ii

GREAT BASIN NATIVE PLANT 

SELECTION AND INCREASE PROJECT

2011 PROGRESS REPORT

USDA FOREST SERVICE, ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION 

AND USDI BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT, BOISE, ID

APRIL 2012

 

COOPERATORS

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Great Basin Restoration Initiative, Boise, ID

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Plant Conservation Program, Washington, DC

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program, Boise, ID and Provo, UT

Boise State University, Boise, ID

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT

Colorado State University Cooperative Extension, Tri-River Area, Grand Junction, CO

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, OR

Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR 

Private Seed Industry 

Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX

Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, MN

University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

University of Idaho Parma Research and Extension Center, Parma, ID

University of Nevada, Reno, NV

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, Elko and Reno, NV

University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY

Utah State University, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bee Biology and Systematics Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID

USDA Forest Service, National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA 

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR

US Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Boise, ID

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, UT

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Logan, UT
iii

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project

2011 Progress Report

The Interagency native Plant Materials Development Program outlined in the 2002 Report to 

Congress (USDI and USDA 2002), USDI Bureau of Land Management programs and policies, and 

the Great Basin Restoration Initiative encourage the use of native species for rangeland rehabilitation 

and restoration where feasible. This project was initiated to foster the development of native plant 

materials for use in the Great Basin and to provide information that will be useful to managers when 

making decisions about selecting appropriate plant materials for seedings. A second major objective 

is to provide the equipment and techniques required for reestablishing diverse native communities. 

Research priorities include: 1) increased understanding of genetic variability in native plant species 

under consideration for use in revegetation; 2) development of seed transfer zones to provide native 

plant materials adapted to major bio-geographic areas of the Great Basin; 3) improved availability of 

native plant seed; 4) development of seed technology and cultural practices required for agricultural 

seed increase of native forbs and grasses; 5) native pollinator management for native seed production 

and investigation of post-wildfire pollinator recovery; 6) provision for in situ and ex situ 

conservation of important populations; 7) management or re-establishment of wildland shrub stands 

to improve seed availability and conserve native populations; 8) investigation of the biology of native 

forbs, emphasizing seed germination and seedling establishment; 9) assessment of interactions 

among restoration species and between restoration species and invasive exotics; 10) evaluation of 

rangeland drills and strategies for establishing diverse native communities; and 11) science delivery. 

We thank our collaborators for their expertise and the in-kind contributions of their agencies that 

have made it possible to address many of the issues involved in native plant materials development 

and use. We especially thank Erin Denney for her patience in formatting and compiling the report. 

We also thank Jan Gurr and Matt Fisk for assisting with completion of the report.

Nancy Shaw Mike Pellant

USDA Forest Service USDI Bureau of Land Management

Rocky Mountain Research Station Great Basin Restoration Initiative

Boise, ID Boise, ID

nshaw@fs.fed.us Michael_Pellant@blm.gov

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project:

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml

Great Basin Restoration Initiative:

http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/prog/gbri.html

The results in this report should be considered preliminary in nature and should not be quoted or cited without 

the written consent of the Principal Investigator for the study.

The use of trade or firm names in this report is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture or U.S. Department of the Interior of any product or service.

The USDA and USDI are equal opportunity providers and employers.
2011 Highlights

iv

NATIONAL AWARD RECIPIENT

The Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project received the Joint USDI Bureau of Land 

Management/USDA Forest Service Conservation Partner Award, which was presented at the North 

American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference in Atlanta, Georgia. This annual award 

recognizes an organization or individual representing a conservation organization for their outstanding 

leadership in the development and implementation of conservation programs and activities that have 

directly benefited fish, wildlife, and/or plants on public lands or their use, enjoyment, and appreciation.

GENETICS, COMMON GARDENS, AND SEED ZONES

Adapted Thurber’s needlegrass for the Great Basin

Elizabeth Leger and Richard Johnson

 Seedlings of Thurber’s needlegrass, grown from seed collected primarily from the Oregon, 

Idaho and Nevada regions of the Great Basin, were transported to the University of Nevada, 

Reno in the fall of 2011 and transplanted into a common garden; measurement of plant traits will 

begin in spring 2012.

 Analysis of the variation in plant traits will be used to map seed transfer zones for Thurber’s 

needlegrass in the Great Basin.

Genetic diversity and genecology of bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata)

Brad St. Clair, Richard Johnson, and Nancy Shaw

 Bluebunch wheatgrass populations differ substantially for traits of growth, reproduction, leaf 

morphology, and floral phenology.

 Moderate correlations of population means with the climates of seed sources suggest that

presence of adaptively significant genetic variation that should be considered when moving 

populations in restoration projects.

 Geographic genetic variation is mapped based on the relationships between traits and climate, 

and seed zones are delineated that guide the choice of adapted populations for revegetation and 

restoration of grasslands in the interior Pacific Northwest and Great Basin.

Conservation, adaptation and seed zones for key Great Basin species

Richard Johnson, Mike Cashman, and Ken Vance-Borland

 Proposed seed zones for Indian ricegrass germplasm, representing the southern and eastern 

Central Basin and Range across to the Southwestern Tablelands ecoregions, were completed 

based on data collected from common garden studies established in 2007.

 Germplasm collection for Sandberg bluegrass and Basin wildrye was completed across the Great 

Basin. Seeds from each location were germinated, grown under greenhouse conditions, and 

transplanted to common garden sites.

 The Sandberg bluegrass gardens were established in 2008; data was collected in 2009 and 2010. 

Analyses so far indicate strong differences among plants from different locations indicating 

strong genetic variation.

 Common gardens of basin wildrye were established in 2010; data collection for phenology, 

production, and morphological traits was completed in 2011 and will continue in 2012 and 2013.
2011 Highlights 

v

Ecological genetics of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata): Genetic structure and climate-based seed 

zone mapping

Bryce Richardson, Nancy Shaw, and Joshua Udall

 Phylogenetic analyses of 24 genes (12,000 base pairs of DNA sequence) suggest diploid 

Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana and Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata are distinct 

(monophyletic) subspecies.

 Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis is not a monophyletic subspecies, originating from 

different diploid lineages of Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata and vaseyana.

 Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis is a tetraploid complex with varying affinities to diploid 

Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata and vaseyana.

 Tetraploid lineages are likely formed locally or regionally from nearby populations of diploid 

Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata and vaseyana.

Selecting sagebrush seed sources for restoration in a variable climate: Ecophysical variation among 

genotypes

Matt Germino

 Physiological fitness of different seed sources for big sagebrush restoration is under evaluation, 

utilizing common gardens previously established for the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project. The results will fill a key data gap for development of climatic seed-transfer 

zones.

 Preliminary data suggest that the populations (seed sources) differ appreciably in 1) water status 

and associated photosynthetic carbon gain and growth at midsummer, and 2) physiological 

tolerance of freezing during wintertime. 

 We anticipate that further analysis of the data will reveal that selection for rapid initial growth 

appears to confer stress resistance and establishment success, in contrast to the traditional view 

of a tradeoff between growth potential and stress resistance in plant adaptive strategies.

 Via collaboration, we are determining how physiological performance can distinguish genetic 

variation, and how the ecophysiological fitness compares with palatability and herbivoredefense compounds. 

SEED BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

Globemallow and sagebrush performance under varying conditions

Anthony Davis

 Sagebrush 

 Overwinter storage of big sagebrush seedlings can be done in a cooler (2 to 4°C); however, 

further study is needed to determine the optimal hardening regimes and lifting dates for freezer 

storage (0 to -2°C).

 Two experiments were conducted to evaluate physiological and morphological variation in 

Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings grown from 5 accessions within the current range of this 

subspecies

Globemallow

 Sphaeralcea munroana seeds are physically dormant, possess a water gap responsible for water 

uptake, and dormancy is best relieved by mechanical (93%) or boiling water (49%) 

scarification. 
2011 Highlights 

vi

 Gibberellic acid application, stratification, or the combination of stratification and scarification 

failed to enhance germination compared with scarification alone, indicating an absence of 

additional dormancy types. 

 This perennial, cool-season forb shows considerable potential for restoration use on arid sites, 

but it may not be the best candidate for early competition with cool season grasses during its 

establishment phase. 

 Early growth is hindered by cool temperatures; thus, a later sowing date may improve 

establishment in nurseries, seed production areas, and restoration sites.

Development of germination, seed weight, purity, and seed conditioning/cleaning protocols for Great 

Basin grasses and forbs

Robert Karrfalt and Victor Vankus

 Wyoming big sagebrush seed can be stored for 5 years without loss of viability if it is cleaned 

to a high purity, equilibrated in an atmosphere of 30% relative humidity, sealed in moisture 

proof containers, and frozen at -20oC. This finding means sagebrush seed can be banked for at 

least 5 years so that it is readily available for restoration. 

 Using the principles of equilibrium relative humidity, and measuring it using inexpensive 

electronic hygrometers, seed moisture can be managed for maintaining highest seed viabilities 

at all stages of seed handling from harvest to long-term storage. 

 Germination conditions were tested for 31 species. A table of preliminary estimates of best 

germination temperatures was prepared.

SEED AND SEEDLING ECOLOGY

Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species

Bruce Roundy and Kert Young

 Using a thermal accumulation model to predict seedling root growth would allow for the 

assessment of the potential for seedlings to survive under a range of field conditions and 

possibly suggest opportunities for plant improvement.

 We have conducted all six of the constant temperature runs and all three of the diurnal 

temperature runs in the growth chamber. As expected, cheatgrass roots grew the fastest at cool 

temperatures. However, the crested wheatgrasses and Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass definitely 

grew well enough to compete with cheatgrass. What appears to be a major concern for 

successful establishment of forbs is the lack of robust plants. Occurrence of some vigorous forb 

plants indicates potential for plant improvement. Such plant improvement work could 

potentially increase forb establishment success.

 We have conducted the field root trials at both the BYU campus and the east side of Onaqui 

Mountain for two years. We are currently analyzing these data.

Diversity of mycorrhizal fungi associated with Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis

Marcelo Serpe

 The major goal of this study is to identify arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) species that 

colonize Wyoming big sagebrush and begin to characterize the overall diversity of AMF 

species in sagebrush habitats of southwestern Idaho. 

 At present it is not clear whether the phylotypes that we identified in sagebrush habitats are 
2011 Highlights 

vii

present in commercial inoculums. Thus, we do not recommend the use of commercial inoculum 

until more is known about the phylotypes they contain and their effects on sagebrush 

establishment.

 We have begun to generate monospecific cultures of native mycorrhizae with the goal of testing 

their usefulness in restoration projects. 

PLANT MATERIALS AND CULTURAL PRACTICES

Developing protocols for maximizing establishment of two Great Basin legume species

Douglas Johnson and Shaun Bushman

 Hardseededness is a feature that often limits rapid, uniform germination in legume species. We 

conducted a greenhouse study to determine the influence of seed scarification and

seeding depth on the germination and emergence of six seed lots. Scarification greatly 

improved emergence in both western and Searls’ prairie clover, but much less so for basalt 

milkvetch.

 Based on the results of the greenhouse experiments, actual field seeding studies were 

established at three locations in 2011. Establishment data will be collected for two years postplanting, but sites will be kept to allow for long-term observation.

 Two natural-track selected germplasms of western prairie clover (Dalea ornata) were released 

in 2011 for use in revegetation of semiarid rangelands in the western USA.

Great Basin native plant materials development and cultivation

Jason Stettler and Alison Whittaker

 We continued cultivation research on native lupine plots established in 2007 and report the 

three-year harvest trend data for three Lupinus species.

 In 2011, we maintained dense beds of Balsamorhiza and Crepis species planted in 2009 and 

2010, as well as an additional 26 beds planted in 2011. In 2012, the original beds planted will 

be ready for a proposed transplant study. 

 We planted a total of 59 sources of ten native forb species at two farms for stock seed 

production.

 The purpose of the common garden established at the Desert Experimental Range was to 

observe survival in hot dry conditions. In 2011 we collected the second year survival data on 

four Sphaeralcea species, and compared the seed source climates with survival.

 Due to the extremely low seed yields and low seed viability observed in 2010 and 2011 in the 

Eriogonum ovalifolium common garden, we have purchased pollination cages to attempt to 

increase both seed yield and viability. We will be setting up a pollination study in 2012 where 

we will be force pollinating one replicate of each accession. We will plant increase plots in the 

fall of 2012.

 We collected establishment and germination data from first and second year plots of the forb 

island study designed to compare the germination and establishment of seeded species on 

rangeland plots covered with N-sulate fabric and plots left uncovered. In general the plots 

covered with N-sulate fabric had higher germination than the plots that were left uncovered.

 Using the Provisional Seed Zone map and historic fire and land treatment GIS records from the 

last three decades to map wildfires and seeded areas; we identified four zones in each Great 

Basin partition that, based on acreage of disturbance, would warrant adequate quantities of seed 
2011 Highlights 

viii

for restoration. We made these four zones our priorities to produce plant materials that will be 

adapted to areas being burned and reseeded.

 A Microsoft® Access database was created which houses all related soil analysis, seed viability 

analysis, seed allocations, seed increase, and location data for our seed collections. This was a 

collaborative effort between Jason Stettler of the Great Basin Research Center and Forest 

Service botanist Scott Jensen of the Provo Shrub Sciences Lab, and is a combination of all 

records for these two researchers. We will further develop the database to be used in keeping 

farming treatment records, herbaria searches, and germination and increase data. This will assist 

in species distribution studies, collecting seed from new sources, and farm management.

Applying provisional seed zones to Great Basin forb production, and cultural practice notes

Scott Jensen and Jason Stettler

 A GIS analysis of the Western Fire Map, the seedings layer from the Land Treatment Digital 

Library and the Great Basin Provisional Seed Zone map provides an historic seed demand 

perspective and functions as a tool to prioritize plant materials work based on highly impacted 

zones. 

 For the northern Great Basin, projected demand for forb seed for the preceding two consecutive 

5-year periods 2000-2004, 2005-2010 in provisional seed zone 5 was in excess of 340,000 

pounds. In zones 2, 6 and 8 projected demand during the same time interval was in excess of 

24,000 pounds. The remaining 6 zones required less than 10,000 pounds during at least one of 

the 5-year periods.

 For the central Great Basin, provisional seed zone 5 has the highest projected forb demand and 

projected demand for zones 6, 2, and 7 all exceed 10,000 pounds for the preceding two 5-year 

intervals.

 Pooled source provisional seed zone releases are projected to be available for distribution to the 

private seed industry according to the following schedule:

Ipomopsis aggregata CBR Zone 6 2013

Ipomopsis macrosiphon CBR Zone 6 2012

Lomatium nudicaule CBR Zone 5 2015

Lomatium nudicaule CBR Zone 6 2015

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis CBR Zone 5 2012

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis CBR Zone 6 2012

Enceliopsis nudicaulis CBR Zone 2 2013

Enceliopsis nudicaulis CBR Zone 5 2013

Penstemon pachyphyllus CBR Zone 5 2012

Penstemon pachyphyllus CBR Zone 6 2012

Cooperative work between the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project and the 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

Loren St. John and Derek Tilley

 Plant Guides were completed for royal penstemon, hotrock penstemon, sharpleaf penstemon, 

fernleaf biscuitroot, nineleaf biscuitroot, Gray’s biscuitroot, Douglas’ dusty maiden, and hoary 

tansyaster.

 Propagation Protocols were completed for Douglas’ dusty maiden, hoary tansyaster, nineleaf 

biscuitroot, fernleaf biscuitroot, Gray’s biscuitroot, and Searls’ prairie clover.
2011 Highlights 

ix

 Early generation Certified seed of hoary tansyaster and Douglas’ dusty maiden is being 

produced and will be available through Utah Crop Improvement Association and University of 

Idaho Foundation Seed Program when release is approved.

Identification of herbicides for use in native forb seed production

Corey Ransom

 Field trials of basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) and western prairie clover (Dalea ornata)

were planted in fall 2010 and early summer 2011, respectively. Post-emergence herbicide 

treatments were applied summer 2011. Field plots treated with 2,4-DB demonstrated little 

herbicide injury on established basalt milkvetch, but also did not control perennial sowthistle. 

Overall, trials demonstrated that basalt milkvetch and western prairie clover are relatively 

tolerant to post-emergence herbicides.

 A trial was established to evaluate the effects of pre-emergence herbicides on western prairie 

clover germination and establishment in late summer 2011. While injury symptoms were 

visible on small plants in plots treated with pendimethalin, dimthenamid-p and ethofumesate, 

small plant size prevented overall injury ratings. Spring 2012 evaluations will document if 

seedling injury from pre-emergence herbicides causes increased mortality over the winter. 

Further testing is needed to determine possible herbicide effects on seed yields and viability and 

to verify crop safety. 

 

Seed production of Great Basin native forbs – Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) 2006-2011 results, 

2011 new plantings; Seeding practices; Legume seed scarification

Clint Shock, Erik Feibert, Lamont Saunders, Cheryl Parris, Nancy Shaw, Doug Johnson, 

and Shaun Bushman

 Continued research on irrigation requirements of eight species planted in 2005; started research 

on irrigation requirements of eight species planted in 2009. 

 Many forb species had no positive seed yield response to irrigation in 2011 due to unusually 

abundant snow pack and spring rain. Seed yield of the species Lomatium triternatum, Lomatium 

dissectum, and Cleome serrulata responded to irrigation in spite of substantial precipitation.

 Continued research on seeding practices for establishment of six species. Row cover was very 

beneficial for forb stand establishment for forb seed production. Emerging seedlings were 

protected from bird predation, a possible reason for the large increase in plant stands.

 Started evaluation of seed scarification for establishment of three legume species. Legume seed 

scarification was detrimental for stand establishment of fall planted Dalea species and 

beneficial for fall planted Astragalus filipes.

Etiology, epidemiology and management of diseases of native wildflower seed

Ram Sampangi, Krishna Mohan, and Clint Shock

 Several diseases (leaf spots, blights, rusts, wilts and powdery mildews) were recorded on forbs. 

 Arid conditions prevailing in the Pacific Northwest are favorable for the powdery mildew 

disease cycle. 
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SEED INCREASE

Stock seed production of native plants for the Great Basin 

Stanford Young and Michael Bouck

 For most of the species being studied by GBNPSIP cooperators, wildland seed collection is 

insufficient to provide for reclamation planting needs. Thus, accessions consisting of limited 

quantities of seed obtained from defined wildland stands, or pooled from defined geographic 

areas, must be increased in commercial fields or nurseries in order to be available in the 

marketplace in sufficient quantities to supply reclamation projects of the scope called for in the 

Great Basin. 

 The UCIA Buy-Back project provides a bridge between small-quantity initial accessions and 

commercial marketplace production, by working with specialized growers who are willing to 

provide land, time, and expertise to produce increased amounts of stock seed from the former, 

and with UCIA facilitation, makes it available for the latter.

 The seed market status of 6 grasses and 28 forbs that have been forwarded to growers under the 

auspices of the GBNPSIP, 2002-2011.

Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials development, seed increase and use

Berta Youtie

 EOSS made 32 research seed collections from three species; Eriogonum umbellatum, 

Chaenactis douglasii and Machaeranthera canescens for ARS genetic study.

 EOSS made 27 seed collections from 13 species for GBNPSIP to conduct research or pass on to 

native seed growers.

 EOSS inspected several forb seed fields in Eastern Washington growing seed for GBNPSIP 

research and eventually commercial production.

Cultural thinning of native sagebrush stand to increase seed yields

Brad Geary

 Plots recovered from 2010 treatments and we were able to collect seed yield data.

 At one research site, mechanical killing significantly increased seed yield among treatments. 

However, these yields were not significantly different than the controls, which would suggest 

the effort and resources to eliminate the competing sagebrush may not be worth while for seed 

increase.

 Plant understory was evaluated during 2011 and approximately 39 different species were 

identified. Treatment effects on the sagebrush have changed the understory plant populations. 

Cheatgrass had the highest frequency of all understory species at both locations. It might be 

recommended that areas treated to eliminate sagebrush be seeded with another plant(s) to 

minimize cheatgrass growth.

Insect pests of grass and forb seed production

Bob Hammon

 Contributed Insect Management of Native Seed Production Fields presentation at the Native 

Plant Seed Production Field Day at the Oregon State University, Malheur Agricultural 

Experiment Station, Ontario, OR, May 12, 2011.
2011 Highlights 

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 Submitted six documents for review as Colorado State University Technical Notes:

▫ Insects affecting fourwing saltbush

▫ Pests of Utah sweetvetch

▫ Insects affecting mountain mahogany

▫ Insects affecting penstemon seed production

▫ Managing Lygus in forb seed production

▫ Insects affecting globemallow seed production

HORTICULTURAL USES OF NATIVE PLANTS

Adaptation of Roundleaf buffaloberry (Shepherdia rotundifolia) to urban landscapes

Heidi Kratsch, Chalita Sriladda, and Roger Kjelgren

 Roundleaf buffaloberry (Shepherdia rotundifolia) is extremely drought tolerant and shows 

ornamental traits that make it an attractive candidate for use in urban home and commercial 

landscapes. However, the species is difficult to keep alive in culture and is known to be shortlived in irrigated ornamental landscapes. Silver buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea) is widely 

distributed in riparian areas throughout the West and is common in naturalized designed 

landscapes in the Great Basin region. We performed reciprocal crosses of S. rotundifolia with S. 

argentea and obtained a successful hybrid with intermediate leaf characters.

 The interspecific hybrid between S. rotundifolia and S. argentea may be better adapted to and 

more acceptable in urban landscapes than either species alone.

SPECIES INTERACTIONS

The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of invaded rangelands

Keirith Snyder, Elizabeth Leger, and Erin Goergen

 Some native forbs such as Amsinckia tessellata and A. intermedia, show promise as good 

competitors against Bromus tectorum.

 The presence of certain native annual forbs, such as Mentzelia veatchiana, can enhance the 

establishment and restoration of native perennial grasses, such as Elymus multisetus, in B. 

tectorum invaded rangelands.

 The presence of native annual forbs provides a positive, indirect effect that promotes 

establishment of E. multisetus in the presence of B. tectorum.

CRESTED WHEATGRASS DIVERSIFICATION

Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested wheatgrass seedings

Kent McAdoo

 In 2010, density of seeded native grasses was highest in plots that received the combination of 

disking+spring glyphosate treatment, significantly greater than that of disk-treated plots, but not 

significantly different than either the spring-treated glyphosate plots or the spring+fall-applied 

glyphosate plots. Forb densities were highest in the disk+glyphosate plots. For all seeded 

species combined, the spring+fall-applied glyphosate treatment and disk+glyphosate treatment 
2011 Highlights

xii

produced significantly higher seeded species densities than the disked only treatment.

 Data analysis is currently in progress for data collected in 2011. We noted an obvious increase 

in exotic annual forbs during the 2011 growing season, especially tansy mustard (Sisymbrium 

altissimum).

 We conducted a field tour on July 7, 2011 to look at results of applying crested wheatgrass 

reduction methodologies and seeding native species.

The ecology of native forb establishment in crested wheatgrass stands: A holistic approach

Jeremy James

 Initial demographic work on seeded mixtures of forbs and grasses show that the majority of 

seeded individuals germinate (> 60%) but less than 10% of these individuals emerge following 

germination; meaning up to 90% of the seeded plant material dies before seedlings emerge 

from the soil surface.

 Up to 60-80% of commonly seeded native grasses and forbs germinate in the field but only 2-

10% of these germinated seeds emerge from the soil surface.

 In contrast, for introduced species like crested wheatgrass, 20-40% of germinated seeds 

successfully emerge. This is the main reason why introduced species have higher stand 

establishment than natives.

 Current research is examining the mechanisms behind these native plant recruitment 

bottlenecks and identifying management strategies to overcome these limitations. 

Recruitment of native vegetation into crested wheatgrass seedings and the influence of crested 

wheatgrass on native vegetation

Kirk Davies and Aleta Nafus

 Over a 13-year period, crested wheatgrass density increased 12-fold while most native 

bunchgrass density decreased or remained the same 

 This suggests that, when seeded together, crested wheatgrass recruits new individuals into the 

plant community, while native perennial bunchgrasses do not and that crested wheatgrass may 

be displacing some of the native perennial bunchgrasses. 

WILDFIRES, RESTORATION STRATEGIES AND EQUIPMENT

Revegetation Equipment Catalog website maintenance

Robert Cox

 During 2011, the Revegetation Equipment Catalog website was updated with all links checked 

and corrected. During 2012, the website will be fully transferred to Texas Tech, and the 

mirroring site at Texas A&M will be removed.

Evaluation of imazapic rates and forb planting times on native forb establishment

Corey Ransom 

 In 2011, few plants remained at the Nephi research location and plots at that location were 

abandoned. Additional efforts to establish Astragalus filipes and Dalea ornata in the greenhouse 

trials were unsuccessful. Based on field trials it appears that scarification and stratification will 

be required to achieve uniform Astragalus filipes germination, while scarification alone appears 

to greatly improve Dalea ornata germination. 
2011 Highlights 

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 Preliminary trials evaluating annual grass germination and growth in response to imazapic in 

petri-dish assays compared to trials conducted with soil filled pots shows that responses differ 

significantly between the two systems and that petri-dish assays will not likely be useful in 

predicting forb response to imazapic in the field.

 In 2012, a new research location will be established near Logan, Utah and core treatments will 

be applied in the spring and the fall.

Smoke-induced germination of Great Basin native forbs

Robert Cox

 An extensive literature search is being conducted for all known smoke effects on as many Great 

Basin native forb species as possible.

 Based on smoke-response, species will be prioritized for further population-based testing.

 Our aim is to develop smoke-induced germination protocols for Great Basin restoration species.

Pollination and breeding biology studies

James Cane

 In burns of even degraded sage-steppe plant communities across the northern Basin and Range 

province, our samples show that bee communities are clearly emerging well within the fire 

perimeter during the spring after the fire. In the weeks following a massive fire, they continued 

to forage and nest wherever their host plants continue to flower, even miles into the burn where 

they are clearly resident. Bloom will be needed by resident bee faunas in the year following 

wildfire, either recovering resident species or newly seeded populations. 

Development of seeding equipment for establishing diverse native communities

James Truax

 The evolution of the Roughrider continued during 2011; effort was focused primarily on three 

areas: durability, shock absorption, and variable planting depth. 

 Research and design changes have shown that by changing the stroke control configuration it is 

possible to provide down forces on the planter assemblies, while at the same time allowing 

individual planters to flex upward without having to lift the entire machine mass.

 The depth control gage wheels were removed from a Roughrider when planting several plots 

outside Mountain Home, ID in the late fall of 2010 which allowed the seed furrow to be 

increased to 1-1/2” to 2” compared to the 1/2” to 1” with the gage wheels installed. 

Influence of post-fire treatments on exotic, native residual and seeded species production at the 

Scooby wildfire site in Northern Utah, 2010

Megan Taylor, Ann Hild, Urszula Norton and Nancy Shaw

 Exotic production, primarily Russian thistle, halogeton, and cheatgrass, was greatest in the 

undisturbed/unseeded controls and was at least five times as great as the exotic biomass in 

seeded treatments. Russian thistle and cheatgrass weights were much lower in seeded 

treatments than the three controls. 

 Native grass production (seeded and residual native grasses together) was greater in seeded 

treatments than in controls. Grass seedings effectively reduced productivity of both cheatgrass 

and Russian thistle at the Scooby site.

 In the absence of seeding, soil disturbance with empty drills (meant to replicate a failed 

seeding) appears to enhance recruitment of residual forbs and Russian thistle relative to 
2011 Highlights 

xiv

undisturbed controls.

 Our data demonstrates that native grasses and forb seedings can effectively reduce the 

production of annual forb and exotic species following wildfire. Because annuals (especially 

exotic annuals), can produce large numbers of seeds when they are not challenged by 

competitive neighbors, it is critical to use post-fire reseeding to limit their success. Managers 

may be enticed to seed non-native species to dominate sites subjected to wildfire because they 

are sometimes thought to be more effective competitors than native species. These results 

indicate natives can provide a strong competitive environment to limit exotic annual 

production.

Native plant selection and restoration strategies

Nancy Shaw, Matthew Fisk, Erin Denney, Jan Gurr, Alexis Malcomb, and Robert Cox

 Plant Materials 

 Seventy-eight collections of 22 species were made with the assistance of two Job Corps interns. 

Samples of 46 collections were distributed to the USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station via the Seeds of Success Program. Stock seed of Eagle germplasm western 

yarrow was provided to the Utah Crop Improvement Association for distribution to growers. 

Stock seed of four species was provided to growers for commercial production via the Utah 

Crop Improvement Association. Two species are being increased at the Lucky Peak Nursery. 

Sixteen collections and two seed mixes were distributed to cooperators and other users. 

Post-fire Native Seedings 

 Fifth year results from a Wyoming big sagebrush site in northern Nevada: Emergence of a 

broadcast (small-seeded) mix was enhanced when seeded through a minimum-till drill and 

pressed into the soil with imprinter units rather than broadcast with a standard rangeland drill. 

Emergence of the drill (large-seeded) mix was similar with both drills. After 5 years density of 

drilled, but not broadcast species was generally greater on seeded plots. Thus, the minimum-till 

drill may provide better emergence, but subsequent survival is dependent upon environmental 

conditions. In the fifth year there was also a tendency toward reduced basal gap lengths in 

seeded treatments, indicating a potential reduction in water erosion risk. 

 Equipment and strategies for post-fire establishment of native species in sagebrush shrublands –

Scooby and Saylor Creek seedings: 

▫ Selection of clean seedbeds was reflected in low densities of cheatgrass at both locations 

in the first year following seeding, minimizing competition with seeded species and 

recovering residual natives. 

▫ At Scooby, aerial cover of cheatgrass was reduced in seeded treatments compared to the 

nonseeded controls by the second year indicating suppression by the established seeded 

perennials. 

▫ There was a tendency toward improved emergence of drill-seeded species (large seed 

mix) when seeded with the standard rangeland drill at Scooby, but not Saylor Creek. 

This effect was lost by the second year at Scooby.

▫ Emergence of broadcast shrubs (primarily Wyoming big sagebrush) was greatest when 

planted at the highest rate through the minimum-till drill.

▫ Basal gaps, which are indicative of soil erosion potential, were reduced on seeded 

treatments by the second year at Scooby. 

▫ The measure of richness used did not discern differences. Drill seeded grasses 

dominated the seeded vegetation at both sites.
Table of Contents

xv

GENETICS, COMMON GARDENS, AND SEED ZONES

ELIZABETH LEGER

RICHARD JOHNSON

Adapted Thurber’s needlegrass for the Great Basin 1

BRAD ST. CLAIR

RICHARD JOHNSON

NANCY SHAW

Genetic diversity and genecology of bluebunch wheatgrass 

(Pseudoroegneria spicata)

4

RICHARD JOHNSON

MIKE CASHMAN

KEN VANCE-BORLAND

Conservation, adaptation and seed zones for key Great Basin 

species

8

BRYCE RICHARDSON

NANCY SHAW

JOSHUA UDALL

Ecological genetics of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata): 

Genetic structure and climate-based seed zone mapping

18

MATT GERMINO Selecting sagebrush seed sources for restoration in a variable 

climate: Ecophysical variation among genotypes

24

SEED BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

ANTHONY DAVIS Globemallow and sagebrush performance under varying 

conditions

30

ROBERT KARRFALT

VICTOR VANKUS

Development of germination protocols, seed weight, purity 

and seed conditioning/cleaning protocols for Great Basin 

grasses and forbs

36

SEED AND SEEDLING ECOLOGY

BRUCE ROUNDY

KERT YOUNG

Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species 40

MARCELO SERPE Diversity of mycorrhizal fungi associated with Artemisia 

tridentata ssp. wyomingensis

50

PLANT MATERIALS AND CULTURAL PRACTICES

DOUGLAS JOHNSON

SHAUN BUSHMAN

Developing protocols for maximizing establishment of two 

Great Basin legume species

58

JASON STETTLER

ALISON WHITTAKER

Great Basin native plant materials development and cultivation 61

SCOTT JENSEN

JASON STETTLER

Applying provisional seed zones to Great Basin forb 

production, and cultural practice notes

70
Table of Contents

xvi

LOREN ST. JOHN 

DEREK TILLEY

Cooperative work between the Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project and the Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center

85

COREY RANSOM Identification of herbicides for use in native forb seed production 89

CLINT SHOCK

ERIK FEIBERT

LAMONT SAUNDERS

CHERYL PARRIS

NANCY SHAW

DOUG JOHNSON

SHAUN BUSHMAN

Seed production of Great Basin native forbs – Subsurface drip 

irrigation (SDI) 2006-2011 results, 2011 new plantings; Seeding 

practices; Legume seed scarification

93

RAM SAMPANGI

KRISHNA MOHAN

CLINT SHOCK

Etiology, epidemiology and management of diseases of native 

wildflower seed production

133

SEED INCREASE

STANFORD YOUNG

MICHAEL BOUCK

Stock seed production of native plants for the Great Basin 135

BERTA YOUTIE Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials development, seed 

increase and use

139

BRAD GEARY Cultural thinning of native sagebrush stand to increase seed 

yields

143

BOB HAMMON Insect pests of grass and forb seed production 146

HORTICULTURAL USES OF NATIVE PLANTS

HEIDI KRATCH

CHALITA SRILADDA

ROGER KJELGREN

Adaptation of Roundleaf buffaloberry (Shepherdia rotundifolia) 

to urban landscapes

147

SPECIES INTERACTIONS

KEIRITH SNYDER

ELIZABETH LEGER

ERIN GOERGEN

The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of invaded 

rangelands

151

CRESTED WHEATGRASS DIVERSIFICATION

KENT MCADOO Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested 

wheatgrass seedings

155

JEREMY JAMES The ecology of native forb establishment in crested wheatgrass 

stands: A holistic approach

162
Table of Contents

xvii

KIRK DAVIES

ALETA NAFUS

Recruitment of native vegetation into crested wheatgrass 

seedings and the influence of crested wheatgrass on native 

vegetation

166

WILDFIRES, RESTORATION STRATEGIES AND EQUIPMENT

ROBERT COX Revegetation Equipment Catalog website maintenance 168

COREY RANSOM Evaluation of imazapic rates and forb planting times on native 

forb establishment

169

ROBERT COX Smoke-induced germination of Great Basin native forbs 172

JAMES CANE Pollination and breeding biology studies 173

JAMES TRUAX Development of seeding equipment for establishing diverse 

native communities

177

MEGAN TAYLOR

ANN HILD

URSZULA NORTON

NANCY SHAW

Influence of post-fire treatments on exotic, native residual and 

seeded species production at the Scooby wildfire site in 

Northern Utah, 2010

179

NANCY SHAW

MATTHEW FISK

ERIN DENNEY

JAN GURR

ALEXIS MALCOMB

ROBERT COX

Native plant selection and restoration strategies 188

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I UCIA stock seed materials tagging information form 209

APPENDIX II Germplasm conservation samples contributed to the Seeds of 

Success Program/ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction 

Station in 2011

210

APPENDIX III Seed lots distributed to cooperators in 2011 212
1

Project Title: Adapted Thurber’s Needlegrass for the Great Basin

Project Location: University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Elizabeth Leger, Assistant Professor

Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, MS 370 

University of Nevada 

Reno, NV 89557-0013 

(775)784.7582, Fax (775)784.4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Richard C. Johnson, Research Agronomist

USDA ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164

(509)335.3771, Fax (509)335.6654

Project Description:

Background

The conservation and utilization of native plant resources in the Great Basin, especially after 

disturbances such as fire, is becoming increasingly important. Yet seed adaptation zones, an 

understanding of the ecological distance plant material should be transferred from original source 

populations, is lacking. Thurber’s needlegrass is among the most important species in the Great 

Basin. However, seed supplies are limited and generally collected from wildland stands. 

Objectives

1) Obtain Thurber’s needlegrass from diverse sites and ecological areas in the Great Basin. 

2) Establish common gardens studies at Central Ferry, WA and Reno, NV of diverse Thurber’s 

needlegrass representing Great Basin environmental diversity.

3) Measure a comprehensive set of growth and development factors on Thurber’s needlegrass at 

both common garden sites.

4) Complete genecology studies linking environmental factors at seed source locations with 

genetic variation across the landscape to establish seed transfer zones.

5) Make source identified plant material available for utilization through the Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station seed repository at the WRPIS and the National Plant Germplasm 

System.

Methods

Objective 1

Thurber’s needlegrass accessions have been collected from the Great Basin, primarily from 

Oregon, Idaho, and Nevada. In fall 2011, common garden studies were established at Central 

Ferry, WA and Reno, NV to characterize this germplasm and determine seed adaptation zones 

for the central Great Basin. 
2

Objective 2

Thurber’s needlegrass seeds from approximately 40 populations were germinated at the WRPIS. 

Seedlings were placed in soil in planting cells and transplanted at Central Ferry and Reno (529 

plants in the Reno Common Garden). Each location will be represented by plants from two 

families replicated six times and randomized into complete blocks at each garden site. 

Individual plants were planted 90 cm apart and watered in after transplanting. Data collection 

will begin in Spring 2012. The study will continue for at least two years.

Objective 3 

In previous work, a set of plant variables were measured or derived for Indian ricegrass 

(Achnatherum hymenoides) (Table 1). A similar approach will be taken at the Central Ferry and 

Reno gardens on newly collected Great Basin germplasm. 

Table 1. Potential measured and derived traits for Indian ricegrass common gardens 

Variable Description

Heading date DOY†, complete emergence of 1st inflorescence

Bloom date DOY, Presence of 1st anthers

Maturity date DOY, Half of seed heads shattered

Leaf width (mm) Widest point of flag leaf

Leaf length (cm) Base of flag leaf to tip

Leaf length/Leaf width Leaf length divided by leaf width

Leaf length*Leaf width Product of leaf length and width

Inflorescences per plant Count of inflorescences

Seeds per inflorescence Count of seed heads on lead inflorescence

Culm length Length - base of plant to inflorescence (cm)

Inflorescence length Length - inflorescence base to tip (cm)

Culm length/Inflor. length Culm length divided by inflorescence length

Habit Prostrate to upright rating scale (1-9)

Leaf texture Coarse to fine rating scale (1-9)

Leaf abundance Low to high rating scale (1-9)

Leaf roll Flat to cylindrical rating scale (1-9)

Crown diameter area Plant base length (cm) x width (cm) / 2 (cm2)

Dry weight Harvest weight after drying (g)

Regrowth weight 2

nd harvest weight after drying (g) 

Dry weight less regrowth 1

st harvest weight less 2nd harvest weight (g) 

Germination AOSA Rules for Testing Seeds

†DOY= day if year form 1 January

Objective 4

Genecology studies will be completed as outlined by Erickson et al. (2004) for blue wildrye and 

St Clair et al. (2005) on Douglas fir. Univariate analyses of variance will be completed on each 

variable from which a set of traits will be selected. The traits will be used in principle component 

analysis to reduce data dimensions. The principal component scores derived for locations will be 

used in multivariate regression to model environmental variable with plants genetic traits. The 
3

regression models will be used to map seed transfers zones for Thurber’s needlegrass in the 

Great Basin. 

Results

Seedlings of Thurber’s needlegrass were transported to the University of Nevada, Reno in the 

Fall of 2011 and transplanted into a common garden. Measurement of plant traits will begin in 

spring 2012.

Publications:

Forbis, T.; Leger, E.; Goergen, E. 2011. The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of the 

invaded rangelands. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 

Progress Report. p. 141-143.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Leger, E.; Goergen, E.; Espeland, E. 2011. Evolution of native plants in cheatgrass invaded 

systems. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. 

p. 144-146.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations:

Goergen, E.; Leger, E.; Forbis, T. 2011. The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of 

invaded rangelands. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 

February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

This research will ultimately result in the production of seed of key populations for 

multiplication and utilization in the Great Basin in conjunction with BLM seed buys and other 

revegetation or restoration programs.

Products:

Recommendations for adapted Thurber’s needlegrass for the Great Basin and conservation of 

key germplasm within the National Plant Germplasm System. The germplasm will be freely 

available for research.
4

Project Title: Genetic Diversity and Genecology of Bluebunch 

Wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata)

Project Location: USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, 

Corvallis, Oregon; USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, Washington; USDA 

Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Brad St. Clair, Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station

3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331-4401

(541)750.7294, Fax (541)750.7329

bstclair@fs.fed.us

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164 

(509)335.3771, Fax (509)335.6654

rcjohnson@wsu.edu

Nancy L. Shaw, Research Botanist

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702

(208)373.4360, Fax (208)373.4391

nshaw@fs.fed.us

Project Description:

Bluebunch wheatgrass [Pseudoroegneria spicata (Pursh) Á. Löve] is a cool-season, long-lived, 

self-incompatible, perennial bunchgrass of semi-arid regions of western North America. It is 

found in a wide variety of habitats, and is a dominant species of many grasslands of the inland 

Northwest. The wide distribution across a diverse range of climates suggests that bluebunch 

wheatgrass is genetically variable, and much of that variation may be adaptive. Nevertheless, 

many restoration projects using bluebunch wheatgrass rely upon a few cultivars that have proven 

to be useful over a wide area (although with less experience in the Great Basin). Few studies 

have been done, however, to evaluate genetic variation in relation to climatic factors across the 

Great Basin or the greater range of the species in a large set of diverse populations, and to 

compare the mean and variation of cultivars with that of the species as a whole. Determining the 

extent to which adaptive genetic variation is related to climatic variation is needed to ensure that 

the proper germplasm is chosen for revegetation and restoration. Furthermore, comparisons of 

cultivars with the natural range of variation will address questions of the suitability of cultivars 

over larger areas.
5

Objectives

1) Using common gardens, determine the magnitude and patterns of genetic variation among 

bluebunch wheatgrass populations from a wide range of source environments in the Great 

Basin, Columbia Basin, and adjacent areas.

2) Relate genetic variation to environmental variation at collection locations.

3) Compare common cultivars of bluebunch wheatgrass to native sources.

4) Develop seed transfer guidelines.

Methods

In 2005, seed was collected from eight western states including many locations in the Great 

Basin. In fall 2006, 125 diverse populations, each represented by two families, along with five 

cultivars, were established in common gardens at Pullman and Central Ferry, WA, and at the 

USFS Lucky Peak Nursery near Boise, ID. Data was collected for 20 traits of growth, 

phenology and morphology at each of the three contrasting test sites during years 2007 and 2008. 

Seed was collected from the common gardens in 2008 and germination tests conducted in 2009 

to evaluate population variation in germination. Analyses have been done to evaluate differences 

among test sites, years, populations, and families within populations, as well as their interactions, 

and to look at the relationship between population variation and climatic variation at source 

locations. Maps of genetic variation across the landscape have been produced, and seed zones 

have been delineated based on the results. 

Results

Differences among test sites and between years for traits of growth and phenology were 

generally large. Plants grown at the warmest and driest site, Central Ferry, were largest, whereas 

plants grown at the coolest, wettest site, Pullman, were smallest. Reproductive phenology was 

delayed at the coolest site, Pullman, as indicated by later dates of heading, anthesis, and seed 

maturation. Plants were larger in 2007 compared to 2008, indicating that plants were better 

established during the second year. Reproductive phenology was later in 2008. Despite large 

differences among test sites and between years, correlations of population means between test 

sites were generally large for the same traits measured at different sites. Correlations of 

population means between years were also generally large for many traits. Thus, population 

performance was generally consistent between sites and between years.

Considerable variation was found among populations evaluated at each test site. Many traits 

showed greater than 30% of the variation of individual plants could be attributed to differences 

among populations. Variation among families within populations was small. 

Principal component analysis was done to simplify the analysis by reducing the considerable 

number of traits measured at different sites in different years down to a few uncorrelated linear 

combinations that may be considered as independent traits. The first three principal components 

(PC) explained 53% of the variation in all traits. The first PC explained 30% of the variation and 

was related to larger size and more inflorescences. The second PC was related to later 

phenology. The third PC was related to narrower leaves. 

Correlations of population means with climates at the seed sources were moderate to relatively 

strong with many correlations greater than 0.30. Larger plants were generally from areas with 
6

greater precipitation and moderate temperatures. Plants with later phenology were from cooler, 

less arid climates. Plants with narrow leaves were from hotter and drier climates.

These relationships make sense from an adaptation perspective. Large population differences 

consistently correlated with environmental variables in ways that make sense suggests adaptively 

significant genetic variation that should be considered when moving populations in restoration 

projects. 

Regressions between traits, including PCs, and climatic and geographic variables were done and 

the resulting models were used in GIS to produce maps of genetic variation in adaptive traits. 

Seed zones were delineated by dividing the first PC into three homogeneous areas, and the 

second and third PCs into two areas, then overlapping them to indicate areas that were of similar 

values for the three independent multivariate traits that account for the most of the variation in all 

traits that were evaluated (Figure 1). The trait maps and seed zones largely reflect differences 

among Level III ecoregions, but with variation within ecoregions corresponding to temperature, 

precipitation and aridity.

Publications: 

St. Clair, B.; Johnson, R.; Shaw, N. 2011. Genetic diversity and genecology of bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata). In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project. p. 1-3.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations: 

St.Clair, J.B., R.C. Johnson, and N.L. Shaw. 2011. Genecology and seed transfer guidelines for 

bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata). Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Bower, A.; St. Clair, B.; Erickson, V. 2011. Generalized provisional seed zones for native plants. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, 

Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

This study indicates that populations of bluebunch wheatgrass differ greatly across the 

landscapes of the Great Basin, Columbia Basin, Blue Mountains and adjacent ecoregions for 

traits of plant size, flowering phenology, and leaf width. Much of that variation is associated 

with climates of the source locations, indicating adaptive significance. Seed zones are presented 

for recommendations of bulking seed collections and producing plant material for adapted, 

diverse and sustainable populations for revegetation and restoration. Different levels of 

acceptable risk may be accommodated by choosing whether or not to bulk materials from the 

same zones but in different Level III ecoregions. Results indicate that sources may be 
7

consolidated over fairly broad areas of similar climate, and thus may be shared between districts, 

forests, and different ownerships. 

Products: 

This study provides seed zones and seed transfer guidelines for developing adapted plant 

materials of bluebunch wheatgrass for revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin and 

adjacent areas, and provides guidelines for conservation of germplasm within the National Plant 

Germplasm System. Results are being submitted to a peer-reviewed journal, and will be 

disseminated through symposia, field tours, training sessions, or workshops. 

Figure 1. Seed zones for bluebunch wheatgrass. Seed zones are numbered 1 to 8 and are based 

on dividing the area into three principle components that represent small, intermediate or large 

plant size, early or late phenology, and narrow or wide leaves.
8

Project Title: Conservation, Adaptation and Seed Zones for Key Great 

Basin Species

Project Location: Plant Germplasm Introduction and Research, Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, Washington

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

(509)335.3771, Fax (509)335.6654

rcjohnson@wsu.edu

Mike Cashman, Biologist

USDA ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

(509)335.6219, Fax (509)335.6654

mjcashman@wsu.edu

Ken Vance-Borland, GIS Coordinator

Conservation Planning Institute 

NW Wynoochee Drive, Corvallis, OR 97330

kenvb@consplan.net

Project Description: 

Among the key restoration species for the Great Basin are Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum 

hymenoides [Roem. & Schult.] Barkworth), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda J. Presl), and 

Basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus [Scribn. & Merr.] Á. Löve). These species are critical for 

wildlife habitat, livestock grazing, soil stabilization, and ecosystem function in the most of the 

Western United States. Current releases of these species do not specifically match the natural 

genetic diversity within the species with local climatic variation to develop seed zones. Seed 

zones greatly facilitate management decisions, ensuing restoration with diverse, adapted plant 

material while promoting biodiversity needed for future natural selection, especially with climate 

change.

Our objectives are:

1) Collections representing the Great Basin are established in common garden studies and 

numerous plant traits associated with phenology, production, and morphology are measured 

and analyzed.

2) Plant traits with genetic variation in common gardens linked to seed source location climates 

and conflated into composite plant traits using multivariate statistics. 

3) Regression models linking plant traits and sources climate are developed and used with GIS 

to map seed transfer zones. 
9

Figure 1. Schematic showing the steps for genecology studies to establish seed zones.

Indian Ricegrass

Germplasm and Common Gardens

In spring 2007, a diverse set of Indian Ricegrass accessions from the USDA germplasm 

collection was planted in a two common gardens at Central Ferry, WA, one under dryland and 

the other with irrigation at panicle emergence and blooming forming two growing environments. 

Each garden was randomized into 5 complete blocks with 600 plants each. This germplasm

represented the southern and eastern Central Basin and Range across to the Southwestern 

Tablelands ecoregions. Evaluation of key growth and developmental traits was completed in 

2007 and 2008 on numerous growth and development traits on each plant (Table 1). 

The analyses of variance showed that source locations within years differed significantly, 

indicating genetic variation in all plant traits (P<0.01) (Table 1). In most cases, the environment,

that is, the irrigation treatment, did not strongly affect plant morphology or production, but in 

2007 it did affect panicle emergence and maturity, and to a lesser extent, blooming (Table 1). 

The irrigated garden had earlier phenology in 2007 ranging from 13 days for panicle emergence, 

11 days for blooming, and 12 days for maturity (Table 1). Nevertheless, the irrigation 

environment x location source interactions were generally not significant. The exceptions were 

leaf roll and leaf abundance in 2007, and maturity in 2008 (P<0.01). In those cases the 

interaction was found to be more of magnitude than direction. As a result, the data for irrigated 

and non-irrigated gardens was averaged for multivariate analysis. 

There were substantive differences between years in phenology and production traits. Panicle 

emergence, seeds number, dry weight and regrowth were much larger in 2008 than in 2007, the 

establishment year (Table 1). For phenology attributes, plants in 2008 were more than a month 

more advanced than in 2007. 

Canonical Correlation and Composite Plant Traits 

The purpose of the multivariate analysis was to obtain a smaller set of composite plants traits that 

represented a large fraction of the overall variation to facilitate regression modeling and mapping 

of seed zones (Johnson et al. 2010). Plant traits for the phenology (Phen), production (Pro), and 

morphology (Morph) categories were used with climatic variables (temperature and 

precipitation) at source locations to obtain sets of Phen, Pro, and Morph composite traits that 

correlated with the set of climatic variables (St Clair et al. 2005). For phenology, only the first 

Germplasm 

collection

Multivariate 

traits for data 

reduction 

Link plant traits 

to source 

location climate 

Common garden 

evaluations for 

genetic traits

Regression modeling of plant 

traits with source location 

climate

GIS mapping plant of 

plant traits with 

climate for seed zones
10

canonical variate, Phen1, was significant; for production, only Pro 1 and 2 were significant, and 

for morphology, Morph 1, 2, and 3 were significant (Table 2). Phen1 explained almost half the 

variation, Pro 1 and 2 a total of 55% of the variation, and Morph 1, 2, and 3 a total of 54% of the 

variation (Table 2). 

Monthly correlation of composite plant traits with temperature and precipitation showed 

different patterns (Fig. 2). Precipitation tended to be most important to plant traits in the spring, 

during active growth and development, especially Phenology 1 and Production 1, whereas for 

temperature those traits were significant every month without the strong seasonal pattern 

observed with precipitation (Fig. 2). 

Table 1. Summary of analyses of variance of plant traits for Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum 

hymenoides) grown common gardens at Central Ferry, WA, 2007 and 2008 (n=106).

2007 2008

Plant trait Mean Env (E) 

†

Source 

(S)

E x S Mean Env 

(E)

Source 

(S)

E x S

Phenology -------------P-values---------- ------------P-values----------

Panicle emergence, doy 191.3 0.0087 <.0001 0.8217 148.1 0.7141 <.0001 0.2093

Blooming, doy 179.7 0.0115 <.0001 0.0566 138.8 0.5014 <.0001 0.8715

Maturity, doy 205.1 0.0008 <.0001 0.1285 166.4 0.0014 <.0001 <.0001

Blooming to maturity 25.44 0.6285 0.0073 0.7612 27.60 0.0222 <.0001 0.1886

Production 

Leaf abundance, 1(low) to 9(high) 4.810 0.0370 0.0001 0.0076 3.752 0.0242 <.0001 0.6676

Panicle number per plant 13.19 0.0190 <.0001 0.3323 105.8 0.2830 <.0001 0.7563

Seeds per panicle 48.02 0.0963 <.0001 0.4535 43.59 0.2698 <.0001 0.7041

Dry weight, g 22.17 0.0265 <.0001 0.1797 45.96 0.7055 <.0001 0.5229

Crown diameter area, 

 (length x width)/2

25.73 0.0071 <.0001 0.1540 34.33 0.9130 <.0001 0.6350

Regrowth weight, g 3.578 0.5322 <.0001 0.4160 11.054 0.0371 <.0001 0.1501

Morphology

Habit, 1(prostrate) to 9 (upright) 5.541 0.1807 <.0001 0.4093 6.018 0.1771 <.0001 0.7828

Leaf roll, 1(flat) to 9(cylindrical) 4.544 0.0975 <.0001 0.0105 6.854 0.6338 <.0001 0.8734

Leaf texture, 1(coarse) to 9(fine) 5.237 0.0407 <.0001 0.3761 5.635 0.9885 <.0001 0.5725

Leaf width, cm 0.184 0.0557 <.0001 0.5135 0.1551 0.8942 <.0001 0.3380

Leaf length, cm 14.57 0.9388 <.0001 0.8779 13.11 0.4156 <.0001 0.2985

Lf length x Lf width, cm22.832 0.3468 <.0001 0.9163 2.128 0.7312 <.0001 0.5189

Culm length, cm 25.12 0.3058 <.0001 0.1262 27.01 0.8575 <.0001 0.0963

Panicle length, cm 14.90 0.3145 <.0001 0.6343 12.86 0.1564 <.0001 0.2347

† Environments were irrigated and dryland common gardens at Central Ferry, WA.
11

Table 2. Significant (P<0.01) composite plant traits derived from canonical correlation analysis 

of phenology (Phen), production (Pro) and morphological (Morph) traits in common gardens.

Phen1 Pro1 Pro2 Morph1 Morph2 Morph3

Explained variance % 49 35 20 25 18 11

Canonical correlation 0.75 0.78 0.69 0.83 0.79 0.71

F-value 1.51 1.62 1.33 1.66 1.46 1.29

P-value 0.002 <0.001 0.010 <0.001 <0.001 0.004

Correlation, average temperature 0.48** -0.48** 0.21* 0.31** 0.25** 0.22*

Correlation, average precipitation -0.33** 0.33** -0.21* -0.24* -0.26** -0.38**

*,**Correlation with source location climate significant at P<0.05 and 0.01, respectively (n=106).

Figure 2. Linear correlation coefficients between monthly temperature and precipitation and 

significant (P<0.01) canonical variates for phenology (Phen), production (Pro), and morphology 

(Morph) for Indian ricegrass locations in the Southwestern United States (n=106). The dashed 

line represents the P=0.01 significance level. 

The six significant canonical variates (Table 2) represented too many traits to easily produce a

comprehensive two-dimensional seed zone map. Thus, an additional canonical correlation 

analysis using Phen 1, Pro 1 and 2, and Morph 1, 2, and 3 traits with temperature and 

precipitation and was completed.

For seed zones, the combined attributes of cancorr extracts 1, 2, and 3, which explained 81% of 

the variation associated with the original six canonical variates (Table 2), were included by 

overlaying maps based on regression models (Fig 3). This resulted in 12 seed zones representing 

1 084 475 square kilometers (Table 3). A total of 92% of the eight ecoregions studied were 

within the range of the cancorr extract scores and were thus mapped (Fig. 3). The largest seed 

zone was M1L2H3 representing nearly 30% of the total mapped area and the smallest zone was 

the reddish brown L1H2L3 represented just 1.4 % (Fig. 3, Table 3). Areas outside the range of 

the cancorr extract scores usually corresponded to high elevation areas in the Wasatch and Unita 

Mountains and the Southern Rockies (Fig. 3). 

Indian Ricegrass

Precipitation Average temperature
12

The seed zone map revealed general differences between the warmer deserts in the south 

compared with the cooler deserts of the north. For example most of the warm Mojave Basin and 

Range mapped to a separate seed zone shown in the lighter blue H1L2H3 (Fig. 3), which was 

11% of total mapped area (Table 3). The Central Basin and Range, however, included four major 

seed zone areas: the lighter green M1L2H3, the darker green M1H2H3, the tan L1L2H3, and the 

darker brown L1H2H3 (Fig. 3). Often the same seed zone transected different ecoregions (Fig. 

3). Thus, ecoregions alone were not a reliable surrogate for seed zones in Fig. 3 derived from 

genetic and climate data. 

 

Figure 3. Proposed seed zones for Indian ricegrass in the Southwestern U.S. resulting from 

overlays of canonical variate scores (cancorr extracted) derived from phenology 1, production 1 

and 2, and morphology 1, 2, 3. Abbreviations H1, M1, and L1 refer to high, middle and low 

ranges of cancorr extract 1 scores; H2 and L2, and H3 and L3, refer to high and low ranges of 

cancorr extracts 2 and 3, respectively. This resulted in 12 seeds zones. Model predictions outside 

the range for the original canonical variate scores, shown in white, were not mapped.

We sought to develop seed zones as large as possible to promote efficient use of resources 

without unduly compromising the association of climate and genetic diversity, naturally resulting 

in some subjectivity. The contour interval for mapping, twice the LSD0.05 of the regression model 

error, resulted in relatively wide contour intervals and large seed zones. For restoration, the 

knowledge of land mangers and restoration practitioners is especially critical. Modifications to 

our zones based on management considerations and experience should be encouraged. For 

example, coalescence of relatively small areas within zones, or zones with smaller areas (Table 

3), may facilitate efficient management. Smaller or larger zones may be recommended by land 
13

managers in a certain areas or ecoregions, and these could be developed using the basic 

regression models and error terms developed for the proposed seed zones in Fig. 3. Transfer of 

germplasm over long distances across ecoregion may not be prescribed even if within the same 

seed zone. Also, special consideration of microclimates, challenges of mined sites, invasive 

weeds, or other types of serve degradation may affect the choice of germplasm for a certain area.

Table 3. Area represented by each seed zone for Indian 

ricegrass collection locations across the Southwestern US 

and zones corresponding to released germplasm. 

Seed zone Square 

kilometers

Mapped area 

%

Number†

H1H2H3 32,845.9 3.03 3

H1H2L3 24,808.1 2.29 1

H1L2H3 119,066.9 11.00 3

H1L2L3 15,440.8 1.42 1

M1H2H3 127,031.1 11.70 32

M1H2L3 68,811.0 6.35 11

M1L2H3 324,657.1 29.90 35

M1L2L3 101,311.2 9.34 8

L1H2H3 48,709.5 4.49 3

L1H2L3 15,630.5 1.44 1

L1L2H3 174,859.6 16.10 7

L1L2L3 31,304.6 2.89 1

Totals 1,084,476.2 100.00 106

†Number of collections falling within a given seed zone.

Within the Southwest United States we know of three Indian ricegrass ecotypes that have been 

developed and released; 'Starlake' from McKinley county NM, 'Paloma' from near Florence, CO 

(USDA, NRCS 2000), and 'Whiteriver' from near Rangely, CO (Jones et al. 2010). As nearly as 

could be determined they originated from within seed zones M1H2H3 and MIH2L3, which 

represent less than 20% of the mapped area. The largest seed zone, M1L2H3, representing major 

portions of the Central Basin and Range, the Wyoming Basin, and eastern Colorado, is not 

represented by released germplasm. Nor are significant portions of the Colorado and 

Arizona/New Mexico Plateaus that mapped in blue hues. Thus, it appears there are significant 

germplasm needs for Indian ricegrass in the Southwestern United States.

This need could be approached within seed zones through expansion of the traditional selection 

of single ecotypes or their variants with the goal of enhancing agronomic characteristics, such as 

seed production and reduced seed dormancy (USDA, NRCS 2000, Jones et al. 2010). 

Alternatively, collections of unselected populations within seed zones could be grown, released, 

and replanted within each seed zone. Although the former allows more efficient seed production, 

the latter encourages restoration based on more locally adapted, diverse populations over the 

landscape, allowing greater scope for adaptation to changing climates. 
14

Sandberg bluegrass and Basin wildrye

Germplasm collection for Sandberg bluegrass and Basin wildrye was completed across the Great 

basin prior to establishing common gardens. Seeds from each location were germinated, grown 

under greenhouse conditions, and transplanted to common garden sites. 

The Sandberg bluegrass gardens were established at Powell Butte, OR, Central Ferry, WA, and 

Sidney, MT in 2008 with plants from 130 collection locations, two families within location, in 

randomized complete blocks replicated six times. Data was collected in 2009 and 2010. 

Analyses so far indicate strong differences among plants from different locations indicating 

strong genetic variation (Table 4).

Common gardens of Basin wildrye were established at Pullman and Central Ferry sites in 2010 

and included plants from 114 collection locations with two families per location, randomized in 

complete blocks with six replications. Data collection for phenology, production, and 

morphological traits was completed in 2011 and will continue in 2012 and 2013.

Table 4. Analysis of variance for Sandberg bluegrass collected in the 

Great Basin and grown in a common garden at Central Ferry, WA, 2009 

(n=130).

Trait Mean F-value P-value

Phenology

Heading, day of year 116.4 3.72 <0.0001

Anthesis, day of year 132.2 4.43 <0.0001

Maturity, day of year 160.3 2.88 <0.0001

Heading to anthesis, days 15.9 3.29 <0.0001

Anthesis to maturity, days 27.7 2.80 <0.0001

Heading to maturity, days 43.5 2.68 <0.0001

Production

Leaf abundance, 1 to 9 rating 4.23 3.17 <0.0001

Crown diameter, cm 9.55 3.53 <0.0001

Crown area, cm2 50.8 3.62 <0.0001

Inflorescence quantity 53.7 2.50 <0.0001

Dry weight, g per plant 21.6 4.88 <0.0001

Morphology

Leaf length, cm 6.39 7.21 <0.0001

Leaf width, cm 6.98 6.98 <0.0001

Plant height, cm 11.0 4.09 <0.0001

Inflorescence length, cm 11.7 5.13 <0.0001

Culm length, cm 33.3 3.16 <0.0001

Plant habit, 1 to 9 5.51 1.96 0.0002
15

References:

Johnson R.C.; Erickson, VJ.; Mandel, N.L.; St Clair, J.B.; Vance-Borland, K.W. 2010. Mapping 

genetic variation and seed zones for Bromus carinatus in the Blue Mountains of Eastern 

Oregon, U.S.A. Botany 88:725-736.

Jones, T.A.; Winslow, S.R.; Parr, S.R.; Memmott, K.L. 2010. Notice of release of White

River Germplasm Indian ricegrass. Native Plans Journal 11:133-136.

St. Clair, B.; Mandel, N.; Vance-Borland, K. 2005. Genevology of Douglas Fir in Western 

Oregon and Washington. Ann Bot 96(7):1199-1214.

[USDA] United States Department of Agriculture, [NRCS] Natural Resource Conservation 

Service. 2000. The PLANTS database. Version: 000417. <http://plants.usda.gov>. National 

Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

Publications:

Hellier, B.; Johnson, R.C. 2011. Allium acuminatum seed production: First look at cultural 

parameters. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. 

p. 81-84.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Johnson, R.C.; Cashman, M.J.; Vance-Borland, K. 2011. Adapted Indian ricegrass for the Great 

Basin. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. 

p. 4-11.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Johnson, R.C.; Hellier, B.; Vance-Borland, K. 2011. Genetic diversity patterns in Allium 

acuminatum in the Great Basin. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

FY2010 Progress Report. p. 12-22.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Johnson, R.C.; Cashman, M.J.; Vance-Borland, K. Genecology and seed zones for Indian 

ricegrass across the Southwest USA. Rangeland Ecology and Management (accepted with minor 

revisions).

St. Clair, B.; Johnson, R.C.; Shaw, N. 2011. Genetic diversity and genecology of Bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata). In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 1-3.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations:

Hellier, B.; Johnson, R.C. 2011. Seed and bulb production from mechanically planted Allium 

acuminatum bulbs. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 

2011 February 22- 23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml
16

Johnson, R.C.; Hellier, B.; Cashman, M. 2011. Seed zones for Tapertip onion and Indian 

ricegrass. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 

February 22- 23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

St. Clair, B.; Johnson, R.C.; Shaw, N. 2011. Genecology and seed transfer guidelines for 

Bluebunch wheatgrass. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 

2011 February 22- 23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Cashman, M. 2011. Seeds of Success: Interagency partnership for conservation and use of native 

plant germplasm. Native Plant Summit, 2011 March 28-31, Boise, ID. Poster. 

Johnson, R.C. 2011. Genecology and seed zones for key North American rangeland species. IX 

International Rangeland Congress, 2011 April 2-8, Rosario, Argentina.

Johnson, R.C. 2011. Relating climate and genetic variation for seed zone development in arid 

landscapes. Genetics of Forest and Wildland Conservation and Restoration (WFCA), 2011 July 

25-28, Portland OR.

Johnson, R.C. 2011. Genecology for seed zones and maintaining plant diversity. Seed Zones, 

Climate Change, and Utilization of Native Plants for Ecological Restoration Symposium. Society 

for Ecological Restoration 4th World Conference, Aug 21-26, Mérida, Mexico.

Johnson, R.C. 2011. Native plant conservation partnerships with BLM and development of seed 

zones for restoration. Native U.S. Germplasm Conservation – Current Status and Future 

Development Symposium. CSSA International Meeting, October 16-29, San Antonio, TX.

Johnson, R.C. 2011. Genecology and seed zones for Indian ricegrass in the Southwest. Native 

Plant Restoration Symposium. Biennial Colorado Plateau Conferences, October 24-27, Flagstaff, 

AZ.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines:

 Maps visualizing the interaction of genetic variability and climate for restoration species 

allow informed decisions regarding the suitability genetic resources for restoration in varying 

Great Basin and Southwestern environments. 

 The recommended seed zone boundaries may be modified based on management resources 

and land manger experience without changing their basic form or links between genetic 

variation and climate.

 We recommend utilization of multiple populations of a given species within each seed zone 

to promote biodiversity needed for sustainable restoration and genetic conservation.

 Collections representing each seed zone should be released, grown, and used for ongoing 

restoration projects.
17

Products: 

 Seed zones for key Great Basin restoration species to ensure plant materials used for 

restoration are adapted and suitable. 

 Collection and conservation of native plant germplasm though cooperation between the 

National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), the Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, 

Pullman, WA, and the Seeds of Success (SOS) program under BLM. This ensures 

availability of native plant genetic resources that otherwise may be lost as a result of 

disturbances such as fire, invasive weeds, and climate change.

 Through 2011, a total 2,150 SOS accessions were distributed for research and utilization by 

the NPGS (Table 5). 

Table 5. Distributions of Seeds of Success germplasm from the National 

Plant Germplasm System from 2005 through 2011.

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Total

Taxa 1 21 135 315 338 359 348 1517

Accessions 1 23 161 438 467 558 502 2150

Total orders 1 3 54 128 118 116 126 546
18

Project Title: Ecological Genetics of Big Sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata): Genetic Structure and Climate-Based Seed 

Zone Mapping

Project Location: USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Shrub Sciences 

Laboratory, Provo, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Bryce Richardson, Research Geneticist

USFS RMRS, Shrub Sciences Laboratory

735 N 500 E, Provo, UT 84606

(801)356.5112

brichardson02@fs.fed.us

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist

USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702 

(208)373.4360

nshaw@fs.fed.us

Joshua Udall, Assistant Professor

Brigham Young University, Plant & Wildlife Sciences

295 WIDB

Provo, UT 84602

(801)422.9307 

jaudall@gmail.com

Project Description:

Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is one of the most ecologically important and landscape 

dominant plant species in western North America. This species is a major focus for ecosystem 

restoration after disturbances because of its importance in wildlife forage, invasive weed 

exclusion (e.g., cheatgrass), snow catchment and nutrient cycling. Big sagebrush is divided into 

three major subspecies, tridentata, vaseyana, wyomingensis that typically occupy distinct 

ecological niches. However, subspecies are known to form hybrid zones in some areas (Freeman 

et al. 1991; McArthur et al. 1998). Maladaptation is a serious problem in restoration and 

becomes more complex with climate change. Planting big sagebrush seed sources outside its 

adaptive breadth will lead to continued ecosystem degradation and encroachment of invasive 

species. Successful restoration of big sagebrush requires understanding the climatic factors 

involved in defining subspecies and populations. 

Objectives

1) Establish common gardens from collected seed sources across the range of big sagebrush.

2) Develop molecular markers from transcriptome data of subspecies vaseyana and tridentata.

3) Elucidate genetic structure using molecular markers and adaptive traits.
19

4) Determine climatic factors important to adaptation within and among big sagebrush 

ecological races.

5) Develop climate-based seed zone maps for the entire range of big sagebrush

Project Status

Common garden study

Collection of seed and plant tissue began in autumn of 2009. A total of 93 seed sources were 

collected, largely by collaborators, in 11 western states. In January 2010, seeds were planted in 

greenhouse containers. Up to 10 families from each of 56 seed sources were outplanted at each 

of the common gardens (Table 1). Outplanting of seedlings occurred in May and June of 2010. 

First-year measurements were conducted in October and November of 2010. Measurements 

included height, diameter at the ground and overhead photos to calculate crown area. Plants were 

supplemented with water until August and mortality was minimal for the first year at < 2%. No 

supplemental water will be added in the future. Overall, the subspecies preliminary growth 

patterns have met expectations. Subspecies tridentata yielded the greatest heights and diameters 

and the Ephraim plot produced the highest yields among all subspecies. The preliminary data 

also indicated different allocations of wood development to height. Subspecies tridentata had 

lower ratios (i.e., greater height to wood develop) compared to ssp. vaseyana (data not shown). 

Much of this data will be analyzed after the 2012 field season.

Table 1. Location information of three sagebrush common garden sites.

Site name Latitude Longitude Elevation (m)

Orchard, Idaho 43.328 -116.003 976

Ephraim, Utah 39.369 -111.580 1686

Majors Flat, Utah 39.337 -111.521 2088

Molecular genetics

In September of 2009, leaf tissue was collected from two big sagebrush specimens (subspecies 

tridentata and vaseyana) growing in Provo, Utah. Total RNA was extracted and the 

transcriptomes were sequenced for both subspecies using a Roche 454 FLX Genome Sequencer. 

The DNA sequence data has been compiled and annotated with over 21,000 sequences identified 

with putative function. This data includes over 20,000 SNPs (single-nucleotide polymorphisms) 

and 119 polymorphic microsatellite markers that will be a resource for downstream projects such 

as the development molecular markers for population genetic and phylogenetics studies. In 

September of 2010 further RNA sequencing of was complete on two ssp. wyomingensis from 

Utah (UTW-1) and Montana (MTW-1). After aligning DNA sequence reads from the 

wyomingensis samples with the previous reference sequence developed from the ssp. tridentata

and vaseyana samples, it was found that some interesting SNP patterns emerged. Out of 

approximately 1,000 SNPs between ssp. tridentata and vaseyana, ssp. wyomingensis was 

heterozygous for over 1/3rd. For the remaining SNPs, the most, approximately 60%, match ssp. 

vaseyana compared to ssp. tridentata at approximately 40% (Bajgain et al. 2011).

The transcriptome data has been used to develop an array of DNA sequences associated with 

secondary metabolite pathways. These sequences (48 in total) were obtained from 329 

individuals in 48 sites, approximately 7 individuals per site (Figure 1). Phylogenetic relationships 

based on approximately 12,000 base pairs of DNA show diploid A. t. tridentata and vaseyana are 
20

distinct subspecies. Tetraploids, including wyomingensis are polyphyletic (i.e., multiple origins) 

and have a tendency to be an admixture of tridentata and vaseyana (Fig. 2). 

Figure 1. The location of 48 seed collection sites for Artemisia tridentata 

used in the molecular genetic study. The symbols identify subspecies 

wyomingensis, tridentata and vaseyana.
21

Figure 2. Unrooted phylogenetic networks using neighbor-net algorithm. The 

networks were constructed from uncorrected p-distances based on 24 contigs of consensus 

sequences of each collection site. A) Illustrates relationships between 

28 diploid collections and B) includes diploid collections and 20 tetraploids 

collections. Taxonomic differences are represented by colored edges and the scale 

bar indicates expected nucleotide changes per site. The outgroup species is 

Artemisia arbuscula.

MTV1

IDV4

IDV3

IDV2

ORW3

NVT UTT22

CAT1 IDT3

MTT1

ORT3

ORW2 IDT2

IDT1

COT1

NVW1

NVT1 CAT2

ORT1

ORT2

UTT1

UTT3

CAV1

OUTGROUP

ORV2

NVV2

UTV1

NVV1

CAV2

IDV5

vaseyana diploid

tridentata diploid

vaseyana x tridentata diploid

wyomingensis

vaseyana tetraploid

tridentata tetraploid

A)

B)

LEGEND

8

1 5

AZT1

NMT2

ORV1

ORW3

UTT2

UTW1

UTV3

NVT2

ORW1

IDW2

UTT3

UTT1

CAV1

OUTGROUP

COW1

IDW1

ORT1

MTW1

MTW2

MTW3

IDW3

ORT2

CAT2

NVT1

NVW1

ORT3

IDT2

ORW2

IDT1

MTT1

IDT3

COT1

CAT1

UTV2

NVV3

ORV2

CAV4 CAV3

NVV2

UTV1

NVV1

CAV2

IDV5

COW2

MTV1

IDV4

IDV3

IDV2

NMT1 AZW1

0.0010

62 58
22

Future plans

Common gardens

Continued measurements of common garden plants will occur on a monthly basis during the 

growing season of 2012. Weather data will be collected at each common garden site. Such data 

can be used in the development of genecological models for delineation of seed zones. Progress 

is being made in taking physiological measurements at these gardens during the 2012 season. 

Molecular genetics

Future questions addressed with molecular genetics include: 1) geographically defining 

tetraploid lineages of big sagebrush, 2) assessing the phylogenetic relationships between big 

sagebrush and other sagebrush species, 3) determining whether interspecific hybridization is an 

important evolutionary process.

Publications:

Richardson, B.A.; Page, J.T.; Bajgain, P.; Sanderson, S.C.; Udall, J.A. In prep. Deep sequencing 

of amplicons reveals widespread intraspecific hybridization and multiple origins of polyploidy in 

big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata).

Bajgain, P.; Richardson, B.A.; Price, J.C.; Cronn, R.C.; Udall, J.A. 2011. Transcriptome 

characterization and polymorphism detection between Artemisia tridentata subspecies. BMC 

Genomics 12:370. (highly accessed)

Richardson, B.; Shaw, N.; Udall, J. 2011. Ecological genetics of big sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata): Genetic structure and climate-based seed zone mapping. In: Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 23-27.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations:

Bajgain, P.; Richardson, B. 2011. Transcriptome characterization and polymorphism detection in 

subspecies of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting. 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Richardson, B.A. 2011. Approaches to understand climate-driven genetic variation in plants and 

implications for restoration. Intermountain Native Plant Summit IV. 2011 March 29-31, Boise, 

ID.

Udall, J.A.; Bajgain, P.; Richardson, B.A. 2011. Natural sequence diversity of Artemisia 

tridentata in the Western United States. Botany: Healing the Plant, Botanical Society of 

America. 2011 July 9-13, St. Louis, MO.

Richardson, B.A.; Bajgain, P.; Udall, J.A.; Shaw, N.L. 2011. Assembling the adaptive genetic 

and genomic pieces in Intermountain shrub species to provide conservation and restoration 

guidelines. Western Forest Genetics Association. 2011 July 25-28, Portland, OR.
23

Management Applications:

The molecular genetic research changes the taxonomic paradigm of big sagebrush subspecies. A. 

t. wyomingensis is not a monophyletic group. Therefore, the manner in which seeds of ssp. 

wyomingensis are collected and used in the landscape should to be done judiciously until we 

better understand the geographic/ecological distributions and any adaptive differences between 

tetraploid lineages.

Products:

Development of molecular markers and annotated genes in big sagebrush for use in future 

studies. Data deposited into Genbank (completed).

Elucidate evolutionary relationships between and within big sagebrush subspecies (manuscript in 

preparation).

Evaluate quantitative traits for adaptive responses to climate, develop seed zones for big 

sagebrush subspecies (ongoing).

Leveraged funding: National Fire Plan, Western Forest Transcriptome Survey, 

Media reports: Land Letter (April 28, 2011 issue). They highlighted the uses of next-generation 

sequencing on the genetic relationships of sagebrush.
24

Project Title: Selecting Sagebrush Seed Sources for Restoration in a 

Variable Climate: Ecophysiological variation among 

genotypes

Project Location: U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science 

Center, Snake River Field Station, Boise, Idaho 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Matthew J. Germino, Research Ecologist

U.S. Geological Survey

970 Lusk St

Boise, ID 83706

(208)426.3353, Fax (208)426.5210

mgermino@usgs.gov

Project Description:

Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) communities dominate a large fraction of the United States 

and provide critical habitat for a number of wildlife species of concern. Loss of big sagebrush 

due to fire followed by poor restoration success continues to reduce ecological potential of this 

ecosystem type, particularly in the Great Basin. Choice of appropriate seed sources for 

restoration efforts is currently unguided due to knowledge gaps on genetic variation and local 

adaptation as they relate to a changing landscape. We are assessing ecophysiological responses 

of big sagebrush to climate variation, comparing plants that germinated from ~20 geographically 

distinct populations of each of the three subspecies of big sagebrush. Seedlings were previously 

planted into common gardens by US Forest Service collaborators Drs. B. Richardson and N. 

Shaw, (USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Provo, Utah and Boise, Idaho) as part of the 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. Seed sources spanned all states in the 

conterminous Western United States. Germination, establishment, growth and ecophysiological 

responses are being linked to genomics and foliar palatability. New information is being 

produced to aid choice of appropriate seed sources by Bureau of Land Management and USFS 

field offices when they are planning seed acquisitions for emergency post-fire rehabilitation 

projects while considering climate variability and wildlife needs. 

Objectives

1) Assess the basic ecophysiological limitations prevailing over the course of a year for 

established plants in the common garden(s).

2) Determine how ecophysiological performance and key physiological limitation vary within 

subspecies (among seed-source populations) and between subspecies; determine if local 

populations perform better than distant ones.

3) Assess how ecophysiological differences relate to whole-plant growth and survival, i.e. 

establishment success, and whether they can indicate if particular adaptive strategies are 

more or less successful.

4) Determine whether physiological performance relates to genetic relatedness (determined by 

Dr. Richardson from gene sequencing), which will help establish that the identity of plants 

indeed relates to their ability to perform in the gardens.
25

Progress

Since beginning the project in August 2011, we have measured survival, growth, shoot 

morphology, water status, photosynthetic carbon uptake, stomatal conductance, transpiration, 

photochemical efficiency, and freezing points repeatedly on plants in the common garden located 

near the Orchard Research Center, Idaho (hereafter “Orchard common garden”). Field sampling 

has occurred in the peak heat and dryness of mid-August, and at the coldest part of year in 

wintertime. In collaboration with USDA ARS (Parma, ID), we established a new method for

measuring the freezing point of leaf tissue. We have also analyzed the modeled climate-of-seed 

origin, and evaluated the soil profiles of the garden. Several new proposals to US Geological 

Survey and the Idaho National Science Foundation Experimental Program to Stimulate 

Competitive Research EPSCoR were submitted, and support for an undergraduate to add 

measurements of anti-defense (palatability) compounds was procured and progress is underway.

Methods

Between 5 and 10 individual plants of nearly 20 populations per each of the three subspecies 

were planted into the Orchard common garden in spring of 2010. Starting in August 2011, we 

began measurements on the plants, which were all >18 months in age and ranged in height from 

0.25 to > 1 meter height, and all measurements are still ongoing. We measure plant water status 

at pre-dawn by excising shoot tips and determining the negative tension of xylem water with a 

pressure chamber (model 1000, PMS Inc., Corvallis OR). Soil water content is periodically 

determined using TDR probes (Hydrosense, Campbell Scientific, Australia). Photosynthesis and 

transpiration are measured in the field with a model 6400 portable photosynthesis instrument 

(LiCOR Inc, Lincoln NE), and stomatal conductance, water-use efficiency, and other derivative 

parameters are then calculated. Gas exchange rates are determined on a leaf mass basis, a 

projected leaf-area basis, and a silhouette leaf area basis. Leaf area and mass are determined 

using digital photography and by weighing following 48 hours of drying at 60°C. Chlorophyll 

fluorescence is measured at pre-dawn on dark adapted leaves using a fluorometer (Mini-PAM, 

Walz, Germany), specifically to determine the ratio of variable to maximum flouresence as an 

indicator of maximum intrinsic light-use efficiency. The freezing point of leaves is determined 

by pressing leaves against a semi-conductor plate that records the exotherm released by cell 

water when incubator temperatures cause water to freeze. Differences in ecophysiology among 

subspecies or populations are determined using univariate and multivariate statistics.

Preliminary results 

We have collected over 4000 data points for 14 response variables combined and data collection 

and analyses are still underway, so a limited number of preliminary results are presented here. 

When populations were combined, major differences in growth and survival are evident in the 

garden, with 20% mortality and the lowest growth rates for A. t. vaseyana (mountain big 

sagebrush), and the greatest growth (crown volume) in A. t. tridentata (basin big sagebrush). 

Mortality of A. t. tridentata and A. t. wyomingensis (Wyoming Big Sagebrush) is 6.5% as of 

February 2012. However, for these and nearly all responses measured to date, there were larger 

differences within subspecies (among populations, i.e. seed lots) than among subspecies.

One variable that appears relatively invariant among the populations and subspecies is freezing 

point (temperature which causes cell water to freeze), which was -7.3°C ± 0.1, similarly in 

November and January. Mean photosynthetic rates were highest in early December (compared to 
26

August), but quickly decreased to near zero once minimum air temperatures decreased to about 

-10°C. Following this chilling, chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm, the ratio of variable to 

maximum fluorescence) values decreased by more than 60% from August maximum values. 

Physiological tolerance of freezing can be measured as the freezing-induced decrease in the 

chlorophyll fluorescence ratio Fv/Fm, which indicates loss of photochemical efficiency and the 

onset of a syndrome known as low-temperature photoinhibition of photosynthesis. By this 

measure, freezing tolerance appears to differ among the subspecies and populations, and climateof-seed origin appears to influence frost resistance (Fig. 1). Populations that originated from a 

warmer home range had relatively greater loss of photochemical efficiency and expressed more 

photoinhibition of photosynthesis, particularly in A. t. tridentata (Fig. 1). In a separate test in 

January, we chilled excised leaves of nine populations per subspecies to -20°C, and measured 

their reductions in Fv/Fm compared to unchilled control leaves, and found that the reductions 

were greatest in A. t. wyomingensis (-0.22 ± 0.04 change in Fv/Fm) and least in A. t. tridentata 

(-0.05 ± 0.02). Resistance to freezing may be a key factor to consider in seed source selection, 

and it may be predictable from subspecies identity and by climate-of-seed origin, although 

further analysis of the relationship of freezing resistance to growth and survival is needed to 

substantiate its importance.

In the warmest and driest part of the year, preliminary data suggest water status and 

photosynthesis were greatest in A. t. tridentata and least in A. t. vaseyana. Again, differences 

were greatest among populations within each subspecies. Greater photosynthesis on a per-leafunit basis appeared to correlate well with increased growth (not shown, P<0.0001, r2

=0.9). 

Greater photosynthesis, in turn, did not appear to result from either greater capacity for 

photosynthesis at a given hydration level (Fig. 2, left) or greater photosynthetic water-use 

efficiency (Fig. 2, right panel). Unexpectedly, these efficiencies appear to be greater in A. t. 

Figure 1. Relationship of loss in photochemical efficiency (change in chlorophyll fluoresence, 

Fv/Fm) during the seasonal transition from cool to freezing conditions) to the mean annual air 

temperature from where each population's seed was collected. Each datum is a population with 

5-10 replicate plants. The regression shown by the dashed line is for all populations, whereas the 

blue line is for A. t. tridentata.

R2 = 0.48

R2 = 0.1046

-0.5

-0.25

0

2 6 10 14

Change in photochemistry from 

Nov to Jan (cool to freezing)

Temperature of seed origin (°C)

Tridentata

Vaseyana

Wyomingensis

all

Linear (Tridentata)

Linear (all)
27

0

1

2

3

-1.5 -2.5 -3.5

Water-use efficiency 

(photos/transp)

Water Potential (MPa)

Tridentata

Vaseyana

Wyomingensis

0

5

10

15

-1 -2 -3 -4

Photosynthesis (umol m-2

s

-1

)

Water Potential (Mpa)

Tridentata

Vaseyana

Wyomingensis

vaseyana, but we will corroborate these “snapshot” findings made from short-term 

measurements of gas exchange in the future, with more robust determinations of water-use 

efficiency from stable-isotope approaches. We hypothesize that the differences in physiological 

performance result primarily from relatively greater soil-water uptake by A. t. tridentata and the 

populations within it that had the greatest photosynthesis and thus growth. We will test this 

hypothesis using stable isotopes of water as natural tracers of depth-of-water uptake.

Lastly, we have used multivariate statistics to determine how the combination of all 

ecophysiological traits measured can be used to distinguish relatedness of the populations and 

subspecies. Dendrograms produced with hierarchical clustering (JMP, SAS Institute, Inc.) of all 

ecophysiological data combined revealed clusters of populations that have related 

ecophysiological performance, but the clusters are not related taxonomically (e.g. all clusters of 

plants having similar ecophysiology had mixes of all three subspecies). In a subsequent and 

separate analysis, we created a composite index score of all the ecophysiological variables by 

first assigning a rank value for each parameter (population with highest score received highest 

rank value), and then we summed the rank scores of all variables into a “total rank score” for 

each population. We then plotted this rank score against a measure of genetic similarity (PCA 

Eigenvector in Fig. 3) provided by Dr. B. Richardson. This “PCA Eigenvector” is the principlecomponents analysis axis that explains about 30% of the genomic variability among all 

populations. Preliminary results show that genetically similar plants tended to have similar 

values of the composite rank index, indicating that populations that are more related genetically 

also tended to have a similar physiological performance (P<0.05). Although there is some 

clustering of taxonomic groups (e.g., the lower left points are often A. t. vaseyana that had high 

mortality), the relationship suggests a better correspondence of ecophysiological performance to 

the genetic constitution rather than taxonomic identity of populations. These preliminary findings 

Figure 2. Left panel: midday photosynthesis as a function of pre-dawn water status. 

Right panel: photosynthetic water-use efficiency, determined as the ratio of photosynthesis 

divided by transpiration (mmol/mol). Each symbol represents a unique seed source and 

population, and the values shown are the mean of all replicate plants of the population surviving 

in the common garden (ranges from 4 to 10 plants).
28

y = 5736x + 159

R2 = 0.2953

0

100

200

300

-0.015 -0.005 0.005 0.015

Composite rank index of 

physiological data

PCA Eigenvector 

may suggest that genetic rather than taxonomic criteria can predict fitness of seed sources to a 

site, but further analyses are needed and are underway to substantiate this potential finding.

Future Plans

We will test the hypothesis that access to deeper and wetter soils improves water status and the 

photosynthesis and growth of the top-performing populations using a stable isotope approach. 

We will match ratios of the stable isotopes of water (D:H and 18O:16O) in the xylem of all 

plants to the same ratios of different water sources (from shallow and deep soils). The isotopic 

composition of water in stem xylem is the same as the water source, so a mixing model can be 

used to determine water source. We will also determine the carbon isotopic ratio (13C:12C) in 

dried leaf tissue in order to develop a more robust and integrative measure of photosynthetic 

water-use efficiency. We hypothesize that top performers will not express a water-efficient 

strategy, but instead will have an isotopic signature that suggests an advantage of access to 

abundant deep soil water derived from winter and spring rain. The common garden in Orchard 

Idaho is one of three established by Dr. Richardson using the same seed collections, and we will 

extend our isotopic analyses to samples from his other two gardens. The other two gardens, 

located near Ephraim UT, differ in climate and soils from the Orchard ID site.

Secondly, with collaborators from Boise State University (Dr. J. Forbey and students), we are 

beginning an analysis of palatability to herbivores, which is one of the major criteria for selecting 

sagebrush where it is planted to enhance habitat for greater sage-grouse and other species, but 

has rarely been evaluated. We are measuring total phenolic, monoterpene, and antioxidant 

content in the same sagebrush shoots previously measured for physiology. We anticipate 

determining the relationship between establishment success (mainly growth), winter stress level 

that relates to chemical changes in leaves, and the biochemical expression of herbivore defense 

compounds.

Lastly, we will continue relating our findings to the genomic work and analyses of Dr. 

Richardson. The majority of seedling mortality occurred in the year prior to our initiating 

measurements (the critical establishment phase), and so there is a practical limit to our ability to 

describe factors most directly affecting successful establishment. To overcome this, our 

Figure 3. Relationship of a composite index of rank values for all physiological variables to 

the Principle-Components Eigenvector that explains 30% of the genomic relatedness. Each 

point is a population, with multiple plants measured for each population.
29

continued collaboration will expand to use the remaining seed stock from populations that 

experienced high mortality rates in order to more closely examine physiological performance in 

early life.

Publications:

We are in our 7th month on this project (from timing of project idea inception and 

implementation), and our intent was to analyze plant performance over a year of seasonal climate 

variability for the established plants. We are preparing a manuscript on wintertime chilling 

effects for peer-reviewed publication, and will produce another following completion of our 

year-long analysis and stable isotope determinations.

Presentations: 

Germino M.J. 2011. Great Basin Landscape Conservation Cooperative. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011, February 22-23. Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

Our short-term, “snapshot” dataset is still in the preliminary stage, but the analyses may serve a 

key role in helping project long-term likelihood of growth and establishment of plants from 

different seed sources. Sagebrush restoration is increasingly of interest for conservation of 

sagebrush dependent wildlife, and our results will soon be combinable with other evidence to 

begin establishing bases for seed-transfer guidelines. Our preliminary data suggest the subspecies 

and populations with the greatest growth and survival also had greater photosynthesis as a result 

of better hydration, which we postulate is linked to their tapping into deeper soil-water sources. 

Additionally, physiological threshold responses, such as freezing tolerance, also may be related 

to growth and survival and may emerge as a useful and predictable consideration in planning 

seed acquisitions for particular climates. These preliminary results suggest selection for rapid 

growth may contribute to stress resistance and establishment success. Fitness, in terms of 

ecophysiological performance, may be more distinguishable from genetic rather than taxonomic 

identity, which may imply a role for genetic testing of seed sources.

Products:

Two substantial efforts to leverage the project were made by the U.S. Geological Survey Forest 

and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, because the research meets a priority need for solving 

landscape-level problems in the Great Basin. 

1) Additional technician salary funds were provided in the form of an equivalent match, which 

is key because there are many plants in the common garden (ca. 450) and the measurements 

and subsequent data management and analyses are time consuming. 

2) Laser spectrometers for carbon and water isotope determination, and a combustion elemental 

analyzer and microbalance for sample preparation were purchased based partly on sample 

processing needs for this project, with the project foremost in mind, at an expense of nearly 

$200K.
30

Project Title: Globemallow and Sagebrush Performance under Varying 

Conditions

Project Location: University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Anthony S. Davis, Assistant Professor

University of Idaho

P.O. Box 441133, University of Idaho

Moscow, ID 83844

(208)885.7211

asdavis@uidaho.edu

Project Description:

Big Sagebrush Seedling Cold Storage

Limited information is available on nursery cultural and production practices for big sagebrush 

(Artemisia tridentata). In response to a request from growers of big sagebrush in the 

Intermountain West, a study was designed to investigate seedling overwinter cold storage, which 

is an important component of seedling production that can impact seedling quality. We 

hypothesized that seedling quality after transplanting would not be impacted by storage method, 

but that mold issues were more likely to occur in cooler storage. 

Methods

One hundred seedlings were randomly placed in either refrigerated cooler (2 to 4°C) or freezer 

storage (0 to -2°C). Seedlings were placed in storage for two months beginning March 2011. In 

May 2011, seedlings were transplanted into 1 gal pots containing 2:1 sand:vermiculite and 

watered every five days. After two months of growth in a greenhouse at the University of Idaho 

Pitkin Forest Nursery (Moscow, ID), the study was terminated. Morphological parameters were 

measured and calculated, including: height growth, root-collar diameter (RCD) growth, shoot 

volume growth (Burdett, 1979), and root and shoot dry weights. 

Results and Future Directions

Results of an ANOVA showed that storage treatment had no effect on any of the morphological 

parameters measured; however seedling mortality was higher for freezer-stored seedlings. 

Overwinter storage in a cooler can be recommended. Freezer storage may inhibit the growth of 

storage molds, but further study is needed to determine the appropriate hardening regimes and 

lifting dates for this storage method. 

Variation in Wyoming big sagebrush

There is limited information on within subspecies variation of big sagebrush, which is a keystone 

species in Great Basin ecosystems. To address this gap in the literature, two studies were 

conducted that evaluated phenotypic variation in Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata

ssp. wyomingensis). 
31

One study evaluated morphological and physiological differences between seedlings grown from 

seed collected from one mother plant of five accessions within the current range of Wyoming big 

sagebrush. Five, one-year old seedlings were transplanted into 9.63 L (2.55 gal) pots containing 

2:1 sand:vermiculite. Height growth, RCD growth, root and shoot volume growth, specific leaf 

area, and seedling dry weights were measured four months after transplanting. Biweekly gas 

exchange measurements were also conducted. Data analysis is forthcoming. 

A second study evaluated the morphological response of transplanted Wyoming big sagebrush 

seedlings to water treatments. Seedlings were grown from seed collected from two mother plants 

of five accessions within the current range of Wyoming big sagebrush. One-year old seedlings 

were randomly placed in either a fully saturated treatment or a “dry” treatment that received 20% 

that amount of water, and were transplanted into 5.05 L pots that were 76.2 cm tall and contained 

2:1 sand:vermiculite. Seedlings in both treatments were watered biweekly. Volumetric water 

content of the soil was monitored throughout the four month study. At the end of study, height 

growth, RCD growth, predawn water potentials, root volume growth, and shoot dry weights were 

measured. To further assess root structure, root dry weights were obtained after roots were 

partitioned into three sections (0-25 cm, 25-50 cm, and greater than 50 cm). Data analysis is 

forthcoming.

Globemallow

Munro’s globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana [Douglas] Spach) (Malvaceae), an herbaceous 

perennial endemic to the Great Basin, is an important candidate for use in restoration. This 

species is able to tolerate drought, extreme temperatures, and establish on a variety of soil types. 

It is an effective soil stabilizer, serves as an important host for native pollinators, and is a food 

source for numerous animals (Beale and Smith 1970; Pendery and Rumbaugh 1986; Rumbaugh 

et al. 1993; Pavek et al. 2011).The species’ popularity among growers and land managers has 

recently increased but there is still a lack of information regarding seed dormancy and early 

seedling physiology, making the effective use of the species difficult.

Objectives

1) Understand the dormancy mechanisms in seeds of Sphaeralcea munroana.

2) Evaluate the feasibility and efficiency of various dormancy breaking techniques.

3) Evaluate the morphological and physiological characteristics of S. munroana in response to a 

range of temperature and moisture conditions during early establishment.

Seed Dormancy and Germination Trials

Four studies designed to investigate the dormancy mechanisms of S. munroana and evaluate the 

suitability of non-traditional scarification techniques for operational use were conducted. 

Specifically, for the first two experiments, seeds were collected in August 2010 near Payette, 

Idaho (N43°52’49.6”, W116°47’01.8”) and kept at 21±1°C to avoid the possibility of 

stratification during refrigerated storage. Experiments three and four used seeds obtained from 

native stands throughout the Wasatch mountains of northern Utah (Great Basin Seeds LLC, 

Ephraim, UT) and stored at 1.5±0.5°C. All treatments had five, 50-seed replicates except those in 

experiment one, which had ten, 15-seed replicates. 

Experiment 1. To ensure that seeds were indeed physically dormant and evaluate the effects of 

two scarification treatments on increasing seed permeability, we compared seed water uptake 
32

after exposure to three treatments: 1) control, 2) mechanical scarification with a sharp blade, and 

3) boiling water scarification achieved by 10-second submergence in 100°C water (Kildisheva et 

al. 2011). Seeds in each replicate were weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg and re-weighted at 1 hour 

intervals for 10 hours and once at the end of 24-hour observation period (Gama-Arachchige et al. 

2010). Seed mass increase, expressed as a mean percentage, was calculated. Subsamples of 

control, mechanically scarified, and boiling water scarified seeds were scanned with a scanning 

electron microscope. To understand the morphological changes in the seed coat (i.e. whether the 

boiling water treatment effectively opened the water gap located in the chalazal region of the 

seed), the chalazal region and the dislodged chalazal cap were observed and photomicrographed.

Experiment 2. We compared germination of fresh (recently collected) seeds after exposure to a 

1) control, 2) mechanical scarification, 3) stratification, and 4) combined scarification and 

stratification treatments. Mechanical scarification procedures were consistent with those 

mentioned above. Seeds were stratified at 4.5±0.02°C for six weeks on moistened germination 

paper inside sealed Petri dishes (Kildisheva et al. 2011). 

Experiment 3. In order to evaluate the effects of scarification, water, and gibberellic acid (GA3)

on germination we subjected seeds to eight treatments: 1) control; 2) mechanical scarification; 3) 

24-hour and 4) 48-hour soak in 100 ppm GA3 solution; 5) scarification and 24-hour or 6) 48-hour 

soak in DI water; 7) scarification and 24-hour or 8) 48-hour soak in 100 ppm GA3 solution 

(Kildisheva et al. 2011). 

Experiment 4. To investigate the effects of “non-traditional” scarification which can be 

employed for large-scale seed treatment, we subjected fresh seeds to a 1) control, 2) boiling 

water (10 second submergence in 100°C), 3) tumbling, 4) burning, 5) dry-heat, and 6) burning 

and heating scarification. Seeds were tumble-scarified in a rotary rock tumbler with dry 

aluminum oxide grit for 72 hours (Kildisheva 2011; Kildisheva et al. [in review]). Following 

tumbling, seeds were separated from grit using a series of sieves (Dreesen 2004). For burning 

scarification, seeds were placed in a single layer on a metal mesh screen, submerged uniformly 

in 95% ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) for one minute, placed on a fire-resistant surface, ignited with a 

hand-held butane torch, and allowed to burn for 10 seconds before being extinguished with DI 

water (Sugii 2003; Kildisheva et al. (in review)). For dry-heat scarification seeds were subjected 

to (80°C) for 60 minutes (Baskin and Baskin 1997). Seeds in the burning and dry-heat 

scarification treatment were burned first. 

General Findings

Results indicate that S. munroana seeds are physically dormant, due to the impermeability of the 

seed coat and the presence of a cap structure covering the water gap, which must be dislodged so 

imbibition can take place. A significant increase in germination was documented across all 

experiments following scarification. We observed no evidence for additional dormancy types, 

with both stratification and GA3 failing to improve germination compared to scarification alone. 

Irrespective of treatment, maximum imbibition was reached after seven hours, but seed mass 

gain was highest for mechanically scarified seeds. Although mechanical scarification and 

scarification plus H2O achieved the highest germination across all studies, submergence of seed 

in boiling water resulted in 49% germination and can be a feasible method for operational seed 

treatment. 
33

Influence of Various Temperature and Moisture Regimes on Early Establishment and Growth of 

Sphaeralcea munroana

Sphaeralcea munroana seeds were collected from five locations throughout Oregon and Idaho, 

bulked, mechanically scarified to break dormancy, and sown into 66 ml containers (Model 

RLC4, Stuewe and Sons, Inc., Tangent, OR, U.S.A.) (Kildisheva et al. 2011; Kildisheva and

Davis [in prep.]). Following germination, a one-time application of 18-24-16 (N-P-K) fertilizer 

(Water Soluble Rose Plant Food, Scotts Co., Marysville, OH, U.S.A.) was administered to all 

containers at a rate of 3.8 mg N per plant. Treatments included four moisture (3, 6, 9 and 12-day 

intervals between recharging each container to field capacity) and two temperature (17/3°C or 

23/9°C) treatments. Each temperature and moisture treatment combination was randomly 

assigned to 20 seedlings, which remained under these growing conditions for 25 days. Mortality 

and assessments of physiological (photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration), as 

well as morphological (number of true leaves, leaf area, above- and belowground biomass, and 

the root-to-shoot ratios) condition were made at the end of the testing period. 

Under the tested scenarios, low temperatures (17/3°C) impeded plant growth, largely due to a 

reduction in the belowground growth. Root growth was influenced by moisture availability and 

temperature, but under cool conditions the temperature influence surpassed the influence of 

moisture. Plants grown under the warmest, driest conditions (23/9°C and 12-day irrigation 

interval) reduced shoot but increased root production. None of the tested gas exchange 

parameters were significantly affected by the imposed temperature and moisture conditions. Our 

findings suggest that even during early establishment, seedlings of S. munroana are drought 

tolerant. It seems reasonable to assume that because cool night temperatures inhibit growth to a 

greater extent than the reduction in moisture, a later sowing date (analogous to 23/9°C diurnal 

conditions) may enhance the establishment of Sphaeralcea munroana (Kildisheva 2011; 

Kildisheva and Davis [in prep]). 

Future Research Recommendations

 Trials with boiling water and other forms of scarification are necessary to further improve the 

germination and seed handling practices of S. munroana seeds.

 Because seeds that were previously stored germinated better, it is essential to understand 

which factors (environmental conditions during seed set, seed moisture content, storage 

temperature and duration, or additional cleaning procedures) caused this germination 

improvement. 

 Although boiling scarification was effective at breaking dormancy and is an appealing option 

for operational use, it is still unclear whether seeds could be treated prior to planting and 

stored for a period of time, without a loss of viability. It is also unclear how pre-treated seeds 

will respond following planting, especially if growing conditions are not favorable for 

establishment at sowing time.

 Field observations that evaluate plant responses to environmental conditions during the entire 

life cycle are necessary.

References: 

Baskin, J.M.; Baskin, C.C. 1997. Methods of breaking seed dormancy in endangered species 

Iliamna corei (Sherff) (Malvaceae), with special attention to heating. Natural Areas Journal 

17:313-323.
34

Beale, D.M.; Smith, A.D. 1970. Forage use, water consumption, and productivity of prongron 

antelope in western Utah. Journal of Wildlife Management 34:570-578.

Burdett, A.N. 1979. A non-destructive method for measuring the volume of intact plants. 

Canadian Journal of Forest Research 9:120-122.

Dreesen, D.R. 2004. Tumbling for seed cleaning and conditioning. Native Plants Journal 5:52-

54.

Gama-Arachchige, N.S.; Baskin J.M.; Geneve R.L.; Baskin, C.C. 2010. Identification and 

characterization of the water gap in physically dormant seeds of Geraniaceae, with special 

reference to Geranium carolinianum. Annals of Botany 105:977-990.

Pendery, B.M.; Rumbaugh, M.D. 1986. Globemallows: forbs for Utah rangelands. Utah Science 

47:41-45.

Rumbaugh, M.D.; Mayland, H.F.; Pendery, B.M.; Shewmaker, G.E. 1993. Utilization of 

globemallow (Sphaeralcea) taxa by sheep. Journal of Range Management 46:103-109.

Kildisheva O.A.; Davis A.S.; Dumroese R.K. 2011. Overcoming dormancy and enhancing 

germination of Sphaeralcea munroana seeds. HortScience 46:1672–1676. 

Kildisheva, O.A. 2011. Restoration strategies for a native perennial: germination and seedling 

physiology of Sphaeralcea munroana. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. Thesis. 

Kildisheva, O.A.; Davis, A.S. Temperature and moisture influence on early growth of 

Sphaeralcea munroana seedlings. (in prep). 

Kildisheva, O.A.; Davis, A.S.; Dumroese, R.K. Boiled, tumbled, burned, and heated: seed 

scarification techniques for Munro's globemallow. (in review).

Pavek P.L.S.; Cane J.H; Kildisheva O.A.; Davis A.S. 2011. Plant guide for Munro’s 

globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana). Pullman, WA: USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service. 

Sugii, N.C. 2003. Flaming Fabaceae - using an alcohol flame to break seed dormancy. Native 

Plants Journal 4:46-47.

Publications:

Davis, A.S.; Kildisheva, O.A. 2011. Characterization of seed germination requirements and post 

germination seedling development for improved restoration success. In: Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project 2010 Progress Report. p. 32-33.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Kildisheva, O.A. 2011. Restoration strategies for a native perennial: Germination and seedling 

physiology of Sphaeralcea munroana. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. Thesis. 78 p.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2011_kildesheva_o001.pdf

Kildisheva, O.A.; Davis, A. S. (In prep). Temperature and moisture influence on early growth of 

Sphaeralcea munroana seedlings. 

Kildisheva, O.A.; Davis, A.S.; Dumroese, R.K. 2011. Overcoming dormancy and enhancing 

germination of Sphaeralcea munroana seeds. HortScience 46:1672–1676. 

Kildisheva, O.A.; Davis, A.S.; Dumroese, R.K. (In review). Boiled, tumbled, burned, and heated: 

Seed scarification techniques for Munro's globemallow. 
35

Pavek, P.L.S.; Cane, J.H.; Kildisheva, O.A.; Davis, A.S. 2011. Plant guide for Munro’s 

Globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana). Pullman, WA: USDA Natural Resources Conservation 

Service. 5 p.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2011_pavek_p001.pdf

Presentations: 

Kildisheva O.A.; Davis, A.S. 2011. Munro’s globemallow: Exploring seed dormancy. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, February 22- 23, Salt Lake 

City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Kildisheva, O.A.; Davis, A.S. 2011. Restoration strategies for a native perennial: Germination 

and seedling physiology of Sphaeralcea munroana. Western Forest and Conservation Nursery 

Association Annual Meeting, August, Denver, CO.

Overton, E.C.; Brown, J.; Pinto, J.R.; Davis, A.S. 2011. Cold storage of sagebrush seedlings: 

Implications for native plant management. 11th Intertribal Nursery Council Meeting, September 

13-15, Temecula, CA. 

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines:

 Information on big sagebrush seedling overwinter storage can be used by growers to aid in 

the production of high quality seedlings, which may limit mortality at outplanting. 

 Evaluating trait variation in Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis can aid in understanding 

of differences in growth patterns that may occur between populations on the landscape. 

 Sphaeralcea munroana seeds exhibit physical dormancy, which is best relieved by 

mechanical (93%) or boiling water (49%) scarification. 

 Additional cleaning and dry cold storage may benefit seed germination.

 Sphaeralcea munroana shows considerable potential for restoration use on arid sites, but is 

negatively affected by low temperatures (≤ 17/3°C), which could make it a poor competitor 

with cool season grasses during the establishment phase. 

 As a result of growth reduction due to cool temperatures, a later sowing date may improve 

establishment in nurseries, seed production areas, and restoration sites.

Products:

Presentations were given at seedling rower meetings to share the information on refining cultural 

practices for the growth and storage of big sagebrush seedlings. This information has also been 

submitted for publication in Native Plants Journal.
36

Project Title: Development of Germination Protocols, Seed Weight,

 Purity and Seed Conditioning/Cleaning Protocols for

 Great Basin Grasses and Forbs

Project Location: USDA Forest Service National Tree Seed Laboratory,

Dry Branch, Georgia

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Robert Karrfalt, Director

USFS National Tree Seed Laboratory

5675 Riggins Mill Road

Dry Branch, GA 31020

(478)751.3551, Fax (478)751.4135

rkarrfalt@fs.fed.us

Victor Vankus, Botanist

USFS National Tree Seed Laboratory

5675 Riggins Mill Road

Dry Branch, GA 31020

(478)751.3551, Fax (478)751.4135

vvankus@fs.fed.us

Project Description:

The National Tree Seed Laboratory (NSL) is developing seed cleaning, testing and storage 

protocols for the species selected for the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. 

The NSL has a complete range of seed cleaning equipment so that manipulations of raw seed of 

almost any species can be performed in order to produce clean seed of high viability. 

Germination is tested over a range of temperatures and the data analyzed by response surface 

analysis to find the optimum combination of light and temperatures for optimum germination. 

Seed storage studies are done using the new technology of Equilibrium Relative Humidity 

(ERH) to assess seed moisture conditions. Training and information is also offered in workshops 

and conference presentations.

Publications:

Karrfalt, R.P.; Vankus, V. 2011. Development of germination protocols, seed weight, purity and 

seed conditioning/cleaning protocols for Great Basin grasses and forbs. In: Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project 2010 Progress Report. p. 34-36.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations: 

Karrfalt, R.P. 2011. 41 Month storage data for Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting. 2011 February 22-23, Salt 

Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml
37

Karrfalt, R.P. 2011. Using Equilibrium Relative Humidity technology to preserve the short-lived

seeds of Artemesia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis. Intertribal Nursery Council Annual Meeting. 

2011 September 13 – 15, Temecula, CA.

Management Applications: 

The sagebrush seed storage study indicates that sagebrush seed can be stored for several years 

longer than previously thought if it is properly prepared and frozen. This implies that banking 

sagebrush seed is a possibility so that quality seed of the right genetic source is readily available 

for restoration work, even in years of poor seed crops.

The positive results with sagebrush seeds can be used as a model to store other short-lived seeds 

such as winterfat (Kraschenninikovia lanata).

Growers now have an estimate of how to break dormancies to prepare seeds for sowing and what 

germination temperatures are required. 

Products:

Seed germination protocols

Germination protocols were examined for 31 species (Table 1). The germination temperatures in 

table 1 are preliminary because more seed lots need to be tested and more temperature variations 

on the best conditions from these trials must be tested before endorsing a final best temperature 

or temperature range. However these results should be useful to growers. In summary it can be 

said that all legumes require scarification with some needing moist chill periods as well. Some 

species are non dormant while the penstemons, flax, desert frasera, Nevada goldeneye, 

balsamroots, and biscuitroot are very dormant requiring months of pregermination moist chilling. 

Work continued on Achnatherum hymenoides, but a reliable prescription for germination is still 

not defined. 

All protocol results and 1000 seed weights determined to date can be found at: 

http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us.

Wyoming big sagebrush seed storage

Storage of Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis in sealed moisture 

proof containers has proven to maintain high germination for 5 years if the seed is cleaned to 

high purity, dried to an equilibrium relative humidity of 30% and frozen at – 8

o

or -20o C. The 

methods and materials of this study have been reported in the 2009 report of the GBNPSIP. The 

bar graph below summarizes the 5-year data. 
38

50

40

30

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

-20

-8

2

ERH

G

e

r

m

i

n

a

t

i

o

n

%

Storage Temperature

Germination at 5 years, Average of 5 seed lots

Figure 1. The effect of equilibrium relative humidity and storage temperature 

on the germination of Wyoming big sagebrush seeds sealed in moisture-proof bags.
39

Table 1. Preliminary germination requirements for 31 species in the Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project.

Scientific Name

Best

temperature 

(°C)*

Moist chill

period (weeks) Scarify

Arenaria macradenia ssp. ferriseae 15, 20 4, 4+ No

Astragalus beckwithii 10, 15, 20 4 Yes

Astragalus utahensis 15, 20 4 Yes

Balsamorhiza hookeri 10, 15, 20 10 Yes

Balsamorhiza sagittata 10, 15, 20 10 Yes

Cleome lutea 10, 15, 20 4 Yes

Cleome serrulata 10, 15, 20 4 Yes

Crepis acuminata 10, 15, 20 0, 4 No

Crepis intermedia 10, 15, 20 0, 4 No

Cryptantha rugulosa 20 0 No

Enceliopsis nudicaulis 15, 20 4 No

Eriogonum heracleoides 10, 15, 20 4, 4+ No

Eriogonum ovalifolium 10, 15, 20 4, 4+ No

Eriogonum villiflorum 10, 15, 20 4, 4+ No

Frasera albomarginata 10, 15, 20 12+ No

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis 10 8 No

Ipomopsis aggregata 10, 15, 20 24 No

Linum lewisii 10, 15, 20 4 No

Linum rigidum 20 6, 12 No

Lomatium nudicaule 5/10 8, 8+ No

Lupinus arbustus 10, 15, 20 4 Yes

Lupinus argenteus 10, 15, 20 0 Yes

Lupinus polyphyllus 10, 15, 20 0 Yes

Mentzelia laevicaulis 20 0 No

Nicotiana attenuata 15, 20 4+ No

Packera streptanthifolia 20 4+ No

Penstemon deustus 10 12 No

Penstemon pachyphyllus 10, 15, 20 12+ No

Penstemon rydbergii 10, 15, 20 12+ No

Stanleya pinnata var. integriflolia 20 4 No

Thelypodium milleflorum 20 4+ No

* 5/10 indicates night temperature of 5° for 16 hours and day temperature of 10° for 8 hours. A single 

number means a constant temperature was used. Several numbers denotes several temperatures were 

equally good.
40

Project Title: Modeling Seedling Root Growth of Great Basin Species

Project Location: Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Bruce A. Roundy, Professor

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept., 275 WIDB 

Brigham Young University

Provo, UT 84602

(801)422.8137, Fax (801)422.0008

bruce_roundy@byu.edu

Kert Young 

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept., 275 WIDB

Brigham Young University

Provo, UT 84602 

(801)422.4133

youngke1@msn.com

Project Description: 

This work is designed to model seedling root growth of revegetation species using thermal 

accumulation. Plant scientists have sought to select plant materials for revegetation of rangelands 

based on physiological and morphological characteristics which allow establishment under 

conditions of limiting temperatures and available water for plant growth. Thermal and 

hydrothermal models have been used to predict germination under the environmental conditions 

of rangelands (Rawlins 2009, Meyer and Allen 2009, Hardegree et al. 2010). However, low 

seedling survival limits revegetation success on rangelands, even if seeds germinate. Using a 

thermal accumulation model to predict seedling root growth would allow us to assess the 

potential for seedlings to survive under a range of field conditions and possibly suggest 

opportunities for plant improvement.

Objectives

1) Develop thermal accumulation models for seedling root penetration for forbs, grasses, and 

cheatgrass.

2) Test the ability of thermal models to predict root depth under diurnal temperatures in the 

growth chamber and in the field.

3) Use thermal models and soil water and temperature data from stations in the Great Basin to 

predict seedling root growth and survival for dry to wet years.

Growth Chamber Study

We have measured seedling root depths over time for six forbs, five perennial grasses, and three 

cheatgrass collections (Table 1) in relation to constant temperatures in a walk-in growth 

chamber. The experiment was organized in a randomized block design of four blocks and two 

soils. Black plexiglass holders were constructed to hold 70 (5 replicates x 14 collections) clear 

plastic root tubes 2.5-cm diameter by 20-cm long. Each block contained two plexiglass holders, 
41

one with tubes filled with sand and the other with tubes filled with Borvant gravelly loam soil 

passed through a 0.6 cm screen. The holders kept the tubes slanted at a 45° angle and minimized 

root exposure to light. For each of six constant temperature runs (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30° C), 

three seeds of a collection were sown 0.5 cm below the soil surface against the lower side of a 

planting tube. Prior to sowing, Utah milkvetch seeds were scarified in sulfuric acid for 15 

minutes followed by stratification at 1.5° C for two weeks along with squirreltail seeds. Tubes 

were checked six days per week and the depth of the deepest root was recorded. Time to 

germination was recorded for 25 seeds of each collection in petri dishes that were placed on 

racks below the root experiment in the incubation chamber. Soil temperatures were measured 

with six thermocouples per block placed into the ends of root tubes and attached to a Campbell 

Scientific, Inc. CR10X micrologger. Temperatures were read each minute and average hourly 

temperatures recorded. At the end of each temperature run, one tube of each collection per block 

was harvested and dry weight of root biomass recorded. The entire experiment was also 

conducted at three diurnal temperatures based on cold, cool, and warm soil temperatures 

recorded in the field. We will compare actual with root depths predicted from thermal 

accumulation models.

Table 1. Plant materials tested in root study.

Scientific name Common 

name

Cultivar Source Collection 

date

Forbs Achillea millefolium Western

yarrow

Eagle Eastern WA 2003

Achillea millefolium Common

yarrow

White-VNS Granite Seed 2003

Agoseris heterophylla Annual 

agoseris

USFS Shrub lab 2007

Astragalus utahensis Utah 

milkvetch

USFS Shrub lab 2002

Linum perenne Blue flax Appar UDWR 2003

Lupinus arbustus Longspur 

lupine

Wells, NV; 

UDWR

2004

Perennial 

grasses

Agropyron cristatum x A. 

desertorum

Crested 

wheatgrass

Hycrest UDWR 2003

Agropyron desertorum Crested 

wheatgrass

Nordan Granite Seed 2003

Elymus elymoides Squirreltail Sanpete UDWR 2003

Elymus wawawaiensis Snake River 

wheatgrass

Secar WA; Granite Seed 2003

Pseudoroegneria spicata 

ssp. spicata

Bluebunch 

wheatgrass

Anatone Granite Seed 2003

Weedy 

grasses

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Rush Valley, UT 2005

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT 2007

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT 2008

Field Experiment

The same experiment as described above was conducted at two locations in Utah for two years,

1) on the Brigham Young University campus, and 2) on the east side of the Onaqui Mountains in 
42

a Utah juniper/Wyoming big sagebrush plant community where the juniper trees have been 

shredded. In the field experiment the first year, natural precipitation watered root tubes. In the 

second year, root tubes were watered weekly as needed during the growing season. Emergence 

and root depth were recorded five times per week at the BYU campus and at least monthly at the 

Onaqui site. Thermocouples and gypsum blocks were placed in each block in the field outside 

the root tubes, but inside soil or sand surrounding the tubes. These sensors were read every 

minute and hourly averages recorded with Campbell Scientific, Inc. CR10X microloggers.

Modeling

The first step to model or predict days to 15-cm root depth is to model daily root depth as a 

function of constant temperature. A root depth of 15-cm was selected because we were interested 

in seedling establishment, most roots are in the top portion of the soil profile, and we already 

have many thermocouples buried in the field at 15-cm. Second, solve the modeled daily root 

depth equation at 15-cm root depth to derive the number of days to 15-cm root depth. Third, 

invert the number of days to 15-cm root depth. The sum of daily inverses serves as an indicator 

of progress toward the goal of 15-cm root depth. The goal of 15-cm root depth has been achieved 

on average when the sum of the inverses equals 1. The inverse of the mean number of days to 

15-cm root depth for each constant temperature is used as input into TableCurve2D software, 

which fits a non-linear equation to the data. This non-linear equation is the temperature response 

curve used to predict days to 15-cm root depth in diurnal temperature or field root trials. Most 

species temperature response curves had an R

2

greater than 0.9 and all species temperature 

response curves had an R2greater than 0.7 except for Utah milkvetch with an R

2

of 0.47. Days to 

15-cm root depth are converted to degree days to 15-cm root depth by summing the daily 

average temperatures for each day of a root trial until the 15-cm root depth has been achieved. 

For example, if it took a species 80 days to achieve 15-cm root depth at a constant 7°C, then 

adding the mean daily temperatures of 7°C for 80 days would equal 560 degree days.

Project Status

Growth Chamber Experiment

We have conducted all six of the constant temperature runs and all three of the diurnal 

temperature runs in the growth chamber. The statistical results of the experiments so far are as 

follows:

Actual vs. Predicted for Diurnal Root Trial 4-12°C. In comparing actual versus predicted degree 

days to 15-cm root depth in diurnal root trial 4-12°C, predicted degree days showed a slightly 

greater trend than actual degree days (Figure 1 and 2). In soil, Secar, squirreltail, and longspur 

lupine predicted degree days were significantly greater than their actual degree days. In sand, 

squirreltail and Nordan predicted degree days were greater than actual. These differences among 

predicted and actual degree days can be used to adjust future model predictions.

Actual vs. Predicted for Diurnal Root Trial 9-17°C. In sand for diurnal trial 9-17°C, there were 

no significant differences except predicted squirreltail required more degree days than actual 

(Figure 3). In soil for diurnal trial 9-17°C, all of the species predicted values were greater than 

their actual values except for cheatgrass ’05, cheatgrass ’07, annual agoseris, and flax (Figure 4).
43

Sand vs. Soil Actual for Diurnal Root Trial 4-12°C. For comparing actual sand versus soil degree 

days in diurnal trial 4-12°C, the grasses required more degree days to reach 15-cm root depth in 

sand than in soil except for Secar, which grew equally well in sand and soil perhaps because of 

inherent slower root penetration (Figure 5). Most of the forbs did not achieve 15-cm root depths 

in sand. The reduced rate of root depth in sand was likely due to lower nutrient availability

although other variables probably had an influence. Sand versus soil texture and nutrient 

availability will be analyzed at a later date.

Sand vs. Soil Actual for Diurnal Root Trial 9-17°C. In diurnal root trial 9-17°C, all grass species 

required more thermal time in sand than in soil except for squirreltail (Figure 6). Most of the forb 

roots did not achieve 15-cm root depth in sand.

Inter-species Comparisons for Diurnal Root Trial 4-12°C. For inter-species comparisons in sand

for root trial 4-12°C, squirreltail required more degree days than Nordan and cheatgrass ’05 

otherwise, there were no inter-species differences in sand. Comparing across species in soil, flax 

required more degree days than any other species. The invasive annuals required fewer degree 

days than all of the forbs and the perennial grasses Secar and Hycrest. Annual agoseris required 

more degree days than all of the grasses except Secar and Hycrest. The general trend across 

species in soil was that annual grasses required the least amount of thermal time, forbs required 

the most thermal time, and perennial grasses were intermediate although, Secar was quite slow 

for a grass.

Inter-species Comparisons for Diurnal Root Trial 9-17°C. For inter-species comparisons in sand 

for the 9-17°C root trial, there were few significant differences, but cheatgrass ’05 did require 

fewer degree days than Anatone. For inter-species comparisons in soil, flax required the most

degree days of any species. Cheatgrass ’05 and ’08 required fewer degree days than annual 

agoseris, Utah milkvetch, longspur lupine, and squirreltail. 

As expected, cheatgrass roots grew the fastest at cool temperatures. However, the crested 

wheatgrasses and Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass definitely grew well enough to compete with 

cheatgrass. The importance of faster root growth to establishment is suggested by comparing the 

heat accumulation requirement of the forbs and that of the grasses. Forbs are known to not 

establish as well as grasses in rangeland revegetation projects. Blue flax, one of the most 

successfully-seeded forbs requires about 700-800 degree days to reach 15-cm root depth, while 

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass requires 250-350 (Figure 2). SageSTEP data from four Great 

Basin pinyon-juniper locations for two years were used to calculate wet degree days in spring 

2008 and 2009. Degree day accumulations when the soil is wet ranged from around 300 in early 

spring (March and April) to around 700 in late spring (May and June). As long as soil moisture is 

available from March into June, robust plants of both forbs and grasses should establish because 

they will have sufficient wet degree days for root growth. However, if soil moisture becomes 

unavailable by May in a dry year, even robust forbs might not establish because they may have 

insufficient wet degree days to grow their roots and keep them below the soil drying front. The 

details of just how many wet degree days are available under different field conditions in relation 

to how many are needed for successful establishment will become better understood with 

specific modeling exercises and field validation tests. 
44

What appears to be a major concern for successful establishment of forbs is the lack of robust 

plants. Occurrence of some vigorous forb plants indicates potential for plant improvement. Such 

plant improvement work could potentially increase forb establishment success.

Field Experiments

We have conducted the field root trials at both the BYU campus and the east side of Onaqui 

Mountain for two years. We are currently analyzing these data.

Future Work and Research Perspective

We have conducted all of our experimental work for this grant and are now analyzing data and 

preparing publications. The current research is part of an ongoing research program to better 

understand how seedling establishment relates to environmental conditions and plant growth 

characteristics (Table 2). Additional future work will continue to characterize the establishment 

environment using measurements from 170 soil moisture stations, and predict establishment 

success for specific sites, weather scenarios, and plant materials using the germination and 

seedling root growth models we have developed.

Management Applications:

An important application of thermal accumulation modeling is to predict which seeded species 

are most likely to establish given site specific soil temperature and moisture patterns and 

interspecies interference. As plants have to establish in communities, rates of root depth by 

invasive weeds influence the duration of resource availability to other species through resource 

preemption as the soil dries down from spring into summer. Knowing which species are most 

likely to establish on a site should save money by avoiding the planting of species that are not 

likely to establish on certain sites. Thermal accumulation modeling can also serve as a cultivar 

development tool selecting for more consistent and vigorously establishing native plants.

Table 2. Schedule and status of research phases to predict seed germination and seedling 

establishment in the Great Basin.

Research Phase: Characterize Seedbed Environment

Past and Current Work

- Soil moisture and temperature measurements from 30 sagebrush/bunchgrass, pinyon-juniper, 

 crested wheatgrass, and cheatgrass sites and 170 stations in the Great Basin.

Major Findings

- Soil moisture and temperatures fluctuate much more at 1-3 cm in the germination zone than 13-30 

 cm deep in the seedling establishment zone. Wet degree days accumulate fastest in the spring, only 

 slightly in the winter, and erratically in fall as a function of timing and amount of precipitation. The 

 number of days when the soil is wet and within certain temperature ranges has been determined for 

 2 sites and is being determined for the other sites.

Published or Planned Publications

Published

Chambers et al. 2007; Roundy et al. 2007; Rawlins et al. (2011b)

In preparation or submitted 

Young, et al. Effects of shredding Utah juniper on soil moisture and temperature (submitted). 

Cline et al. The germination environment of Great Basin seedbeds

Cline et al. Soil moisture availability and temperature of the seedling root zone in the Great Basin 

Roundy et al. Effects of woodland fuel control treatments on soil moisture availability and temperature 

in the Great basin.
45

Table 2. Continued.

Research Phase: Develop models of germination and seedling growth

Past and Current Work

- Roundy’s lab developed germination models for 14 collections while Hardegree’s lab developed 

 models for numerous desirable species collections and weed collections.

- Roundy’s lab developed root growth models for 14 collections.

Major Findings

- Timing of germination can be predicted in relation to accumulated time and temperature above a 

 threshold temperature for non-dormant seed lots. The models work best at moderate temperatures.

- Seminal root growth or time for roots to reach a soil depth can be predicted similarly, but will vary 

 with other variables besides soil moisture and temperature, such as soil texture and nutrient 

 availability.

Published or Planned Publications

Published

Roundy et al. 2007; Rawlins (2011a)

In preparation

Young et al. Thermal accumulation modeling of seedling root depth.

Research Phase: Compare modeled and actual responses in lab and field

Past and Current Work

- Roundy’s lab has compared predicted and actual timing of germination under simulated field 

 seedbed temperatures in the lab and in field seedbeds for 2 sites and 2 years.

Major Findings

- Thermal accumulation tends to overestimate time required to germinate seed subpopulations, but is 

 accurate enough for field predictions. Wet thermal accumulation models using continuous thermal 

 accumulation and a wet threshold of -1.5 MPa water potential best predicted germination in the 

 field. Accuracy was 80% or greater for most collections in late winter to spring.

- Data from field and laboratory comparisons of predicted and actual seedling root depth is being 

 analyzed.

Published or Planned Publications

Published

Rawlins (2011a,b)

In preparation

Young et al. Field prediction of seedling root depth using a wet-thermal accumulation model.

Research Phase: Extend predictions to a range of plant materials, environments, and land treatments

Past and Current Work

- Roundy et al. (2007) Cheatgrass germination prediction analysis for 9 sites in Great Basin

- Cline is currently preparing a germination prediction analysis of 32 plant materials for 30 sites and 

 across a range of years and treatments, such as prescribed fire and mechanical brush or tree control.

- Roundy, Young, and Cline will eventually extend the germination and root growth model 

 predictions to 30 sites across the Great Basin to predict probability of seedling mortality.

Major Findings

- In an analysis of cheatgrass germination potential for 9 sites and 4 years (36 site-years) Roundy et 

 al. (2007) found that cheatgrass had high germination potential in spring, low potential in winter 

 and high potential in fall when rains occurred before temperatures decreased to near freezing.

Published or Planned Publications

Published

Roundy et al. (2007)

In analysis and preparation

Cline et al. Potential germination of weed and revegetation species in the Great Basin: Effects of 

seasonal weather, site characteristics, and treatments.

Roundy or TBA et al. Predicting seedling mortality from thermal accumulation models of germination 

and root growth.
46

References:

Chambers, J.C.; Roundy, B.A.; Blank, R.R.; Meyer, S.E.; Whittaker, A. 2007. What makes 

Great Basin sagebrush ecosystems invasible by Bromus tectorum? Ecological Monographs 

77:117-145.

Hardegree, S.P.; Moffet, C.A.; Roundy, B.A.; Jones, T.A.; Novak, S.J.;Clark, P.E.; Pierson, 

F.B.; Flerchinger, G.N. 2010. A comparison of cumulative-germination response of 

cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.) and five perennial bunchgrass species to simulated fieldtemperature regimes. Environmental and Experimental Botany 69:320-327.

Meyer, S.E.; Allen, P.S. 2009. Predicting seed dormancy loss and germination timing for Bromus 

tectorum in a semi-arid environment using hydrothermal time models. Seed Science 

Research 19:225-239.

Rawlins, J.K. 2009. Wet thermal accumulation modeling of germination of western U.S. 

rangeland species. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 48 p. Thesis.

Rawlins, J.K.; Roundy, B.A.; Davis, S.M.; Egget, D. 2011. Predicting germination in semi-arid 

seedbeds. I. Thermal germination models. Environmental and Experimental Botany 76 

(2012):60-67. Published on-line 1 November 2011 at: 

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2011.10.003.

Rawlins, J.K.; Roundy, B.A.; Egget, D.; Cline, N. 2011. Predicting germination in semi-arid 

wildland seedbeds II. Field validation of wet-thermal models. Environmental and 

Experimental Botany 76 (2012):68-73. Published on-line 1 November 2011 at: 

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2011.10.004.

Roundy, B.A.; Hardegree, S.P.; Chambers, J.C.; Whittaker, A. 2007. Prediction of cheatgrass 

field germination using wet thermal accumulation. Rangeland Ecology and Management 

60:613-623.

Publications:

Roundy, B.; Young, K. 2011. Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species. In: Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 44-51.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations:

Cline, N.; Roundy, B.; Hardegree, S. 2011. Germination prediction from soil moisture and 

temperature data across the Great Basin. Society for Range Management 64th annual meeting, 

2011 February 6-10, Billings, MT. Abstract 283.

Roundy, D.; Young, K.; Roundy, B. 2011. Modeling seedling root growth in relation to 

temperature for fire rehabilitation species. Society for Range Management 64th annual meeting, 

2011 February 6-10, Billings, MT. Abstract 455.

Young, K.; Roundy, B. 2011. Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake 

City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml
47

Young, K.; Roundy, B. 2011. Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species. Ecological 

Society of America Annual Meeting, 2011 August 08-12, Austin, TX.

Cline, N.L.; Roundy, B.; Hardegree, S. 2011. Germination prediction from soil moisture and 

temperature in the Great Basin. Interior West Fire Ecology Conference, 2011 November 14-17, 

Snowbird, UT.

Figure 1. Actual vs predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in sand for the growth chamber 

diurnal root trial 4-12°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.

 

Figure 2. Actual vs predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in soil for the growth chamber 

diurnal root trial 4-12°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.
48

Figure 3. Actual vs predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in sand for the growth chamber 

diurnal root trial 9-17°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.

Figure 4. Actual vs predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in soil for the growth chamber 

diurnal root trial 9-17°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.
49

Figure 5. Actual sand vs soil degree days to 15-cm root depth for the growth chamber diurnal 

root trial 4-12°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.

Figure 6. Actual sand vs soil degree days to 15-cm root depth for the growth chamber diurnal 

root trial 9-17°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.
50

Project Title: Diversity of Mycorrhizal Fungi Associated with 

Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis

Project Location: Boise State University, Boise, Idaho

Principal Investigator and Contact Information:

Marcelo Serpe, Professor

Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University

Boise, ID, 83725-1515

(208)426.3687

mserpe@boisestate.edu

Project Description:

In semiarid steppe communities of the Intermountain West, reintroduction of Artemisia 

tridentata ssp. wyomingensis (Wyoming big sagebrush) following fires has proven difficult. This 

is in large part due to high seedling mortality during the dry summer period. Several studies 

suggest a factor that could improve seedling survival is the establishment of symbiotic 

associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) (Stahl et al. 1988, 1998). Furthermore, 

low levels of colonization in disturbed sites may limit the ability of seedlings to tolerate stress 

conditions (Stahl et al. 1988, 1998, Wicklow-Howard 1989). 

Wyoming big sagebrush associates with AMF in natural habitats (Stahl et al. 1998). However, 

the species that participate in this association have not been well characterized. Knowledge about 

the AMF species that colonize Wyoming big sagebrush is important because the functionality of 

AMF-plant symbioses is variable and depends on the AMF and plant species involved 

(Kliromonos 2003, Jones and Smith 2004, van der Heijden 2004). The major goal of this study is 

to identify AMF species that colonize Wyoming big sagebrush and begin to characterize the 

overall diversity of AMF species in sagebrush habitats of southwestern Idaho. 

Specific objectives

1) Collection of Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings from sagebrush communities in southern 

Idaho and identification of the AMF species that colonize their roots

2) Multiplication and identification of AMF species present in soil samples collected from 

various sites 

Methods

Collection sites: For the identification of mycorrhizae, seedlings and soil samples were collected 

from seven sites in southwestern Idaho (Figure 1). The selected sites have natural populations of 

Wyoming big sagebrush and appeared relatively pristine as judged by the presence of biological 

soil crust, native grasses, and low density of invasive weeds. 
51

 

Figure 1. Location of collection sites. The map on the right shows an enlarged portion 

of the map on the left. 

Site Name (code) Latitude/Longitude

Kuna Butte (K) N 43° 26.161' W 116° 25.848'

Birds of Prey (E) N 43° 19.272' W 116° 23.643'

Simco Road (S) N 43° 11.047' W 115° 58.181'

Old Oregon Trail Rd (F) N 43° 05.353' W 115° 38.702'

Bennett Mountain Rd (H) N 43° 03.755' W 115° 19.088'

Summer Camp Rd (D) N 43° 27.566' W 116° 50.712'

Cinder Cone Butte (C) N 43° 13.160' W 115° 59.598'

DNA extraction, cloning, and sequencing: DNA was extracted separately from roots and soil 

collected from the field sites. In addition, AMF present in the soil were multiplied in pot cultures 

using Sudan grass as a host; this material was also used for DNA extraction. The presence of 

mycorrhizal DNA in the extracts was determined via nested PCR. General fungal primers LR1 

and FLR2 were used in the first amplification and their products were amplified in a second PCR 

reaction with the Glomeromycota specific primers FLR3 and FLR4 (Gollotte et al. 2004). These 

primers amplify regions of the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene (LSU rDNA). The PCR 

products were cloned and the inserts were amplified, and sent for sequencing to a commercial 

facility. With the DNA sequences a phylogenetic analysis was conducted to identify species and 

phylotypes based on comparison with a reference data set for phylotaxonomy of AMF (Kruger et 

al. 2012). We defined phylotypes as terminal clades with a posterior probability larger than 80%. 

Results

From the DNA extracted from the roots and soil at the different sites, we obtained PCR products 

of the expected length, which ranges from 300 to 380 bp. Each of the amplified products can 

contain more than one sequence. Consequently, they were cloned and the inserts from single 

transformed colonies copied again by PCR and sent for sequencing. Sequences were trimmed, 

annotated, and manually aligned. 

The most current phylogenetic analysis includes more than 350 distinct sequences from samples 

collected from seven sites, and from greenhouse pot cultures grown with soil from these sites. 

This analysis reveals at least nine phylotypes, which were surrounded by boxes in Figure 2. 

Three of the phylotypes correspond to known species, Claroideoglomus claroideum (Figure 2, 

box A), Glomus microaggregatum (Figure 2, E), and Funneliformis mosseae (Figure 2 I). 
52

Similarly, another phylotype with a large number of sequences clustered close to Glomus 

intraradices, which has been recently renamed Rhizophagus intraradices (Figure 2, D). This 

species is, however, undergoing revisions. Thus, some of the sequences in 2D may require 

splitting into more than one phylotype. The phylogenetic analysis also reveals several clusters 

that do not match any reported sequence (Figure 2 C, F, G, and H). These phylotypes may 

represent new species or alternatively known species whose sequence has not been reported for 

the LSU rDNA gene.

A

B

C

Figure 2. Phylogenetic analysis of mycorrhizal DNA sequences. Tree with bootstrap values. 

For each site and type of sample, we obtained ten to fifteen sequences. The first letter 

indicates the abbreviation for the site and the second the type of sample (R = roots and S = 

soil). Sequences obtained from pot cultures are indicated with a P followed by the 

abbreviation for the site. One hundred bootstrap replicates with 10 random additions each, 

rearrangements limited to 1 million per search. 
53

Figure 2. (continuation)

D
54

Figure 2. (continuation)

E

F

G

H

I
55

Of the six phylotypes found in the soil, five were also present in sagebrush roots (Figure 3). The 

exception was phylotype I (F. mosseae), which may be rare since only one sequence of this 

phylotype was detected among all the field collected samples. In pot cultures, we detected all the 

phylotypes found in the original field samples. However, some biases during multiplication in 

pot cultures were apparent. For example, phylotype E (G. microaggregatum) was detected in six 

sites, but only in one of the pot cultures from these sites. As expected, the pot cultures revealed 

additional phylotypes, which perhaps were undetected in the field samples due to their low 

occurrence.

Per site, the number of phylotypes ranged from two to five (Table 1). Phylotype D (R. 

intraradices) was found in root samples from five sites and phylotype G was found at four sites. 

In some sites, some phylotypes were found in roots, but not in the soil, strongly suggesting that 

our sampling intensity was not sufficient to detect all the phylotypes present at a particular site. 

The phylotypes that we detected are probably the most common and consequently those most 

likely to have an impact on the vegetation. 

Table 1. Phylotypes found at each site in soil or sagebrush roots. Ten to 

fifteen sequences were analyzed per root and soil sample from each site.

Site Roots Soil Total

Kuna Butte D, E D, E 2

Oregon Trail C, D, G D, G 3

Birds of Prey D, F, G D, E, F 4

Simco Road C, E, G C, D, E 4

Bennett Road G D, E 3

Summer Camp Road D D, E, F, G, I 5

Cinder Cone Butte D D, E, F 3

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

A B C D E F G H I Number of sites

roots

soil

pot culture

Figure 3. Number of sites at which each phylotype was found in sagebrush roots or soil. 

A total of seven sites were sampled.
56

References:

Gollote, A.; van Tuinen, D.; Atkinson, D. 2004. Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 

colonising roots of the grass species Agrostis capillaris and Lolium perenne in a field 

experiment. Mycorrhiza 14:111-117.

Jones, M.D.; Smith, S.E. 2004. Exploring functional definitions of mycorrhizas: are mycorrhizas 

always beneficial? Canadian Journal of Botany 82:1089-1109.

Klironomos, J.N. 2003. Variation in plant response to native and exotic arbuscular mycorrhizal 

fungi. Ecology 84:2292-2301.

Krüger, M.; Krüger, C.; Walker, C.; Stockinger, H.; Schüßler, A. 2012. Phylogenetic reference 

data for systematics and phylotaxonomy of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi from phylum to 

species levels. New Phytologist 193:970-984.

Stahl, P.D.; Schuman, G.E.; Frost, S.M.; William, S.E. 1998. Arbuscular mycorrhizae and water 

stress tolerance of Wyoming Big Sagebrush Seedlings. Soil Science Society of America 

Journal 62:1309-1313.

Stahl, P.D.; William, S.E.; Christensen, M. 1988. Efficacy of native vesicular-arbuscular 

mycorrhizal fungi after severe soil disturbance. New Phytologist 110:347-354.

van der Heijden, M.G.A. 2004. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi as support systems for seedling 

establishment in grasslands. Ecology Letters 7:293-303.

Wicklow-Howard, M.C. 1989. The occurrence of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae in burned 

areas of the Snake River Birds of Prey Area, Idaho. Mycotaxon 34:253-257.

Publications:

Serpe, M. 2011. Diversity of mycorrhizal fungi associated with Artemisia tridentata ssp. 

wyomingensis. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress 

Report. p. 52-54.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Serpe, M and Novak, S. 2011. Development of procedures to break dormancy in Lomatium 

dissectum seeds. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress 

Report. p. 37-43.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations:

Carter, K.; Serpe, M. 2011. Identification of native mycorrhizal species that colonize Artemisia 

tridentata ssp. wyomingensis seedlings in Southwestern Idaho. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Carter, K.; White, M.; Serpe, M. 2011. Molecular identification of mycorrhizal fungi in 

seedlings of Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis from Southern Idaho. Annual meeting of the 

Mycological Society of America, 2011 August 2-5, Fairbanks, AK.
57

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

We identified various phyloptypes in sagebrush roots. Some of these correspond to cosmopolitan 

species, while others represent clusters of previously unsequenced species. 

At present it is not clear whether the phylotypes that we identified in sagebrush habitats are 

present in commercial inoculums. Thus, we do not recommend the use of commercial inoculum 

until more is known about the phylotypes they contain and their effects on sagebrush 

establishment. 

The identification of mycorrhizal phylotypes that colonize sagebrush represents a first step 

towards improving the availability of native mycorrhizae. We have begun to generate 

monospecific cultures of these mycorrhizae with the goal of testing their usefulness in restoration 

projects. 
58

Project Title: Developing Protocols for Maximizing Establishment of

Two Great Basin Legume Species

Project Location: USDA ARS, Forage and Range Research Lab, Logan, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Douglas A. Johnson, Research Plant Physiologist

USDA ARS, Forage and Range Research Lab 

Utah State University

Logan, UT 84322-6300

(435)797.3067, Fax (435)797.3075

doug.johnson@ars.usda.gov

B. Shaun Bushman, Research Geneticist 

USDA ARS, Forage and Range Research Lab 

Utah State University

Logan, UT 84322-6300

(435)797.2901, Fax (435)797.3075

shaun.bushman@ars.usda.gov

Project Description: 

Greenhouse Seedling Emergence Studies

Hardseededness is a feature that often limits rapid, uniform germination in legume species. We 

were interested in identifying techniques that can be used to optimize seed germination and 

seedling emergence in three legume species native to the Great Basin of the western United 

States including basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), western prairie clover (Dalea ornata), and 

Searls’ prairie clover (Dalea searlsiae). We conducted a greenhouse study to determine the 

influence of seed scarification and seeding depth on the germination and emergence of six seed 

lots. The various seed lots were analyzed for germination and seed viability with germination 

and tetrazolium tests by the Utah State Seed Laboratory. Although total viable seed in the nontreated seed lots was greater than 84%, viable hard seed was extremely high for the seed lots 

ranging from 73-96%. Seed lots were left untreated, acid-scarified, or sandpaper-scarified for the 

greenhouse studies. The acid-scarified seeds were treated by soaking the seeds in concentrated 

sulfuric acid for five minutes, rinsing in tap water, and air-drying the seed. The sandpaperscarified seed lots were scarified by rubbing the seed between two pieces of 120-grit sandpaper. 

Besides the three seed treatments, seeds were planted at either a 0.6 cm (1/4 inch) or 1.9 cm (3/4 

inch) depth in sandy loam soil. A total of 50 seeds were planted in each treatment, and four 

replications were used in a randomized complete block design in a greenhouse. Two complete 

runs of the experiment were conducted. Seedling counts were obtained on twelve dates starting 

at Day 3 and going to Day 28. 

Results of the greenhouse experiment are shown in Table 1. The main effects of seed treatment, 

soil depth, and seed lot were all significant (P ≤ 0.01), and all two- and three-way interactions 

were also significant (P ≤ 0.05), except the seeding depth X seed treatment interaction. 

Seedlings of western prairie clover and Searls’ prairie clover emerged well at both the 0.6- and 
59

1.9-cm planting depths. Scarification greatly improved emergence in both western and Searls’ 

prairie clover, but much less so for basalt milkvetch. Scarification by acid was significantly 

better than sandpaper scarification for the two prairie clover species in all cases. For basalt 

milkvetch, sandpaper scarification resulted in slightly higher emergence than acid scarification; 

however, total emergence was still less than 40% (on a pure live-seed basis) in basalt milkvetch 

compared to more than 95% for the acid-scarified seed lots of the western and Searls’ prairie 

clover species. 

Table 1. Analysis of variance table for greenhouse seedling emergence study.

Factor df F value Significance

Depth 1 20.45 **

Seed lot (S) 5 263.45 **

Seed Treatment (T) 2 3,382.43 **

S X T 10 70.23 **

Depth X S 5 2.68 *

Depth X T 2 0.12 NS

Depth X S X T 10 2.21 *

** = P < 0.01, * = P < 0.05, NS = not significant

Field Seeding Studies

Based on the results of the greenhouse experiments, actual field seeding studies were established 

at three locations. Studies at Clarno, OR and Powell Butte, OR were established cooperatively 

with Matt Horning during late October 2011. Field plots at Ontario, OR were planted in early 

November 2011 in cooperation with Clint Shock and Erik Feibert. Studies included scarified and 

non-treated seed of Majestic and Spectrum germplasm western prairie clover and NBR-1 

germplasm basalt milkvetch. Additional treatments at Ontario included a fungicide application 

on the seed. Duplicate seeding studies will be established at each of the three locations during 

spring 2012. Establishment data will be collected for two years post-planting, but sites will be 

kept to allow for long-term observation.

Release of Majestic Germplasm and Spectrum Germplasm Western Prairie Clover

Western prairie clover (Dalea ornata) is a perennial leguminous forb that occurs naturally in 

Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, and Nevada. Two natural-track selected germplasms of 

western prairie clover were released in 2011 for use in revegetation of semiarid rangelands in the 

western USA. Majestic Germplasm western prairie clover originates from seed collected from 

indigenous plants in Sherman County, Oregon, whereas Spectrum Germplasm western prairie 

clover originates from seed collected from indigenous plants in Malheur County, Oregon. 

Common-garden and DNA-marker data for 22 collections of western prairie clover were used to 

develop these releases on a genetic basis. Majestic Germplasm was selected to represent a 

genetically differentiated group of western prairie clover from the western Columbia Plateau and 

western Blue Mountains Ecoregions. Spectrum Germplasm was selected to represent the 

genetically differentiated group from the central and eastern Columbia Plateau, central and 

eastern Blue Mountains, Northern Basin and Range, and Snake River Plain Ecoregions. Besides 

the substantial and significant genetic differentiation detected between these two germplasm 
60

sources, these germplasms also reflect differences in flowering date, which was a significant 

delineator of the two groups as well as significantly correlated with environmental variables at 

the collection sites. Western prairie clover is a new species in the commercial seed trade, and 

these are the first releases of this species. A release notice for Majestic germplasm and Spectrum 

germplasm western prairie clover was prepared and published in Native Plants Journal.

Publications:

Bhattarai, K.; Bushman, B.S.; Johnson, D.A.; Carman, J.G. 2011. Searls’ prairie clover (Dalea 

searlsiae) for rangeland revegetation: Phenotypic and genetic evaluations. Crop Science 51:716-

727.

Johnson, D.A.; Bushman, B.S. 2011. Developing protocols for maximizing establishment of two 

Great Basin legume species. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010

Progress Report. p. 55-56.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_Progress_Report.pdf

Johnson, D.A.; Bushman, B.S.; Bhattarai, K.; Connors, K.J. 2011. Notice of release of Majestic 

Germplasm and Spectrum Germplasm Western Prairie clover. Native Plants Journal 12:249-256.

Presentations:

Bushman, S.; Johnson, D.; Bhattarai, K. 2011. Genetic and phenotypic evaluations of western 

prairie clover and germination/establishment considerations. Great Basin Native Plant Selection 

and Increase Project Annual Meeting, February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Johnson, D.A.; Bhattarai, K.; Bushman, B.S. 2011. Utilizing common-garden and genetic 

diversity structure analyses to determine strategies for releasing Wildland Plant Germplasm for 

Rangeland Revegetation. IX International Rangeland Congress, April 1-8, Rosario, Argentina.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

Seed producers will benefit by knowing how to obtain stands of these two species for seed 

production. Land managers will be provided with data to show expected germination and 

establishment in different regions or planting seasons and planting practices.

Products: 

Germplasm releases for the species, seed production guidelines, planting guides, peer-reviewed 

publications, and other reports.
61

Project Title: Great Basin Native Plant Materials Development 

and Cultivation

Project Location: Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Jason Stettler, Native Forb Biologist

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 48327

(435)283.4441, Fax (435)283.2034

jasonstettler@utah.gov

Allison Whittaker, GBRC Project Leader

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 48327

(435)283.4441, Fax (435)283.2034

alisonwhittaker@utah.gov

Project Description:

We are continuing to work on developing cultural practice guidelines and procedures for several 

Great Basin forb species. We continue to research life histories, drought tolerance, and nutrient 

deficiencies of forbs in cultivation. We maintain research properties in Fountain Green and 

Ephraim, Utah where stock seed plots and seed increase fields are being established. We make 

wildland seed collections that are used for seed increase, and distributed to growers.

Cultural Practices

Native Lupine Cultivation

Relatively little is known about native lupines in cultivation. In October 2007 two research plots 

were prepared for planting with Lupinus arbustus, L. argenteus, L. prunophilus, and L. sericeus

to study germination, establishment, seed production, and life histories in agronomic settings. 

Three cultivation techniques were implemented: seed drilled in rows and left uncovered, seed 

broadcast and covered with sawdust and N-sulate®fabric, and seedling transplants were planted 

into weed-barrier fabric the following spring.

L. arbustus and L. prunophilus seedlings exhibited chlorosis and necrosis. All L. arbustus

planting senesced and did not resprout the following year. The L. prunophilus plantings in the 

broadcast and covered treatment persisted and resprouted the following year. L. prunophilus

showed signs of chlorosis every year and did not flower and set seed until 2011.

We report our findings in seed production and life histories of the three surviving species. Only 

L. argenteus and L. sericeus produced seed in the second and third years. Seed yields for L. 

argenteus on the Ft. Green and Snow Field farms showed an increase in production in the second 

year and significantly dropped in the third year of production. Seed yields for L. sericeus have 
62

increased production each year at both locations. In 2011 L. prunophilus flowered and set seed at 

both locations but yields varied between 35 lbs/acre at Ft. Green and 110 lbs/acre at Snow Field. 

All yield estimates are based on plots that produced seed and do not take into account the total 

areas seeded where crops failed.

Figure 1. Three year harvest trend data for three species of Lupinus.

Due to the total loss of L. arbustus plots and the 66% loss of L. prunophilus plots from iron 

deficiency chlorosis, as well as the stunted and delayed growth of surviving L. prunophilus plots, 

we have designed and began implementing a study of iron deficiency chlorosis. This study 

focuses on the four species in the native lupine cultivation study, and four treatments of EDDHA 

chelated iron: control or no treatment, seed applied iron, foliar applied iron, and iron applied to 

both seed and foliage. We will measure germination, establishment, time to flower, seed yield, 

and overall greenness with a chlorophyll meter. We will also do some random destructive 

sampling to determine nutrient content of seedlings. Our objective is to identify a practical and 

effective method of treating iron deficiency chlorosis for these species.

Transplant Study

Species like Balsamorhiza sagitatta, B. hookeri, Crepis acuminata, and C. intermedia pose 

problems in cultivation due to the length of time it takes for them to establish before they flower 

and produce seed, typically 3 to 5 years. We began the experiment by seeding beds with 6-inch 

row spacing to create a dense bed of seedlings that can be transplanted before they are large 

enough to begin to flower. In 2009 three beds were planted, in 2010 eight beds were planted, and 

in 2011, 26 additional beds were planted. In 2012 the original beds planted will be ready to 

transplant. We will categorize the root stock by crown diameter and root length. These factors 

will be important to consider after transplanting because the time it will take for them to flower 

after transplanting remains unknown.

Seed Increase and Foundation Fields

We continued to maintain the stock seed accessions planted in 2009 and 2010. These are the seed 

increase fields for our pooled source releases that will be distributed to growers. In 2009 we 

planted 55 accessions of 19 species at Fountain Green, and 44 accessions of 9 species at Snow 

40

58

18 19

72

94

0 0

72.5

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

2009 2010 2011

Seed Yield (lbs/acre)

L. argenteus

L. sericeus

L. prunophilus
63

Field. In 2010 we planted 62 accessions of 32 species at Fountain Green and 32 accessions of 11 

species at Snow Field. 

Common Gardens

Sphaeralcea

In 2009 two Sphaeralcea common gardens were planted; one in Nephi, Utah and one at the 

Desert Experimental Range (DER) located in Utah’s West Desert, southeast of Garrison, Utah. 

The common garden in Nephi was destroyed by grasshoppers and was removed the following 

year. The purpose of the common garden established in the DER was to observe survival in hot 

dry conditions. The DER has a mean annual precipitation of 165 mm and temperatures (PRISM 

Climate Group 2010)1in July commonly reach 32° C (PRISM Climate Group 2010)1. In 2011 

we collected the second year survival data, and compared the seed source climates with survival.

Figure 2. Desert Experimental Range (DER) Sphaeralcea common garden survival data. The 

best survival for S. grossulariifolia (SPGR2) was U60-07, which is a source 40 miles east of the 

DER. The survival of this source may indicate local adaptation to the conditions at the DER. The 

S. coccinea (SPCO) lots had best overall survival and all came from areas receiving 14-24 inches 

of annual precipitation. S. coccinea appears to be the most drought tolerant and broadly adapted 

species.

Eriogonum ovalifolium

In 2009 flower number and height data were collected from the common garden plants to use as 

a surrogate for seed set. After analyzing the seed yield data from 2010 and 2011 we have 

concluded that flower number is a poor indicator of seed set. In 2011 the highest seed yield was 

an estimated 57 lbs/acre, but its viability was 58%. The next best seed yield was 11 lbs/acre with 

36% viability. The accession U30-2004, from Bingham county Idaho, was the top seed producer 

in both 2010 and 2011 with estimated seed yields of 56.1 lbs/acre and 57.5 lbs/acre respectively.

Due to the extremely low seed yields and low seed viability of most accessions, we have 

purchased pollination cages to attempt to increase both seed yield and viability. We will be U60-07 U44-07 U63-08 U52-05 U30-04 2936-93 U6-00 U7-02 U55-05 2892-91 U28-04 U19-04

SPGR2 SPCO SPMU2 SPPA2

DER Common Garden Survival
64

setting up a randomized pollination study in 2012 where we will be force pollinating one 

replicate of each accession. When we have found the top producers we will plant increase plots 

in the fall of 2012.

Table 1. Eriogonum ovalifolium common garden top ten seed producers by estimated acre 

yield for 2010 and 2011. 

2010 Top Seed Producers 2011 Top Seed Producers

Lot

Acre 

Yield Viability

PLS 

lbs Lot

Acre 

Yield Viability

PLS 

lbs

U30-04 56.1 65% 36.5 U30-04 57.5 58% 33.36

U11-02 51.8 61% 31.6 U23-05 11.6 36% 4.17

U11-05 51.2 44% 22.5 U29-05 9.8 35% 3.43

U28-05 20.6 46% 9.5 U8-02 9.5 63% 5.96

U11-05 16.5 59% 9.7 U28-05 7.6 55% 4.21

U8-02 14.2 40% 5.7 U13-02 7.6 18% 1.38

U32-05 9.2 2% 1.8 U8-02 6.6 63% 4.15

U28-05 8.9 61% 5.4 U27-05 4.8 55% 2.65

U23-05 3.4 22% 0.7 U7-02 4.5 33% 1.48

U27-05 1.4 14% 0.2 U20-05 4.2 42% 1.77

Implementation Studies

Forb Island Study

In previous work on our research farms using N-Sulate fabric, we saw a significant increase in 

germination. After seeing this increase in germination we wanted to test the use of this fabric in 

a wildland setting. In 2009 we established the first treatment year of this study. Four sites were 

selected, two in Tooele County, one in Sanpete County and one in Carbon County. The 

treatments were replicated again in 2010 on the same sites. This study compares the germination 

and establishment of seeded species on plots covered with N-sulate fabric and plots left 

uncovered. Initial germination data was collected in 2010 and 2011 (Fig. 3). In 2011 we also 

collected establishment data for the second growing season on the plots treated in 2009. In 2012 

we plan to collect data again from these plots to see if the treatment is effective over time. 
65

Figure 3. Germination of seeded species by treatment and by site. In general the plots covered 

with N-sulate fabric had higher germination than the plots that were left uncovered. The effect of 

the N-sulate fabric on Lomatium nudicale, however varied by site. The N-sulate fabric had a 

larger positive effect on the sites that had lower precipitation, Hatch Ranch and Lookout Pass.

0

5

10

15

20

25

Uncovered

Covered

Uncovered

Covered

Uncovered

Covered

Uncovered

Covered

Fountain Green Gordon Creek Hatch Ranch Lookout Pass

Density (m. sq.)

First Growing Season - 2010 Plots

thmi5

pofe

pepa8

niat

luar3

lonu2

lile

hebo

clse

basa3

armu

agose
66

Figure 4. Establishment of seeded species by treatment and by site. Two years post treatment the 

treatment effect was still positive for most species but the effect was not as large except at the 

Hatch Ranch site. In the previous year the treatment only had a positive effect on L. nudicale on 

two of the sites. Two years post treatment the treatment had a positive effect on L.nudicale on all 

sites indicating that the treatment improved establishment for this species.

Geospatial Analysis of Great Basin Provisional Seed Zones

For revegetation to be successful, the plant materials utilized must be adapted to the area. Bower 

et al. (2010) developed Provisional Seed Zones for the Great Basin forbs and grasses based on 

annual precipitation and average summer high temperatures. He also recommended partitioning 

the Great Basin into two areas by Omernik’s Level III ecoregions Omernik (1987); the Central 

Basin and Range as one and the Northern Basin and Range and the Snake River Plain as the 

other. Each of these areas contained 10 provisional seed zones.

Provisional Seed Zones provide a tool for selecting materials for planting. Using the Provisional

Seed Zone map we extracted the location information from our database and assigned each 

species and site a seed zone. Based on the results, we began planting pooled source releases for 

our target species in 2010. 

After analyzing the data from our identified sites and herbaria records we found the majority of 

the distributions for many species were localized within three or four provisional seed zones. We

used historic fire (Finn et al. 2012) and land treatment (Pelliod 2009) GIS records from the last 

three decades to map wildfires and seeded areas. We identified four zones in each Great Basin 

partition that, based on acreage of disturbance, would warrant adequate quantities of seed for 

restoration. We made these top four zones our priorities to produce plant materials that will be 

adapted to areas being burned and reseeded.

0

5

10

15

20

25

Uncovered

Covered

Uncovered

Covered

Uncovered

Covered

Uncovered

Covered

Fountain Green Gordon Creek Hatch Ranch Lookout Pass

Density (m. sq.)

Second Growing Season - 2009 Plots

agose

armu

basa3

clse

hebo

hemun

lile

lonu2

luar3

niat

pepa8

pofe
67

Table 2. The two boundaries of the Great Basin provisional seed zones showing total

area, acres burned and acres treated in the decade 2000-2010. Zone 5 in both groups 

has the greatest land area, as well as area burned and treated.

Northern Great Basin

Total Land Acres Burned Acres Treated

PSZ Zone Description Area (acres) 2000-2010 2000-2010

Zone 1 < 10 in precip / > 80 deg 722,843 17,810 90,773 

Zone 2 < 10 in precip / < 80 deg 6,195,455 403,380 253,355 

Zone 3 10-14 in precip / 80-90 deg 918,798 49,301 15,640 

Zone 4 14-24 in precip / 80-90 deg 19,161 644 - 

Zone 5 10-14 in precip / 70-80 deg 24,343,753 2,335,702 1,194,510 

Zone 6 14-24 in precip / 70-80 deg 7,393,185 783,495 213,745 

Zone 7 10-14 in precip / < 70 deg 1,297,922 60,867 11,305 

Zone 8 14-24 in precip / < 70 deg 4,955,727 462,867 81,887 

Zone 9 < 60 deg 3,165 - - 

Zone 10 > 24 in precip 2,540,833 86,092 3,177 

Central Basin and Range

Total Land Acres Burned Acres Treated

PSZ Zone Description Area (acres) 2000-2010 2000-2010

Zone 1 < 10 in precip / > 80 deg 18,266,390 157,086 104,398 

Zone 2 < 10 in precip / < 80 deg 15,184,265 374,052 135,018 

Zone 3 10-14 in precip / 80-90 deg 3,465,157 257,885 54,758 

Zone 4 14-24 in precip / 80-90 deg 541,330 27,700 29,103 

Zone 5 10-14 in precip / 70-80 deg 22,903,115 1,528,432 717,666 

Zone 6 14-24 in precip / 70-80 deg 9,387,606 476,825 300,009 

Zone 7 10-14 in precip / < 70 deg 1,310,725 89,345 42,328 

Zone 8 14-24 in precip / < 70 deg 4,151,275 119,367 79,596 

Zone 9 < 60 deg 222,054 628 785 

Zone 10 > 24 in precip 1,159,001 14,511 11,107 

Database Compilation

A Microsoft® Access database was created which houses all related data with our collections. 

This includes soil analysis, seed viability analysis, seed allocations, seed increase, collection 

data, and location data. This was a collaborative effort between Jason Stettler of the Great Basin 

Research Center and Forest Service botanist Scott Jensen of the Provo Shrub Science Lab, and is 

a combination of all records for these two researchers. This new database took two databases 

housed in two different database programs and combined them for ease of use and its features in 

updatability. Microsoft® Access 2007 has a function which allows multiple users to update a 

single database through Microsoft® Outlook. This is ideal because multiple users from multiple 

offices can update the database as frequently as needed throughout the collecting and farming 

season.
68

We will further develop the database to be used in keeping farming treatment records, herbaria 

searches, and germination and increase data. This will assist in species distribution studies, 

collecting seed from new sources, and farm management.

References:

PRISM Climate Group. 2010. PRISM Climate Group - Oregon State University. 

http://prism.oregonstate.edu, created 1 Feb 2012.

Bower, A.; St. Clair J.B.; Erickson, V.J. 2010. Provisional seed zones for native plants. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/nativeplantmaterials/rightmaterials.shtml

Omernik, J.M. 1987. Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Annals of the Association of 

American Geographers 77:118-125.

Finn, S.P.; Hanser, S.E.; Meinke, C.W.; Smith, A. 2012. The Western Fire Map 1870-2007. 

USGS Snake River Field Station, SAGEMAP Project, Boise, ID. 

http://sagemap.wr.usgs.gov/ftp/SAB/western_fires_(1870-2007).txt

Pilliod, D. 2009. Land Treatment Digital Library. U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2009-3095, 

2 p. http://greatbasin.wr.usgs.gov/ltdl/Default.aspx

Publications:

Jones, C. 2011 Cultural practices and seed scarification of four native Lupinus species 

(Fabaceae) from the Great Basin. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 51 p. Thesis.

Jones, C., Whittaker, A. 2011. Native plant material development and cultivation trials for native 

Great Basin forbs and grasses. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2010 

Progress Report. p. 57-63.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Whittaker, A.; Summers, D. 2011. Establishment of native forbs following mechanical soil 

disturbance in Wyoming big sagebrush communities in the Great Basin. In: Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 167-172.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations:

Jones, C. 2011. Plant materials research at GBRC. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Whittaker, A. 2011. Establishment of native forbs in wildland settings. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Jones, C. 2011. Cultural practices and seed scarification of four native Lupinus species 

(Fabaceae) from across the Great Basin. 2011 June 17, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT. 
69

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines:

Land Managers

N-sulate®fabric appears to be a potential option to help establish native forbs in a wildland 

setting, particularly on dry sites with minimal cheatgrass or other weedy annual species. This is 

not a treatment that a land manager could cost effectively apply to an entire landscape-scale 

project, but could be used to establish forbs in specific small areas of the site. More research 

needs to be done to test cost/benefit and to test other row covers that may be more cost effective.

Seed Producers

After growing several species of native lupines for four years we have a few recommendations 

based on observed life histories. Lupinus argenteus will only produce seed for two years, 

beginning in the second year after planting. Our plots had reduced seed yield in the third 

producing year and should be replanted after the second harvest. L. sericeus has had an increase 

in seed yield for three consecutive seasons. We will continue to observe plots of this species and 

make recommendations for stand life-spans in the future. After four years our L. prunophilus

plots flowered and produced seed. Several plots produced estimated seed yields at around 100 

lbs per acre; overall average was 72.5 lbs/acre (Fig. 1). This species’ growth and development 

was delayed by iron deficiency chlorosis. We were able to sustain these plots with supplemental 

EDDHA chelated iron. More research is being done with these species and iron deficiency 

chlorosis.

Products:

Wildland Seed Collection

 41 collections of 21 species of forbs

Stock Seed Production – Seed Increase Plots

 59 sources of 10 native forb species were planted into 107 beds on two Utah farms

Stock Seed Production – Seed Increase

 Eriogonum ovalifolium, 191.1 g

 Lupinus argenteus, 380.2 g

 L. sericeus, 2327.3 g

 L. prunophilus, 727.7 g

Seed Distribution

 Crepis acuminata seed was supplied to Nicole DeCrappeo, Ecologist, USGS Forest and 

Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center Corvallis, OR, for a revegetation study
70

Project Title: Applying Provisional Seed Zones to Great Basin Forb 

Production, and Cultural Practice Notes

Project Location: USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Provo, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Scott Jensen, Botanist

USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station

Shrub Sciences Laboratory

735 N. 500 E., Provo, UT 84606-1865

(801)356.5124, Fax (801)375.6968

sljensen@fs.fed.us

Jason Stettler, Native Forb Biologist

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center

494 W. 100 S. Ephraim, UT 84627

jasonstettler@utah.gov

Project Description: 

1. Applying Provisional Seed Zones to Native Forb Development in the Great Basin

Use GIS analysis to evaluate fire disturbance and historic seed use in the Great Basin in an effort 

to prioritize plant materials development work.

For grasses and herbaceous plants, the Great Basin is partitioned into 10 provisional seed zones 

(PSZ) based on precipitation and maximum temperature. Further partitioning the Great Basin by 

Omernik’s Level III ecoregions results in 20 seed zones; 10 each in the Northern Basin and 

Range/Snake River Plain (NBR) and Central Basin and Range (CBR) ecological provinces 

(Figure 1). Seed zones vary vastly in size from just over 3,000 acres for NBR zone 9 to over 

24,000,000 acres for NBR zone 5 (Fig. 2). Wildfire has consumed on average over 1,000,000 

acres annually (Fig. 3) between 1995 and 2007 and is the largest source of disturbance requiring 

restoration in the region. A GIS layer of historic (1980–2007) fires was prepared from the 

Western fire map dataset and combined with the provisional seed zone layer to compute acreage 

burned by seed zone. This provides a good indication of the extent to which zones are impacted 

by fire. However, only a portion of burned land is ever reseeded, and fire, while prominent, is not 

the only disturbance requiring restoration in the region. 

The Land Treatment Digital Library is a comprehensive system for entering, storing, retrieving, 

and analyzing USDI Bureau of Land Management seeding data. A portion of the dataset houses 

reseeding data due not only to fire but all other impacts. The majority of available Great Basin 

data has been entered into the system. Seeding data from the Land Treatment Digital Library was 

combined with the provisional seed zone layer to compute the acreage seeded by seed zone. 

These three datasets; the size of each seed zone, areas impacted by fire, and the extent to which 
71

restoration efforts have been employed within each seed zone provide a good starting point for

prioritizing plant materials work. 

Of these three variables the acreage seeded provides the best estimate of historic seed demand. 

Based on seed mix recommendations (11 lbs./acre for zones 1-2, 13 lbs./acre zones 3-10) and 

historic native forb seed use (5% native forbs) by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources (UDWR) (2010 BLM, 2009-2011 UDWR) we projected 

historic forb seed demand by provisional seed zone (Fig. 4). Seed zone cells in Figure 4 are color 

coded to the volume of seed needed for restoration corresponding to the market triangle in 

Figure 5.

Seed demand is categorized into three markets (Fig. 5); niche market species characterized by 

total annual seed sales ≤ 2,000 lbs. and requiring contract production (red); special use markets 

characterized by total annual seed sales between 2,000 and 20,000 lbs. produced under market 

conditions (yellow); and revegetation species where total annual seed sales typically exceed 

20,000 lbs. and seed is produced under market conditions (green). Figure 5 shows where 

commonly used species fit in this categorization. A given species location in this pyramid is 

dependent on ease of production, yield, competition and market price. Many of our native forbs 

exhibit characteristics that make agronomic production difficult and will be found in the niche 

market price and availability category. Our objective is to identify species that can break into the 

special use market and be produced in adequate volume to impact the acres annually requiring 

reseeding.

Summary 

Adequate quantities of seed must be purchased annually for speculative growers to keep a 

particular species in production. Due to zone sizes and the amount of disturbance, primarily fire, 

four zones in both NBR (zone 5, 6, 2, 8) and CBR (zone 5, 6, 2, 7) have historically (2000 –

2010) utilized reliably adequate quantities of seed to permit market production. These zones are 

our priority areas for developing plant materials. The remaining zones will likely require contract 

seed production due to lower historic annual demands.

Figure 1. Provisional seed zones of the Great Basin.
72

Acres Burned in the Northern Great Basin

PSZ Zone Description 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004 2005-2007

Zone 1 < 10 in precip / > 80 deg 88,379 65,627 883 59,619 6,725 11,085

Zone 2 < 10 in precip / < 80 deg 209,865 283,513 41,435 288,697 159,046 244,334

Zone 3 10-14 in precip / 80-90 deg 28,759 23,214 2,545 35,640 34,313 14,988

Zone 4 14-24 in precip / 80-90 deg 51 629 1,016 1 360 284

Zone 5 10-14 in precip / 70-80 deg 917,665 720,564 478,787 1,440,316 972,255 1,363,447

Zone 6 14-24 in precip / 70-80 deg 162,819 221,523 170,435 245,963 357,024 426,471

Zone 7 10-14 in precip / < 70 deg 1,482 6,510 17,750 62,115 30,526 30,340

Zone 8 14-24 in precip / < 70 deg 50,040 44,276 69,374 159,486 183,918 278,950

Zone 9 < 60 deg 0 0 0 0 0 0

Zone 10 > 24 in precip 10,532 75,388 9,724 34,369 37,827 48,265

TOTALS 1,469,591 1,441,244 791,948 2,326,207 1,781,994 2,418,163

Acres Burned in the Central Basin and Range

PSZ Zone Description 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004 2005-2007

Zone 1 < 10 in precip / > 80 deg 7,596 14,898 8,035 194,234 59,314 97,772

Zone 2 < 10 in precip / < 80 deg 65,528 187,012 8,331 641,403 175,619 198,434

Zone 3 10-14 in precip / 80-90 deg 15,485 1,104 6,847 51,880 23,166 234,719

Zone 4 14-24 in precip / 80-90 deg 110 0 715 8,802 8,571 19,128

Zone 5 10-14 in precip / 70-80 deg 81,365 365,691 68,121 1,159,920 668,878 859,554

Zone 6 14-24 in precip / 70-80 deg 46,614 40,421 48,370 395,961 293,289 183,536

Zone 7 10-14 in precip / < 70 deg 3,438 1,844 6,444 9,014 38,053 51,291

Zone 8 14-24 in precip / < 70 deg 4,947 13,210 13,426 96,205 82,339 37,028

Zone 9 < 60 deg 41 0 0 14 616 13

Zone 10 > 24 in precip 3,428 541 8,997 8,118 11,439 3,072

TOTALS 228,553 624,722 169,287 2,565,551 1,361,284 1,684,548

Central Basin and Range Northern Basin and Range

PSZ Zone Description Area (acres) PSZ Zone Description Area (acres)

Zone 1 <10 in. precip. / >80 Deg. 18,266,390 Zone 1 <10 in. precip. / >80 Deg. 722,843

Zone 2 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 15,184,265 Zone 2 <10 in. precip. / <80 Deg. 6,195,455

Zone 3 10-14 in. precip. / 80-90 Deg. 3,465,157 Zone 3 10-14 in. precip. / 80-90 Deg. 918,798

Zone 4 14-24 in. precip. / 80-90 Deg. 541,330 Zone 4 14-24 in. precip. / 80-90 Deg. 19,161

Zone 5 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 22,903,115 Zone 5 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 Deg. 24,343,753

Zone 6 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 9,387,606 Zone 6 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 Deg. 7,393,185

Zone 7 10-14 in. precip. / <70 deg. 1,310,725 Zone 7 10-14 in. precip. / <70 Deg. 1,297,922

Zone 8 14-24 in. precip. / <70 deg. 4,151,275 Zone 8 14-24 in. precip. / <70 Deg. 4,955,727

Zone 9 <60 deg. 222,054 Zone 9 <60 Deg. 3,165

Zone 10 >24 in. precip. 1,159,001 Zone 10 >24 in. precip. 2,540,833

Total Area 76,590,918 Total Area 48,390,842

Figure 2. Provisional seed zone acreage.

Figure 3. Acres burned in the Northern Basin and Range and Central Basin and Range 

corresponding to 10 seed zones and grouped in 5 year increments. Values are totals for the 5 year 

period.
73 • Niche Market • ≤2,000 lb. annual sales • Contract production

Lupines Beeplant Globemallows

• Special Use Market • 2,000-20,000 lb. annual sales • Market Production

Annual sunflower Yarrow

Palmer penstemon

Flax

• Revegetation Market • ≥20,000 lb. annual sales • Market Production

Sainfoin Alfalfa

Small Burnet < $4/lb

$80+ lb Price/ lb

Northern Basin and Range - Estimated seed (lbs) volume used during the 5 year increment.

PSZ Zone Description 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004 2005-2010

Zone 1 < 10 in precip / > 80 deg 184 4021 0 10297 45573 4352

Zone 2 < 10 in precip / < 80 deg 14808 7183 77 42215 45436 93909

Zone 3 10-14 in precip / 80-90 deg 0 0 0 4537 6626 3540

Zone 4 14-24 in precip / 80-90 deg 0 0 0 0 0 0

Zone 5 10-14 in precip / 70-80 deg 45799 34232 18895 121730 430421 346011

Zone 6 14-24 in precip / 70-80 deg 1989 109 648 6142 62576 76358

Zone 7 10-14 in precip / < 70 deg 225 641 0 43 3943 3405

Zone 8 14-24 in precip / < 70 deg 226 535 28 5020 24796 28430

Zone 9 < 60 deg 0 0 0 0 0 0

Zone 10 > 24 in precip 0 0 705 1052 2044 21

Central Basin and Range - Estimated seed (lbs) volume used during the 5 year increment.

PSZ Zone Description 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004 2005-2010

Zone 1 < 10 in precip / > 80 deg 0 0 1849 1814 53266 4153

Zone 2 < 10 in precip / < 80 deg 0 353 3780 37793 50519 23741

Zone 3 10-14 in precip / 80-90 deg 261 130 3272 5182 8193 27400

Zone 4 14-24 in precip / 80-90 deg 143 0 167 1696 3956 14961

Zone 5 10-14 in precip / 70-80 deg 320 13320 24030 99340 270136 196348

Zone 6 14-24 in precip / 70-80 deg 3269 6892 8164 36525 101521 93485

Zone 7 10-14 in precip / < 70 deg 0 36 132 605 16896 10617

Zone 8 14-24 in precip / < 70 deg 0 87 1040 5284 42798 8939

Zone 9 < 60 deg 0 0 0 0 510 0

Zone 10 > 24 in precip 0 0 372 29 7220 0

Figure 4. Tabular data of projected historic seed use based on seeding acreage and location data 

from the Land Treatment Digital Library, and a seed mix consisting of 5% native forbs in an

11 lb/acre seed mix for zones 1, 2 and 13 lb/acre seed mix for zone 3-10. Cells are color coded 

relative to three market categories described in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Three seed market categories based on 

annual sales volume along with examples of 

where common restoration species currently fit.
74

2. Seed Increase for Pooled Source Provisional Seed Zone Releases

In 2010 we began increasing seed supplies of promising materials based on the pooled 

provisional seed zone concept. Table 1 indicates the species and sources we currently have in 

production at Fountain Green, UT (FG) or Snow Field Station (SFS) in Ephraim, Utah, the year 

material was planted, the provisional seed zone where the source material originates and the year 

we anticipate seed production or the volume of seed produced in 2011.

Table 1. Seed increase at Fountain Green or Snow Field Station, Ephraim, UT.

Species / Source Location Plant Date Provisional Seed Zone Seed Produced

Ipomopsis aggregata Scarlet gilia

Soldier Canyon FG 2009 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2500g

Secret Valley FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Soldier Canyon FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Little Lake Pass FG 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Aragonite FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Chicken Rock FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Old Irontown FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Chicken Rock FG 2011 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Old Irontown FG 2011 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Secret Valley FG 2011 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Aragonite FG 2011 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Soldier Canyon FG 2011 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Ipomopsis macrosiphon Longtube ipomopsis

Suzie Creek SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Pequop Summit IPMA4 SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Hinkley Summit IPMA4 SFS 2010 > 24 in. precip. 2012

Lomatium nudicaule 

Barestem 

biscuitroot

Big Butte FG 2009 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. ??

Big Butte FG 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. ??

Willow Creek FG 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. ??

BY08 - Castle Rock FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. ??

Halfway Summit FG 2011 < 10 in. precip. / < 80 deg. ??

Soldier Canyon LONU2 SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. ??

Oxley peak SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. ??

Duck Valley Indian Res. SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. ??

Arthur LONU2 SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. ??

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis Nevada goldeneye

Patterson Pass FG 2009 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 1825g

Pioche FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2011

Jackrabbit Mine FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2011

Newcastle FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2011
75

Table 1. (continued)

Species / Source Location Plant Date Provisional Seed Zone Seed Produced

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis Nevada goldeneye 

Newcastle FG 2011 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Basin S of Silver King SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2011

Patterson Pass SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2011

Jackrabbit Mine SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2011

Enceliopsis nudicaulis Nakedstem sunray

W. of Milford SFS 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Majors Place SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Halfway Summit FG 2009 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2011

Blind Valley FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Painted Pot Road FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Crystal Peak FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Crystal Peak FG 2011 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2013

Penstemonp 

pachyphyllus

Thickleaf 

beardtongue

Pleasant Valley SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Ward Mountain SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Schellbourne SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Robinson Pass FG 2009 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 3400g

Robinson Pass FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Cave Lake FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / <70 deg. 2012

Goshute Canyon FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / <70 deg. 2012

Sacramento Summit FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Cave Creek FG 2010 14-24 in. precip. / <70 deg. 2012

Frasera albomarginata Desert frasera

Fairview Wash FG 2009 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Major’s Place FG 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Bristol Wells SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Castleton SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Newcastle SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Robinson Pass FRAL5 SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Uvada SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Ward Mountain SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Cave Springs SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Cleve Creek SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Linum lewesii Lewis flax

Basin S. of Silver King FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 80-90 Deg. 2013

Jackrabbit Mine FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013
76

Table 1. (continued)

Species / Source Location Plant Date Provisional Seed Zone Seed Produced

Lewis flax Lewis flax

Little Lake Pass FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Long Hill '08 FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Major’s place FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

North Cave Valley FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

North of Wells FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Patterson Pass FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

South Newe Rd. FG 2011 2013

Water Canyon Win. FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Water Cyn Arg/Battle FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

West Ely FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Hesperostipa comata Needle and thread

Sand Pass FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

South Osgood FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Proctor Flat FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Fish Springs FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Century Peak FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Blind Valley - Side 

Valley FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Black Rock Road FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / >80 Deg. 2012

Indian Peaks SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

King Top SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

White Mountain SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

North Whitehorse SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Eureka SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

English Village SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Pioche SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

East Wells SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

South of Scipio SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Bitner Knoll SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Aragonite SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Road to Lund SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Camouflage Mailbox SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Deeth SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Gunnison Reservoir SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

J.B.'s SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Minersville Reservoir SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Near B Hill SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

North Delta Power Plant SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 80-90 Deg. 2012

Modena SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 80-90 Deg. 2012

West of Milford SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 80-90 Deg. 2012
77

3. Species Screening

In 2009 we initiated a concerted effort to screen a large number of species to assess their 

agronomic potential and develop cultural practices. Table 2 identifies the species currently in our 

screening program.

Table 2. Species in screening program.

Species / Source Location Plant Date Provisional Seed Zone Seed Produced

Nicotiana attenuata Coyote tobacco

Mud Springs FG 2009 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2010

PSSL-193 FG 2011 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Mentzelia laevicaulis Smoothstem blazingstar

Beowawe FG 2009 ---

Secret Creek SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg.

Silver Peak SFS 2010 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg.

Thelypodium milleflorum Manyflower thelypody

West of Carlin FG 2009 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 683g

West of Carlin FG 2011 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2013

West of Carlin FG 2010 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Phacelia crenulata Cleftleaf wildheliotrope

Lucky Boy FG 2009 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2200g

U Dig Fossil SFS 2010 <10 in. precip. / >80 Deg.

Aster Aster

P3-08 Gold Creek FG 2009 14-24 in. precip. / <70 Deg. 2011

Penstemon linarioides Toadflax penstemon

P5-07 FG 2009 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2011

Agoseris grandiflora Bigflower agoseris

LPN G1 2007 2010 2011

Potentilla gracilis Slender cinquefoil

Bear Creek Summit FG 2009 >24 in. precip. 20??

Linum subteres Sprucemont flax

Snake Pass FG 2011 2012

Crystal Peak FG 2011 <10 in. precip. / <80 deg. 2012

Wyethia amplexicaulis Mule-ears

Adobe Summit FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Mentzelia albicaulis Whitestem blazingstar

Water Canyon SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 288g

Sand Pass SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 176g

North Battle Mountain SFS 2010 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 24g
78

4. Technology Incorporation

Staying Straight with Rotary Lasers

The combination of inexperienced equipment operators, annual employee turnover and small 

framed tractors left us struggling with the ability to maintain straight rows in our farming 

operations. In 2011 we adopted laser guidance technology outlined in Gary Kees, June 2008, 

Reforestation and Nurseries Tech Tip, “Staying Straight with Rotary Lasers at the Coeur d’Alene 

Nursery”. The technology utilizes a rotary laser mounted on its side to cast an oscillating vertical 

beam the length of the plot, and two laser detectors, one positioned at the far end of the plot to 

establish the line and the second mounted to the tractor. We purchased a CST/Berger rotary laser 

package with an 800 foot range. In operation, the CST/Berger laser detector is mounted to a 

tripod at one end of the plot. The rotary laser is horizontally mounted on the package tripod at 

the other end of the plot and micro-adjusted to be in line with the detector. The CST/Berger laser 

detector features an audible indication of laser alignment once the laser engages the detection 

Table 2. (continued)

Species / Source Location Plant Date Provisional Seed Zone Seed Produced

Arenaria macradenia ferrisea Ferris' sandwort

Nephi Canyon FG 2011 ----- 2013

Lathyrus brachycalyx Bonneville pea

Maple Hollow FG 2011 ----- 20??

Agastache urticifolia Nettleleaf giant hyssop

P1-09 FG 2011 14-24 in. precip. / <70 Deg. 20??

Cryptantha rugulosa Wrinkled cryptantha

PSSL-135 FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2012

Stenotus acaulis Stemless mock goldenweed

PSSL-118 FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 Deg. 20??

Senecio Ragwort

Charleston Deeth FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Stanleya pinnata var. integrifolia Golden princesplume

PSSL-78 FG 2011 <10 in. precip. / >80 Deg. 20??

Oenothera Evening primrose

Oenot-P1-2009 FG 2011 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80 deg. 2013

Cleome lutea Yellow spiderflower

PSSL-139 FG 2011 10-14 in. precip. / 80-90 Deg. 2012

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine

Deep Creeks SFS 2007 14-24 in. precip. / <70 deg. 2084g
79

screen. Fine-tuning with the micro-adjust button moves the laser from the edge of the detection 

window to its center where a unique beep indicates precision. An AGATEC MR360R laser 

detector with a 9 3⁄4” laser capture width is mounted to the center of the bucket with magnets and 

elevated above the tractor. The detector features a five LED position indicator and transmits the 

lasers location via a wireless RF link to a remote display unit mounted on the windshield inside 

the tractor cab. Blinking arrows indicate the direction of travel necessary to be in precision 

alignment with the laser. Using the system requires additional setup time but permits a high 

degree of accuracy permitting more mechanical operations and minimizing the extent of 

handwork necessary to correct for poor alignment.

Microsoft Access Database Development

From the GBNPSIP’s inception until 2010 we utilized DDH software's HanDBase database 

manager to house our plant materials data. In 2011 we developed a Microsoft Access version that

offers added functionality, primarily in the ability to extract data from multiple tables during data 

queries. The Locations table is the database’s central feature. Tied to it are, a number of tables 

used to populate a record with predefined values, and additional tables to house other 

information relating to that location such as Soils information and Seed Collections. Our Seed 

Collections table is further related to Seed Analysis, Seed Allocations and Seed Increase tables. 

The entire relationship structure can be viewed in the following image. 

Additional tables are currently being developed to house information related to species screening 

and field trials. As the databases complexity increases it is becoming a one stop shop to house all 

of our plant material related information.
80

5. Updates

Transplanting Lomatium rootstock

Lomatium dissectum, when started from seed requires four or more years to produce its first 

harvestable seed crop. This experiment evaluates the potential of transplanting rootstock from 

high-density production beds into seed production fields in an effort to minimize the duration of 

the non-seed producing time. Rootstock of L. dissectum was not available to evaluate however, 

materials from two other biscuitroot species, L. grayi and L. triternatum were lifted from Oregon 

State University's Malheur Experiment Station spring 2010. Both of these species produce seed 

the second year following sowing and as such are not of themselves prime candidates for root 

transplanting for this purpose, however they serve as a surrogate for evaluating challenges 

encountered in the lifting and transplanting process. Rootstock was separated into size classes 

based on crown diameter and transplanted into shovel-dug holes at locations in Utah or 

transplanted into private production fields in Nevada using a tree transplanter. Rootstock was 

initially sheared at a 10” depth which proved to be 2 inches longer than the tree transplanter 

could place without J planting the rootstock. So L. triternatum rootstock was re-trimmed to an 8” 

length. In a planting process some rootstock fell horizontally in the trough rather than remaining 

vertical. The 2 inch basal sections of L. triternatum were also planted in the bottom of the trough 

with no care given to orientation. 

Plant response in 2011 was quite similar across locations. On April 13, 2011 multiple leaflets 

and flowering stems had emerged from most roots of both species at one location in Nevada. 

Plants generally produced a canopy of leaves and flowers proportional to the size of transplanted 

rootstock. Plant height, including the bolted flower stem, was typically less than 8 inches for the 

most robust plants. Fine root hairs were present, growing from the main taproot. Survival 

through the first spring, though not quantified, was good. Root orientation appeared to have no 

impact on the roots ability to send up leaf tissue and surprisingly the 2 inch segments cut from 

the bottom of the L. triternatum roots also produced leaves. Seed production though present was 

not adequate to warrant collection.

Soil solarization 

Heat treating soil with steam to reduce soil pathogens is a common practice in greenhouse 

nursery operations. A typical approach is to elevate soil temperatures to a thermal threshold (60-

65 C), then maintain the temperature for a period of time (45-60 min), that kills most fungi and 

bacteria. Although several attempts have been made to develop machinery for similar application 

in field settings, none have proven viable. Alternative approaches, including solarization, have 

been tried with some success. Soil solarization involves tightly covering moist soil with thin 

clear plastic and leaving it in place during the hottest weeks of summer. In some geographic 

locations, temperatures similar to steam treatments can be achieved in the upper layers of soil 

during the warmest parts of the day, resulting in mortality of plant pathogens. More commonly a 

longer exposure to a lower temperature provides a similar effect. A number of soil borne 

pathogens including Verticillium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Theilaviopsi, have been reported to 

be controlled through soil solarization.

Recent work by James et.al (2010) assessing common grasses and forbs planted for wildfire 

restoration demonstrated a 72% average germination rate of planted species across years and 

treatments; however 85 to 98% of that germinated seed failed to emerge. These poor emergence 
81

percentages can be attributed to a variety of different factors, potentially including soil 

pathogens. In seed increase beds at two sites in Utah we experience similarly poor establishment 

rates among seeded species. Our general rule of thumb is to plant 25 pure live seeds (PLS) per 

linear foot, expecting on average, establishment of one plant per foot. In an effort to reduce 

potential soilborne pathogens and improve seedling establishment, we began experimenting with 

soil solarization in 2010. This project seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of reducing abundance 

of soil pathogenic fungi and bacteria at two sites in central Utah through the use of soil 

solarization.

Methods

Study sites were located at the USDA ARS Dry Land Research Farm in Nephi, Utah and the 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Plant Materials Evaluation Farm in Fountain Green, Utah.

In 2010 trials, temperatures at or above our target of 140° Fahrenheit were achieved at the soil 

surface for 310 min. but that temperature was only reached for 10 min. at a depth of 3 inches. We 

questioned whether beneficial results were achieved with increasing depths. In 2011 we wanted 

to extend the duration of the solarization period by installing the plastic during the third week of 

June and leaving it in place through the end of August, the effective season for solarization in our 

climate. In 2011 we switched from 1 mil to a thicker 2 mil plastic to limit tearing during 

application. At the Nephi site, nursery beds were laid out perpendicular to the dominant wind 

pattern, resulting in plastic being blown off shortly after installation. On a few beds located 

immediately leeward of taller vegetation, plastic remained in place through the summer. At the 

Fountain Green site, beds were laid out parallel to the dominant wind patterns and a snow fence 

was installed on the leeward side. Here plastic retention was much better.

Five soil samples from each of three sampling depths, 0-2”, 2-4”, 4-6” in both control and 

solarized beds were homogenized. Soil dilutions were prepared for each site x treatment x depth 

combination by adding 5 g of soil plus sterile water to create a 50 ml solution. Further diluting 

resulted in a 10-1dilution for treatment soils and 20-2solution for control soils. 0.25 ml of 

solution were added to both PDA and water agar plates. Total colonies were counted at seven 

days. 

At both sites solarization treatments resulted in dramatic reductions in total bacterial and fungal 

colony counts at all depths. The test of effectiveness will be whether this results in improved 

seedling establishment in 2012. 
82

Clipping effects on seed production of Ipomopsis aggregata

Increase beds planted in 2010 will bolt in 2012 permitting continuation of this work. A five 

block randomized design study implementing a cut treatment prior to bolting and control on at 

least two different Ipomopsis sources will be conducted. Yields and seed quality will be 

evaluated.

Seeds and Soils Study

A five block greenhouse study was conducted to evaluate the influence of soil texture and 

seeding depth on germination of 18 species of forbs native to the Great Basin. Soils of clay loam, 

sandy loam, loam and loamy sand textures collected from wildland sites, and steam aerated at 

60° C for 1 hour to reduce soil pathogen populations were transferred into flats to provide a 4-

inch deep soil layer. The 18 species listed in the following tables were grouped based on the need 

for cold stratification. For each trial, nine species were sown on the surface and at depths of 1, 2, 

and 3 cm in a randomized design. Data is being analyzed. 

Cold Stratification Group

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis Nevada goldeneye

Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard

Crepis intermedia limestone hawksbeard

Ipomopsis aggregata scarlet gilia

Lomatium nudicaule barestem biscuitroot

Balsamorhiza sagitatta Arrowleaf balsamroot

Eriogonum heracleoides Wyeth buckwheat

Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon

Penstemon pachyphyllus thickleaf beardtongue

Enceliopsis nudicaulis nakedstem sunray

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

140000

160000

180000

PDA Water PDA Water PDA Water PDA Water

Total number of colonies counted after 7 days 

of incubation at room temperature

Agar media types

Total bacterial and fungal colony count per gram of soil displayed by soil 

collection depth for solarized and control soils from 2 sites 

0-2" 2-4" 4-6"

Solarized Control Solarized Control

Nephi, UT Fountain Green, UT

Depth of soil sample
83

No Cold Stratification Group

Sphaeralcea coccinea scarlet globemallow

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf globemallow

Lupinus prunophilus hairy bigleaf lupine

Lupinus sericeus silky lupine

Lupinus arbustus longspur lupine

Lupinus argenteus silvery lupine

Agoseris grandiflora bigflower agoseris

Agoseris heterophylla annual agoseris

Cleome lutea yellow spiderflower

Mentzelia albicaulis whitestem blazingstar

Products:

Equipment development/modification - current projects

Budget realignment at the Missoula Technology and Development Center resulted in one of our 

projects being canceled and the need to acquire additional funding to proceed with the second. 

Development of a specialized seed harvester for species with indeterminate ripening and seed 

shatter characteristics. We anticipate design work to begin in 2012. Several private seed 

production companies are interested in contributing ideas to the project. 

Stock seed increase - plot installation 2011

Between two Utah farm sites, 39 sources of 16 species were planted into 47 increase beds or 

rows grouped by provisional seed zone.

Wildland seed collection 2011

28 collections, 16 species

29 new sites identified, 15 species 

Awards

Nominated for Excellence in Botany Partnership Development, USFS National Botany Program, 

Washington, DC. 

Workshop

Co-organized the Rangeland Technology Equipment Council Annual Workshop “Establishing 

Sagebrush in Semiarid Rangelands” held at the 66th Annual Society for Range Management 

Meeting.

Reference:

James, J.J.; Svejcar, T.J. 2010. Limitations to post-fire seedling establishment: The role of 

seeding technology, water availability, and invasive plant abundance. Rangeland Ecology 

and Management 63:491-495. 
84

Publications:

Jensen, S.; Stanton, S.; Nielson, M.; Stettler, J.; Mathews, D.; Ersfeld, TJ.; Sample, C. 2011. 

Selecting and growing Great Basin natives. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 64-68.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations:

Jensen, Scott. 2011. Selecting and growing Great Basin natives. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Jensen, Scott. 2011. Applying provisional seed zones in the Great Basin. Native Plant Summit, 

Boise, ID.

Jensen, Scott. 2011. Great Basin provisional seed zones and applications to the Colorado Plateau. 

Colorado Plateau Native Plant Project Annual Meeting, Moab, UT. 

Jensen, Scott. 2011. Current trends in plant materials development and the role of wildland 

collection. Utah Seed Council, Ephraim, UT. 

Jensen, Scott. 2011. The development and use of forbs in restoration. Great Basin Science 

Delivery Project, Winnemucca, NV. 
85

Project Title: Cooperative Work between the Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project and the Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center

Project Location: USADA-NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Loren St. John, Team Leader

USDA NRCS, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

PO Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210

(208)397.4133, Fax (208)397.3104

Loren.Stjohn@id.usda.gov

Derek Tilley, Agronomist

USDA NRCS, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

PO Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210

(208)397.4133, Fax (208)397.3104

Derek.tilley@id.usda.gov 

Project Description:

Plant Guides

The Aberdeen Plant Materials Center (PMC) is gathering information on 

significant/important/notable/selected plant species to create NRCS plant guides. Plant guides 

offer the most recent information on plant establishment methods as well as seed and plant 

production suggestions. General information for the species can also be found in the plant guide, 

including potential uses, ethnobotanical significance, adaptation, pests and potential problems. In 

2011 plant guides were completed or revised for fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum), 

Gray’s biscuitroot (L. grayi), nineleaf biscuitroot (L. triternatum), hoary tansyaster 

(Machaeranthera canescens), and Douglas’ dustymaiden (Chaenactis douglasii). In 2012, 

Aberdeen PMC will produce plant guides for gooseberryleaf globemallow (Sphaeralcea

grossularifolia), blue penstemon (Penstemon cyaneus), yellow beeplant (Cleome lutea), and 

tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata). Plant guides are available at the PLANTS database, 

www.plants.usda.gov, and at the Aberdeen Plant Materials Center website: 

www.id.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/plant.html.

Douglas’ dustymaiden

Fifteen accessions of Douglas’ dustymaiden were evaluated at the Aberdeen PMC from 2009 to 

2010. The accessions were evaluated for establishment, growth and seed production. Following 

evaluation, accession 9076577 was chosen for selected class release. Accession 9076577 was 

originally collected in Boise County, Idaho near Arrow Rock and Lucky Peak Reservoirs, 

approximately 0.5 miles west of the dam on Forest Road 268. The site is a mountain big 

sagebrush/bitterbrush community in coarse granitic soils at 3,150-ft elevation. Accession 

9076577 ranked at or near the top for percent establishment, plant vigor, height, flower 

production and seed yield. In the fall of 2010, a 500 foot row of weed barrier fabric was planted 

to accession 9076577; however problems encountered during planting resulted in poor 
86

germination and establishment. In 2011, a 1,000-ft row of fabric was seeded. Release 

documentation is being developed and official release will occur once the Aberdeen PMC has 

produced a sufficient amount of early generation seed. 

Hoary tansyaster

Nine accessions of hoary tansyaster were evaluated from 2009 through 2011 for establishment, 

plant growth and seed production. This accession had the best establishment and stands for 2009 

and 2010, and the best rated vigor in 2010. This accession also had the tallest plants in the study. 

Although we were not able to evaluate seed production in 2010 due to wind storms, 9076670 

was observed to be an excellent seed producer. The population for 9076670 is located near the 

St. Anthony Sand Dunes in Fremont County, Idaho at 5,000 ft elevation. The site has sandy soils 

and supports a bitterbrush, Indian ricegrass, rabbitbrush, scurfpea plant community. The location 

receives on average between 10 and 15 inches of mean annual precipitation. In 2010, the site was 

revisited to collect additional seed to use in a seed increase planting at the Aberdeen PMC. In 

2010, a 500 foot row of weed barrier fabric was planted. An additional 1,000 foot row was 

planted in 2011. Next spring, we plan to establish an additional non-fabric field for seed increase. 

Release documentation is being developed and official release will occur once the PMC has 

produced a sufficient amount of early generation seed.

Propagation protocols

Seed production information obtained during collection evaluation and seed increase of native 

forb species was used to develop propagation protocols for Douglas’ dustymaiden, hoary 

tansyaster, nineleaf biscuitroot, fernleaf biscuitroot, Gray’s biscuitroot and Searls’ prairie clover. 

These protocols provide information on seed collection, planting, management, harvest and 

cleaning. Propagation protocols are available at http://nativeplants.for.uidaho.edu.

Publications:

St. John, L.; Ogle, D. 2011. Cooperative work between the Great Basin Native Plant Selection 

and Increase Project and the Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project 2010 Progress Report. p. 69-76. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

St. John, L.; Tilley, D.; Ogle, D.; Johnson, D.; Bushman, S. 2012. Propagation protocol for

production of Dalea searlsiae (A. Gray) Barneby seeds. Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. Moscow, ID: 

University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. Online: 

http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org

Tilley, D. 2011. Propagation protocol for production of Machaeranthera canescens (Pursh) A. 

Gray seeds. Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. URL: http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org. Moscow, 

ID: University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. Online: 

http://nativeplants.for.uidaho.edu.
87

Tilley, D.; Ogle, D.; St. John, L. 2010. Plant guide for Doulas’ dusty maiden (Chaenactis 

douglasii). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center. 4 p. Online: www.plants.usda.gov

Tilley, D.; Ogle, D.; St. John, L. 2010. Plant guide for Hoary tansyaster (Machaeranthera 

canescens). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center. 3 p. Online: www.plants.usda.gov

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2011. Plant guide for Gray’s biscuitroot (Lomatium 

grayi). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center. 4 p. Online: www.plants.usda.gov

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2010. Plant guide for Nineleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium 

triternatum). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center. 4 p. Online: www.plants.usda.gov

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N.; Cane, J. 2010. Plant guide for Fernleaf biscuitroot 

(Lomatium dissectum). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen 

Plant Materials Center. 6 p. Online: www.plants.usda.gov

Tilley, D.; St. John, Loren.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N.; Cane, J. 2012. Propagation protocol for 

production of Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.) Mathias & Constance seeds. Aberdeen, ID: USDA 

Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant 

Network. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research 

Nursery. Online: http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Propagation protocol for production of 

Lomatium grayi (J.M. Coult. & Rose.) J.M. Coult. & Rose seeds. Aberdeen, ID: USDA NRCS -

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, 

College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. Online: 

http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org 

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N.; Cane, J. 2012. Propagation protocol for production 

of Lomatium triternatum (Pursh) Coulter & Rose seeds. USDA Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. Moscow, ID: University of 

Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. Online: 

http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org 

Presentations: 

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D. 2011. Aberdeen PMC Report of Activities, 2011. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 21-22, Salt Lake 

City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml
88

St. John, L. 2011. Joint Fire Science seeding at Wildcat Hills, UT. Utah Section Society for 

Range Management Field Tour, 2011 June 2, Snowville, UT.

John, L. 2011. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center demonstration area. Orchard Experimental Restoration Site Field Day, 2011 June 28, 

Boise, ID. 

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

Douglas’ dustymaiden and hoary tansyaster are feasible for commercial seed production. 

Douglas’ dustymaiden establishes well using dormant fall seedings. Hoary tansyaster has no seed 

dormancy issues and can be established with fall or spring seeding. Weed control in seed 

production fields of native forbs remains an obstacle, and various control methods are being 

evaluated. The use of weed barrier fabric is encouraged. Seed ripening is indeterminate and 

poses problems for a single harvest system; however high yields can be obtained with multiple 

harvests conducted by hand or with a vacuum type harvester followed by a final combining.

Products:

Plant Guides were completed for royal penstemon, hotrock penstemon, sharpleaf penstemon, 

fernleaf biscuitroot, nineleaf biscuitroot, Gray’s biscuitroot, Douglas’ dustymaiden, and hoary 

tansyaster.

Propagation Protocols were completed for Douglas’ dustymaiden, hoary tansyaster, nineleaf 

biscuitroot, fernleaf biscuitroot, Gray’s biscuitroot, and Searls’ prairie clover.

Early generation Certified seed of hoary tansyaster and Douglas’ dustymaiden is being produced 

and will be available through Utah Crop Improvement Association and University of Idaho 

Foundation Seed Program when release is approved.
89

Project Title: Identification of Herbicides for Use in Native Forb Seed 

Production

Project Location: Utah State University, Logan, Utah

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Corey Ransom, Assistant Professor

Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate 

Utah State University

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, Utah 84322-4820

(435)797.2242, Fax (435)797.3376

corey.ransom@usu.edu

Project Description:

Native forb seed is needed to restore the rangelands of the Intermountain West. Weed control is 

essential for the commercial production of native forb seed. Weeds compete with crop plants 

reducing establishment, vigor, and seed production. In addition, some weed seeds can 

contaminate the seed crop, reducing its value or introducing weeds to reclamation areas. 

Removal of weeds by hand or with cultivation is economically restrictive. The overall objective 

of this research project is to identify herbicides that can be used to control weeds in forb seed 

production with limited injury to the forbs. The forbs evaluated in this project include: Basalt 

milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), Western prairie clover (Dalea ornata), and Searls’ prairie clover 

(Dalea searlsiae).

Results for 2011

Field plots with 2,4-DB at Hermann Farms demonstrated little herbicide injury on established 

Basalt milkvetch, but also did not control perennial sowthistle. 

In fall of 2010 and summer of 2011 basalt milkvetch and Western prairie clover trials were 

planted with seed at the Utah State University, Greenville Research Farm. Seed had been 

scarified and treated with fungicide by Hermann Farms. Basalt milkvetch seed was ‘Dry River’ 

germplasm and Western prairie clover was ‘Aridlands’ germplasm. The soil was a Millville silt 

loam. Planting was accomplished using a Hege cone-seeder to drill seeds 0.25 inches deep in 

four rows spaced 14 inches apart. Seed was planted at 8 lbs. PLS per acre. Herbicide applications 

were made with a CO2-pressurized backpack sprayer calibrated to deliver 20 gpa at 30 psi. Plots 

were 5 by 30 feet and treatments were replicated 4 times. 

Fall planted trials

Field trials of basalt milkvetch and Western prairie clover were planted November 18, 2010. In 

the spring of 2011, only basalt milkvetch had successfully established. Western prairie clover 

seedlings were observed emerging early, but appeared to have been killed by late spring freeze 

events. Post-emergence herbicide treatments were applied to the basalt milkvetch on June 21, 

2011. Response to herbicide treatments was evaluated visually and by taking density counts at 

the time of application and 36 days after treatment. Bromoxynil and quinclorac caused 
90

significant injury to basalt milkvetch plants (Table 1). Treatments of 2,4-DB, bentazon, 

imazethapyr and imazamox resulted in only minimal injury. Combining 2,4-DB with bromoxynil 

or benatazon with imazamox caused only slight increases in plant injury. Regardless of 

treatment, basalt milkvetch densities decreased from 42 to 19%. Possible explanations for plant 

death may include nutritional deficiencies, improper soil water relations, or disease problems. 

Table 1. Basalt milkvetch injury and density change in response to post-emergence 

herbicide application on June 21 to plants seeded the previous winter, 2011.

Evaluations 36 DAT

Treatment* Rate Injury

Density 

reduction

lb ae/or ai/A _______________%

_______________

Untreated - 0 21

2,4-DB 0.25 1 29

2,4-DB 0.5 9 29

Bentazon + COC 0.5 8 29

Bromoxynil 0.25 30 36

2,4-DB + bromoxynil 0.25 + 0.125 14 37

Quinclorac + MSO 0.25 19 42

Imazethapyr + COC 0.047 8 19

Imazamox + COC 0.063 7 28

Imazamox + bentazon + COC 0.063 + 0.25 13 26

LSD (0.05) - 14.7 NS

*COC = crop oil concentrate added at 1.0 pt/acre.

Summer planted trials for post-emergence treatments

Additional field trials of basalt milkvetch and Western prairie clover were planted June 15, 2011. 

These trials were planted as above but in rows spaced 7 inches apart. Only Western prairie clover 

effectively established at this planting time. Post-emergence herbicide treatments were applied to 

the Western prairie clover plants on August 19, 2011. While there appeared to be increased 

injury to prairie clover with combinations of 2,4-DB with bromoxynil, differences were not 

statistically different (Table 2). Plant densities increased from pre-treatment counts to those 

taken 22 days after treatment, suggesting additional plants germinated after treatment. Increases 

ranged from 3 to 31% and were not different among treatments. The number of flowers per plot 

also did not appear to be affected by herbicide treatment. 

Fall Trial for Pre-emergence Herbicides

A trial was established to evaluate the effects of pre-emergence herbicides on Western prairie 

clover germination and establishment. The trial was planted August 26, 2011 and pre-emergence 

herbicide treatments were applied on August 27, 2011. Plant densities were determined by 

counting the number of plants in each plot on October 13, 2011. While injury symptoms were 

visible on small plants in plots treated with pendimethalin, dimthenamid-p and ethofumesate, 

small plant size prevented overall injury ratings. Plant densities were not affected by treatments 

and ranged from 137 to 200 plants per plot (Table 3). Spring evaluations will document if 

seedling injury from pre-emergence herbicides causes increased mortality over the winter.
91

Overall, trials demonstrated that basalt milkvetch and Western prairie clover are relatively 

tolerant to post-emergence herbicides and that some pre-emergence herbicides show promise for 

establishing Western prairie clover fields. Further testing is needed to determine possible 

herbicide effects on seed yields and viability and to verify crop safety. 

Table 2. Western prairie clover injury, plant density increase, and number of flowering plants on 

September 10, 2011 in response to post-emergence herbicide application to plants seeded in June

2011 and treated in August 2011.

Evaluations 22 DAT

Treatment* Rate Injury

Density 

increase Flowers

lb ae/or ai/A _______________%

_______________ no/plot

Untreated - 0 22 169

2,4-DB 0.25 5 22 188

Bentazon + COC 0.5 11 31 200

Bromoxynil 0.25 10 15 136

2,4-DB + bromoxynil 0.25 + 0.125 18 14 148

Imazethapyr + COC 0.047 6 14 173

Imazamox + COC 0.063 4 3 162

Imazamox + bentazon + 

COC

0.063 + 0.25 9 21 185

LSD (0.05) - NS NS NS

*COC = crop oil concentrate added at 1.0 pt/acre.

Table 3. Western prairie clover plant densities on October 13, 2011 

in response to pre-emergence herbicides applied the day after 

planting on August 26, 2011.

Treatment Rate Plant density

lb ai/A No./plot

Untreated - 137

Pendimathalin 0.5 181

Pendimathalin 1.0 182

Pendimathalin 1.5 172

Pendimathalin 1.0 173

Pendimathalin 1.0 200

Pendimathalin 1.0 188

Dimethenamid-p 0.75 171

Ethofumesate 1.0 179

LSD (0.05) - NS

Direction for 2012

While this is the end of this cooperative agreement, there is continued need to develop herbicides 

for use in native forb seed production. The commercial quantities of seed of many native forb 

species that are now available would make additional field research more easily accomplished.
92

Publications:

Ransom, C.V. 2011. Evaluation of imazapic rates and forb planting times on native forb 

establishment. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress 

Report. p. 87-90.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Ransom, C.V.; Edvarchuk, K. 2011. Identification of herbicides for use in native forb seed 

production. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. 

p. 91-92. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Roerig, K. C.; Ransom, C. V. 2010. Searls’ Prairie clover (Dalea searlsie) tolerance to postemergence herbicide applications. Western Society of Weed Science Research Progress. Report. 

p 74.

Presentations: 

Ransom, C.V.; Israilsen, K. Grass and forb seed production: Weed control and herbicide effects. 

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Seed School. 2008 February 19, Brigham City, Utah. 60 

attendees.

Edvarchuk, K.; Ransom, C.V. 2010. Herbicide tolerance in grasses and native forb species. 

Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science 63:9-10.

Ransom, C.V. 2011. Forb response to herbicides for seed production and rangeland restoration. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting. 2011 February 22-23, 

Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Management Applications: 

This research has demonstrated potential for safe use of herbicides in basalt milkvetch and 

Western prairie clover seed production. It has also added to the knowledge base concerning the 

importance of different times of planting for these two species to improve establishment success. 

Before herbicides can be used in production fields, they need to be registered and labeled for 

such use by the EPA.
93

Project Title: Seed Production of Great Basin Native Forbs

Subsurface Drip Irrigation: 

 2006 – 2011 Results

 2011 New Plantings 

Seeding Practices 

Legume Seed Scarification 

Project Location: Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, 

Ontario, Oregon

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Clinton C. Shock, Superintendent and Professor

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

(541)889.2174, Fax (541)889.7831

clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu

Erik B. Feibert, Lamont D. Saunders, and Cheryl Parris

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station

(541)889.2174, Fax (541)889.7831

erik.feibert@oregonstate.edu

Nancy Shaw

USFS, Rocky Mountain Research Station

Boise, ID 

Doug Johnson and Shaun Bushman

USDA-ARS, Forage & Range Research Laboratory

Logan, UT

Project Description:

1a. Irrigation: 2006 – 2011 results

Native wildflower seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial 

seed production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A 

major limitation to economically viable commercial production of native wildflower (forb) seed 

is stable and consistent seed productivity over years. 

In natural rangelands, the natural variations in spring rainfall and soil moisture result in highly 

unpredictable water stress at flowering, seed set, and seed development, which for other seed 

crops is known to compromise seed yield and quality. 

Native wildflower plants are not adapted to croplands. Native plants are often not competitive 

with crop weeds in cultivated fields. Poor competition with weeds could also limit wildflower 

seed production. Both sprinkler and furrow irrigation could provide supplemental water for seed 

production, but these irrigation systems risk further encouraging weeds. Also, sprinkler and 
94

furrow irrigation can lead to the loss of plant stand and seed production due to fungal pathogens. 

By burying drip tapes at 12-inch depth and avoiding wetting of the soil surface, we hoped to 

assure flowering and seed set without undue encouragement of weeds or opportunistic diseases. 

The trials reported here tested the effects of three low rates of irrigation on the seed yield of 13 

native forb species. 

Materials and Methods

Plant Establishment

Seed of the seven Intermountain West forb species (the first seven species in Table 1) was 

received in late November in 2004 from the Rocky Mountain Research Station (Boise, ID). The 

plan was to plant the seed in the fall of 2004, but due to excessive rainfall in October, the ground 

preparation was not completed and planting was postponed to early 2005. To try to ensure 

germination the seed was submitted to cold stratification. The seed was soaked overnight in 

distilled water on January 26, 2005, after which the water was drained and the seed soaked for 20 

min in a 10 percent by volume solution of 13 percent bleach in distilled water. The water was 

drained and the seed was placed in thin layers in plastic containers. The plastic containers had 

lids with holes drilled in them to allow air movement. These containers were placed in a cooler 

set at approximately 34°F. Every few days the seed was mixed and, if necessary, distilled water 

added to maintain seed moisture. In late February, seed of Lomatium grayi and L. triternatum

had started to sprout. 

In late February 2005 drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch depth between 

2 30-inch rows of a Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic matter. The drip 

tape was buried in alternating inter-row spaces (5 ft apart). The flow rate for the drip tape was 

0.34 gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches apart, resulting in a water application 

rate of 0.066 inch/hour.

On March 3, seed of all species was planted in 30-inch rows using a custom-made plot grain drill 

with disk openers. All seed was planted at 20-30 seeds/ft of row. The Eriogonum umbellatum

and the Penstemon spp. were planted at 0.25-inch depth and the Lomatium spp. at 0.5-inch depth. 

The trial was irrigated with a minisprinkler system (R10 Turbo Rotator, Nelson Irrigation Corp., 

Walla Walla, WA) for even stand establishment from March 4 to April 29. Risers were spaced 

25 ft apart along the flexible polyethylene hose laterals that were spaced 30 ft apart and the water 

application rate was 0.10 inch/hour. A total of 1.72 inches of water was applied with the 

minisprinkler system. Eriogonum umbellatum, Lomatium triternatum, and L. grayi started 

emerging on March 29. All other species except L. dissectum emerged by late April. Starting 

June 24, the field was irrigated with the drip system. A total of 3.73 inches of water was applied 

with the drip system from June 24 to July 7. The field was not irrigated further in 2005. 

Plant stands for Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp., Lomatium triternatum, and L. grayi

were uneven. Lomatium dissectum did not emerge. None of the species flowered in 2005. In 

early October, 2005 more seed was received from the Rocky Mountain Research Station for 

replanting. The blank lengths of row were replanted by hand in the E. umbellatum and 

Penstemon spp. plots. The Lomatium spp. plots had the entire row lengths replanted using the 

planter. The seed was replanted on October 26, 2005. In the spring of 2006, the plant stands of 

the replanted species were excellent, except for P. deustus. 
95

On April 11, 2006 seed of three globemallow species (Sphaeralcea parvifolia, S. 

grossulariifolia, S. coccinea), two prairie clover species (Dalea searlsiae, D. ornata), and basalt 

milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) was planted at 30 seeds/ft of row (Table 1). The field was 

sprinkler irrigated until emergence. Emergence was poor. In late August of 2006 seed of the 

three globemallow species was harvested by hand. On November 9, 2006 the six forbs that were 

planted in 2006 were mechanically flailed. On November 10, 2006 the six forbs were replanted. 

On November 11, the Penstemon deustus plots were also replanted at 30 seeds/ft of row. 

Table 1. Forb species planted in the drip irrigation trials at the Malheur Experiment 

Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Species Common names

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon, sand-dune penstemon

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon, hot-rock penstemon

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon, sagebrush penstemon

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot, nineleaf desert parsley

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot, Gray’s lomatium

Sphaeralcea parvifolia Smallflower globemallow

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow

Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow, red globemallow

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover

Dalea ornata Western prairie clover

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch

Irrigation for Seed Production 

In April 2006 each strip of each forb species was divided into plots 30 ft long. Each plot 

contained four rows of each species. The experimental designs were randomized complete 

blocks with four replicates. The three irrigation treatments were a non-irrigated check, 1 inch 

per irrigation, and 2 inches per irrigation. Each treatment received 4 irrigations that were applied 

approximately every 2 weeks starting with flowering of the forbs. The amount of water applied 

to each treatment was calculated by the length of time necessary to deliver 1 or 2 inches through 

the drip system; the amount was measured by a water meter and recorded after each irrigation to 

ensure correct water applications. Irrigations were controlled with a controller and solenoid 

valves.

In March of 2007, the drip-irrigation system was modified to allow separate irrigation of the 

species due to different timings of flowering. The three Lomatium spp. were irrigated together 

and Penstemon deustus and P. speciosus were irrigated together, but separately from the others. 

Penstemon acuminatus and Eriogonum umbellatum were irrigated individually. In early April, 

2007 the three globemallow species, two prairie clover species, and basalt milkvetch were 

divided into plots with a drip-irrigation system to allow the same irrigation treatments that were 

received by the other forbs. 

Irrigation dates can be found in Table 2. In 2007, irrigation treatments were inadvertently 
96

continued after the fourth irrigation. In 2007, irrigation treatments for all species were continued 

until the last irrigation on June 24. 

Soil volumetric water content was measured by neutron probe. The neutron probe was calibrated 

by taking soil samples and probe readings at 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths during installation of the 

access tubes. The soil water content was determined volumetrically from the soil samples and 

regressed against the neutron probe readings, separately for each soil depth. Regression 

equations were then used to transform the neutron probe readings into volumetric soil water 

content. 

Flowering, Harvesting, and Seed Cleaning

Flowering dates for each species were recorded (Table 2). The Eriogonum umbellatum and 

Penstemon spp. plots produced seed in 2006, in part because they had emerged in the spring of 

2005. Each year, the middle two rows of each plot were harvested when seed of each species 

was mature (Table 2), using the methods listed in Table 3. The plant stand for P. deustus was 

too poor to result in reliable seed yield estimates. Replanting of P. deustus in the fall of 2006 did 

not result in adequate plant stand in the spring of 2007.

Eriogonum umbellatum seeds did not separate from the flowering structures in the combine; the 

unthreshed seed was taken to the U.S. Forest Service Lucky Peak Nursery (Boise, ID) and run 

through a dewinger to separate seed. The seed was further cleaned in a small clipper seed 

cleaner. 

Penstemon deustus seed pods were too hard to be opened in the combine; the unthreshed seed 

was precleaned in a small clipper seed cleaner and then seed pods were broken manually by 

rubbing the pods on a ribbed rubber mat. The seed was then cleaned again in the small clipper 

seed cleaner. 

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus were threshed in the combine and the seed was further 

cleaned using a small clipper seed cleaner. 

Cultural Practices in 2006

On October 27, 2006, 50 lb phosphorus (P)/acre and 2 lb zinc (Zn)/acre were injected through 

the drip tape to all plots of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp., and Lomatium spp. On 

November 11, 100 lb nitrogen (N)/acre as urea was broadcast to all Lomatium spp. plots. On 

November 17, all plots of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp. (except P. deustus), and 

Lomatium spp. had Prowl®at 1 lb ai/acre broadcast on the soil surface. Irrigations for all species 

were initiated on May 19 and terminated on June 30. Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for 

each species are listed in Table 3.

Cultural Practices in 2007

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus were sprayed with Aza-Direct®at 0.0062 lb ai/acre on 

May 14 and 29 for lygus bug control. Irrigations for each species were initiated and terminated 

on different dates (Table 2). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in 

Table 3. All plots of the three Sphaeralcea species were flailed on November 8, 2007. 
97

Cultural Practices in 2008

On November 9, 2007 and on April 15, 2008, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots for 

weed control. Capture®2EC at 0.1 lb ai/acre was sprayed on all plots of Penstemon acuminatus 

and P. speciosus on May 20 for lygus bug control. Irrigations for each species were initiated and 

terminated on different dates (Table 2). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species 

are listed in Table 3.

Cultural Practices in 2009

On March18, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre and Volunteer®at 8 oz/acre were broadcast on all plots for 

weed control. On April 9, 50 lb N/acre and 10 lb P/acre were applied through the drip irrigation 

system to the three Lomatium species. 

The flowering, irrigation timing, and harvest timing were recorded for each species (Table 2). 

Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 3. On December 4, 

2009, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast for weed control on all plots. 

Cultural Practices in 2010

The flowering, irrigation timing, and harvest timing of the established forbs were recorded for 

each species (Table 2). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in 

Table 3. On November 17, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots for weed control. 

Cultural Practices in 2011

On May 3, 2011, 50 lb N/acre was applied to all Lomatium dissectum, Lomatium triternatum, 

and Lomatium grayi plots as urea injected through the drip tape. The flowering, irrigation 

timing, and harvest timing varied by species (Table 2). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods 

for each species are listed in Table 3. 
98

Table 2. Native forb flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species in 2006, 2007, and 

2008.

Species

Flowering Irrigation

Harvest

start peak end start end

2006

Eriogonum umbellatum 19-May 20-Jul 19-May 30-Jun 3-Aug

Penstemon acuminatus 2-May 10-May 19-May 19-May 30-Jun 7-Jul

Penstemon deustus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 4-Aug

Penstemon speciosus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 13-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium grayi 19-May 30-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia

S. grossulariifolia

Sphaeralcea coccinea

Dalea searlsiae

Dalea ornata

2007

Eriogonum umbellatum 25-May 25-Jul 2-May 24-Jun 31-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 19-Apr 25-May 19-Apr 24-Jun 9-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun 23-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 5-Apr 24-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 1-Jun 5-Apr 24-Jun 29-Jun, 16-Jul

Lomatium grayi 5-Apr 10-May 5-Apr 24-Jun 30-May, 29-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 13-Aug

S. grossulariifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 13-Aug

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 13-Aug

Dalea searlsiae 20-Jun, 10-Jul

Dalea ornata 20-Jun, 10-Jul

2008

Eriogonum umbellatum 5-Jun 19-Jun 20-Jul 15-May 24-Jun 24-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 29-Apr 5-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 11-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 17-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 29-May

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 5-Jun 10-Apr 29-May 3-Jul

Lomatium grayi 25-Mar 15-May 10-Apr 29-May 30-May, 19-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

S. grossulariifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Dalea searlsiae 19-Jun

Dalea ornata 19-Jun
99

Table 2 (continued). Native forb flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by 

species in 2009, 2010, and 2011. 

Species

Flowering Irrigation

Harvest

start peak end start end

2009

Eriogonum umbellatum 31-May 15-Jul 19-May 24-Jun 28-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 2-May 10-Jun 8-May 12-Jun 10-Jul

Penstemon deustus 19-May 24-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 14-May 20-Jun 19-May 24-Jun 10-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 7-May 20-Apr 28-May 16-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 10-Apr 7-May 1-Jun 20-Apr 28-May 26-Jun

Lomatium grayi 10-Mar 7-May 20-Apr 28-May 16-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

2010

Eriogonum umbellatum 4-Jun 12-19 Jun 15-Jul 28-May 8-Jul 27-Jul

Penstemon speciosus 14-May 20-Jun 12-May 22-Jun 22-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 25-Apr 20-May 15-Apr 28-May 21-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 15-Jun 15-Apr 28-May 22-Jul

Lomatium grayi 15-Mar 15-May 15-Apr 28-May 22-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

2011

Eriogonum umbellatum 8-Jun 30-Jun 20-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 1-Aug

Penstemon speciosus 25-May 30-May 30-Jun 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 8-Apr 25-Apr 10-May 21-Apr 7-Jun 20-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 30-Apr 23-May 15-Jun 21-Apr 7-Jun 26-Jul

Lomatium grayi 1-Apr 25-Apr 13-May 21-Apr 7-Jun 22-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 26-May 15-Jun 14-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 26-May 15-Jun 14-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 26-May 15-Jun 14-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul
100

Table 3. Native forb seed harvest and cleaning by species.

Species Number of 

harvests/year Harvest method Precleaning

Threshing 

method

Cleaning 

method

Eriogonum umbellatum 1 combinea none dewingerb mechanicalc

Penstemon acuminatus 1 combined none combine mechanicalc

Penstemon deustus 1 combinea mechanicalc

hande mechanicalc

Penstemon speciosusf 1 combined none combine mechanicalc

Lomatium dissectum 1 hand hand none mechanicalc

Lomatium triternatum 1 – 2 hand hand none mechanicalc

Lomatium grayi 1 – 2 hand hand none mechanicalc

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 1 – 3 hand or combined none combine none

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 1 – 3 hand or combined none combine none

Sphaeralcea coccinea 1 – 3 hand or combined none combine none

Dalea searlsiae 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanicalc

Dalea ornate 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanicalc

a Wintersteiger Nurserymaster small-plot combine with dry bean concave.

b

Specialized seed threshing machine at USDA Lucky Peak Nursery used in 2006. Thereafter an adjustable handdriven corn grinder was used to thresh seed.

c

Clipper seed cleaner.

d Wintersteiger Nurserymaster small-plot combine with alfalfa seed concave. For the Sphaeralcea spp., flailing in 

the fall of 2007 resulted in more compact growth and one combine harvest in 2008, 2009, and 2010.

e

Hard seed pods were broken by rubbing against a ribbed rubber mat.

f Harvested by hand in 2007 and 2009 due to poor seed set.

Results and Discussion

The soil volumetric water content in the various species in 2011 responded to the irrigation 

treatments on each species (Figs. 3-7) and remained fairly moist due to winter snow pack, heavy 

spring rainfall, and the late distribution of precipitation (Fig. 2).

Flowering and Seed Set

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus had poor seed set in 2007, partly due to a heavy lygus 

bug infestation that was not adequately controlled by the applied insecticides. In the Treasure 

Valley, the first hatch of lygus bugs occurs when 250 degree-days (52°F base) are accumulated. 

Data collected by an AgriMet weather station adjacent to the field indicated that the first lygus 

bug hatch occurred on May 14, 2006; May 1, 2007; May 18, 2008; May 19, 2009; and May 29, 

2010. The average (1995-2010) lygus bug hatch date was May 18. Penstemon acuminatus and

P. speciosus start flowering in early May. The earlier lygus bug hatch in 2007 probably resulted 

in harmful levels of lygus bugs present during a larger part of the Penstemon spp. flowering 

period than normal. Poor seed set for P. acuminatus and P. speciosus in 2007 also was related to 

poor vegetative growth compared to 2006 and 2008. In 2009 all plots of P. acuminatus and P. 

speciosus again showed poor vegetative growth and seed set. Root rot affected all plots of P. 

acuminatus in 2009, killing all plants in two of the four plots of the wettest treatment (2 inches 

per irrigation). Root rot affected the wetter plots of P. speciosus in 2009, but the stand partially 

recovered due to natural reseeding.
101

The three Sphaeralcea species (globemallow) showed a long flowering period (early May 

through September) in 2007. Multiple manual harvests were necessary because the seed falls out 

of the capsules once they are mature. The flailing of the three Sphaeralcea species starting in the 

fall of 2007 was done annually to induce a more concentrated flowering, allowing only one 

mechanical harvest. Precipitation in June of 2009 (2.27 inches) and 2010 (1.95 inches) was 

substantially higher than average (0.76 inches). Rust (Puccinia sherardiana) infected all three 

Sphaeralcea species in June of 2009 and 2010, causing substantial leaf loss and reduced 

vegetative growth.

Seed Yields

Eriogonum umbellatum. In 2006, seed yield of Eriogonum umbellatum increased with 

increasing water application, up to 8 inches, the highest amount tested (Table 5, Fig. 8). In 2007-

2009 seed yield showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Tables 5 and 6). Seed yields were 

maximized by 8.1 inches, 7.2 inches, and 6.9 inches of water applied in 2007, 2008, and 2009, 

respectively. In 2010, there was no significant difference in yield between treatments. In 2011, 

seed yield was highest with no irrigation. The 2010 and 2011 seasons had unusually cool (Table 

4, Fig. 1) and wet weather (Fig. 2). The accumulated precipitation in April through June of 2010 

and 2011 was the highest over the years of the trial (Table 4). The relatively high seed yield of 

E. umbellatum in the nonirrigated treatment in 2010 and 2011 seemed to be related to the high 

spring precipitation. The negative effect of irrigation on seed yield in 2011 might have been 

related to the presence of rust. Irrigation could have exacerbated the rust, resulting in lower 

yields. Averaged over 6 years, seed yield of E. umbellatum increased with increasing water 

applied up to 8 inches, the highest amount tested (Fig. 3). The quadratic seed yield responses 

most years suggests that additional irrigation above 8 inches would not be beneficial.

Penstemon acuminatus. There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation 

treatments for Penstemon acuminatus in 2006 (Table 5). Precipitation from March through June 

was 6.4 inches in 2006. The 64-year-average precipitation from March through June is 3.6 

inches. The wet weather in 2006 could have attenuated the effects of the irrigation treatments. 

In 2007, seed yield showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Fig. 9). Seed yields were 

maximized by 4.0 inches of water applied in 2007. In 2008, seed yield showed a linear response 

to applied water. In 2009, there was no significant difference in seed yield between treatments 

(Table 6). However, due to root rot affecting all plots in 2009, the seed yield results were 

compromised. By 2010, substantial lengths of row contained only dead plants. Measurements in 

each plot showed that plant death increased with increasing irrigation rate. The percent of stand 

loss was 51.3, 63.9, and 88.5 for the 0-, 4-, and 8-inch irrigation treatments, respectively. The 

trial area was disked out in 2010. Following the 2005 planting, seed yields were substantial in 

2006 and moderate in 2008. P. acuminatus is a short-lived perennial.

Penstemon speciosus. In 2006-2009 seed yield of Penstemon speciosus showed a quadratic 

response to irrigation rate (Fig. 10, Tables 5 and 6). Seed yields were maximized by 4.3, 4.2, 

5.0, and 4.3 inches of water applied in 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, respectively. In 2010 and 

2011, there was no difference in seed yield between treatments. Seed yield was low in 2007 due 

to lygus bug damage, as discussed previously. Seed yield in 2009 was low due to stand loss 

from root rot. The plant stand recovered somewhat in 2010 and 2011, due in part to natural 

reseeding, especially in the nonirrigated plots. 
102

Penstemon deustus. There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation 

treatments for P. deustus in 2006 or 2007. Both the replanting of the low stand areas in October 

2005 and the replanting of the whole area in October 2006 resulted in very poor emergence and 

plots with very low and uneven stands. The planting was disked out. 

Lomatium triternatum. Lomatium triternatum showed a trend for increasing seed yield with 

increasing irrigation rate in 2007 (Table 5). The highest irrigation rate resulted in significantly 

higher seed yield than the nonirrigated check treatments. Seed yields of L. triternatum were 

substantially higher in 2008-2011 (Tables 5 and 6). In 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011 seed yields 

of L. triternatum showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Fig. 11). Seed yields were 

estimated to be maximized by 8.4, 5.4, 7.8, and 4.1 inches of water applied in 2008, 2009, 2010, 

and 2011, respectively. Averaged over 5 years, seed yield of L. triternatum was estimated to be 

maximized by 5.1 inches of applied water. Irrigation requirements were less in 2011.

Lomatium grayi. Lomatium grayi showed a trend for increasing seed yield with increasing 

irrigation rate in 2007 (Table 5). The highest irrigation rate resulted in significantly higher seed 

yield than the nonirrigated check. Seed yields of L. grayi were substantially higher in 2008 and 

2009. In 2008, seed yields of L. grayi showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Fig. 12). 

Seed yields were estimated to be maximized by 6.9 inches of water applied in 2008. In 2009, 

seed yield showed a linear response to irrigation rate. Seed yield with the 4-inch irrigation rate 

was significantly higher than in the nonirrigated check, but the 8-inch irrigation rate did not 

result in a significant increase above the 4-inch rate. In 2010, seed yield was not responsive to 

irrigation. The unusually wet spring of 2010 could have caused the lack of response to irrigation. 

A further complicating factor in 2010 that compromised seed yields was rodent damage. 

Extensive rodent (vole) damage occurred over the 2009-2010 winter. The affected areas were

transplanted with 3-year old L. grayi plants from an adjacent area in the spring of 2010. To 

reduce their attractiveness to voles, the plants were mowed after becoming dormant in early fall 

of 2010. In 2011, seed yield was again not responsive to irrigation. The spring of 2011 was 

unusually cool and wet. Averaged over 5 years, seed yield of L. grayi was estimated to be 

maximized by 5.1 inches of applied water. More appropriately, irrigation probably should be 

variable according to precipitation.

Lomatium dissectum. Lomatium dissectum had very poor vegetative growth in 2006-2008, and 

produced only very small amounts of flowers in 2008. In 2009, vegetative growth and flowering 

for L. dissectum were greater. Seed yield of L. dissectum showed a linear response to irrigation 

rate in 2009 (Fig. 13). Seed yield with the 4-inch irrigation rate was significantly higher than 

with the non-irrigated check, but the 8-inch irrigation rate did not result in a significant increase 

above the 4-inch rate. In 2010 and 2011, seed yields of L. dissectum showed a quadratic 

response to irrigation rate. Seed yields were estimated to be maximized by 5.4 and 5.1 inches of 

applied water in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Averaged over the 3 years, seed yield showed a 

quadratic response to irrigation rate and was estimated to be maximized by 5.6 inches of applied 

water.

All the Lomatium species tested were affected by Alternaria fungus, but the infection was 

greatest on the L. dissectum selection planted in this trial. This infection might have delayed L. 

dissectum plant development.
103

Sphaeralcea spp. In 2007-2011 there were no significant differences in seed yield among 

irrigation treatments for the three Sphaeralcea species (Tables 5 and 6). 

Dalea ornata and D. searlsiae. Emergence for the two Dalea species was poor, and plots had 

poor and uneven stands. In 2007, there was no significant difference in seed yield among 

irrigation treatments for the two Dalea species, with D. ornata having the higher seed yield. The 

stand of the two Dalea species declined and was too poor for seed harvest in 2008. The two 

Dalea species were replanted in the fall of 2008, but emergence was again poor and stands were 

not adequate for seed harvest in 2009 and the planting was destroyed. 

Conclusions

Subsurface drip irrigation systems were tested for native seed production because they have two 

potential strategic advantages, a) low water use, and b) the buried drip tape provides water to the 

plants at depth, precluding stimulation of weed seed germination on the soil surface and keeping 

water away from native plant tissues that are not adapted to a wet environment. 

Due to the arid environment, supplemental irrigation may often be required for successful 

flowering and seed set because soil water reserves may be exhausted before seed formation. The 

total irrigation requirements for these arid-land species were low and varied by species (Table 7). 

The Sphaeralcea spp. and Penstemon acuminatus did not respond to irrigation in these trials. 

Natural rainfall was sufficient to maximize seed production in the absence of weed competition.

Lomatium dissectum required approximately 6 inches of irrigation. Lomatium grayi, L. 

triternatum, and Eriogonum umbellatum responded quadratically to irrigation with the optimum 

varying by year. The other species tested had insufficient plant stands to reliably evaluate their 

response to irrigation. 

Table 4. Precipitation and growing degree-days at the Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR.

Precipitation (inches) Growing degree-days (50 - 86°F)

Year January - June April - June January - June

2006 9.0 3.1 1120

2007 3.1 1.9 1208

2008 2.9 1.2 936

2009 5.8 3.9 1028

2010 8.3 4.3 779

2011 8.3 3.9 671

66-year average 5.8 2.7 1042a

a

25-year average.
104

Figure 1. Cumulative annual and 21-year average growing degree-days at the Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Figure 2. Cumulative annual and 66-year average precipitation from January through July at the 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR
Table 5. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) in 2006, 2007, and 2008. 

2006 2007 2008

Species

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

---------------------------------------------------------- lb/acre --------------------------------------------------------

Eriogonum umbellatuma155.3 214.4 371.6 92.9 79.6 164.8 193.8 79.8 121.3 221.5 245.2 51.7

Penstemon acuminatusa538.4 611.1 544.0 NS 19.3 50.1 19.1 25.5b56.2 150.7 187.1 79.0

Penstemon deustusc1246.4 1200.8 1068.6 NS 120.3 187.7 148.3 NS --- very poor stand ---

Penstemon speciosusa163.5 346.2 213.6 134.3 2.5 9.3 5.3 4.7b94.0 367.0 276.5 179.6

Lomatium dissectumd---- no flowering ---- --- no flowering --- - very little flowering -

Lomatium triternatumd---- no flowering ---- 2.3 17.5 26.7 16.9b195.3 1060.9 1386.9 410.0

Lomatium grayid---- no flowering ---- 36.1 88.3 131.9 77.7b393.3 1287.0 1444.9 141.0

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae1062.6 850.7 957.9 NS 436.2 569.1 544.7 NS

Sphaeralcea grossulariifoliae442.6 324.8 351.9 NS 275.3 183.3 178.7 NS

Sphaeralcea coccineae279.8 262.1 310.3 NS 298.7 304.1 205.2 NS

Dalea searlsiaee11.5 10.2 16.4 NS ----- very poor stand ----

Dalea ornatae47.4 27.3 55.6 NS ----- very poor stand ----

a

Planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005.

b

LSD (0.10).

c Planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005 and whole area replanted in October 2006. Yields in 2006 are based on small areas with adequate 

stand. Yields in 2007 are based on whole area of very poor and uneven stand.

d

Planted March, 2005, whole area replanted in October 2005.

e

Planted spring 2006, whole area replanted in November 2006.

105
Table 6. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) in 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2- to 6-year averages. 

2009 2010 2011

Species

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

--------------------------------------------------- lb/acre ----------------------------------------------

Eriogonum umbellatuma132.3 223 240.1 67.4 252.9 260.3 208.8 NS 248.7 136.9 121.0 90.9

Penstemon acuminatusa20.7 12.5 11.6 NS -- Stand disked out --

Penstemon speciosusa6.8 16.1 9 6.0b 147.2 74.3 69.7 NS 371.1 328.2 348.6 NS

Lomatium dissectumd50.6 320.5 327.8 196.4b 265.8 543.8 499.6 199.6 567.5 1342.8 1113.8 180.9

Lomatium triternatumd181.6 780.1 676.1 177 1637.2 2829.6 3194.6 309.4 1982.9 2624.5 2028.1 502.3f

Lomatium grayid359.9 579.8 686.5 208.4 1035.7 1143.5 704.8 NS 570.3 572.7 347.6 NS

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae285.9 406.1 433.3 NS 245.3 327.3 257.3 NS 81.6 142.5 141.2 NS

Sphaeralcea grossulariifoliae270.7 298.9 327 NS 310.5 351 346.6 NS 224.0 261.9 148.1 NS

Sphaeralcea coccineae332.2 172.1 263.3 NS 385.7 282.6 372.5 NS 89.6 199.6 60.5 NS

2- to 6-year averages

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

Species (0.05)

Eriogonum umbellatuma173.4 200.7 224.8 34.5

Penstemon acuminatusa163.8 204.8 189.9 NS

Penstemon speciosusa131.8 179.8 153.5 NS

Lomatium dissectumd294.6 691.0 647.1 195.7

Lomatium triternatumd799.8 1462.5 1462.5 200.9

Lomatium grayid479.0 734.3 663.1 160.7b

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae449.9 495.9 495.8 NS

Sphaeralcea grossulariifoliae339.5 323.4 309.4 NS

Sphaeralcea coccineae320.5 275.8 284.2 NS

a

Planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005.

b

LSD (0.10).

c

Planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005 and whole area replanted in October 2006. Yields in 2006 were based on small areas with adequate 

stand. Yields in 2007 were based on whole area of very poor and uneven stand.

d

Planted March, 2005, whole area replanted in October 2005.

e Planted spring 2006, whole area replanted in November 2006.

106
107

Table 7. Amount of irrigation water for maximum native wildflower seed yield, years to seed 

set, and life span. A summary of multi-year research findings.

Species Optimum amount of irrigation

Years to first seed 

set

Life 

span

inches/season from fall planting years

Eriogonum umbellatum 0 in wet years, 7 to 8 in dry years 1 6+

Penstemon acuminatus no response 1 3

Penstemon speciosus 0 in wet years, 4 in dry years 1 3

Lomatium dissectum 6 4 6+

Lomatium triternatum 4 to 8 depending on precipitation 2 6+

Lomatium grayi 0 in wet years, 7 to 8 in dry years 2 6+

Sphaeralcea parvifolia no response 1 5+

Sphaeralcea 

grossulariifolia no response 1

5+

Sphaeralcea coccinea no response 1 5+

Figure 3. Soil volumetric water content for Eriogonum umbellatum over time in 2011. Soil 

volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on May 20 and ended on July 5. Arrows denote irrigations. E. umbellatum was harvested 

on August 1 (day 213). 
108

Figure 4. Soil volumetric water content for Penstemon speciosus over time in 2011. Soil 

volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on May 20 and ended on July 5. Arrows denote irrigations. P. speciosus was harvested on 

July 29 (day 210). 

Figure 5. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium triternatum over time in 2011. Soil 

volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on April 21 and ended on June 7. Arrows denote irrigations. L. triternatum was harvested 

on July 26 (day 207). 
109

Figure 6. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium grayi over time in 2011. Soil volumetric 

water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

April 21 and ended on June 7. Arrows denote irrigations. L. grayi was harvested on June 22 (day 

173). 

Figure 7. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium dissectum over time in 2011. Soil 

volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on April 21 and ended on June 7. Arrows denote irrigations. L. dissectum was harvested 

on June 20 (day 171). 
110

Figure 8. Average annual Eriogonum umbellatum seed yield response to irrigation water 

applied in 6 years and averaged over 6 years.

Regression equations: 2006, Y = 137.9 + 27.8X, R2= 0.68, P = 0.01; 

2007, Y = 79.6 + 28.3X – 1.75X2, R2= 0.69, P = 0.05; 2008, Y = 121.3 + 34.6X – 2.4X2, R2= 0.73, P = 0.01; 

2009, Y = 132.3 + 31.9X – 2.3X2, R2= 0.60, P = .05; 2010, Y = 252.9 + 9.21X – 1.8X2, R2= 0.08, P = NS; 

2011, Y = 232.7 – 16.0X, R2= 0.58, P = 0.01; 6-year average, Y = 173.9 + 6.43X, R2= 0.49, P = 0.05

Figure 9. Annual Penstemon acuminatus seed yield response to irrigation water. 

Regression equations: 2006, Y = 538.4 + 35.6X – 4.4X2, R2= 0.03, P = NS; 

2007, Y = 19.3 + 15.4X – 1.9X2, R2= 0.44, P = 0.10; 2008, Y = 84.5 + 13.6X, R2= 0.49, P = 0.05
111

Figure 10. Annual and 6-year average Penstemon speciosus seed yield response to irrigation 

water.

Regression equations: 2006, Y = 163.5 + 85.1X – 9.9X2, R2= 0.66, P = 0.05; 

2007, Y = 2.5 + 3.2X – 0.38X2, R2= 0.48, P = 0.10; 2008, Y = 94.1 + 113.7X – 11.4X2, R2= 0.56, P = 0.05; 

2009, Y = 6.8 + 4.4X – 0.52X2, R2= 0.54, P = 0.05; 2010, Y = 147.2 + 29.81X – 2.1X2, R2= 0.35, P = NS; 

2011, Y = 360.6 – 2.82X, R2= 0.01, P = NS; 6-year average, Y = 144.2 + 2.72X, R2= 0.06, P = NS

Figure 11. Annual and 5-year average Lomatium triternatum seed yield response to irrigation 

water applied.

Regression equations: 2007, Y = 3.26 + 3.06X, R2= 0.52, P = 0.01; 

2008, Y = 195.3 + 283.9X – 16.9X2, R2= 0.77, P = 0.01; 

2009, Y = 181.6 + 237.4X – 22.0X2, R2= 0.83, P = 0.001; 

2010, Y = 1637.2 + 401.5X – 25.9X2, R2= 0.83, P = 0.001; 

2011, Y = 1982.932 + 315.1X – 38.7X2, R2= 0.45, P = 0.10; 

6-year average, Y = 799.8 + 248.5X – 20.7X2, R2= 0.81, P = 0.001
112

Figure 12. Annual and 5-year average Lomatium grayi seed yield response to irrigation water 

applied.

Regression equations: 2007, Y = 37.5 + 12.0X, R2= 0.26, P = 0.10; 

2008, Y = 393.3 + 315.4X – 23.0X2, R2= 0.93, P = 0.001; 2009, Y = 378.7 + 40.8X, R2= 0.38, P = 0.05; 

2010, Y = 1035.7 + 95.3X – 17.1X2, R2= 0.22, P = NS; 2011, Y = 608.2 – 27.8X, R2= 0.07, P = NS; 

6-year average, Y = 479.0 + 104.6X – 10.2X2, R2= 0.46, P = 0.10

Figure 13. Annual and 3-year average Lomatium dissectum seed yield response to irrigation 

water.

Regression equations: 2009, Y = 86.4 + 34.6X, R2= 0.31, P = 0.10; 

2010, Y = 265.8 + 109.8X – 10.1X2, R2= 0.68, P = 0.01; 

2011, Y = 567.5 + 319.3X – 31.4X2, R2= 0.86, P = 0.001; 

6-year average, Y = 294.7 + 154.1X – 13.8X2, R2= 0.72, P = 0.01
113

1b. Irrigation: 2011 New Plantings

The trials reported here tested the effects of three low rates of irrigation on the seed yield of 10 

native forb species planted in 2009. 

Materials and Methods

Plant Establishment

In November 2009, drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch depth between 2 

30-inch rows of a Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic matter. The drip tape 

was buried in alternating inter-row spaces (5 ft apart). The flow rate for the drip tape was 0.34 

gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches apart, resulting in a water application rate 

of 0.066 inch/hour.

On November 25, 2009 seed of all species was planted in 30-inch rows using a custom-made 

plot grain drill with disk openers. All seed was planted on the soil surface at 20-30 seeds/ft of 

row. After planting, sawdust was applied in a narrow band over the seed row at 0.26 oz/ft of row 

(558 lb/acre). Following planting and sawdust application, the beds were covered with row 

cover. The row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO 63801) covered four rows (two 

beds) and was applied with a mechanical plastic mulch layer. The field was irrigated for 24 hours 

on December 2 due to very dry soil conditions.

After the newly planted forbs had emerged, the row cover was removed in April. The irrigation 

treatments were not applied to these forbs in 2010. Stands of Penstemon cyaneus, Penstemon 

pachyphyllus, and Eriogonum heracleoides were not adequate for an irrigation trial. Gaps in the 

rows were replanted by hand on November 5. The replanted seed was covered with a thin layer 

of a mixture of 50% sawdust and 50% hydro seeding mulch (Hydrostraw LLC, Manteno, IL) by 

volume. The mulch mixture was sprayed with water using a backpack sprayer. 

Table 1. Forb species planted in the drip irrigation trials in 2009 at the Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Species Common names

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon, hot-rock penstemon

Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon

Penstemon pachyphyllus Thickleaf beardtongue

Eriogonum heracleoides Parsnip-flowered buckwheat

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover

Dalea ornata Western prairie clover

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch

Cleome serrulata

Lomatium nudicaule

Cymopterus bipinnatus

Rocky mountain beeplant

Bare-stem desert parsley, Barestem lomatium

Hayden's cymopterus

Irrigation for Seed Production 

In April, 2011, each strip of each forb species was divided into plots 30 ft long. Each plot

contained four rows of each species. The experimental design for each species was a 

randomized complete blocks with four replicates. The three irrigation treatments were a non-
114

irrigated check, 1 inch per irrigation, and 2 inches per irrigation. Each treatment received 4 

irrigations that were applied approximately every 2 weeks starting with flowering of the forbs. 

The amount of water applied to each treatment was calculated by the length of time necessary to 

deliver 1 or 2 inches through the drip system; the amount was measured by a water meter and 

recorded after each irrigation to ensure correct water applications. Irrigations were controlled 

with a controller and solenoid valves.

The drip-irrigation system was designed to allow separate irrigation of the species due to 

different timings of flowering and seed formation. The three Penstemon spp. were irrigated 

together and the two Dalea spp. were irrigated together. Eriogonum heracleoides and 

Astragalus filipes were irrigated individually. Flowering, irrigation, and harvest dates were 

recorded (Table 2). Lomatium nudicaule and Cymopterus bipinnatus have not flowered as of 

2011. Irrigation treatments were not applied to Lomatium nudicaule and Cymopterus bipinnatus.

Soil volumetric water content was measured by neutron probe. The neutron probe was calibrated 

by taking soil samples and probe readings at 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths during installation of the 

access tubes. The soil water content was determined volumetrically from the soil samples and 

regressed against the neutron probe readings, separately for each soil depth. Regression 

equations were then used to transform the neutron probe readings during the season into 

volumetric soil water content. 

Table 2. Native forb flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species in 2011.

Species Flowering Irrigation Harvest

start peak end start end

Penstemon cyaneus 23-May 15-Jun 8-Jul 13-May 23-Jun 18-Jul

Penstemon pachyphyllus 10-May 30-May 20-Jun 13-May 23-Jun 15-Jul

Penstemon deustus 23-May 20-Jun 14-Jul 13-May 23-Jun 16-Aug

Eriogonum heracleoides 26-May 10-Jun 8-Jul 27-May 6-Jul 1-Aug

Dalea searlsiae 8-Jun 20-Jun 20-Jul 27-May 6-Jul 21-Jul

Dalea ornata 8-Jun 20-Jun 20-Jul 27-May 6-Jul 22-Jul

Astragalus filipes 20-May 26-May 30-Jun 13-May 23-Jun 18-Jul

Cleome serrulata 25-Jun 30-Jul 15-Aug 21-Jun 2-Aug 26-Sep

Lomatium nudicaule --- No flowering ---

Cymopterus bipinnatus --- No flowering ---

Results and Discussion

The spring of 2011 followed considerable snowpack and had higher than average precipitation 

and lower than average growing degree days (Figures 1 and 2).

The soil volumetric water content in the various species in 2011 responded to the irrigation 

treatments on each species (Figs. 3-7) and remained fairly moist due to winter precipitation and 

the continued precipitation in 2011. The soil moisture content remained above 20 percent until 

mid June for all species and irrigation treatments.
115

Seed Yields

Seed yield of all species, except Cleome serrulata, either had a negative response to irrigation 

(Dalea searlsiae and Penstemon deustus) or did not respond to irrigation (Dalea ornata and 

Astragalus filipes) (Table 3, Figures 8 to 13). Seed yield of Cleome serrulata was highest with 

the highest amount of water applied (8 inches). The higher than average winter moisture and 

precipitation in March and May reduced the effect of the irrigation treatments for the species that 

flowered in May and June. Cleome serrulata started flowering in late June and peaked in 

August, when precipitation was lower. Seed yields of Penstemon cyaneus and Penstemon 

pachyphyllus did not respond to irrigation, but the results might be compromised by the poor 

stand in many plots.

Table 3. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) in 2011.

Species 0 inches 4 inches 8 inches LSD 

(0.05)

----------- lb/acre ----------

Penstemon cyaneusa857.2 821.4 909.4 NS

Penstemon pachyphyllusa569.9 337.6 482.2 NS

Penstemon deustus 637.6 477.8 452.6 NS

Eriogonum heracleoides 55.2 71.6 49.0 NS

Dalea searlsiae 262.7 231.2 196.3 50.1

Dalea ornata 451.9 410.8 351.7 NS

Astragalus filipes 87.0 98.4 74.0 NS

Cleome serrulata 446.5 499.3 593.6 100.9b

a

poor stand

b

LSD (0.10)

Figure 1. Cumulative annual and 66-year average precipitation from January through July at the 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.
116

Figure 2. Cumulative 2011 and 20-year average growing degree-days at the Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Figure 3. Soil volumetric water content for Eriogonum heracleoides over time in 2011. Soil 

volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on May 27 and ended on July 6. Arrows denote irrigations. E. heracleoides was 

harvested on August 1 (day 213). 
117

Figure 4. Soil volumetric water content for Penstemon deustus over time in 2011. Soil 

volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on May 13 and ended on June 23. Arrows denote irrigations. P. deustus was harvested on 

August 16 (day 228). 

Figure 5. Soil volumetric water content for Dalea searlsiae over time in 2011. Soil volumetric 

water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

May 27 and ended on July 6. Arrows denote irrigations. D. searlsiae was harvested on July 21 

(day 202). 
118

Figure 6. Soil volumetric water content for Dalea ornata over time in 2011. Soil volumetric 

water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

May 27 and ended on July 6. Arrows denote irrigations. D. ornata was harvested on July 22 (day 

203). 

Figure 7. Soil volumetric water content for Astragalus filipes over time in 2011. Soil 

volumetric water content is the combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on May 13 and ended on June 23. Arrows denote irrigations. A. filipes was harvested on 

July 18 (day 199). 
119

Figure 8. Eriogonum heracleoides seed yield response to irrigation water applied in 2011.

Figure 9. Penstemon deustus seed yield response to irrigation water applied in 2011. 
120

Figure 10. Dalea searlsiae seed yield response to irrigation water applied in 2011. 

Figure 11. Dalea ornata seed yield response to irrigation water applied in 2011. 
121

Figure 12. Astragalus filipes seed yield response to irrigation water applied in 2011. 

Figure 13. Cleome serrulata seed yield response to irrigation water applied in 2011. 
122

2. Seeding Practices

Seed of native plants is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Reliable 

commercial seed production is desirable to make seed readily available. Direct seeding of native 

range plants has been generally problematic, but especially for certain species. Fall planting is 

important for many species, because seed of many species requires a period of cold to break 

dormancy (vernalization). Fall planting of native seed has resulted in poor stands in some years 

at the Malheur Experiment Station. Loss of soil moisture, soil crusting, and bird damage are 

some detrimental factors hindering emergence of fall planted seed. Previous trials at the 

Malheur Experiment Station have examined seed pelleting, planting depth, and soil anti-crustants 

(Shock et al. 2010). Planting at depth with soil anti-crustant improved emergence compared to 

surface planting. Seed pelleting did not improve emergence. Despite these positive results, 

emergence was extremely poor for all treatments, due to soil crusting and bird damage.

In established native perennial fields at the Malheur Experiment Station and in rangelands we 

have observed prolific natural emergence from seed that falls on the soil surface and is covered 

by thin layers of organic debris. This trial tested the effect of seven factors on surface planted 

seed (Table 1). Row cover can be a protective barrier against soil desiccation and bird damage. 

Sawdust can mimic the protective effect of organic debris. Sand can help hold the seed in place. 

Seed treatment can protect the emerging seed from fungal pathogens that might cause seed 

decomposition or seedling damping off. Hydroseeding mulch could be a low cost replacement 

for row cover. The treatments did not test all possible combinations of factors, but tested the 

combinations that would theoretically be most likely to result in the best stand establishment.

This trial tested seed cover, row cover, seed treatment, and hydroseed mulch for emergence of 

six important species that are native to Malheur County and surrounding rangelands. 

Table 1. Treatments evaluated for emergence of six native plant 

species. Mouse bait packs were scattered over the trial area.

#

Row 

cover

Seed 

treatment* Sawdust Sand Mulch

1 yes yes yes no no

2 yes yes no no no

3 yes no yes no no

4 no yes yes no no

5 yes yes yes yes no

6 no yes no no yes

7 no no no no no

*mixture of Captan and Ridomil fungicides for prevention of seed decomposition 

and seedling damping off.

Materials and Methods

Five species for which stand establishment has been problematic were chosen. A sixth species 

(Penstemon acuminatus) was chosen as a check, because it has reliably produced good stands at 

Ontario. Seed of Dalea ornata was scarified by immersion for 5 min in 98 percent sulfuric acid. 

Seed weights for all species were determined. A portion of the seed was treated with a liquid 
123

mix of the fungicides Ridomil MZ58 and Captan (100 g Ridomil, 100 g Captan in 1 liter of 

water). Seed weights of the treated seeds were determined after treatment and untreated and 

treated seed were used to make seed packets containing approximately 300 seeds each. Seed 

packets were assigned to one of seven treatments (Table 1). The trial was planted manually on 

November 3, 2010. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with six 

replicates. Plots were one 30-in wide bed by 5 ft long. Two seed rows were planted on each bed. 

Tetrazolium tests were conducted to determine seed viability of each species (Table 2). The 

tetrazolium results were used to correct the emergence data to emergence of viable seed. 

Table 2. Seed weights and tetrazolium test (seed viability) for native plants submitted to 

emergence treatments in the fall of 2010.

Species Common name Untreated seed 

weight

Tetrazolium 

test

seeds/g %

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber's needlegrass 352.4 72

Dalea ornata Blue mountain prairie clover 276.4 89

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover 321.4 84

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 1119.4 73

Penstemon deustus Hotrock or scabland penstemon 6164.4 70

Heliomeris multiflora Showy goldeneye 1821.9 88

Balsamorhiza sagittata Arrowleaf balsamroot 138.6 77

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch 236.6 94

After planting, the sawdust was applied in a narrow band over the seed row at 0.26 oz/ft of row 

(558 lb/acre). For treatments receiving both sawdust and sand, the sand was applied at 0.65 oz/ft 

of row (1,404 lb/acre) as a narrow band over the sawdust. Following planting and sawdust and 

sand applications, some beds were covered with row cover. The row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt 

Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO 63801) covered four rows (two beds) and was applied with a mechanical 

plastic mulch layer. For the hydroseeding mulch treatments, hydroseeding mulch (Hydrostraw 

LLC, Manteno, IL) was applied dry at 7.5 g/foot of row in a 3 cm band over the seed row. The 

applied dry mulch was sprayed with water using a backpack sprayer to simulate hydroseeding.

On March 23, 2011, the row cover was removed and emergence counts were made in each plot. 

Emergence counts were again taken on May 13. Seed of Dalea ornata, Penstemon acuminatus, 

and Heliomeris multiflora was harvested by hand in August. H. multiflora continued to flower 

and seed was again harvested in November. 

Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (General Linear Models Procedure, NCSS, 

Kaysville, UT). Means separation was determined using Fisher’s least significant difference test 

at the 5 percent probability level, LSD (0.05). 

Results and Discussion

By the first emergence count on March 23, 2011, all species had started emerging. On March 23 
124

and May 13, row cover with sawdust and seed treatment resulted in higher emergence than no 

row cover (bare ground) with sawdust and seed treatment for Achnatherum thurberianum, 

Penstemon acuminatus, P. deustus, Heliomeris multiflora, and Balsamorhiza sagittata (Table 3). 

On March 23, adding sawdust to row cover and seed treatment did not improve emergence of 

any species, but reduced emergence of P. deustus. On May 13, adding sawdust to row cover and 

seed treatment improved emergence of A. thurberianum, but reduced emergence of P. deustus. 

On March 23, adding seed treatment to sawdust and row cover improved emergence of 

Penstemon acuminatus. On May 13, adding seed treatment to sawdust and row cover improved 

emergence of A. thurberianum, P. acuminatus, and P. deustus. Adding sand to sawdust, seed 

treatment, and row cover increased emergence for B. sagittata and P. acuminatus on May 13. 

There was no difference in emergence between treatments for Dalea ornata on either date. 

Emergence with hydroseed mulch and seed treatment was lower than with row cover and seed 

treatment for all species on both dates, except for Balsamorhiza sagittata on May 13.

Analysis of the five treatments tested in 2010 and 2011 on the 6 species, shows that over the 2

years, row cover with seed treatment and sawdust improved emergence compared to no row 

cover with seed treatment and sawdust for A. thurberianum, P. deustus, H. multiflora, and B.

sagittata (Table 4). Row cover with seed treatment and sawdust had lower emergence than row 

cover and seed treatment without sawdust for P. deustus. The effect of systems with and without 

seed treatment on emergence differed by year. Adding seed treatment to row cover and sawdust 

did not improve emergence for any species and reduced emergence for 3 species in 2010. In 

2011, adding seed treatment to row cover and sawdust improved emergence for 3 species. March 

precipitation, when emergence starts, was higher in 2011 (3 in) than in 2010 (0.6 in). Adding 

sand to row cover, seed treatment and sawdust did not improve emergence of any species.

Conclusions

The above results describe practices that can be immediately implemented by seed growers. 

Averaged over two years:

- Row cover with seed treatment and sawdust improved emergence over no row cover with seed 

 treatment and sawdust for all species except Penstemon acuminatus.

- Row cover with sawdust and seed treatment did not improve emergence over row cover 

 without sawdust and with seed treatment and reduced emergence for Penstemon desutus.

- The effect of systems with and without seed treatment on emergence differed by year. In a 

 drier year (2010), adding seed treatment to row cover and sawdust did not improve emergence 

 for any species and reduced emergence for three species in 2010. In 2011 (wetter year), adding 

 seed treatment to row cover and sawdust improved emergence for three species.

- Adding sand to row cover, seed treatment and sawdust did not improve emergence of any 

 species.

Reference:

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and N. Shaw. 2010. Emergence of native plant seeds 

 in response to seed pelleting, planting depth, scarification, and soil anti-crusting treatment. 

 Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2009:218-222.
Table 3. Emergence of seven native plant species on March 23 and May 13, 2011 in response to seven treatments applied at planting 

in the fall of 2010. Emergence for each species was corrected to the percent emergence of viable seed. Dalea ornata seed was acid 

scarified. 

March 23

#

Row 

cover

Seed 

treatment Sawdust Sand Mulch

Balsamorhiza 

sagittata

Achnatherum 

thurberianum

Dalea 

ornata

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Penstemon 

deustus

Heliomeris 

multiflora Average

------------------------------------------- % emergence ---------------------------------------

1 yes yes yes no no 80.3 45.7 4.9 46.9 30.5 35.4 40.6

2 yes yes no no no 78.9 47.8 10.7 47.5 55.3 34.0 45.7

3 yes no yes no no 84.1 56.6 1.5 29.2 18.1 37.6 37.8

4 no yes yes no no 46.8 5.9 0.0 21.4 0.0 12.5 14.4

5 yes yes yes yes no 94.0 44.1 3.0 58.7 37.9 49.0 47.8

6 no yes no no yes 44.2 0.0 0.0 10.9 0.0 6.9 10.3

7 no no no no no 44.7 5.4 0.0 14.6 11.7 8.6 14.2

Average 67.6 29.4 2.9 32.7 21.9 26.3 30.1

LSD (0.05) Treatment 5.3

LSD (0.05) Species 6.2

LSD (0.05) Treatment X Species 16.5

May 13

#

Row 

cover

Seed 

treatment Sawdust Sand Mulch

Balsamorhiza 

sagittata

Achnatherum 

thurberianum

Dalea 

ornata

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Penstemon 

deustus

Heliomeris 

multiflora Average

------------------------------------------- % emergence ---------------------------------------

1 yes yes yes no no 57.5 48.2 1.6 38.3 32.1 35.5 35.5

2 yes yes no no no 57.7 36.6 0.7 38.8 46.5 30.5 35.1

3 yes no yes no no 63.9 36.0 0.0 24.1 15.3 31.6 28.5

4 no yes yes no no 37.9 26.0 0.8 26.4 14.7 17.6 20.6

5 yes yes yes yes no 69.6 42.1 0.1 48.8 31.3 43.6 39.3

6 no yes no no yes 48.6 27.9 1.1 19.5 20.0 22.3 23.2

7 no no no no no 33.7 24.1 1.6 17.7 5.7 9.6 15.4

Average 52.7 34.4 0.9 30.5 23.7 27.2 28.2

LSD (0.05) Treatment 3.8

LSD (0.05) Species 3.6

LSD (0.05) Treatment X Species 9.6

125
Table 4. Plant stands of six native plant species on April 9, 2010 and May 13, 2011 in response to five treatments applied at planting

in the fall of 2009 and 2010. Plant stands for each species was corrected to the percent of viable seed. Dalea ornata seed was acid 

scarified. 

#

Row 

cover

Seed 

treatment Sawdust Sand

Balsamorhiza 

sagittata

Achnatherum 

thurberianum

Dalea 

ornata 

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Penstemon 

deustus

Heliomeris 

multiflora Average

---------------------------------------------- % emergence ------------------------------------------

2010

1 yes yes yes no 60.0 44.3 9.6 19.6 32.3 26.0 35.5

2 yes yes no no 49.6 41.9 9.8 18.8 49.1 23.4 34.8

3 yes no yes no 66.7 54.3 3.2 26.4 43.8 39.2 44.4

4 no yes yes no 25.5 41.2 5.0 18.1 17.1 10.9 20.7

5 yes yes yes yes 59.3 47.2 13.9 22.5 29.8 22.3 37.4

Average 52.2 45.8 8.3 21.1 34.4 24.4 34.6

2011

1 yes yes yes no 57.5 48.2 1.6 38.3 32.1 35.5 35.5

2 yes yes no no 57.7 36.6 0.7 38.8 46.5 30.5 35.1

3 yes no yes no 63.9 36.0 0.0 24.1 15.3 31.6 28.5

4 no yes yes no 37.9 26.0 0.8 26.4 14.7 17.6 20.6

5 yes yes yes yes 69.6 42.1 0.1 48.8 31.3 43.6 39.3

Average 52.7 34.4 0.9 30.5 23.7 27.2 31.8

Average

1 yes yes yes no 58.8 46.3 5.6 29.0 32.2 30.7 35.5

2 yes yes no no 53.7 39.2 5.2 28.8 47.8 26.9 34.9

3 yes no yes no 65.3 45.1 1.6 25.3 29.6 35.4 37.1

4 no yes yes no 31.7 33.6 2.9 22.3 15.9 14.2 20.6

5 yes yes yes yes 64.4 44.7 7.0 35.6 30.6 33.0 38.2

Average 52.5 39.1 4.0 26.6 28.2 26.0 33.3

LSD (0.05) 

Treatment 4.1

Species 3.2

Treatment X Species 7.2

Treatment X Year 3.5

Treatment X Species X Year 8.5

126
127

3. Legume Seed Scarification

Legumes can provide important roles for restored rangelands of the Intermountain West. 

Reliable commercial seed production is desirable to make seed readily available. Direct seeding 

of native range plants has been generally problematic, but especially for certain species. 

Rangeland legumes have been extremely difficult to establish.

In established native perennial fields at the Malheur Experiment Station and in rangelands we 

have observed prolific natural emergence from seed that falls on the soil surface and is covered 

by thin layers of organic debris. Seed of some legumes has a hard seed coat that slows 

germination. Scarification of the seed coat might improve water penetration and improve 

emergence. This trial tested the effect of seed scarification, row cover, and hydroseed mulch on 

germination of surface planted seed of three legume species that are native to Malheur County 

and surrounding rangelands (Table 1). Row cover can be a protective barrier against soil 

desiccation and bird damage. Hydroseeding mulch could be a low cost replacement for row 

cover. 

Materials and Methods

Three species for which stand establishment has been problematic were chosen (Table 1). Seed 

of each species was scarified by immersion for 5 min in 98 percent sulfuric acid. All seed was 

treated with a liquid mix of the fungicides Ridomil MZ58 and Captan (100 g Ridomil, 100 g 

Captan in 1 liter of water). Seed weights of the scarified and non scarified seeds were 

determined after treatment. The seed weights were used to make seed packets containing 

approximately 300 seeds each. The seed packets were assigned to one of two treatments (Table 

2). The trial was planted manually on November 3, 2010. The experimental design was a 

randomized complete block with six replicates. Plots were one 30-inch wide bed by 5 ft long. 

Two seed rows were planted on each bed. 

Table 1. Seed weights for three native legume species 

submitted to emergence treatments in the fall of 2010. 

Species and scarification seeds/g

Dalea ornata (scarified) 273.2

Dalea ornata (non-scarified) 272.2

Astragalus filipes (scarified) 236.6

Astragalus filipes (non-scarified) 248.3

Dalea searlsiae (scarified) 321.4

Dalea searlsiae (non-scarified) 311.4

After planting, some of the beds were covered with row cover. The row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt 

Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO 63801) covered four rows (two beds) and was applied with a mechanical 

plastic mulch layer. For the hydroseeding mulch treatments, Hydroseeding mulch (Hydrostraw 

LLC, Manteno, IL) was applied dry at 7.5 g/foot of row in a 3 cm band over the seed row. The 

applied dry mulch was sprayed with water using a backpack sprayer to simulate hydroseeding.
128

On March 23, 2011, the row cover was removed and emergence counts were made in each plot. 

Emergence counts were again taken on May 13. 

Tetrazolium tests were conducted to determine seed viability of each species. Seed viability was 

89 percent for Dalea ornata, 84 percent for Dalea searlsiae, and 94 percent for Astragalus 

filipes. The tetrazolium results were used to correct the emergence data to emergence of viable 

seed. 

Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (General Linear Models Procedure, NCSS, 

Kaysville, UT). Means separation was determined using Fisher’s least significant difference test 

at the 5 percent probability level, LSD (0.05). 

Results and Discussion

Emergence for Dalea ornata was low for all treatments on both count dates (Tables 2 and 3). 

Averaged over treatments, non scarified Dalea ornata seed had higher stands than scarified seed 

on May 13. For Dalea searlsiae on March 23, the highest emergence resulted from planting non 

scarified seed with row cover. For Dalea searlsiae on May 13, the highest stands resulted from 

planting non scarified seed. Dalea spp. might establish better with scarified seed in a spring 

planting. This option was not tested. For Astragalus filipes on March 23, the highest emergence 

resulted from planting scarified seed with row cover. For Astragalus filipes on May 13, the 

highest stands resulted from planting scarified seed. 

On March 23, for Dalea searlsiae and Astragalus filipes, row cover resulted in higher emergence 

than hydroseed mulch. The trend was the same for Dalea ornata, but differences were not 

statistically different. By May 13, there was no statistically significant difference in stand 

between the row cover and hydroseed mulch. 

Conclusions

- For Dalea ornata and Dalea searlsiae, seed scarification reduced emergence.

- For Astragalus filipes, seed scarification increased emergence.
Table 2. Emergence of three native legume species on March 23, 2011 in response to seed scarification and two treatments applied at 

planting in the fall of 2010. Emergence for each species was corrected to the percent emergence of viable seed. 

Dalea ornata Astragalus filipes Dalea searlsiae Average Avg.

Treatment scarified non scarified avg. scarified non scarified avg. scarified non scarified avg. scarified non scarified

---------------------------------------------------------------------------- % emergence -------------------------------------------------------------

Row cover 5.1 7.1 6.1 88.3 25.5 56.9 8.4 18.3 13.3 33.9 16.9 25.4

Hydroseed mulch 0.0 0.0 0.0 43.2 13.8 28.5 0.0 1.0 0.5 14.4 4.9 9.7

Average 2.6 3.5 3.0 65.7 19.6 42.7 4.2 9.6 6.9 24.2 10.9 17.5

LSD (0.05)

Treatment 5.1

Species 4.8

Scarification 2.5

Treatment X Species 6.8

Species X Scarification 4.4

Trt X Species X Scarif. 6.2

Table 3. Stand of three native legume species on May 13, 2011 in response to seed scarification and two treatments applied at planting 

in the fall of 2010. The stand for each species was corrected to the percent stand of viable seed. 

Dalea ornata Astragalus filipes Dalea searlsiae Average Avg.

Treatment scarified non scarified avg. scarified non scarified avg. scarified non scarified avg. scarified non scarified

---------------------------------------------------------------------------- % stand -------------------------------------------------------------

Row cover 0.6 6.4 3.5 55.6 17.2 36.4 0.4 8.3 4.3 18.8 10.6 14.7

Hydroseed mulch 0.5 6.8 3.7 40.0 12.2 26.1 0.5 6.0 3.3 13.7 8.4 11.0

Average 0.6 6.6 3.6 47.8 14.7 31.3 0.4 7.2 3.8 16.3 9.5 12.9

LSD (0.05)

Treatment NS

Species 5.4

Scarification 3.2

Treatment X Species NS

Species X Scarification 5.5

Trt X Species X Scarif. NS

129
130

Publications:

Feibert, E.; Shock, C.C.; Saunders, L.; Parris, C.; Shaw, N. 2011. Challenges for Intermountain 

West native wildflower seed production and establishment. HortScience 46(9) (Supplement) 

2011 ASHS Annual Conference, September 25- 28.

Sampangi, R.; Mohan, K.; Shock, C. 2011. Etiology, epidemiology, and management of diseases 

of native wildflower seed production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

FY2010 Progress Report. p. 129-130.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Shock, C.; Feibert, E.; Saunders, L.; Parris, C.; Shaw, N.; Sampangi, R. 2011. Seed production of 

Great Basin native forbs – subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) for stable, efficient native forb seed 

production using small amounts of supplemental irrigation water; weed control; and seeding 

Practices. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 

93-128.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Shock, C.C.; Feibert, E.; Saunders, L.; Shaw, N.; Sampangi, R. 2011. Challenges for 

Intermountain West native wildflower seed production: irrigation. HortScience 46(9) 

(Supplement) 2011 ASHS Annual Conference, September 25- 28.

Shock, C.C.; Feibert, E.B.G.; Parris, C.A.; Saunders, L.D.; Shaw, N.L. 2011. Operational 

success of direct surface seeding strategies for establishment of Intermountain West native 

plants. In Shock, C.C. (Ed.) Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station, Malheur 

Experiment Station Annual Report 2010, Department of Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 132. p. 

179-185.

Shock, C.C.; Feibert, E.B.G.; Saunders, L.D.; Parris, C.A.; Shaw, N.L. 2011. Evaluation of 

herbicides for weed control in forb seed production. In Shock, C.C. (Ed.) Oregon State 

University Agricultural Experiment Station, Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2010, 

Department of Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 132. p. 186-198.

Shock, C.C.; Feibert, E.B.G.; Saunders, L.D.; Shaw, N.L.; Sampangi, R.S. 2011. Native 

wildflower seed production with low levels of irrigation. In Shock, C.C. (Ed.) Oregon State 

University Agricultural Experiment Station, Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2010. 

Department of Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 132. p. 158-178.

Shock, C.C.; Shock, C.A.; Plummer, S.; Wells, T.; Sullivan, S. 2011. Mid-Snake River 

Watershed Vegetation Database. [online]

http://www.malag.aes.oregonstate.edu/wildflowers/

Presentations:

Sampangi, R.; Mohan, K.; Shock, C. 2011. Diseases of Native Plants. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, February 22 - 23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml
131

Feibert, E. 2011. Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station Update. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake 

City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Native Perennial Research Field Day, OSU Malheur Experiment Station. 12 May 2011. Ontario, 

OR.

Summer Farm Festival and Annual Field Day, OSU Malheur Experiment Station. 13 July 2011. 

Ontario, OR.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines:

Sub-surface Drip Irrigation for Native Forb Seed Production

2006 – 2011 Results

Amount of irrigation water for maximum native wildflower seed yield, years to seed set, and life 

span. A summary of multi-year research findings.

Species Optimum amount of irrigation Years to first seed set Life span

inches/season from fall planting years

Eriogonum umbellatum 0 in wet years, 7 to 8 in dry years 1 6+

Penstemon acuminatus no response 1 3

Penstemon speciosus 0 in wet years, 4 in dry years 1 3

Lomatium dissectum 6 4 6+

Lomatium triternatum 4 to 8 depending on precipitation 2 6+

Lomatium grayi 0 in wet years, 7 to 8 in dry years 2 6+

Sphaeralcea parvifolia no response 1 5+

S. grossulariifolia no response 1 5+

Sphaeralcea coccinea no response 1 5+

2011 New Plantings

Amount of irrigation water for maximum native wildflower seed yield

Species Optimum amount of irrigation

(inches/season)

Penstemon cyaneusano response

Penstemon pachyphyllusano response

Eriogonum heracleoides no response

Dalea ornata no response

Astragalus filipes no response

Dalea searlsiae 0

Penstemon deustus 0

Cleome serrulata 8

a

poor stand
132

Seeding Practices

Conclusions for fall planted seed of Balsamorhiza sagittata, Achnatherum thurberianum, 

Dalea ornata, Penstemon acuminatus, Penstemon deustus, Heliomeris multiflora:

▪ Row cover with seed treatment and sawdust improved emergence over no row cover with seed 

 treatment and sawdust for all species except Penstemon acuminatus. 

▪ Row cover with sawdust and seed treatment did not improve emergence over row cover 

 without sawdust and with seed treatment for any species and reduced emergence for 

 Penstemon deustus. 

▪ The effect of systems with and without seed treatment on emergence differed by year. In 

 2010, a drier year, adding seed treatment to row cover and sawdust did not improve 

 emergence for any species and reduced emergence for three species (A.

 thurberianum, P., H. multiflora). In 2011, a wetter year, adding seed 

 treatment to row cover and sawdust improved emergence for three species (A.

 thurberianum, Penstemon acuminatus, Penstemon deustus). 

▪ Adding sand to row cover, seed treatment and sawdust did not improve emergence for any 

 species.

Legume Seed Scarification

Conclusions for fall planted seed:

▪ For Dalea ornata and Dalea searlsiae, seed scarification reduced emergence.

▪ For Astragalus filipes, seed scarification increased emergence.

Products:

▪ Seed produced from these planting was used to establish commercial seed production fields.

▪ A field tour for growers was conducted in May 2011.

▪ A tour of the seed production trials was incorporated into the annual Malheur Experiment 

 Station Field Day activities in July of 2011.

▪ Three research reports on seed production of native perennials were published in Annual 

 Experiment Station Bulletin.
133

Project Title: Etiology, Epidemiology and Management of Diseases of 

Native Wildflower Seed Production

Project Location: University of Idaho, Parma R&E Center, Parma, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Ram K. Sampangi, Plant Pathologist

University of Idaho, Parma R&E Center

29603 University of Idaho Lane, Parma, ID 83660

(208)722.6701, Fax (208)722.6708 

sampangi@uidaho.edu

S. Krishna Mohan, Plant Pathologist

University of Idaho, Parma R&E Center

29603 University of Idaho Lane, Parma, ID 83660

(208)722.6701, Fax (208)722.6708 

kmohan@uidaho.edu

Clinton C. Shock

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914

(541)889.2174, Fax (541)889.7831

clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu

Project Description:

General objectives are (1) to identify and evaluate potentially important diseases to include 

pathogen identification (etiology) and disease biology regarding occurrence, development and 

spread, and (2) to develop disease management practices.

Significance:

▪ Diseases of economic crops are well known and studied but not the diseases affecting native 

 plants.

▪ Prescreen plant materials for natural resistance to pests and diseases.

Project status

Several diseases (leaf spots, blights, rusts, wilts and powdery mildews) were recorded on forbs 

(Table 1). Arid conditions prevailing in the Pacific Northwest are favorable for powdery mildew 

disease cycle.

Publications:

Sampangi, R.; Mohan, K.; Shock, C. 2011. Etiology, epidemiology and management of diseases 

of native wildflower seed production. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

FY2010 Progress Report. p. 129-130.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf
134

Presentations:

Sampangi, R.; Mohan, K.; Shock, C. 2011. Diseases of native plants. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Sampangi, R. 2011. Diseases of native plants. Oregon State University Maheur Agricultural 

Experiment Station: Native Plant Seed Production Field Day, 2011 May 12, Ontario, OR.

Table 1. Native flowering plants and associated diseases observed in Idaho and Oregon. 

Host Diseases

Globemallows

Sphaeralcea grossularifolia

S. parviflora

S. coccinea

Powdery mildew

Leveillula taurica

Rust

Puccinia sherardiana

Biscuitroot

Lomatium dissectum

L. grayi

L. triternatum

Powdery mildew

Leveillula taurica

Rust

Puccinia jonesii

Leaf spot

Alternaria spp.

Bacterial blight - Pseudomonas syringae PV.

Penstemon

Penstemon acuminatus

P. deustus

P. pachphyllus

P. speciosus

P. cyaneus

Powdery mildew

Leveillula taurica

Rust

Puccinia spp.

Leaf spot

Phoma spp.

Downy mildew

Peronospora spp.

Red ring and leaf 

spot disease (virus)

Cuc mosaic 

Virus

Blue flax and Lewis flax

Linum perenne

L. lewisii

Rust

Melampsora lini

Arrowleaf balsamroot

Balsamorhiza sagittata

Rust

Puccinia balsamorhizae

Basalt milkvetch

Astralagus filipes

Powdery mildew

Leveillula taurica

Bee plant

Cleome lutea

C. serrulata

Powdery mildew

Leveillula taurica

Wilt

Fusarium spp.

Sulfur-flower buckwheat

Eriogonum umbellatum

Eriogonum heracleiodes

Powdery mildew

Leveillula taurica

Rust

Uromyces spp.

Prairie clover

Dalea searlsiae

Dalea ornata

Powdery mildew

Leveillula taurica

Corn lily

Veratrum californicum

Leaf spot and blight

Phyllosticta spp.

Thurber's needlegrass

Achnatherum thurberianum

Wilt

Fusarium spp. 
135

Project Title: Stock Seed Production of Native Plants for the 

Great Basin

Project Location: Utah Crop Improvement Association, Utah State University, 

Logan, Utah

Principle Investigators and Contact Information: 

Stanford Young, Utah Crop Improvement Association

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855

(435)797.2082, Fax (435)797.0642 

stanford.young@usu.edu

Michael Bouck, Utah Crop Improvement Association

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855

(435)797.2101, Fax (435)797.0642

michael.bouck@usu.edu

Project Description: 

This project was initially titled “Establishment and Maintenance of the Buy-Back Program for 

Certified Seed”. It was funded through a Memorandum of Understanding between the USFSRMRS in Boise and the Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA), initiated in the fall of 

2003 and renewed with additional funds in the fall of 2004 and fall of 2007. A new joint venture 

agreement titled “Stock Seed Production of Native Plants for the Great Basin” was completed on 

August 17, 2009. Seed has been distributed during this time period using the Buy-back option, a 

mechanism for returning a portion of the seed increased by private growers back to the UCIA for 

redistribution to the original and additional seed growers for further seed increase.

A synopsis of the Stock Seed Buy-Back Program follows, applicable to the period Jan. 1, 2011-

Dec. 31, 2011. 

This program encourages and allows seed growers to benefit economically in a timely manner as 

an incentive to participate in the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program. The program helps 

accelerate the increase in stock seed supplies and ultimately increase seed supplies on the open 

market for commercial revegetation use.

The objectives of the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program, funded through the GBNPSIP, is to: 

a) facilitate development of a seed market for specific germplasm accessions, pooled accessions, 

and/or formal germplasm releases developed through GBNPSIP; b) reward initial seed growers 

financially for the risks they have assumed to participate in the program; c) document germplasm 

identity through the seed increase process by utilizing seed certification protocols; and d) 

increase stock seed available for potential secondary seed growers. This program is administered 

through the Utah Crop Improvement Association, and a detailed procedure has been outlined in 

previous GBNPSIP reports.

In addition, some species germplasms are distributed to growers without specific agreements for 

stock seed buyback. In these cases, UCIA prints Source Identified certification tags from 
136

information provided by the germplasm developer on the UCIA Stock Materials Tagging 

Information Form (see Appendix 1). This legitimizes the seed transfer and the grower can enter 

the field for certification, whether the production is meant to have a buy-back contract written or 

not. 

Publications:

Young, S. and Bouck, M. 2011. Stock seed production of native plants for the Great Basin. In: 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 131-135.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations:

Young, S. 2011. Striking a balance of diversity and practicality for germplasm increase. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011, February 22-23, Salt 

Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Young, S. and Payne, R. 2011. Seed testing and controls. ASTA-NRCS Conservation Seed 

Workshop, 2011, April 5, Washington, DC. 

Young, S. 2011. Knowing what you have by understanding seed labels: Genetic identity and 

mechanical quality of reclamation seeds. Native Seed Production for Restoration, Hedgerow, and 

Cover Crops within Southern California Ecoregions, NRCS-USDA-FS, 2011, September 20-21, 

Redlands, CA. 

Young, S. 2011. History and utility of AOSCA seed certification programs for varieties and prevariety germplasm. Native Seed Production for Restoration, Hedgerow, and Cover Crops within 

Southern California Ecoregions, NRCS-USDA-FS, 2011, September 20-21, Redlands, CA. 

Management Applications:

For most of the species being studied by GBNPSIP cooperators, wildland seed collection is 

insufficient to provide for reclamation planting needs. Thus, accessions consisting of limited 

quantities of seed obtained from defined wildland stands, or pooled from defined geographic 

areas, must be increased in commercial fields or nurseries in order to be available in the 

marketplace in sufficient quantities to supply reclamation projects of the scope called for in the 

Great Basin. 

The UCIA Buy-Back project provides a bridge between small-quantity initial accessions and 

commercial marketplace production, by working with specialized growers who are willing to 

provide land, time, and expertise to produce increased amounts of stock seed from the former, 

and with UCIA facilitation, makes it available for the latter. 

This process has been more successful for some species than others, but in general, great 

progress has been made in defining seed accession groupings, knowledge of agronomic seed 
137

production techniques, and understanding the reality of the commercial seed marketplace.

The seed market status of 6 grasses and 28 forbs that have been forwarded to growers under the 

auspices of the GBNPSIP, 2002-2011, are summarized in Table 1. Seed market production of 

each entry over the 10-year period is categorized in increments from 0 to 100,000+ lb. This table 

is instructive of the success of the GBNPSIP in seed market impact. Grasses are easier to 

produce, and are generally used in greater quantities than forbs in reclamation plantings. Many of 

the forbs have been more recently developed and made available to growers, and are thus in less 

supply in the marketplace. 
Table 1. Seed market production of the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2002-2011 

Scientific Name Common Name Germplasm ID

Level III 

Ecoregion 

Source1

Development 

Status 

SI, S, T, V2

Pooled (P)

Single (S)

Official 

Release

Yes or No

Seed Market 

Production

10 year total lb.

Notes

GRASSES

Achnatherum thuberianum Thurber’s needlegrass Orchard SRP SI S No 100-1,000

Low seed producer –

establishment difficult. 

Out of production.

Elymus elymoides Bottlebrush squirreltail Little Sahara CBR SI S No 10,000-100,0003Commercially available

Elymus elymoides Bottlebrush squirreltail Toe Jam Creek NBR S S Yes 10,000-100,000 Commercially available

Elymus elymoides Bottlebrush squirreltail Fish Creek NBR S S Yes 10,000-100,000 Commercially available

Leymus cinereus Basin wildrye UDWR Intermountain Tetra CBR/NBR S P No 1,000-10,000 Commercially available

Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass Mountain Home SRP S S Yes 10,000-100,000+ Commercially available

Pseudoroegneria spicata Bluebunch wheatgrass Anatone CP S S Yes 10,000-100,000+ Commercially available

FORBS

Achillea millefolium occidentalis Western yarrow Eagle SRP S S Yes 10,000-100,000 Commercially available

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch NBR 1 NBR S P Yes 1-100 In production - 2011

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden CHDO-NBR1-P01-RMRS NBR SI S No 1-100 In production - 2011

Dalea ornata Western prairie clover John Day BM SI S No 100-1,000 In production - 2009

Dalea ornata Western prairie clover Spectrum NBR S S Yes 1-100 In production - 2011

Dalea ornata Western prairie clover Majestic NBR S S Yes 1-100 In production - 2011

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover EK CBR SI S No 1-100 In production - 2011

Eriogonum heracleiodes Wyeth’s buckwheat ERHE2-BP-NGB1-10 NBR/SRP SI P No 1,000-10,000 Commercially available

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat ERUM-NGB-P01-RMRS NBR/SRP SI P No 1-100 In production - 2013

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat ERUM-NBR-P01-RMRS NBR SI P No 1-100 In production - 2012

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat ERUM-NBR-P02-RMRS NBR SI P No 0 In production - 2013

Hedysarum boreale Utah sweetvetch Timp WUM S S Yes 1,000-10,000 Commercially available

Linum lewsii Lewis flax Maple Grove CBR/WUM S S Yes 10,000-100,000 Commercially available

Linum lewisii Lewis flax Columbia CP SI S No 1,000-10,000 In production - 2010

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot LODI-NBR NBR SI P No 1-100 In production - 2011

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot LOGR-Weiser-RMRS SRP SI S No 0 In production - 2012

Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot LONU2-NBR-P01-RMRS NBR SI P No 0 In production - 2013

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot LOTR2-NBR/BM-P01-

RMRS NBR/BM SI P No 0 In production - 2012 or 2013

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot LOTR2-Lakeview-RMRS NBR/ECSF SI S No 0 In production - 2012

Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster MACA-NGB-P01-RMRS NBR/SRP SI P No 1-100 In production - 2011

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon PEAC-SRP-P01-RMRS SRP SI P No 0 In production - 2012

Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon PECY3-Little Wood-RMRS SRP SI S No 1,000-10,000 In production - 2006

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon PEDE4-Banks IB SI S No 100-1,000 In production - 2006

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon PESP-SRP-P01-RMRS SRP SI P No 1-100 In production - 2011

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon PESP-NBR-P01-RMRS NBR SI P No 1-100 In production - 2011

Sphaeralcea coccineae Scarlet globemallow SPCO-Bonnevile Basin CBR SI S No 1-100 In production - 2011

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf 

globemallow SPGR2-Pioche CBR SI P No 100-1,000 In production - 2011

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro’s globemallow SPMU2-Sand Hollow-RMRS SRP SI S No 1-100 In production - 2011

1

CBR = Central Basin and Range, CP = Columbia Plateau, BM = Blue Mountains, ECSF = Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills, IB = Idaho Batholith, NBR = Northern Basin and Range, SRP = Snake River Plain, 

WUM = Wasatch/Uintah Mountains

2

SI = source identified, S = selected, T = tested, V = variety

3

Approximately 900 lbs. field produced, other seed wild collected

138
139

Project Title: Coordination of GBNPSIP Plant Materials Development, 

Seed Increase and Use

Project Location: Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, Oregon

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Berta Youtie, Owner

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services (EOSS)

P.O. Box 606, Prineville, OR 97754

(541)447.8166 or (541)447.6228

byoutie@crestviewcable.com, berta.youtie@oregonstate.edu 

Project Description:

Objectives

▪ Collaborate with the GBNPSIP, BLM field offices and native seed growers to increase

 native plant materials from the Great Basin for research and commercial production. 

▪ Facilitate private seed grower capacity to produce seed of native forbs and grasses of the 

 Great Basin.

▪ Augment seed collections of needed GBNPSIP research materials and new plant

 materials for BLM field offices within the Great Basin.

Methods

Native seed farms growing forbs for the GBNPSIP in the Columbia Basin were visited and fields 

were monitored. If needed seed stocks from the Great Basin were not immediately available, we 

spent the 2011 field season collecting larger quantities of seed to transfer to growers. We 

collected research seed for the GBNPSIP and ARS in Pullman. 

Results

Three native seed farms in the Columbia Basin of Washington were visited in 2011. Fields at 

L&H were not yet planted with species provide by GBNPSIP in 2010. Growers were concerned 

about finding markets for the forb species they were already growing. Only Benson farm was 

interested in expanding forb fields. Twenty-seven seed lots from 13 species were collected by 

EOSS for GBNPSIP growers (Table 1). Thirty-two research collections from three species were 

made for ARS in Pullman (Table 2). 

Publications:

Tischew, S.; Youtie, B.; Kirmer, A.; Shaw, N.L. 2011. Farming for restoration: Building bridges 

for native seed. Ecological Restoration. 29:219-222. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/39204

Youtie, B. 2011. Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials development, seed increase and use.

In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 136-140.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf
140

Presentations:

Youtie, Berta. Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials development, seed increase and use. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22- 23, 

Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Youtie, Berta. A seed collector's odyssey. Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, 

Native Plant Seed Production Field Day, 2011 May 12, Ontario, OR.

Management Applications: 

Increased communications and collaboration has led to better seed distribution to growers for 

seed development of new forb species that may be used in BLM seed buys and restoration 

projects in the future. 

Products:

Table 1. Forb species collected in 2011 for GBNPSIP

Scientific name Common name

Grayia spinosa spiny hopsage

Cleome lutea yellow beeplant

Dalea ornata Western prairie clover

Eriophylum lanatum Oregon sunshine

Lomatium dissectum fernleaf biscuitroot

Lomatium triternatum nineleaf desert parsley

Machaeranthera canescens hoary aster

Mentzelia albicaulis blazing star

Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon

Phacelia hastata silverleaf phacelia

Phacelia linearis threadleaf phacelia

Sporobolus cryptandrus Sand dropseed

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro globemallow

Table 2. Research collections (R) and bulk seed lots collected in the 2011 field season by 

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services.

Site Number Site Details Collection Date No. of Plants

CHDO1BY11-R Burnt River Canyon 7/3/11 30

CHDO1BY11M-R Pueblo Slough, Denio 6/16/11 38

CHDO1BY11S-R Crowley Rd 7/6/11 29
141

Site Number Site Details Collection Date No. of Plants

CHDO2BY11M-R Hwy 140, NV 6/17/11 30

CHDO2BY11-R Hells Canyon, Idaho 7/4/11 35

CHDO3BY11-R Hwy 26 Rock Ck, Grant Co. 7/6/11 45

CHDO3BY11S-R Owyhee Dam 7/11/11 30

CHDO4BY11-R Silvies Valley 7/28/11 60

CHDO4BY11S-R Dry Creek Crowley 7/24/11 29

CHDO5BY11-R Between Shaniko & Antelope 8/7/11 30

CHDO6BY11S-R Pine Cr RD, Boise Co., Idaho 9/18/11 30

CHDO2BY11S-R Snake River RD near Huntington 7/10/11 26

CLLU1BY10 S. of Adrian, Malheur Co. 6/29&7/23/11 300

CLLU2BY10 Mikey Hot Springs, Harney Co. 8/8/11 60

DAOR1BY11 Adrian 7/17/11 40

GRSP1BY11S Overstreet 6/30/11 50

GRSP2BY11S Crowley RD 7/6/11 50

ERLA1BY11S Crowley Rd 7/24/11 50

ERUM1BY11S-R Snake River Rd out of Huntington 8/15/11 29

ERUM2BY11-R Hells Canyon, Idaho 8/15/11 30

ERUM3BY11-R Fields Peak, Grant Co. 8/22/11 29

ERUM4BY11-R Shevlin Park, Bend 8/24/11 29

ERUM5BY11-R Hwy 20 Glass Buttes MP81-82 8/24/11 29

ERUM6BY11-R Hwy 26 between Redmond & Sisters 8/25/11 35

ERUM7BY11-R Hwy 26 Ochoco NF 8/30/11 29

ERUM8BY11-R Malheur NF Long Ck 8/31/11 29

ERUM9BY11-R Hwy 395 Silvies Valley 8/31/11 30

ERUM10BY11-R Steens Mt Summit Trailhead 9/1/11 29

ERUM3BY11S-R Jack's Corral east of McDermitt 9/3/11 30

ERUM4BY11S-R Castle Rock 9/6/11 30

ERUM5BY11S-R Hwy 21 below Wilderness Ranch Idaho 9/17/11 29

ERUM6BY11S-R Pine Creek RD, Boise Co., Idaho 9/18/11 29

LODI1BY11 Owyhee Dam 6/17/11 100

LODI2BY11 Holliday Road, Vale 6/22/11 400

LODI3BY11 Burnt River Canyon 7/3/11 25

LOTR1BY11S Crowley Road 7/2&6/11 1000

MACA1ABY09 Wrights Point, Harney Co. 10/9/11 100
142

Site Number Site Details Collection Date No. of Plants

MACA1BY11-R Hwy 20 East of Glass Buttes 9/9/11 29

MACA2BY11-R Hwy 27 3.5 mi north of Hwy 20 9/9/11 35

MACA3BY11-R Prineville 9/17/11 29

MACA1BY10-R Walgreen's Ontario 10/13/11 29

MACA1BY10 Walgreen's Ontario 10/13&15/11 250

MACA2BY11S-R Adrian 10/7/11 29

MACA2BY11S Adrian 10/14&15/11 500

MACA4BY11S-R Pine Creek Ranch 10/2/11 29

MEAL1BY11S Chukar Park below Beulah Reservoir 9/16/11 50

PESP1BY08 Wright’s Point 8/22/11 50

PESP1BY11S Hwy 20 west. of Harper 7/24/11 25

PESP2BY11S Crowley RD 7/24/11 200

PSSP3BY11S Owyhee Dam Rd 7/23/11 60

PHHA1BY10 Owyhee Dam 7/10/11 200

PHHA2BY10 Leslie Gulch 7/17/11 100

PHHA4BY10 Hwy 20 MP156 7/20/11 50

PHHA5BY10 Drewsey, Otis Valley 7/20/11 50

PHLI4BY10 Exclosure powerline Harney Co. 7/30/11 150

SPCR1BY11S Owyhee Dam RD 7/3/11 250

SPMU1BY10 Overstreet 7/9/11 300

SPMU2BY10 Owyhee Dam Rd 7/11/11 50

SPMU3BY10 Succor Creek Road near 201 7/3-5/11 1000
143

Project Title: Cultural Thinning of Native Sagebrush Stands to Increase 

Seed Yields

Project Location: Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 

USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Shrub Science 

Laboratory, Provo, Utah

Principle Investigator and Contact Information:

Brad Geary, Associate Professor

 Brigham Young University

 263 WIDB

 Provo, UT 84663

 (801)422.2369, Fax (801)422.0008

 Brad_geary@byu.edu

Project Description:

Seed harvesting has become an important aspect of restoration of public lands and increasing 

seed production of native shrubs would be beneficial. There is a crucial need for large volumes 

of sagebrush seed of higher quality for use in rehabilitation projects (Beetle and Young 1965). By 

removing neighboring plants, there is less competition for water for the remaining stand 

(Armstrong 2007). This study is designed to expand previous research by determining if thinning 

stands can improve seed yields in established native populations of Wyoming big sagebrush. The 

specific objective of this research is to determine if treated areas can increase seed yield over 

natural stands of sagebrush. Removal of competition between stands has been the best 

application for increasing seed yield. Therefore the objectives of this research are: 1) determine if 

chemical elimination of competing shrubs increases seed yield over natural stands; 2) determine 

if mechanical elimination of competing shrubs increases seed yield over natural stands; 3)

determine if treatments are viable options for seed production. Treatments involved in this 

research have the potential for reducing overall seeding costs to revegetate large areas of 

disturbed grounds with Wyoming big sagebrush seed.

Two sites were chosen for this study based on area (50 acres or larger), sagebrush stand 

uniformity, and sagebrush density. Both sites are in Utah; the first site is approximately 10 miles 

south of Scipio along the I-15 corridor. The second site is approximately 10 miles southeast at 

the main entrance to the Little Sahara Recreation Area. Treatments in this study are: 1) control 

(natural stand undisturbed); 2) general mechanical thinning; 3) mechanical kill in 10-foot strips; 

4) general chemical thinning; and 5) chemical kill in 10-foot strips. All treatments were 

established during the summer of 2010. Mechanical thinning and killing was accomplished with 

a Dixie harrow. General mechanical thinning was accomplished by pulling the Dixie harrow 

across the plot area (150 X 700 ft) once to thin the sagebrush. Ten-foot kill strips were created by 

pulling the Dixie harrow across the 10-foot strips three times. Each time the Dixie harrow was 

pulled in the opposite direction of the previous pass. Chemical thinning and kill treatments were 

accomplished with a foliar application of 2,4-D. General thinning was accomplished with a 

lower application rate and no oil adjuvants to increase chemical uptake. Ten-foot killing strips 

were treated with a higher rate of 2,4-D and an adjuvant oil was added. Control areas were left 
144

untouched. Seed production in the 2010 treatment areas was minimal due to the chemical and 

mechanical disturbances that occurred from the treatments; therefore data for 2010 was not 

analyzed. 

2011 Results

Individual sagebrush, or portions of a sagebrush, which survived the treatments in 2010 

produced seed during 2011. At the site near Scipio, there were significant differences (P=0.05) 

among treatments. Mechanically killing 10-foot strips significantly increased the amount of seed 

over general mechanical thinning, general chemical thinning, and chemical killing in strips 

(Fig. 1). Yields, however, were not significantly different than the control, which means it may 

not be worth the effort to eliminate the competing sagebrush if seed yields are not significantly 

increased. At Sahara, there were no significant differences among treatments. General 

mechanical thinning tended to have the highest seed yield while mechanical killing in strips 

tended to be the lowest. Observation of the treatment plots would have suggested otherwise, but 

in the end there is no difference from the control, which would suggest the effort and resources 

to eliminate the competing sagebrush may not be worth while for seed increase. 

In our efforts to eliminate competition, we had hoped to thin (kill) 60-70% of the sagebrush. We 

were able to achieve this level with the general mechanical thinning, 75% at Scipio and 77% at 

Sahara (Fig. 2). However, the kill resulting from general chemical thinning was much lower than 

anticipated at 48% at both locations. Mechanically killed strips at Scipio had the highest levels of 

killed sagebrush at 93%. These high kill rates may have influenced the level of seed production 

since the competition was almost eliminated. Mechanically killed strips at Sahara were much 

lower than anticipated at 71%, the chemical kill strips were also lower than anticipated at 80% 

for Scipio and 62% for Sahara. It is possible that the height of sagebrush, which forced us to 

raise the spray boom to approximately 4 feet, made it difficult for the spray to penetrate down 

and adequately cover all of the brush.

Plant understory was evaluated during 2011 and approximately 39 different species were 

identified. Those with the highest populations were cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), bottlebrush 

squirreltail (Elymus elymoides), bulbous bluegrass (Poa bulbosa), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa 

secunda), western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), slender wheatgrass (Elymus trachycaulus), 

crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), Lomatium, prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola), and 

longleaf phlox (Phlox longifolia). Cheatgrass had the highest frequency of all understory species 

at both locations. The cheatgrass populations in the disturbed areas where the treatments were 

applied were greater than in the control treatment. It might be recommended that areas treated to 

eliminate sagebrush be seeded with another plant(s) to minimize cheatgrass growth.

This is the first year that data could be collected. These two research sites need to be evaluated 

for several years because the elimination of competition and subsequent availability of resources, 

particularly water, is likely to manifest itself over time. It is anticipated that data will be collected 

at the Scipio and Sahara sites for several years and a better understanding of competition 

elimination and seed production will be gained.
145

Figure 1. Seed produced in a 50 square foot plot for all treatments at Scipio and Sahara in 2011.

Figure 2. Percent kill of sagebrush for all treatments at Scipio and Sahara in 2011.

References:

Beetle, A.A.; Young, A. 1965. A third subspecies in the Artemisia tridentata complex. Rhodora 

67:405-406.

Armstrong, J. 2007. Improving sustainable seed yield in Wyoming big sagebrush. Provo, UT: 

Brigham Young University. Thesis. 39 p.

Publications:

Geary, B. 2011. Cultural thinning of native sagebrush stands to increase seed yields. In: Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 85-86.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Scipio Sahara

gram of seed / 50ft

2

Location

Sagebrush Seed

Control

Mech/Thin

Mech/Kill

Chem/Thin

Chem/Kill

AB

BC

 A

C

 C

 A

 A

 A

 A A

75 77

93

71

48 48

80

62

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Scipio Sahara

Percent Sagebrush Killed

Location

Treatment Effects on Sagebrush

Control

Mech/Thin

Mech/Kill

Chem/Thin

Chem/Kill
146

Project Title: Insect Pests of Grass and Forb Seed Production

Project Location: Colorado State University Extension, Grand Junction, Colorado 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Bob Hammon, Entomologist

Tri River Area Extension

P.O. Box 20,000-5028

Grand Junction, CO 81502-5028

(970)244.1838, Fax (970)244.1700

bob.hammon@mesacounty.us 

Presentations: 

Hammon, B. 2011. Stink Bugs: A seed production pest. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Hammon, R. 2011. Management of insects in seed production fields. Oregon State University 

Malheur Agricultural Experiment Station: Native Plant Seed Production Field Day, 2011 May 

12, Ontario, OR.

Publications: 

Hammon, R.; Franklin, M. (in prep). Insects affecting Fourwing saltbush. Colorado State 

University Technical Note. Grand Junction, CO: Colorado State University, Tri-River Area 

Extension. 

Hammon, R.; Franklin, M. (in prep). Pests of Utah sweetvetch. Colorado State University 

Technical Note. Grand Junction, CO: Colorado State University, Tri-River Area Extension. 

Hammon, R.; Franklin, M. (in prep). Insects affecting Mountain mahogany. Colorado State 

University Technical Note. Grand Junction, CO: Colorado State University, Tri-River Area 

Extension. 

Hammon, R.; Franklin, M. (in prep). Insects affecting Penstemon seed production. Colorado 

State University Technical Note. Grand Junction, CO: Colorado State University, Tri-River Area 

Extension. 

Hammon, R.; Franklin, M. (in prep). Managing Lygus in forb seed production. Colorado State 

University Technical Note. Grand Junction, CO: Colorado State University, Tri-River Area 

Extension. 

Hammon, R.; Franklin, M. (in prep). Insects affecting Globemallow seed production. Colorado 

State University Technical Note. Grand Junction, CO: Colorado State University, Tri-River Area 

Extension. 

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

Fact sheets will provide a guide for growers to monitor and manage pests affecting seed 

production of several forb and shrub species. 
147

Project Title: Adaptation of Roundleaf Buffaloberry (Shepherdia 

rotundifolia) to Urban Landscapes

Project Location: University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, Reno, Nevada

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Heidi A. Kratsch, Area Horticulture Specialist

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension

4955 Energy Way, Reno, NV 89502

(775)784.4848, Fax (775)784.4881

kratschh@unce.unr.edu

Chalita Sriladda, Graduate Assistant

Department of Plants, Soils and Climate

Utah State University

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, UT 84322-4820

Roger Kjelgren, Professor

Department of Plants, Soils and Climate

Utah State University

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, UT 84322-4820

Project Description:

We study variation and diversity among intermountain western native plant species 1) to assure 

their stability and performance in home and commercial landscapes and 2) to assess their useful 

range for growers to establish a market for their stock. Shepherdia rotundifolia (roundleaf 

buffaloberry [Elaeagnaceae] is a Colorado Plateau endemic native to southern Utah and the 

Grand Canyon region of northern Arizona. The species is extremely drought tolerant and shows 

ornamental traits that make it an attractive candidate for use in urban home and commercial 

landscapes. The species attracts a variety of pollinators and other beneficial insects and is of 

value to wildlife as it provides food and cover for quail and small mammals. However, the

species is difficult to keep alive in culture and is known to be short-lived in irrigated ornamental 

landscapes. Shepherdia argentea (silver buffaloberry) is widely distributed in riparian areas 

throughout the West and is common in naturalized designed landscapes in the Great Basin 

region. Its rangy appearance and thorny nature, however, render it less common for general 

ornamental use. With this project we characterize the natural habitat of S. rotundifolia in an 

effort to better understand its cultural requirements and report results of efforts to cross-hybridize 

with S. argentea, in hopes of creating an acceptable taxon for use in irrigated urban settings.

Objective

To characterize the natural habitat of Shepherdia rotundifolia and study its behavior in an 

irrigated setting to better understand its cultural requirements.
148

Methods

We characterized the edaphic, elevation, and light conditions experienced by S. rotundifolia at 

six representative sites in southern Utah. We also report 30-year historical weather patterns at the 

locations. We conducted common garden studies of S. rotundifolia using plants grown from seed 

collected at these sites to determine their physiological response to growth under irrigated 

landscape conditions. Finally, we performed reciprocal crosses of S. rotundifolia in the wild with 

its riparian relative, S. argentea, in an attempt to capture the aesthetic characters of S. 

rotundifolia and the tolerance to wet soils of S. argentea.

Results and Discussion

Elevation at the six sites ranges from 1500 to 2500 meters, and although the species tolerates 

drought, it can be found in areas with annual precipitation ranging from 200 to over 400 mm 

(Table 1). Once thought to be shade intolerant, we also found that plants in the highest elevation 

populations were mostly found beneath the canopy of ponderosa pine, the leaf litter of which 

also lowered the pH of the soils and increased their organic matter content (data not shown). 

Cultural trials of S. rotundifolia grown from seed in pots and common garden studies of the 

transplants showed that the species does not acclimate easily to conventional horticultural 

conditions and develops chlorosis of older leaves after one year of growth. This could be due to 

irrigation or soil conditions of the managed landscape setting or it could be a result of nutrient 

excess or deficiencies. The potassium content of soils beneath the canopies of the species in its 

natural habitat was higher than that of typical urban soils (data not shown). The leaf symptoms of 

cultured plants were consistent with potassium deficiency, although this was not confirmed. 

Roundleaf buffaloberry is a nitrogen-fixing species and thrives in low-nitrogen environments; it 

is also possible that nitrogen levels of the soils in our common garden study were too high, 

which would discourage association of plant roots with symbiotic soil bacteria and potentially 

weaken plants.

Table 1. Site conditions characterizing S. rotundifolia populations studied. Average 

precipitation, maximum and minimum temperatures over a 30-year record at each site 

were obtained from existing weather stations closest to the sites.

Average over 30 years 

(1981-2010)

Population Elevation (m)

Precipitation

(mm/year)

Tmax

°C

Tmin

°C

Relative Light 

Intensity (%)

Tor-2500 2507 285 17 3 31

Tor-2300 2295 285 17 3 98

Tor-1600 1642 210 19 6 100

Natural Bridges 1342 327 17 4 99

Bluff 1342 199 17 4 94

Springdale 1188 409 25 9 88

We performed reciprocal crosses of S. rotundifolia with S. argentea and obtained a successful 

hybrid with intermediate leaf characters (Table 2). Hybrid plants grown from seed were 

transplanted in a common garden setting at Greenville Farm in North Logan, UT. Plant 
149

physiological response (stomatal conductance and photosynthetic light response) indicated that 

the hybrid exhibits a physiological response more similar to S. argentea, a riparian species, than 

to S. rotundifolia. These data suggest that, while the hybrid retains some of the aesthetic appeal 

of S. rotundifolia, it may demonstrate a greater tolerance to regularly irrigated soils, a condition 

common in ornamental landscapes. Further study of physiological responses of the hybrid to 

drought conditions will better characterize optimal cultural requirements in managed settings. 

Table 2. Leaf morphological characteristics of Shepherdia rotundifolia, S. rotundifolia x 

argentea, and S. argentea grown from seed in pots (N=2).

Species

Morphology S. rotundifolia S. rotundifolia x 

argentea

S. argentea

Petiole length (mm) 5.3 10.5 7.0

Leaf length (mm) 24.0 39.3 42.5

Leaf width (mm) 23.0 24.5 12.7

Leaf length/width (mm) 1.0 1.6 3.4

Conclusion

The interspecific hybrid between S. rotundifolia and S. argentea may be better adapted to and 

more acceptable in urban landscapes than either species alone.

Publications:

Kratsch, H.; Sriladda, C. 2011. Morphological and genetic variation among common Utah 

globemallows. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress 

Report. p. 28-31.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Sriladda, C. 2011. Ecophysiology and genetic variation in domestication of Sphaeralcea and

Shepherdia species for the Intermountain West. Logan, UT: Utah State University. Dissertation. 

http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2027&context=etd

Presentations:

Kratsch, H.; Sriladda, C. 2011. Morphological and genetic variation among common Utah 

globemallows. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 

February 22- 23, Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Kratsch, H.; Sriladda, C.; Kjelgren, R. 2011. Shepherdia rotundifolia: Preserving the species 

through urban landscape use. WERA1013: Intermountain Regional Evaluation and Introduction 

of Native Plants. 2011 October 8, Fort Collins, CO.
150

Management Applications:

A better understanding of the ecophysiology of Shepherdia rotundifolia will enable greater 

adoption of native plants in urban landscapes and will diversify such landscapes and provide 

pollinator and wildlife habitat. Anecdotally, this species also appears to be declining in its native 

habitat; preserving its genetic resources by adapting it for urban landscape use may be of benefit 

for its long-term survival. 

Products:

 A list of intermountain regional native plant growers has been revised and sent to the WERA 

1013 Intermountain Regional Evaluation and Introduction of Native Plants. 

http://www.uwyo.edu/wera1013/

 Kratsch, H. 2011. Some good native plants for Great Basin landscapes. University of Nevada 

Cooperative Extension Special Publication 11-13. 

http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ho/2011/sp1113.pdf

 A Master Gardener Native Plants Club has been established at the University of Nevada 

Cooperative Extension, including 30 Master Gardener volunteers from three counties in the 

Western Region of Nevada. Their goals are to select candidate species and to propagate and 

grow them for demonstration gardens around the region. Two gardens are currently in 

progress, one in Reno and one in Gardnerville. Fact sheet development and public education 

events are also goals of this group.
151

Project Title: The Role of Native Annual Forbs in the Restoration of 

Invaded Rangelands

Project Location: University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Reno, Nevada

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Keirith Snyder, Ecologist

USDA-ARS, Great Basin Rangelands Research Unit 

920 Valley Road. Reno, NV 89512 

(775)784.6057 x 245, Fax (775)784.1712 

kasnyder@unr.edu

Elizabeth Leger, Assistant Professor

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, 

MS 186 

University of Nevada Reno, NV 89557-0013 

(775)784.7582, Fax (775)784.4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Erin Goergen, Postdoctoral Researcher

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

MS 186 

University of Nevada Reno, NV 89557-0013 

(775)784.4111, Fax (775)784.4789

erin.goergen@gmail.com

Project Description:

Background

In arid systems, facilitation may be an important component of vegetation recovery after 

disturbance. Establishment of native perennial species in disturbed western rangelands is 

desirable, but is severely limited by the presence of the highly competitive, exotic annual grass 

Bromus tectorum. Greater restoration success may be achieved with seed mixes that mimic 

natural succession in Great Basin systems, which includes native annuals as a key component of 

the post-disturbance community. Due to overlapping phenology, there is the potential for strong 

competitive interactions between native and exotic annuals, which could indirectly facilitate 

establishment of perennial species. 

Objectives

The objectives of this study were to 1) Determine the effect of select native annual forbs on the 

performance of Bromus tectorum and Elymus multisetus under field and greenhouse conditions; 

and 2) determine if the presence of native annual forbs increases the performance of E. 

multisetus when grown in competition with B. tectorum.
152

Methods

In greenhouse and field experiments, seedlings of the native perennial grass, Elymus multisetus, 

were grown individually with native annual forbs (Amsinckia tessellata, A. intermedia, Mentzelia 

veatchiana, Blepharipappus scaber, and Descurania pinnata) or an annual forb mix (A. 

tessellata, M. veatcheana, Cryptantha pterocarya, and Eriastrum sparsiflorum). Half of the 

replicates were grown with competition from B. tectorum. We recorded the number of green 

leaves on E. multisetus plants at three separate times after planting to assess treatment effects on 

growth rate, and measured aboveground biomass of E. multisetus and competitors after one 

growing season. Additionally, B. tectorum was grown with native annuals in the greenhouse and 

field to determine the effect of native annual forbs on B. tectorum biomass and seed production. 

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was also used to examine the direct and indirect effects of 

native annual forbs on E. multisetus performance under greenhouse and field conditions.

Results

In the greenhouse, E. multisetus growth and seasonal biomass production were lower when 

grown with B. tectorum than with any of the native annuals. Additionally when in competition 

with B. tectorum, E. multisetus performed best when M. veatcheana was also present and growth 

rates were significantly greater when any annual forbs were also present. Amsinckia tessellata

and A. intermedia were the most competitive native annuals against B. tectorum, and although A. 

tessellata was beneficial in the greenhouse, under field conditions, Amsinckia species had a 

negative effect on E. multisetus performance. However, over time, these negative effects 

decreased and could potentially lead to facilitation of E. multisetus later in the season. 

We used SEM to differentiate the role of direct and indirect effects of native annual forbs on E. 

multisetus performance. The direction and magnitude of these effects depended upon the annual 

forb and performance measure examined, and mirrored those observed in both the greenhouse 

and field experiments. With the exception of A. intermedia, both direct and indirect effects of 

native annual forbs on E. multisetus growth rate were positive, whereas effects on biomass were 

mostly negative. Thus, despite our prediction that the presence of native annual forbs would 

provide strong indirect facilitation, high variability in response among the different forb species 

and small sample sizes resulted in non-significant models.

Conclusions 

The results of our greenhouse and field experiments support the idea that the presence of certain 

native annual forbs can enhance the establishment of E. multisetus in B. tectorum invaded 

rangelands. Native annual forbs are often overlooked as restoration materials, in part because 

they are weedy, ruderal species. However, these same characteristics are what may result in preemption of space and resources that result in reduced recruitment of exotic species like B. 

tectorum. The important difference between native annual forbs and other introduced annuals is 

that they have evolved with the more desirable native plants that we are trying to establish, and 

are themselves desirable for pollinator communities, insects, and wildlife. Unlike introduced 

annuals, native annual forbs are only a step in the successional pathway and naturally decrease in 

abundance over time, remaining in the seed bank until future disturbance occurs. In this way, the 

restoration of native annual forbs in seriously degraded systems could improve both the 

restoration success of seeding in a given year, as well as provide site resilience to future 

disturbances. Future studies are needed to examine the longer-term consequences of early season 
153

interactions between native annual forbs and exotic annuals. Additionally, more work is needed 

to understand germination strategies and competitive abilities of further native annual forbs so 

that recommendations can be made to seed growers and land managers regarding which species 

to invest in. 

Publications:

A manuscript entitled ‘Native annual forbs reduce Bromus tectorum biomass and indirectly 

facilitate establishment of a native perennial grass’ has been submitted to Ecological 

Applications.

Leger, E.; Goergen, E.; Espeland, E. 2011. Evolution of native plants in cheatgrass invaded 

systems. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. 

p. 144-146.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Forbis, T.; Leger, E.; Goergen, E. 2011. The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of 

invaded rangelands. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 

Progress Report. p. 141-143.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations: 

Goergen, E.; Leger, E.A.; Forbis, T. 2010. Can indirect competition with annual forbs increase 

establishment of native perennial grasses in Bromus tectorum invaded systems? Ecological 

Society of America Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA.

Goergen, E.; Leger, E.A.; Forbis, T. 2011. The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of 

invaded rangelands. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 

2011 February 22- 23, Salt Lake City, UT

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Goergen, E.; Leger, E.A.; Forbis, T. 2011. Restoration of invaded rangelands. "Chin-wagging 

and Wine Discussion Series” sponsored by the Galena Creek Visitor Center.

Goergen, E.; Leger, E.A.; Forbis, T. 2011. The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of 

invaded rangelands. Intermountain Native Plant Symposium, Boise State University, Boise, ID.

Goergen, E.; Leger, E.A.; Forbis, T. 2011. The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of 

invaded rangelands. 10th Biennial Conference of Research on the Colorado Plateau, Flagstaff, 

AZ.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

This research examines an ecologically and economically rational strategy for management of B. 

tectorum invaded rangelands. By utilizing principles of natural succession of Great Basin 
154

rangelands, two goals are met: 1) restoring rangelands to their proper functioning using native 

plant materials; and 2) an ecological and economic benefit to land managers through increased 

restoration success. Understanding if native annual forbs can increase establishment of E. 

multisetus in degraded rangelands will allow managers and seed producers to take the following 

steps to maintain healthy systems: 1) include highly competitive annual forbs in restoration seed 

mixes to promote establishment of early successional perennial grasses such as E. multisetus; 2) 

target annual forbs that have the greatest positive effect on E. multisetus and negative effect on 

B. tectorum biomass and reproduction for seed increase programs and 3) manage and maintain 

sites with high annual forb diversity, as these populations may be a vital component for 

successful restoration of disturbed rangelands.

Products:

Outreach presentation to the public on the use of native annual forbs in restoration of invaded 

rangelands, sponsored through the Galena Creek Visitor Center’s discussion series "Chinwagging and Wine”.
155

Project Title: Evaluating Strategies for Increasing Plant Diversity in 

Crested Wheatgrass Seedings

Project Location: University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, Elko, Nevada

Principle Investigator and Contact Information:

Kent McAdoo, Area Natural Resources Specialist

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension

701 Walnut Street

Elko, NV 89801

(775)738.1251, Fax (775)753.7843

mcadook@unce.unr.edu

Project Description:

Objectives of this research include:

1) Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum) control methods on 

wheatgrass density and cover.

2) Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass control methods and revegetation on 

establishment of seeded species.

Methods

The study site, approximately 15 miles southeast of Elko, NV, is located within the 8-10” p.z. in 

sandy loam soil (Orovada Puett association) and formerly dominated by Wyoming big sagebrush 

(Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis). The area was seeded to crested wheatgrass during the 

1970s. Located within the boundaries area of South Fork State Park, the site has had the 

necessary cultural resources clearance from the Nevada State Historic Protection Office (SHPO) 

and is fenced to eliminate livestock grazing. 

Crested Wheatgrass Control and Revegetation Treatments

The following strategies are being tested in a randomized block, split-split plot design: (1) 

untreated crested wheatgrass; (2) partially controlled crested wheatgrass; and (3) completely 

controlled crested wheatgrass. The study site is comprised of five 5-acre blocks. 

Within the main (1-acre) plots in each block, the following methods of control (mechanical and 

chemical) and revegetated vs. non-revegetated strategies are being compared:

1) Untreated crested wheatgrass plots receiving no chemical or mechanical treatment, but 

divided into unseeded and seeded sub-plots.

2) Partially controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into 3-way disked or herbicide-treated 

plots, divided into unseeded and seeded sub-plots. 

3) Completely controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into combined 3-way disked and 

herbicide-treated plots or combined spring and fall herbicide-treated plots, divided into 

unseeded and seeded sub-plots. 

Treatment Implementation

During November 2007, “disked only plots” were 3-way disked. In May, 2008 “spring-applied 
156

herbicide plots” and “combined disk + herbicide plots” were sprayed with 66 oz. glyphosate 

(Roundup ®)/ac. In early October 2008, “combined spring + fall-applied herbicide plots” were 

sprayed with 66 oz. glyphosate/ac. Sub-plots targeted for seeding were seeded at NRCSrecommended rates in late October 2008 by personnel from the NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center with a Truax Rough Rider rangeland drill. For small-seed species, seed tubes were pulled 

so that seed fell on the soil surface; drill disks were raised, no furrows made, and a brillion-type 

cultipacker was attached to the rear of the drill to press broadcasted seeds into the soil surface. 

The seed mixture used is identified in Table 1. 

During May 2010, another treatment trial was implemented within the same general study area 

and using the same randomized block, split-split plot design. Crested wheatgrass suppression 

treatments consisted of (1) imazapic (Panoramic 2SL®); (2) chlorsulfuron + sulfometuron 

methyl (Landmark XP ®); (3) glyphosate (Roundup ®) full rate; (4) glyphosate half-rate; and (5) 

untreated. The study site was comprised of five 5-acre blocks, with each 1-acre treatment plot 

divided into 0.5-acre seeded and unseeded sub-plots. All treatments were seeded during late 

October 2010, using the same seed mixture (Table 1), rates, and methodology described above.

Preliminary Results

During the summers of 2009 and 2010, we measured cover and density of crested wheatgrass, as 

well as nested frequency of crested wheatgrass seedlings. We also measured density of seeded 

species. All parameters were measured for each sub-plot within ten 0.5 m2quadrats placed 

randomly on each of five transects and perpendicular to each transect. 

2009

Complete (100%) control/mortality of crested wheatgrass was not obtained with any of the 

control treatments. However, as shown in Figure 1, spring-applied glyphosate, combined spring 

+ fall-applied glyphosate, and combined disk + glyphosate treatments all significantly reduced 

crested wheatgrass cover (p<0.05) as compared to untreated plots, with no significant differences 

among these treatments themselves (p>0.05). Similarly, these same three treatments all 

significantly reduced crested wheatgrass density (p<0.05), again with no significant differences 

among these treatments (Figure 2). However, crested wheatgrass density was significantly 

greater on disked plots (p<0.05) than on the untreated plots and plots receiving the other 

treatments (Figure 2), whereas cover was not significantly different (p>0.05) between disked and 

untreated plots (Figure 1).

Preliminary observations showed the following: (1) four of the six seeded native grass species 

established, including basin wildrye, bluebunch wheatgrass, bottlebrush squirreltail, and Indian 

ricegrass; (2) each of the seeded forb species, i.e., western yarrow, Lewis flax, and Munro 

globemallow also established; and (3) of the two seeded shrub species, establishment of 

Wyoming big sagebrush was very spotty and spiny hopsage establishment was not 

documented. Seeded native grasses germinated on plots both with and without crested 

wheatgrass control, but were much taller and more robust in plots where crested wheatgrass was 

suppressed. Spring growing conditions were nearly ideal, with an extremely wet June. Some 

grass and forb plants produced seed in this first growing season.
157

2010

During 2010, density of crested wheatgrass seedlings continued to be significantly higher 

(p<0.05) in the untreated plots and disked plots (Figure 3). Density of seeded native grasses was 

highest in plots that received the combination of disking + spring glyphosate treatment, 

significantly greater than that of disk-treated plots (p<0.05), but not significantly different than 

either the spring-treated glyphosate plots or the spring + fall-applied glyphosate plots (Figure 4).

Forb densities were highest in the spring + fall-applied glyphosate plots and the disk + 

glyphosate plots, but because of large standard errors, only the latter treatment was significantly 

greater (p<0.05) than the untreated plots and the disked only plots (Figure 5). For all seeded 

species combined, the spring + fall-applied glyphosate treatment and disk + glyphosate treatment 

produced significantly higher seeded species densities than the disked only treatment (p<0.05).

2011

Data analysis is currently in progress for data collected in 2011. We noted an obvious increase in 

exotic annual forbs during the 2011 growing season, especially tansy mustard (Sisymbrium 

altissimum).

Plans for 2012

During 2012, we will continue to collect vegetation data, as described above, for both treatment 

trials (fourth-year data for first trial, second-year data for second trial). Data will be analyzed 

using mixed model analysis, with blocks and years considered random and other treatments 

considered fixed.

Publications:

McAdoo, J.K. 2011. Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested wheatgrass 

seedings. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. 

p. 147-152. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations: 

McAdoo, K.; Swanson, J.; Shaw, N. 2011. Facilitated succession to diversify crested wheatgrass 

seedings in Northeastern Nevada. Winter Meeting, Nevada Chapter of the Wildlife Society, 2011 

January, Reno, NV. 

McAdoo, K.; Swanson, J.; Shaw, N. 2011. Diversifying crested wheatgrass seedings in Northern 

Nevada. Society for Range Management Annual Meeting, 2011 January, Billings, MT. 

McAdoo, K.; Swanson, J. 2011. Increasing plant diversity in Northern Nevada crested 

wheatgrass seedings. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 

February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml
158

Management Applications: 

The relative success and/or failure of revegetation strategies and methodologies used in this 

research will be communicated in appropriate venues for the benefit of both public and private 

land managers and resource users. This research will add to the body of knowledge regarding the 

rehabilitation, functionality, and restoration of Great Basin rangelands. 

Products:

Field Tour - We conducted a field tour on July 7, 2011 to look at results of applying crested 

wheatgrass reduction methodologies and seeding native species.

Table 1. Final seeding mix for South Fork study plots, Elko County, NV, in sandy loam soil 

(Orovada Puett association), approximately 8” precipitation zone.

Species Kind/Variety Seeding Rate 

(PLS lb/acre)

Total No. lb

(for 12.5 acres)

Indian ricegrass1

(Achnatherum hymenoides)

‘Nezpar’ 2.0 25

Bottlebrush squirreltail1

(Elymus elymoides)

Toe Jam Creek 2.0 25

Needle-and-thread grass2

(Stipa comata) 2.0 25

Basin wildrye3

(Elymus cinereus)

‘Magnar’

2.0 25

Bluebunch wheatgrass3

(Psuedoroegneria spicata)

‘Secar’ 1.0 12.5

Sandberg bluegrass4

(Poa secunda) 0.75 9.4

Munro globemallow4

(Sphaeralcea munroana) 0.50 6.25

Lewis flax3

(Linum lewisii)

‘Appar’ 0.75 9.4

Western yarrow4

(Achillea millefolium) 0.20 2.5

Wyoming big sagebrush3

(Artemisia tridentata ssp.

wyomingensis)

0.20 2.5

Spiny hopsage5

(Grayia spinosa) 0.50 6.25

Totals 11.9 148.8

1

 From Granite Seed Co.

2

 From BFI Native Seeds

3

 From Comstock Seed Co.

4

 From FS Collection

5

 From Native Seed Co.
159

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall Glyphosate Disk & Glyphosate

a

a

24.0 20.5

3.0 2.2 2.2

b bb

Fig. 1. Effects of Treatments on Crested Wheatgrass Cover, 2009.*

% Cover

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall 

Glyphosate

Disk & Glyphosate

Plants/m2

Fig. 2. Effects of Treatments on Crested Wheatgrass Density, 2009.*

4.7

6.1

2.9

2.5 2.8

b

c

c

c

* Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

a

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

Plants/

m

2

% Cover

Figure 1. Effects of treatments on crested wheatgrass cover, 2009. *

Figure 2. Effects of treatments on crested wheatgrass density, 2009. *
160

Fig. 3. Effects of Treatments on Crested Wheatgrass Density, 2010.*

2

4

6

8

10

12

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall 

Glyphosate

Disk & Glyphosate

a

b

b b

10.6 10.5

5.7 4.9

Plants/m2

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

a

4.7

Fig. 4. Effects of Treatments on Density of Seeded Native Grasses, 2010.*

2

4

6

8

10

12

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall 

Glyphosate

Disk & Glyphosate

a

0.6

ab

bc

bc

c

4.8

9.6

11.5

Plants/10m2

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

8.3

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

Plants/10m

2 Plants/10m

2

Figure 3. Effects of treatments on crested wheatgrass density, 2010. *

Figure 4. Effects of treatments on density of seeded native grasses, 2010. *
161

Fig. 5. Effects of Treatments on Seeded Forb Densities, 2010.*

1

2

3

4

5

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall 

Glyphosate

Disk & Glyphosate

a a

0.3

ab

2.4

ab

4.6

bc

4.8

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05) Plants/10m2

Fig. 6. Effects of Treatments on Density of All Seeded Species, 2010.*

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall 

Glyphosate

Disk & Glyphosate

b

5.1

bc

13.4

c

13.6

c

16.5

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05) Plants/10m2

a

1.4

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

Plants/10m

2 Plants/10m

2

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

Figure 5. Effects of treatments on seeded forb densities, 2010. *

Figure 6. Effects of treatments on density of all seeded species, 2010. *
162

Project Title: The Ecology of Native Forb Establishment in Crested 

Wheatgrass Stands: A holistic approach

Project Location: USDA-ARS, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, 

Burns, Oregon

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Jeremy James, Plant Physiologist

USDA-ARS, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center

67826-A Hwy 205

Burns, OR 97720

(541)573.8911

Jeremy.james@oregonstate.edu 

Project Description:

Objectives

Forbs are a critical functional component of sage steppe. However, forb seed can be expensive 

and previously funded research by GBNPSIP has shown that forb establishment rates are very 

low. While competition from crested wheatgrass and cheatgrass may contribute to low forb 

establishment rates, underlying drivers of forb seeding failures appear to be more complex. For

example, previous research in the GBNPSIP program has shown that although crested 

wheatgrass control treatments can produce over a two-fold variation in crested wheatgrass 

density and cover, variation in crested wheatgrass abundance did not appear to influence forb 

establishment. The level of crested wheatgrass control and type of disturbance applied can 

influence cheatgrass invasion which, in turn, can influence forb establishment and survival. 

However a number of other factors, including planting depth, abiotic stress, safe site availability 

and seeding rate also may contribute to forb seeding failures. A holistic approach that examines 

multiple processes is needed to make large strides in improving forb restoration programs. Such 

an approach allows determination of the relative importance of multiple ecological processes for 

forb establishment. This information, in turn, can provide the scientific basis for improving 

native forb restoration programs and allocating limited restoration resources. The broad objective 

of this project is to identify the relative importance of biotic and abiotic controls on forb 

establishment. 

Methods

This project involves two phases. The first phase was to assess general patterns of survival for 

seed of native grasses and forbs. The second phase was manipulation and quantification of 

ecological processes and conditions limiting native forb establishment. 

For the first phase, we followed seed and seedling fate of mixtures of native grasses and forbs 

that the BLM seeded across four fire sites in eastern Oregon. We used germination bags to 

quantify the proportion of seeds that germinated and censused control and drill seeded plots biweekly to quantify patterns of emergence, death and survival over two growing seasons. 
163

The second phase, examining the ecological processes and conditions limiting forb 

establishment, was originally designed with a budget that would support manipulations at one 

site. However, with recent procurement of a larger NIFA funded project that examines in more 

detail the ecology of grass seedling establishment, this second phase has been modified to 

leverage this infrastructure and include more sites and conditions for the examination of forb 

recruitment. The core aspects of the initially proposed study design remain the same and include 

manipulation of cheatgrass and crested wheatgrass competition (two levels), disturbance (two 

levels) and seeding rate (four levels) in plots where monocultures of Linum lewisii, Crepis sp. and

Sphaeralcea munroana are sown. Seeds will be sown in 2-m x 2-m plots in fall 2012 with five 

replications per treatment combination at two high and two low precipitation sites in Oregon. 

Germination bags will be pulled monthly through the fall, winter and spring to document timing, rate 

and magnitude of germination and plots will be monitored bi-weekly for emergence and survival 

during the first spring and then monthly through the second growing season. 

2011 Results

Results for the first phase of this study show that across the four fire sites seeded by BLM, 60 to 

80% of the forb and grass seed sown germinated, but at all four sites only 5 to 10% of the 

germinated seed emerged (Fig. 1). As a consequence of death during germination and prior to 

emergence, about 90% of the sown individuals died before emerging from the soil surface. Once 

seedlings of grasses and forbs emerged, survival probabilities through the first growing season 

and summer dry season were greater than 0.5. Because of the high initial mortality, however, 

final seedling establishment was low and less than 5 plants m-2at two of the sites.

Sown seeds

Germinated seeds 

Emerged seedlings

Established seedlings

Egley Roundtop

Bartlett

Individuals m

Butte

-2

Sown seeds

Germinated seeds 

Emerged seedlings

Established seedlings

Figure 1. Numbers of seeded individuals surviving to various growth 

stages for forb and grass species mixtures sown by BLM following 

wildfires at four sites in eastern Oregon. Seeding rates were 376 

seeds m-2. 
164

Future Plans

Phase two of this project, which includes the additional three sites leveraged off of the NIFA 

grass seedling grant, will be implemented at the same time the NIFA grass seedling study is 

initiated allowing statistical comparisons of demographic performance among both grasses and 

forbs. Sites have been selected and permitted through BLM. Sites will be fenced spring 2012 and 

seeded fall 2012. These plots will be followed at least 3 years, the duration of the NIFA grant.

Publications:

James, J.J.; Svejcar, T.; Rinella, M.J. 2011. Demographic processes limiting seedling recruitment 

in arid grassland restoration. Journal of Applied Ecology 48:961-969.

James, J.J.; Drenovsky, R.E.; Monaco, T.M.; Rinella, M.J. 2011. Managing soil nitrogen to 

restore annual grass-infested plant communities: Effective strategy or incomplete framework? 

Ecological Applications 21:490-502.

James, J.J.; Smith, B.S.; Vasquez, E.A.; Sheley, R.L. 2010. Principles for ecologically based 

invasive plant management. Invasive Plant Science and Management 3:229-239.

James, J.J.; Svejcar, T.J. 2010. Limitations to post-fire seedling establishment: The role of 

seeding technology, water availability, and invasive plant abundance. Rangeland Ecology and 

Management 63:491-495. 

Presentations: 

James, J.J. Managing demographic processes in rangeland restoration. Society for Ecological 

Restoration, 2011 August 21- 25, Mèrida, Mexico. (Invited)

James, J.J. Grass seedling demography and restoration. Oregon State University, Department of 

Forest Ecosystems and Society, 2011, Corvallis, OR. (Invited seminar)

James, J.J. The role of soil pathogens and soil physical properties in grassland restoration. 

Montana State University, 2011, Bozeman, MT. (Invited seminar)

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

Recruitment failures in rangeland restoration have been widely blamed on mortality during 

spring and summer drought or competition from weeds. These initial results strongly suggest 

most mortality may be concentrated very early in the life cycle of seedling development. Thus, 

management of ecological conditions during this time period may result in the greatest increase 

in seeded species establishment. Potential management strategies may include sowing seeds in 

winter or early spring if conditions allow and identifying and selecting plant materials with 

greater emergence probability. At the minimum these data suggests the relative importance of 

weeds and summer drought might be very low compared to other factors like winter time freeze 

thaw events and soil pathogens.
165

Products:

▪ Results from this project have provided some of the material for annual week-long 

workshops held through the USDA-ARS Area-wide program.

▪ Results provided some of the basis and rationale for the NIFA project (2011-38415-31158).

▪ Results also were used to organize a symposium at the 2010 SRM meeting in Billings, MT 

on seedling establishment.
166

Project Title: Recruitment of Native Vegetation into Crested 

Wheatgrass Seedings and the Influence of Crested 

Wheatgrass on Native Vegetation

Project Location: USDA Agricultural Research Service, Burns, Oregon

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Kirk Davies and Aleta Nafus

USDA Agricultural Research Service

67826-A Hwy 205

(541)573.4074, Fax (541)573.3042

Kirk.Davies@oregonstate.edu, Aleta.Nafus@oregonstate.edu

Project Description:

Objectives

The objectives of our study were to 1) determine what factors (management, site/environmental 

characteristic, etc.) promote native plant recruitment in crested wheatgrass plant communities 

and 2) determine if crested wheatgrass displaces native vegetation from plant communities.

Methods

In 1998, experimental plots were set up with known, even densities of crested wheatgrass and 

seven native perennial bunchgrasses. Since 1998, no management activities have occurred on 

these experimental plots. In 2011, we counted total density of perennial bunchgrasses by species 

in nine 312.5 m2plots. These plots are more than 8-fold larger than the plots we sampled in 2010 

for preliminary analysis.

Results

Over a period of 13 years, crested wheatgrass density increased 12-fold and native grass 

densities for the most part either remained the same or decreased (Fig 1). Idaho fescue showed 

slight evidence of being able to increase when co-seeded with crested wheatgrass with a 1.5-fold 

increase (p = 0.07). Sampling a greater area reduced the apparent increase of crested wheatgrass 

relative to data collected in 2010 (where we saw a 40-fold increase). Three additional bunchgrass 

species were also able to recruit in very low numbers into the community. 

The results of this study suggest that, when seeded together, crested wheatgrass is much better at 

recruiting new individuals into the plant community, and that while a few native perennial 

bunchgrasses are able to maintain presence, crested wheatgrass may be displacing most of the 

others. This suggests that, in the long term, even if crested wheatgrass stands are suppressed 

enough that native perennial bunchgrasses are able to establish, native bunchgrass species will 

not increase and crested wheatgrass will rapidly recover. However, this study did not address 

changes in forb and shrub composition over time and it is possible that reestablishment of shrubs 

and forbs may be more successful. The results of this study suggest caution when co-planting 

crested wheatgrass with native bunchgrass species if the expectation is that crested wheatgrass 

will serve as a bridge species to eliminate annual weeds while native bunchgrasses establish. 
167

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Density (plants/10m2

)

Species

2011 Density

1998 Density

**

** *

**

 

Figure 1. Density per 10 m

2

of crested wheatgrass (AGDE = crested wheatgrass) and each of 

seven planted native perennial bunchgrass species (PSSP = bluebunch wheatgrass; LECI = basin 

wildrye; FEID = Idaho fescue; ELEL = bottlebrush squirreltail; HECO = needle-and-thread 

grass; POSE = Sandberg bluegrass; ACTH = Thurber’s needlegrass) and 2 perennial bunchgrass 

species that were able to recruit into the community (ACHY = Indian ricegrass, KOMA = 

Junegrass) ** Indicates statistical difference at P ≤ 0.01, *indicates statistical difference at P <0.1.

Future Plans

In 2012 we will begin sampling 100 crested wheatgrass plant communities across the northern 

Great Basin to determine what factors promote native plant recruitment in crested wheatgrass 

plant communities. We have contacted private and public land managers to locate crested 

wheatgrass plant communities. Site, environmental, and management characteristics will be 

collected to determine their relationships with native plant recruitment into crested wheatgrass 

communities. A Ph.D. graduate student has been hired and we are recruiting four summer 

technicians to help her collect this data.

Publications:

Davies, K.; Nafus, A. 2011. Recruitment of native vegetation into crested wheatgrass seedings 

and the influence of crested wheatgrass on native vegetation. In: Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 159-160.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Management Applications:

Results are still preliminary, but they do suggest that crested wheatgrass is better able to recruit 

new individuals into the plant community than native bunchgrasses. The ability of crested 

wheatgrass to increase, while native bunchgrasses densities remained the same or decreased 

should be considered before co-planting crested wheatgrass and native bunchgrasses or seeding 

crested wheatgrass into a native plant community.
168

Project Title: Revegetation Equipment Catalog Website Maintenance

Project Location: Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Robert Cox, Assistant Professor

Texas Tech University

Box 42125 Lubbock, TX 79409

(806)742.2841, Fax (806)742.2280

Robert.Cox@ttu.edu

Project Description:

The Revegetation Equipment Catalog is an online repository of descriptions, photos, and 

company information for equipment that is used for revegetation efforts in the United States. 

With pages on topics ranging from “All-terrain Vehicles” through “Fertilizing and Mulching,” to 

“Transport Trailers,” the catalog is an important reference for information about revegetation 

equipment. During 2011, the website was updated with all links checked and corrected. During 

2012, the website will be fully transferred to Texas Tech, and the mirroring site at Texas A&M 

will be removed.

Publications:

Cox, Robert. 2011. Revegetation Equipment Catalog. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 161.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Shaw, N.; Cox, R.; Fisk, M.; Denney, E.; Gurr, J. 2011. Native plant selection, seed biology and 

seeding equipment and technology. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

FY2010 Progress Report. p. 173-183.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

The Revegetation Equipment Catalog may be accessed at: 

http://reveg-catalog.tamu.edu/ or http://www.rw.ttu.edu/reveg-catalog/ 

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

Land managers, seed producers or others can use the Revegetation Equipment Catalog to gain 

understanding about the types, capabilities, and requirements of various revegetation equipment 

they might use to implement their projects. 

Products:

The Revegetation Equipment Catalog is a stand-alone website designed to provide information 

about equipment that is used for revegetation efforts in the United States.
169

Project Title: Evaluation of Imazapic Rates and Forb Planting Times 

on Native Forb Establishment

Project Location: Utah State University, Logan, Utah

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Corey Ransom, Assistant Professor

Utah State University

Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, Utah 84322-4820

(435)797.2242, Fax (435)797.3376

corey.ransom@usu.edu

Project Description: 

Successful establishment of native forb species is critical in order to re-establish structure and 

function to disturbed range sites. A large portion of the degraded rangeland in the Intermountain 

Region of the Western U.S. is invaded by downy brome (Bromus tectorum). The most common 

herbicide currently available for downy brome control is imazapic (Plateau®). Since restoration 

sites will likely be treated with imazapic for downy brome control prior to establishment of 

desirable species, a greater understanding of the tolerance of different forb species to imazapic is 

needed. This project aims to describe native forb and grass species tolerance to imazapic and 

other herbicides applied to suppress downy brome. This project will also examine the effect of 

herbicide application timing and planting dates on successful species germination and growth.

Materials and Methods

Trials were established at Cache Junction and Nephi, Utah. Herbicide treatments were applied to 

plots measuring 6 ft wide and 60 ft in length. Herbicides were applied with a CO2- pressurized 

backpack sprayer calibrated to deliver 20 gpa at 30 psi. Herbicide treatments included imazapic 

at various rates compared to propozycarbazone (Olympus®), sulfosulfuron (Outrider®), 

rimsulfuron (Matrix®), and sulfometuron (Oust®). Herbicide rates are shown in Table 2. Spring 

applications were made April 29 and May 1 and fall application November 30 and 23 at Nephi 

and Cache Junction, respectively. Two applications of Roundup® were used to suppress weed 

growth at Cache Junction, while one hand-weeding was used to remove weeds at the Nephi site. 

Species were seeded perpendicular to the herbicide plots on November 23 at Cache Junction and 

November 25 at Nephi. At Nephi a modified cone seeder was used to plant two rows of each 

species spaced 2.5 ft apart. At Cache Junction, species were seeded in strips 7 feet wide with 

plants rows 8 inches apart with a Tye no-till drill. A list of species seeded at each location is 

included in Table 1. Because field bindweed was prevalent at the Cache Junction location, only 

grass species were seeded at that location. Species densities were determined in the summer of 

2010 by counting the number of plants present in each plot. Plots were hand weeded three times 

during the season, but significant weed growth still occurred between weeding times. 
170

Table 1. Species seeded in herbicide tolerance trials at Nephi and Cache Junction, Utah in 2009.

Nephi

Basalt milkvetch Astragalus filipes

Prairie clover Dalea ornata

Searl’s prairie clover Dalea searlsiae

Sulfur flower buckwheat Eriogonum umbellatum

Nevada goldeneye Heliomeris multiflorum var. nevadensis

Silky lupine Lupinus sericeus

Big blue penstemon Penstemon cyaneus

Globemallow Sphaeralcea

Big bluegrass (‘Sherman”) Poa secunda

Bluebunch wheatgrass (‘Anatone’) Pseudoroegneria spicata

Cache Junction

Slender wheatgrass (‘First Strike’) Elymus trachycaulus

Basin wildrye (‘Magnar’) Leymus cinereus

Big bluegrass (‘Sherman’) Poa secunda

Bluebunch wheatgrass 

 (Anatone selected germplasm)

Pseudoroegneria spicata

Table 2. Herbicide rates.

Herbicide Rate

lb ai/A

Untreated -

Plateau 0.0156

Plateau 0.0313

Plateau 0.0625

Plateau 0.094

Plateau 0.125

Plateau 0.156

Plateau 0.188

Olympus 0.0534

Outrider 0.047

Matrix 0.039

Oust 0.0703

LSD (0.05) -

1All treatments included non-ionic 

surfactant at 0.25% v/v

Results for 2011

In 2011, few plants remained at the Nephi research location and plots at that location were 

abandoned. 

Additional efforts to establish Astragalus filipes and Dalea ornata in the greenhouse trials were 

unsuccessful. Based on field trials it appears that scarification and stratification will be required 
171

to achieve uniform Astragalus filipes germination, while scarification alone appears to greatly 

improve Dalea ornata germination. 

Preliminary trials evaluating annual grass germination and growth in response to imazapic in 

petri-dish assays compared to trials conducted with soil filled pots shows that responses differ 

significantly between the two systems and that petri-dish assays will not likely be useful in 

predicting forb response to imazapic in the field.

Direction for 2012

In 2012, a new research location will be established near Logan, Utah and core treatments will be 

applied in the spring and the fall. Species will be planted in fall of 2012 at much higher rates than 

in previous trials and row covers will be utilized to increase plant establishment. It is noted that 

these conditions would not be present in most reclamation situations, but that failure to establish 

plants makes evaluation of their response to herbicides impossible. Work will continue with 

species in greenhouse trials. Soil sampling will be delayed until it can be done at the new site. 

Publications:

Ransom, C.V. 2011. Evaluation of imazapic rates and forb planting times on native forb 

establishment. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress 

Report. p. 87-90.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Roerig, K. C.; Ransom, C. V. 2010. Searls’ Prairie clover (Dalea searlsie) tolerance to postemergence herbicide applications. Western Society of Weed Science Research Progress. Report. 

p 74.

Presentations: 

Ransom, C.V.; Israilsen, K. Grass and forb seed production: Weed control and herbicide effects. 

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Seed School. 2008 February 19, Brigham City, Utah. 60 

attendees.

Edvarchuk, K.; Ransom, C.V. 2010. Herbicide tolerance in grasses and native forb species. 

Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science 63:9-10.

Ransom, C.V. 2011. Forb response to herbicides for seed production and rangeland restoration. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting. 2011 February 22-23, 

Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml
172

Project Title: Smoke-induced Germination of Great Basin Native Forbs

Project Location: Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Robert Cox, Assistant Professor

Texas Tech University

Box 42125 Lubbock, TX 79409

(806)742.2841, Fax (806)742.2280

Robert.Cox@ttu.edu 

Project Description:

The first step is to conduct a wide screening for all known smoke effects through as many 

species as possible. The second step is to further test responsive species to determine whether 

smoke response varies by population by testing seeds from as many populations of the species in 

question as possible. Finally, we aim to develop seeding protocols for several of the most 

responsive species. This will be done by testing different methods of smoke application to the 

seeds followed by seeding of the seeds into field settings.

Publications:

Cox, R. 2011. Revegetation Equipment Catalog. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 161.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf 

Shaw, N.; Cox, R.; Fisk, M.; Denney, E.; Gurr, J. 2011. Native Plant Selection, Seed Biology 

and Seeding Equipment and Technology. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 173-183.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

Land managers, seed producers or others will use the results to better plan restoration seedings to 

include a higher diversity of native forbs and to plan restoration treatments to take advantage of 

smoke-responsive species. Re-establishing populations and seedbanks of these species will 

contribute to natural recovery following wildfire or other disturbance, provide bloom for 

pollinators, and reduce progress of exotic invasions. 
173

Project Title: Pollination and Breeding Biology Studies

Project Location: USDA-ARS Bee Biology and Systematics Lab, Logan, Utah 

 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information:

James H. Cane, Research Entomologist

 USDA - ARS Bee Biology and Systematics Lab

Utah State University

Logan, UT 84322-5310 

(435)797.3879, Fax (435)797.0461

Jim.Cane@ars.usda.gov 

Project Description:

Native bees and/or honey bees are needed to pollinate most all of the wildflower species thus far 

studied for Great Basin plant community rehabilitation. The pollinator faunas of many of these 

candidate plant genera include one or more bee genera with potentially manageable species, 

especially species of Osmia. A minority of the later-blooming species attracts and can be 

pollinated by honey bees or managed alfalfa leaf-cutting bees.

Pollinator needs are being evaluated by comparing fruit and seed sets at caged flowers, openly 

visited flowers, and manually pollinated flowers. If plant reproduction proves to be pollinator 

limited, then native bee faunas are surveyed and evaluated at managed and wild flowering 

populations. If bees are sufficiently abundant, then single-visit pollination efficiencies at 

previously caged flowers can directly evidence each bee species’ contribution to seed 

production. 

Captive populations of several species of cavity-nesting Osmia bees with pollination promise are 

being multiplied either with a private grower or at our lab for eventual distribution to growers 

needing them for pollination. Currently managed bee species (alfalfa leaf-cutting bees, blue 

orchard bees, honey bees) are being evaluated for their pollination promise with each of the 

target plant species as well using our lab’s common garden. Practical management protocols and 

materials are being developed to sustainably manage pollinators on-farm. Pollination information 

is being disseminated to collaborators and growers.

Anticipating that seed from some of these perennial forb species will be used for post-fire 

restoration, we have been evaluating susceptibilities and fates of wild bee communities to 

wildfire in the sage-steppe and juniper woodlands. Inasmuch as bees are necessary for 

pollination of most of these forbs, bee communities must persist in or recolonize burns if seeded 

forbs are to reproduce. Nesting habits will likely predict a bee species’ risk with fire, which will 

be evaluated through lab experiments and sampling of faunas in natural burns throughout the 

Intermountain West.

Status Report

Many ground-nesting wild bees are present and populous in the years after wildfires where the 

pre-existing flora was in good shape. My graduate student is moving into his analyses of our 
174

systematically sampled floral guilds of native bees, quantified bloom and wildflower 

communities taken from matched pairs of burned and neighboring unburned plots across a 15-

year chronosequence of large (> 1000 acre) wildfires in sagebrush steppe and juniper woodlands 

in five states of the northern Great Basin and Columbia Plateau. We added the last sites this year 

from Elko County Nevada and adjacent Idaho. We have now sampled bees and flora in 33 site 

pairs in a chronosequence representing a span of from 1-15 years since the last large fire (>1000 

acres). We focused on 3 species of Balsamorhiza, but also some Lomatium, Sphaeralcea, 

Astraglus filipes, and Penstemon speciosus. At A. filipes, for instance, we now have 32 

quantitative surveys of bees from five states. Most all are ground-nesters and non-social. The

forb communities are generally more plentiful and slightly more diverse in most of the fires than

in the control sites.

For one case study, we netted bees at surviving sunflowers along gravel roadways traversing the 

450 sq mile Long Butte fire west of Twin Falls, ID. Just 3 weeks after the fire, we found the 

same bee fauna at the same densities 3-7 miles into the burn as we found around the perimeter, 

all of them collecting pollen, indicative of continued active nesting by ground-nesting 

populations over which the fire had burned. The vast isolation distance precludes the possibility 

that the foraging bees were commuting from beyond the fire perimeter. It seems that what 

blooms the year after wildfire will be critical for feeding the diverse bee communities that 

survive wildfire in the sage-steppe and juniper woodlands.

Comparing methods to estimate forb densities. 

At the Scooby Fire in ne Utah, we compared the measure for plant density that we adopted for 

our bee surveys in fires (an ordered distance measure) with a more traditional method using 

random small quadrats (data provided by collaborator Nancy Shaw). Basically, our method 

(developed by Morisita) took the distance from each of a series of random points along a transect 

line to the third nearest flowering forb. We used two forbs, globemallow and yarrow, that were 

seeded into the site after burning. We counted just flowering individuals, which were generally 

sparse. The Morisita method consistently calculated greater plant densities than did the quadrats, 

probably because of the sparsity of forbs in the plots for which the quadrats registered zeroes but 

Morisita always registered presence at some distance. I feel that the Morisita method is more 

realistic for more spaced plants, but the quadrats are perfect for densely growing items (such as 

grasses). Nested quadrats, though perhaps best, take vastly more time to implement.

Pollinators and breeding biologies of the forb Dusty Maiden, Chaenactis douglasii. 

This is a widespread if inconspicuous short-lived perennial forb that flowers late in spring from 

the foothills to upper montane areas throughout the Intermountain West. It is proving practical to 

grow for seed and is expected to be used for western rangeland rehabilitation. 

We manually pollinated some 4,000 flowers on plants seeded in our common garden, collected 

the achenes, and x-rayed them to check our visual scoring of endosperm fill as a measure of 

fertility. This plant grew well in cultivation, blooming the first year. This ability bodes well for 

adding it to seed mixes where it can feed resident bee communities in the year after a fire (as can 

Helianthus, Eriophyllum and even Sphaeralcea). Nearly every flower (avg. 46 per flower head) 

sets an achene (97%), but some of these lack endosperm. 
175

Through manual pollination experiments, the species was found to be only weakly self-fertile. It 

is primarily xenogamous, with 57% of outcrossed flowers producing achenes filled with 

endosperm; every flower head yielded some fertile seeds. In contrast, only 15% of flowers 

yielded filled achenes resulting from our manual pollination with self-pollen or on flower heads 

left to autopollinate. Freely-visited flowers from a wild population produced 91% fertile achenes, 

indicating that seed production was not pollinator limited. 

Most nests of the solitary cavity-nesting bee Osmia californica released at this sage-steppe site 

were provisioned with white composite pollen resembling Chaenactis pollen. The bee is a 

composite specialist known to pollinate and provision Balsamorhiza pollen and, from our 2 years 

of study with the NRCS-PMC in Corvallis, cultivated Eriophyllum too. Floral visitors 

systematically sampled at four wild sites consisted entirely of wild bees (three populations 

sampled in Utah and Idaho) that were typically sparse (one bee per 14 plants). Most individuals 

represented bee species that are floral generalists; the rest are broadly specialized on the 

Asteraceae. Museum specimens from C. douglasii at the Logan lab (taken mostly from southern 

Utah) comprise 175 native bee species representing 39 genera and all six North American bee 

families, none of them apparent specialists on Chaenactis alone. 

Publications:

Cane, J.H. 2011. Meeting wild bees’ needs on rangelands. Rangelands 33:27-32.

Cane, J.H. 2011. Pollinator and seed predator studies. In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p 77-80.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf

Cane, J.H.; Neff, J. 2011. Predicted fates of ground-nesting bees in soil heated by wildfire: 

thermal tolerances of life stages and a survey of nesting depths. Biological Conservation 144: 

2631-2636.

Cane, J.H.; Weber, M.; Miller, S. 2012. Breeding biologies, pollinators and seed beetles of two 

prairie clovers, Dalea ornata and D. searlsiae (Fabaceae: Amorpheae), from the Intermountain 

West USA. Western North American Naturalist. (in press)

Swoboda, K.A.; Cane, J.H. 2011. Breeding biology and incremental benefits of outcrossing for 

the restoration wildflower, Hedysarum boreale Nutt. (Fabaceae). Plant Species Biology doi: 

10.1111/j.1442-1984.2011.00339.x

Watrous, K.; Cane, J.H. 2011. Breeding biology of the threadstalk milkvetch, Astragalus filipes

(Fabaceae), with a review of the genus. American Midland Naturalist 165:225-240.

Presentations:

Cane, J. Native wildflowers for native bees. Utah Native Plant Society, 2011 February 21, 

Richfield, UT. (Invited) 
176

Cane, J. Bee communities and wildfire: thermal tolerances, soil heat conduction and nesting 

depths. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 

22-23, Salt Lake City, UT. (Invited)

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Cane, J. On-farm needs and post-fire fates of bees that pollinate our restoration forbs. 2011 

March 28-31, Boise, ID. (Invited) 

Cane, J. Post-fire fates and on-farm use of wild bees for native forb seed production. 11th 

Biennial Conference on Research on the Colorado Plateau, 2011 October 23-27, Flagstaff, AZ. 

(Invited)

Management Applications:

Growers of Chaenactis for seed who do not plan for pollination will have poor seed production 

with a large yield of empty achenes that may be challenging to separate from good seed.

Excellent seed sets are possible with bees. The native bees Osmia california and O. montana are 

suitable pollinators for the crop and are bees that we manage now. A number of unmanaged 

generalist bees appear to be suitable too, and at the Aberdeen PMC, honey bees were avidly 

visiting its flowers and should be effective pollinators.

Our bee samples at remnant bloom in the weeks after wildfire provide further evidence that wild 

bee faunas of the sage-steppe survive the heat and combustion of wildfire. The management 

question therefore changes from: “What will pollinate seeded perennial wildflowers far into a 

burn?” to “How do we provide suitable floral resources for bee communities in the year after 

fire, populations that will then pollinate perennials that flower in later years?”

Products:

Two Osmia bee species that effectively pollinate Hedysarum and Astragalus are increasing well 

for us, but we are having to explore new paper sources or paper coatings for their nesting tubes, 

as manufacturers are running out of the Sweetheart straw paper with no plans for replacement. 

We have begun testing these managed bees in several other climates (e.g. western Oregon, 

southwest Colorado, central California) where the species exists but climates are different. Our 

production of O. sanrafaelae for pollination of Hedysarum in western Wyoming was set back by 

a record late, cold wet spring; we now have less than the estimated 17000 individuals deployed. 

Another pair of species, O. montana and O. californica, pollinate balsamroots, Eriophyllum and 

Chaenactis. We manage them easily now, and they are available in the thousands as by-catch 

from businesses that are trap-nesting blue orchard bees from the wild. With a year’s advance 

notice, they can be provided to growers as needed.
177

Project Title: Development of Seeding Equipment for Establishing 

Diverse Native Communities

Project Location: Truax Company, Inc, New Hope, Minnesota

Principal Investigator and Contact Information:

James Truax, Owner

Truax Company, Inc.

4300 Quebec Avenue North

New Hope, MN 55428

(763)537.6639, Fax (763)537.8353

truax1@qwestoffice.net

Project Description:

The evolution of the Roughrider continued during 2011 and additional developments will evolve 

in the future. During the last year, effort was focused primarily on three areas: durability, shock 

absorption, and variable planting depth. 

The Truax Roughrider drill frames have experienced premature failure when used on extremely

rough sites and therefore effort has been put forward to reduce or prevent this breakdown. The

weight, or mass, of the equipment is transferred to the planter units through a series of elastomer

torsion knuckles that act as a shock absorber as the unit moves across rough sites. The individual

torsion knuckles have a built in stroke control so as the drill moves the stroke control will limit

the amount of rotation around the rock shaft and hence the vertical travel of the individual

planter assemblies. Once the rock shaft was rotated by the hydraulic cylinder to the full down

position the stroke control prevents the locked-in-place planters from coming up, without lifting

the entire machine. This lack of free movement, in turn, resulted in frame failure. Research and

design changes have shown that by changing the stroke control configuration it is possible to 

provide down forces on the planter assemblies, while at the same time allowing individual 

planters to flex upward without having to lift the entire machine mass.

A second area of consideration during the 2011 planting season was to investigate whether by

changing the depth of seed placement there was a corresponding change in percent of 

germination or establishment success. The depth control gage wheels were removed from a

Roughrider when planting several plots outside Mountain Home, ID in the late fall of 2010 

which allowed the seed furrow to be increased to 1-1/2” to 2” compared to the 1/2” to 1” with 

the gage wheels installed. Observation early in the spring of 2011 showed a lower apparent 

germination, which is generally the result of the seed being buried too deep. Follow up should 

determine whether these results carry through to the spring of 2012.

Publications:

Truax, J. 2011. Development of seeding equipment for establishing diverse native communities. 

In: Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2010 Progress Report. p. 165-166.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2010_ProgressReport.pdf
178

Presentations:

Shaw, N.; Fisk, M.; Denney, E.; Truax, J. 2011. Post-fire seeding strategies and native plant 

materials for the northern Great Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.pdf
179

Project Title: Influence of Post-fire Treatments on Exotic, Native 

Residual and Seeded Species Production at the Scooby 

Wildfire Site in Northern Utah, 2010

Project Location: University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Megan Taylor, Graduate Student

University of Wyoming

1000 E. University Ave.

Laramie, WY 82071

(478)455.1399

mtaylo26@uwyo.edu

Ann Hild, Assistant Professor

Department of Ecosystem Science and Management

University of Wyoming

P.O. Box 3354

Laramie, WY 82071

(307)766.5471, Fax (307)766.6403

annhild@uwyo.edu

Urszula Norton, Assistant Professor

Department of Plant Sciences

University of Wyoming

Laramie, WY

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist

USFS, Rocky Mountain Research Station

Boise, ID

Project Description:

Introduction

Wildfire revegetation efforts employ a variety of mechanical and cultural methods to establish 

plant cover and diversity and to limit establishment of exotic plant species following a wildfire 

event. Yet, although cover establishment will limit soil loss from these sites, we know little about 

the relative impact of drill type, seed mixture or seeding technique on the productivity of exotics.

Throughout the Western states, exotic annuals such as the cool season annual grass, cheatgrass

(Bromus tectorum) and warm season forb species such as halogeton (Halogeton glomeratus) and 

Russian thistle (Salsola kali), often gain dominance on semi arid shrubland sites following 

wildfire. This study was conducted to understand the productivity of these three annual exotic 

species relative to a variety of seeding treatments using rangeland and minimum till drills. Our 

goal was to understand trade offs between the productivity of seeded desired grasses and forbs 

and their exotic competitors. 
180

Halogeton is a warm season (C4) succulent annual forb native to southeastern Russia and 

northwestern China. First documented near Wells, Nevada in 1934, the species has since spread 

throughout the Rocky Mountain states and Great Basin. Consumption of halogeton results in the 

accumulation of toxic oxalates in tissues which has caused devastating livestock losses, 

especially among sheep. This invasive species is currently listed as a noxious weed in the Pacific 

Northwest, Intermountain West, California, Hawaii, and New Mexico (Pavek 1992). The entry 

of exotic annuals such as cheatgrass and halogeton into semi-desert shrublands reduces the return 

of native species following wildfire and diminishes habitat quality and forage availability for 

both wildlife and domestic livestock. This project examines post-wildfire revegetation strategies 

for semi-desert shrubland systems in the Great Salt Lake area (MLRA 028A) for their influence 

on cheatgrass, an exotic annual cool-season grass, and halogeton and Russian thistle, annual 

exotic warm-season forbs and associated soils. We compare seeding treatments for their impact 

on the presence of cheatgrass, Russian thistle, and halogeton and other exotics and examine the 

relationship of soil mycorrhizae with seeded and exotic species. 

The Utah portion of the study was conducted on the Scooby Fire site in Wildcat Hills, southwest 

of Snowville, UT in the Great Salt Lake Area (MLRA 028A). The fire burned approximately 120 

ha of native sagebrush in August 2008, and several rehabilitation seeding treatments were 

installed at the site in November 2008 using both the standard rangeland drill and a minimum-till 

drill. Plots were either drilled with no seed, drill seeded and machine broadcast immediately 

following drilling (some with varying amounts of Wyoming big sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata 

ssp. wyomingensis), drill seeded and hand broadcast (either simultaneously or in January), or 

designated as a control. Intensive documentation of the treatments (gap intercept, line point 

intercept, species density, and shrub and forb belt) has been conducted since summer 2009 (see 

Shaw et al., this volume). However, little data on invasive species impacts on productivity of the 

seeded species has been recorded. By adding an intensive study of invaders on the site, we 

address the role of seeding treatments associated with common invasive species establishment. 

In this report, we compare biomass production of seeded species to the presence of exotics 

(primarily cheatgrass, halogeton, and Russian thistle) and residual native species.

Halogeton is known to alter the soil chemistry by increasing pH, exchangeable sodium, electrical

conductivity, and surface soil salt content (Duda et al. 2003). However, its influence on soil 

microbiology remains largely undocumented. Halogeton does not form mycorrhizal associations 

even when inoculum is present in the soil and densities of Russian thistle (warm season annual 

forb, Chenopodiaceae) are reduced in the presence of mycorrhizal fungi (Allen and Allen, 1988). 

However, grass densities can also be decreased by mycorrhizal inoculates (all Agropyron

species) by reducing Russian thistle which facilitates grass establishment (Allen and Allen, 

1988). In 2011, we examined the effect of mycorrhizal fungi on halogeton, grass, and shrub 

establishment at the Scooby post-fire seeding location. Intensive soils analyses will be used to 

document the presence of mycorrhizae and soil chemical and physical attributes under the 

reseeding and moisture treatments.

Description of Study Sites

The biomass study was conducted on the site of the Scooby Fire in Wildcat Hills, southwest of 

Snowville, UT in the Great Salt Lake Area (MLRA 028A, NRCS 2010). The fire burned a 

native, semi-desert sagebrush community (Wyoming big sagebrush, Indian ricegrass 
181

[Achnatherum hymenoides], and bluebunch wheatgrass [Pseudoroegneria spicata]) in August 

2008, and was seeded with native shrubs, grasses, and forbs in November 2008. The Scooby Fire 

Site is located at an elevation of 1440 m (4725 ft) on fan terraces and alluvial plains with 1 to 

15% slopes. Mean annual precipitation varies from 203-305mm (8-12 in), mean annual air 

temperature fluctuates from 7.2 to 10°C (45 to 50°F), and the frost-free period ranges from 116 

to 151 days (NRCS SSS 2010). Xeric Haplocalcids (Hiko Peak, cobbly loam) and Xeric 

Torriorthents (Sheeprock, gravelly coarse sand) dominate the site, and both are characterized as 

deep (≥ 60 cm), well drained soils (NRCS SSS 2010). The site is grazed by livestock in fall, 

winter, and spring, and provides critical winter range for wildlife.

Treatment Application and Experimental Design at the Scooby Fire Site

Rehabilitation seeding experiments conducted at the Scooby Fire Site were primarily designed to 

investigate strategies and equipment for reestablishing mixtures of grasses, forbs and shrubs on 

burned Wyoming big sagebrush sites. Treatments address methods for applying two seed mixes, 

larger grass and forb seeds which require soil coverage (drill mix) and small-seeded grasses, 

forbs and shrubs which require surface seeding (broadcast mix). Treatments tested include 

combinations of drill type, dates, and methods for applying small-seeded species mixes, and 

Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rates.

Establishing mixtures of native species entails dealing with seeds of many sizes and shapes that 

require different planting depths and seeding mechanisms because of their morphology (shape, 

fluffiness, etc). Small-seeded species are generally less competitive than larger seeded species, 

and cannot be seeded through a standard drill drop because they are placed too deep into the soil, 

which hinders germination. Rangeland drills have been less effective for small-seeded species, 

even when seeded in alternate rows, as the disk action tends to bury the seeds. Therefore, smallseeded species are often broadcast on the soil surface even though the practice can be risky as the 

soil surface dries rapidly and good seed-to-soil contact may not be achieved. The minimum-till 

drill drops seed on the surface and then presses it into the soil with a brillion imprinter unit to 

facilitate seed-to-soil contact. 

The drill seed mixture consisted of Indian ricegrass, bluebunch wheatgrass, bottlebrush 

squirreltail (Elymus elymoides), sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum), and Munro 

globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana). The broadcast mixture included Wyoming big 

sagebrush, rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa), western yarrow 

(Achillea millefolium), blue penstemon (Penstemon cyaneus) and Sandberg bluegrass 

(Poa secunda). There were three broadcast rate mixes: standard, 5x, and 10x, differing only in 

the Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rate (see Shaw et al., this volume for details). 

All plots (excepting controls) were drill seeded in November 2008 in alternating rows through 

the seed drops of a rangeland drill (R) or the seed boots of a minimum-till drill (MT). The 

broadcast mix was 1) surface seeded between the drill rows through the drills at the same time 

the drill mix was seeded (seed was either covered with a chain (R) or a brillion imprinter (MT)), 

2) hand broadcast immediately after drill seeding, or 3) hand broadcast over snow in winter to 

simulate aerial seeding.
182

Five fenced blocks of the thirteen seeding treatments (65 plots total), were established and are 

surrounded by a perimeter fence to deter grazing by livestock. Our study used 4 blocks (blocks 1, 

2, 4, and 5). Each treatment plot measured 70 m x 30 m (approximately 0.52 acres) with a 10 

meter buffer surrounding the perimeter of the blocks. Buffer zones were seeded with a mix of A.

hymenoides and P. spicata to reduce weed encroachment. The assignment of the 13 seeding 

treatments was randomized within each block. The thirteen seeding treatments installed at the 

Scooby site are: 

 Control (C), unseeded 

 Rangeland, R(0), or Minimum-till, MT(0), drilled without seed (2 treatments)

 Rangeland, R(std), or Minimum-till, MT(std), drill seeded and machine broadcast with the 

standard Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rate mixture (2 treatments)

 Rangeland, (R5x), or Minimum-till, (M5x), drill seeded and machine broadcast with the 5x 

Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rate mixture (2 treatments) 

 Rangeland, R(10x), or Minimum-till, MT(10x), drill seeded and machine broadcast with 

the 10x Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rate mixture (2 treatments)

 Rangeland, R+BC(5x), or Minimum-till, MT+BC(5x), drill seeded and then hand broadcast 

with the 5x Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rate mixture (2 treatments)

 Rangeland, R+wBC(5x), or Minimum-till, MT+wBC(5x), drill seeded and then hand 

broadcast with the 5x Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rate mixture in winter over snow (2 

treatments) 

Four additional unfenced replicate blocks of three seeding treatments (12 plots total) were 

established to examine persistence of seeded native vegetation under grazing. Each plot 

measures 90 m by 70 m (approximately 1.56 acres). The assignment of the three seeding 

treatment plots was randomized within each block. Only three seeding treatments were installed 

on the unfenced plots: 1) rangeland drill seeded and machine broadcast at the 5x rate, 2) 

minimum-till drill seeded and machine broadcast at the 5x rate, and 3) an unseeded control. 

Unfenced biomass is not reported here.

Sampling Methodology for Biomass Collection, Summer 2010 

Five transects were established five meters away from the 70 m edge of each plot at the 15, 25, 

35, 45, and 55 m marks using a 100 m tape, beginning at the southeast corner of each plot and 

running northwest. Biomass samples were located on the 25 m and 45 m transects with the tape 

arranged so that transects ran perpendicular to the drill seeded rows. Two 0.25 m2quadrats were 

placed at randomly selected points 2 meters away from, and on the southeast side of each of the 

two transects (for a total of four quadrats, Figure 1). Quadrats were placed 2 meters away from 

transects to avoid interference with areas reserved for future sampling along the transects. The 

quadrats were oriented at each random point with the long side parallel to the transect and 

perpendicular to the drill rows. 

Within each quadrat, seeded forbs (western yarrow, sulphur-flowered buckwheat, blue 

penstemon, and Munroe’s globemallow, were clipped and bagged separately by species. All 

native grasses, both volunteer (primarily Poa secunda) and seeded (Indian ricegrass, bottlebrush 

squirreltail, Sandberg’s bluegrass, and bluebunch wheatgrass, were clipped and bagged as a 

group. Three exotics, cheatgrass, halogeton, and Russian thistle were clipped and bagged 

separately by species. We clipped residual forbs (native and exotic, primarily mustards 
183

(Descurania spp.), lambsquarter (Chenopodium album), salsify (Tragopogon dubius), desert

prince’s plume (Stanleya pinnata) and a variety of small annual forbs as a group. Forbs of the 

seeded forb species found in control plots were considered residual forbs. Shrubs were recorded 

when found in clipped plots, but were not collected as their presence was highly variable. Only 

current year growth that was rooted in and encompassed by the quadrat was collected (e.g. if a 

plant base was bisected by the quadrat only the portion of the plant encompassed by the quadrat 

was sampled). Biomass was clipped at 2.5 cm above ground, bagged and labeled with the plant 

species or plant group as defined above, block, plot, transect, and random point number. When 

halogeton was not encountered within a randomly placed quadrat, an additional targeted 

halogeton quadrat was clipped. Targeted quadrats were placed within 4.5 m of the random point, 

parallel to the transect; the quadrat was flipped three times parallel to the transect in both 

directions or until halogeton was encountered. The number of flips required to encounter 

halogeton was recorded to allow us to calculate total area searched. If no halogeton was located 

within 4.5 m from the randomly selected point and adjacent to transects, the search was 

discontinued. The total number of plots clipped equaled 52, resulting in 208 random quadrats and 

37 additional halogeton targeted quadrats. Bagged plant biomass was oven dried at 600C for 48 

hours (Bonham, 1989) and plant biomass was recorded to the nearest 0.02 g. 

Additional sampling for soil mycorrhizal presence in 2011

In addition to biomass harvests, we collected soil samples for mycorrhizal analysis under seeded 

grass rows (combination of bluebunch wheatgrass, Indian ricegrass and squirreltail), and under 

two exotic annuals (halogeton and cheatgrass) microsites at the Scooby Fire Site in June and July 

2011 to evaluate relationship of minimum till drill (MT) to tillage (R) and native mycorrhizal 

fungi in seedings (Kabir, 2005). Sampling was conducted under a subset of the 13 seeding 

treatments (the three controls C, M0 and R0 and the rangeland and minimum till 5x treatments, 

R5x and M5x). Samples were hand trowelled immediately adjacent to the root system of the 

targeted plants to a depth of 10 cm (Allen and Allen, 1988). We collected four samples taken 

from seeded grass rows, halogeton, and cheatgrass in each of the five treatments in four blocks. 

We collected cheatgrass and grass row samples in early June and then returned in July to repeat 

grass row sampling and add the halogeton samples. Samples will allow comparison of 

mycorrhizal presence beneath grasses over the seasonal transition from cool to warm season by 

comparing June to July samples. We will also compare soil biota under the two exotics, a cool 

season annual grass, cheatgrass, versus a warm season annual forb, halogeton. We anticipate that 

mycorrhizal presence will differ beneath the two exotics versus areas where seeded native 

grasses dominate. Salt exuded from halogeton tissues accumulates on the soil surface, facilitating 

its growth and inhibiting the growth of other species including microorganisms (Pavek, 1992). 

Therefore, halogeton should not readily form associations with native mycorrhizal communities 

and if refugia sites beneath seeded grass rows exist, we hope to document them. This portion of 

the project is ongoing and results are not reported here.

Data Summary and Analysis 

Samples collected (seeded forbs, volunteer native forbs, all native grass [seeded and volunteer 

together], and exotics (halogeton, Russian thistle and cheatgrass) from the four random 0.25 m2

quadrats in each plot were summed so that their totals resulted in an estimate of production as 

g/m2per plot. The four blocks were used to control for variation associated with moving within 

the study area and serve as replicates for analysis of variance (ANOVA). Biomass weights in 
184

g/m2per plot were also relativized by dividing each species or plant group by the total amount of 

biomass collected in the plot (resulting in % of total biomass within each plot). Biomass data (as 

% per plot) were also subjected to ANOVA but are not reported here. 

Results and Discussion

Total plant biomass was comparable among the treatments in 2010 (P = 0.0927); total biomass 

ranged from 247.5 g/m2in the R10x treatment to 121.9 g/m2in the control. Exotic production 

was greatest in the controls and was at least 5 times as great as the exotic biomass in seeded 

treatments (Figure 2). Native grass production (seeded and residual native grasses together) was 

greater in seeded treatments than in controls except in the R5x, R+BC5x and M5x, which were 

intermediate and did not differ from other treatments (Figure 2). Exotic production was primarily 

Russian thistle (Saka), halogeton (Hagl) and cheatgrass (Brte, Figure 3). Halogeton weights did 

not differ among treatments (P= 0.0865). Russian thistle and cheatgrass weights were much 

lower in seeded treatments than the three controls.

Biomass of seeded forbs was absent from controls and did not differ among seeded treatments (P 

= 0.1670, Figure 4). Residual forb (native and exotic) biomass was as much as 16 times greater 

in unseeded controls than in seeded treatments overall. Residual forb weights in the non-drilled 

controls was intermediate and did not differ from other treatments.

Because total biomass production did not differ among treatments, it is likely that increased 

native production reduced the relative amount of residual forbs and exotics. Grass seedings 

effectively reduced productivity of both cheatgrass and Russian thistle at the Scooby site. 

Residual forbs (primarily annual mustards) were twice as productive in the unseeded controls as

in any of the seeded treatments. In the absence of seeding, soil disturbance with empty drills (R0, 

M0) appears to enhance recruitment of residual forbs and Russian thistle relative to undisturbed 

controls. 

Differences in seedling establishment in seeded plots under the two drills are subtle and not 

compelling at this time. Although both drills, in the absence of seed, enhanced Russian thistle 

production relative to the undrilled control, seeding reversed this effect. Seeded species also 

increase desired species and thus competition with exotic and residual annuals. Russian thistle 

often enters seeded sites and its presence declines over time in successful seedings. 

References:

Allen, E.B.; Allen, M.F. 1988. Facilitation of succession by the nonmycotrophic colonizer 

Salsola kali (Chenopodiaceae) on a harsh site: effects of mycorrhizal fungi. American 

Journal of Botany 75: 257-266.

Bonham, C.D. 1989. Measurements for terrestrial vegetation. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 

Inc. 

Duda, J.J.; Freeman, D.C.; Emlen, J.M.; Belnap, J.; Kitchen, S.G.; Zak, J.C.; Sobek, E.; Tracy,

M.; Montante, J. 2003. Differences in native soil ecology associated with invasion of the 

exotic annual chenopod, Halogeton glomeratus. Biology of Fertile Soils 38:72-77.

Kabir, Z. 2005. Tillage or no-tillage: impact on mycorrhizae. Canadian Journal of Plant Sciences 

85: 23-29.
185

Pavek, D.S. 1992. Halogeton glomeratus. Fire effects information system. Fort Collins, CO: 

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Online: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ Accessed 2009 September 22.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) 2010. 

Ecological site descriptions. Lincoln, NE: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service. Online: 

http://esis.sc.egov.usda.gov/Welcome/pgESDWelcome.aspx Accessed 2010 November 10. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff

NRCS SSS). 2010. Official soil series descriptions. Lincoln, NE: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Online: 

http://soils.usda.gov/technical classification/osd/index.html Accessed 2010 November 10. 

Presentations: 

Taylor, M.; Hild, A.L.; Shaw, N.L.; Denney, E.K. 2011. Establishment of invasive species 

following post-fire rehabilitation seeding. Society for Range Management Annual Meeting. 2011 

February 6-10, Billings, MT. 

Taylor, Megan M., A. L. Hild, N. L. Shaw and E. K. Denney. 2010. Establishment of exotic and 

seeded species in post-fire seeded sites in northern Utah. Society for Range Management, 

Wyoming Section. 2010 November 6-10, Laramie, WY.

Management Applications:

Our data demonstrates that native grasses and forb seedings can effectively reduce the 

production of annual forb and exotic species following wildfire. Because annuals (especially 

exotic annuals), can produce large numbers of seeds when they are not challenged by 

competitive neighbors, it is critical to use post-fire reseeding to limit their success. Managers 

may be enticed to seed non-native species to dominate sites subjected to wildfire because they 

are sometimes thought to be more effective competitors than native species. These results 

indicate natives can provide a strong competitive environment to limit exotic annual production.
186

Figure 1. Representative layout of biomass sampling quadrats in seeded plots at Scooby fire. 

Four 0.25 m2quadrats were clipped in each treatment to document biomass production. Each 

quadrat was placed 2-m from transects to avoid traffic areas.

Figure 2. Native grass and exotic species (cheatgrass, Russian thistle and halogeton) biomass at 

Scooby fire in 2010 under 13 seeding treatments. Bars are standard errors of means within each 

plant group. Exotics and native grasses differ among treatments (P < 0.0001 in both cases).
187

Figure 3. Exotic species biomass at Scooby fire in 2010 under 13 seeding treatments. Bars are 

standard errors of means within each species. Biomass differs among treatments within Russian 

thistle (Saka, P < 0.0001) and cheatgrass (Brte, P < 0.0001). Halogeton (Hagl, did not differ 

among treatments, P = 0.0865).

Figure 4. Seeded and residual forbs in 2010 at Scooby fire site under 13 seeding treatments. Bars 

are standard errors of means within each forb group. Residual forbs differ among treatments 

P < 0.0001.
188

Project Title: Native Plant Selection and Restoration Strategies

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, 

Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist

Matthew Fisk, Erin Denney, Jan Gurr, and Alexis Malcomb

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

(208)373.4360, Fax (208)373.4391

nshaw@fs.fed.us

Robert Cox, Assistant Professor

Department of Natural Resources Management

Texas Tech University

Box 42125

Lubbock, TX 79409

(806)742.2841, Fax (806)742.2280

Project Description: 

1. Plant Materials

Seed Collection

Seventy-eight collections were made in 2011, this included seed of 22 species. Collections were 

completed with the assistance of one College of Western Idaho and two Job Corps interns.

Distribution of Seed to Growers

Seeds of four species were distributed to three private sector seed growers for commercial sales

via the Utah Crop Improvement Association. Seed of two species were provided to Lucky Peak 

Nursery, Boise, ID for seed stock increase (Table 1). 

Seed Distribution

Forty-six collections were distributed to the USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western 

Regional Plant Introduction Station via the Seeds of Success Program for addition to the GRIN 

system (Appendix II).

Stock seed Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis (Eagle Selected germplasm) was provided to 

the Utah Crop Improvement Association for distribution to interested growers (Table 1). 

Sixteen collections and two seed mixes were distributed to cooperators and other users 

(Appendix III).
189

Table 1. RMRS Boise seed increase and stock seed distributed to private growers via 

the Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) in 2011. 

Species Distribution

Seed Orign 

(county, state 

or ecoregion) 

Source 

Type kg

No. 

growers

Achillea millefolium 

var. occidentalis

Western yarrow

Private 

grower

Snake River 

Plain Single 0.61 1

Achillea millefolium 

var. occidentalis

Western yarrow UCIA

Snake River 

Plain Single 1.50 In stock

Eriogonum umbellatum 

Sulphur-flower 

buckwheat

Seed 

increase

Snake River 

Plain Pooled 0.28 1

Eriogonum umbellatum 

Sulphur-flower 

buckwheat

Private 

grower

Northern 

Basin & 

Range Pooled 0.58 1

Penstemon acuminatus 

Sharpleaf penstemon

Private 

grower

Snake River 

Plain Pooled 2.15 1

Penstemon acuminatus 

Sharpleaf penstemon

Private 

grower

Snake River 

Plain Single 0.25 1

Penstemon cyaneus 

Blue penstemon

Private 

grower

Lincoln Co., 

ID Single 4.50 1

Penstemon speciosus 

Royal penstemon

Seed 

increase

Snake River 

Plain Pooled 0.31 1

TOTAL SEED DISTRIBUTED (kg) 10.18

2. Post-fire Native Seeding Strategies: Results from a Wyoming Big Sagebrush Site in 

Northern Nevada

Additional collaborators: Mike Pellant, USDI BLM, Boise, ID; Jim Truax, Truax Co., Inc., New 

Hope, MN; Dan Ogle, USDA NRCS Idaho State Office, Boise, ID; Loren St. John, USDA 

NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID; Tom Warren and Tyson Gripp, USDI 

BLM, Elko, NV; Lee Turner, Nevada Department of Wildlife, Reno, NV. Additional funding for 

this project was provided by the Joint Fire Science Program and National Fire Plan. 

Introduction

Post-fire restoration with native species on former Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata

ssp. wyomingensis) rangelands is conducted to provide functional and sustainable plant 

communities. Seeding strategies and equipment are needed to effectively plant mixtures of 

species with diverse seed shapes and sizes, growth rates and competitive abilities. We examined 

the effectiveness of two drills (standard rangeland drill and minimum-till drill) and two seeding 

rates on community establishment and development.
190

Materials and Methods

The study site is located on the East Humboldt Fire, Elko Co., Nevada that burned in August 

2006. Pre-burn vegetation was a Wyoming big sagebrush community. Soils are coarse loams 

and silts and elevation is 155 m. Seven treatments (Table 1) were applied to 30-m x 70-m plots 

with five replications in early November 2006.

Table 1. Seeding treatments

Code Description

C Control, no drill and no seed

M0 Minimum-till drill, no seed

R0 Rangeland drill , no seed

ML Minimum-till drill, low rate1

RL Rangeland drill, low rate

MH Minimum-till drill, high rate2

RH Rangeland drill, high rate

1

Low rate is 75% of BLM recommended seeding rate.

2High rate is 125% of BLM recommended seeding rate.

The drill seed mix (large seeds) (Table 2) was seeded in alternate rows. The seed passed from the 

large seed box (Fig. 1) through the drill assembly of each drill. The broadcast mix (small seeds) 

(Table 2) was allowed to fall to the soil surface of the intervening rows from the broadcast seed 

box (Fig. 1) and covered by chains (rangeland drill) or imprinter units (minimum-till drill) (Fig. 

2). The site was fenced to exclude livestock for long-term evaluation.

Figure 1. Triple seed box used on both the minimum-till drill (left) and rangeland drill (right).

Figure 2. Chains on rangeland drill (left) and imprinter units on minimum-till drill (right)
191

Table 2. Species seeded and rates (pure live seeds [PLS] m-2).

Species

Seeding 

Rate 

(PLS m-2)

Low High

Broadcast seeding mix1

Sandberg bluegrass, Mt. Home germplasm (Poa secunda) 114 195

Western yarrow, Eagle germplasm (Achillea millefolium var. 

occidentalis)

106 171

Rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa) 10 17

Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis)

2

 10 15

Total Broadcast 240 398

Drill seeding mix1

Bluebunch wheatgrass, Anatone germplasm (Pseudoroegneria spicata) 68 95

‘Rimrock’ Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides) 39 55

Bottlebrush squirreltail, Toe Jam Creek germplasm (Elymus elymoides) 6 8

‘Appar’ Blue flax (Linum perenne) (non-native) 24 33

Munro’s globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana) 30 41

Fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) 4 5

Total Drill 171 237

Total Drill + Broadcast 411 635

1 Rice hulls were added as a diluent to improve seed flow. 

2 Additional Wyoming big sagebrush seed was also aerially seeded over all plots.

The site was monitored in June 2007, June 2008 and August 2011. Monitoring procedures were 

modified from Herrick et al. (2005). Five 20-m transects were installed perpendicular to the drill 

rows in each 30-m x 70-m plot. Cover data was collected using line-point intercept with points 

read at 1-m intervals along each transect (100 points per plot). Density data was recorded for 

seeded species and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) in four 0.5-m

2

quadrats per transect (10 m2per 

plot). Native residuals of seeded species were included in counts. Basal gaps were measured 

between the base of perennials along each 20-m transect and summed by size class for each plot. 

Size classes were: 20-50 cm, 51-100 cm, 101-200 cm and >200 cm.
192

Figure 3. East Humboldt burn, seeding and monitoring, 2006-2011.

Results

Spring and total water year precipitation were below average in 2007 and 2008 during the 

periods of germination, emergence and establishment. Greater amounts of precipitation were 

received in 2009 through 2011 (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Monthly precipitation, June 2006 to August 2011 and 123 year average annual 

precipitation at Elko, NV (WW 2011, WWRC 2011)

◊ = Fire, August 2006. ∆ = Seeding, October 2006

* = Vegetation monitoring: June 2007 and 2008, August 2011

Density of Seeded Species and Cheatgrass

Drilled seeded species. Drill seeded species and recovering or emerging plants of the same 

species were not possible to separate, thus total counts for each species were recorded for each 

plot. Total density was 68 times greater on seeded than on nonseeded plots in 2007 (Fig. 5). In 

2008 and 2011 density of drill seeded species was 7.5 times greater on three of the seeded 

treatments (MH, ML and RH) than on nonseeded plots, with RL intermediate in both years. 
193

Figure 5. Density of drilled species (plants m-2 ± 1 s.e.) by year. Within years means with the 

same letter do not differ. (P ≥ 0.05)

Broadcast species. Drill seeded species and recovering or emerging plants of the same species 

were not possible to separate, thus total counts for each species were recorded for each plot. 

Density was greater in the MH compared to the R0 and C treatments in 2007, but there were no 

differences among treatments in 2008 or 2011 (Fig. 6).

Figure 6. Density of broadcast species (plants m-2 ± 1 s.e.) by year. Within years means with the 

same letter do not differ. (P ≥ 0.05)

B B B

 A

A

 A A

B B B

 A

AB A

 A

C BC C

 A

AB A A

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

C M0 R0 ML RL MH RH

Plants m-2

Treatment

Density - Drilled Species

2007

2008

2011

 B

AB

B

AB

 AB

 A

AB

 A A

A

A

A

A

A A A

A

A

A A

 A

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

C M0 R0 ML RL MH RH

Plants m-2

Treatment

Density - Broadcast Species

2007

2008

2011
194

Cheatgrass. Density in 2007 and 2008 was less than 10 plants m-2and did not vary among 

treatments or years (data not shown).

Aerial Cover – 2011

Drilled seeded species. Aerial cover was similar on all seeded treatments and 7.9 times greater 

than on nonseeded treatments. Bluebunch wheatgrass, squirreltail, and blue flax accounted for 

most of the increased cover on seeded plots (Fig. 7)

Broadcast seeded species. Aerial cover of individual species and total aerial cover of broadcast 

species were similar among treatments (Fig. 7). Rubber rabbitbrush was the single exception 

(ML > C, R0, M0, with other treatments intermediate).

Figure 7. Aerial cover of seeded species (% ± 1 s.e.) by treatment in 2011. Means with the same 

letter do not differ (P ≥ 0.05).

Total Aerial Cover

Native species. Total native cover was greater in the RH and MH than in the R0 and M0

treatments, the remainder (C, RL and ML) were intermediate. Differences resulted from cover 

provided by perennial grasses and forbs; shrub cover did not vary among treatments (Fig. 8). 

Exotic species. Cover provided by Greater in R0 than in MH with remainder intermediate. 

Exotics were dominated by cheatgrass; annual forbs accounted for less than one-third of the 

treatment totals (Fig. 8). 

 B

B

B

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Aerial Cover (%)

Treatment

2011 Aerial Cover - Drilled and Broadcast Species

C M0 R0 ML RL MH RH
195

Figure 8. Aerial cover of native and exotic species (% ± 1 s.e.) by treatment in 2011. Means 

with the same letter do not differ (P ≥ 0.05)

Basal Gaps – 2011

Total basal gap length averaged 91.5 m with no differences among treatments. There was a 

tendency towards an increase in total length of smaller gap size classes in the seeded compared 

to the nonseeded treatments (Fig. 9).

Figure 9. Total gap length (m) by gap size class and treatment in 2011

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

C M0 R0 ML RL MH RH

Length (m)

Treatment

Gaps 2011

Vegetative Cover (basal)

0.2 - 0.5 m (P=0.350)

0.5 - 1.0 m (P=0.006)

1.0 - 2.0 m (P=0.008)

> 2.0 m (P=0.015)

Gap Category

C M0 R0 ML RL MH RH

2011 Aerial Cover – Native and Exotic 

Species

Treatment

Aerial Cover (%)
196

Discussion and Conclusion

The minimum-till drill and high seeding rate treatment provided greater emergence of broadcast 

species. All drill and seeding rate combinations provided similar emergence of drilled species.

After five growing seasons, density and aerial cover of drilled, but not broadcast species, was 

greater in all seeded treatments compared to nonseeded treatments. There was also a tendency 

toward reduced basal gap lengths in seeded treatments. Presence of longer basal gaps is 

associated with greater water erosion potential. When seeding a diverse native seed mix, the 

minimum-till drill may provide better emergence of small-seeded species. Subsequent survival 

and community development is dependent upon environmental conditions.

References:

Herrick J.E.; Van Zee J.W.; Havstad K.M.; Burkett L.M.; Whitford, W.G. 2005. Monitoring 

 manual for grassland, shrubland and savanna ecosystems. Vol. 1: Quick start. USDA ARS 

 Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, NM. 36 p.

Weather Warehouse (WW). 2011. http://weather-warehouse.com/

Western Regional Climate Center (WWRC). 2011. http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/

3. Equipment and Strategies for Post-fire Establishment of Native Species in Sagebrush 

Shrublands - Scooby and Saylor Creek Seedings 

(Funded by the Joint Fire Science Program, the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project, and the National Fire Plan)

Methods

Recently burned Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata wyomingensis) communities 

designated Scooby, west of Snowville, Utah, and Saylor Creek, near the Mountain Home Air 

Force Base Training Range in southern Idaho were selected as seeding locations (Table 1). The 

sites met the criteria of supporting shrubs prior to the wildfires and burn severities that provided 

clean seedbeds. Fall seedings were installed at Scooby in 2008 and Saylor Creek in 2010. 

Treatments addressed methods for applying two seed mixes, one consisting of larger grass and 

forb seeds, which required soil coverage (drill mix), and a second mix containing small-seeded 

grass, forb and shrub seeds, which require surface seeding and firming into the soil surface 

(broadcast mix). Thirteen treatments included combinations of drill type, seeding dates and 

techniques, and Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rates (Table 2). 
197

Table 1. Seeding locations, wildfire and seeding dates, and site descriptions.

SCOOBY SAYLOR CREEK 

Location 41o51"16" N, 113o2'46" W 42o39'43" N, 115o28'18" W

County, State Box Elder, UT Elmore, ID 

Fire Scooby Black Butte

 Date 22 Sep 2008 29 Jun 2010

 Size (ha) 154 6,587

 Cause Lightning Lightning 

Seeding dates 11/18-19/2008 10/27-28/2010

 Fall 11/18-19/2008 27-28 Oct 2010

 Winter broadcast 1/29/2008 Feb 15 2011

Elevation (m) 1422-1475 1,204

Annual precipitation 

(mm) 203-356 203-330

Frost-free season (d) 100-160 90-135

Soils

Hiko Peak-Sheeprock-Rock 

outcrop association, 3-25% 

slopes 

Purdam-Sebree-Owsel complex, 0-

8% slopes 

Ecological site(s) Semidesert Gravelly Loam 

(Wyoming big sagebrush) North

Loamy 8-12 ARTRW8/PSSPSACTH7; Slickspot sodic 8-14 

ARTRW8/ACTH7

Vegetation 

Artemisia tridentata 

wyomingensis, Achnatherum 

hymenoides

Artemisia tridentata wyomingensis, 

Pseudoroegneria spicata, 

Achnatherum thurberianum 
198

Drills utilized were the standard rangeland drill (P&F Services) and an experimental minimumtill drill (Truax Co., Inc.). Both drills were calibrated by USDA Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center (Aberdeen PMC) personnel and configured to drill and 

broadcast seed in alternating rows. Each drill seeded 10 rows spaced 30.5 cm apart per drill pass.

The rangeland drill planted larger seeds in furrows created by disks. The drill was modified to 

broadcast small seeds by raising the disk assemblies and removing the seed tubes from alternate 

drops. These seed tubes were replaced with 7.6 cm diameter aluminum pipes to improve seed 

flow and allow the broadcast seed mix to drop onto the soil surface. Chains drug behind the drill 

covered the seed in all rows. 

The minimum-till drill utilized fully hydraulic disk assemblies to plant larger seeds in a narrow 

furrow. Broadcast seeds passed through disk-less seed tubes and fell onto undisturbed soil, where 

patterned imprinter wheels pressed them into the soil surface. The precise furrow openers and 

imprinter wheels created a minimal amount of soil disturbance compared to the standard 

rangeland drill. 

Seed mix composition (Table 3) was adjusted to match site conditions to the extent possible. 

Seeding rates were based on standard USDI Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 

recommendations for post-fire seedings. A single drill mix was used for all seeded treatments at 

each site. The broadcast seed mix varied only by the Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rate. Rates 

were denoted by 1X, 5X and 10X (see Table 3). Seed was mixed by Aberdeen PMC personnel. 

Rice hulls were added to both the drill and broadcast mixes following methods described by St. 

John et al. (2005) to maintain seeds of different weights in the mix, prevent bridging of light and 

fluffy seed, and to simplify drill calibration when planting complex seed mixes. 

Table 2. Seeding treatments applied post-fire at Scooby and Saylor Creek. 

Treatment Drill 

Drill 

mix1 Broadcast mix2

Wyoming big 

sagebrush 

seeding rate2

C Control (no drill, no seed)

R0

Rangeland 

drill 

No seed 

R1X

Drilled in 

alternate 

rows in 

fall

Broadcast through drill in 

alternate rows - fall

1X

R5X 5X

R10X 10X

Rf+BC5X Hand broadcast in fall 5X

Rw+BC5X Hand broadcast in winter 5X

M0

Minimumtill drill

No seed 

M1X

Drilled in 

alternate 

rows in 

fall

Broadcast through drill in 

alternate rows in fall

1X

M5X 5X

M10X 10X

Mf+BC5X Hand broadcast in fall 5X

Mw+BC5X Hand broadcast in winter 5X
199

Table 3. Scooby and Saylor Creek seed mixes. 

PLS/m2

PLS (%) 1X 5X 10X

SCOOBY Broadcast mix

A. tridentata ssp. wyomingensis Sanpete Co., UT (1460 m) 17.5 52 234 495

Ericameria nauseosa Sanpete Co., UT (1460 m) 14.8 86 86 86

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 81.6 91 91 91

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm 88.2 100 100 100

Penstemon cyaneus Lincoln Co., ID (1370 m) 69.2 76 76 76

Total Broadcast 405 587 848

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 88.9 67 67 67

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 98.0 51 51 51

Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm 94.3 47 47 47

Sphaeralcea munroana Uintah Co., UT (1550 m) 65.8 93 93 93

Eriogonum umbellatum Northern Great Basin - pooled 50.4 11 11 11

Total Drill 269 269 269

Total Drill + Broadcast 674 856 1117

SAYLOR Broadcast mix

CREEK A. tridentata spp. wyomingensis Power Co., ID (1390 m) 28.4 50 250 500

Ericameria nauseosa Utah Co., UT (1650 m) 40.5 85 85 85

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 82.0 100 100 100

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm 94.3 100 100 100

Penstemon speciosus Northern Great Basin - pooled 57.8 15 15 15

Total Broadcast 350 550 800

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 80.0 60 60 60

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 96.6 50 50 50

Elymus elymoides Emigrant Germplasm 97.0 35 35 35

Achnatherum thuberianum Snake River Plain - pooled 55.4 30 30 30

Hesperostipa comata Millard Co., UT 77.6 20 20 20

Sphaeralcea munroana Uintah Co., UT (1550 m) 61.0 40 40 40

Astragalus filipes Dry River, Deschutes Co., OR (1330 m) 90.0 14 14 14

Total Drill 249 249 249

Total Drill + Broadcast 599 799 1049

Treatments were three late fall treatments with no seed: an undrilled control (no drill and no 

seed) (C), rangeland drill with no seed (R0), and minimum-till drill with no seed (M0) (Table 1). 

The latter two treatments simulated failed seedings and permitted evaluation of drill impacts on 

vegetation and soil characteristics. Three additional treatments for each drill examined success of 

seeding drill and broadcast mixes through the drill. These were installed by planting the two 

mixes through alternate seed drops in late fall. These treatments varied only by the amount of 

Wyoming big sagebrush seed (1X, 5X, or 10X) in the small seed/broadcast mix (see Table 3 for 

actual rates at each location). The final two treatments for each drill simulated aerial seeding. 

These involved planting the drill mix through alternate seed drops in late fall. The broadcast mix 

with Wyoming big sagebrush at the 5X seeding rate was then applied by hand over the entire 

plot immediately after drill seeding (R+fBC5X, M+fBC5X) or in winter (R+wBC5X, 

M+wBC5X) (Table 1). 

At each location the 13 treatments were applied to 30-m x 70-m plots arranged in a randomized 

complete block design with five blocks for a total of 65 plots. At Saylor Creek an additional 

minimum-till drill treatment (M+D) was added to each block to determine whether water 
200

catchment for drill seeded rows could be improved by removing the depth bands. Perimeter 

fences were installed around the 65 plots to exclude livestock but not wildlife. 

Plots were also established outside the fenced area to provide for long-term evaluation of 

livestock use on the persistence and population dynamics of grazed and nongrazed native 

seedings. Four randomized complete blocks of three treatments each (C, R5X, and M5X; 70-m x 

90-m plots) were installed at Scooby and five at Saylor Creek. 

Vegetation is monitored for two growing seasons at each site. Second year monitoring for the 

Saylor Creek location will be completed in 2012. Five 20-m transects were established 

perpendicular to the long axis of each plot for data collection. Monitoring protocols were 

modified from Herrick et al. (2005). Measurements include: 

1) Density: Number of plants of each seeded species is counted and presence of all non-seeded 

species recorded for each of four 0.5-m x 1-m quadrats located along each transect (10 m2

per plot). Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) plants are counted in one 20-cm x 25-cm subplot 

within each quadrat (1 m2per plot). 

2) Cover and richness: Aerial, intermediate, and basal layers by species or ground cover 

category are determined using the line-point-intercept method. Points are read at 1-m 

intervals along each transect (100 points per plot).

3) Basal gaps: Length of basal gaps greater than 20 cm long occurring between the bases of 

perennial plants intersecting the transect lines are measured (100 m examined per plot). Gap 

data is summarized as the total gap length represented by each of four gap size classes: 20-

50 cm, 51-100 cm, 101-200 cm, and >200 cm in each plot. 

Results 

Precipitation (Figure 1)

Above average precipitation fell at Scooby and Saylor Creek in the spring following seeding. 

Neither site has experienced extended dry periods during the study. Scooby developed a snow 

cover each winter, but Saylor Creek was open and exposed to wind erosion through most of the 

2010-2011 winter. Consequently, the winter hand broadcast seeding treatment was applied over 

snow at Scooby, but over bare ground at Saylor Creek. 

Figure 1. Monthly and long-term precipitation for Scooby and Saylor Creek (WRCC 2011). 

 = planting date. 
201

Response to Seeding Treatments 

Cheatgrass density

Scooby: Cheatgrass density was similar across treatments and increased from 26.1 + 7.5 plants 

m

-2

in 2008 to 178.5 + 32.8 plants m-2in 2009. Aerial cover of cheatgrass was less than 10% on 

all seeded treatments in both years (Figure 2). Aerial cover of cheatgrass was greatest on the 

undrilled control in 2009 and on the undrilled control and unseeded minimum-till drill treatment 

in 2010. 

Figure 2. Treatment means (± s.e.) for aerial cover of cheatgrass at the Scooby post-fire seeding 

by treatment in 2009 and 2010. See table 1 for treatment descriptions. 

Saylor Creek: Vegetation was poorly developed at the time of sampling in 2011 due to the cool 

spring. Cheatgrass density (2.8 ± 0.2 plants m-2) and aerial cover (3.2 ± 0.3%) did not vary 

among treatments. 

Emergence and establishment of seeded species (Figure 3)

Scooby: The total density of drilled grasses was similar across seeded treatments and years with 

the exception that density was greater on three of the rangeland drill treatments (R1X, R+fBC5X, 

R+wBC5X) in 2009 but not in 2010. The density of drilled forb species was similar across 

treatments and years, while the density of broadcast forbs was similar among treatments, but 

increased from 2009 to 2010. Density of broadcast grass was similar between years and greater 

on the M5X treatment than on all rangeland drill treatments except the R5X with other 

treatments intermediate. Seeding at the high rate (10X) through the minimum-till drill increased 

the density of broadcast shrubs, primarily big sagebrush. Shrub density was similar in both years. 

Saylor Creek: Total density of all seeded species (18.1 ± 3.8 plants m-2) and all drilled species 

was generally similar across treatments. Seeding the broadcast grass through the drill increased 

its density in the M5X and M10, but broadcasting it in winter resulted in lower densities relative 

to other treatments. As at Scooby, broadcast shrub (big sagebrush and rubber rabbitbrush) 

density was greater for the M10X treatment than for the remaining treatments with the exception 

of the M5X and M+D which were intermediate. 
202

Figure 3. Treatment means (± s.e.) for post-fire seedling density of seeded species at Scooby in 

2009 and 2010 (above) and Saylor Creek in 2011 (below) by seeding treatment and year. See 

table 1 for treatment descriptions.

Development of aerial cover 

Scooby: Aerial cover of seeded species was similar among seeded treatments (Figure 4) and 

increased 4.6 times from 2009 to 2010. Aerial cover of residual natives, primarily annual native 

mustards, declined from 2009 to 2010 and was greater on the M0 treatment than on the R1X, 

R5X or M1X treatments with the remaining treatments intermediate and similar. Aerial cover of 

exotic species on the three unseeded controls increased by 6.9 times from 2009 to 2010, but was 

similar and low (< 10%) on all seeded treatments in both years. Total aerial cover doubled from 

2009 to 2010 with no variation among treatments. 
203

Figure 4. Treatment means (± s.e.) for aerial cover of seeded species, exotics, residual natives 

(annuals and perennials), and total aerial cover at the Scooby post-fire seeding by treatment in 

2009 and 2010. See table 1 for treatment descriptions.

Plant growth was minimal at the time of sampling at Saylor Creek in 2011. Aerial cover 

provided by seeded species (4.2±0.4%), residual native species (2.2±0.3%), exotic species 

(3.4±0.4%) and total aerial cover (9.6±0.7%) was similar among treatments. 

Distribution of basal gaps 

Scooby: The > 200 cm basal gap category dominated all treatments in 2009 as seedlings were 

small and residual perennials were just beginning to recover. With development of the seeded 

perennials, this category declined on the seeded, but not on the nonseeded treatments in 2010 

(Figure 5). The three smaller basal gap size classes were similar among seeded treatments and 

generally increased in 2010; they were nearly absent in the unseeded controls in both years. 
204

Figure 5. Treatment means (± s.e.) total length (m) of each gap size class by treatment and year 

at the Scooby post-fire seeding. See table 1 for treatment descriptions.

Saylor Creek: Gap size classes did not vary among treatments in 2011. The > 2 m basal gap size 

class constituted more than 85% of the total basal gap length. 

Richness of native residual species 

The number of residual native species (annuals and perennials) exhibited little variation among 

treatments at either location. At Scooby residual natives increased from 7.0±0.3 species in 2009 

to 11.3±0.4 species in 2010. The number of residual native species (8.0±0.2) did not vary among 

treatments at Saylor Creek in 2011, the first year following seeding. Proportion

Treatment

Proportion
205

Management Implications:

Post-seeding precipitation is critical; lack of timely or adequate precipitation can negate or 

seriously impair the best efforts to install a native seeding. Seedling emergence and survival of 

seeded species are likely to be reduced when precipitation is low, leaving a void for invasion by 

exotic annuals. Although precipitation and other environmental risk factors cannot be managed, 

preparation or selection of seedbeds with minimal weed seeds; selection of seeding equipment 

and strategies that provide appropriate seedbed conditions for germination, emergence and 

establishment; careful calibration and operation of drills; selection of plant materials appropriate 

to site conditions; and careful post-seeding management can improve the probability of seeding 

success. 

Differences in seedling establishment between the standard rangeland drill and the minimum-till 

drill were not clear-cut. Results at Scooby suggest emergence of drill-seeded grasses was 

improved when seeded with the rangeland drill, but this difference was lost by the second year. 

Broadcast seeding through the minimum-till drill and pressing the seed into the soil with the 

imprinter unit tended to increase emergence of the small-seeded species. Wyoming big 

sagebrush was responsive to seeding at the medium and high rates (234 and 495 PLS m-2) at 

Scooby, particularly when seeded through the minimum-till drill. Hand broadcasting smallseeded species in fall or winter simulated aerial seeding and provided highly erratic results. 

These treatments can be successful, but success can be reduced by poor seed-to-soil contact, and 

in the case of the winter broadcast treatment, an inadequate period of exposure to cool moist 

conditions required to release the physiological dormancy common to many forb species. 

Basal gaps provide an indication of community vulnerability to water erosion. They are easily 

measured and related well to perennial community development, whether seeded or native. 

Our conclusions after two years of monitoring are preliminary. Our results are most applicable to 

similar sites and post-seeding weather patterns. Monitoring over a longer term is necessary to 

evaluate the development of community dynamics in response to environmental conditions and 

management programs. 

Publications:

Cox, R.D.; Kosberg, L.; Shaw, N.; Hardegree, S.P. 2011. Effect of fungicides on Wyoming big

sagebrush seed germination. Native Plant Journal 12:263-267. 

Lambert, S. M.; Monsen, S. B.; Shaw, N. 2011. Notice of release of Eagle western yarrow 

selected germplasm (natural track). USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station; 

USDI Bureau of Land Management; Utah State University, Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Logan, UT; University of Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station, Moscow, ID. 7 p.

Lambert, S. M.; Monsen, S. B.; Shaw, N. 2011. Notice of release of Mountain Home Sandberg 

bluegrass selected germplasm (natural track). USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research 

Station, Fort Collins, CO: USDI Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office, Boise, ID; 

Utah State University, Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, UT; University of Idaho 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Moscow, ID; U.S. Air Force, Mountain Home Air Force Base. 

7 p. 
206

Hardegree, S.P.; Jones, T.A.; Roundy, B.A.; Shaw, N. L.; Monaco, T.A. 2011. Ch. 4: 

Assessment of range planting as a conservation practice, p. 171-213. In: Briske, D.D., ed. 

Conservation benefits of rangeland practices: assessment, recommendations, and knowledge 

gaps. Lawrence, KS: Allen Press.

Shaw, N. L.; Pellant, M., eds. 2011. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

2010 Annual Report. 192 p. 

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N.; Cane, J. 2011. Plant guide for fernleaf biscuitroot 

(Lomatium dissectum [Nutt.] Mathias & Constance). USDA Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Idaho Plant Materials Center. Aberdeen, ID. 7 p. 

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2011. Plant guide for Gray’s biscuitroot (Lomatium 

grayi [J. M. Coult. & Rose.] J.M. Coult. & Rose). USDA-Natural Resoruces Conservation 

Service, Idaho Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. 4 p. 

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2011. Plant guide for nineleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium 

triternatum [Pursh]) Coulter & Rose). USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen 

Plant Materials Center. Aberdeen, ID. 4 p. 

Tishew, S.; Youtie, B.; Kirmer, A.; Shaw, N. 2011. Farming for restoration: building bridges for 

native seeds. Ecological Restoration 29:219-222. 

Presentations:

Cox, R.; Shaw, N.; Pellant, M. 2011. Seedling emergence of diverse seed mixes in post-wildfire 

rangelands. Society for Range Management 64th Annual Meeting, 2011 February 6-10, Billings, 

MT. Abstract.

Hardegree, S.; Cho, J.; Roundy, B.; Moffet, C.; Jones, T.; James, J.; Shaw, N.; Cox, R. 2011. 

Hydrothermal indices for classification of seedbed microclimate. Society for Range Management 

64th Annual Meeting, 2011 February 6-10, Billings, MT. Abstract.

McAdoo, K.; Swanson, J.; Shaw, N. 2011. Diversifying crested wheatgrass seedings in northern 

Nevada, Society for Range Management 64th Annual Meeting, 2011 February 6-10, Billings, 

MT. Abstract. 

Parkinson, H.; Zabinski, C.; Shaw, N. 2011. Impacts of native and exotic grasses on forb 

seedling growth and establishment. Society for Range Management 64th Annual Meeting, 2011 

February 6-10, Billings, MT. Abstract.

Pellant, M.; Shaw, N. 2011. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: a 

science/management success. Society for Range Management 64th Annual Meeting, 2011 

February 6-10, Billings, MT. Abstract.
207

Shaw, N.; Pellant, M. 2011. The Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project -

linking research, management and the native seed industry. Society for Range Management 64th 

Annual Meeting, 2011 February 6-10, Billings, MT. Abstract.

Taylor, M.M.; Hild, A.L.; Shaw, N.L.; Denney, E.K. 2011. Establishment of invasive species in 

post-fire seeding treatments. Society for Range Management 64th Annual Meeting, 2011 

February 6-10, Billings, MT. Abstract. (Also presented at Society for Range Management 

Wyoming Section 2010 meeting, Laramie, WY and Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT. (poster) 

Richardson, B.A.; Shaw, N.L. 2011. First-year evaluations of big sagebrush common garden 

trials. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2011 February 

22-23, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Shaw, N.; Fisk, M.; Denney, E.; Truax, J. 2011. Post-fire seeding strategies and native plant 

materials for the northern Great Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

Annual Meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT. 

St. Clair, Brad; Johnson, R.; Shaw, N. 2011. Genecology and seed transfer guidelines for 

bluebunch wheatgrass. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 

2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Jensen, S.; Shaw, N. 2011. The development and use of forb species in restoration. Vegetation 

resilience, the role of perennial herbaceous understory and intact sagebrush. Great Basin Science 

Delivery Project, 2011 May 17-18, Winnemucca, NV. 

Richardson, B.A.; Udall, J.A.; Bajgain, P.; Shaw, N.L. 2011. Correlations between adaptive and 

molecular genetic variation. Western Forest Genetics Association Annual Meeting, 2011 July 

25-28, Troutdale, OR.

Feibert, E. B. G.; Shock, C.; Parris, C.; Saunders, L.; Shaw, N. 2011. Challenges for 

Intermountain West native wildflower seed production: stand establishment. American Society 

of Horticultural Science Annual Conference, 2011 September 25-28. Waikoloa, HI 

Meeting and Field Tour organization and presentations: 

Shaw, N. 2011. Post-fire seeding strategies (Scooby seeding study). Society for Range 

Management, Utah Section Summer Tour, Park Valley, UT. 

Shaw, N. 2011. Rocky Mountain Research Station experimental plantings. Orchard restoration 

site field day: two decades of studies. Great Basin Science Delivery Program, Boise, ID 

Shaw, N. 2011. Introduction. Native plant seed production field day, Oregon State University 

Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR. 
208

Shaw, N. 2011. Post-fire seeding strategies (Saylor Creek, E. Humboldt, and Gopher seeding 

studies). Southern Idaho and northern Nevada tour. 

Shaw, N.; Fisk, M.; Denney, E., organizers. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project Annual meeting, 2011 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Johnson, R.C.; Shaw, N.L., organizers. 2011. Special Session: Seed zones, climate change and 

utilization of native plants for ecological restoration, Society for Ecological Restoration 7th 

World Conference on Ecological Restoration: Re-establishing the Link between Nature and 

Culture. 2011 August 21-25, Merida, Mexico. 
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Appendix I. UCIA STOCK MATERIALS TAGGING INFORMATION FORM (1/23/2012)

Utah Crop Improvement Assn. 4855 Old Main Hill Logan, UT 84322-4855 Ph (435) 797-2082 Fax (435) 797-0642

Please complete this form in detail when requesting certification tags for plant materials sent to growers for stock increase.

Propagative type (seeds, plants, cuttings, etc.) ______________ Amount sent ______________ Date sent ____________

Tag Request Date ___________

Breeder/Developer

Agency/Company

Address

Phone/Cell Email

Stock Material Recipient

Address

Phone/Cell Email

Species Common Name

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE DETAILS:

A. Pre-Variety Germplasm Source Identified (SI) Selected (S)1 Tested (T)1

1. PVG Official Release: Completed Intended Not Intended

2. Germplasm Identification Term (Germplasm ID): ____________________________________________________________

2

 3. Material Transfer Agreement required?3 Yes No

4. Stock material lot #:_______________________________4 Seed certification #:________________________ (if assigned)

5. Generation of this lot #, and Generation limitation (if specified): G__ / G__

6. (a) G0 Source location if stock material is Natural-Track:

County:5___________________________________ State:5 __________ Elevation: __________

 (b) G0 indigenous? Yes No Unknown

 (c) G1 origin location if Manipulated-Track:6

County: ___________________________________ State: ___________ Elevation: __________

7. If applicable, field production location where this lot # was produced:

County: ___________________________________ State: ___________ Elevation: __________

B. Experimental Variety

1. Experimental number of designation: __________________________________________________________

2. Material Transfer Agreement required? Yes No

3. Certification status equivalent of this stock material:

Breeder Experimental-F Experimental-R Other: _____________________

4. Stock material lot #: ______________________________

4

 Seed Certification #: _______________________ (if assigned)

C. Released Variety

1. Variety name: _____________________________________________________________________________

2. PVP applied for? Yes No

3. Certification status of this stock material:

Breeder Foundation Registered

4. Stock material lot #: ______________________________ 4 Seed Certification #: _______________________ (if assigned) 

DEVELOPMENT STAGE:

A. Pre-Variety Germplasm (SI, S, or T germplasm not intended for variety release)

B. Experimental Variety (germplasm being developed for variety release)

C. Released Variety

1

Developmental details (official release notice or equivalent information) on file with appropriate certification agency

2

Optional for SI, recommended for S, T

3

If developer wishes to maintain intellectual property rights

4

Unique designation for this specific lot

5

Or other geographic designation; pooled plant materials may include more than one county or state; details to certification agency

6Where germplasm was developed (as released)
Appendix II. Germplasm conservation samples contributed to the Seeds of Success Program/ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station in 2011 by USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID.

Symbol Scientific Name Common Name Ecoregion Ecoregion Name County State

ACMI 01 Achillea millefolium Common yarrow 12j Unwooded Alkaline Foothills Ada ID

BAHO 04 Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker's balsamroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

BAHO 08 Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker's balsamroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

CLLU 06 Cleome lutea Yellow spiderflower 12a Treasure Valley Malheur OR

ERLA 04 Eriophyllum lanatum Common woolly sunflower 80f Owyhee Uplands and Canyons Malheur OR

LODI 06 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

LODI 17 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 12f Semiarid Foothills Camas ID

LODI 18 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 16f Foothill Shrublands-Grasslands Ada ID

LODI 38 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 16f Foothill Shrublands-Grasslands Ada ID

LODI 41 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau Malheur OR

LODI 46 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 16f Foothill Shrublands-Grasslands Ada ID

LODI 74 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 80j Semiarid Uplands Owyhee ID

LODI 88 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Elmore ID

LODI 104 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Elmore ID

LODI 106 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 12f Semiarid Foothills Elmore ID

LODI 108 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 12j Unwooded Alkaline Foothills Payette ID

LODI 109 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 16f Foothill Shrublands-Grasslands Boise ID

LODI 110 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 11i Continental Zone Foothills Malheur OR

LODI 111 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 12j Unwooded Alkaline Foothills Malheur OR

LODI 112 Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 80f Owyhee Uplands and Canyons Malheur OR

LOGR 10 Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

LONU 02 Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Gooding ID

LONU 03 Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot 16f Foothill Shrublands-Grasslands Elmore ID

LONU 10 Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot 12f Semiarid Foothills Gem ID

LONU 11 Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot 12f Semiarid Foothills Elmore ID

LOTR 01 Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot 12a Treasure Valley Ada ID

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Appendix II. Continued.

Symbol Scientific Name Common Name Ecoregion Ecoregion Name County State

LOTR 40 Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot 16f Foothill Shrublands-Grasslands Ada ID

LOTR 76 Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau Malheur OR

PEAC 08 Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 12h Mountain Home Uplands Elmore ID

PEAC 11 Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 12j Unwooded Alkaline Foothills Malheur OR

PEAC 20 Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau Malheur OR

PEAC 36 Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 12a Treasure Valley Malheur OR

PEAC 45 Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 12j Unwooded Alkaline Foothills Owyhee ID

PEAC 56 Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 12j Unwooded Alkaline Foothills Owyhee ID

PEAC 57 Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 12j Unwooded Alkaline Foothills Owyhee ID

PEDE 02 Penstemon deustus Hotrock penstemon 16f Foothill Shrublands-Grasslands Boise ID

PEDE 09 Penstemon deustus Hotrock penstemon 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

PHHA 01 Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia 80f Owyhee Uplands and Canyons Malheur OR

PHHA 02 Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia 80f Owyhee Uplands and Canyons Malheur OR

PHHA 03 Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia 80f Owyhee Uplands and Canyons Harney OR

PHHA 04 Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia 80f Owyhee Uplands and Canyons Harney OR

PHHA 05 Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

PHLI 02 Phacelia linearis Threadleaf phacelia 80g High Lava Plains Harney OR

SPCR 01 Sporobolus cryptandrus Sand dropseed 80f Owyhee Uplands and Canyons Malheur OR

211
Appendix III. Seed lots distributed to cooperators in 2011 by USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID.

Species Common Name Seed Origin 

(county, state) Affiliation kg

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber's needlegrass Ada, Idaho University of Idaho 0.003

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber's needlegrass Ada, Idaho Oregon State University 0.25

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden Elmore, ID USDI BLM Birds of Prey 0.004

Cleome lutea Yellow spiderflower Malheur, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.2

Elymus elymoides

Emigrant bottlebrush 

squirreltail Harney, OR University of Idaho 0.003

Elymus elymoides

Emigrant bottlebrush 

squirreltail Harney, OR Oregon State University 0.22

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Elmore, ID USDI BLM Birds of Prey 0.006

JFSP seed mixes N/A N/A College of Western Idaho 0.5

JFSP seed mixes N/A N/A College of Western Idaho 0.5

Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster Elmore, ID USDI BLM Birds of Prey 0.007

Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon Lincoln, ID College of Western Idaho 0.1

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon Malheur, OR USDI BLM Birds of Prey 0.003

Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia Malheur, OR USDA ARS Pollinating Insects Research Center 0.001

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallow Uintah, UT University of Idaho 0.002

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallow Uintah, UT Oregon State University 0.18

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallow Payette, ID USDI BLM Birds of Prey 0.02

TOTAL SEED DISTRIBUTED (kg) 1.99

212