Isotope Beta-Battery Approaches for Long-Lived Sensors: 

Technology Review

by Marc Litz

ARL-TR-7048 August 2014

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ARL-TR-7048 August 2014

Isotope Beta-Battery Approaches for Long-Lived Sensors: 

Technology Review

Marc Litz

Sensors and Electron Devices Directorate, ARL

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. 
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14. ABSTRACT

Isotope batteries offer solutions for long-lived (100 yr), low-power (100 μW) energy sources. The energy density of nuclear 

batteries uniquely serves applications for sensors or communications nodes that are required to last the lifetime of 

infrastructure. Efficiencies less than 10% are typical in direct-energy-conversion (DEC) of radiation to electric current, which 

is comparable to thermo-electrics (TE) and thermo-photo-voltaics (TPV). For low-power applications, avoiding a heat-cycle 

(Carnot limitation) is useful in reducing a heat signature. A beta-source is coupled directly to a semiconductor (or includes a 

phosphor/optical conversion in addition, before a semiconductor) conversion to free-electrons, creating current in an electrical 

load. A review of b-voltaics is presented. Novel approaches are identified for next-generation compact electronics and sensor 

applications. An inexpensive, commercially-available-off the-shelve (COTS) design is proposed to provide an immediate 

example.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Isotope battery, energy harvesting, energy conversion

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Contents

List of Figures iv

List of Tables iv

Executive Summary v

1. History 1

2. Background 2

2.1 Radio-Isotope-Thermal-Generators (RTG).....................................................................2

2.2 Direct-Energy-Conversion (DEC)...................................................................................4

2.3 Radiation Tolerance ........................................................................................................6

3. Beta Voltaic Approaches 7

3.1 Direct Energy Conversion...............................................................................................7

3.2 Indirect Energy Conversion.............................................................................................8

3.3 Hybrid Approach.............................................................................................................8

4. Design Concept using Commercially Off-The-Shelf Components 9

4.1 Tritium PV Approach....................................................................................................12

4.2 A Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Proposal: 3H-Green Phosphor-PV ..................12

5. Safety, Availability, Common Applications 15

6. Conclusion 17

7. References 18

Appendix A. Circuit Model 21

Distribution List 23
iv

List of Figures

Figure 1. Decaying isotopes release α, β, and γ that can be converted to heat or create freeelectrons in surrounding materials that can be collected directly or converted to create a 

current flow................................................................................................................................5

Figure 2. The most straightforward approach is to utilize direct-energy-conversion. Alphas, 

betas, or gammas create electron hole pairs in semiconductors. The internal electric 

fields of the semiconductor pull out the free-charge and current flow is generated.................7

Figure 3. The two-step process of indirect energy conversion is shown. Radiation from 

decaying isotopes creates excitations in a phosphor which emits optical photons. The 

optical photons are collected by photo-voltaic cells and converted to electrical current. .........8

Figure 4. Hybrid geometry with GdF3 phosphor uses both direct and indirect conversion 

methods to offer best lifetime and power performance. ............................................................9

Figure 5. The unit cell consists of two tritium-phosphor platelets, surrounded by solar cells. .....13

Figure 6. Energy spectrum of beta particles emitted from tritium (28).........................................13

Figure 7. Spectral output ofZnS:Cu phosphor used by mbMicrotec in lighting markers..............14

Figure 8. The commercial production of isotopes for both scientific and commercial 

applications is shown from the point of view of a global supplier of isotope sources. 

Materials analysis for security applications has surpassed that of scientific applications.......17

Figure A-1. Current flow under (a) open circuit and (b) load conditions......................................21

Figure A-2. Circuit diagram for a p-n junction conversion of radiation induced e-h pairs into 

a trickle charge of electrical current.........................................................................................22

List of Tables

Table 1. U.S. spacecraft using RTGs...............................................................................................4

Table 2. Isotopes documented in power source literature..............................................................10

Table 3. Lifetime and power output of beta emitting RI is shown. The lifetime of 90 years 

enables new capabilities in sensor and microelectronic power applications. The activity 

(Ci) is shown for 100 μW power output assuming 10% conversion efficiency. ....................11
v

Executive Summary

Long-lived energy sources are needed for remote placement of unattended electronics in sensor 

network applications. The energy density of isotopes exceeds that of chemical energy storage by 

6 orders of magnitude. This unique energy density characteristic is offset by the fact that power 

output should be limited to 1 mW levels in situations involving human transport, for both 

radiation regulation and safety. The low-power limitation is exceeded in long-lived power for 

space travel applications, where 200 W isotope power sources (radio-thermal-generators) are 

already available for long-lived space missions (6). Isotopes are used in many commercial 

applications (1) and are produced and available at modest prices. As sensors get smaller, and 

power level requirements are reduced, the use of compact, low-power, long-lived power sources 

will increase. Isotope batteries are relevant in this operational regime.
vi

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
1

1. History

The first report of charge storage from isotopes was documented in 1913 (2). In the experiment, 

Moseley showed that in an evacuated chamber surrounding 20 mCi of radium, he could develop 

100s of kV of voltage potential due to the charge emitted (beta decay) from the radium. Charge 

collection using isotope emission showed just how versatile were Moseley’s experimental 

talents. It was particularly challenging at that time because few materials were available to 

sustain high-voltage. This result was simply described and had great impact. 

Moseley was already well-known at the time for his experimental verification of the newly 

evolving Bohr Theory of the atom (13). Moseley’s Law showed the relationship between 

frequency (f) of emission of characteristic x-rays from materials and their atomic number (Z). 15 2 f (Hz) = 2.47x10 *(Z −1) Bohr postulated that the emission of EM radiation (photons) 

accompanied the jumps in energy levels between the electron shells. 

In the 1950s, direct energy conversion from nuclear sources was under investigation once again. 

Direct charge collection in vacuum for applications of long-lived voltage sources, (14) was 

studied by accumulating charge emitted from 90Sr90Y for a high voltage source. Dielectric 

materials (15) were proposed as an intermediary for charge collection in order to avoid the need 

for vacuum control systems. Current generation (electron flow) in semiconductors, exposed to 

nuclear radiation, (16) was the next step investigated as a power source. 

In the 1960s, small scale concepts for compact isotope batteries were explored further. It was not 

until the 1970s that the concepts were developed for medical technology implant applications, 

and verification testing pursued. During this time period, more than 100 papers were published in 

medical journals describing betavoltaic approaches for isotope-powered pacemaker 

replacements, with the advantage of avoiding the risks of multiple surgeries. Previously,

pacemakers were powered by mercury-zinc batteries (12). Several companies in the U.S.

(Medtronic, Cordis) (9) developed products. Early versions used 238Pu and 147Pm as the isotope 

source. The first successful long-term pacemaker was implanted in a 34-year-old patient in 

February 1960 in Uruguay by Dr. Otrestes Fiandra and Dr. Robert Rubio (12). In the decades 

that followed, fewer than 20 papers reported on the longer term success of the nuclear-battery 

powered pacemakers. As medical procedures became less intrusive (and safer) on the human 

body, the social stigma of “nuclear” power overcame the safety issue associated with fewer 

medical procedures. 

In 2007, DARPA supported three isotope battery technologies with a goal of 35mW in 1cc 

volume. General Atomics (GA) led a thermo-photo-voltaic (TPV) conversion battery effort using 

238Pu with an 87-year half-life. RTI Inc. led a thermo-electric (TE) conversion battery effort, also 

using 238Pu. North Dakota State University (NDSU) led a direct-conversion battery program in 
2

boron-carbide using 209Po with a 102-year half-life. Target efficiencies of 8.5%, 7.2%, and 10%

were predicted. The fissioning of 238Pu produces heat, which is converted to electricity in the GA 

and RTI programs. The direct-energy-conversion method of converting beta-emissions from 

209Po produced a higher conversion efficiency because the heat cycle was avoided. 

Low-power applications are well-suited to using micro-grams of radiation-safe isotope. Longlived applications are particularly well-suited to isotope power sources, including long-lived 

power sources for sensors in remote locations, self-powered sensors on automobiles, tracking 

animals, buried infrastructure/building/bridge sensors, self-powered MEMS, and micro-robots. 

Flight recorders using 60Co providing 100uW power (11) have been proposed for commercial 

use. Protections of electronics controlled by field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) can be 

inhibited/destroyed for applications requiring anti-tamper (AT) circuits. The most compelling 

applications are those requiring energy sources for long-lived sensor elements for space, 

oceanographic exploration, bio-medical engineering, and structural engineering. 

2. Background

Isotope batteries provide a continuous flow of energy from decaying isotopes. When isotopes 

decay, they emit alpha, beta, or gamma particles. The particles emitted energy can be converted 

to electrical energy without intermediate thermalization. This is the focus of the following report. 

Isotopes decay in five possible modes—(1) alpha decay, (2) beta decay, (3) positron emission, 

(4) electron capture, and (5) isomeric transitions. Combinations of particles (α, β, positron, and γ) 

are commonly emitted during a given type of decay. Alpha particles (5 MeV) typically carry 

more energy than β or γ emitters, but few energy conversion materials can stand-up to the α 

bombardment over long-time periods (or short-time high flux) without deterioration. 

2.1 Radio-Isotope-Thermal-Generators (RTG)

Radio-thermal-generators (RTGs) have been used in many space missions because both the heat 

and electricity produced is useful in the space environment. Both the U.S. and Russian space 

programs have flown more than 50 missions, each using RTGs. Heat energy is created through 

the natural α-decay of plutonium (238Pu). Iridium-clad, plutonium dioxide fuel (PuO2) is 

converted to electrical power through the use of silicon germanium (SiGe) TE cells. 300 W 

electrical power was generated from 4.4 kW heat using RTGs in the Galileo, Ulysses, and 

Cassini space missions. The 7% conversion efficiency of the heat to electrical energy is typical 

of TE and is sufficient for the application. 

RTGs are common for space applications. RTGs produce hundreds of watts of electrical power 

through generating heat in surrounding local materials, then converting the heat energy to 

electrical energy through surrounding materials. Two paths for heat-to-electrical conversion are 

differentiated by the black body temperature of the heat source. TE materials use small 
3

differences in temperature between two metals or semiconductors to create electromotive forces 

that generate a voltage difference. In TPV materials, the heat is converted to infrared (IR) 

energy, then converted to electrical in photovoltaic (PV) devices. TE is typically used below 

800 °C, while TPV is more efficient above this temperature. 

Nuclear energy, converted into electrical energy via the Seebeck effect, is characterized as a 

temperature-dependent voltage generation in materials. The nuclear energy is used to heat one 

side of a metal bar (or semiconducting material), causing electron with high thermal energy to 

flow from the hot side to the cold side, generating a DC voltage. This approach does not lend 

itself to miniaturization due to large thermal losses, resulting from a significant increase in the 

ratio of surface area to volume, upon going from a macroscale to the microscale design. NASA 

has been using RTGs since the 1960 in missions like Voyager and, more recently, the Cassini

probe, now in orbit around Saturn.

Many RTG devices have been created for space vehicles. For this application, the heat energy is 

used directly for onboard equipment, in addition to the electrical power converted from heat. The 

conversion efficiency from heat to electrical, of these devices is ~10% (3). This order of 

magnitude of conversion efficiency is typical of heat-to-electrical processes (4, 5). The 

development over years of effort has created dozens of RTG that have been used in space 

missions (6). A short list of these is shown in table 1.
4

Table 1. U.S. spacecraft using RTGs.

The energy release per decay of 238Pu is 5593.2 keV. Smaller RTGs use as little as 7kG of 238Pu, 

which corresponds to 1.77x1025 atoms (8). With a half-life of 87.1 years, this corresponds to 

4.4x1015 decays/sec (Bequerels). Therefore, energy released per second is 3973 J/s. Given the 

300 W electrical output of the RTG, this corresponds to 7.5% radiation-to-electrical efficiency. 

Because the heat warms the electronics in the spacecraft, this heat is welcome in the emptiness of 

cold space. While not very efficient at generating electrical energy, it suffices for this 

application.

2.2 Direct-Energy-Conversion (DEC)

DEC avoids the heat production process used in RTG operation. DEC can be more efficient in 

converting the radiation energy into electrical power, by virtue of avoiding the Carnot Cycle. The 

larger the change in temperature, the more efficiency can be achieved. High temperature power 

plants can be 58% energy efficient (7). Scaling down to smaller sizes makes achieving these 

efficiencies difficult. Some options for using the radiation more directly than conversion to heat 

are shown in figure 1. Avoiding the heat cycle can be an important step in making power sources 

more efficient. Each conversion step, from one form of energy to another, has loss (inefficiency) 

associated with it. In compact applications on earth, the highest efficiency is desirable to reduce 
5

radioisotope activity that must be carried, and increase safety. Using the radiation decay products 

(α, β, positron, and γ) directly—avoiding the heat cycle—has potential for higher efficiency 

power sources. 

Figure 1. Decaying isotopes release α, β, and γ that can be converted 

to heat or create free-electrons in surrounding materials that 

can be collected directly or converted to create a current flow. 

An early description of direct charge collection was given in 1913, creating a novel high-voltage 

power source (2). The charge of the emitted particles can be collected directly on a plate, which

creates the power source. Transformers can also be used with reasonable efficiency to optionally 

transform a current source into a voltage source. 

Indirect-conversion often includes phosphors that both shield the direct radiation and glow from 

the radiation, leading to photo-voltaic (PV) conversion to electrical energy. This two-step 

process includes an additional conversion process, which can reduce total efficiency into 

electrical current. 

Direct conversion of radiation to electrical power can be performed by at least three techniques. 

The common thread to these approaches is the existence of an internal electric field within the 

physical geometry. The electric field is required in all configurations to collect and/or create 

additional charge carriers for electrical power output. The electric field in a semiconductor is 

essential in order to pull the free charges through the device, creating a flow of charge. In a 

chemical battery, the internal E-field can be generated in the work function differences between 

cathode-anode or cathode-electrolyte, or electrolyte-anode.

The radiation emitted from the isotope creates electron-hole pairs in semiconductors or electronion pairs in an electrolyte medium. The internal electric field created by the anode-cathode or 

doped n-p regions provides the electromotive force to move the charged particles to the 
6

oppositely charged end of the device structure. In batteries, the electrolyte (medium between 

anode-cathode) causes a chemical reaction in the anode and cathode (AK), creating free charges, 

and resulting in an electrical current between the AK. In semiconductors, electron-hole pairs (e-h 

pairs) are created from isotope decay product bombardment (23). Electrons in the depletion 

region drift creating an electrical current. 

2.3 Radiation Tolerance

Radiation damage in materials can limit the lifetime of use of typical semiconductors to a few 

years. At a minimum, it is necessary to match the reduced lifetime from beta or alpha damage to 

the expected lifetime of the decaying isotope. The effects of radiation damage to semiconductors 

include (1) increase in leakage current, (2) change in doping concentrations, and (3) shortening 

of carrier lifetimes. While the fluence of electrons from 1 Ci of isotope is 3.7 x1010 e

-

/sec—low 

compared to that of accelerators—the long lifetime expectation of power sources creates total 

radiation dose that can become significant over the lifetime of the device and must be considered 

in end-of-life design. 

The basic mechanisms for radiation damage in semiconductor devices are displacement damage,

which alters the crystal structure, and ionizing damage liberating charge carriers altering 

expected device operation. Displacement damage depends on mass and momentum of incoming 

particle and the interaction with the lattice (non-ionizing energy loss). Ionization effects depend 

more on energy absorbed rather than radiation type. The energy absorbed is measured and 

characterized by dose (1 Gy=1 J/kg). Mitigation techniques against damage to materials will vary 

depending on semiconductor material, particle type, particle energy, and device geometry. 

Wide band-gap (WBG) materials (i.e., SiC, GaN, AlN, Diamond) that exhibit tight interwoven 

crystal structure, small lattice constant (atomic spacing), and high quality material (defect free) 

are a few of the characteristics that effect radiation tolerance. Of the WBG materials listed, SiC 

is the most mature in manufacturing and device geometry design capability (24). The mismatch 

of lattice constant between GaN and the epitaxial growth layer (sapphire) causes dislocations in 

devices. This is not a problem in LED applications. Continued development may help overcome 

this issue. The largest ionic bond strength and material density (6.2 g/cc) make GaN a material of

interest for the future. 

Radiation damage is highly dependent on, and, therefore, a strong function of, bombarding 

particle, particle energy, and semiconductor material. It is difficult to make direct linear 

comparisons across these characteristics. Material properties, stopping range of charged 

particles, and particle mass are not linear in materials. Criteria for comparing materials across 

these boundaries are still under investigation; however, many correlations within these categories 

have been described (25). Increasing particle energy generally reduces the lifetime of a given 

material. Large band gap materials tend to increase the radiation tolerance of an energy 

converter, providing higher efficiency conversion for longer periods of time.
7

One very interesting approach towards minimizing radiation damage is through the use of liquid 

semiconductors. They exist at high temperatures, and are being investigated for their increased 

radiation tolerance because of the self-annealing properties of the liquid-state (22). 

3. Beta Voltaic Approaches

The use of beta (electron)-emitting isotopes is most common in isotope batteries. Low-energy 

(<250 kV) electrons are stopped by thin metallic foils (20). This characteristic helps significantly 

with any safety concerns by collecting unconverted energy in a metal foil shielding. The low 

energy requirement on the emitted beta also limits possible production of bremsstrahlung 

radiation. The electrons can be collected in an absorber or converter. If the absorbing material is 

the depletion region of a SiC semiconductor, for example, then electrical current is produced at 

the voltage proportional to the band gap (21). The higher energy electrons are usually slowed 

down in the material, creating many knock-on electrons along the way in the material. The lower 

energy (~1 keV) knock-ons are collected and swept out in a depletion region of a semiconductor. 

The electrons can then be used directly to create a circuit current. Output voltage can be 

increased by cascading several junctions in series. Output current can be increased by adding 

junctions in parallel or increasing junction area.

3.1 Direct Energy Conversion

All that is required for the electrons to be swept out is an internal field. The sandwich of p-n 

junctions surrounding the beta emitter is shown in figure 2. The betas emitted from the isotope 

layer create electron-hole pairs in the semiconductor. The internal electric field in the depletion 

region (in between the p-n layers) pulls the electrons in and out, creating a trickle charge of 

current. Each p-n junction will produce a voltage related to its built-in field and internal 

resistance. 

Figure 2. The most straightforward approach is to utilize 

direct-energy-conversion. Alphas, betas, or gammas 

create electron hole pairs in semiconductors. The internal 

electric fields of the semiconductor pull out the free-charge 

and current flow is generated.
8

Semiconductors materials with higher band gaps, such as SiC, GaN, and diamond, are more 

radiation-tolerant than Si. Si is the least expensive semiconductor material. The bandgap 

correlation to radiation tolerance is a first indicator. 

3.2 Indirect Energy Conversion

The indirect approach described here is a two-step process. Betas emitted from the isotope are 

collected in a phosphor. The phosphor glows, creating optical photons. The optical photons are 

then collected in a standard photo-voltaic (PV) cell, creating electrical current at the voltage of 

the PV cell. The two-step process, shown in figure 3, has the value that the betas can be shielded 

in the phosphor before getting to the semiconductor layer. Secondly, the PV converter is a more 

commercially available device that can be less expensive than the design and optimization of 

direct-energy-converter semiconductors. 

Semiconductor

pn junction

depletion region

Phosphor ultraviolet radiation

absorption and conversion to 

electron-hole pairs

+

_

Radioisotope film or gas alphas or betas

Figure 3. The two-step process of indirect energy conversion is shown. Radiation from decaying isotopes creates 

excitations in a phosphor which emits optical photons. The optical photons are collected by photovoltaic cells and converted to electrical current. 

The disadvantages of this two-stage configuration are that it may be less efficient, as there are 

two steps to convert to electrical power, with associated losses. Each energy conversion step has 

its own efficiency. It can suffer from being less compact than a direct process, and it is a more 

complex structure to fabricate. The advantage that it offers is that there is less direct degradation 

of the lifetime of the Si or GaAs PV semiconductor, as there is little or no direct beta 

bombardment of the semiconductor material. 

3.3 Hybrid Approach

A design based on both direct-energy conversion (DEC) and indirect energy-conversion has been 

developed in order to maximize the power output of the device. The concept is illustrated in 

figure 4. Mixing the decaying isotope of 155Eu in with a gadolinium flouride phosphor is a novel 

approach that is predicted to be more efficient at generating optical photons, as the mixture is 
9

made homogeneous (18). Another novel aspect to the approach is that the phosphor is doped

with europium (GdF3:Eu). The Eu doping gives it a characteristic optical output of 620 nm,

which matches well with the common photovoltaic (PV) response function. 

It is hoped that this system can be optimized for maximum power output and long-lifetime. The 

ratio of 155Eu to GdF3 has been varied to minimize optical attenuation, and the homogeneous 

mixture enhances phosphor conversion into optical photons. The thickness of the GdF3:Eu had 

been optimized for minimum attenuation of the optical photons by the medium, yet gathering the 

remaining low energy betas for energy harvesting, as well. By matching the beta energy of the 

155Eu to the thickness of the phosphor layer, the search for the maximum power point is 

underway (18). 

Figure 4. Hybrid geometry with GdF3 phosphor uses both direct and indirect conversion methods to offer best 

lifetime and power performance.

4. Design Concept using Commercially Off-The-Shelf Components

The characteristics desired for unattended sensor are long-life operations and safety. There are 

several beta emitters that exhibit long-life. Long-life, in this case, means the lifetime of 

infrastructure, ~150 years. Keeping safety first means (a) limiting gamma emission and 

(b) keeping the amount of radioactive material as low as is reasonably possible, while still 

providing 100 μW trickle charge output. 

Technology issues associated with developing isotope batteries include choices of isotope 

material, approach to converting energy stored in nucleus to electrical power, and power 

management. Non-technical issues include packaging of the device and licensing of the 

packaged system. The technical issues are more interesting and definable; however, the nontechnical issues have limited the development of useful devices.

The radioisotopes (RI) shown in table 2 are primarily beta emitters. The most compelling interest 

in a RI power source is the unique niche of long-lived power unmatched in chemical power 

sources. The potential for nano-sized power sources exists because of the isotope energy density;

however, energy conversion in the balance of the system presently accounts for a much larger 

volume in this type of device. The list of isotopes with lifetimes longer than 10 years and beta 

energies lower than 250 keV are each highlighted in the table. Of the reduced list, 63Ni and 3H 

are the most readily available, as they are used in commercial applications. One of the 
10

highlighted isotopes exists in an isomeric form, 121Sn, which is of interest in the future for the 

capability to be triggered, offering the possibility of long-shelf-life, before releasing the energy 

stored. 

Table 2. Isotopes documented in power source literature.

A short list of beta emitters that live 90–150 years is shown in table 3. From this list we can see 

that there are several long-lived isotope candidates. These isotopes are low gamma emitters, in 
11

addition to having long half-lives. They are not commonly produced for industry, making their 

cost higher. The cost can be lowered if the commercial use increases; as more material is 

required the process can be made efficient. 

Table 3. Lifetime and power output of beta emitting RI is shown. The lifetime of 90 

years enables new capabilities in sensor and microelectronic power 

applications. The activity (Ci) is shown for 100 μW power output assuming 

10% conversion efficiency.

RI HalfLife (yr) Eavg (keV) Ci 63Ni 101 17 10 157Tb 71 16 2.5 151Sm 90 25.3 7 3

H 12.5 6 27 155Eu 4.67 84.3 2 147Pm 2.6 75 2.5 241Am 432 5200 0.1

Sealed radiation sources are one of the important tools available in affecting safety and handling. 

Sealed Source is a term used to describe radioactive sources that have been designed to prevent 

spread of radioactive material under normal working conditions. Here is the definition from the 

State of Oregon Rules for Control of Radiation:

“‘Sealed Source’ means radioactive material that is permanently bonded or fixed in a capsule or 

matrix designed to prevent release and dispersal of the radioactive material under the most severe 

conditions which are likely to be encountered in normal use and handling. 

(Oregon Administrative Rules (OAR) 333-100-0005)

Examples of sealed sources include

• Nickel-63 Electron Capture Detector (Ni-63 ECD)–the radioactive isotope Ni-63 is 

electroplated to a metal foil. The foil is installed by the manufacturer in an inaccessible 

chamber inside the ECD cell. 

• Cesium-137 (Cs-137) or Cobalt-60 (Co-60) gamma sources for radiography. These usually 

contain a small, pea-sized source that is sealed in a small welded capsule. The capsule is 

encased in a shield, usually lead, with a small shuttered opening that controls the gamma 

beam. 

Micro-encapsulation of radiation sources reduces the possibility of leakage and makes 

geometries other than 2D an option for more complete interaction of radiation with converter. 

Shock-absorbing encapsulation adds another layer of protection supporting shipping and 

transportation safety. A welded metal outershell creates yet another layer of structure against 

shock, vibration, and leakage. The package format (e.g., size, shape) makes the power source 

usable for specific applications. User requirements shape the packaging—whether configured in 
12

a cylindrical package of D-cell type for fit into electronics, or packaged in a rectangular BA5590 

geometry to be a replacement for military communications power source. 

Licensing with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) eventually comes into play as the 

technology develops. Licensing cannot wait until the fielding of a system and is best addressed 

while the design is being developed in the laboratory. In this way, a redesign of the package later 

in the development can be avoided. The NRC performs engineering and radiation safety 

evaluations of the ability of sealed sources to safely contain radioactivity under transportation 

and industrial conditions. These evaluations are summarized in registrations that NRC maintains 

in the National Sealed Source and Device Registry (NSSDR). The results of these evaluations,

and detailed information on the source design, function, and limitations on use, are also 

contained in the NSSDR. Transportation is made easier and broader use of power source can be 

applied if a special form qualification can be acquired through representative solid radioactive 

capsule evaluations. Qualification of special form for radioactive material is addresses in NRC 

Regulation 10CFR part 71.75. A general license can be issued by the NRC to transport, or 

deliver to a carrier for transport, licensed material in a package for which a license or certificate 

of compliance (CoC) approval has been issued.

The discussion or aforementioned process indicates the extraordinary regulation surrounding 

isotope-based power sources. The approach described in the next section is motivated by the 

overwhelming effort required to license a power source design and subsequent device.

4.1 Tritium PV Approach

A short list of beta emitters that live 90–150 years is shown in table 3. From this list we can see 

that there are several long-lived isotope candidates. These isotopes are low gamma emitters, and 

also have long half-lives. They are not commonly produced for industry, making their cost 

higher. The cost can be lowered if the usage increased.

4.2 A Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Proposal: 3H-Green Phosphor-PV

Tritium encapsulated in glass vials, lined with phosphor, has met all the levels of examination 

that have earned a general license for commercial lighting systems. These devices are used in 

emergency exit signs in airplanes and public buildings. Extending their use to provide power as a 

long-lived battery is a step that should be achievable in a short period of time. The commercial 

companies that package the light sources for exit signs and emergency lighting can provide the 

cells, which we propose to use as a light emitter for a power source. By adding photovoltaic 

conversion of the light to electrical current, a small (100 μW) power source can be developed. 

The device would be inexpensive compared to other approaches that offer more efficient 

conversion techniques, higher energy-density, and more compact packaging. While iterative 

steps can be taken to make a tritium power source more efficient (enscapsulation techniques, 

enhanced packaging, reduced phosphor grain size), these rudimentary sources can be useful. The 

impact of long-lived power sources can begin to have impact on sensors and network arrays now. 
13

Each rectangular tritium plate holds 100 mCi tritium. Two plates are contained within a unit cell, 

shown in figure 5. In this configuration there are 113 mCi/cm

2

. The beta-energy from tritium has 

an end-point of 18 keV, though the average beta energy is ~6 keV. The measured beta spectrum 

for tritium is shown in figure 6. The nuclear power (Wnuc from beta particles) emitted from one 

tritium light source panel (see figure 5) is then (113x10–3 Ci/cm2)(3.7x1010 dec/Ci/s)(6000 

eV/dec)(1.6x10–19J/eV)=4.01 μW/cm2. This is the nuclear power (Pnuclear) emitted per square cm, 

from one side of the rectangular plate. 

Figure 5. The unit cell consists of two tritium-phosphor platelets, surrounded by solar cells.

Figure 6. Energy spectrum of beta particles emitted from tritium (28).

How much activity is required to generate 100 μWe? If we assume that commercially available 

photovoltaics (PV) are ~20% efficient, then we need 500 μWopt out of the PV. In order to 

generate this 500 μWopt, we must determine the efficiency of the phosphor in converting nuclear 

power into optical power. 

The efficiency of the tritium-phosphor (see mbMicrotec spectral curve data sheet) is ~8.24x1010

photons/cm2

/s for the standard 25 mCi source. The measured spectral output of the phosphor is 
14

shown in figure 7. A green photon is 528 nm (5.68x1014 Hz, 2.35 eV) or 3.76x10–19 J. The 

manufacturer can load the tritium plate with as much as 100 mCi of tritium gas. This is limited 

by the tritium gas pressure in the plate. The resulting optical power from one side of the plate 

shown in figure 5 is (8.24x1010 ph/cm2/s)(4)(3.76x10–19 J/ph)=124nWopt/cm2 . 

Figure 7. Spectral output ofZnS:Cu phosphor used by mbMicrotec in lighting markers.

From this optical power, we can calculate that 248 cm2 of tritium-loaded plates are required to 

generate 500 μWopt. Because we can couple optical power from both sides of the plate, we only 

require 124 cm2 of tritium plates. Each plate is 0.88 cm2

; therefore, 141 plates at ~$6 each are 

required to complete the 100 μWe energy source.

The ratio of optical power generated from nuclear emissions per cm2 (Popt/Pnuc) is calculated to 

have an efficiency of 3.1%. The ratio of electrical power from optical power (Pe/Popt) is expected 

to be ~20%, depending on the PV available at low illumination. The total efficiency of the whole 

device, consequently, will be less than 1%. The low efficiency can be overcome in the future by 

using more optimized phosphors and specially made PV (where device cost will increase). We 

propose to show the value of extended life power sources at low cost for a first step, before 

proceeding to a more optimized 10% efficiency version with higher cost. 

Concepts for isotope power sources over the years have included a large array of radioisotope 

possibilities. The RI shown in table 2 are primarily beta emitters. The primary interest in an RI 

power source is the unique niche of long-lived power unmatched in chemical power sources. The 

list of isotopes with both lifetimes longer than 10 years and beta energies lower than 250 keV is

highlighted in the table. Of the reduced list, 63Ni and 3H are the most readily available, as they 

are used in commercial applications. One of the highlighted isotopes exists in an isomeric form, 
15

121Sn, which is of interest in the future for the capability to be triggered, offering the possibility 

of long-shelf-life, before releasing the energy stored. 

The most straightforward approach to getting a power source out in the field for trials is 

described previously. The approach utilizes components that are commercially available. This

completely commercial-off-the-shelf approach represents an inexpensive route to producing and 

licensing a long-lived power source quickly. The device is not the most efficient, most energy 

dense, or novel in design. It is simple and straightforward, with the goal of getting this extended 

lifetime power source into the hands of users. We believe that this step is essential in developing 

the new long-lived applications that will be enabled with these power sources. Because of the 

extended lifetime capability, these types of power sources can have great impact towards 

persistent sensing, communications signal relay, and unattended remote sensing. 

5. Safety, Availability, Common Applications

Isotope decay has superior energy density in the nuclear energy source. Minimizing the isotope 

activity to ultra-safe levels reduces the power output required for many applications. The power 

can be scaled up to meet more power hungry applications, but this requires large quantities of 

isotopes. High atomic number materials, like lead, are required to shield gamma radiation. Most 

electron energies can be stopped by a few centimeters of plastic. Alphas are stopped within 

50 μm of almost any material.

The concern over radioisotope (RI) materials in our society is greater than the actual health

hazard. We understand the dose deposition profiles for radioactive materials in skin, tissue, and

many materials. The possibility of using isotope batteries depends on offering technical 

capabilities that exceed the real and perceived safety hazards. The fear exists that proliferation of 

materials can lead to dirty bomb threats. The amounts required for isotope batteries are small 

compared to other more commonly found RI materials in commercial applications (7). This 

would force terrorists to work very hard to accumulate sufficient activity levels to become an 

active threat.

Radio-luminescent “EXIT” signs contain radioactive tritium (20 Curies). They are often found in 

airports, airplanes, schools, and hospitals, because they reduce risk of accidents in the event of 

power outages. Medical applications of gamma-emitting 60Co include cancer therapies and

bacteria sterilization. Agricultural sterilization of silkworms calls for 5 kCi of 137Cs. Cesium-137 

has been employed in a variety of industrial measurement gauges, including moisture, density, 

leveling, and thickness gauges. 

The safety issues specific to power generation are small compared to previously described 

medical and safety signage. 63Ni emits low-energy betas that are stopped within 50 μm of 

semiconductor material. The short penetration depth correlates to little or no-shielding 
16

requirement. A 10 μW power source can be built using 1 Curie (3.7 × 1010 Bq). The number of 

curies required to fabricate a 100 μW isotope battery are shown in table 3. The electrical power 

output of a battery composed of these isotopes assumes a 10% efficiency in converting from beta 

particle energy to electrical current in a load. The lifetime of 90–100 years for 151Sm and 63Ni 

provides a new level of capability to remotely located sensor applications. These materials are 

chosen because of their nearly non-existent level of gamma radiation in the beta decay.

Isotopes are commonly used in medical diagnostics and therapies. The suppliers for medical 

isotopes are different from those supplying isotopes for industrial use described below. Medical 

suppliers include Covidien, Chalk River (Canada), and Missouri University Research Reactor 

(MURR). Other national reactors in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands contribute to the daily 

requirements for short-lived medical isotopes.

Examples of radioactive tracer medical procedures include 99Tc heart blood flow mapping, 99Tc 

bone infection diagnostic, 18F positron emitter for general positron emission tomography (PET), 

64Cu for PET imaging in tumors, and 125I for prostate and brain diagnostics. The list of diagnostic 

medical uses is long (17). A few of the surgical and therapeutic applications, reduced from an 

equally long list, include 60Co gamma knife surgery for tumor specific placement; 89Sr, 186Re,

and 153Sm to relieve cancer-induced bone pain; and 131I for treating kidney, prostate, and urinary 

tract dysfunction and obstructions. 

Isotopes are available commercially from several companies. QSA Global supplies 63Ni, 241Am, 

60Co, and 252Ca for industrial applications. The Eckert and Zeigler Isotope Products Laboratory 

sells a large variety of isotopes for calibration systems, medical imaging, and industrial 

measurement. NRD Inc. supplies 210Po encapsulated in Ag/Au foils for industrial de-ionizing 

applications. These materials are used during the fabrication of components for thickness quality 

control, charge neutralization, materials analysis, and sterilization. Commercially available 

isotopes and applications are shown in figure 8.

Extensive use of short-lived isotopes in the medical community has been discussed. As one of 

the larger commercial suppliers of radioisotopes, QSA sells a large variety of the commonly used 

isotopes to hospitals, but also offers many longer-lived isotopes for environmental monitoring 

applications. These include 14C for dust monitor in the air, 252Cf for mineral analysis, and 63NI 

for gas sniffing in environmental quality control. 
17

Figure 8. The commercial production of isotopes for both scientific and commercial applications is shown from the 

point of view of a global supplier of isotope sources. Materials analysis for security applications has 

surpassed that of scientific applications. 

6. Conclusion

The size of electrical devices is continually shrinking. The power requirements of many sensors 

and communications equipment can greatly reduce the power requirements of many devices,

such as sensors, light sources, and transmitters. Chemical batteries are the mainstay of power for 

these devices. However, chemical batteries have limited lifetimes. This makes remote use and 

replacement difficult for applications extending the lifetime use. The most compelling reason to 

use isotope power sources for remotely located unattended sensors and communications nodes is 

the long lifetime power source capability.
18

7. References

1. Outlets for Radioactive Materials. CRCPD Notes of August 2010, DOE Off-Site Recovery 

Project, and “Industrial Isotopes,” Women in Nuclear Science, QSA Global, 2009.

2. Moseley, H.G.J.; Harling, J. The Attainment of High Potentials by the Use of Radium. Proc. 

R. Soc. (London) A 1913, 88, 471.

3. Summerer, L.; Stephenson, K. Nuclear Power Sources: A Key Enabling Technology for 

Planetary Exploration. Proc. IMechE, Vol. 225 Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering.

4. Schmidt, George R.; Abelson, Robert D.; Wiley, Robert L. Benefit of Small Radioisotope 

Power Systems for NASA Exploration Missions; STAIF 2005, AIP, ed. M.S.El-Genk.

5. Abelson, Robert D. Enabling Exploration with Small Radioisotope Power Systems; JPL Pub 

04-10.

6. Hoover, W.; McNutt, R. L. Radioisotope Power Systems: An Imperative for Maintaining 

U.S. Leadership in Space Exploration; Radioisotope Power Systems Committee, National

Research Council, ISBN: 0-309-13858-2, 2009.

7. Langston, L. S. Efficiency by the Numbers; ASME Magazine, Feb. 2012.

8. Lange, R. G.; Mastal, E. F. A Tutorial Review of Radioisotope Power Systems. in A Critical 

Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, edited by M. S. El-Genk, American 

Institute of Physics, Melville, New York, 1994, pp. 1-20

9. Parsonnet, V.; Furman, S.; Smyth, N. Implantable Cardiac Pacemakers: Status Report and

Resource Guideline; ICHD Report, Vol 50, October, 1974, and Parsonnet, Victor.

Innovations In Cardiac Pacemeakers. Cardiovasc Dis. 1976, 3 (1), 11–21. 1975.

10. Salamacha, N.; Smith, H. Bringing Back the Nuclear Powered Pacemaker.

11. Obrien, H. A. Radioisotope Applications; ORNL-TM-37, 1962.

12. Prutchi, D. Nuclear Pacemakers. Available [Online Sep 2011] 

http://home.comcast.net/~dprutchi/nuclear_pacemakers.pdf, 2005.

13. Moseley, H.G.J. The High Frequency Spectra of the Elements; Phil. Mag. (1913), p. 1024

14. Linder, E. G.; Christian, S. M. Use of Radioactive Material for the Generation of High

Voltage. J. Appl. Phys. 1952, 23, 11, 1213.

15. Rappaport, P.; Linder, E. Radioactive Charging Effects With Dielectrics. J. Appl. Phys. 1953, 

24, 9. 
19

16. Ehrenberg, W. et al. The Electron Voltaic Effect. Processing Royal Society 1951, 64, 424.

17. Radioisotopes in Medicine. http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf55.html accesses 15 Oct 

11.

18. Cress, C. D.; Landi, B. J.; Raffaelle, R.P. Modeling Laterally-Contacted nipi-Diode 

Radioisotope Batteries. IEEE Trans. Nuclear Science June 2008, 55, 3, 1736.

19. Litz, M.; Blaine, K. Isotope Generated Electron Density in Silicon Carbide Direct Energy 

Converters; ARL-TR-3964; U.S. Army Research Laboratory: Adelphi, MD, Oct 2006.

20. Schmid, R.; Ngu, Y.; Litz, M. Model of Energy Storage Circuit for Isotope Battery Based on 

SiC Schottky Diode; ARL-MR-0666; U.S. Army Research Laboratory: Adelphi, MD, May 

2007.

21. Ngu, Y.; Litz, M. Study of Beta Radioisotopes Direct Energy Converters; ARL-TR-4969; 

U.S. Army Research Laboratory: Adelphi, MD, Sep 2009.

22. Wacharasindhu, T.; Kwon, J. W.; Meier, D. E.; Robertson, J. D. Radioisotope Microbattery 

Based on Liquid Semiconductor. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2009, 95.

23. Klein, C. A. Bandgap Dependence and Related Features of Radiation Ionization Energies in 

Semiconductors. JAP 39 1968, 2029.

24. Sellin, P. J.; Vaitkus, J. New Materials for Ra.diation Hard Semiconductor Detectors. NIM A

2006, 557, 2.

25. Messenger, S. R.; Burke, E. A.; Summers, G. P.; Walters, R. J.; Warner, J. H. Criteria for 

Identifying Radiation Resistant Semiconductor Materials. Trans. Nucl. Sci 2005, 52, 6.

26. Olsen, Larry C.; Cabauy, Peter; Elkind, Bret J. Betavoltaic Power Sources. Phys. Today

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27. Sun, W.; Kherani, N. et al. A 3D Pourous Si Diode for Betavoltaics and Photovoltaics.

Advanced Materials 2005, 17 (10).

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thesis, University of Toronto, 1994.
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21

Appendix A. Circuit Model

A standard PN junction geometry, illustrated in figure A-1, is sufficient to describe the direct 

energy conversion process of radioisotope beta emission into electrical current. The maximum 

current that can be generated in the direct energy conversion device is proportional to the charge 

of an electron(C) , beta flux φ (#/s), and the incoming beta energy divided by the energy required 

to create an electron-hole pair, ε (~10 eV). The internal electric field of the semiconductor then 

pulls the low-energy electron created out of the depletion region, contributing to electrical power 

output. This process has other losses associated with it, lattice vibration phonons, energetic 

electrons, incomplete loss in the beta, etc. The efficiency for conversion is dependent on the 

energy of the beta, the semiconductor material, and crystal structure, and is macroscopically 

described with an efficiency constant η. 

The energetic particles emitted during the decay of the radioisotopes create a multitude of 

electron-hole pairs within the semiconductor. Once the carriers are generated, positive charges 

flow into the semiconductor and lead to a generated current Ig, which is equivalent to a short 

circuit current (Isc). The displaced carriers effectively forward bias the p-layer, hence creating a 

voltage potential across the device. The forward bias junction yields a current (Id) through the 

junction that is opposite to the generated current. In the presence of very small load (short), Isc = 

Id, while the output voltage with very high load (open) is Voc, the open circuit voltage. When a 

load is connected to the diode’s output terminals, as in figure A-2 the current due to the forward 

bias junction is split between the current into load (Iout) and Id, such that Ig = Id + Iout.

Figure A-1. Current flow under (a) open circuit and (b) load conditions.
22

Figure A-2. Circuit diagram for a p-n junction conversion of radiation 

induced e-h pairs into a trickle charge of electrical current.
23

1 DEFENSE TECHNICAL

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