

better understand how the respective drills differ in their abilities to seed native species in a 

diverse mix. Such information will help managers in selecting seeding equipment that meets both 

the site requirements and the seeding goals. 

b

a

a

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

No Drill Min-till Rangeland

Exotic Species Cover (%) 

Figure 11. Cover of exotic species 
157

5. Equipment and strategies to enhance the post-wildfire establishment and persistence of 

Great Basin native plants 

 Additional Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Mike Pellant 

USDI BLM 

1837 S. Vinnell Way 

Boise, ID 83709 

208.373.3823 

mike_pellant@blm.gov 

David Pyke 

USGS Biological Research Division 

3200 S.W. Jefferson Way 

Corvallis, OR 97331 

541.750.7334, 

david_a_pyke@usgs.gov 

Loren St. John, Brent Cornforth, 

Boyd Simmonson, and Charlie Bair 

USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center 

P.O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210 

208.397.4133, Fax 208.397.3104 

Loren.Stjohn@id.usda.gov 

Dan Ogle 

USDA NRCS Idaho State Office 

9173 West Barnes Drive, Suite C, Boise, ID 83709. 

208.685.6987, Fax 208.378.5735 

Dan.Ogle@id.usda.gov 

Steve Perkins 

USDA NRCS Great Basin Plant Materials Center 

2055 Schurz Highway 

Fallon, NV 89406 

 775.217.0864 

 steven.perkins@nv.usda.gov 

 Jim Truax 

 Truax Company 

 4300 Quebec Avenue North 

 New Hope, MN 55428 

 763.537.6639, FAX 763.537.8353 

 truax@pclink.com 
158

Cooperators: 

 Jeff Rose 

 USDI BLM Burns District 

 Hines, Oregon 97738 

Mike Barnum 

 USDI BLM Boise District 

 Four Rivers Field Office 

 Boise, ID 83705 

 

Project Description: 

Objectives and Methods

This study, funded through the Joint Fire Sciences Program and the Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project, further investigates the capability of the Truax Rough Rider drill 

and the Kemmerer rangeland drill to reestablish Wyoming big sagebrush plant communities. The 

study will test seeding rates and methods for establishing Wyoming big sagebrush along with a 

mixture of other grasses, forbs, and shrubs and establish large-scale plots for long-term 

monitoring of the effects of grazing on post-wildfire restoration attempts. Data collection will 

follow methods that are currently being recommended by the USGS for BLM use as standard 

techniques for ES&R monitoring, and data will be uploaded into a central ES&R monitoring 

database being developed by the USGS and will be permanently stored and available to land 

managers and researchers. In addition, the proposed study also facilitates analysis of long-term 

grazing effects on sagebrush seedings by establishing adjacent plots designed to allow grazing 

exclusion. 

We will also track the viability of sagebrush seeds through long-term storage. Seedlots harvested 

at locations across the Great Basin have been cleaned to two purity levels and will be stored at 

three different storage temperatures and two moisture contents in two types of bags. Viability 

and moisture content will be tested periodically over a 5-year storage period. Results will aid in 

determining appropriate storage conditions and duration for holding big sagebrush seed beyond 

the season of harvest. 

2007 Activities and Results

In August and September, 2007, study locations were selected near Mt. Home, ID and Burns, 

OR. At each location, 5 blocks of 13 plots were surveyed and marked, and seeding of all drill 

plots was accomplished in the last week of October through the first week of November, 2007. 

Winter broadcasting was accomplished in the middle of January, 2008. Five blocks of 3 plots 

each were also established and seeded to provide the ability to monitor grazing in the future. 

Seeds for the storage study were packaged and stored in May, 2007, with germination and 

moisture content tests being accomplished in August and November 2007. 

Future Plans

Data will be collected from field plots in May or June of 2008 and 2009. A second set of plots 

will also be established in fall 2008, with data collection for those plots occurring in 2009 and 
159

2010. The seed storage study will also continue, with germination tests and moisture content 

tests being done every 3 months through May 2008, and every 6 months thereafter. 

Management Applications: 

Land managers will benefit from the information produced by this study, in conjunction with the 

previous study, by using the results to aid in post-wildfire restoration planning. The results of 

this study should allow managers to better understand how the respective drills differ in their 

abilities to seed native species in a diverse mix. Such information will help managers in selecting 

seeding equipment that meets both the site requirements and the seeding goals. In addition, by 

working with the developer of the minimum-till drill, we expect to improve the performance of 

this equipment. 

Products 

Publications: 

Kinter, C. Lynn; Shaw, Nancy L.; Hild, Ann L.; Mealor, Brian A. 2007. Post-fire seed ecology 

of rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea L.): assessment of invasion potential. Rangeland 

Ecology and Management. 60:386-394. 

Hild, Ann L.; Muscha, Jennifer M.; Shaw, Nancy L. 2007. Emergence and growth of four 

winterfat accessions in the presence of the exotic annual cheatgrass, p. 147-152. In: Sosebee, 

R.E.; Wester, D.B.; Britton, C.M.; McArthur, E.D.; Kitchen, S.G., comps. Shrubland 

dynamics: fire and water: proceedings. Proc.-P-47. Fort Collins, CO: USDA FS Rocky 

Mountain Research Station 

Karrfalt, R.; Shaw, N.L. Checklist for developing native plant materials for restoration 

(submitted) 

Shaw, N.L.; Pellant, M.; Olwell, M.; Jensen, S.; McArthur, E.D. Native plant domestication and 

restoration program for the Great Basin of western North America. Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, 

China: International Rangeland Congress/International Grassland Congress Proceedings (in 

press). 

Shaw, N.L.; Hild, A.L.; Kinter, L. Rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea L.): Post-fire 

invasiveness in the shrub steppe of western North America. Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China: 

International Rangeland Congress/International Grassland Congress Proceedings (in press). 

GBNPSIP Website: 

Sherich, K. Webmaster 

 http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml 

Reports, Taskorders, Agreements, Contracts: 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2006 Report and 2007 Taskorder 

Implemented 15 new agreements, 26 amendments and 4 contracts. 
160

Grant Proposals Leveraged by GRBNPSIP Research: 

Collection of native grasses for increase and common gardens. USDA FS PNW (R. Johnson, B. 

St.Clair, R. Cronn), USDA FS RMRS (N. Shaw), USDA ARS WRPIS (R.C. Johnson), and 

botanists of the USFS and BLM. USDA FS Native Plant Initiative Proposal. (funded) 

Equipment and strategies to enhance the post-wildfire establishment and persistence of Great 

Basin native plants. N.L. Shaw, R.D. Cox, M. Pellant, and D.A. Pyke. Joint Fire Sciences 

Program Proposal. (funded) 

Presentations and Abstracts: 

Cox, R.D. 2007. Restoration of damaged wildlands: Requirements for success. Texas Tech 

University, Department of Natural Resources Management, Lubbock, TX. 

Cox, R.D; Shaw, N.L. 2007. Sagebrush, fire, and restoration: new approaches in the Great 

Basin. In: One hundred fifty years of human activity in sagebrush steppe: ecological and 

genetic consequences, symposium. AAAS, Pacific Division 88th annual meeting, Boise, ID. 

Abstract. Invited presentation. 

Johnson, R.C.; Hellier, B.; Adair, R.; Cashman, M.; St. Clair, B.; Shaw, N.; Erickson, V. 2007. 

Uncovering adapted germplasm for the Great Basin: tapertip onion, bluebunch wheatgrass 

and others. Developing native plant materials for the Great Basin. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for Range Management 60th annual 

meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 

Lambert, S; Shaw, N.L. 2007. Native plants and restoration technology for the Great Basin. 

Integrating science & management on the Colorado Plateau, Flagstaff, AZ. Abstract. Invited 

presentation. 

Muscha, J.; Haferkamp, M.R.; Shaw, N.L.; Vermeire, L.T. 2007. Competitive dynamics among 

crested wheatgrass and native forbs and grasses. Society for Range Management 60th annual 

meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Poster. 

Parkinson, H.; Zabinski, C.; Shaw, N. 2007. Reseeding native forbs in the Great Basin: 

assessing the effects of grass competition on forb seedling growth. Ecological Society of 

America/Society for Ecological Restoration joint annual meeting, San Jose, CA. Abstract. 

Poster. 

Pellant, M.; Shaw, N.L. 2007. Introduction to the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project. Developing native plant materials for the Great Basin. Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for Range Management 60th 

annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 

Scholten, M.; Serpe, M.; Shaw, N. 2007. Growth and germination in Lomatium dissectum seeds. 

Reno, NV. Society for Range Management 60th annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Poster. 
161

Scholten, M.; Zimmerman, S.; Shaw, NL; Serpe, M. 2007. Environmental regulation of 

dormancy loss in Lomatium dissectum seeds. Botanical Society of America annual meeting, 

Chicago, IL. Abstract. Poster. 

Shaw, N.; DeBolt, A.; Cox, R. 2007. Native forbs and restoration technology for the Great Basin 

Developing native plant materials for the Great Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection 

and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for Range Management 60th annual meeting, 

Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 

Shaw, N.L. 2007. Native forbs. Idaho Section, Society for Range Management, Boise, ID. 

Invited presentation. 

Shaw, N.L. 2007. Natives, invasives, and restoration ecology: Cooperative research in the Great 

Basin. National Grassland manager’s meeting, Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie, Joliet, IL. 

Invited presentation. 

Shaw, N.L. 2007. Plant materials being developed by the Great Basin Project. Plant community 

restoration workshop, Grand Junction, CO. Invited presentation. 

Shaw, N.L. 2007. Planting in the appropriate season. Plant community restoration workshop, 

Grand Junction, CO. Invited presentation. 

Shaw, N.L. 2007. Update: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. 

Oregon/Washington BLM botanists meeting, Corvallis, OR. Invited presentation. 

Shaw, N.; Pellant, M. 2007. Plant materials and revegetation technology for the Great Basin. 

National conference on ecological restoration, Kansas City, MO. Abstract. Poster. 

Young, S.; Johnson, R.; Shaw, N. 2007. Accelerating seed production applicable to provisional 

seed zones for the Great Basin. Developing native plant materials for the Great Basin. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for Range 

Management 60th annual meeting, Reno, NV. Abstract. Invited presentation. 

Meetings, Field Tours, Workshops, Symposia: 

Parkinson, H.: Discussed GBNPSIP forb project, Oregon State University Malheur Experiment 

Station field day, Ontario, OR. 

Shaw, N.L. Organizer: Developing native plant materials for the Great Basin. Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for Range Management 60th 

annual meeting, Reno, NV. 

Shaw, N.L. Program committee member and Board Member: Society for Ecological Restoration 

Northwest Chapter and Society for Wetland Scientists joint meeting, Yakima, WA. Coorganizer of session on sage-grouse habitat requirements and co-leader of workshop on 

native seeds. 
162

Shaw, N.L. Planning committee member: Wildflower seed production research symposium, 

Orlando, FL. Also attended National native plant materials development program meeting, 

Orlando, FL. 

RMRS Boise personnel: Provided local arrangements for a seed conditioning workshop 

conducted by Bob Karrfalt, FS National Seed Laboratory, at the Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise, 

ID. 

RMRS Boise personnel: Provided two workshops on wildland seed collection for members of 

the Duck Valley Indian Reservation and a tour for Duck Valley and Fort Hall Reservation 

representatives. Three representatives of the Fort Hall Reservation also attended the seed 

conditioning workshop. 

Awards: 

N.L. Shaw: National Grasslands Research & Technology Award (USFS and NRCS). For 

GBNPSIP work. 

E.D. McArthur and N. Shaw: Service First Award (USFS and BLM). For GBNPSIP and other 

plant materials and restoration work. 

Exhibits: 

The Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Exhibit Booth was displayed at: 

Society for Range Management 60th annual meeting & trade show, Reno, NV. 

Wildflower seed production research symposium, Orlando, FL. 

Plant community restoration workshop, Grand Junction, CO. 

SERNW/SWS PNW joint meeting, Yakima, WA. 
163

Project Title: Establishment and Maintenance of the Buy-Back 

Program for Certified Seed

Project Location: Utah Crop Improvement Association, Utah State University 

Principle Investigators and Contact Information: 

Stanford Young 

Utah Crop Improvement Association 

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855 

 435.797.2082, Fax 435.797.3376 

sayoung@mendel.usu.edu 

 Michael Bouck 

Utah Crop Improvement Association 

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855 

 435.797.2101, Fax 435.797.3376 

michaelb@mendel.usu.edu 

Project Description: 

This project is funded through a Research Joint Venture Agreement between the USFS-RMRS, 

Boise, ID and the Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA), Logan, UT, initiated in fall 

2003 and renewed with additional funds in fall 2004 and fall 2007. Seed is distributed using the 

Buy-back option, a mechanism for obtaining a portion of the seed increased by private growers 

back to the UCIA for redistribution to the original and additional seed growers for further seed 

increase. 

Project Status: 

A synopsis of the Buy-back Program follows (Jan. 1, 2007-Dec. 31, 2007). Table 1 lists forb and 

grass seed acquisitions, distributions, inventory, field status, and whether seed has been 

harvested for species germplasms included in the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program from 

2002-2007. This has been updated to include the previous AOSCA program that is now being 

administered by the UCIA. It is expected that in 2008 several additional forbs and grasses will 

be included in the program. Table 2 lists the standardized market price for contract negotiations 

updated for 2007. 

Project Synopsis: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project (GBNPSIP) and 

Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) Stock Seed Buy-back Program. This program 

encourages and allows seed growers to benefit economically in a timely manner as an incentive 

to participate in the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program. The program helps accelerate the 

increase in stock seed supplies and ultimately increase seed supplies on the open market for 

commercial revegetation use. 

The purpose of the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program, funded through the GBNPSIP, is: 1) to 

facilitate development of a seed market for specific germplasm accessions and formal germplasm 

releases developed through GBNPSIP; these include all germplasms prior to 2003 and certain 
164

others assigned through 2007 (see Table 1); 2) to reward initial seed growers financially for the 

risks they have assumed to participate in the program; 3) to document germplasm identity 

through the seed increase process by utilizing seed certification protocols; and 4) to increase 

stock seed available for potential secondary seed growers. This program is administered through 

the Utah Crop Improvement Association. 

The mechanisms for purchasing stock seed from growers and redistributing it for further increase 

are as follows: 

1. UCIA offers for free or for sale (depending on seed generation and availability) stock 

seed to seed growers. 

2. After harvest of the first seed production year, the grower will be required to return to the 

UCIA (for inventory reserve) up to twice the original amount of stock seed he/she 

received. More may be returned if mutually negotiated. The grower will be compensated 

125% of the standardized market price (SMP, see Table 2) for all seed returned to UCIA. 

SMP will be updated as needed. 

3. UCIA may negotiate to buy all or part of the seed from any subsequent years of seed 

production back from seed grower at 125% SMP. 

4. UCIA offers the grower the option to immediately buy back the seed sold to the UCIA 

(except for the inventory reserve) at 100% SMP. The grower thus realizes an immediate 

25% premium incentive to expand plantings and remain in the program. This seed must 

be planted for seed production and entered into the local seed certification program either 

by original seed grower or another seed grower recruited by the original seed grower. If 

this seed is instead sold commercially, the UCIA reserves the right to recover the 25% 

premium paid for the seed. 

5. All seed offered to the UCIA, bought, or sold shall be certified or certified eligible. 

6. UCIA agrees to pay for shipping and seed analysis costs. Seed purchasing, shipping, and 

seed analysis costs are to be reimbursed to the UCIA through GBNPSIP program funds. 

7. If seed is unconditioned when purchased by the UCIA, the seed grower may be charged 

for conditioning costs, or in certain circumstances these costs may be paid by the UCIA 

and reimbursed by GBNPSIP. 

Notes: 

1. Seed quantity and quality (lbs PLS) of original stock seed provided to the seed grower 

will be determined on a case by case basis in order to determine the amount of seed that 

must be returned to the UCIA from the first harvestable crop by the seed grower. 

2. When the original seed grower sells to the UCIA and/or buys back seed (as in points 3 

and 4 above) the amount of seed (lbs PLS) will typically be verified through the 

applicable state seed certification agency. Some instances may require special 

negotiation. 

Publications and Presentations: 

Young, S.A., R. Johnson, and N. Shaw. 2007. Accelerating seed production applicable to 

provisional seed zones in the Great Basin. Developing native plant materials for the Great 

Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 symposium. Society for 

Range Management 60th Annual Meeting, Reno, NV. Invited presentation. Abstract. 
165

Young, S. 2007. Tips for native germplasm development and release (presentation and 

discussion), and Utah’s experience with TZ labeling (handouts and discussion). Annual native 

seed quality symposium 82nd joint annual meeting, Association of Official Seed Analysts and 

Society of Commercial Seed Technologists, Cody, WY. 

Young, S. 2007. Is what’s on the tag what’s in the bag? Native wildflower seed production 

research symposium, Orlando, FL. Abstract. 

Young, S. 2007. How do you tell what’s in the bag? Uncompagre Plateau Restoration Plant 

Community Workshop, Grand Junction, CO. Handouts and discussion. 

Bouck, M. 2007. Improving plant cultivars, rangelands, and plant selection. Ministry of 

Agriculture, Yanchi County, Ningxia Provence, China. Presentation and Discussion. 
166

Table 1. 2007 Update. Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) forb and grass seed acquisition, distribution, inventory, and field germplasms included in the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project, UCIA Stock Seed Buyback Program. Previouadministered by UCIA.

Kind & Variety / Germplasm Lot/ Source 

Seed 

acquisition 

and 

production 

status 

Generation Added to Inventory Date Distributed from Inventory Date Inventory 12/31/2007 State distributed to 

FORBS & SHRUBS bulk bulk bulk Achillea millefolium Western Yarrow 

Eagle Site NSW4-1-EMY1-1 *3 G2 6.5lb 9/15/04 0.6 4/25/05 0 WY 

 NSW4-1-EMY1-1 *3 G2 5.8 9/14/05 0 WA  NWS-1-YAR-FDN *3 G2 13lb 9/20/05 13 5/30/07 0 OR 

Balsamoriza hookeri BAHO B1-02 *1*2 G0 271g Fall 2002 126g Fall 2002 0.0 ID Hooker Balsamroot BAHO B1-02 *1*2 G0 N/A Fall 2002 145g Fall2002 CO  BAHO JS-1 *1*2 G1 181g 9/13/06 0 181g Balsamorhiza sagittata BASA U32-02 *1*2 G0 735 4/15/04 541 4/16/04 194.0 UT Arrowleaf Balsamroot Crepis acuminata CRAC U11-02 *2 G0 50g Fall 2002 50g Fall 2002 0.0 ID Tapertip hawksbeard CRAC U10-02 *1*2 G0 160 4/15/04 148 Fall 2002 12.0 UT Eriogonum heracleoides ERIHER1-BSE-03 *1*2 G0 43 4/15/04 22.5 4/16/04 20.5 UT Wyeth Buckwheat Eriogonum umbelatum Unknown G0 2004 2004 ID Sulfurflower Buckwheat Lomatium dissectium LODI B7-02 *2 G0 39g Fall 2002 39g Fall 2002 0.0 NV Giant Lomatium LODI B14-02 *2 G0 96g Fall 2002 96g Fall 2002 0.0 OR 

LODI PS-04 *3 G1 60g 11/30/04 0 60g *4 LODI11-B7-03 *1*2 G0 91 4/15/04 72.1 4/16/04 18.9 UT LOMDIS18-BSE-03 *1*2 G0 488 4/15/04 188 4/16/04 300.0 UT LOMDIS18-BSE-03 *1*2 G0 453 10/3/05 0.0 WA 

Northern Basin and Range 

pooled LODI 11,77,41,78,76 *1*2 G0 907 10/31/06 907 11/22/06 0.0 UT 

Penstemon acuminatus PEAC2 B4-02 *1*2 G0 102g Fall 2002 102g Fall 2002 0.0 ID Sharpleaf Penstemon PEAC2 B1-01 *2 G0 37g Fall 2002 37g Fall 2002 0.0 NV 
167

Table 1 cont. 2007 Update. Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) forb and grass seed acquisition, distribution, inventory, and 

germplasms included in the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project, UCIA Stock Seed Buyback Program. Previou

administered by UCIA.

Kind & Variety / Germplasm Lot/ Source 

Seed 

acquisition 

and 

production 

status 

Generation Added to Inventory Date Distributed from Inventory Date Inventory 12/31/2007 State distributed to 

Penstemon cyaneus PECY2 B6-02 *2 G0 968g Fall 2002 83g Fall 2002 0.0 ID Blue Penstemon PECY2 B6-02 *2 G0 685g Fall 2002 CO  PPI-04-1 *1*3 G1 3lb 1/6/05 3lb 9/16/05 0.0 ID 

2004.0448 *1*3 G1 16lb 2/2/05 16lb 2/2/05 0.0 CO 2006.0413 *1*3 G1 5lb 12/5/06 5lb 3/1/07 WY, ID Unknown *1*3 G1 ID 

Penstemon deustus PEDE B11-02 *1*2 G0 150g Fall 2002 150g Fall 2002 0.0 ID Hotrock Penstemon PEDE B10-02 *1*2 G0 123g Fall 2002 123g Fall 2002 0.0 OR 

PEDE G0 Fall 2007 250.0 UT 

Penstemon pachyphyllus PEPA2 U6-99 *1*2 G0 1020g Fall 2002 340g Fall 2002 0.0 OR Thickleaf Penstemon PEPA2 U6-99 *1*2 G0 340g Fall 2002 OR 

PEPA2 U6-99 *1*2 G0 340g Fall 2002 NV PEPA2 U6-99 *1*2 G0 340g Fall 2002 NV 

 PEPA PS-04 *3 G1 345g 11/30/04 0 345g *4 

A5-4-P1 *3 G1 50lb 6/7/05 4.6lb Fall 2005 38.0 UT A5-4-P1 *3 G1 7.3lb Fall 2005 ID 

Penstemon Palmerii 

CPP KL-05-1, GBRI 16 F 133lb 3/2/06 2.14lb 3/14/2006 88.5 WY 

Palmer Penstemon 

CPP KL-05-1, GBRI 16 F 9.7lb 3/14/2006 ID 

Cedar 

CPP KL-05-1, GBRI 16 F 32.2 11/2/2006 CO 

CPP KL-05-2, GBRI 26 F 4lb 3/24/06 CPP KL-05-3, GBRI 36 F 10lb 3/24/06 

Penstemon speciosus PENSPE1-BSE-03 *1*2 G0 92 4/15/04 82 4/16/04 0.0 UT Sagebrush Penstemon PENSPE1-BSE-03 *1*2 G0 N/A 4/15/04 10 4/16/04 UT 

PEN SPE KV-06 *1*3 G1 1360 12/6/06 1360.0 PEN SPE KV-07 *1*3 G1 *5 12/6/06 

Northern Basin and Range 

PEN SPE NBR USFS-07 *1*3 G0 3052 11/8/07 3052 11/8/07 0.0 UT 

Sphlaeralcea parvifolia SPGR U19-02 *2 G0 150g Fall 2002 150g Fall 2002 0.0 OR Small Flower Globemallow SPGR U13-01 *2 G0 150g Fall 2002 150g Fall 2002 0.0 OR 
168

Table 1 cont. 2007 Update. Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) forb and grass seed acquisition, distribution, inventory, and 

germplasms included in the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project, UCIA Stock Seed Buyback Program. Previou

administered by UCIA.

Kind & Variety / Germplasm Lot/ Source 

Seed 

acquisition 

and 

production 

status 

Generati

on Added to Inventory Date 

Distributed 

from 

Inventory Date 

Inventory 

12/31/2007 

State 

distributed 

to 

 S04-2-4 *3 G1 1.44lb 8/19/04 0 1.4 

SPGR PS-04 *3 G1 130g 11/30/04 0 130g *4 

subtotal 262.3 119.99 132.3 

GRASS bulk lbs. bulk lbs. bulk lbs. Sandberg Bluegrass 

Mountain Home Site 557-215-31A *3 G2 304.0 11/4/03 50.0 9/15/03 0.0 UT 

 557-215-31A *3 G2 135.0 2003-2005 ID  557-215-31A *3 G2 121.0 2003-2005 WA  557-215-31A *3 G2 1.5 4/25/05 WY  016-215-611A *3 G2 112.0 8/9/06 28.0 10/3/06 84.0 WA  Poa Sec01-BSE-06 *1 G0 6.5 9/10/06 6.5 9/11/06 0.0 WA 

Thurbers Needlegrass 

Orchard Idaho Site SSF-TH-05 *1*2 G1 1.0 1/5/06 1.0 

 2005.0394-1 *3 G1 13.0 1/5/06 13.0 4/17/06 0.0 WA  AchThu-BSE1-06 *1 G0 2.5 9/10/06 2.5 9/11/06 0.0 WA  Unknown G0 ID 

Basin Wildrye 

NBR -Utah sites UDWR *1*3 G1 17.0 8/15/07 17.0 8/15/07 0.0 WA 

 subtotal 456.0 374.5 85.0 

Total 

lbs. 718.3 494.5 217.3 

*1 Currently under Stock Seed Increase contract with grower/cooperators *2 Seed acquired at no charge from GBRI Cooperators *3 Cost of seed reimbursed to UCIA through USFS joint venture buy-back program agreement *4 Seed not certified, can be used for demonstration plots *5 Seed harvested and added to inventory but not conditioned 
169

Table 2. Standardized Market Price for Contract Negotiation, Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project-Utah Crop Improvement Association Buyback Program. 

 Feb. 2008 

Suggested 

Scientific Name Common Name Market Price 

Forbs 

Achillea millefolium Western yarrow $5.00 

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot $40.00 

Balsamorhiza sagittata Arrowleaf balsamroot $35.00 

Crepis acuminata Taper-tip hawksbeard $140.00 

Lomatium dissectum Giant lomatium (parsley or biscuitroot) $40.00 

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf lomatium $40.00 

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon $40.00 

Penstemon cyananthus Wasatch penstemon $40.00 

Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon $40.00 

Penstemon deustus Hot-rock penstemon $40.00 

Penstemon pachyphyllus Thickleaf penstemon $40.00 

Penstemon palmeri Palmer penstemon $25.00 

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro globemallow $60.00 

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberry-leaved globemallow $60.00 

Sphaeralcea parviflora Small-flower globemallow $60.00 

Tragopogon dubius Yellow salsify $30.00 

Grasses 

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber needlegrass $40.00 

Elymus elymoides Bottlebrush squirreltail $25.00 

Elymus elymoides Bottlebrush squirreltail $25.00 

Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass $12.00 
170

Project Title: Coordination of GBNPSIP Plant Materials Development, 

Seed Increase and Use

Project Location: Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, OR 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Berta Youtie 

 Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services Corporation 

 P.O. Box 606 

 Prineville, OR 97754 

 541.447.8166 

 byoutie@crestviewcable.com 

Project Description: 

This project will encourage private sector growers to produce GBNPSIP forbs and selected 

grasses. The principal investigator will act as a liaison between GPNPSIP and growers to verify 

that seeds and certification data are distributed, contracts are in place and payments are made in a 

timely manner. The PI will attend grower meeting to acquaint growers with GBNPSIP, identify 

grower concerns regarding the native seed industry and visit grower farms to suggest new native 

plant materials suitable for increase at each location. The PI will collaborate with BLM District 

Native Plant Materials Programs to conduct meetings and workshops to discuss methods of 

coordinating seed increase, purchasing to reduce grower risk, present success stories, discuss 

which species are already in production and which are still needed by ecoregion, and how to 

write contracts. A seed production database will be developed and distributed. Seed collections 

prioritized by seed zone will be made in SE Oregon and Northern Nevada. 

Management Applications: 

Increase production of GBNPSIP native species to be acquired by BLM for seed buys and used 

in restoration projects. Increase efficiency in seed selection and increase programs. Increase 

communications between GBNPSIP and native seed growers. 

Products: 

Future products will include: 

• Seed production database including plant materials by seed zones. 

• Increase in seed collections and distributions to growers. 

• Increase of native species in BLM buys. 

• Training sessions and workshops for BLM personnel. 

 
171

Appendix 1. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: Status of Research Species.  Great Basin Project Research Family Species Common Name 

Selection, seed 

increase, seed 

transfer 

guidelines

1

Shrub transfer 

guidelines 

Genetic variability 

Pollinators and 

predators 

Cultural practices 

Seed testing, 

conditioning 

AGCR 

diversification 

 Apiaceae 

Lomatium dissectum 

Fernleaf biscuitroot 

GSD-B, 

PMC-A GSD-P 

BBSL, 

CSU 

GSD-B, 

OSU 

GSD-B, 

NSL 

L. graveolens var. graveolens 

Stinking lomatium UDWR UDWR 

UDWR, 

NSL 

L. grayi Gray's biscuitroot 

GSD-B, 

PMC-A GSD-P BBSL 

GSD-B, 

OSU 

GSD-B, 

NSL 

L. leptocarpum 

Slender-fruit lomatium GSD-B GSD-B GSD-B 

L. triternatum

Nineleaf biscuitroot 

GSD-B, 

PMC-A BBSL 

GSD-B, 

OSU 

GSD-B, 

NSL 

Perideridia bolanderi 

Bolander’s yampah UDWR UDWR 

UDWR, 

NSL 

Asteraceae 

Achillea millefolium Western yarrow 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 

Agoseris aurantiaca Orange agoseris GSD-P GSD-P GSD-P A. glauca Pale agoseris GSD-P BYU 

GSD-P, 

BYU 

NSL, 

GSD-P 

A. grandiflora 

Bigflower agoseris 

GSD-P, 

GSD-B GSD-P GSD-P 

A. heterophylla Annual agoseris GSD-P GSD-P GSD-P A. tridentata wyomingensis 

Wyoming big sagebrush GSD-P GSD-P 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 

Balsamorhiza hookeri 

Hooker balsamroot UDWR UDWR NSL 

B. sagittata

Arrowleaf balsamroot UDWR GSD-P 

BBSL, 

CSU 

BYU, 

UDWR 

UDWR, 

NSL 

Chaenactis douglasii 

Douglas falseyarrow GSD-B NSL 
172

Appendix 1. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: Status of Research Species.  Great Basin Project Research Family Species Common Name 

Selection, seed 

increase, seed 

transfer 

guidelines

1

Shrub transfer 

guidelines 

Genetic variability 

Pollinators and 

predators 

Cultural practices 

Seed testing, 

conditioning 

AGCR 

diversification 

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus 

Yellow rabbitbrush 

Crepis acuminata 

Tapertip hawksbeard 

GSD-B, 

UDWR GSD-P 

BBSL, 

CSU, 

BYU 

UDWR, 

BYU, 

USU 

UDWR 

NSL 

C. intermedia 

Gray hawksbeard UDWR BYU UDWR UDWR 

C. occidentalis 

Western hawksbeard GSD-P NSL 

Enceliopsis nudicaulis 

Nakedstem sunray 

Ericameria nauseosus 

Rubber rabbitbrush GSD-P GSD-P 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 

Erigeron pumilus Shaggy fleabane GSD-P UDWR NSL Heliomeris multiflora 

Showy goldeneye GSD-P GSD-P 

Heterotheca villosa 

Hairy false goldenaster 

Machaeranthera canescens Hoary aster NSL Townsendia florifer 

Showy Townsend daisy GSD-B 

Wyethia amplexicaulis Mule-ears BYU 

Capparaceae 

Cleome lutea Yellow beeplant UDWR BBSL UDWR UDWR C. serrulata 

Rocky Mountain beeplant BBSL 

Chenopodiaceae 

Atriplex canescens 

Four-wing saltbush PMC-A GSD-P GSD-P 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 

A. confertifolia Shadscale GSD-P 
173

Appendix 1. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: Status of Research Species.  Great Basin Project Research Family Species Common Name 

Selection, seed 

increase, seed 

transfer 

guidelines

1

Shrub transfer 

guidelines 

Genetic variability 

Pollinators and 

predators 

Cultural practices 

Seed testing, 

conditioning 

AGCR 

diversification 

A. torreyi Torrey's saltbush GSD-P Krascheninnikovia lanata Winterfat PMC-A GSD-P 

Ephedraceae 

Ephedra viridis Mormon tea GSD-P 

Fabaceae 

Astragalus eremeticus Hermit milkvetch NSL A. filipes (A. stenophyllus) 

Threadstalk milkvetch FRRL FRRL 

BBSL, 

CSU 

FRRL, 

OSU, 

USU NSL 

A. utahensis Utah milkvetch GSD-P GSD-P 

GSD-P, 

BYU 

BYU, 

GSD-P 

Dalea ornata Prairie clover FRRL FRRL 

BBSL, 

CSU 

OSU, 

USU 

Hedysarum boreale 

Boreal sweetvetch 

FRRL, 

UDWR 

FRRL, 

GSD-P 

BBSL, 

CSU UDWR UDWR 

H. occidentale 

Western sweetvetch 

FRRL, 

UDWR FRRL UDWR UDWR 

Lathyrus brachycalyx Sweetpea GSD-P Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine GSD-P GSD-P GSD-P 

BYU, 

GSD-P 

L. argenteus Silvery lupine GSD-P GSD-P 

BBSL, 

CSU GSD-P GSD-P 

L. caudatus Tailcup lupine GSD-P GSD-P GSD-P GSD-P L. polyphyllus Bigleaf lupine GSD-P GSD-P GSD-P GSD-P Lupinus prunophilus 

Hairy bigleaf lupine GSD-P 

L. sericeus Silky lupine GSD-P GSD-P CSU 

GSD-P, 

BYU GSD-P 

Vicia americana American vetch GSD-P 

Liliaceae 

Allium acuminatum Tapertip onion ARS-P ARS-P ARS-P 

Linaceae 

Linum lewisii lewisii Lewis flax PMC-A GSD-P

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 
174

Appendix 1. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: Status of Research Species.  Great Basin Project Research Family Species Common Name 

Selection, seed 

increase, seed 

transfer 

guidelines

1

Shrub transfer 

guidelines 

Genetic variability 

Pollinators and 

predators 

Cultural practices 

Seed testing, 

conditioning 

AGCR 

diversification 

L. perenne Blue flax GSD-P 

Malvaceae 

Sphaeralcea spp. Globemallow S. coccinea 

Scarlet globemallow UDWR CSU 

UDWR, 

BYU, 

OSU UDWR 

S. grossulariifolia 

Gooseberryleaf globemallow UDWR 

GSD-P, 

FRRL BBSL 

UDWR, 

BYU, 

OSU UDWR 

S. munroana 

Munro's globemallow FRRL FRRL BBSL NSL 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 

S. parvifolia 

Small-flower globemallow UDWR 

OSU, 

UDWR UDWR 

Poaceae 

Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass 

FRRL, 

ARS-P 

GSD-P, 

FRRL, 

ARS-P ARS-P 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 

A. thurberianum 

Thurber’s needlegrass GSD-B FRRL 

Agropyron cristatum 

Crested wheatgrass 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

PMC-A, 

UNR, TR 

A. desertorum 

Desert wheatgrass 

Aristida purpurea Purple threeawn UDWR Bromus carinatus California brome GSD-P B. marginatus Mountain brome GSD-P CSU Elymus elymoides Squirreltail grass FRRL FRRL 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 

E. elymoides brevifolia 

Bottlebrush squirreltail FRRL FRRL 
175

Appendix 1. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: Status of Research Species.  Great Basin Project Research Family Species Common Name 

Selection, seed 

increase, seed 

transfer 

guidelines

1

Shrub transfer 

guidelines 

Genetic variability 

Pollinators and 

predators 

Cultural practices 

Seed testing, 

conditioning 

AGCR 

diversification 

E. multisetus Big squirreltail FRRL FRRL E. wawawaiensis 

Snake River wheatgrass FRRL FRRL 

Hesperostipa comata 

Needle-and thread grass 

UDWR, 

GSD-P, 

FRRL 

GSD-P, 

FRRL 

UDWR, 

GSD-P 

BYU, 

UDWR, 

GSD-P 

Leymus cinereus Basin wildrye 

UDWR, 

FRRL FRRL CSU UDWR 

L. salinus Saline wildrye L. triticoides 

Beardless wildrye FRRL FRRL 

Nassella viridula 

Green needlegrass 

Pascopyrum smithii 

Western wheatgrass FRRL FRRL 

Pleuraphis jamesii James’ galleta UDWR Poa fendleriana Muttongrass UDWR UDWR P. secunda 

Sandberg bluegrass FRRL FRRL 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 

Pseudoroegneria spicata 

Bluebunch wheatgrass 

UDWR, 

GSD-B, 

FRRL, 

ARS-P, 

PMC-A 

PNW, FRRL

GSD-B, 

ARS-P ARS-P 

BYU, 

EOARC, 

TR 

Sporobolus airoides Alkali sacaton 

Polemoniaceae 

P. longifolia Longleaf phlox GSD-P GSD-P 

GSD-P, 

BYU GSD-P 

Polygonaceae 

Eriogonum heracleoides 

Wyeth buckwheat NSL 

E. ovalifolium 

Cushion buckwheat UDWR 

UDWR, 

BYU 

UDWR, 

NSL 
176

Appendix 1. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: Status of Research Species.  Great Basin Project Research Family Species Common Name 

Selection, seed 

increase, seed 

transfer 

guidelines

1

Shrub transfer 

guidelines 

Genetic variability 

Pollinators and 

predators 

Cultural practices 

Seed testing, 

conditioning 

AGCR 

diversification 

E. sphaerocephalum Rock buckwheat GSD-B E. umbellatum 

Sulfur-flower buckwheat 

GSD-B, 

PMC-A GSD-P 

BBSL, 

CSU 

OSU, 

GSD-B 

GSD-B, 

NSL 

Rosaceae 

Amelanchier alnifolia 

Saskatoon serviceberry 

Purshia tridentata Bitterbrush GSD-P GSD-P 

Scrophulariaceae 

Penstemon acuminatus 

Sharpleaf penstemon 

GSD-B, 

PMC-A GSD-P CSU 

GSD-B, 

OSU 

GSD-B, 

NSL, 

OSU 

P. cyaneus Blue penstemon P. deustus 

Scabland penstemon 

GSD-B, 

PMC-A GSD-P 

GSD-B, 

OSU 

GSD-B, 

NSL, 

OSU 

P. pachyphyllus 

Thickleaf penstemon 

P. palmeri 

Palmer penstemon GSD-P 

P. speciosus Royal penstemon 

GSD-B, 

PMC-A GSD-P 

BBSL, 

CSU 

GSD-B, 

OSU 

GSD-B, 

NSL, 

OSU 

P. strictus 

Rocky Mountain penstemon 

ARS-P = ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA (Johnson, Hellier) BBSL = USDA-ARS Bee Biology and Systematics Laboratory (Cane) 

BSU = Boise State University, Boise, ID (Serpe) BYU = Brigham Young University (Anderson, Roundy, Johnson, Jessop, Geary) CSU = Colorado State University, Cooperative Extension, Tri-River Area (Hammon) 
177

EOARC = USDA-ARS Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center (Mangold, James) FRRL = USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Laboratory (Johnson, Monaco) GBRI = Great Basin Restoration Initiative (Pellant) GSD-B = USDA-FS-RMRS GraGSDand, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program - Boise (Shaw, Cox)

GSD-P = USDA-FS-RMRS GraGSDand, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program - Provo (McArthur, Jensen, SanderMSU = Montana State University, Bozeman, MT (Zabinski) NSL = National Seed Laboratory (Karrfalt, Vankus) OSU = Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station (Shock, Feibert, Johnson) PMC-A = Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID (St. John, Ogle) PMC-GB = Natural Resources Conservation Service, Great Basin Plant Materials Center, Fallon, ID (Perkins) PNW = USDA-FS-Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR (St.Clair) TR = Truax Company, Inc. (Truax) UCIA = Utah Crop Improvement Association (Young, Bouck) UDWR = Utah Division of Wildlife Resources (Vernon, Meyer, Summers) UNR = University of Nevada, Reno, NV (McAdoo) USGS = USGS Biological Research Division, Corvallis, OR (Pyke) USU = Utah State University (Ransom, Edvarchuck) Notes:1. Seed zones - Atriplex, Artemisia, and Purshia were identified in the original Task Order (McArthur and Sanderson research). Pl

will contribute to seed transfer guidelines for the remaining species. 

2. Crested wheatgrass diversification: studies.