United States

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Northern 

Research Station

General Technical

Report NRS-33

Prescribing Regeneration 

Treatments for 

Mixed-Oak Forests 

in the Mid-Atlantic Region
Visit our homepage at: http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/

Published by: For additional copies:

U.S. FOREST SERVICE U.S. Forest Service 

11 CAMPUS BLVD SUITE 200 Publications Distribution

NEWTOWN SQUARE PA 19073-3294 359 Main Road

Delaware, OH 43015-8640

August 2008 Fax: (740)368-0152

Abstract

Includes guidelines for using the SILVAH decision-support system to perpetuate oak 

forests in the Mid-Atlantic region. Six chapters provide information on values of oak 

forests, inventory methods, key decision variables, decision charts, and silvicultural 

prescriptions, as well as guidance on fostering young stands. Sample tally sheets and 

SILVAH computer printouts are included in the Appendix.

Manuscript received for publication 17 April 2008

The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the 

information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official 

endorsement or approval by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or the Forest 

Service of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.

This publication/database reports research involving pesticides. It 

does not contain recommendations for their use, nor does it imply 

that the uses discussed here have been registered. All uses of 

pesticides must be registered by appropriate State and/or Federal, 

agencies before they can be recommended.

CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals, desirable 

plants, and fish or other wildlife—if they are not handled or applied properly. Use all 

pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow recommended practices for the disposal 

of surplus pesticides and pesticide containers.

CAUTION:

PESTICIDES
Patrick H. Brose

Kurt W. Gottschalk

Stephen B. Horsley

Peter D. Knopp

James N. Kochenderfer

Barbara J. McGuinness

Gary W. Miller

Todd E. Ristau

Scott H. Stoleson

Susan L. Stout

Prescribing Regeneration

Treatments for Mixed Oak Forests 

in the Mid-Atlantic Region

General Technical Report NRS-33

About the Authors

PATRICK H. BROSE is a research forester with the U.S. Forest Service’s Northern 

Research Station at Irvine, Pennsylvania. 

KURT W. GOTTSCHALK is a research forester and the project leader with the Northern 

Research Station at Morgantown, West Virginia.

STEVEN B. HORSLEY is a research plant physiologist and emeritus scientist with the 

Northern Research Station at Irvine, Pennsylvania.

PETER D. KNOPP is a computer specialist with the Northern Research Station at 

Delaware, Ohio.

JAMES N. KOCHENDERFER is a research forester and emeritus scientist with the 

Northern Research Station at Parsons, West Virginia.

BARBARA J. MCGUINNESS is an environmental literacy coordinator with the Northern 

Research Station at Irvine, Pennsylvania.

GARY W. MILLER is a research forester with the Northern Research Station at 

Morgantown, West Virginia.

TODD E. RISTAU is a research ecologist with the Northern Research Station at Irvine, 

Pennsylvania.

SCOTT H. STOLESON is a research wildlife biologist with the Northern Research Station 

at Irvine, Pennsylvania.

SUSAN L. STOUT is a research forester and the project leader with the Northern 

Research Station at Irvine, Pennsylvania.
Contents

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................1

Changing Disturbance Regimes.................................................................................2

The Values of Oak Forests .........................................................................................4

The Oak Regeneration Problem.................................................................................6

SILVAH .......................................................................................................................6

CHAPTER 2: INVENTORY PROCEDURES...................................................................8

The Regeneration Plot................................................................................................8

 Oak Regeneration..................................................................................................9

 Other Regeneration .............................................................................................10

 Residuals............................................................................................................. 11

 Tall Woody Interference....................................................................................... 11

The Interference Plot................................................................................................ 11

 Competing Vegetation ......................................................................................... 11

 Site Limitations ....................................................................................................14

 Deer Impact .........................................................................................................16

 Site Quality ..........................................................................................................17

 Optional Understory Assessments.......................................................................18

The Overstory Plot....................................................................................................19

 Required Data......................................................................................................19

 Optional Data.......................................................................................................20

Stand-Level Information ...........................................................................................22

CHAPTER 3: KEY DECISION VARIABLES.................................................................24

Understory ................................................................................................................24

 Regeneration Stocking ........................................................................................24

 Oak Stump Sprout Stocking ................................................................................25

 Summary Variables..............................................................................................25

 Stocking of Regeneration Obstacles ...................................................................27

Overstory ..................................................................................................................27

 Years to Maturity and Effective Age.....................................................................28

 Relative Density...................................................................................................28

CHAPTER 4: THE DECISION CHARTS ......................................................................30

Chart A......................................................................................................................31

Chart B, Uneven-age Prescriptions ..........................................................................32

Chart C, Thinning Prescriptions................................................................................33

Chart D, Allegheny and Northern Hardwood Regeneration Release Prescriptions..34

Chart E, Allegheny and Northern Hardwood Regeneration Establishment

 Prescriptions........................................................................................................35

Chart F, Mixed-Oak Regeneration Release Prescriptions ........................................36

Chart G, Mixed-Oak Regeneration Enhancement Prescriptions ..............................37

Chart H, Mixed-Oak Regeneration Release Prescriptions .......................................38
Chart I, Mixed-Oak Regeneration Enhancement Prescriptions................................39

Chart J, Mixed-Oak Regeneration Establishment Prescriptions...............................40

	 Chart K, Mixed-Oak Artificial Regeneration Prescriptions ........................................41

CHAPTER 5: OAK REGENERATION PRESCRIPTIONS............................................42

Fencing.....................................................................................................................43

Final Removal Cut....................................................................................................43

First Removal Cut.....................................................................................................44

Herbicide ..................................................................................................................44

Liberation Cut ...........................................................................................................47

Preparatory Cut ........................................................................................................47

Release Burn............................................................................................................47

Scarification..............................................................................................................48

Site Preparation Burn ...............................................................................................48

Chart F Prescriptions................................................................................................48

 Final Removal Cut, Follow-up..............................................................................49

 Final Removal Cut with Residuals, Follow-up .....................................................49

 Fence, Final Removal Cut, Follow-up..................................................................49

 Fence, Final Removal Cut with Residuals, Follow-up .........................................50

 First Removal Cut, Reinventory...........................................................................50

 Fence, First Removal Cut, Reinventory...............................................................51

Chart G Prescriptions ...............................................................................................51

 No Treatment, Reinventory..................................................................................51

 Fence, Reinventory..............................................................................................51

 Release Burn, Reinventory OR Herbicide, Reinventory......................................51

 Fence, Release Burn, Reinventory OR

 Fence, Herbicide, Reinventory .......................................................................52

 First Removal Cut, Reinventory...........................................................................52

 Fence, First Removal Cut, Reinventory...............................................................52

 First Removal Cut, Release Burn, Reinventory OR

 First Removal Cut, Herbicide, Reinventory.....................................................52

 Fence, First Removal Cut, Release Burn, Reinventory OR

 Fence, First Removal Cut, Herbicide, Reinventory.........................................53

Chart H Prescriptions ...............................................................................................53

Chart I Prescriptions .................................................................................................54

 No Treatment, Reinventory..................................................................................54

	 	 Fence, Reinventory..............................................................................................54

 Herbicide, Reinventory ........................................................................................54

 Fence, Herbicide, Reinventory ............................................................................54

 Preparatory Cut, Reinventory ..............................................................................54

 Fence, Preparatory Cut, Reinventory ..................................................................55

 Preparatory Cut, Herbicide, Reinventory.............................................................55

 Fence, Preparatory Cut, Herbicide, Reinventory.................................................55
Chart J Prescriptions ................................................................................................56

 No Treatment, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory........................................................56

 Fence, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory....................................................................56

 Site Prep Burn, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory OR

 Herbicide, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory .........................................................57

 Fence, Site Prep Burn, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory OR

 Fence, Herbicide, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory .............................................57

 Scarify, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory...................................................................57

 Fence, Scarify, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory.......................................................57

 Scarify, Herbicide, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory..................................................58

 Fence, Scarify, Herbicide, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory......................................58

Chart K Prescriptions................................................................................................58

CHAPTER 6: POSTHARVEST FOLLOW-UP AND CROP-TREE MANAGEMENT ....60

Realistic Stocking Goal for Oak................................................................................62

Characteristics of Oak Crop Trees ...........................................................................63

Inventory of Oak Crop Trees ....................................................................................65

Predicting the Number of Overstory Oaks at Maturity ..............................................66

Decision Criteria for Prescribing Follow-up CTR Treatments ...................................67

Applying Crown-Touching Release...........................................................................68

Why Focus Attention on a Few Overstory Trees? ....................................................70

Chart L, Allegheny and Northern Hardwoods Postharvest Follow-up ......................72

Chart M, Mixed-Oak Postharvest Follow-up.............................................................73

Chart N, Crop-Tree Release (CTR) Prescriptions ....................................................74

Acknowledgments ...............................................................................................75

Literature Cited ....................................................................................................75

appendices ...............................................................................................................84


CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Patrick Brose, Kurt Gottschalk, Gary Miller, Scott Stoleson, and Susan Stout

The mixed-oak (Quercus spp.) forest is one of the major forest types of the mid-Atlantic region: 

Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia (Fig.1.1). Twenty-one oak 

species grow in this region but five species predominate (97 percent of total oak volume); 

northern red (Q. rubra), chestnut (Q. montana), white (Q. alba), black (Q. velutina), and scarlet 

(Q. coccinea). Currently, mixed-oak forests occupy 19.4 million of the 32.4 million acres of 

forest land in this region (Widmann and McWilliams 2006).

Despite this widespread dominance, mixed-oak forests are in decline and require careful 

management to be sustained. Throughout much of the mid-Atlantic region, oaks are being 

replaced by other hardwood species. Recent U.S. Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis 

(FIA) data show that oak accounts for 29 percent of the total growing-stock volume in the 

region but also 43 percent of the removals (Widmann and McWilliams 2006). In Pennsylvania, 

other FIA data show that for all stems larger than 2 inches in diameter at breast height (d.b.h.), 

red maple (Acer rubrum) and black birch (Betula lenta) are the two most common species and 

the most common oak, northern red, is the ninth most abundant hardwood (McWilliams 

and others 2004). The disparity is evident in the sapling and pole size classes where red maple 

70

WEST

VIRGINIA

PENNSYLVANIA

MARYLAND

NEW JERSEY

DELAWARE

Figure 1.1.—The five states of the 

mid-Atlantic region of the eastern United States.


outnumbers all oaks by ratios of 6:1 and 3:1, respectively. As mature oaks are harvested or 

succumb to various causes, they are being replaced by hardwood species other than oaks.

Why is this change occurring? Is it desirable or undesirable? What can be done about it? 

The objectives of this chapter are to briefly explain the driving forces behind this forest-type 

conversion, the values of oak forests, describe the oak regeneration problem, and provide an 

introduction to the SILVAH decision-support system.

Changing Disturbance Regimes

Oak forests often are referred to as a disturbance-mediated climax forest or disclimax (Nowacki 

and Abrams 1992, Rentch and Hicks 2005). After the end of the last glacial period about 

12,000 years ago, oak species gradually migrated northward from their southern refuge. For the 

most part, the oak forests of the mid-Atlantic region have been in place for the last 6,000 to 

8,000 years (Patterson 2006). The continued dominance through those millennia was due to an 

inherent compatibility between the silvics of the oak species and the disturbance regime of that 

era. That regime was periodic surface fires coupled with occasional canopy-level disturbances 

(Abrams 2003, Brose and others 2001, Whitney and DeCant 2003). The fires were primarily 

the product of American Indian cultural activities as they burned the forests for numerous 

reasons (Denevan 1992). Lightning also contributed to fires (Cohen and Dellinger 2006, 

Cohen and others 2007, Ruffner and Abrams 1998).

The oaks are well adapted to survive and thrive in a periodic surface fire regime. The bark on 

mature oaks is thick, allowing them to easily withstand surface fires that injure or kill thinbarked competitors. When injured, oaks quickly compartmentalize the wound and because 

most oaks are long lived; therefore they simply outlast many of the competitors in a periodic 

fire regime. Oak regeneration quickly develops large, deep roots when conditions are suitable. 

Such roots allow large seedling and sapling oaks to sprout after being topkilled by fire. Some 

competitors lack this trait, or it is poorly developed, and few other species are as the oaks in 

sprouting repeatedly.

Canopy disturbances before European stettlement came from a variety of sources (Brose 

and Waldrop 2006, Rentch and Hicks 2005). The most common likely were small gaps that 

formed when a lightning strike killed an individual tree or a thunderstorm microburst felled 

several trees. Other canopy disturbances, e.g., an insect outbreak or passenger pigeon (Ectopistes 

migratorius) activity, occurred less often but on a larger scale, possibly at the stand level 

(Ellsworth and McComb 2003). Landscape-level canopy disturbances probably were the least 

common but largest and included hurricanes, ice storms, and tornadoes.

These two types of disturbances—periodic surface fires and canopy-level openings—worked 

together to perpetuate oak forests (Fig. 1.2). The fires removed thin-barked, non-oak 

competitors and maintained a moderate understory light level that promoted the development 

of oak regeneration with large roots. When a gap formed, the oak regeneration beneath it was 

well positioned to grow rapidly into the canopy. So long as fires and canopy gaps occurred on an 

intermittent basis, oak forests were sustained and did so for millennia.


The fire regime fluctuated wildly from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s (Brose and others 

2001). First, fire frequency and intensity greatly increased as the eastern forests were cut heavily 

and repeatedly to meet the demand of a growing population amid the Industrial Revolution. 

By the early 20th century, these intense fires were so problematic that they led to a public 

forest policy of fire exclusion throughout the mid-Atlantic region. Within several decades, 

fire occurrence and acreage burned were almost nonexistent (Abrams and Nowacki 1992). 

Fire became ecologically extinct. It no longer filled its role of minimizing the occurrence of 

thin-barked, shade-tolerant hardwood species such as American beech (Fagus grandifolia), red 

maple, and sugar maple (A. saccharum) in the understories of oak forests. In the absence of fire, 

these species formed dense midstory canopies that reduced understory light to the point that 

oak regeneration died or could not develop roots to a competitive size. Consequently, when 

a canopy gap occurred, it was filled by beech or maple instead of an oak. Fire also limited the 

occurrence of fast-growing, shade-intolerant hardwood species such as black cherry (Prunus 

serotina), black birch, and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) that could invade and capture 

canopy gaps.

Exclusion of fire was not the only change introduced to the oak forests that had negative 

consequences. Chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) killed the American chestnut 

(Castanea dentata) and in doing so removed a reliable mast producer from the forest. Wildlife 

accustomed to feeding on chestnuts shifted to acorns, likely reducing the proportion of seed 

crops that germinated successfully. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), nearly extirpated 

by unregulated market hunting, were reintroduced into a forest landscape devoid of most 

predators. Subsequent game laws encouraged the rapid expansion of the deer herd, which 

not only consumed acorns, but also preferentially browsed oak seedlings while avoiding less 

palatable species e.g., black cherry.

More recently, exotic pests, such as gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) that preferentially defoliate 

oaks, spread throughout the region. Periodic outbreaks of this pest further reduced the 

frequency and size of acorn crops. Also, timber harvesting often was concentrated on the most 

valuable species (high-grading) with little or no regard to the conditions for regeneration. This 

new disturbance regime (no fire, chronic deer browsing, more frequent canopy disturbances 

that target oaks) has come about so rapidly that oaks have not had time to adapt to it through 

natural selection. Consequently, the oak forests are changing to species mixes with much less oak.

Figure 1.2.—Historically, mixed-oak forests were maintained through a combination of periodic canopy-level 

disturbances and surface fires. 

Photos by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station


The Values of Oak Forests

This shift in species composition in 

mixed-oak forests is often undesirable 

to natural resource professionals and 

society as a whole because oaks have 

both ecological and economic value 

(Smith 2006). Throughout the midAtlantic region, oaks grow on a variety 

of sites: from chestnut oak on xeric 

ridges to northern red oak on mesic 

lower slopes (Fig. 1.3). Oaks are long 

lived, quite resistant to rot, and grow 

to large sizes. These characteristics 

indicate that, once established, oak 

forests are relatively stable plant 

communities (Smith 2006). Once they achieve canopy dominance, oaks likely will persist for 

decades to centuries as they readily withstand insect outbreaks, lightning strikes, wind events, 

and ice storms. When damage does occur, the ability to compartmentalize rot helps ensure 

their continued survival (Shigo 1984). Injury sites may become cavities which, in turn, become 

dens for wildlife. Dens are especially valuable as wildlife habitat when they occur in large trees 

(Godfrey and others 2000).

Canopies of oak forests are penetrated easily by sunlight; this allows the development of 

diverse herbaceous and shrub communities (Fralish 2004). Oaks produce copious amounts of 

foliage that is slow to decompose (Loomis 1974, 1975). In upland settings, this leaf litter is an 

excellent fuel source for low-intensity surface fires, an ecological process that further diversifies 

forest-floor plant communities (Hutchinson 2006). In aquatic environments, oak leaves are a 

valuable source of detritus that directly and indirectly benefits numerous organisms (Rubbo and 

Kiesecker 2004).

Oaks are well known for producing acorns. Relatively large, readily digestible, easily stored, 

and high in nutrition, acorns are a valuable food resource for many animals (Kirkpatrick 

and Pekins 2002, McShea and Healy 2002). Within the mid-Atlantic region, more than 50 

vertebrate species regularly consume acorns, among them many important game animals such 

as white-tailed deer, black bear (Ursus americanus), tree squirrels (Sciurus spp.), wild turkey 

(Meleagris gallopavo), wood ducks (Aix sponsa), and ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus). Acorns also 

constitute a major portion of the diets of nongame species as diverse as red-headed woodpeckers 

(Melanerpes erythrocephalus), blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata), white-footed mice (Peromyscus 

leucopus), and chipmunks (Tamias striatus). Since the loss of the American chestnut, acorns are 

the primary source of hard mast in the region.

Many species of wildlife in oak forests depend on acorns to such an extent that they exhibit 

physiological and population responses to fluctuations in acorn crops. For example, acorn 

availability can affect the weight, condition, reproductive rates, and antler characteristics of 

white-tailed deer (Wentworth and others 1992). Similarly, rates of birth, survival, and dispersal 

Figure 1.3.—Mixed-oak forests are found on diverse sites 

ranging from rich valley floors to dry ridges.

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station


in black bear vary with the abundance and distribution of acorn crops (Pelton 1989). Variation 

in mast production also influences population levels and distributions of a variety of small 

mammals and birds, including mice, squirrels, jays, and woodpeckers (McShea 2000, Rodewald 

2003).

Oaks provide other valuable resources to wildlife in addition to mast. 

In comparing bird densities among mature stands dominated by oak or 

by red maple, Rodewald and Abrams (2002) found that oaks supported 

a significantly higher abundance of birds in all seasons. Avian species 

richness was significantly greater in oak than in maple stands (Fig. 1.4). 

Differences were greatest in autumn during masting and in spring when 

oak flowers attract insects. They predicted that a conversion of oak forests 

to red maple would have a severe impact on bird communities in the 

Eastern United States.

Oak species are of great economic importance to the mid-Atlantic region. 

According to the quarterly “Timber Market Report” (Jacobson and 

Finley 2007), northern red oak was the second most valuable tree species 

in Pennsylvania from 1992 to 2005 (Fig. 1.5). Its stumpage price was 

exceeded only by that of black cherry. During that same period, the stumpage price for the 

other oaks consistently ranked fourth among all commercial species. Oak saw logs are used 

for a variety of products ranging from cabinets, fine furniture, flooring, and whiskey barrels to 

dimension lumber, pallets, and railroad ties. The wood-products industries employ thousands 

of people in the region, a significant proportion of which is related to the growth, harvest, 

manufacturing, and delivery of products from oak species.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Year

Price ($/mbf, Int. 1/4")

Black cherry White ash

Northern red oak Sugar maple

Other oaks Red maple

Yellow-poplar Hemlock/Pine

Misc. hdwds

Figure 1.5.—Stumpage prices paid for the commercial tree species in Pennsylvania from 1992 

to 2007. Other oaks include all oak species except northern red oak. Miscellaneous hardwoods 

include species such as aspen, American beech, black birch, yellow birch, and cucumbertree. 

(Adapted from Jacobsen and Finley 2007)

Figure 1.4.—The cerulean warbler is 

one of the neotropical migrant species 

that relies almost exclusively on mixedoak forests. It generally avoids mapledominated forests.

Photo by Scott Stoleson, Northern Research Station


The Oak Regeneration Problem

There are thousands of papers published on the problems associated with regenerating oaks. 

Briefly, the oak regeneration problem occurs when the probability of replacing an existing 

oak stand with a new one by a final timber harvest or other stand-replacing disturbance is 

zero or unacceptably low for the stated management objective. In other words, the timber 

harvest is poorly timed with the oak regeneration process. Even-aged oak forests pass through 

a regeneration process that often spans 20 or more years. First, acorns must be produced 

and a sufficient number must survive to germinate and establish new oak seedlings. These 

seedlings must survive long enough to develop root systems and stems that can compete 

successfully for dominant positions once a new forest is initiated by a timber harvest. If the 

harvest occurs before oak seedlings are established or they are able to build large root systems, 

then it is highly unlikely that a new oak forest will form. The purpose of SILVAH and this 

publication is to provide guidance to forest managers in the sequence and timing of silvicultural 

treatments designed to foster the development of small oak regeneration to competitively sized 

reproduction that can form new oak stands following a timber harvest.

SILVAH

The SILVAH decision support system (Marquis and Ernst 1991, Marquis and others 1992) 

originally emerged from Allegheny Hardwood Silviculture Training Sessions offered by U.S. 

Forest Service and the Pennsylvania State University Cooperative Extension (PSU) beginning 

in 1978. These sessions were designed to help forest land managers integrate the latest findings 

from regeneration and other silvicultural research into practice. The approach taken in the 

early training sessions was to help land managers plan inventories that would enable them 

to recognize when individual stands met key thresholds that indicated readiness for specific 

silvicultural prescriptions. For example, the overstory inventory yielded data about average tree 

size and stocking that could be used to recognize the necessity for a thinning treatment, or that 

a stand had reached maturity and was ready to regenerate. An understory inventory suggested 

the steps that were required to ensure successful regeneration after a harvest sequence.

Initially, these thresholds were represented as a series of independent decisions, building on 

research that was being published by the originators of SILVAH. Roach (1977) published a 

stocking guide that also included guidelines for thinning prescriptions, similar to work that 

Roach and Gingrich (1968) had prepared for central hardwood stands earlier in Roach’s career. 

Grisez and Peace (1973) published guidelines that allowed managers to recognize stands that 

were stocked sufficiently with advance regeneration to ensure a fully stocked new stand of 

desired species after harvest. Over time, the independent guidelines merged into an integrated 

and quantitative approach to prescription development through inventory and analysis 

(Marquis and others 1975; Marquis and Bjorkbom 1982). This approach was encapsulated in 

a set of computer programs known as SILVAH (Silviculture of Allegheny Hardwoods). The 

SILVAH programs included tools for data summary and analysis, writing stand descriptions, 

recommendations for silvicultural prescriptions, and a stand-growth simulator.

The SILVAH approach and software became the standard for silvicultural decisionmaking in 

Allegheny and northern hardwood stands on all public and large parcels of private land in 

northern Pennsylvania and extending into adjacent states. This decision-support framework 


included limited guidelines for oak which were not well tested or widely adopted. Many 

practitioners continued to rely on pencil and paper calculations using guidelines from Roach 

and Gingrich (1968) and other publications on oak regeneration by Sander and Clark (1971) 

and Sander and others (1976).

In 1999, the Silvicultural Advisory Committee of the Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry (BOF) 

asked the Forest Service to strengthen the SILVAH decision framework as it applied to 

sustaining mixed-oak forests (Stout and others 2007). The approach adopted was to rely on 

expert opinion and research conducted in other regions in the short-run to restructure the 

decision framework and identify research needs. A group of scientists and land managers from 

the Forest Service, BOF, PSU, and private industry was convened in January 2000 to work on 

task.

Initially, draft interim guidelines were developed and key knowledge gaps identified (Stout and 

others 2007). BOF foresters were trained in the guidelines in a series of 2-day training courses 

that spring. The guidelines were tested in the field during 2000 and 2001. A follow-up meeting 

between Forest Service scientists and BOF foresters in January 2002 led to several additions, 

deletions, and changes in the draft interim guidelines. Field testing from 2002 to the present has 

resulted in only minor revisions. An annual training course in oak silviculture conducted jointly 

by the Forest Service and BOF in Brookville, Pennsylvania began in September 2002.

This publication is a result of that initial meeting as well as the subsequent interaction between 

the Forest Service and BOF personnel. It is for land managers interested in sustaining mixedoak forests for whatever reason. Currently, this publication is limited to the oak forests of 

the mid-Atlantic region. However, it could apply to oak forests outside this region if used 

cautiously. Also, this publication focuses on even-age management.

The SILVAH inventory process for assessing the overstory and understory of oak stands is 

described in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3, we explain how SILVAH calculates key summary 

variables from that inventory data. Chapter 4 contains the decision charts that SILVAH 

navigates using key summary variables to arrive at a recommended prescription. Silvicultural 

treatments dealing with stand renewal and how to apply them correctly are described in 

Chapter 5. Chapter 6 includes three additional decision charts for assessing the success of the 

regeneration prescriptions. Early stand-management techniques for ensuring that desirable 

individual stems capture the growing space are discussed in this chapter too. A sample SILVAH 

printout and tally sheets are included in the Appendix.


CHAPTER 2: INVENTORY PROCEDURES

Patrick Brose, Barbara McGuinness, and Susan Stout

One of the keys to accurately evaluating the regenerative potential of a mixed-oak stand is 

to simultaneously consider the species present, the abundance, size, and spatial distribution 

of reproduction and trees, and factors limiting successful regeneration. To accomplish this, 

SILVAH uses three nested plots that focus on tree regeneration, obstacles to successful 

regeneration, and overstory conditions (Fig. 2.1). In this chapter, we explain how to inventory 

mixed-oak stands using these three plots and record the data on the SILVAH tally sheets 

(Appendix 1 and 2).

The Regeneration Plot

Reproduction can be tallied on a 3.7-foot or 6-foot radius plot (1/1000 or 1/385 acre). 

Generally, the 6-foot plot is used. For stands less than10 acres, use two regeneration plots per 

acre. For stands of 10 acres or more, use 20 regeneration plots plus 2 additional plots for each 5 

acres above 10 acres. For example, a 15-acre stand would have 22 regeneration plots and there 

would be 28 such plots in a 30-acre stand. Plots must be located systematically throughout the 

stand to ensure adequate spatial distribution.

A tally sheet is used to record regeneration data (Appendix 1). SILVAH simultaneously evaluates 

regeneration abundance and size by the “stocked plot” approach (Marquis and Bjorkbom 1982, 

Marquis and others 1975, Roach and Gingrich 1968). In this approach, stem counts for the 

different species groups are adjusted for size (taller stems are counted double) and are recorded 

as weighted counts.

26-foot-radius interference plot 

6-foot-radius

regeneration 

plot

Variable-radius 

overstory plot 

Figure 2.1.—The SILVAH inventory procedure 

uses nested plots to sample tree regeneration, 

interfering vegetation, deer browsing pressure, 

and overstory conditions.


Oak Regeneration

The first reproduction to look for on the plot is oak regeneration. This is tallied into 

one of three categories based on height or root-collar diameter (RCD). Competitive 

oak are stems that are highly likely to be dominant or codominant at crown closure 

of the new stand following harvest of the overstory. These are stems more than 3 

ft tall or with a RCD greater than 0.75 inches. All oak stump sprouts are tallied as 

competitive oak regardless of height. Record up to three stems per stump.

The RCD criterion is particulary important in assessing oak regeneration because 

root development rather than stem growth is emphasized when oaks are young 

(Brose 2007, Kolb and others 1990, Miller and others 2004a). In other words, an 

oak stem that is only a foot tall may have a large root system and is ready to compete 

in full sunlight (Fig. 2.2). Undersize oaks with a competitive root system usually can 

be identified as follows: they are 1 to 3 feet tall, have multiple stems originating from 

a common point, and have numerous (more than 20) full-size leaves (Brose 2007). 

They also tend to be white, black, chestnut, or scarlet oak and generally are found on 

intermediate and dry sites or in previously disturbed stands.

Site quality must be considered when evaluating competitive oak stocking because 

it will be increasingly likely that the reproduction of other hardwood species will 

outcompete oak regeneration as site quality improves. Account for site quality by 

weighting the count of competitive oak according to Table 2.1.

Table 2.1.—Weighting criteria for competitive oak regeneration

Oak site index or BOF site class

High qualityb Medium quality Low quality

Stem height or RCDa >75 feet (1) 55 to 75 feet (2) <55 feet (3)

Height 3 to 7 feet

RCD 0.75 to 1.0 inch 1 1 1

Height 7 to 10 feet

RCD 1.0 to 1.5 inches 2 3 5

Height >10 feet

RCD >1.5 inches 3 5 10

a

RCD = root collar diameter.

b

For example, a 4-foot-tall oak on any quality site is recorded as 1. An 8-foot-tall oak has a 

weighted count of 2 on a high-quality site, 3 on a medium-quality site, and 5 on a low-quality 

site. The weighted count for an 11-foot-tall oak is 3 on a high-quality site, 5 on a medium-quality 

site, and 10 on a low-quality site.

Figure 2.2.—A 4-year-old 

white oak seedling grown in 

full sunlight. The red line on 

the stem shows the location 

of the ground line before the 

seedling was excavated; 

the flagging marks the root 

collar. Note the characteristic 

emphasis of root development 

at the expense of stem growth. Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
10

The next type of oak regeneration to look for is established oak reproduction. These are oak 

seedlings and sprouts that are too small to compete for a dominant or codominant canopy 

position after overstory removal on high-quality sites, but are large enough to take advantage 

of silvicultural treatments designed to help them develop to competitive size. Established oak is 

defined as stems 0.5 to 3.0 ft tall or with a RCD of 0.25 to 0.75 inch.

The last category of oak reproduction is new oak which are oak seedlings that are too small to 

be in the established oak category. If there is any question which category an oak stem should be 

assigned, record the stem in the smaller size class. For example, a borderline established/new oak 

would be tallied as a new oak.

Other Regeneration

One of the goals of SILVAH is to promote diverse regeneration that will develop into mixedspecies stands and not monocultures. To this end, SILVAH recognizes several other species and 

species groups that are acceptable associates in mixed-oak forests. Tallying criteria for these are 

from research (Marquis and Bjorkbom 1982, Marquis and others 1975) and expert opinion:

Black cherry: Count all seedlings at least 2 inches tall, with two normal-size leaves. 

Stems more than 1 foot tall are counted as two stems.

Conifers: Count any eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), pine (Pinus spp.), or spruce 

(Picea spp.) seedling with two whorls or 0.5 to1.0 foot tall. Stems with three or more 

whorls or that are more than 1 foot tall are counted as two stems.

Yellow-poplar: Count all seedlings that are at least 2 inches tall with two normalsize leaves. Stems more than one foot tall are counted as two stems. Do not count 

yellow-poplar on sites where there are no dominant yellow-poplar trees in the canopy, 

generally upper slope and ridgetop, dry site positions, as this species is not a fast grower 

nor long lived on such sites. 

Other desirables: These depend on the specific location and may or may not include 

species such as red maple, sugar maple, and cucumbertree (Magnolia acuminata). 

For example, red maple would be considered desirable regeneration in northwestern 

Pennsylvania but as interference in parts of the Ridge and Valley region. Count all 

seedlings that are at least 2 inches tall with two normal-size leaves. Stems more than 1 

foot tall are counted as two stems. Maples must pass the tug test; that is they are not 

pulled out of the ground easily. Count all hickory (Carya spp.) and walnut (Juglans

spp.) seedlings that meet established oak criteria. Those that meet competitive oak 

criteria are counted as two stems.

Saplings: If a past disturbance has allowed regeneration to grow into saplings (1 to 

6-inch d.b.h.), tally them if they are a desirable species, have good form and vigor, 

and meet one of these density thresholds: two stems less than 2.0 inches d.b.h. or one 

stem 2 to 6 inches d.b.h. Record the code of the dominant species (Table 2.2). Note 

that sapling regeneration is an age class distinctly different from the overstory and 

undesirable or poorly-formed saplings are tallied as tall woody interference; see next 

section.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)
11

Residuals

Pole-size (6 to 10 inch d.b.h) trees called residuals are sometimes retained after a final harvest to 

meet policy guidelines or for aesthetic, biodiversity, or wildlife values. Record residuals by the 

species code (Table 2.2) if they are a desirable species, have good form and vigor, and are rooted 

in the regeneration plot. Some examples of possible residuals in mixed-oak stands are butternut 

(Juglans cinerea), cucumbertree, eastern white pine (P. strobus), hickory, or Table Mountain pine 

(P. pungens). Note that residuals do not count toward the required regeneration stocking in oak 

stands and undesirable stems of this size class are tallied as tall woody interference, see next 

section).

Tall Woody Interference

The final condition to record on the regeneration plot is the presence of tall woody interference. 

This category includes any woody species (undesirable sapling/pole or a poorly formed desirable 

stem) that will interfere with the regeneration of species desirable for the selected management 

objective. Tallying criteria are more than 6 feet tall and rooted in the regeneration plot. 

Undesirable woody stems rooted just outside the regeneration plot but overtop it also can be 

tallied as tall woody interference. Record the species code of the dominant tall woody interference 

on the plot (Tables 2.2-2.3). Note that what constitutes tall woody interference varies for 

numerous reasons. For example, American beech often is recorded as tall woody interference 

because it casts dense shade on the forest floor. However, it might be desirable where a strategy 

for identifying beech trees resistant to beech bark disease is in place. This is the only interference 

recorded from the regeneration plot; all other interference is evaluated on the 26-foot radius 

plot.

The Interference Plot

Although the regeneration plot accounts for some of the positive attributes of the stand (the 

composition and stocking of the reproduction), the interference plot assesses competing 

vegetation, deer impact, and site limitations (Appendix 1). The interference plot has a 26-foot 

radius and there always is an interference plot with each regeneration plot.

Competing Vegetation

Low woody interference. This group includes shrubs and small undesirable trees that are less 

than 6 feet tall and the foliage of taller trees that occur within this stratum. Visually estimate the 

proportion of the 26-foot plot shaded by all low woody interference. Record the estimation in 

5-percent increments if it is less than 50 percent and in 10-percent increments if it is more than 

50 percent. Record the species code for the dominant species (Tables 2.2-2.3).

Fern. Visually estimate the proportion of the 26-foot plot shaded ferns in 5-percent increments 

if cover is less than 50 percent and in 10-percent increments if cover is more than 50 percent. 

For species of fern that do not spread via rhizomes, e.g., wood fern (Dryopteris intermedia), 

adjust the estimated cover by dividing by two. For rhizomatous ferns such as hay-scented 

(Dennstaedtia punctilobula), New York (Thelypteris noveboracensis), or bracken (Pteridium 

aquilinum), do not adjust the estimated cover. Sum the two estimates to arrive at the percent 

cover for the entire plot. For example, a plot with 30 percent cover of hay-scented fern and 20 

percent cover of wood fern would be recorded as 40 percent (30 percent + (20 percent ÷ 2)).
12

Table 2.2.—Forest Service, mnemonic, and Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry (BOF) 

codes for most common tree species of mid-Atlantic region (Marquis and others 1992)

Species Forest Service Mnemonic BOF

Ash 540 A 0

Ash, black 543 BA 0

Ash, green 544 GA 0

Ash, white 541 WA 55

Aspen 740 ASP 63

Aspen, bigtooth 743 BTA 0

Aspen, quaking 746 QA 0

Balsam poplar 741 BP 0

Basswood, American 951 BAS 58

Beech, American 531 AB 54

Beech, blue 391 BB 90

Birch 370 B 50

Birch, gray 379 GRB 0

Birch, paper 375 PB 0

Birch, sweet 372 SB 0

Birch, yellow 371 YB 0

Blackgum 693 BG 66

Buckeye 330 BUC 0

Butternut 601 BUT 71

Catalpa 542 CAT 0

Cedar, northern white 241 NWC 0

Cherry, black 762 BC 76

Cherry, pin 761 PC 95

Chestnut, American 421 AMC 0

Chinkapin, Allegheny 422 ALC 0

Chokecherry 763 CC 0

Cottonwood, eastern 742 EC 0

Crabapple 660 CRB 0

Cucumbertree 651 CUC 84

Devil’s Walking Stick 353 DWS 89

Dogwood 491 DOG 81

Elm 970 E 61

Elm, American 972 AE 0

Elm, rock 977 RE 0

Elm, slippery 975 SE 0

Fir, balsam 012 BF 0

Hackberry 460 HAC 0

Hawthorn 500 HAW 94

Hemlock, eastern 261 EH 6

Hickory 400 H 60

Hickory, bitternut 402 BH 0

Hickory, mockernut 409 MH 0

Hickory, shagbark 407 SGH 0

Continued
13

Hickory, shellbark 405 SLH0

Hickory, pignut 403 PH0

Honeylocust 552 HL0

Ironwood 701 OST 92

Larch 070L0

Locust, black 901 BL0

Maple 310M0

Maple, boxelder 313 BEM0

Maple, mountain 319 MTM0

Maple, red 316 RM 21

Maple, silver 317 SVM0

Maple, striped 315 STM 99

Maple, sugar 318 SM 20

Mountain ash 935 MTA 97

Oak 800O0

Oak, black 837 BO 31

Oak, blackjack 824 BJO0

Oak, burr 823 BRO0

Oak, chestnut 832 CO 48

Oak, chinkapin 826 CKO0

Oak, northern pin 809 NPO0

Oak, northern red 833 NRO 30

Oak, overcup 822 OO0

Oak, pin 830 PNO0

Oak, post 835 PO0

Oak, scarlet 806 SO 32

Oak, shingle 834 SHO0

Oak, southern red 812 SRO0

Oak, swamp chestnut 825 SCO0

Oak, swamp white 804 SWO0

Oak, white 802 WO 40

Osage-orange 641 OSO0

Paulownia 712 PAU0

Pawpaw 367 PAW0

Pecan 404 PCN0

Persimmon 521 PER0

Pine 100P0

Pine, Austrian 136 AUP2

Pine, loblolly 131 LOB2

Pine, pitch 126 PP0

Pine, red 125 RP0

Pine, Scotch 130 SCP2

Pine, shortleaf 110 SLP2

Pine, Table Mountain 123 TMP2

Continued

Table 2.2.—Continued.

Species Forest Service Mnemonic BOF
14

Pine, Virginia 132 VP 0

Pine, white 129 WP 1

Redcedar, eastern 068 ERC 0

Sassafras 931 SAS 96

Serviceberry 355 SVB 91

Sourwood 711 SW 0

Spruce 090 S 0

Spruce, black 095 BS 0

Spruce, Norway 091 NS 0

Spruce, red 097 RS 0

Spruce, white 094 WS 0

Sweetgum 611 SG 0

Sycamore, American 731 AS 0

Tamarack 071 TAM 0

Walnut, black 602 BW 0

Wild plum 766 PLM 0

Willow 920 W 0

Yellow-poplar 621 YP 59

Other hardwoods 004 OHW 88

Other softwoods 001 OSW 0

Other nonCommercial 999 ONC 0

Table 2.2.—Continued.

Species Forest Service Mnemonic BOF

Grass and Sedge. Record the percentage of the interference plot that would be covered 

completely by all observed grass and sedge species as if they were all considered together. Record 

1 percent even if only a trace of grass or sedge is present.

Grapevine (Vitis spp.). Record the number of grapevines rooted in the plot reaching into the 

forest canopy.

Site Limitations

SILVAH recognizes three forest floor conditions that can impede stand renewal. If any is found 

anywhere on the 26-foot plot, record the corresponding number for the condition.

Poor drainage. The water table persists close to the soil surface during all or part of the 

growing season. In this environment, seedlings drown. Poor drainage is indicated by 

standing water, a black, greasy soil surface, or the presence of hydrophytic plants, e.g., 

jewelweed (Impatiens pallida), marsh marigold (Calthra palustris), and skunk cabbage 

(Symplocarpus foetidus).

Rock/thin soil. There is little soil overlaying large rocks or bedrock, making shallowrooted regeneration vulnerable to desiccation in a dry growing season or in the 

harsh conditions following complete overstory removal. This is not the same as rocks 

overlaying deep soil like that found in the Ridge and Valley region.

1)

2)
15

Table 2.3.—Forest Service, mnemonic, and Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry codes (BOF) 

for most common shrub, trailing vine, and nonnative invasive species of mid-Atlantic region 

(Marquis and others 1992)

Shrub or vine species Forest Service Mnemonic BOF

Blueberry 786 BLU 0

Blueberry, lowbush 785 LBL 0

Currant 870 CUR 0

Hazelnut 501 HAZ 0

Huckleberry 549 HUK 0

Mountain laurel 733 MTL 0

Prickly-ash 638 PRA 0

Rhododendron 737 RHO 0

Rubus 915 RUB 0

Witch-hazel 585 WHL 0

Winterberry 593 ILV 0

Other woody shrubs 996 OWS 0

Poison-ivy 867 PI 0

Virginia creeper 715 VCR 0

Nonnative invasive species

Ailanthus 998 AIL 98

Barberry 368 BAR 0

Buckthorn 895 BTH 0

Buckthorn, common 846 COB 0

Buckthorn, glossy 847 GLB 0

Garlic Mustard 382 GLM 0

Honeysuckle, amur 639 AHN 0

Honeysuckle, bush 635 LON 0

Honeysuckle, Japanese 636 JHN 0

Honeysuckle, Tatarian 637 THN 0

Knotweed, Japanese 385 JAK 0

Maple, Norway 320 NWM 0

Multiflora rose 905 ROS 0

Olive, autumn 535 AUO 0

Olive, Russian 534 ELA 0

Oriental bittersweet 384 ORB 0

Stiltgrass, Japanese 383 JST 0

Other nonnative shrubs 995 NNS 0

Thick duff. This condition sometimes occurs in conjunction with ericaceous shrubs, 

e.g., blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.), and mountain laurel 

(Kalmia latifolia) thickets, or conifer-dominated areas and can be a formidable obstacle 

for roots of new seedlings to penetrate. Thick duff is indicated by soil that feels spongy 

under foot.

3)
16

Deer Impact

This is an estimate of the amount of browsing pressure, which is a function of deer density and 

available food for deer (Fig. 2.3). SILVAH uses five levels of deer impact. Assess the estimated 

deer impact for several plots scattered throughout the stand using the following criteria and 

record the corresponding number (Fig. 2.4). At the end of the cruise, a single deer-impact level 

representing the average overall condition is assigned to the entire stand.

Very low impact. Found only inside well maintained, woven-wire, deer-exclosure fences.

Low impact. Desirable regeneration is abundant and of varying heights. Herbaceous 

plants such as Indian cucumberroot (Medeola virginiana), trillium (Trillium spp.), and 

wild lily-of-the-valley (Maianthemum spp.) are present and able to flower and fruit. 

Stump sprouts are present.

Moderate impact. Desirable regeneration is present but with little variability in 

height. Herbaceous plants are rare and there are no stump sprouts. Nonpreferred 

browse and browse-resistant plant species such as hay-scented fern, striped maple 

(Acer pensylvanicum), witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), and beech root suckers are 

common and widespread.

High impact. Desirable regeneration is rare to absent. Nonpreferred and browseresilient vegetation is limited in height growth by deer browsing.

1)

2)

3)

4)

Deer

Impact

 Deer Population – (number / mi

2

)

Very High

(5)

High

(4)

Low 

(2)

Very Low

(1)

Success

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 

Failure

Monoculture

Moderate

(3)

Excess

Competition

Species Shift 

Effect on 

Regeneration 

Low Deer Food

Medium

Deer Food 

High

Deer Food 

Figure 2.3.—Deer Impact Index for estimating the likely outcome of regeneration prescriptions given the 

deer density and availability of browse (redrawn from Marquis and others 1992). To use the chart, estimate 

the deer density and the amount of deer food and find the point where they intersect. From there, look to 

the right to determine the deer impact rating and to the left to determine the likely result of a timber harvest. 

For example, at a deer density of 30/mi2 and low deer food (uncut, mature forest), the deer impact is very 

high and a timber harvest will likely result in a regeneration failure. At medium deer food (managed forest of 

several seral stages), deer impact drops to moderate and the outcome of a timber harvest is a species shift 

in the regeneration pool. At high deer food (managed forest interspersed with farmland), deer impact is low 

and a timber harvest will lead to successful forest regeneration.
17

Very high impact. Desirable regeneration is absent. The abundance of nonpreferred 

vegetation is reduced by browsing. Browse-resilient plants show signs of heavy repeated 

browsing and a browse line is evident.

Site Quality

The final information recorded on the interference plot is assignment of site quality. This 

evaluation is essential in oak stands for the SILVAH program to recommend a prescription. As 

with the deer-impact levels, site quality is assessed on several scattered plots and then a standlevel average is assigned at the end of the cruise. Rate the plot as high, medium, or low quality 

based on its location in the landscape, species composition, and height and number of logs of 

5)

Figure 2.4.—At Deer Impact Indices 1 and 2, forests have abundant oak regeneration that is able to 

respond to available light (upper two photos) and a diverse herbaceous plant community that is able to 

flower and fruit (middle two photos). At the Deer Impact Indices 3 and 4, stump sprouts are repeatedly 

browsed and nonpreferred plants become common and widespread (bottom two photos). 

All photos by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
18

the dominant tree species (Table 2.4). Care must be exercised if the dominant trees already have 

been removed from the stand or if the vegetation does not reflect the quality of the soil. In some 

cases, for example chestnut oak stands on medium-quality sites, determining site index might 

be required as site quality plays an important role in the oak decision charts. For example, a site 

index50 68 stand might receive a final harvest prescription whereas a site index50 72 stand would 

undergo a shelterwood sequence.

Optional Understory Assessments

SILVAH includes two options for enhancing understory assessment that might be helpful 

in some circumstances. One is recording the presence of nonnative invasive plant species 

(NNIS). To use this option, record the species code (Table 2.3) of any NNIS found in the 

plots or observed in or near the stand. SILVAH generates short ecological descriptions for 18 

commonly found NNIS (3 tree, 12 shrub, 1 forb, 1 vine, 1 grass) in the mid-Atlantic region. 

No recommended treatments are given for controlling these species so the user must consult an 

extension service, other Forest Service information sources, or obtain that information via the 

Internet.

The second option is the third-decade oak stocking prediction from the “Oak Regeneration 

Guidelines for the Central Appalachians (Steiner and others 2008). This option may benefit 

foresters who are unsure whether they already have sufficient oak regeneration to meet their 

management objectives. This option consists of two approaches. When inventorying stands, 

determine the aggregate height of oak seedlings rooted within 3.7 feet of the center of each 

regeneration plot as per the instructions in the Central Appalachian Oak Regeneration 

Guidelines. If the aggregate height data is not collected or if inventory data already have been 

Table 2.4.—Characteristics of high-, medium-, and low-quality sites in 

mixed-oak forests of the mid-Atlantic region

Site quality Characteristic

High Moist, well drained, deep soils

Protected coves, riparian areas, valley bottoms

Northern red oak, white oak, yellow-poplar, hemlock

Merchantable bole length >50 feet (> three 16-foot logs)

Mature tree height >80 feet

Medium Moderately drained, fairly deep soils that are intermittently dry

Midslope topographic position

Black oak, white oak, northern red oak, white pine

Merchantable bole length 35-45 feet (2 - 21⁄2 16-foot logs)

Mature tree height 65-80 feet

Low Rocky, shallow soils that are chronically dry

Ridges and upperslope topographic positions

Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, pitch pine, mountain laurel

Merchantable bole length <30 feet (< two 16-foot logs)

Mature tree height <65 feet.
19

collected, SILVAH will estimate the aggregate height by converting the seedling counts in each 

plot by the following equation where X is the oak seedling count for each of the three size 

classes:

Aggregate Height = ((Xnew ÷ 2.6) x 0.25) + ((Xestbl ÷ 2.6) x 0.50) + ((Xcomp ÷ 2.6) x 3.0)

For example, a 6-foot regeneration plot containing 31 new oak, 10 established oak, and 3 

competitive oak would have an estimated aggregate height of 7 feet [((31 ÷ 2.6) x 0.25) + ((10 ÷ 

2.6) x 0.50) + ((2 ÷ 2.6) x 3.0)] = (2.98) + (1.92) + (2.31) = 7.21. Note that this is an estimate 

and that the preferred method in using the Central Appalachian Oak Regeneration Guidelines 

is to collect the data in the field according to instructions. Note that the Central Appalachian 

Oak Regeneration Guidelines were developed from data collected in south-central Pennsylvania 

and have not been tested elsewhere in Pennsylvania or outside of the State.

The Overstory Plot

Inventorying the overstory entails collecting basal-area data by species, diameter, and stem 

quality (Appendix 2). This should be done immediately after the understory plot is inventoried 

at the rate of one overstory plot for every two regeneration plots because the canopy is usually 

less variable than the overstory. However, overmature stands and those disturbed recently may 

require that the overstory be sampled more frequently to ensure accurate results.

The overstory can be inventoried using fixed-area or variable-radius sampling techniques. For 

purposes of illustration here, we describe overstory inventory techniques using variable-radius 

sampling with a 10-factor prism as this is the conventional practice. At a minimum, data must 

be collected on species, diameter, and stem quality. Depending on management objectives, the 

overstory inventory can be expanded to include data on number of logs, grade, defects, canopy 

health, and wildlife value.

Required Data

Collect data on trees more than 1.0 inch d.b.h. that are “in” according to a 10-factor prism. 

Trees selected by the prism are identified as to species, measured for d.b.h., and evaluated for 

quality. On the tally sheet, species is recorded in one of three ways: the Forest Service species 

code, a mnemonic code, or a user-defined code (Table 2.2). 

D.b.h. can be either estimated or measured and recorded by 1- or 2-inch size classes. For 

example, trees that are 15.50 to 16.49 inches d.b.h. are recorded as 16 inches when using the 

1-inch class. With the 2-inch class, trees that are 15.00 to 16.99 inches d.b.h. are recorded as 16 

inches. If estimated, d.b.h. should be recorded in 2-inch classes.

Quality is recorded as 1 for acceptable growing stock (AGS), 2 for unacceptable growing 

stock (UGS), or 3 for dead (Table 2.5). Acceptable growing stock is trees of a desirable species 

that contain at least one log, or will in the future, and likely will persist for another 15 years. 

Unacceptable growing stock is trees of an undesirable species, or do not contain at least one log 

and never will, or are unlikely to live another 15 years. If there is any question about the correct 

quality class for the tree, give it the benefit of the doubt, e.g., a questionable AGS/UGS is 
20

recorded as AGS. Quality determination is not a cut-leave tally as a partial cut likely will remove 

most or all of the low-quality trees classified as AGS.

When the prism detects a borderline tree (one that cannot be positively identified as in or out), 

the most accurate procedure is to measure the horizontal distance in feet from the plot center 

to the center of the tree at d.b.h. If that distance is more than 2.75 times d.b.h., then the tree is 

out; otherwise it is in. A quicker method is to tally it as half a tree by recording its species and 

d.b.h. and then adding 5 to its quality designation, i.e., AGS is 6, UGS is 7, and dead is 8. Do 

not record every other borderline tree. This approach can lead to large errors in the estimated 

basal area.

Optional Data

If desired or needed to meet management objectives, additional data can be collected from 

the overstory plot to provide more complete information. Optional data include number of 

sawlogs, log grade, log defect, crown health, and certain wildlife-habitat attributes (Table 2.5 

and 2.6). Note that these data will not influence the final silvicultural recommendation. 

SILVAH uses equations from northwestern Pennsylvania to estimate number of sawlogs from 

d.b.h. (Fig. 2.5). If more accurate volumes are needed, the number of 8-foot bolts can be 

recorded for each tree containing a saw log. Estimates of the number of bolts should be from 

probable stump height to the point where diameter drops below the minimal merchantability 

size for the specific area or at the height that the bole breaks up.

The bottom-most two bolts (16 feet) can also be evaluated for grade and defect on scales of 1 

to 9 to further refine the volume estimation. Grading criteria follow Rast and others (1973) 

Code Description for tree quality

1 Acceptable Growing Stock (AGS) – Trees must meet 

all of the following criteria to be considered AGS.

a. Desirable species.

b. Contains a merchantable 8-foot bolt somewhere

in their bole at this time or will contain an 8-foot

bolt in the future.

c. Healthy enough to live another 15 years.

2 Unacceptable Growing Stock (UGS) – Trees meeting

any of the following criteria are considered to be UGS.

a. Undesirable species.

b. Does not contain a merchantable 8-foot bolt

 anywhere in their bole at this time.

c. Never will contain a merchantable 8-foot bolt in

 the future.

d. Is unlikely to live another 15 years.

If there is doubt whether a tree is AGS or UGS, consider it 

AGS. Quality determination is not a cut-leave tally.

3 Dead – Standing dead trees.

Table 2.5.—Codes and descriptions for determining tree quality and butt-log grade

Code Description for log grade

1 Factory-lumber log grade 1.

2 Factory-lumber log grade 2.

3 Factory-lumber log grade 3.

4 Locally defined log product (pallet log, local-use log). 

Construction log grade.

5 Locally defined bulk product such as boltwood.

6 Pulpwood – Contains at least two contiguous 4-foot 

bolts with a minimum top inside diameter of 4.0 

inches and is at least 50 percent sound.

7 Fuelwood (same as pulpwood except minimum top 

inside diameter is 1.0 inch).

8 Cull – Tree is less than 50-percent sound or does not

qualify for any of the grades or products listed.

9 Veneer log.
21

and Hanks and others (1980) and are explained in detail in Table 2.5. The user grades all trees, 

grades none, or only grades sawtimber-size trees that contain only pulpwood or are cull trees. 

If the second or third options are used, SILVAH applies log grades based on volume equations 

from Wiant and Yandle (1984) and Wiant (1986). Defect is estimated to the nearest 10 percent 

and recorded as a single digit (50-percent defect is recorded as a 5).

Crown condition can be rated for each tree using the North American Maple Project health 

guidelines of Millers and others (1991). These rating guidelines categorize crown condition in 

four classes: healthy, good, fair, and poor (Table 2.6).

Code Description 

Crown Health

1 Healthy – Tree has less than 10-percent crown dieback or other abnormalities.

2 Good – Dieback of 10 to 25 percent or other abnormalities.

3 Fair – Dieback of 25 to 50 percent or other abnormalities.

4 Poor – Tree has more than 50-percent dieback, branch mortality, or other 

abnormalities.

Wildlife Trees

1 Potential den tree – Live tree with large dead branch or broken top that may 

develop into a cavity in the future.

2 Existing den tree – Live tree with natural or artificial cavity (excludes small 

feeding holes made by pileated woodpeckers).

3 Snag with potential den – Dead or nearly dead tree at least 4 inches in d.b.h. 

and at least 10 feet tall, but no visible cavities.

4 Snag with existing den – Dead or nearly dead tree of the same minimum size 

as No. 3 above, but contains an existing den cavity.

Table 2.6.—Codes and descriptions for evaluating crown health and wildlife value of trees

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Diameter at Breast Height (inches)

Number of 8-Foot Logs

American beech Sugar maple Northern red oak

Red maple Black cherry Pine and Spruce

White ash Eastern hemlock

Figure 2.5.—Average number of 8-foot logs found in major commercial tree 

species of northwestern Pennsylvania (redrawn from Marquis and others 1992).
22

The important wildlife habitat of den trees also can be recorded as part of an overstory 

inventory. These can be designated as live trees or snags with existing cavities or the potential 

development of a cavity (Table 2.6).

Stand-Level Information

The final two steps in a SILVAH cruise are for the user to make decisions about how the 

stand will be managed and record basic stand-level information on the understory tally sheet 

(Appendix 1). The user-provided decisions address five questions that must be answered to run 

the SILVAH decision-support system.

What are the restrictions on the silvicultural system? 

Which set of prescription charts is desired? 

Do you intend to start a regeneration sequence at this time? 

Do you want to increase stocking of competitive oak?

Do you want to retain residual trees post-harvest? 

The restrictions question determines which of the four silvicultural systems (clearcut, 

shelterwood, group selection, and single-tree selection) is acceptable (Table 2.7). The four 

restrictions are arranged in order of increasing exclusivity. The first two restrictions, “No 

restriction” and “No clearcutting” usually lead to even-age prescriptions and are the preferred 

choices for regenerating oak forests. The final two restrictions, “No even-aged” and “No 

multiple-tree canopy gaps” result in uneven-age prescriptions. Note that, at this time, choosing 

either of the uneven-age restrictions will result in SILVAH producing a prescription without 

special measures to promote oak and; on high-quality sites, such prescriptions will eventually 

result in conversion to another forest type.

The “prescription chart” question determines whether SILVAH should use the Allegheny/

northern hardwood or the mixed oak charts to arrive at a recommended treatment for the stand. 

The Allegheny and northern hardwood charts give no special consideration to the proportion 

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

Table 2.7.—Restrictions of the silvicultural systems in SILVAH

Restriction Description

No restrictions None of the silvicutural systems (clearcut, shelterwood, group 

selection, or single tree selection) are excluded. The site can be 

regenerated without retaining trees from the previous stand.

No clearcutting Some trees from the previous stand must be retained until the end of 

the regeneration process. Shelterwood, group selection, and singletree selection are acceptable; clearcut is excluded.

No even-age An intermittent high canopy must be maintained. Trees can be 

harvested only in small areas that range in size from single- to 

multiple-tree gaps. Group and single-tree selection are acceptable; 

clearcut and shelterwood are excluded. 

No multiple-tree 

gaps

A continuous high canopy must be maintained. Trees can be 

harvested only in single-tree gaps. Only single-tree selection is 

acceptable; clearcut, shelterwood, and group selection are excluded. 
23

of oak in the regeneration; they are simply among the desirable species considered in assessing 

regeneration stocking. The mixed-oak charts focus on cultivating a strong oak component in 

the regeneration and reflect the complex timing and sequences of treatments that mimic the 

historical disturbance regime that perpetuated oak forests.

The “start regenerating now” question gives the user the option to bypass SILVAH’s default 

stand maturity criterion (18-inch mean diameter of merchantable-size stems (MDM) or less 

than 35 percent AGS trees in the overstory). This is important when the forest manager wishes 

to begin a regeneration sequence for a reason other than stand maturity. For example, a forest 

manager might want to regenerate a 15-inch MDM oak stand on a poor-quality site because 

it is unlikely that the 18-inch MDM threshold will ever be reached. Other examples of where 

regenerating sub 18-inch MDM oak stands might be desirable are in anticipation of imminent 

insect defoliation or landscape management plan considerations. To access the SILVAH 

regeneration prescriptions in these cases, the forest manager must choose “Yes” as the answer to 

this question.

The “increase oak” question refers to whether the proportion of competitive oak in the 

regeneration should be favored at the expense of other desirable reproduction during the 

silvicultural treatments. Forest managers who wish to emphasize oak in the new stand should 

answer “Yes” to this question. The third-decade stocking model described by Steiner and 

others (2008) may be helpful in answering this question if the stand meets the site quality and 

physiographic limitations of that model.

The question about postharvest residuals addresses the practice of retaining some trees to meet 

policy guidelines or objectives related to aesthetics, diversity, or wildlife values. Manager wishing 

to retain some trees from the current stand into the new one for any reason must answer “Yes” 

to this question.

Identification information is retained for record-keeping purposes. Some data can be recorded 

before the cruise; the remainder are recorded later. Precruise information includes the name 

of the landowner (U.S. Forest Service, Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry, John Doe, etc.), name 

of the forest (Allegheny National Forest, Elk State Forest, North Woodlot, etc.), county of the 

stand, its acreage, and year of origin if known.

Finally, deer impact and site-index/site-quality information from the understory inventory are 

recorded as both indexes are important in SILVAH’s decisionmaking process.
24

CHAPTER 3: KEY DECISION VARIABLES

Patrick Brose, Peter Knopp, and Susan Stout

To arrive at an appropriate prescription for a stand, data collected on factors such as desirable 

seedling regeneration, interfering plants, site quality, deer impact, and overstory shading are 

summarized into a set of key decision variables and reported in various sections of a SILVAH 

printout (Appendix 3). These variables are evaluated against thresholds established from research 

and forestry practice according to the “stocked plot” concept (Marquis and Bjorkbom 1982, 

Marquis and others 1975, Roach and Gingrich 1968). The “stocked plot” concept is that for 

any key decision variable, a minimum, per-plot, threshold has been established and any plot 

exceeding that minimum threshold is considered stocked. For example, the minimum threshold 

for a plot to be stocked with fern interference is 30-percent coverage. A plot with 20-percent 

fern coverage is not considered stocked while a plot with 35-percent fern coverage is considered 

stocked.

Understory

Regeneration Stocking

SILVAH determines regeneration stocking for the species and species groups recorded in the 

field. The number of qualifying stems recorded on the data collection sheet for each plot is 

compared to the minimum number of stems in Table 3.1. This minimum threshold is closely 

tied to deer impact and varies by species and species group. For example, a plot containing 

60 new oak would be stocked at deer impact levels 1 to 3 inclusive, but not at deer impact 

Table 3.1.—Stocking criteria (weighted stems/plot) for species and species groups

Deer Impact Index

Species or group 1 2 3 4 5

Black cherry 10 15 20 25 50

Conifers 2 5 15 25 50

Competitive oak (Lowa) 1 1 1 1 1

Competitive oak (Meda) 2 2 2 2 2

Competitive oak (Higha) 3 3 3 3 3

Established oak 12 12 25 50 100

New oak 25 25 50 100 200

Other desirables 15 30 50 100 200

Yellow-poplar 1 5 10 50 100

Saplings 

(<2 inches d.b.h.) 2 2 2 2 2

Saplings 

(2-6 inches d.b.h.) 1 1 1 1 1

Residuals (not counted toward regeneration stocking in oak stands)

Competitive desirables 15 30 50 100 200

Established desirables 15 30 50 100 200

Total oak 25 25 50 100 200

a

Refers to site quality.
25

levels 4 or 5. In the case of competitive oak, site quality also is considered. For instance, a plot 

containing two competitive oaks would be stocked on low- and medium-quality sites but not 

on a high-quality site.

SILVAH also sums the counts of the different species and species groups to make three 

calculated regeneration variables: Competitive Desirables, Established Desirables, and Total 

Oak. Competitive Desirables is the sum of the non-oak counts plus the count of Competitive 

Oak. Established Desirables is the sum of Competitive Desirables plus the count of Established 

Oak. Total Oak is the sum of the count of Competitive Oak plus the counts of Established Oak 

and New Oak. These variables are important where the mix of regeneration fails to meet any 

stocking criterion, but the sum meets an appropriate threshold.

Oak Stump Sprout Stocking

An important source of oak regeneration is sprouting of the overstory oaks after they are 

harvested (Sander and others 1984). Sprouting probability of mature oaks varies considerably 

among the species and decreases as size class increases (Sander and others 1984). SILVAH 

calculates an estimated contribution of oak stump sprouts to regeneration stocking for a 

given stand based on the basal area of various oak species in the overstory. Table 3.2 shows the 

percentage of stems per acre expected to sprout for each square foot of oak basal area in the 

overstory by species and size class (Sander and others 1984).

SILVAH estimates the number of trees per acre in each of these size classes and converts these 

estimated numbers of sprouting stumps per acre to stocking percentages using the values in 

Table 3.3. SILVAH imposes an upper limit on the allowable contribution of stump sprouts 

to regeneration stocking. On poor-quality sites, the limit on the allowable contribution to 

regeneration stocking from stump sprouts is 60 percent. On medium- and good-quality sites, 

the limits are 40 and 20 percent, respectively. Conversely, SILVAH discounts the contribution 

of stump sprouts as the Deer Impact Index rises because deer preferentially browse stump 

sprouts. For example, at deer impact 3, approximately twice the number of sprouting stumps 

is needed to produce the same stocking levels as deer impact 1 or 2. At deer impact 4 and 5, 

stump sprouts do not add anything to regeneration stocking.

Summary Variables

The decision charts use a number of summary variables. For example, a summary variable called 

Any Competitive Regeneration is used frequently to help determine whether a stand is ready 

Table 3.2.—Expected percentage of oak stumps that will sprout after cutting

D.b.h of parent tree (inches)

Species 2 to 5 6 to 11 12 to 16 17+

Black oak 85 65 20 5

Chestnut oak 100 90 75 50

Northern red oak 100 60 45 30

Scarlet oak 100 85 50 20

White oak 80 50 15 0
26

for a final removal cut. These are logical variables that summarize the information included in 

the individual species and species groups. All of these are calculated internally by SILVAH. The 

list that follows defines these variables. Note that SILVAH provides these summary regeneration 

stocking values at the ambient deer impact and as if a woven-wire fence is erected and 

maintained (Deer Impact Index 1).

Any Competitive Regeneration: A plot is stocked with Any Competitive Regeneration 

if it meets the stocking criteria for any of the regeneration categories in Table 3.1 except 

New Oak, Established Oak, Established Desirables, and Total Oak. The value reported 

on the SILVAH printout is the percentage of plots that meet any of these criterion plus 

the Stump Sprout Contribution to Regeneration Stocking calculated from the overstory 

inventory and Table 3.3.

Any Competitive Regeneration or Residuals: Same as No. 1 except any plot 

containing a residual tree also is included.

Any Established Regeneration: A plot is stocked with Any Established Regeneration 

if it meets the stocking criteria for any of the regeneration categories in Table 3.1 except 

New Oak and Total Oak. The value reported on the SILVAH printout is the percentage 

of plots that meet any criterion plus the Stump Sprout Contribution to Regeneration 

Stocking calculated from the overstory inventory and Table 3.3.

All Established Oak: A plot is stocked with All Established Oak if it meets the 

stocking criteria for Established Oak or Competitive Oak in Table 3.1. The value 

reported on the SILVAH printout is the percentage of plots that meet any criterion plus 

the Stump Sprout Contribution to Regeneration Stocking calculated from the overstory 

inventory and Table 3.3.

All Oak: A plot is stocked with All Oak if it meets the stocking criteria for New Oak, 

Established Oak, Competitive Oak, or Total Oak. The value reported on the SILVAH 

printout is the percentage of plots that meet any criterion plus the Stump Sprout 

Contribution to Regeneration Stocking calculated from the overstory inventory and 

Table 3.3.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

Table 3.3.—Factors for converting expected oak sprouts to a stocking equivalent

Site and Deer

Impact Index

Sprouting stumps per acre

(percent stocking equivalent)a

High, 1 and 2 21-45 (5) 46-71 (10) 72-96 (15) 97+ (20)

Med., 1 and 2 21-45 (10) 46-71 (20) 72-96 (30) 97+ (40)

Low, 1 and 2 21-45 (15) 46-71 (30) 72-96 (45) 97+ (60)

High, 3 46-96 (5) 97-146 (10) 147-197 (15) 198+ (20)

Med., 3 21-45 (10) 46-71 (20) 72-96 (30) 97+ (40)

Low, 3 21-45 (15) 46-71 (30) 72-96 (45) 97+ (60)

High, 4 and 5 At these deer impact levels, stump

Med., 4 and 5 sprouts will not contribute to regeneration

Low, 4 and 5 success regardless of site quality.

a

For example, a stand with 100 sprouting stumps on a high-quality site with a Deer Impact Index 

of 2 adds 20 percent to the regeneration stocking total. At deer impact index 3, stocking drops to 

10 percent. At deer levels 4 and 5, stocking is zero.
27

Stocking of Regeneration Obstacles

SILVAH calculates the percentage of plots that are stocked with various kinds of interfering 

plants and site limitations in the same manner as it determines regeneration stocking, except 

that these decision variables are independent of deer impact. Table 3.4 shows the stocking 

thresholds for each of the interfering plant variables. All plots on which site limitations were 

tallied are considered stocked with that limitation. SILVAH also calculates another summary 

variable: Any Interference. A plot stocked with any of the interfering vegetation types is 

considered to be stocked with Any Interference.

Overstory

Just as SILVAH calculates key decision and summary variables from the understory data to help 

navigate the silvicultural charts and arrive at a recommended prescription, it does likewise with 

the overstory data. Important overstory information is provided on basal area by species and size 

class, volume and value estimations, stand diameters, relative density, effective age, and years to 

maturity.

SILVAH calculates basal areas using standard forest mensuration equations and does so for any 

tree species. An important basal area in SILVAH is that of undesirable saplings and poles. Ten 

square feet of basal area per acre of undesirable sapling/pole trees marks a shade threshold that 

must be addressed during a stand regeneration sequence (Miller and others 2004a). When this 

threshold is exceeded in a stand, SILVAH reports 70-percent stocking of tall woody interference 

and recommends some type of treatment. Volume estimates are from the Mesavage and Girard’s 

(1946) volume tables and are based on the Doyle, International 1⁄4-inch (default), or Scribner 

log rules. SILVAH applies log grades according to the hardwood volume equations of Wiant 

and Yandle (1984) and Wiant (1986) unless stand-specific data on log grade and defect are 

provided by the user.

Measures of stand diameter are: 1) the medial diameter of all trees more than 1.0-inch d.b.h. 

and 2) the mean diameter of the merchantable trees (MDM). This measure excludes trees less 

than 6.0 inches d.b.h. SILVAH considers a stand to be financially mature when the MDM 

reaches 18 inches (Marquis and others 1992).

SILVAH calculates three overstory decision variables (years to maturity, effective age, and 

relative density) that are important in navigating the decision charts. These are sometimes 

confusing to foresters so they are explained here in greater detail.

Table 3.4.—Thresholds for considering a plot stocked with various types of 

interference

Type of interference Critical value Plot size evaluated

Tall woody 1 stem 6-foot radius

Low woody 30 percent 26-foot radius

Fern 30 percent 26-foot radius

Grass 30 percent 26-foot radius

Grapevine 1 vine 26-foot radius
28

Years to Maturity and Effective Age

Years to Maturity estimates how long it will be until the stand reaches 18 inches MDM. It is 

calculated from MDM, the financial maturity threshold, and one of two d.b.h. growth rates 

(0.15 inch/year for American beech, sugar maple, and all oaks (except northern red) or 0.20 

inch/year for all other hardwoods) by the following equation: 

Years to Maturity = (18 ́– MDM) / Growth Rate.

Initially, a projected maturity is calculated for each species in the overstory. These speciesspecific values are averaged and weighted by basal area to produce a standwide Years to Maturity. 

For example, a two-species stand with 50 percent of its basal area in northern red oak with an 

MDM of 16 inches and the remaining half in white oak with an MDM of 8 inches would have 

species-specific Years to Maturity of 10 and 67 years. The overall stand would have a Years to 

Maturity of 38 years.

Closely associated with Years to Maturity is Effective Age. Rather than the actual age of the 

stand as determined by increment coring, Effective Age is derived for individual species in the 

overstory and for the stand as a whole by the following equation:

Effective Age = [(MDM / Growth Rate) – Years to Maturity].

For instance, the northern red oak and white oak in the previous example would have individual 

effective ages of 80 and 53 years, respectively. The Effective Age for the stand would be 67 years.

Relative Density

The major regeneration obstacle in mixed-oak forests throughout the Eastern United States is 

the dense shade cast by the overstory and midstory trees (Lorimer 1993, Lorimer and others 

1994, Fig. 3.1). Quantifying this shade is important in prescribing an appropriate treatment but 

direct measures of shading are impractical during stand cruises. SILVAH uses relative density 

to fill this need as it is readily calculated from basal-area 

measurements that are routinely collected during stand 

examinations (Stout and Nyland 1986, Stout and others 

1987).

Relative density is a measure of crowding or stocking 

among the trees of a stand and thus is correlated to 

the degree of understory shading. It is expressed as 

a proportion with a relative density of 100 percent, 

indicating a fully stocked stand, and is analogous of the A 

line on oak stocking charts (Gingrich 1967, McGill and 

others 1999). In addition to the basal area measurements, 

relative density also takes into account species, stand 

stratification, and crown shape. As a result, relative density 

provides a more realistic estimation of overstory crowding 

and subsequent shading of the forest floor than basal area.

Figure 3.1.—Dense understory shade inhibits the 

development of oak reproduction and is a major factor 

inhibiting oak regeneration throughout the eastern 

United States.

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
29

SILVAH groups trees into three classes based on similarity of shade tolerance and growth rate 

for determining relative density (Stout and others 1987; Fig. 3.2). Group 1 contains trees that 

are fast-growing shade intolerants such as black cherry, white ash, and yellow-poplar. Group 2 

species are intermediate in growth rate and shade tolerance. Northern red oak and red maple are 

representatives of Group 2 trees. Group 3 trees are shade tolerant and/or slow-growing species 

such as American beech, sugar maple, and white oak. Specific relative density equations for 

these three groups are:

G1: RD = (183.35/d.b.h.2) x (0.0033033 + (0.020426 x d.b.h.) + (0.0006776 x d.b.h.2)) x BA

G2: RD = (183.35/d.b.h.2) x (-0.027142 + (0.024257 x d.b.h.) + (0.0015225 x d.b.h.2)) x BA

G3: RD = (183.35/d.b.h.2) x (-0.0027935 + (0.0058959 x d.b.h.) + (0.004729 x d.b.h.2)) x BA

RD is relative density in percent, BA is basal area in square feet per tree, and d.b.h. is diameter 

at breast height in inches.

What this means is that the amount of shade cast on the forest floor by the overstory canopy 

is a function of species composition, bole diameter, and crown shape. For example, three 

hypothetical hardwood stands (A, B, C) have the same mean stem diameter (22 inches), same 

basal area (~106 ft2), and all contain 40 trees per acre. They differ in species compositions; 

Stand A is pure black cherry, Stand B is pure northern red oak, and Stand C is pure white 

oak. Only Stand C is fully stocked; relative density is about 100 percent and shade is limiting 

development of the regeneration. The black cherry and red oak stands have abundant 

understory light for regeneration development, their relative densities are 31 and 51 percent, 

respectively.

Figure 3.2.—Tree area curves for determining relative density. Group 1 

includes black cherry, white ash, and yellow-poplar. Group 2 trees are northern 

red oak, red maple, and all species not specifically included in another group. 

Group 3 contains American beech, sugar maple, and all oaks except northern 

red oak. (Redrawn from Marquis and others 1992, Stout and others 1987).

Diameter at Breast Height (inches) 

Tree area: 0.01 acres 

4 8 12 16 20 24 

4

3

2

1

Group 1 

Group 2 

Group 3 
30

CHAPTER 4: THE DECISION CHARTS

Patrick Brose, Kurt Gottschalk, Peter Knopp, Gary Miller, and Susan Stout

At the heart of the SILVAH decision-support system are 11 dichotomous decision charts 

(A - K) that are navigated with the summary inventory data to a recommended prescription. 

The first five charts are revised versions of the Allegheny and northern hardwood decision charts 

published by Marquis and others (1992). Chart A is a steering chart; it helps determine which 

forest type (Allegheny/northern hardwood or mixed oak) is appropriate given user-defined 

management objectives and some site characteristics. Chart B provides uneven-age management 

prescriptions for stands containing sufficient stocking of desirable shade-tolerant species. It also 

contains a legend explaining the four prescription groups and their shading. The darker the 

shading, the more problematic the prescription will be to implement. Chart C is for thinning 

immature stands and is appropriate for either forest type. Charts D and E contain regeneration 

prescriptions for renewing Allegheny and northern hardwood stands.

There are six oak charts (F - K). Chart F contains prescriptions for releasing competitive oak 

reproduction on good-quality sites (oak SI50 >70 feet). Chart G also is for high-quality sites but 

addresses how to enhance existing established oak seedlings so they can successfully compete 

after a future final harvest. Chart H is nearly identical to Chart F except it is for low- and 

medium-quality sites. In this chart, SILVAH treats established oak seedlings as if they were 

competitive sized, i.e., recommends final harvests in lieu of a shelterwood sequence. Chart I 

prescriptions promote development of new oak seedlings into the larger established oak size 

class. Charts J and K provide prescriptions aimed at establishing new oak seedlings via natural 

and artificial means, respectively.

Note that the oak charts are arranged in order of increasing regeneration difficulty. For example, 

the prescriptions on Chart F are easy and inexpensive to apply relative to those on Chart K.
31

Start Chart A

What are the Silvicultural System Restrictions?

Chart B

Uneven-age

Prescriptions

Is the stand mature?

Chart C

Thinning

Prescriptions

Are there Site Limitations?

3 - No even-age systems

4 - No multi-tree canopy gaps

Yes

Site Limits > 29%

No

Site Limits < 30% 

Yes

MDM > 18 inches

 or AGSRD < 35%

No

MDM <18 inches 

and AGSRD > 34%

1 - No restrictions

2 - No clearcutting

No

Deer Index < 4

Is Deer Impact high?

No

Sh. Tol. BA 

< 35 sq. ft. 

Yes

Sh. Tol. BA

 > 34 sq. ft.

Yes

Deer Index > 3

Does the manager choose to 

begin regeneration now?

No

Were regen. data collected?

Is Deer Impact high?

No

Deer Index < 4

Yes

Deer Index > 3

Are there enough tolerants for

uneven-age management?

No

Sh. Tol. BA

 < 35 sq. ft. 

Yes

Sh. Tol. BA

 > 34 sq. ft.

Are there enough tolerants for

uneven-age management?

Uneven-age mgmt. 

will not work 

w/o tolerants or 

w/ high deer. 

Re-examine goals.

 Allegheny or 

Northern Hardwoods

Chart D

AH/NH

Regeneration

Prescriptions

Chart F

Oak

Regeneration

Prescriptions

What is the Forest Type?

Mixed Oak

Yes

Yes

No

Collect 

regen. data.
32

Chart B 

Uneven-Age 

Prescriptions

From

Chart A

Is Relative Density high enough to permit a partial cut?

Do Silv. Sys. Restrictions forbid multiple-tree canopy gaps?

No.

Silv. Sys. Rest.= 3

Yes.

Silv. Sys. Rest.= 4

Defer

Cutting

Yes

Rel. Den. > 79%

Group or

Single-Tree

Selection

Single-Tree

Selection

Prescription

Prescription

These prescriptions generally produce the 

desired results and require no investment. 

We strongly recommend these treatments.

These prescriptions generally produce the 

desired results, require an investment, and 

usually yield an economic return at the 

same time. If such investments meet your 

organization's economic criteria, we 

recommend them. If not, we recommend no 

treatment. In the case of regeneration 

prescriptions, stands generally will not 

reproduce without the recommended 

treatment.

These prescriptions are problematic. They 

require an investment with little or no chance of 

an economic return in the foreseeable future. 

Stands of this type are difficult to regenerate. 

We recommend no treatment but if some action 

is considered necessary, we suggest you 

consider the treatment shown.

Prescription

Prescription Type Legend

These prescriptions are problematic. They 

require an investment and do not yield an 

economic return for 5 to 10 years. If such 

investments meet your organization's economic 

criteria, we recommend them. If not, we 

recommend no treatment. In the case of 

regeneration prescriptions, stands generally will 

not reproduce without the recommended 

treatment.

Prescription

No

Rel. Den. < 80%
33

Chart C 

Thinning 

Prescriptions

Is Relative Density high enough to permit partial cutting ?

Yes

Rel. Den. > 79%

No

Rel. Den. < 80%

Are Saplings a major stand component ?

Is the volume available adequate for 

sawtimber or integrated sale ?

Yes. 

Sap BA > 19 ft2.

From 

Chart A

Is volume available adequate 

for pulpwood only sale?

Defer

Cutting

Yes.

 Vol >=user 

threshold

No. 

Vol < user threshold 

Yes. 

Vol >= user threshold

Defer

Cutting

No. 

Sap BA < 20 ft2. 

Is the stand close to maturity ?

Is the volume available adequate for 

pulpwood, sawtimber, or integrated sale?

No. 

Vol < user threshold Yes.

Vol >= user threshold

Will shade intolerants dominate thinning response?

Yes

BC +WA + YP 

BA > 44 ft2.

No

BC + WA +YP 

BA < 45 ft2.

Use 75% residual in 

volume tests

Use 60% residual in 

volume tests

Commercial

Thinning

No. 

Vol < user threshold

Thin - 

Harvest 

No. 

Yrs. to Mat. > 14

Yes. 

Yrs. to Mat. < 15

TSI and 

Commercial

Thinning

TSI and 

Commercial

Pulpwood

Thinning

Evaluate for 

Crop Tree 

Release

(Chart N)
34

Chart D 

Allegheny & Northern 

Hardwoods

Regeneration Release 

Prescriptions

From 

Chart

A or F

Are Saplings adequate for release?

Is Any Competitive Regen. adequate?

Yes.

Saplings > 69%

No. 

 Saplings < 70% 

Are interfering plants extremely dense?

Yes.

Any Int. > 69%

No.

Any Int. < 70%

Final

Removal Cut,

Follow-up

First

Removal Cut,

Reinventory

To

Chart E

Is Any Competitive Regen. adequate 

if area is fenced against deer?

No.

Silv. Sys. Rest. = 1 and 

Site Limits < 30%

No.

Residual not desired 

and Regen > 69%

No.

Deer Index < 4

Is Deer Impact high?

Yes.

Deer Index > 3

No.

Any Competitive Regen. < 70%

Yes.

Any Competitive Regen. - 

No Deer > 69%

No.

Any Competitive Regen. - 

No Deer < 70%

Yes.

Any Competitive Regen. > 69%

Yes.

Silv. Sys. Rest. = 2 or

Site Limits > 29%

No.

Silv. Sys. Rest. = 1 and

Site Limits < 30%

Yes.

Residuals desired or 

 Regen. with Residuals 

> 69%

Final

Removal Cut 

with Residuals,

Follow-up

No.

Residuals not desired 

and Regen. -

 No Deer > 69%

Yes.

Residuals desired or 

 Regen. w ith Residuals 

No Deer > 69%

Final

Removal Cut,

Follow-up

Fence,

First

Removal Cut,

Reinventory

Fence,

Final

Removal Cut,

Follow-up

Fence,

Final

Removal Cut 

with Residuals,

Follow-up

Are Residuals desired or needed? Are Residuals desired or needed?

Do Silv. Sys. Restrictions 

or Site Limits constrain rx?

Do Silv. Sys. Restrictions 

or Site Limits constrain rx?
35

From Chart

D or F

Is seed supply limiting even if area is fenced against deer?

Is seed supply limiting at existing deer levels?

Is overstory shade limiting regen.?

Yes.

Rel. Den. > 74%

No.

Any Int. 

< 30% 

Shelterwood

Seed Cut,

Reinventory

Yes.

Seed Index = 3, 2-3

and Deer Index = 4, 5

No.

Seed Index = 1-3

Are interfering 

plants a problem?

Yes.

Any Int. 

> 29%

Fence,

Art. 

Regen.

Chart E 

Allegheny and Northern 

Hardwoods 

Regeneration Establishment

Prescriptions

No.

Seed Index = 1-3, 1-2, 1

and Deer Index = 1-3, 4, 5

Yes.

Seed Index = 4

No.

Rel. Den. < 75%

Yes.

Rel. Den. > 74%

No.

Rel. Den. < 75%

Are interfering 

plants a problem?

Are interfering 

plants a problem?

Are interfering 

plants a problem?

No.

Any Int. 

< 30% 

No.

Any Int. 

< 30% 

No.

Any Int. 

< 30% 

Yes.

Any Int. 

> 29%

Yes.

Any Int. 

> 29%

Yes.

Any Int. 

> 29%

No Treatment,

Monitor Seed 

Crops,

Reinventory

Is overstory shade limiting regen.?

Herbicide,

Shelterwood

Seed Cut,

Reinventory

Herbicide,

Reinventory

Fence,

Shelterwood

Seed Cut,

Reinventory

Fence,

Herbicide,

Shelterwood

Seed Cut,

Reinventory

Fence,

Reinventory

Fence,

Herbicide,

Reinventory
36

Chart F 

Mixed-Oak

Regeneration

Release 

Prescriptions

Is Any Competitive Regen. adequate?

Is Competitive Oak adequate?

From

Chart 

A

Yes. 

Competitive Oak > 49%

No. 

Competitive Oak < 50%

Is Any Competitive Regen. 

adequate inside a fence?

Do Silv. Sys. Restrictions or Site Limits constrain rx?

No. 

Any Comp.

Regen. < 70%

Yes. 

Any Comp.

Regen. > 69%

No. 

Any Comp. Regen. - 

No Deer < 70%

Yes. 

Any Comp. Regen. - 

No Deer > 69%

No.

Silv. Sys. Rest.=1 and

Site Limits < 30%

Does manager wish to

increase Competitive Oak ?

Yes. No.

Yes.

Silv. Sys. Rest.=2 or

Site Limits > 29%

No.

Silv. Sys. Rest.=1 and

Site Limits < 30%

Are Residuals desired or needed?

Yes. No.

Do Silv. Sys. Restrictions or Site Limits constrain rx?

Yes.

Silv. Sys. Rest.=2 or

Site Limits > 29%

 Final 

Removal Cut,

 Follow-up

 Final 

Removal Cut

w/ Residuals,

 Follow-up

 First 

Removal Cut,

 Reinventory

 Fence,

 First 

Removal Cut,

 Reinventory

Are Residuals desired or needed?

Yes. No.

 Fence,

 Final 

Removal Cut,

 Follow-up

 Fence,

 Final 

Removal Cut

w/ Residuals,

 Follow-up

To

Chart G

To

Chart E

To

Chart D
37

Is overstory shade limiting regen. growth?

Yes. 

Rel. Den. > 74%

Are interfering plants a problem?

No. 

Any Int. <30%

Yes. 

Site Class = 1 or 

 chestnut oak SI > 69 ft

No. 

Site Class = 2 or 3 or 

chestnut oak SI < 70 ft

Is All Established Oak adequate? 

Yes. 

All Est. Oak > 49%

From 

Chart 

F

Chart G 

Mixed-Oak 

Regeneration

Enhancement

Prescriptions

Is All Est. Oak adequate inside a fence?

Is this a high-quality site?

No. 

All Est. Oak < 50%

Yes. 

All Est. Oak - 

No Deer > 49%

No. 

Rel. Den. <75%

Yes. 

Any Int. > 29%

Are interfering plants a problem?

No. 

Any Int. <30%

Yes. 

Any Int. > 29%

Is Deer Impact high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Is Deer Impact high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Is Deer Impact high? Is Deer Impact high?

No. 

Deer Index < 4

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

Fence,

First Removal Cut,

Release Burn,

Reinventory

First

Removal Cut, 

Release Burn,

Reinventory

Fence,

Reinventory

First 

Removal Cut,

Herbicide, 

Reinventory

OR OR

Release Burn,

Reinventory

Herbicide,

Reinventory

OR

Fence,

First Removal Cut,

Herbicide,

Reinventory

Fence,

Release Burn,

Reinventory

Fence,

Herbicide,

Reinventory

OR

Fence,

First 

Removal Cut,

Reinventory

No. 

All Est. Oak - 

No Deer < 50%

To

Chart H

To

Chart I

 First 

Removal Cut,

 Reinventory

No Treatment,

 Reinventory
38

Chart H 

Mixed-Oak

Regeneration

Release

Prescriptions

Do Silv. Sys. Restrictions or Site Limits constrain rx?

Yes.

 Any Estbl. 

Regen. > 69%

Is Any Established Regen. adequate?

From 

Chart

G

No.

 Any Estbl. 

Regen. <70%

Is Any Established Regen. adequate inside a fence?

Yes.

 Any Estbl. Regen. - 

No Deer > 69%

No.

 Any Estbl. Regen. - 

No Deer <70%

To 

Chart

I

Yes.

 Silv. Sys. Rest.=2 or

Site Limits > 29%

No.

 Silv. Sys. Rest.=1 

and Site Limits <30%

Is Deer Impact high? 

No.

 Deer Impact < 4

Yes.

 Deer Impact > 3

Is Deer Impact high? 

No.

 Deer Impact < 4

Yes.

 Deer Impact > 3

Are Residuals desired or needed?

Yes. No.

Are Residuals desired or needed?

Yes. No.

 Fence,

 Final 

Removal Cut

w/ Residuals,

 Follow-up

 Fence,

 Final 

Removal Cut,

 Follow-up

 Fence,

 First 

Removal Cut,

 Reinventory

 Final 

Removal Cut

w/ Residuals,

 Follow-up

 Final 

Removal Cut,

 Follow-up

 First 

Removal Cut,

 Reinventory
39

Is Deer Index high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

Is Deer Index high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

No. 

Deer Index < 4

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Is Deer Index high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Fence,

Prep. Cut,

Herbicide,

Reinventory

Fence,

Reinventory

Yes. 

Any Int. > 29%

No. 

Any Int. < 30%

Are interfering plants a problem?

Yes. 

Any Int. > 29%

No. 

Any Int. < 30%

Herbicide,

Reinventory

Fence,

Herbicide,

Reinventory

Is All Oak adequate? 

Yes. 

All Oak > 49%

From 

Chart 

G or H

Chart I 

Mixed-Oak 

Regeneration

Enhancement

Prescriptions

Is All Oak adequate inside a fence?

Is overstory shade limiting regen. growth?

No. 

All Oak < 50%

Yes. 

All Oak - 

No Deer > 49%

Are interfering plants a problem?

Yes. 

Rel. Den. > 74%

No. 

Rel. Den. < 75%

Prep. Cut,

Herbicide,

Reinventory

No. 

All Oak - 

No Deer < 50%

Is Deer Index high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Fence,

Prep. Cut,

Reinventory

 Prep. Cut,

Reinventory

No Treatment,

 Reinventory

To 

Chart

J
40

 From

 Chart 

 H or I

Is forest floor limiting regen. establishment?

Yes. 

Thick Duff > 29%

No. 

Thick Duff < 30%

Chart J 

Mixed-Oak 

Regeneration

Establishment

Prescriptions Is oak seed source adequate?

Yes. 

Sawlog Oak 

BA > 39 ft2/ac

No. 

Sawlog Oak 

BA < 40 ft2/ac

 To

Chart 

 K

Are interfering plants a problem?

Is Deer Index high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

Is Deer Index high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

No. 

Deer Index < 4

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Fence,

Site Prep. Burn,

Monitor Acorns, 

Reinventory

Is Deer Index high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Fence,

Scarify,

Herbicide,

Monitor Acorns,

Reinventory

Scarify,

Herbicide,

Monitor Acorns,

Reinventory

Site Prep. Burn, 

Monitor Acorns,

Reinventory

Fence,

Monitor Acorns,

Reinventory

Yes. 

Any Int. > 29%

No. 

Any Int. < 30%

Are interfering plants a problem?

Yes. 

Any Int. > 29%

No. 

Any Int. < 30%

Herbicide,

Monitor Acorns, 

Reinventory

Fence,

Herbicide,

Monitor Acorns,

Reinventory

Is Deer Index high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Fence,

Scarify,

Monitor Acorns,

Reinventory

Scarify,

Monitor Acorns,

Reinventory

OR OR

 No Treatment,

Monitor Acorns,

 Reinventory
41

From

Chart 

 J

Chart K 

 Mixed-Oak 

Artificial

Regeneration

Prescriptions

Will overstory shade hinder art. regen. survival?

Yes. 

Rel. Den. > 19%

Is Deer Index high?

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

Are interfering plants a problem?

Yes. 

Any Int. > 29%

No. 

Any Int. < 30%

No. 

Rel. Den. < 20%

Are interfering plants a problem?

Yes. 

Any Int. > 29%

No. 

Any Int. < 30%

Is Deer Index high? Is Deer Index high? Is Deer Index high?

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

Yes. 

Deer Index > 3

No. 

Deer Index < 4

No. 

Deer Index < 4

No. 

Deer Index < 4

Site Prep. Burn, 

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

Fence,

Site Prep. Burn, 

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

Fence,

Herbicide,

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

OR

Fence,

Liberation Cut,

Site Prep Burn,

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

Fence,

Liberation Cut,

Herbicide,

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

OR

Liberation Cut,

Site Prep Burn,

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

Liberation Cut,

Herbicide,

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

Fence,

Liberation Cut,

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

Liberation Cut,

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

Herbicide,

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up

OR OR

Fence,

Art. Regen.,

Follow-up
42

CHAPTER 5: OAK REGENERATION PRESCRIPTIONS

Patrick Brose, Kurt Gottschalk, Steve Horsley, Peter Knopp, Jim Kochenderfer, 

Gary Miller, and Susan Stout

The goal of the oak prescriptions in this guidebook is to create, directly or indirectly, new evenaged hardwood stands with oak as at least 50 percent of the dominant and codominant trees at 

canopy closure (age 10 to 20, depending on site quality). At this point in stand development, 

crop tree management (Chapter 6) is appropriate to shape species composition of the stand and 

ensure long-term survival of the selected crop trees.

Each SILVAH printout (Appendix 3) contains a prescription of one or more silvicultural 

practices from a variety of sources. Those on Charts B - E are from “Prescribing Silvicultural 

Treatments in Hardwood Stands of the Alleghenies” (revised) by Marquis and others (1992). 

Some of the oak-prescription practices are from other forest types within this region. For 

example, broadcast spraying of herbicide to control ferns is from research conducted in 

Allegheny and northern hardwood forests (Horsley 1981, 1989, 1990; Horsley and others 

1992) but also is effective in oak forests. Other prescriptions are from other regions where their 

effectiveness has been documented. For example, the herbicide-shelterwood method of Loftis 

(1985, 1990) and the shelterwood-burn technique of Brose and others (1999a, b) are from the 

Southern Appalachian and Piedmont regions, respectively. They are currently being tested in 

the mid-Atlantic region; preliminary results indicate that they would be effective in this region 

with minor revisions to account for local circumstances. Others treatments, e.g., scarification, 

are from research results (Zaczek and others 1997) that have never been incorporated into a 

management technique. Many prescriptions contain a fencing recommendation, a practice that 

is as much the result of formal research (Marquis 1977, Marquis and Grisez 1978) as hands-on 

experience.

All of the prescriptions are founded on the two cardinal rules of successful oak silviculture: 1) 

there must be competitive sources of oak regeneration in advance of the final overstory harvest, 

and 2) that advanced oak regeneration must be adequately and timely released (Loftis 2004). 

Ignoring these cardinal rules likely will result in an oak regeneration failure.

These two rules contain the following caveats that are equally as important:

Regenerating oaks becomes more problematic as site quality improves. Once oak 

site index exceeds 65 feet (an intermediate site), competition from other vegetation 

becomes intense and it is difficult to regenerate an oak forest (Lorimer 1993).

High densities of small oak seedlings are necessary to obtain large oak advanced 

regeneration on high-quality sites because of substantial oak mortality rates (Loftis 

1990a; Miller and others 2004a).

The key to growing small oak seedlings to large oak advanced regeneration is to manage 

their root development by controlling understory shade and protecting from deer 

browsing (Miller and others 2004a, Brose 2008).

1)

2)

3)
43

Because of these caveats, regenerating oak stands, 

especially on high-quality sites, is a process, not an 

event. Several years are required to implement a 

two-practice prescription and a decade or more likely 

would be required to complete a prescription of three 

or more practices.

Fencing

There are three fence types: electric, plastic, and woven 

wire (Fig. 5.1). Of these, only the woven-wire fence 

should be used in oak forests as it likely will be in place 

for a decade. Fence height should be a minimum of 

8 feet and the bottom of the fence must be anchored 

flush to the ground, especially in low spots. Fence 

layout should be oval to rectangular, without acute 

interior angles, and no larger than 50 acres. Experience 

shows that deer readily move around these types of 

fences with minimal penetration. If the area to be 

fenced exceeds 50 acres, construct two or more fences 

with travel corridors between them. Once the fence 

is erected, drive the entire stand and remove any deer 

that are inside the fence. The fence will require at least 

monthly inspections and occasional maintenance.

In some cases when deer impact is level 3 (moderate), 

there may be alternatives to fencing. On large land 

ownerships (more than 1 square mile) on which there 

has been little or no hunting, an aggressive hunting 

program targeted at does and sustained throughout 

the regeneration process may reduce browsing pressure 

enough to allow regeneration to grow beyond the 

reach of deer. In this scenario, defer harvesting until 

deer impact is reduced substantially. Another approach 

is leaving as much logging slash as possible in the stand 

after a harvest to protect the regeneration from deer.

Final Removal Cut

The final removal cut is the last harvest of a regeneration sequence. The cut creates a high light 

environment that favors both growth of the competitive oak regeneration already in place and 

the reproduction of shade-intolerant hardwoods (Fig. 5.2). To implement this practice, harvest 

all trees larger than 1-inch d.b.h. In rare cases where a sapling layer of oak species is present, 

harvest the overstory carefully to minimize damage to the oak saplings. As much as 15 ft2 basal 

area of residual trees can be left post-harvest to meet aesthetic, diversity, or wildlife objectives.

Figure 5.1.—Deer exclusion fences are electric or are 

made of plastic or woven-wire.

Photos are by Todd Ristau and Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station (top and bottom), and Gary Frank, Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry (center)
44

First Removal Cut

The first removal cut is the first harvest 

in a shelterwood sequence after the oak 

regeneration is present and established 

(Smith 1986). It creates a suitable 

understory light regime that allows 

established oak regeneration to develop 

into the competitive size class within 

several years (Brose 2008). Reduce 

overstory stocking to between 40 and 

60-percent relative density, depending 

on site qulity (Fig. 5.3). Retain sufficient 

merchantable trees so that a seed source 

is maintained on site. This ensures that 

acorns will be available in the future if 

the existing oak advanced regeneration 

is somehow destroyed. It also provides a 

second commercial harvest within 5 to 

10 years. Retain any pole-size trees that 

may be needed as long-term residuals 

to meet aesthetic, diversity, or wildlife 

objectives.

Herbicide

Herbicide is an effective, safe and 

economical technique for removing 

vegetation that interferes with 

establishment and growth of oak 

regeneration. There are five different 

application techniques for using 

herbicides to control interfering 

vegetation (Fig. 5.4). Each is matched with a specific set of conditions where it will provide 

effective control. With all, be sure to follow all instructions on the herbicide label, wear 

appropriate safety clothing and equipment, and follow applicable laws with regard to herbicide 

applicator licensing.

Broadcast Spray. Use this technique to prepare the forest understory for the 

establishment of desirable regeneration. Broadcast spraying generally is done with 

mechanized equipment because large areas, i.e., several acres or more, are sprayed at one 

time, but small areas can be treated with a backpack sprayer. The height of the effective 

spray zone is from the forest floor to about 15 feet, depending on the equipment. Two 

principal herbicides are labeled for broadcast spray operations on silvicultural sites, 

glyphosate and sulfometuron methyl (Horsley 1991). Glyphosate is a broad spectrum 

herbicide that controls many herbaceous and woody plant species. Addition of a nonionic surfactant is required when using glyphosate. However, species with waxy leaf 

1)

Figure 5.3.—The first removal cut of a shelterwood 

sequence reduces overstory relative density to about 50 

percent. This level is sufficient for the timely development of 

oak seedling root systems.

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station

Figure 5.2.—The final removal cut finishes the regeneration 

sequence and creates conditions of full sunlight required by 

shade-intolerant and shade-intermediate species.

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
45

coatings (mountain laurel, Rhododendron spp.) are either poorly controlled at the rate 

we recommend or not controlled at all. Time of application and complete coverage of 

target species are important for optimum vegetation control at our recommended rate 

of 1 - 1.5 pounds of active ingredient per acre in 25 gallons of water. Grasses and sedges 

are best controlled with application made between early June and mid-September; fern 

(particularly hay-scented and New York) control is best between early July and midSeptember; understory trees of striped maple and beech are best controlled between 

early August and mid-September. Complete coverage of striped maple crowns is 

particularly important for good control. Glyphosate has no soil residual activity, so 

seeds in the forest floor seed bank are unaffected. Drought diminishes the efficacy of 

glyphosate, particularly on ferns and striped maple, because drought reduces absorption 

and translocation of herbicide. Under these circumstances, it is important to suspend 

herbicide application until there has been enough rainfall to return plants to active 

growth.

Sulfometuron methyl is a selective herbicide that controls some herbaceous and woody 

plants. Unlike glyphosate, sulfometuron methyl has a short-term soil residual activity 

that reduces emergence of grasses and sedges germinating from seed and fern not 

killed by the aboveground spray. This is called pre-emergent soil activity. Ferns are well 

controlled by sulfometuron methyl, but the mature plants of many grass and sedge 

species are not; neither striped maple nor beech is controlled by sulfometuron methyl. 

Sulfometuron methyl can be used to prepare a stand for establishment of desirable 

Figure 5.4.—Herbicide strategies include broadcast and individual stem treatments.

Photos by Steve Horsley and Jim Kochenderfer, Northern Research Station
46

regeneration or to release new and established oak seedlings from interference by 

susceptible species. Northern red oak and white oak are not damaged by overspray 

of the recommended rate of sulfometuron methyl application, 1.5 ounces of active 

ingredient per acre in 25 gallons of water. Regeneration of some hardwood species are 

sensitive to sulfometuron methyl if spraying is conducted in early summer, but are 

less sensitive if the herbicide is applied later in the growing season (Horsley and others 

1992). For site preparation, sulfometuron methyl often is mixed with glyphosate using 

the timing constraints suggested for glyphosate. To release new and established oak 

seedlings from interfering ferns and reduce emergence of grasses and sedges from the 

seed bank, spray sulfometuron methyl in late summer and do not use a surfactant.

2) Cut and Spray. Use this method to circumvent the susceptibility of oak regeneration 

to glyphosate when competitive oak regeneration is intermixed with undesirable woody 

species (Deen and others 1993). Clip off about 200 competitive oak and other desirable 

stems per acre throughout the stand at ground level in late summer. The “stubs” of the 

severed stems will seal the wound within several days, preventing entry of the herbicide 

into the roots. Once that occurs, broadcast spray a glyphosate herbicide throughout 

the stand at the previously prescribed rate and time to control interfering vegetation. 

The stubs of competitive oak and other desirable regeneration will sprout vigorously 

the following spring, grow rapidly, and become the dominant stems in the new 

regeneration layer.

3) Stem Injection. Use this technique to control individual woody species that are larger 

than 2 inches d.b.h. and are not suitable, e.g., too tall, growing on a steep hillside, for 

control by broadcast spraying (Kochenderfer and others 2004). Inject each stem with 

a 50-percent solution of a glyphosate herbicide at the rates of one injection per inch of 

d.b.h. and 1 to 2 milliliters of solution per injection. Space the injections evenly around 

the entire stem. Apply herbicide from July through September, but avoid dry periods as 

this diminishes the effectiveness of the herbicide.

4) Basal Application. Another individual-stem technique used to control woody 

interference, especially stems less than 2 inches d.b.h. (Kochenderfer and others 2004). 

To apply this approach, completely coat the lower 12 to 15 inches of each undesirable 

stem with a 5- to 10- percent solution of a trichlopyr herbicide in an appropriate oil 

carrier. This type of herbicide can be applied so long as the target stem is not wet or 

frozen. It is ineffective in controlling thick-barked species such as blackgum or stems 

more than 6 inches d.b.h.

5) Cut Stump. A third individual-stem technique useful for controlling woody 

interference, especially species that are resilient sprouters (Kochenderfer and others 

2006). This two-step method entails chainsaw felling of the target stem at ground level 

followed by application of at least a 50-percent glyphosate herbicide solution to the 

stump. Felling must be done in the summer or fall and theherbicide applied within an 

hour of cutting. On stumps less than 6 inches in diameter, treat the entire cut surface. 

On stumps larger than this diameter, treat only the outer 3 inches of the stump.
47

Liberation Cut

This practice is useful in rehabilitating a degraded stand 

(Fig. 5.5). It entails removing older, less desirable trees 

that are overtopping desirable young trees. Implement this 

practice by cutting or killing undesirable and poor-quality 

trees from all canopy positions until the relative density of 

the stand is less than 20 percent. The harvest may or may 

not be commercial depending on the condition of the cut 

trees. Concentrate the liberation cut on portions of the 

stand where there already is vigorous desirable regeneration 

so that it can take advantage of the release.

Preparatory Cut

This practice is the first harvest in a three-step shelterwood 

sequence. The objective of this treatment is to remove 

undesirable species, seed sources of aggressive competitors, 

and poorly formed stems; thereby providing more growing 

space for desirable trees that will produce the seed that 

eventually regenerates the stand (Fig. 5.6). Harvest trees 

from suppressed, intermediate, and weak codominant 

crown positions until the relative density reaches 

approximately 70 percent. Do not harvest oaks that are 

good acorn producers or create large gaps in the main 

canopy. With these constraints, this cut may or may not be 

commercial depending on local markets. In noncommercial 

situations, this treatment often is accomplished with an 

individual-stem herbicide technique.

Release Burn

This type of prescribed fire is used to free competitive oak 

from competition by other desirable regeneration and 

interfering woody vegetation (Fig. 5.7). Fire will select for 

the oak and against the other woody species to varying 

degrees based on root characteristics (Brose and Van Lear 

1998, 2004). Burning can be done after the first removal cut 

of a shelterwood sequence or after the final removal cut. In 

either case, wait until the height growth of the competitive 

oak regeneration begins to fall behind that of the other 

woody species by more than 2 feet. If there are valuable 

residual trees, remove slash and other fuel accumulations 

from the base of the trees to prevent fire damage.

Release burning is done in mid to late spring. In 

Pennsylvania, this is mid-April to mid-May. Phenologically, 

the burning window is from bud swelling on the non-oak 

Figure 5.5.—Liberation cuts are used to rehabilitate 

degraded stands by removing older, less desirable 

trees that are overtopping desirable young trees.

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station

Figure 5.6.—Preparatory cuts are the first harvest of 

a three-step shelterwood sequence. They increase 

growing space for desirable overstory trees by removing 

undesirable trees from the midstory and raise understory 

light slightly for the benefit of the oak seedlings.

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station

Figure 5.7.—Release burns free established and 

competitive oak regeneration of competition from 

other woody species. They are conducted in the 

spring, during or after a shelterwood sequence, and 

typically at moderate to high intensity.

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
48

hardwoods to full leaf expansion of the canopy trees. The later in this window that burning 

occurs, the more advantageous for the oak regeneration. Generally, the fire should be 

moderate to high intensity with flame lengths of more than 2 feet to ensure complete topkill 

of the understory layer.

Scarification

This practice prepares a suitable seedbed for oak 

seedling establishment from acorns (Fig. 5.8). Use 

heavy equipment such as a bulldozer with a brush 

rake or root rake or a farm tractor with a heavy 

disk to disturb the forest floor, disrupt the mat of 

organic matter, expose mineral soil, and mix the 

organic matter and soil. Scarify in the fall only 

when an acorn crop is imminent or has just fallen. 

Treat at least half of the stand. If there is no acorn 

crop, do not scarify.

Site Preparation Burn

This type of prescribed fire prepares an oak stand 

for eventual oak seedling establishment after a 

future acorn crop (Fig. 5.9). The objective is to 

reduce dense understory shade and litter loadings 

so that a larger proportion of an acorn crop 

successfully germinates and becomes seedlings. 

Burning can be done in the dormant season (fall 

or early spring) or growing season (late spring) 

and at any intensity. However, high-intensity 

fires (flame lengths greater than 2 feet) in the 

late spring decrease dense understory shade more 

quickly than low intensity fires in the fall or early 

spring. Generally, multiple fires spread over several 

years are necessary to reduce dense understory 

shade to a level that improves the survival and 

growth of new oak seedlings. Do not burn if an 

acorn crop has just fallen or if new oak seedlings 

from a recent acorn crop are needed to help regenerate the stand as fire kills acorns and small 

oak seedlings (Auchmoody and Smith 1993).

Chart F Prescriptions

Chart F prescriptions are for oak stands on high-quality sites. They are at the point in the oak 

regeneration process at which the competitive oak seedlings need an adequate release so they 

can begin forming a new stand. Three prescriptions on Chart F include only a final removal 

cut or a first removal cut if site limitations or the silvicultural system restrictions does not 

allow for a single complete harvest. They are highly recommended because they produce an 

income with little cost.

Figure 5.8.—Scarification prepares a seedbed for 

acorns and the subsequent establishment of oak 

seedlings.

Photo by Jim Zazcek, Southern Illinois University

Figure 5.9.—Site preparation burning prepares a 

seedbed for eventual oak seedling establishment 

after a future acorn crop. These burns are done 

before harvesting, conducted in the spring or fall, and 

typically are of low intensity.

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
49

Depending on current conditions, three prescriptions recommend fencing to address problems 

posed by deer. We advise caution with these prescriptions because they require a cost. If the cost 

is acceptable to the landowner, the prescriptions are recommended.

If the fencing cost is unacceptable, we recommend no cutting as the browsing pressure by deer 

likely will result in a regeneration failure. In that case, the landowner needs to re-evaluate his or 

her desire to increase the oak component of the regeneration pool, consider regenerating other 

species, and consult prescriptions from Charts D or E.

Final Removal Cut, Follow-up

This prescription is appropriate for stands with adequate advanced oak regeneration in the form 

of competitive oak seedlings or saplings. At least 70 percent of the regeneration plots should 

be stocked with competitive seedlings of any desirable species, and 50-percent stocked with 

competitive oak. White-tailed deer should not pose severe problems, i.e., Deer Impact Index 

less than 4, and there are no visual or site limitations that would preclude complete overstory 

removal, i.e., no restrictions on clearcutting, and/or site limitations in less than 30 percent of 

the interference plots

See the Final Removal Cut description for an explanation of how to implement this harvest. 

About five years after the cut, do a follow-up examination (Chapter 6) of the stand to determine 

whether oaks in the new stand require release or if problems have developed with respect to deer 

or interfering vegetation.

Final Removal Cut with Residuals, Follow-up

This prescription is appropriate for the same conditions described previously and is 

implemented in the identical manner except that some trees are retained as residuals for 

aesthetic, diversity, or wildlife purposes. See the Final Removal Cut description for instructions 

related to the harvest. For residuals, leave no more than 10 to 15 ft2 of basal area per acre of 

pole-size trees (6 to 12 inches d.b.h.) with healthy crowns and clean, straight boles free of 

branches for at least the first 17 feet. Over time, these residuals will be incorporated into the 

canopy of the new stand. About five years after the cut, do a follow-up examination (Chapter 

6) of the stand to determine whether oaks in the new stand require release or if problems have 

developed with respect to deer or interfering vegetation.

A variation on retention of residuals is two-age management (Fig.5.10; Miller and others 

2004b, 2006). In this approach, 10 to 15 ft2 of basal area per acre are retained in medium 

and large, sawlog-size trees (more than 18 inches d.b.h.). Over time, these large trees form a 

superdominant component in the new stand.

Fence, Final Removal Cut, Follow-up

Stands requiring this prescription have the same key characteristics as those for a Final Removal 

Cut except that fencing is needed due to extensive browsing by white-tailed deer. See the 

Final Removal Cut and Fencing for a detailed description of these practices. The fence can be 

constructed before or after the final harvest. If constructed afterward, it must be built before 

the start of the first postharvest growing season to protect new stump sprouts. About 5 years 
50

after the cut, do a follow-up examination (Chapter 6) of the stand to determine whether oaks in 

the new stand require release or if problems have developed with respect to deer or interfering 

vegetation.

Fence, Final Removal Cut with Residuals, Follow-up

Stands requiring this prescription have the same key characteristics as those for a Final Removal 

Cut with Residuals except that fencing is needed due to extensive browsing by white-tailed 

deer. See the Final Removal Cut and Fencing for a detailed description of these practices. The 

fence can be constructed before or after the final harvest. If constructed afterward, it must be 

erected before the start of the first postharvest growing season to protect new stump sprouts. For 

residuals, leave no more than 10 to 15 ft2 of basal area per acre of pole-size trees (6 to 12 inches 

d.b.h.) with healthy crowns and clean, straight boles free of branches for at least the first 17 feet. 

Over time, these residuals will be incorporated into the canopy of the new stand. About 5 years 

after the cut, do a follow-up examination (Chapter 6) of the stand to determine whether oaks in 

the new stand require release or if problems have developed with respect to deer or interfering 

vegetation.

A variation on retention of residuals 

is two-age management (Fig.5.10; 

Miller and others 2004b, 2006). In this 

approach, 10 to 15 ft2 of basal area per 

acre is retained in medium and large, 

sawlog-size trees (more than 18 inches 

d.b.h.). Over time, these large trees form 

a superdominant component in the new 

stand.

First Removal Cut, Reinventory

This prescription is recommended when 

visual or site limitations preclude a final 

removal cut, i.e. there are restrictions on 

clearcutting and/or site limitations in more than 30 percent of the interference plots. Retaining 

mature trees protects the young regeneration from desiccation on dry, rocky sites as well as from 

inundation on wetter sites with poorly drained soils. Otherwise, this prescription is the same 

as the Final Removal Cut in that at least 70 percent of the regeneration plots are stocked with 

competitive seedlings of any desirable species, and 50 percent are stocked with competitive oak. 

Interfering vegetation and white-tailed deer do not pose a problem. This prescription should 

yield a financial return.

See the First Removal Cut for a detailed description concerning this practice. About five years 

after the cut, do a complete SILVAH inventory (Chapter 2) of the stand to determine whether 

competitive oaks are ready for the final harvest and if problems have developed with respect to 

deer and interfering vegetation.

Figure 5.10.—Two-age management retains trees 

larger than 18 inches d.b.h. to meet visual constraints 

or ameloriate limitations such as an elevated water 

table or thin soil.

Photo by Gary Miller, Northern Research Station
51

Fence, First Removal Cut, Reinventory

Stands requiring this prescription have the same key characteristics as those for a First Removal 

Cut except that fencing is needed due to extensive browsing by white-tailed deer. See the First 

Removal Cut and Fencing for detailed descriptions concerning these practices. The fence can 

be constructed before or after the harvest. If constructed afterward, it must be erected before 

the start of the first postharvest growing season to protect new stump sprouts. About five years 

after the cut, do a complete SILVAH inventory (Chapter 2) of the stand to determine whether 

competitive oaks are ready for the final harvest and if problems have developed with respect to 

deer and interfering vegetation.

Chart G Prescriptions

Chart G prescriptions are for oak stands on high quality sites. These prescriptions are applied 

about midway through the oak-regeneration process and are designed to promote the 

development of smaller oak regeneration into the competitive size class, eventually setting the 

stage for a future final harvest. We advise caution with these prescriptions. Most of them have 

a cost for fencing, herbicide, and/or prescribed fire that may or may not be coupled with a first 

removal cut. If the costs are acceptable to the landowner, the prescriptions are recommended. 

Also, all prescriptions require a complete SILVAH inventory about 5 years after the treatments.

If the costs are unacceptable, we recommend no cutting as the interfering vegetation and/or 

browsing pressure by deer likely will result in a regeneration failure. In that case, the landowner 

needs to reevaluate his or her desire to increase the oak component of the regeneration pool, 

consider regenerating other desirable species, and consult prescriptions from Charts D or E.

No Treatment, Reinventory

This prescription is for stands with an adequate cohort of regeneration and no problems with 

deer, interfering vegetation, or dense understory shade. Such stands have more than 50-percent 

stocking of all oak or all established oak. There is little or no deer impact, less than 30-percent 

stocking of any interference, and less than 75-percent relative density. These stands need time 

for existing oak seedlings to grow to competitive size. It is best to not intervene at this time. 

Rather, do a complete SILVAH inventory in 5 to 10 years to determine the next treatment.

Fence, Reinventory

The stands requiring this prescription are nearly identical to those requiring a No Treatment, 

Reinventory prescription except that seedling stocking is adequate only if a fence is erected to 

exclude deer. Construct a fence per the instructions in the Fencing description. Wait for about 5 

years and do a complete SILVAH inventory to determine the next treatment.

Release Burn, Reinventory OR 

Herbicide, Reinventory

These two prescriptions are interchangeable depending on whether prescribed fire is an 

acceptable practice. They are intended for use in stands that contain at least 50 percent stocking 

of established oak and have no problems related to deer or overstory shade, but there is a 

problem with interfering vegetation. If prescribed fire is used, follow the instructions in the 
52

Release Burn description. If herbicide is used, follow the instructions for one or more of the 

techniques in the Herbicide description. After applying these treatments, wait for about 5 years 

and do a complete SILVAH inventory to determine the next treatment.

Fence, Release Burn, Reinventory OR

Fence, Herbicide, Reinventory

These two prescriptions are interchangeable depending on whether prescribed fire is an 

acceptable practice. They are intended for use in stands that contain at least 50-percent stocking 

of established oak and overstory shade is not a problem, but deer and interfering vegetation 

do pose problems. If prescribed fire is used, follow the instructions in the Release Burn 

description. Construct a fence per the instructions in the Fencing description before the burn 

or immediately afterwards. If herbicide is used, follow the instructions for one or more of the 

techniques in the Herbicide description. It does not matter whether the fence is erected before 

or after the herbicide application so long as both occur within the same year. After applying 

these treatments, wait for about 5 years and do a complete SILVAH inventory to determine the 

next treatment.

First Removal Cut, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands that are developing regeneration but lack sufficient 

light for the established oak seedlings to grow into the competitive size class. In such stands, 

at least 50 percent of the regeneration plots are stocked with established oak. There is minimal 

problem with interfering vegetation (stocking of 30-percent or less) and minimal impact from 

white-tailed deer (impact index less than 4). A harvest provides immediate income and no 

additional costs are incurred. Conduct the harvest per the instructions in the First Removal 

Cut description. In 5 to 10 years, do a complete SILVAH inventory of the stand to gauge the 

growth of the oak regeneration and determine whether any obstacles to regeneration have 

developed.

Fence, First Removal Cut, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands with conditions that are nearly identical to those 

for the First Removal Cut, Reinventory prescription, except that a fence is needed to reduce 

deer browsing pressure. See the First Removal Cut and Fencing for detailed descriptions of 

these practices. Although the sequence of the fence installation and the timber harvest is not 

important, it probably is easier to erect the fence after the cutting. In 5 to 10 years, conduct 

a complete SILVAH inventory of the stand to gauge the growth of the oak regeneration and 

determine whether any obstacles to regeneration have developed.

First Removal Cut, Release Burn, Reinventory OR 

First Removal Cut, Herbicide, Reinventory

There are two alternatives in this prescription. Both are applicable to stands with conditions 

similar to those requiring a First Removal Cut, Reinventory prescription, but are impacted by 

interfering vegetation. At least 30 percent of the plots are stocked with interfering vegetation or 

the basal area of undesirable saplings and poles exceeds 10 ft2 per acre.
53

The first alternative, also known as the shelterwood and 

burn method (Brose and others 1999b), is applicable 

if burning the stand will be feasible in several years. To 

implement the shelterwood and burn method, conduct a 

partial harvest per the instructions in the First Removal Cut 

description. Be sure the logging slash does not accumulate 

at the bases of the valuable residual trees because the 

resultant intense fire will kill them (Fig.5.11). After the 

harvest, wait for the oak regeneration to develop its root 

systems and is overtopped by competing vegetation. This 

likely will occur within 3 to 5 years depending on site 

quality. Once the oak regeneration has reached competitive 

size and is overtopped by other species, conduct a prescribed 

burn per the instructions in the Release Burn description.

The second alternative substitutes herbicide for fire where 

burning is not feasible. The partial cut is the same as that 

for the fire alternative. After the cut, use one or more of 

the techniques in the Herbicide description to control 

interfering vegetation.

The understory light regime created by either alternative 

allows oak seedlings to develop into competitive stems in 

about 5 years while retarding the rapid height growth of other hardwood species. At that time, 

inventory the stand per SILVAH guidelines to determine the next treatment for the stand.

Fence, First Removal Cut, Release Burn, Reinventory OR 

Fence, First Removal Cut, Herbicide, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands with conditions that are nearly identical to those 

described previously except that a fence is needed to exclude deer. Construct a fence per the 

instructions in the Fencing description. If prescribed fire will be used, the fence must be erected 

before or just after the first removal cut. Conduct a prescribed burn 3 to 5 years after the harvest 

per the guidelines in the Release Burn description. If applying herbicide, use one or more of the 

techniques in the Herbicide description. The sequence of treatments is not as important in the 

herbicide option as it is in the fire option. What is crucial is that they are applied within a year 

of each other. In about 5 years, conduct a complete SILVAH inventory to determine whether 

additional treatments are required.

Chart H Prescriptions

Chart H recommends prescriptions to release established oak seedlings on medium- and lowquality sites where upland oak species typically are better competitors. All prescriptions on 

Chart H are the same as those prescribed on Chart F. See those descriptions for instructions. 

Three prescriptions on Chart H include only a final removal cut or a first removal cut if site 

limitations or the silvicultural system restrictions does not allow for a single complete harvest. 

They are highly recommended because they produce an income with little cost.

Figure 5.11.—Prevent or remove slash accumulation 

at the base of valuable residual trees to protect them 

from an intense fire.

Photos by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
54

Depending on current conditions, three prescriptions recommend fencing to address problems 

posed by deer. We advise caution with these prescriptions because they require a cost. If the cost 

is acceptable to the landowner, the prescriptions are recommended.

If the cost is unacceptable, we recommend no cutting as the browsing pressure by deer likely 

will result in a regeneration failure. In that case, the landowner needs to reevaluate his or her 

desire to increase the oak component of the regeneration pool, consider regenerating other 

desirable species, and consult prescriptions from Charts D or E.

Chart I Prescriptions

These prescriptions are intended for use in oak stands on all site types that are near the 

beginning of the regeneration process. Chart I prescriptions emphasize low-impact treatments 

aimed at developing new oak seedlings, the smallest of the three oak size classes, into established 

and competitive oaks. As a result, none of the Chart I prescriptions incorporates prescribed 

burning as fire readily kills new oaks.

We advise caution with these prescriptions because they require an initial investment (fencing 

and/or herbicide) with little or no income for 5 to 10 years. If the costs are acceptable to the 

landowner, the prescriptions are recommended. Also, a subsequent SILVAH inventory is 

required several years after implementation of the prescription.

If the costs are unacceptable, we recommend no cutting as the interfering vegetation and/or 

browsing pressure by deer likely will result in a regeneration failure. In that case, the landowner 

needs to reevaluate his or her desire to increase the oak component of the regeneration pool, 

consider regenerating other desirable species, and consult prescriptions from Charts D or E.

No Treatment, Reinventory

See this prescription in the Chart G section. Wait 5 to 10 years before doing a SILVAH 

inventory to determine the next treatment.

Fence, Reinventory

See this prescription in the Chart G section. Wait 5 to 10 years before doing a SILVAH 

inventory to determine the next treatment.

Herbicide, Reinventory

See this prescription in the Chart G section. Wait 5 to 10 years before doing a SILVAH 

inventory to determine the next treatment.

Fence, Herbicide, Reinventory

See this prescription in the Chart G section. Wait 5 to 10 years before doing a SILVAH 

inventory to determine the next treatment.

Preparatory Cut, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for a stand that is in the process of developing regeneration but 

lacks sufficient light for new oak seedlings to grow into the established size class. Such stands 
55

have at least 50 percent of the regeneration plots stocked with all oak at ambient deer levels. 

Interfering vegetation has a minimal impact (present in less than 30 percent of the interference 

plots) and there is minimal impact from white-tailed deer (Deer Impact Index less than 4). 

A harvest provides limited income and no additional costs for other silvicultural treatments. 

Conduct a light partial harvest per the instructions in the Preparatory Cut description. In 5 

to 10 years, do a complete SILVAH inventory of the stand to gauge the growth of the oak 

regeneration and to determine whether obstacles to regeneration have developed.

The preparatory cut may need to be a noncommercial 

treatment if a commercial harvest is not feasible due 

to local markets. In that case, use one or more of the 

Herbicide techniques to reduce the overstory from below 

to 70 percent relative density (Fig.5.12).

Fence, Preparatory Cut, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands with conditions 

that are nearly identical to those for the Preparatory Cut, 

Reinventory prescription, except that the 50-percent alloak stocking requirement is met only if a fence is erected 

to exclude deer. See the Preparatory Cut and Fencing 

descriptions for instructions. Erect the fence after the 

timber harvest. In 5 to 10 years, do a complete SILVAH 

inventory of the stand to gauge the growth of the oak 

regeneration and to determine whether obstacles to regeneration have developed.

Preparatory Cut, Herbicide, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands with conditions similar to those requiring a 

Preparatory Cut, Reinventory prescription except that interfering vegetation poses a problem (at 

least 30 percent of the plots are stocked with interfering vegetation or basal area of undesirable 

saplings and poles exceeds 10 ft2 per acre).

Conduct a light partial cut according to the Preparatory Cut description. Then, apply one or 

more of the treatments described in the Herbicide description to control interfering vegetation. 

The understory light regime created by this prescription allows oak seedlings to develop into 

established stems in 5 to10 years while retarding the rapid height growth of other hardwood 

species. At that time, inventory the stand per SILVAH guidelines to determine the next 

treatment for the stand.

Fence, Preparatory Cut, Herbicide, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands with conditions that are nearly identical to those 

for the Preparatory Cut, Herbicide, Reinventory prescription, except that a fence is needed to 

exclude deer. Conduct a light partial harvest per the Preparatory Cut description. Construct 

the fence per the instructions in the Fencing description. The preparatory cut will remove 

many non-oaks that likely will sprout so it may be prudent to erect the fence 2 or 3 years after 

the harvest so deer can browse the non-oak stump sprouts. Control interfering vegetation as 

Figure 5.12.—A noncommercial preparatory cut can 

be accomplished with the individual stem herbicide 

techniques that remove the understory and midstory 

canopies that cast dense shade on the forest floor.

Photo by Gary Miller, Northern Research Station
56

appropriate with one or more of the techniques described in the Herbicide description. Timing 

of the herbicide application with the other treatments will depend on the type of interfering 

vegetation. Conduct a complete SILVAH inventory about 5 years after the last treatment to 

determine a future course of action.

Chart J Prescriptions

Chart J prescriptions are for oak stands 

that are at the beginning of the oak 

regeneration process and are applicable 

on any site type. The objective is to 

establish natural oak regeneration from 

acorns when an adequate seed source is 

present. We cautiously recommend these 

prescriptions because they rely on the 

natural production of acorns—a sporadic 

event in the mid-Atlantic region—so a 

good to bumper acorn crop is essential 

(Fig.5.13).

We also advise caution with these prescriptions because most require an initial investment 

(fencing, herbicide, prescribed fire, and/or scarification) with little or no income for 5 

to 10 years. If the costs are acceptable to the landowner, the prescriptions are cautiously 

recommended. Also, they require a subsequent stand inventory several years after the 

implementation of the prescription.

If the costs are unacceptable, we recommend no cutting as the interfering vegetation and/or 

browsing pressure by deer likely will result in a regeneration failure. In that case, the landowner 

needs to reevaluate his or her desire to increase the oak component of the regeneration pool, 

consider regenerating other desirable species, and consult prescriptions from Charts D or E.

No Treatment, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands that are between large acorn crops and not affected 

by deer, interfering vegetation, or shade. Such stands have an adequate seed source (at least 

40 ft2 of basal area/acre of oak species that are at least 12 inches d.b.h.) but are lacking oak 

regeneration (stocking of all oak is less than 50 percent). The Deer Impact Index is 3 or less, 

stocking of interfering vegetation is 30 percent or less, and stocking of thick duff also is 30 

percent or less. These stands need time for an acorn crop to occur and for subsequent seedling 

establishment so it is best not to intervene at this time. Monitor acorn crops and inventory 

the stand 2 to 5 years after a good acorn crop has established a cohort of new oak seedlings to 

determine the next treatment.

Fence, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory

Stands requiring this prescription are identical to those for No Treatment, Monitor Acorns, 

Reinventory except that a fence is required to exclude deer. Construct a fence per the 

Figure 5.13.—The oak regeneration process begins 

with an acorn crop of sufficient size that overcomes 

losses to disease, insects, wildlife, and weather and 

results in the formation of a new oak cohort.

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
57

instructions in the Fencing description. Monitor acorn crops and inventory the stand 2 to 5 

years after a good acorn crop has established a cohort of new oak seedlings to determine the 

next treatment.

Site Prep Burn, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory OR

Herbicide, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory

These prescriptions are interchangeable and are appropriate for stands with conditions that are 

nearly identical to those described previously for No Treatment, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory 

except that interfering vegetation is a problem (more than 30-percent stocking or basal area 

of undesirable saplings and pole exceeds 10ft2/ac). If using fire, conduct one or more burns 

according to instructions in the Site Prep Burn description. If applying herbicide, use one 

or more of the methods described in the Herbicide description. Monitor acorn crops and 

inventory the stand 2 to 5 years after a good acorn crop has established a cohort of new oak 

seedlings to determine the next treatment.

Fence, Site Prep Burn, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory OR

Fence, Herbicide, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory

Either of these prescriptions is appropriate for stands with conditions similar to those for No 

Treatment, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory, except that a fence is needed to exclude deer and 

interfering vegetation is a problem ( more than 30 percent stocking or basal area of undesirable 

saplings and poles exceeds 10ft2/ac). Depending on the viability of burning the stand, conduct 

one or more prescribed fires or apply herbicides per the instructions in the Site Prep Burn or 

Herbicide descriptions. Construct a fence following the instructions in the Fencing description. 

It is important is that these treatments are applied within the same year. Monitor acorn crops 

and inventory the stand 2 to 5 years after a good acorn crop has established a cohort of new oak 

seedlings to determine the next treatment.

Scarify, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands similar to those described for No Treatment, Monitor 

Acorns, Reinventory except that there is a thick excessively thick duff layer (more than 2 inches) 

in at least 30 percent of the interference plots. Prepare the forest floor as a seedbed for acorns 

per the instructions in the Scarification description. Monitor acorn crops and inventory the 

stand 2 to 5 years after a good acorn crop has established a cohort of new oak seedlings to 

determine the next treatment.

Fence, Scarify, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands similar to those described for No Treatment, 

Monitor Acorns, Reinventory except that the Deer Impact Index is greater than 3 and there 

is a excessively thick duff layer (more than 2 inches) in at least 30 percent of the interference 

plots. Prepare the forest floor as a seedbed for acorns per the instructions in the Scarification 

description and construct a fence per instructions in the Fencing description. Monitor acorn 

crops and inventory the stand 2 to 5 years after a good acorn crop has established a cohort of 

new oak seedlings to determine the next treatment.
58

Scarify, Herbicide, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands similar to those described for No Treatment, Monitor 

Acorns, Reinventory except that there is interfering vegetation problem and a thick duff layer 

in at least 30 percent of the interference plots. Prepare the forest floor as a seedbed for acorns 

per the instructions in the Scarification description. If the interfering plants still pose a problem 

following scarification, apply an appropriate herbicide using one or more of the techniques 

described in the Herbicide description. Monitor acorn crops and inventory the stand 2 to 5 

years after a good acorn crop has established a cohort of new oak seedlings to determine the 

next treatment.

Fence, Scarify, Herbicide, Monitor Acorns, Reinventory

This prescription is appropriate for stands similar to those described for No Treatment, Monitor 

Acorns, Reinventory except that excessive deer browsing, interfering vegetation, and thick 

duff are obstacles. These stands are extremely difficult to regenerate and ignoring them while 

concentrating efforts on easier-to-regenerate stands may be the best approach. If they must 

be regenerated, prepare the forest floor as a seedbed for acorns per the instructions in the 

Scarification description. If the interfering plants still pose a problem following scarification, 

apply an appropriate herbicide using one or more of the techniques described in the Herbicide 

description. Finally, construct a fence per instructions in the Fencing description. Monitor 

acorn crops and inventory the stand 2 to 5 years after a good acorn crop has established a cohort 

of new oak seedlings to determine the next treatment.

Chart K Prescriptions

Chart K prescriptions are intended for use in oak stands that have lost their seed source and in 

which are regeneration obstacles and little or no oak regeneration. These stands are extremely 

difficult to regenerate, require considerable investment, and offer no financial return in the 

foreseeable future. Our recommendation for such stands is that they not be treated and to 

allocate management resources to stands with a higher regeneration potential, or that they be 

allowed to convert to another forest type or plant community.

If the landowner wishes to regenerate such oak stands, we offer these artificial-regeneration 

prescriptions as considerations rather than as recommendations. Johnson and others (2002) and 

Dey and others (2008) provide thorough discussions on the intricacies associated with planting 

oaks. Major considerations are:

Obtain high-quality oak seedlings from a reputable nursery for planting. The number 

needed will depend on the management objectives but 50 to 200 oak seedlings per acre 

is not uncommon.

High-quality oak planting stock will have a basal diameter of about 3/8 inch with the 

roots pruned to equal lengths and the stem cut back to about 8 inches in height.

Plant the seedlings in the spring and be sure the planting hole is large enough and deep 

enough to accommodate the roots.

Select suitable planting sites so that seedlings will receive adequate sunlight and there is 

minimal competition from other plants. If the overstory is producing some shade (more 

than 20-percent relative density or approximate 20 ft2 of basal area/acre), perform a 

1)

2)

3)

4)
59

Liberation Cut per the instructions in the description of this practice. This is especially 

important if tree shelters are being used to protect the oak seedlings (Schuler and others 

2005).

If deer browsing poses a problem, it may be less expensive to install and maintain 

plastic tree shelters or wire cages than to construct area wide fencing.

If interfering vegetation poses a problem and fire is the preferred control method, do a 

Site Prep Burn before the seedlings are planted. If herbicides are used, use one or more 

of the techniques described in the Herbicide description.

Once oaks are planted, they have the same needs and problems as naturally-regenerated 

oaks so the previous prescriptions are appropriate depending on deer browse pressure, 

competing vegetation, and site quality.

5)

6)

7)
60

CHAPTER 6: POSTHARVEST FOLLOW-UP AND 

CROP-TREE MANAGEMENT

Patrick Brose, Gary Miller, and Todd Ristau

An integral part of all the final removal 

cut prescriptions is a postharvest followup examination of the oak regeneration. 

Evaluating the adequacy of oak 

reproduction is as important after the 

final harvest as it was prior to harvest 

because competitive-size oak stems 

have a survival rate to age 20 of 10 to 

50 percent, depending on site quality, 

interspecies competitive relationships, 

and stochastic events (Loftis 1990a, 

Sander and others 1976). For example, 

interference may develop should pin 

cherry (Prunus pensylvanica) seeds 

stored in the forest floor germinate 

en masse or should wind-blown black 

birch seeds invade the stand (Fig. 6.1). 

These species pose a serious threat to 

oak and other desirable hardwood 

regeneration in the early years of stand 

development (Ristau and Horsley 

1999, 2006). Similarly, excessive deer 

browsing may occur depending on size 

of the local herd, hunting pressure, winter weather, and the availability of other food sources in 

the vicinity of the stand.

The initial follow-up evaluation occurs about 5 years after the final harvest. Ideally, this is done 

in the early spring or winter months when it is easiest to move through the young stand (Fig. 

6.2). Use 6-foot-radius plots at a density of one plot per acre and locate them to uniformly 

cover the stand. If the management goal is an Allegheny or northern hardwood stand with 

no emphasis on culturing oak (it is one of several desirable species), then record the number 

of stems by species and size class as per the Allegheny and Northern Hardwood Postharvest 

Follow-up Tally Sheet (Appendix 4) and use the Chart L decision chart. If the management 

goal is to create an oak-dominated stand, use the Mixed-Oak Postharvest Follow-up Tally Sheet 

(Appendix 5) and the Chart M decision chart. Note that neither chart is programmed into the 

SILVAH system at this time so you must calculate the variables and navigate the charts by hand. 

The oak prescription may recommend one or more of the practices described in Chapter 5 to 

correct a problem.

Figure 6.1.—Interference can develop after the final 

removal cut when seeds stored in the forest floor 

germinate or are carried in by the wind.

Photos by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
61

Managing an oak stand with the SILVAH 

system usually results in a Chart M 

prescription of Commence Crop Tree 

Management in 10 Years. Generally, crop-tree 

release (CTR) is considered an intermediate 

treatment (Miller and others 2007) but 

we have included it here because it is a 

transitional practice between the regeneration 

and intermediate stand management phases 

and can ensure the long-term survival of 

the oak stems and profoundly shape species 

composition of the new stand.

Oak reproduction should be evaluated for 

CTR about 10 to 20 years after the final 

harvest depending on site quality. In even-aged stand development, this is when the dominant 

and codominant trees begin to form a closed canopy. Although the young stand still contains 

thousands of trees per acre, only those in the upper crown classes likely will remain competitive 

for many years. Also, trees that attain dominant and codominant status at canopy closure 

respond well to CTR with respect to faster d.b.h. growth and crown-class retention. Such a 

reliable response among upper canopy trees provides the forest manager with an opportunity 

to sustain individual oak trees for many years, which, in turn, provides a means of reaching oak 

stocking goals as the stand matures.

Four factors require close attention when determining whether CTR is needed in young oak 

stands to achieve long-term oak stocking goals:

A realistic oak stocking goal must be specified with respect to the percentage of oak 

relative density at maturity and the number of overstory oaks needed to achieve that 

composition.

The characteristics of desirable oak crop trees in young stands must be defined so that an 

appropriate analysis of treatment needs can be conducted.

An inventory of oak crop trees is needed to estimate the abundance and competitive 

status in the new stand being evaluated.

An estimate of oak crop tree survival is needed to determine whether follow-up CTR 

treatments are needed to attain oak stocking goals.

The remainder of this chapter provides information on the effect of CTR treatments in young 

oak stands. In some stands where oak crop trees are abundant and well distributed, such 

treatments may not be justified. In other stands where the availability of oak crop trees is more 

limited, CTR treatments may be crucial for maintaining desired species composition in the 

future. Additional information is provided on proper timing and application methods for 

conducting CTR treatments.

1)

2)

3)

4)

Figure 6.2.—Postharvest stands are inventoried 3 to 

5 years after the final cut and are easiest in the winter 

or early spring. 

Photo by Patrick Brose, Northern Research Station
62

Realistic Stocking Goal for Oak

Prescribing silvicultural treatments in young oak stands requires that the long-term goals for 

species composition in the mature stand be well defined. A goal for species composition can be 

stated in general terms, e.g., percentage of total basal area or percentage of total relative density. 

For example, the forest manager may desire a stand in which oaks occupy 50 percent of relative 

density at maturity. When evaluating young stands, it is helpful to state oak stocking goals in 

more specific terms, e.g., the number of overstory oaks per acre needed at maturity. Species 

composition in pole and sawtimber stands is relatively stable but natural competition in young 

sapling stands can lead to unexpected changes in species composition over several decades. 

Young stands contain thousands of trees per acre, so it can be difficult to assess how changes 

in crown class and the competitiveness of individual trees might affect species composition as 

the stand develops. Setting a specific “number of trees” goal allows the forest manager to focus 

attention on a relatively small number of trees in the young stand to determine whether followup silvicultural treatments are needed to enhance the development of preferred species.

Empirical data for setting realistic oak stocking goals were obtained from 54 mature oak stands 

in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky (Table 6.1). The stands ranged in age from 

54 to 110 years and had no history of major disturbances for several decades before data were 

collected. Site index base age 50 for northern red oak ranged from 60 to 86. Oaks accounted 

for an average of 65 percent of total basal area with most of the oak stocking in the upper crown 

classes. The remaining basal area included a small number of non-oaks in the upper canopy 

and mostly shade-tolerant species in the suppressed understory. In general, stand stocking 

and structure conditions were typical of oak-dominated stands in which the SILVAH-OAK 

decision-support system is intended to be applied.

Average stand structure conditions indicated that the overstory of mature oak stands 

contained 58 trees/acre in the dominant and codominant crown classes and 49 trees/acre in 

the intermediate crown class (Table 6.1). The number of oaks in the upper canopy (dominant 

and codominant trees) averaged 41 trees/acre. The number of intermediate oaks averaged 25 

trees/acre. Suppressed trees accounted for a negligible proportion of stand stocking, and nearly 

all of them were non-oak species. The data indicated that a goal of 65-percent oak basal area was 

achieved with an average of 41 upper canopy oaks/acre plus 25 intermediate oaks/acre at stand 

maturity.

Table 6.1.—Average species composition and structure of 54 mature oak standsa in Pennsylvania, 

West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky (standard error in parentheses)

Crown class

Species Dominant Co-dominant Intermediate Suppressed Total

Basal area

ft2/ac

------------------------------------------trees/acre-------------------------------------------

Oaks 3 (0.4) 38 (2.0) 25 (3.4) 16 (2.8) 82 (6.8) 75 (2.5)

Others 1 (0.2) 16 (2.0) 24 (2.4) 122 (15.3) 164 (14.9) 40 (3.0)

Total 4 (0.6) 54 (2.4) 49 (4.2) 138 (16.6) 245 (18.4) 115 (2.7)

a

Stand age ranges from 54 to 110 years, site index base age 50 ranges from 60 to 86, and stand area ranges from 6 to 

46 acres.
63

Similar goals for number of overstory oaks can be 

derived from published stocking equations developed 

for upland oak and mixed-species stands (Gingrich 

1967, Stout and Nyland 1986). For example, 

individual oaks that are 18 inches d.b.h. account for 

about 1.3 percent of relative stand density. To achieve 

50-percent oak relative density the mature stand 

must contain at least 39 oaks/acre of that average 

size, and they would most likely occupy dominant 

or codominant crown classes (Table 6.2). At any 

stocking level, the stand probably would contain some 

additional oaks in the intermediate class that would 

contribute to oak stocking and serve as insurance in 

achieving the desired species composition.

Goals for oak stocking vary according to long-term management objectives, and cultural 

treatments in young stands often can help attain them. A good rule of thumb is to promote 

approximately one oak crop tree in the young stand for every percentage point of oak 

stocking desired in the mature stand. For example, a goal of 50-percent oak stocking can be 

attained by seeking to sustain about 50 oak crop trees when the stand is young. Not all young 

oak crop trees can be sustained in the overstory for several decades but using such a guide in 

young stands allows for the loss of several trees and provides a reasonable margin for error in 

reaching stocking goals.

Characteristics of Oak Crop Trees

An oak crop tree is one that exhibits desirable characteristics that help meet management 

objectives, can respond to CTR, and can remain competitive for many years. Management 

objectives vary among landowners, often focusing on wildlife habitat, maintaining stand 

diversity, producing timber, or forest health. For each landowner or individual stand, the criteria 

used to define a crop tree also can differ. However, in all cases, crop trees must have a crown 

structure and canopy position that allow them to respond to release and remain competitive as 

the stand matures. Crop trees are found almost exclusively in the dominant and codominant 

crown classes. In limited cases, oaks in strong intermediate classes can be released if this practice 

is critical for meeting management objectives. However, in most cases, trees in the suppressed 

or intermediate classes will not respond acceptably to CTR. Crop trees can be selected to 

meet multiple objectives in the same stand and selection criteria often can be adjusted to 

accommodate unique circumstances.

The purpose of CTR is to reduce competition around selected trees so that they improve in vigor, 

remain competitive in the stand, and provide desired future benefits. Note that the purpose of 

CTR comprises several key concepts that guide the forest manager in selecting appropriate crop 

trees. Key characteristics to consider in selecting crop trees are species, crown class, origin, bole 

quality, vigor, and risk. It is important to select trees that are adapted to local site conditions.

Species. This is the primary factor that defines a crop tree’s capacity to meet management 

objectives. Market value, wildlife value, and more subtle benefits such as aesthetics, diversity, 

Table 6.2.—Number of overstory oaks per acre needed 

at stand maturity to achieve oak stocking goals

Oak stocking goal

at stand maturity

(% oak relative density)

Minimum number of 

overstory oaks neededa

(trees/acre)

20 15

30 23

40 31

50 39

60 46

70 54

80 62

a

 Includes dominant and codominant oaks, 18 inches or larger 

d.b.h. and each overstory oak represents a relative density of 1.3 

percent or greater (Stout and Nyland 1986). 
64

and recreation are determined by the species composition in the stand. Once management 

objectives are defined, candidate species for crop trees will become clear. Crop trees usually 

have a relatively high value in local markets and provide suitable seed production for future 

regeneration and food for wildlife. Crop trees diversify the species mix in the overstory which 

provides a range of other benefits and reduce the risk of insect and disease attacks associated 

with low species diversity. Some species can be relatively scarce or only several representatives 

may remain within a stand. If site conditions are suitable, including such trees in the CTR 

prescription helps ensure species diversity.

Crown Class. Crop trees must be able to compete successfully after release in the forest 

community and live long enough to provide benefits that meet management objectives. Thus, 

crop trees usually are found in dominant or codominant crown classes. For shade-intolerant 

and midtolerant species, the survival rate for crop trees in the dominant or codominant classes 

usually exceeds 90 percent for decades after CTR. Trees in intermediate or suppressed classes, 

particularly shade-intolerant species, generally do not respond well to CTR. Height growth 

for these trees usually is too slow to keep pace with codominant competitors. Similarly, several 

subordinate trees of midtolerant species such as the oaks can be enhanced by CTR to grow into 

the upper crown classes, though the success rate in improving crown class usually is less than 

20 percent. Trees in the intermediate class should be selected only as a last resort, and the forest 

manager should expect limited long-term success following the investment.

Origin. Trees of seedling- and sprout-origin can be acceptable crop trees. Sprout-origin crop 

trees should exhibit low attachment to the parent stump and, if possible, be located on the 

uphill side of the stump. Some sprout clumps have more than one acceptable crop tree in the 

same clump. In such cases, select the two best trees, preferably with a U-shape connection 

between them, and release around both crowns as if they are one.

Bole Quality, Vigor, and Risk. Crop-tree quality, vigor, and risk are closely related. Several 

research trials indicated that young hardwood trees with straight, defect-free boles tend to 

retain these qualities as they grow (Miller and Stringer 2004, Miller et al. 2007, Sonderman 

1986). In addition, early CTR in young stands has little adverse effect on bole quality (Miller 

2000). Desirable crop trees have straight boles, no forks in the bottom 17-foot bole section, no 

evidence of disease or damage, and smooth bark with a healthy, normal appearance. Evidence of 

epicormic branching before release indicates that the tree is already under stress and is likely to 

form more branches after release. Crop trees also have healthy crowns with a live crown ratio of 

at least 30 percent and no evidence of crown dieback.

Site Quality. Hardwood species exhibit varying degrees of competitiveness depending on site 

quality. For example, yellow-poplar is extremely competitive and long lived on moist cove sites 

with deep soil, but grows slowly and is short lived on dry ridge sites with shallow soil. Select 

crop trees that are well adapted to site conditions to minimize the risk of poor performance or 

even mortality over several decades. Consider how individual trees can compete within a given 

plant community through periods of drought or other adverse conditions. Annual precipitation 

and elevation can act as environmental filters such that only certain species remain competitive 

for long periods above or below certain thresholds (Oliver and Larson 1996). Among hardwood 

species, soil texture, nutrient content, average annual precipitation, and even wind can affect 
65

competitiveness and longevity. Draw on local experience and professional judgment to select 

crop trees that can compete well and reach the desired age on the site.

Inventory of Oak Crop Trees

Culturing oak crop trees in young stands requires an investment of time and money, so it is 

important to apply such treatments only in stands where the potential benefits exceed the costs. 

Improving the proportion of high-value species and high-quality trees in the overstory is the 

primary justification for applying CTR in young hardwood stands. Other benefits include 

faster d.b.h. growth and perhaps improved stand quality. Potential benefits are best in stands 

where high-value crop trees (due to species or quality) are threatened by aggressive, low-value 

competitors. The process of recognizing candidate stands for CTR or prioritizing treatments 

among multiple stands begins with a relatively simple inventory of the crop trees.

Collect data on crop trees and the competitors within each stand. Small, fixed-area circular plots 

are preferred in young hardwood stands, but any reliable sampling system is acceptable. Generally, 

12-foot-radius (0.01 acre) plots are used at a density of one plot per acre for stands 10 to 15 years 

old. Older stands (age 15 to 20 years) and stands with high variability may require more plots or 

larger plots (16.7-foot radius or 0.02 acre). The important thing to remember is the plot size needs 

to capture the structure of the overstory trees and account for variability within the stand.

Within each plot, record the species and competitive status code for each crop tree based on its 

crown class and the relative aggressiveness of its adjacent competitors (Appendix 6). This step 

requires an understanding of site quality and how it affects competitive interactions among 

species. The purpose of this step is to assess the likely effect of CTR on each crop tree’s longterm ability to compete. Later, this information will be aggregated for all crop trees in the stand 

to determine the likely impact of CTR on future species composition. A brief definition of each 

competitive status code follows.

Competitive Status Codes

Dominant or strong codominant crop trees that are likely to survive without release. 

These trees, often of vigorous seedling-or sprout-origin, are expected to compete well 

without CTR.

Codominant crop trees that are not immediately threatened by adjacent trees. These 

crop trees are flanked by trees of the same height and crown size. They might become 

threatened if neighboring trees become more aggressive. These crop trees will become 

strong codominants if released.

Weak codominant crop trees that are threatened by adjacent trees and are unlikely 

to remain competitive in the main canopy without release. Neighboring trees usually 

are larger, fast-growing trees or aggressive sprout clumps. These crop trees can remain 

codominant if released in the near future.

Desirable crop trees in the intermediate crown class. Crown vigor indicates that such 

trees remain capable of responding to release but CTR is needed immediately to prevent 

further decline. Examples include shade-tolerant maples or midtolerant oaks. The 

proportion of trees in this competitive status that can become codominant following 

CTR depends on initial vigor and height differential when released.

1)

2)

3)

4)
66

Record the species and origin of competing trees within each plot but be careful not to doublecount competitors whose crowns compete with more than one crop tree. Competing trees 

are adjacent to the crop trees, their crowns touch that of the crop tree, and they usually are 

dominant or codominant. The purpose of this step is to determine which species is the most 

likely to replace crop trees if they are unable to remain competitive in the overstory. Information 

on the species and origin of competing trees is useful in planning herbicide or mechanical 

release methods. Note that plots with no crop trees also have no competitors to record.

Predicting the Number of Overstory Oaks at Maturity

The first step in analyzing the inventory data is to tabulate the number of crop trees per acre 

according to their competitive status (Table 6.3, Appendix 7). For example, the data in Table 

6.3 is from an inventory of a 16-year-old hardwood stand with an oak site index of 70. The 

stand contained 80 crop trees per acre from the four competitive status groups. As a result, not 

all of them are expected to remain competitive in the overstory as the stand matures. In fact, 

many will perish from natural competition. Follow-up treatments such as CTR can be applied 

to increase the competitiveness and probability of long-term survival. Note that the probability 

of survival decreases as competitive status declines, but increases when CTR is applied. For 

example, about 75 percent of crop trees with competitive status 1 are expected to survive 

without CTR and about 95 percent are expected to survive with CTR. Appropriate survival 

rates are applied to the number of trees by competitive status and the results are summed. While 

the stand contained 80 crop trees per acre based on the inventory, only 24 crop trees per acre are 

expected to persist in the upper canopy without CTR, and 48 crop trees per acre are expected to 

persist in the upper canopy with CTR (Table 6.3, bottom row).

There is relatively little information available on estimating how CTR affects the probability 

that a tree will persist in the overstory. The probabilities presented in Table 6.3 are general 

estimates obtained from several sites in the upland hardwood region (Lamson and Smith 1978, 

Miller 2000, Mitchell et al. 1988, Schlesinger 1978, Schuler 2006, Ward 1995, Ward and 

Stephens 1994, Wendel and Lamson 1987). The probabilities can be adjusted based on local 

conditions and professional judgment.

Table 6.3.—Example of predicting the number of overstory oaks at stand maturity (oak crop 

trees in dominant or codominant crown classes) based on inventory of oak crop trees by 

initial competitive status from a 16-year-old stand with and without crop-tree release (CTR)

With CTR treatment Without CTR treatment

Competitive

status Inventory Probability

Predicted 

number Probability

Predicted 

number

No./acre % No./acre % No./acre

1 10 95 9.5 75 7.5

2 20 90 18.0 50 10.0

3 20 75 15.0 25 5.0

4 30 20 6.0 5 1.5

Totals 80 48.5 24.0
67

Decision Criteria for Prescribing Follow-up CTR Treatments

Key concepts and decision criteria for prescribing CTR treatment in young stands are 

summarized here and presented in Decision Chart N. The decision criteria were derived from 

the average number of overstory oaks per acre found in mature oak stands and observed longterm survival rates of oak crop trees in young stands. This approach requires the forest manager 

to set a realistic goal for oak stocking in the mature stand and to obtain an inventory of oak 

crop trees in the young stand being evaluated.

Goals for oak stocking must be expressed in the target number of overstory oaks needed 

at stand maturity. For example, the overstory of mature oak stands contain from 50 to 60 

dominant and codominant trees per acre, including both oaks and competing species. In stands 

with relatively high oak stocking (oak relative density of 60 percent or more), oaks account for 

40 to 45 of the overstory trees/acre plus 20 to 25 of intermediate trees/acre at maturity (Table 

6.1). With a long-term goal in mind, the forest manager then determines whether silvicultural 

treatments are needed to enhance the competitiveness and survival of oak crop trees in the 

young stand.

The number of young oak crop trees expected to occupy a dominant or codominant position at 

stand maturity can be determined using the probabilities provided in Appendix 7. Probability 

estimates are provided for both untreated stands and those in which CTR is applied at an 

early age. Note that the probabilities are greater in stands where CTR treatments are applied. 

However, even under ideal conditions, not all dominant and codominant oaks in young 

hardwood sapling stands will persist in the overstory until stand maturity.

To determine whether CTR treatments are needed, collect crop-tree inventory data (Appendix 

6), summarize it, enter it into the crop tree calculation sheet (Appendix 7) and multiply by 

the probabilities to determine the predicted number of overstory oaks for both untreated and 

treated stands. Compare the predicted number of overstory oaks for treated and untreated 

stands to the minimum number needed at stand maturity to achieve your stocking goal (Table 

6.2). For example, if the predicted number of overstory oaks in untreated stands is at least 39 

trees/acre, the CTR treatment is not needed to achieve 50-percent oak stocking. However, if 

the predicted number of overstory oaks in untreated stands falls short of 39 trees/acre, CTR is 

recommended to enhance the vigor and competitiveness of the available oak crop trees in the 

young stand.

In some cases, it may not be possible to reach 50-percent oak stocking at maturity—even with 

CTR treatments—because there are insufficient oak crop trees in the young stand. Still, CTR 

may be needed to retain as much oak stocking as possible to partially meet other goals related to 

species composition. CTR treatment costs usually are justified if the treated stand will contain 

at least 10 additional overstory oaks/acre compared to the untreated stand. Oaks usually have 

higher market values than the competitors, so increasing the number of overstory oaks at 

maturity increases the stand value and offsets the cost of earlier CTR treatments.
68

Applying Crown-Touching Release

CTR is applied by increasing the growing space around the crowns of desirable trees (Lamson 

et al. 1990; Miller et al. 2007). This entails eliminating trees that are limiting the horizontal 

crown expansion of the crop tree, thus increasing its free growing space. A crown-touching 

release is applied to deaden or fell adjacent competing trees whose crowns touch that of the 

crop tree (Fig 6.3). The increase in growing space provides more sunlight and belowground 

resources to the crop tree. The crop tree can then develop more leaf area in its crown, increasing 

photosynthesis and growth. Improved vigor and crown size also has the potential to improve the 

seed production of individual trees (Healy et al. 1999, Johnson et al. 2002).

CTR can be used to provide various degrees of release based on the proportion of the crown 

that is left free to grow (Fig. 6.4). It is not necessary to remove or deaden adjacent trees whose 

crowns are beneath the crop tree because they are not interfering significantly with the crown 

of the crop tree (Fig. 6.5). In most cases, it is beneficial to retain trees in the overtopped and 

weak intermediate classes adjacent to crop trees. Such trees might be important for wildlife 

and aesthetics and they can protect timber quality and value by shading the crop-tree bole and 

reducing exposure to sunlight that can trigger epicormic branching. The key to effective CTR is 

focusing on identifying the desirable trees to favor rather than the undesirable trees to eliminate.

Providing more than a crown-touching release in young stands can have an adverse effect on 

future merchantable log height and stem quality. Too much free growing space retards total 

height growth until the canopy gaps close and allows more time for epicormic branches to 

form and reduce the development of clear stem (Miller 2000). Providing too much release 

also increases the risk of damage from wind, ice, and wet snow because the crop tree has little 

support from its distant neighbors. A simple crown-touching release is a good tradeoff between 

free growing space to enhance crop tree growth and quick canopy closure to maintain height 

growth and clear-stem development.

Figure 6.3.—A crop-tree crown (green) is shown from above the forest canopy. The diagram 

at left represents a crop-tree crown before release with six adjacent competitors. The diagram 

at right shows the free growing space available when a crown-touching release is applied to 

remove competing trees from all sides of a crop tree.
69

Figure 6.4.—A crop tree crown (green) is shown from above the forest canopy. The diagram 

shows a partial and full crown-touching release where one, two, three, or all four sides of the 

crop trees are released.

Figure 6.5.—Subordinate trees in overtopped 

or weak intermediate crown classes need not 

be removed to release crop trees.
70

Based on research and practical operational concerns, the following guidelines for the crowntouching release will help improve the effectiveness of CTR treatments. 

Full crown-touching release should be considered for rapidly growing species such as 

some oaks, black cherry, yellow-poplar, and young trees in the sapling or pole stage.

Less than a full crown-touching release (at least three sides released) can be used for 

small sawtimber crop trees to limit the risk of epicormic branching where timber 

quality is a concern. 

Subcanopy trees should be retained around crop trees to protect them and add other 

benefits to the stand so long as they do not conflict with management objectives.

Why Focus Attention on a Few Overstory Trees?

Mature hardwood stands contain hundreds of trees per acre but those in the overstory account 

for the vast majority of stand volume and value. Data from a 53-year-old hardwood stand in the 

central Appalachians illustrate this important characteristic (Table 6.4). This stand regenerated 

naturally after clearcutting for charcoal in the 1930s with no interim silvicultural treatments 

or other disturbances. All trees 1 inch or larger in d.b.h. in twenty 0.5-acre permanent plots 

were tallied and assigned a stumpage value by species and merchantable volume based on local 

market prices. The trees were then ranked in order of increasing value in each plot and the 

average per-acre results were computed for all 20 plots. Cumulative totals for basal area, board 

foot volume, and stumpage value were tabulated for the 70 most valuable trees per acre (Table 

6.4). For example, the 10 most valuable trees per acre accounted for 15 percent of stand basal 

area, 32 percent of stand volume, and 45 percent of stand value. The 20 most valuable trees per 

acre accounted for 63 percent of stand value and so on. In addition, the overstory included 69 

trees per acre in the dominant or codominant crown classes and all of them were represented in 

the 70 most valuable trees/acre.

A closer examination of these data also indicated the importance of overstory species 

composition in determining stand value. For example, 56 percent of the stand value was in 

only 20 overstory trees/acre (8 black cherry and 12 northern red oak) (Fig. 6.6). The overstory 

1)

2)

3)

Table 6.4.—Cumulative basal-area stocking, merchantable volume, and stumpage 

value for the 70 most valuable trees/acre in a 53-year-old upland hardwood stand on 

site index 70

Ascending tree

value ranking

(Trees/acre) Stocking Volumea Stumpagevalue

% of total

 10 15 32 45

 20 26 53 63

 30 34 69 76

 40 41 80 93

 50 48 89 93

 60 trees 53% 95% 98%

 70 58 99 99

Total 441 143 ft2/ac 13.7 MBF/acre $3,925/acre

a

International 1⁄4-inch rule.
71

had nearly twice as many yellow-poplar (36 trees/acre) that accounted for 37 percent of the 

stand value. Stand value was determined solely by natural competition for more than 50 years. 

The application of CTR treatments when the stand was still young (age 10 to 20 years), would 

have increased the proportion of black cherry and red oak that survived in the overstory, thus 

increasing stand value at maturity.

This example illustrates that nearly all of the economic value in hardwood stands is in a 

relatively small number of trees per acre. Forest managers need to focus on favoring all of the 

available crop trees, up to about 60 to 70 trees/acre. This upper threshold is determined by 

d.b.h./crown-diameter relationships for each species (Lamson 1987, Miller et al. 2006). In 

rare cases, in which there are more than 60 to 70 crop trees/acre, these trees can be released 

when the stand is still young and some can be removed later during a commercial thinning. 

Hardwood stands usually contain less than the 60 to 70 crop trees/acre recommended here, so 

most CTR prescriptions entail releasing a smaller (manageable) number of crop trees per acre.

Figure 6.6.—Distribution of stand value by 

species and number of merchantable trees 

per acre in each species group.
72

Is regen. of desired species well established ?

Is regen. of any species well established ?

Start

Regen.

fully 

successful

Consider

Fencing,

Fertilization,

or Planting

Is the potential for regen. success high ?

Yes.

> 29% of plots have >7 PC >5 ft

Does pin cherry pose a threat to desirable seedling-origin regeneration?

No.

< 70% stocking 

of 2 COM >5 ft

Is seedling origin regen. of desired species present ?

Remove PC

Reexamine

in 2 Years

Does adding stump sprouts, birch, 

and AB to the regeneration improve 

stocking and is that acceptable?

Remove PC,

Consider

Art. Regen.

Consider

Selective PC

Removal,

Reexamine

in 2 years

Chart L

Allegheny and Northern Hardwoods

Postharvest Follow-up

No.

 < 30% of plots have >7 PC >5 ft

No.

 < 70% stocking of

2 DES > 5 ft

Yes.

 > 69% stocking of

2 DES > 5 ft

No.

 < 70% stocking of

25 BC or 100 DES 

or 5 DES > 3 ft 

or 2 DES > 5 ft

Yes.

 > 69% stocking of

25 BC or 100 DES 

or 5 DES > 3 ft 

or 2 DES > 5 ft

Yes.

> 69% stocking 

of 2 COM >5 ft

New stand 

established

No.

 < 50% stocking of DES or 

< 70% stocking of COM

 5 stems >3 ft + 25 total

Yes.

 > 49% stocking of DES or 

> 69% stocking of COM

 5 stems >3 ft + 25 total

Reexamine

in 2 years

No.

 < 70% stocking of

25 BC or 100 DES 

or 5 DES > 3 ft 

or 2 DES > 5 ft

or 1 stump sprout

or 2 Birch/AB > 5 ft

Yes.

 > 69% stocking of

25 BC or 100 DES 

or 5 DES > 3 ft 

or 2 DES > 5 ft

or 1 stump sprout

or 2 Birch/AB > 5 ft
73

Is Competitive Oak present ?

Start

New stand 

established.

Evaluate for 

Crop-Tree Release 

in 10 Years

(Chart N).

Fence,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

Yes.

> 49% of plots have 

Free-to-Grow Oak

Do Free-to-Grow Oak dominate the regeneration?

No.

<70% stocking 

of Any Comp. Regen.

Is Any Competitive Regeneration adequate ?

Chart M

Mixed-Oak 

Postharvest Follow-up

No.

 <50% stocking of

Competitive Oak

Yes.

 > 49% stocking of

Competitive Oak

Yes.

> 69% stocking of

Any Competitive 

Regeneration

Yes.

> 69% stocking 

of Any Comp. Regen.

No.

< 50% of plots have 

Free-to-Grow Oak

No.

< 70% stocking of

Any Competitive 

Regeneration

Is Any Competitive Regeneration adequate ?

Is Deer Impact high ?

No.

 Deer Index < 4

Yes.

 Deer Index > 3

Reinventory

in 3 Years

Are interfering plants extremely dense ?

No.

 Any Int. < 70%

Yes.

 Any Int. > 69%

Is Deer Impact high ?

No.

 Deer Index < 4

Yes.

 Deer Index > 3

Are interfering plants extremely dense ?

No.

 Any Int. < 70%

Yes.

 Any Int. > 69%

Is Deer Impact high ?

No.

 Deer Index < 4

Yes.

 Deer Index > 3

OR

Fence,

Release Burn,

Art. Regen.,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

Fence,

Herbicide,

Art. Regen.,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

OR

Herbicide,

Art. Regen.,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

Fence,

Art. Regen.,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

Art. Regen.,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

Herbicide,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

Release Burn,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

Fence,

Herbicide,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

Fence,

Release Burn,

Reinventory

in 3 Years

OR OR

Is Deer Impact high ?

No.

 Deer Index < 4

Yes.

 Deer Index > 3

Release Burn,

Art. Regen.,

Reinventory

in 3 Years
74

Start

No need to

apply CTR.

Reexamine

in 10 years.

Does predicted number of overstory oaks with CTR 

exceed the predicted number of overstory oaks without 

CTR by at least 10 trees per acre (Appendix 7) ?

Does predicted number of overstory oaks without CTR (Appendix 7) 

meet oak stocking goals at stand maturity (Table 6.2)?

Chart N

Crop-Tree Release

(CTR) Prescriptions

No Yes

No Yes

Limited benefit 

to CTR.

Reexamine

in 10 years.

Apply CTR to

all oak crop trees

and crop trees of

other desired species.

Reexamine

in 10 years.
75

Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to the leadership and staff foresters of the Pennsylvania Department 

of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bureau of Forestry for their financial and technical 

support and unending collaboration of the SILVAH-oak project, the oak ecology and silviculture 

training course, and this guidebook. Without this support, this project never would have occurred. 

Within that organization, special thanks are due to Gary Frank, Gary Gilmore, John Hecker, 

Pete Johnson, Nicholas Lylo, Mark Deibler, and Gary Rutherford. These individuals were 

especially important in the initial development of SILVAH-oak and the development of the 

training course. The authors also appreciate the permanent and seasonal field staffs of the Irvine 

and Morgantown Forestry Sciences Laboratories for their expertise and hard work in preparing 

for the training courses and carrying out the research studies spawned by the development of 

SILVAH-oak. Finally, the authors thank Elizabeth Brantley, Daniel Dey, Martin Jones, Thomas 

Schuler, and Jeffrey Ward for helpful reviews that improved clarity of this manuscript.

Literature Cited

Abrams, M.D. 2003. Where has all the white oak gone? BioScience. 53(10): 927-939.

Abrams, M.D.; Nowacki, G.J. 1992. Historical variation in fire, oak recruitment, and postlogging accelerated succession in central Pennsylvania. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical 

Club. 119(1): 19-28.

Auchmoody, L.R.; Smith, H.C. 1993. Survival of acorns after fall burning. Res. Pap. NE678. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest 

Experiment Station. 5 p.

Brose, P.H. 2007. Development of interim oak assessment guidelines for the SILVAH 

decision-support system. In: Buckley, D.S.; Clatterbuck, W.K., eds. Proceedings of the 

fifteenth central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-101. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 37-45.

Brose, P.H. 2008. Root development of acorn-origin oak seedlings in shelterwood stands 

on the Appalachian Plateau of northern Pennsylvania: 4-year results. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 255: 3374-3381.

Brose, P.H.; Van Lear, D.H. 1998. Responses of hardwood advance regeneration to seasonal 

prescribed fires in oak dominated shelterwood stands. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research. 28: 331-339.

Brose, P.H.; Van Lear, D.H. 2004. Survival of hardwood regeneration during prescribed 

fires: the importance of root development and root collar location. In: Spetich, M.A., 

ed. Upland oak ecology symposium: history, current conditions, and sustainability. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. SRS-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station: 123-127.
76

Brose, P.H.; Waldrop, T.A. 2006. Changes in the disturbance regime of upland yellow pine 

forests in the southern Appalachian Mountains during the 20th century. In: Connor, 

K.F., ed. Proceedings of the 13th biennial southern silviculture research conference. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. SRS-92. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station: 467-470.

Brose, P.H.; Van Lear, D.H.; Cooper, R. 1999a. Using shelterwood harvests and prescribed 

fire to regenerate oak stands on productive upland sites. Forest Ecology and Management. 

113(2): 125-141.

Brose, P.H.; Van Lear, D.H.; Keyser, P.D. 1999b. A shelterwood-burn technique for 

regenerating productive upland oak sites in the Piedmont region. Southern Journal of 

Applied Forestry. 23(3): 158-163.

Brose, P.H.; Schuler, T.M.; Van Lear, D.H.; Berst, J. 2001. Bringing fire back: the changing 

regimes of the Appalachian mixed-oak forests. Journal of Forestry. 99(11): 30-35.

Cohen, D.; Dellinger, R. 2006. Re-examining the role of lightning in the landscape. Fire 

Management Notes. 66(4): 25-27.

Cohen, D.; Dellinger, R.; Klein, R.; Buchanan, E. 2007. Patterns of lightning-caused fires at 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Fire Ecology. 3(2): 68-82.

Deen, R.T.; Hodges, J.D.; Janzen, G.C. 1993. The influence of midstory-understroy control 

treatments on regeneration of red oak species foloowing clearcutting. In: Brissette, J., 

ed. Proceedings of the seventh biennial southern silviculture research conference. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. SO-93. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Forest Experiment Station: 117-121.

Denevan, W.M. 1992. The pristine myth: the landscape of the Americas in 1492. Annals of 

the Association of American Geographers. 82(3): 369-385.

Dey, D.C.; Jacobs, D.; McNabb, K.; Miller, G.W.; Baldwin, V.; Foster, G. 2008. Artificial 

regeneration of major oak (Quercus) species of the eastern United States—a review of 

the literature. Forest Science. 54(1): 77-106.

Ellsworth, J.W.; McComb, B.C. 2003. Potential effects of passenger pigeon flocks on 

the structure and composition of presettlement forests of eastern North America.

Conservation Biology. 17(6): 1548-1558.

Fralish, J.S. 2004. The keystone role of oak and hickory in the central hardwood forest.

In: Spetich, M.A., ed. Upland oak ecology symposium: history, current conditions, and 

sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 78-87.
77

Gingrich, S.F. 1967. Measuring and evaluating stocking and stand density in upland 

hardwood forests of the Central States. Forest Science. 13: 38-53.

Godfrey, C.L.; Needham, K.; Vaughan, M.R.; Vashon, J.C.; Martin, D.D.; Blank, G.T. 2000. 

A technique for and risk associated with entering tree dens used by black bears. Wildlife 

Society Bulletin. 28: 131-140.

Grisez, T.J.; Peace, M.R. 1973. Requirements for advance reproduction in Allegheny 

hardwoods—an interim guide. Res. Note NE-180. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. 

Hanks, L.F.; Gammon, G.L.; Brisbin, R.L.; Rast, E.D. 1980. Hardwood log grades and 

lumber grade yields for factory lumber logs. Res. Pap. NE-468. Broomall, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 92 p.

Healy, W.M.; Lewis, A.M.; Boose, E.F. 1999. Variation of red oak acorn production. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 116: 1-11.

Horsley, S.B. 1981. Control of herbaceous weeds in Allegheny hardwood stands with 

herbicides. Weed Science. 29: 655-662.

Horsley, S.B. 1988. Control of understory vegetation in Allegheny hardwood stands with 

Oust. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 6: 261-262.

Horsley, S.B. 1990. Control of grass and sedge in Allegheny hardwood stands with 

Roundup-residual herbicide tank mixes. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 7: 124-129.

Horsley, S.B. 1991. Using Roundup and Oust to control interfering understories in 

Allegheny hardwood stands. In: McCormick, L.H.; Gottschalk, K.W., eds. Proceedings of 

the eighth central hardwoods forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-148. Radnor, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 281-

290.

Horsley, S.B.; McCormick, L.H.; Groninger, J.W. 1992. Effects of timing of Oust application 

on survival of hardwood seedlings. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 9: 22-27.

Hutchinson, T.F. 2006. Fire and the herbaceous layer in eastern oak forests. In: Dickinson, 

M.B., ed. Fire in eastern oak forests: delivering science to land managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern 

Research Station: 136-149.

Jacobson, M.; Finley, J.C. 2007. Pennsylvania woodlands timber market report. Available 

online at http://www.sfr.psu.edu/TMR/TMR.htm. (Accessed in November 2007).

Johnson, P.S.; Shifley, S.R.; Rogers, R. 2002. The ecology and silviculture of oaks. New York: 

CABI Publishing. 503 p.
78

Kirkpatrick, R.L.; Pekins, P.J. 2002. Nutritional value of acorns for wildlife. In: McShea, 

W.J.; Healy, W.M., eds., Oak forest ecosystems: ecology and management for wildlife. 

Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press: 173-181.

Kochenderfer, J.D.; Kochenderfer, J.N.; Warner, D.A.; Miller, G.W. 2004. Preharvest manual 

herbicide treatments for controlling American beech in central West Virginia. Northern 

Journal of Applied Forestry. 21(1): 40-49.

Kochenderfer, J.D.; Kochenderfer, J.N.; Miller, G.W. 2006. Controlling beech root and 

stump sprouts using the cut-stump treatment. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 

23(3): 155-165.

Kolb, T.E.; Steiner, K.C.; McCormick, L.H.; Bowersox, T.W. 1990. Growth response of 

northern red oak and yellow-poplar seedlings to light, soil moisture, and nutrients in 

relation to ecological strategy. Forest Ecology and Management. 38: 65-78.

Lamson, N.I. 1987. D.b.h./crown diameter relationships in mixed Appalachian hardwood 

stands. Res. Pap. NE-610. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 3 p.

Lamson, N.I.; Smith, H.C. 1978. Response to crop-tree release: sugar maple, red oak, black 

cherry, and yellow-poplar in a 9-year-old stand. Res. Pap. NE-394. Broomall, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 8 p.

Lamson, N.I.; Smith, H.C.; Perkey, A.W.; Brock, S.M. 1990. Crown release increases growth 

of crop trees. Res. Pap. NE-635. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 8p.

Loftis, D.L. 1985. Preharvest herbicide treatment improves regeneration in southern 

Appalachian hardwoods. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 9: 177-180.

Loftis, D.L., 1990a. Predicting post-harvest performance of advance red oak reproduction 

in the southern Appalachians. Forest Science. 36: 908-916.

Loftis, D.L. 1990b. A shelterwood method for regenerating red oak in the Southern 

Appalachians. Forest Science. 36(4): 917-929.

Loftis, D.L. 2004. Upland oak regeneration and management. In: Spetich, MA., ed. Upland 

oak ecology symposium: history, current conditions, and sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

SRS-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research 

Station: 163-167.

Loomis, R.M. 1974. Some forest floor fuelbed characteristics of black oak stands in 

southeast Missouri. Res. Note NC-162. St Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.
79

Loomis, R.M. 1975. Annual changes in forest floor weights under a southeast Missouri oak 

stand. Res. Note NC-184. St Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

North Central Forest Experiment Station. 3 p.

Lorimer, C.G. 1993. Causes of the oak regeneration problem. In: Loftis, D.L.; McGee, 

C.E., eds. Oak regeneration: serious problems, practical solutions. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE84. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest 

Experiment Station: 14-39.

Lorimer, C.G.; Chapman, J.W.; Lambert, W.D., 1994. Tall understory vegetation as a factor 

in the poor development of oak seedlings beneath mature stands. Journal of Ecology. 82: 

227-237.

Marquis, D.A. 1977. Devices to protect seedlings from deer browsing. Res. Note NE243. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest 

Experiment Station. 7 p.

Marquis, D.A.; Bjorkbom, J.C. 1982. Guidelines for evaluating regeneration before 

and after clearcutting Allegheny hardwoods. Res. Note NE-307. Broomall, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.

Marquis, D.A.; Ernst, R.L. 1991. The effects of stand structure after thinning on growth of 

an Allegheny hardwood stand. Forest Science. 37(4): 1182-1200.

Marquis, D.A.; Grisez, T.J. 1978. The effect of deer exclosures on the recovery of vegetation 

in failed clearcuts on the Allegheny Plateau. Res. Note NE-270. Broomall, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. 

Marquis, D.A.; Ernst, R.L.; Stout, S.L. 1992. Prescribing silvicultural treatments in 

hardwood stands of the Alleghenies (revised). Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-96. Radnor, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 101 p.

Marquis, D.A.; Grisez, T.J.; Bjorkbom, J.C.; Roach, B.A. 1975. Interim guide to regeneration 

of Allegheny hardwoods. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-19. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 14 p. 

McGill, D.W.; Rogers, R.; Martin, A.J.; Johnson, P.S. 1999. Measuring stocking in northern 

red oak stands in Wisconsin. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 16: 144-150.

McShea, W. J. 2000. The influence of acorn crops on annual variation in rodent and bird 

populations. Ecology. 81: 228-238.

McShea, W. J.; Healy, W.M., eds. 2002. Oak forest ecosystems: ecology and management for 

wildlife. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 432 p.
80

McWilliams, W.H.; Alerich, C.A.; Devlin, D.A.; Lister, A.J.; Lister, T.W.; Sterner, S.L.; Westfall, 

J.A. 2004. Annual inventory report for Pennsylvania’s forests: results from the first three 

years. Resour. Bull. NE-159. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Northeastern Research Station. 95 p. 

Mesavage, C.; Girard, J.W. 1946. Tables for estimating board foot volume of timber.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 94 p.

Miller, G.W. 2000. Effect of crown growing space on the development of young hardwood 

crop trees. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 17: 25-35.

Miller, G.W.; Stringer, J.W. 2004. Effect of crown release on tree grade and DBH growth of 

white oak sawtimber in eastern Kentucky. In Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, 

P.C, eds. Proceedings, 14th central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE316. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern 

Research Station: 37-44.

Miller, G.W.; Kochenderfer, J.N.; Gottschalk, K.W. 2004a. Effect of pre-harvest shade control 

and fencing on northern red oak seedling development in the central Appalachians.

In: Spetich, M.A., ed. Upland oak ecology symposium: history, current conditions, and 

sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 182-189.

Miller, G.W.; Kochenderfer, J.N.; Fekedulega, D.B. 2004b. Composition and development 

of reproduction in two-age Appalachian hardwood stands: 20-year results. In: Sheppard, 

W.D.; Eskew, L.G. comps. Proceedings of the 2003 National Silviculture Workshop. Proc. 

RMRS-P-34. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station: 171-181.

Miller, G.W.; Kochenderfer, J.N.; Fekedulega, D.B. 2006. Influence of individual reserve 

trees on nearby reproduction in two-aged Appalachian hardwood stands. Forest Ecology 

and Management. 224: 241-251.

Miller, G.W.; Stringer, J.W.; Mercker, D.C. 2007. Technical guide to crop tree release in 

hardwood forests. Publ. SREF-FM-011. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press. 

Available online at http://www.sref.info/publications/online_pubs 24 p. 

Millers, I.; Lachance, D.; Burkman, W.G.; Allen, D.C. 1991. North American sugar maple 

decline project: organization and field methods. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-154. Radnor, PA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 26 

p.

Mitchell, R.J.; Dwyer, J.P.; Musbach, R.A.; Garrett, H.E.; Cox, G.S.; Kurtz, W.B. 1988. Crop 

tree release of a scalet-black oak stand. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 5:96-99.
81

Nowacki, G.J.; Abrams, M.D. 1992. Community, edaphic, and historical analysis of mixed 

oak forests of the Ridge and Valley Province in central Pennsylvania. Canadian Journal of 

Forest Research. 22: 790-800.

Oliver, C.D.; Larson, B.C. 1996. Forest stand dynamics. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 

520 p.

Patterson, W.A. 2006. The paleoecology of fire and oaks in eastern forests. In: Dickinson, 

M.B., ed. Fire in eastern oak forests: delivering science to land managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern 

Research Station: 2-19.

Pelton, M. R. 1989. The impacts of oak mast on black bears in the southern Appalachians.

In: McGee, C.E., ed., Proceedings of the workshop: southern Appalachian mast 

management. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee: 7-11.

Rast, E.D.; Sonderman, D.L.; Gammon, G.L. 1973. A guide to hardwood log grading.

Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-1. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 32 p.

Rentch, J.S.; Hicks, R.R. 2005. Canopy disturbance intervals, early growth rates, and 

canopy accession trends of oak-dominated old-growth forests. In: Van Sambeek, 

J.W.; Dawson, J.O.; Ponder, F.; Loewenstein, E.F.; Fralish, J.S., eds. Proceedings of the 

13th central hardwoods forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-234. St. Paul, MN: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 323-332.

Ristau, T.E.; Horsley, S.B. 1999. Pin cherry effects on Allegheny hardwood stand 

development. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 29:73-84.

Ristau, T.E.; Horsley, S.B. 2006. When is pin cherry (Prunus pensylvanica L.) a problem in 

Allegheny hardwoods? Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 23(3): 204-210.

Roach, B.A. 1977. A stocking guide for Allegheny hardwoods and its use in controlling 

intermediate cuttings. Res. Pap. NE-373. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 30 p.

Roach, B.A.; Gingrich, S.F. 1968. Even-aged silviculture for upland central hardwoods.

Agric. Handb. 355. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 39 p.

Rodewald, A.D. 2003. Decline of oak forests and implications for forest wildlife 

conservation. Natural Areas Journal. 23: 368-371.

Rodewald, A.D.; Abrams, M.D. 2002. Floristics and avian community structure: 

implications for regional changes in eastern forest composition. Forest Science. 48: 267-

272.
82

Rubbo, M.J.; Kiesecker, J.M. 2004. Leaf litter composition and community structure: 

translating regional species changes into local dynamics. Ecology. 85(9): 2519-2525.

Ruffner, C.M.; Abrams, M.D. 1998. Lightning strikes and resultant fires from archival 

(1912-1917) and current (1960-1997) information in Pennsylvania. Journal of the Torrey 

Botanical Club. 125(3): 249-252.

Sander, I.L.; Clark, F.B. 1971. Reproduction of upland hardwood forests in the Central 

States. Agric. Handb. 405. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 25 p.

Sander, I.L.; Johnson, P.S.; Rogers, R. 1984. Evaluating oak advance reproduction in the 

Missouri Ozarks. Res. Rep. NC-251. St Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 16 p.

Sander, I.L.; Johnson, P.S.; Watt, R.F. 1976. A guide for evaluating the adequacy of oak 

advance reproduction. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-23. St Paul, MN: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 7 p.

Schlesinger, R.C. 1978. Increased growth of released white oak poles continues through two 

decades. Journal of Forestry. 76: 726-727.

Schuler, T.M. 2006. Crop tree release improves competitiveness of northern red oak 

growing in association with black cherry. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 23: 77-82.

Schuler, T.M.; Brose, P.H.; White, R.L. 2005. Residual overstory density affects survival and 

growth of sheltered oak seedlings on the Allegheny Plateau. Res. Pap. NE-728. Newtown 

Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 

9 p.

Shigo, A.L. 1984. Compartmentalization: a conceptual framework for understanding how 

trees grow and defend themselves. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 22: 189-214.

Smith, D.W. 2006. Why sustain oak forests? In: Dickinson, M.B., ed. Fire in eastern oak 

forests: delivering science to land managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, 

PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 62-71.

Sonderman, D.L. 1986. Changes in stem quality on young thinned hardwoods. Res. Pap. 

NE-576. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern 

Research Station. 9 p.

Steiner, K.C.; Finley, J.C.; Gould, P.J.; Fei, S.; McDill, M. 2008. Oak regeneration guidelines 

for the Central Appalachians. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 25(1) 5-16. 

Stout, S.L.; Nyland, R.D. 1986. Role of species composition in relative density measurement 

in Allegheny hardwoods. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 16: 574-579.
83

Stout, S.L.; Marquis, D.A.; Ernst, R.L. 1987. A relative density measure for mixed species 

stands. Journal of Forestry. 85(6): 45-47.

Stout, S.L.; Brose, P.H.; Gottschalk, K.W.; Miller, G.W.; Knopp, P.; Rutherford, G.; Deibler, 

M.; Frank, G.; Gilmore, G. 2007. SILVAH-OAK: Ensuring adoption by engaging users 

in the full cycle of forest research. In: Miner, C.; Jacobs, R.; Dykstra, D.; Bittner, R., eds. 

Proceedings of the international conference on transfer of forest science knowledge and 

technology. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-726. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 229-238.

Ward, J.S. 1995. Intensity of precommercial crop-tree release increases diameter and crown 

growth in upland hardwoods. In: Gottschalk, K.W., Fosbroke, S.L.C., eds. Proceedings of 

the tenth central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-197. Radnor, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 388-398.

Ward, J.S.; Stephens, G.R. 1994. Crown class transition rates of maturing northern red oak.

Forest Science. 40: 221-237.

Wendel, G.W.; Lamson, N.I. 1987. Effects of herbicide release on the growth of 8- to 12-

year-old hardwood trees. Res. Pap. NE-394. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.

Wentworth, J. M.; Johnson, A.S.; Hale, P.E.; Kammermeyer, K.E. 1992. Relationships of 

acorn abundance and deer herd characteristics in the Southern Appalachians. Southern 

Journal of Applied Forestry. 16:5-8.

Whitney, G.G.; DeCant, J.P. 2003. Physical and historical determinants of the pre- and 

post-settlement forests of northwestern Pennsylvania. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research. 33: 1683-1697.

Wiant, H.V. 1986. Formulas for Mesavage and Girard volume tables. Northern Journal of 

Applied Forestry. 3(3): 124.

Wiant, H.V.; Yandle, D.O. 1984. Predicting hardwood height, diameter, and volume.

Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 1(2): 24-25.

Widmann, R.H.; McWilliams, W.H. 2006. Changes in the oak resource in the MidAtlantic states (DE, MD, NJ, PA, and WV) using Forest Inventory and Analysis data.

In: Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters National Convention. Bethesda, MD: 

Society of American Foresters.

Zazcek, J.J.; Harding, J.; Welfley, J. 1997. Impact of soil scarification on the composition 

of regeneration and species diversity in an oak shelterwood. In: Pallardy, S.G.; Cecich, 

R.A.; Garrett, H.G.; Johnson, J.S., eds. Proceedings of the eleventh central hardwood forest 

conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-188. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, North Central Research Station: 341-349.
84
85
86

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

 < Jun27, 2008 > 

 SILVAH V5.60 - SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS AND OAK

 FILE: C:\USFS-NRS\SILVAH\uncut06.sil

 DEFAULTS FILE: C:\USFS-NRS\SILVAH\SILVAH.DEF

 OWNER/AGENCY -- PA BOF DATE TALLIED: June 2008 

 FOREST/PROPERTY -- Clear Creek SF

 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- Jefferson

 COMPT - STAND -- Uncut TYPE: TRANSITION HARDWOOD 

 ACRES -- 10.00 SIZE: MEDIUM SAW 

 STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN DENSITY: 80 TO 95% 

 SITE -- 70 FOR CO 

OVERSTORY CRUISE INFORMATION 

----------------------------

Overstory data is from an individual tree tally prism cruise using a 10 factor 

prism, and with trees tallied by 1 inch dbh classes, heights, and pulp & cull 

grades only.

Overstory data based on 20 plots; 

 0 additional plots needed to reach 15 % of the mean; 

 0 additional plots needed to reach 10 % of the mean. 

Mean basal area is 116 ± 9 square feet per acre at 90% confidence (7% of mean). 

UNDERSTORY CRUISE INFORMATION 

-----------------------------

Data on advance regeneration, site limitations, and understory are from an 

extended regeneration tally using 6-ft radius plots.

Understory data is based on 22 plots. 

1

Appendix 3
87

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

INFORMATION ON REGENERATION AND SITE - ORIGINAL STAND 

-----------------------------------------------------

 SPECIES OR % OF PLOTS VALUE 

 CATEGORY STOCKED 

 ---------- ---------- ----- 

 DESIRABLE TREE REGENERATION 

 --------------------------- 

 -- FIELD INVENTORY: 

 BLACK CHERRY 0 0 Seedlings/acre 

 YELLOW POPLAR 0 0 Seedlings/acre 

 CONIFERS 0 123 Seedlings/acre 

 NEW OAK 27 15564 Seedlings/acre 

 ESTABLISHED OAK 0 700 Seedlings/acre 

 COMPETITIVE OAK 0 0 Seedlings/acre 

 OTHER DESIRABLES 14 8789 Seedlings/acre 

 ESTABLISHED DESIRABLES 14 9612 Seedlings/acre 

 COMPETITIVE DESIRABLES 14 8911 Seedlings/acre 

 TOTAL OAK 32 16264 Seedlings/acre 

 RESIDUALS 23

 SAPLINGS 0

 -- SUMMARY VALUES - AMBIENT DEER PRESSURE: 

 OAK STUMP SPROUTS 3 33 Sprts/ac expected 

 ANY ESTABLISHED REGEN 16

 ANY CMP. REGEN OR RESIDS 30

 ANY COMPETITIVE REGEN 16

 ALL ESTABLISHED OAK 3

 ALL OAK 34

 -- SELECT SUMMARY VALUES - WITH FENCING/NO DEER PRESSURE: 

 OAK STUMP SPROUTS 5 

 ANY ESTABLISHED REGEN 55

 ANY CMP. REGEN OR RESIDS 69

 ANY COMPETITIVE REGEN 55

 ALL ESTABLISHED OAK 14

 ALL OAK 60

** Summary regeneration stocking values reflect the contribution of oak stump 

 sprouts which contribute no more than 20% of total stocking. 

2

Appendix 3
88

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

FACTORS AFFECTING REGENERATION DIFFICULTY 

-----------------------------------------

 DEER IMPACT 3 MODERATE

 SEED SUPPLY 2 Moderate seed supply

INTERFERING UNDERSTORY 

---------------------

 TALL WOODY INTERFERENCE 70** 

 LOW WOODY INTERFERENCE 73 51 Plot average 

 FERNS 5 2 Plot average 

 GRASSES 0 1 Plot average 

 ANY INTERFERENCE 86

 GRAPEVINES 5 1 Vines/acre 

WOODY INTERFERENCE FOR REGENERATION 

-----------------------------------

 TALL WOODY INTERFERENCE 70** 

 DETAILS # PLOTS (%) SPECIES 

 2 9.09 AB 

 2 9.09 TOTAL; All species 

 LOW WOODY INTERFERENCE 72.7

 DETAILS # PLOTS (%) SPECIES 

 12 54.55 MTL 

 4 18.18 BLU 

 16 72.73 TOTAL; All species 

 UNDESIRABLE SAPLINGS AND POLES 23 sq.ft/ac basal area 

** SILVAH assigns 70% stocking for tall woody interference if there is at least 

 10 sq.ft./acre of undesirable saplings and poles (tallied separately in the 

 overstory) and there is less than 70% stocking of tall woody interfering 

 species. 

SITE LIMITATIONS FOR REGENERATION 

---------------------------------

 SITE LIMITATIONS 0 

3

Appendix 3
89

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

SITE INFORMATION - ORIGINAL STAND 

---------------------------------

 COVER TYPE 1 Forest

 SITE CLASS 2 Med. productivity

 SITE SPECIES CO 

 SITE INDEX 70 

 REL MERCH HT 0.00 

 ELEVATION 1800 

 ASPECT 90 

 SLOPE % 5 

 TOPO POSITION 6 Upper flat

 OPERABILITY 1 No limitations

 ACCESSABILITY 2 4-wh road at stand

STRESS FACTORS 

--------------

 DEER IMPACT 3 MODERATE

INFORMATION ON SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS AND WILDLIFE HABITAT - ORIGINAL STAND 

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 

---------------------

NO RESTRICTIONS(EVEN-AGE W/CLEARCUTTING)

Timber production for maximum yield, with high proportion of shade-intolerant 

species.

For this system, the stand value is: Medium

WILDLIFE TREES NO./ACRE 

-------------- -------- 

 POTENTIAL DEN TREES 0.000 

 EXISTING DEN TREES 0.000 

 SNAGS WITH POTENTIAL CAVITIES 0.000 

 SNAGS WITH EXISTING CAVITIES 0.000 

 OTHER STANDING DEAD TREES (Not Snags) 0.000 

WATER HABITATS WITHIN THIS STAND INCLUDE: 

-----------------------------------------

 Unknown

HABITAT CONDITIONS SURROUNDING THIS STAND 

-----------------------------------------

 CLEARCUT ACRES W/I 1 MILE 0.00 

 CULTIVATED ACRES W/I 1 MILE 0.00 

 OPEN ACRES W/I 1 MILE 0.00 

4

Appendix 3
90

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

 WATER HABITATS W/I 1 MILE INCLUDE: Unknown

 OVERSTORY SUMMARY ORIGINAL STAND

 ------------------------------------------------------ 

 SPECIES > ALL SP | RM NRO CO WO BO CUC SO AB SVB SAS 

 COMPOSITION -- BA, % OF BA, TREES 

 TOT BA 116.0 | 35.8 28.2 25.8 12.8 5.8 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.2 0.5 

 SPECIES% 100. | 31. 24. 22. 11. 5. 2. 2. 1. 1. 0. 

 # TREES 186. | 100. 16. 30. 12. 3. 2. 1. 8. 11. 2. 

 QUALITY -- % IN AGS 

 SAPS 36. | 50. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 

 POLES 77. | 84. 33. 85. 71. 0. 100. 0. 0. 0. 0. 

 SM SAW 92. | 97. 91. 94. 88. 100. 100. 75. 0. 0. 0. 

 MED SAW 98. | 100. 96. 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 0. 0. 0. 

 LG SAW 89. | 0. 100. 0. 100. 100. 100. 0. 0. 0. 0. 

 ALL SIZE 86. | 85. 93. 89. 88. 100. 100. 88. 0. 0. 0. 

 DIAMETERS AND AGES -- INCHES, YEARS 

 DIAM 14.9 | 10.2 20.2 15.0 15.1 19.6 17.0 18.6 8.0 4.8 7.0 

 DIAM MER 15.5 | 11.1 20.2 15.0 15.1 19.6 17.0 18.6 14.0 6.0 7.0 

 QUAD DIA 10.7 | 8.1 18.1 12.6 13.7 19.0 14.4 17.9 5.9 4.6 7.0 

 YRS MAT 14. | 34. 0. 20. 19. 0. 5. 0. 27. 80. 73. 

 EFCT AGE 87. | 56. 101. 100. 101. 131. 85. 124. 93. 40. 47. 

 STRUCTURE 

 Q FACTOR 1.33 | 1.41 0.98 1.10 1.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

 RELATIVE DENSITY -- % 

 REL DEN 88. | 25. 14. 24. 12. 5. 1. 2. 2. 1. 0. 

 AGS RDEN 74. | 20. 13. 22. 11. 5. 1. 2. 0. 0. 0. 

 VOLUMES AND VALUES - INT 1/4" LOG RULE 

 GTOT CDS 38.4 | 11.0 10.2 8.7 4.6 2.1 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.0 0.1 

 NTOT CDS 30.6 | 8.8 8.2 7.0 3.7 1.7 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 

 PULP CDS 15.1 | 4.9 3.6 3.6 1.8 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 

 GRS BDFT 11033. | 2542. 3425. 2465. 1256. 713. 294. 241. 96. 0. 0. 

 NET BDFT 9146. | 1497. 3215. 2151. 1094. 666. 260. 223. 40. 0. 0. 

 DOLLARS 1781. | 72. 1259. 61. 341. 27. 14. 5. 1. 0. 0. 

5

Appendix 3
91

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

SPECIES X DIAMETER ORIGINAL STAND

------------------------------------------------------

BASAL AREA - SQ. FT. PER ACRE 

 SPECIES > ALL SP | RM NRO CO WO BO CUC SO AB SVB SAS 

 DIA. 

 1 0.0 | 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 2 0.0 | 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 3 0.0 | 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 4 2.0 | 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 

 5 5.0 | 3.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 

 6 2.8 | 2.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 

 7 3.0 | 2.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 

 8 5.0 | 2.0 0.0 2.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 9 4.8 | 3.2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 10 5.8 | 4.0 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 11 5.8 | 2.2 0.5 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 12 10.5 | 6.5 1.0 2.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 13 5.2 | 2.2 0.0 1.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 14 7.5 | 2.5 1.2 1.8 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 

 15 5.8 | 2.2 0.8 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 16 9.8 | 0.8 1.5 4.2 1.5 1.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 17 5.8 | 0.5 1.0 2.5 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 18 5.0 | 0.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 19 5.5 | 0.0 2.5 1.5 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 20 5.8 | 0.5 2.5 0.8 0.0 1.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 21 5.5 | 0.0 3.5 0.2 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 22 3.5 | 0.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 23 2.8 | 0.0 1.8 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 24 2.5 | 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 25 3.5 | 0.0 2.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 26 0.0 | 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 27 1.5 | 0.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 28 0.5 | 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 29 0.5 | 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 30 0.5 | 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 31 0.5 | 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 TOTAL 116.0 | 35.8 28.2 25.8 12.8 5.8 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.2 0.5 

 SPECIES% 100.0 | 30.8 24.4 22.2 11.0 5.0 1.7 1.7 1.3 1.1 0.4 

 ACCEPTABLE GROWING STOCK ONLY 

 SAPS 2.5 | 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 POLES 20.8 | 13.0 0.5 5.5 1.2 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 SM SAW 41.0 | 14.2 5.0 12.0 7.0 1.5 0.5 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 MED SAW 27.5 | 0.5 13.8 5.5 2.5 3.8 0.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 LG SAW 8.5 | 0.0 7.0 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

 TOTAL 100.2 | 30.2 26.2 23.0 11.2 5.8 2.0 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 

6

Appendix 3
92

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

NARRATIVE SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS OF STAND 

---------------------------------------

This transition stand is dominated by Red Maple, Red Oak, Chestnut Oak, and 

White Oak that together comprise 88% of the basal area. 

This is a medium sawtimber stand, with average diameter of 14.9 inches. 

If this stand is managed under an even-age silvicultural system, the several 

species groups will mature at markedly different times. The average time to 

maturity (MDM = 18 inches) is 13 years. Effective stand age is about 87 years. 

If this stand is managed under an all-age silvicultural system, the distribution 

of diameters, proportion of sawtimber, and density of shade-tolerant species 

make it difficult to apply selection cutting. 

Relative stand density is 87% of the average maximum stocking expected in 

undisturbed stands of similar size and species composition. This density is 

higher than optimum for best individual tree growth. At this relative density, 

growth rate of the biggest trees is probably moderate, while growth rate of the 

medium and smaller-sized trees is probably fair and mortality due to crowding 

moderate.

Thinning to provide more growing space for the better stems is desirable if it 

will at least pay the cost of harvesting. 

Total growing stock amounts to 116 sq. ft. of basal area per acre. Gross total 

volume in all trees, to a 4-inch top, is 30.6 cords per acre; if divided into 

pulpwood and sawtimber, the net merchantable volume is 15.1 cords of pulp wood 

and 9145.6 board feet of sawtimber Int 1/4"log rule. The total stand value is 

estimated to be about 1780 dollars per acre. 

Trees of acceptable quality for future growing stock provide a fully stocked 

stand by themselves. 

The manager wishes to begin regenerating the stand. 

Advance regeneration of all types is scarce; harvest cuttings at this time will 

not likely result in a satisfactory new stand. 

Undesirable understory plants may interfere with development of regeneration.

Undesirable plants in this stand include tall woody interference and low woody 

interference.

7

Appendix 3
93

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

******RECOMMENDED TREATMENT:****** 

PREPARATORY CUT, HERBICIDE, RE-INVENTORY

The stand is less than 15 years to maturity. 

The manager wishes to begin regenerating this stand now. 

Make a PREPARATORY CUT of a shelterwood system to release the already 

established seedlings. Reduce relative density to approximately 70% by removing 

suppressed, intermediate, and weak codominant trees of all species. Then, 

follow up in 5 to 10 years to determine the next course of action. 

Treat the undesirable understory plants with an application of HERBICIDE during 

the appropriate part of the growing season. Please refer to the silvicultural 

guide for details about implementing this prescription. 

The volumes to be removed are: 

 690 bd ft (Int 1/4" log rule) and 3.4 cords. 

****** CAUTION ******* 

This prescription generally produces the desired results, requires an 

investment, and usually will yield an economic return at the same time. If such 

investment meets your organization's economic criteria, we recommend it. If 

not, we recommend NO treatment. In the case of regeneration prescriptions, 

stands generally will NOT reproduce without the recommended treatment. 

8

Appendix 3
94

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

***** MARKING INSTRUCTIONS *****

LEAVE GUIDES: 

Leave 75 well distributed trees per acre that are 6 inches d.b.h. or larger.

These trees should be AGS growing in codominant and dominant crown positions. 

Within the size and quality constraints below, favor the best trees wherever 

possible. Try to preserve seed sources of scarce species if they are desired in 

the regeneration, and strive for uniform spacing among residuals whenever 

possible.

Spacing among these leave trees should average 23 feet. 

Leave 90 sq. ft. of basal area per acre using the approximate basal area 

distribution below. 

 Size class Basal area (sq. ft.) 

 SAPLING = 7 

 POLES = 10 

 SMALL SAW = 41 

 MEDIUM SAW = 28 

 LARGE SAW = 9 

CUT GUIDES: 

Reduce relative stand density to 70%. 

Remove trees in the size classes shown below. 

 Cut 3 out of 5 trees from the pole size class. 

 Cut 1 out of 8 trees from the ssaw size class. 

 Cut 1 out of 8 trees from the msaw size class. 

 Cut 1 out of 8 trees from the lsaw size class. 

About 52% of the trees cut will be UGS. This will result in removal of about 71% 

of the UGS in this stand and about 100% of the merchantable-size UGS. 

9

Appendix 3
95

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

 ORIGINAL CUT RESIDUAL | ORIGINAL CUT RESIDUAL 

 BASAL AREA - SQ FT/A | SPECIES COMPOSITION - % 

 SAPS 7.0 0.0 7.0 | % CUC 2. 2. 

 POLES 27.0 16.6 10.4 | % RM 31. 28. 

 SM SAW 44.5 3.5 41.0 | % AB 1. 1. 

 MED SAW 28.0 0.5 27.5 | % PINE 0. 0. 

 LG SAW 9.5 1.0 8.5 | % NRO 24. 28. 

 TOTAL 116.0 21.6 94.4 | % WO 11. 11. 

 | % CO 22. 21. 

 | % OO 7. 8. 

 NUMBER OF TREES - #/A | QUALITY -- % IN AGS 

 # TREES 186. 49. 137. | % AGS 86. 95. 

 DIAMETERS - IN. | AGES - YRS. 

 DIAM 14.9 15.8 | YRS MAT 14. 7. 

 DIAM MER 15.5 16.7 | EFCT AGE 87. 94. 

 QUAD DIA 10.7 11.2 |

 RELATIVE DENSITY - % | STRUCTURE 

 REL DEN 88. 70. | Q FACTOR 1.3 1.1 

 AGS RDEN 74. 65. | WEIB C 0.0 0.0 

 BD FT INT 1/4", VALUE/A | CORD VOLUME/A 

 GR. BDFT 11033. 932. 10101. | TOT CDS 38.4 6.5 31.9 

 NET BDFT 9146. 687. 8459. | NET CDS 30.6 5.1 25.5 

 DOLLARS 1781. 88. 1692. | PULP CDS 15.1 3.4 11.7 

 ------------------------------- TOTAL STAND ------------------------------- 

 M BD FT INT 1/4", VALUE | CORD VOLUME 

 GR. MBF 110.3 9.3 101.0 | TOT CDS 384. 65. 319. 

 NET MBF 91.5 6.9 84.6 | NET CDS 306. 51. 255. 

 M DOLLAR 17.8 0.9 16.9 | PULP CDS 151. 34. 117. 

10

Appendix 3
96

Appendix 3: 

SILVAH Printout 

 CENTRAL APPALACHIAN OAK GUIDE - ORIGINAL STAND 

PROJECTED STOCKING OF OAK SPECIES IN THE THIRD DECADE AFTER HARVEST 

-------------------------------------------------------------------

 -- SPROUT-ORIGIN STOCKING: (%) 

 CHESTNUT OAK 20 

 RED OAK/SCARLET OAK 16 

 BLACK OAK 1 

 WHITE OAK 2 

 TOTAL SPROUT-ORIGIN STOCKING 40 

 -- SEED-ORIGIN STOCKING: (%) 

 ALL OAK SPECIES 16 

 -- EXPECTED TOTAL OAK STOCKING: 55 

****** CAUTION ******* 

This estimate of oak stocking is based on data collected in the ridge and valley 

region of Central Pennsylvania. Please exercise caution when estimating future 

oak stocking in other regions. 

11

Appendix 3
97
98
99
100
Printed on Recycled Paper

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on 

the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial 

status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because 

all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited 

bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternate means for communication 

of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at 

(202)720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office 

of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (800)795-3272 

(voice) or (202)720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. 

Brose, Patrick H.; Gottschalk, Kurt W.; Horsley, Stephen B.; Knopp, Peter D.; 

Kochenderfer, James N.; McGuinness, Barbara J.; Miller, Gary W.; Ristau, 

Todd E.; Stoleson, Scott H.; Stout, Susan L. 2008. Prescribing regeneration 

treatments for mixed-oak forests in the Mid-Atlantic region. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

NRS-33. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northern Research Station. 100 p.

Includes guidelines for using the SILVAH decision-support system to perpetuate oak 

forests in the Mid-Atlantic region. Six chapters provide information on values of oak 

forests, inventory methods, key decision variables, decision charts, and silvicultural 

prescriptions, as well as guidance on fostering young stands. Sample tally sheets 

and SILVAH computer printouts are included in the Appendix.

KEY WORDS: herbicides, prescribed fire, Quercus, shelterwood system, 

sustainable forestry.
Capitalizing on the strengths of existing science 

capacity in the Northeast and Midwest to attain a more 

integrated, cohesive, landscape-scale research program

www.nrs.fs.fed.us