ii

GREAT BASIN NATIVE PLANT 

SELECTION AND INCREASE PROJECT

2012 PROGRESS REPORT

USDA FOREST SERVICE, ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION 

AND USDI BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT, BOISE, ID

APRIL 2013

 

COOPERATORS

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program, Boise, ID and Provo, UT 

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Great Basin Restoration Initiative, Boise, ID

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Plant Conservation Program, Washington, DC

Boise State University, Boise, ID

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT

College of Western Idaho, Nampa, ID

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, OR

Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR 

Private Seed Industry 

Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX

Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, MN

University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

University of Idaho Parma Research and Extension Center, Parma, ID

University of Nevada, Reno, NV

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, Elko and Reno, NV

University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY

Utah State University, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bee Biology and Systematics Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Great Basin Rangelands Research Unit, Reno, NV

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA

USDA Forest Service, National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA 

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Morley Nelson Birds of Prey National Conservation Area, Boise, ID

US Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Boise, ID and Corvallis, OR

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, UT

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Logan, UT
iii

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project

2012 Progress Report

The Interagency Native Plant Materials Development Program outlined in the 2002 USDA and 

USDI Report to Congress, USDI Bureau of Land Management programs and policies, and the 

Great Basin Restoration Initiative encourage the use of native species for rangeland rehabilitation 

and restoration where feasible. The Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project was 

initiated to provide information that will be useful to managers when making decisions about 

selecting appropriate plant materials and technologies for restoration. The Program is supported 

by the USDI Bureau of Land Management’s National Native Plant Materials Program and the 

Great Basin Restoration Initiative and administered by the USDA Rocky Mountain Research 

Station’s Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program. 

Research priorities are to 1) provide tools for the selection and development of genetically 

appropriate plant materials for restoring rangelands impacted by human activities including 

climate change, 2) develop agricultural practices for seed increase of native forbs and grasses, 3) 

devise strategies for seeding native forbs and improving the establishment of multi-species native 

seed mixes, and 4) disseminate science and technology information to advance restoration. 

We thank our many collaborators for their dedication and their institutions for their in-kind 

contributions. The wide array of expertise represented by this group has made it possible to 

address the many challenges involved in this endeavor. We especially thank Robin Bjork for the 

many hours she spent carefully editing and compiling this report and Jan Gurr for managing our 

financial reporting. Special thanks also to our resident students: Erin Denney for her artistic 

ability and development of outreach materials and Matt Fisk and Alexis Malcomb for managing 

our seed inventory and database. 

Nancy Shaw Mike Pellant

USDA Forest Service USDI Bureau of Land Management

Rocky Mountain Research Station Great Basin Restoration Initiative

Boise, ID Boise, ID

nshaw@fs.fed.us mpellant@blm.gov 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml

Great Basin Restoration Initiative 

www.blm.gov/id/st/en/prog/gbri.html

Citation

Shaw, N.; Pellant, M. 2013. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: 2012 

Progress Report. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Research Station

and U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 278 p.
iv

The results in this report should be considered preliminary in nature and should not be quoted or cited without 

the written consent of the Principal Investigator for the study.

The use of trade or firm names in this report is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture or U.S. Department of the Interior of any product or service.

Pesticide Precautionary Statement: This publication reports research involving pesticides. It does not contain 

recommendations for their use, nor does it imply that the uses discussed here have been registered. All uses of 

pesticides must be registered by appropriate State and/or Federal agencies before they can be recommended.

CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, and fish or other 

wildlife—if they are not handled or applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow 

recommended practices for the disposal of surplus pesticides and pesticide containers.

The USDA and USDI are equal opportunity providers and employers.
2012 Highlights

v

HIGHLIGHTS FOR 2012

GENETICS AND SEED ZONES

Genetic diversity and genecology of bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), prairie 

junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), and squirreltail (Elymus elymoides)

Brad St. Clair and Francis Kilkenny

 Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) and prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha)

populations differ substantially for traits of growth, reproduction, leaf morphology, and floral 

phenology.

 Moderate correlations of population means with the climates of seed sources for both 

bluebunch wheatgrass and prairie junegrass suggest the presence of adaptively significant 

genetic variation that should be considered when moving populations in restoration projects.

 Geographic genetic variation for both bluebunch wheatgrass and prairie junegrass was mapped 

based on the relationships between traits and climate, and seed zones have been delineated for 

bluebunch wheatgrass that guide the choice of adapted populations for revegetation and 

restoration of grasslands in the interior Pacific Northwest and Great Basin.

 A study on squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) has been started, and first-year data have been 

collected.

Conservation, adaptation and seed zones for key Great Basin species

Richard C. Johnson, Erin K. Espeland, Matt Horning. Elizabeth A. Leger, Mike Cashman, and Ken 

Vance-Borland

 Seed zones for Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides) have been developed, mapped, and 

published.

 Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) data analysis revealed substantial genetic variation, 

indicating a good potential for developing seed zones based on genetic and source climate 

interactions. 

Ecological genetics of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata): Genetic structure and climate-based seed 

zone mapping

Bryce Richardson, Nancy Shaw, and Joshua Udall

Molecular genetics of big sagebrush

 Phylogenetic analyses of 24 genes (12,000 base pairs of DNA sequence) suggest diploid 

Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana (mountain big sagebrush) and A. t. ssp. tridentata (basin big 

sagebrush) are distinct (monophyletic) subspecies.

 A. t. ssp. wyomingensis (Wyoming big sagebrush) is not a monophyletic subspecies, 

originating from different diploid lineages of tridentata and vaseyana. 

 A. t. ssp. wyomingensis is a tetraploid complex with varying affinities to diploid tridentata and 

vaseyana.

 Tetraploid lineages are likely formed locally or regionally from nearby populations of diploid 

A. t. ssp. tridentata and ssp. vaseyana.
2012 Highlights

vi

Big sagebrush common gardens

 Final growth measurements were completed for three years.

 Flower phenology analyses suggest day length and warm temperatures control flowering date:

populations with longer summer days and colder temperature flower earlier than short summer 

days and warmer temperature.

 Estimates of total seed yield and seed weights are being calculated for the populations in two 

gardens. This will provide an overall estimate of plant fitness and comparison of seed weights 

among subspecies.

 The Ephraim, Utah common garden has substantially more mortality than other gardens. 

Possible factors are discussed.

Selecting sagebrush seed sources for restoration in a variable climate: Ecophysical variation among 

genotypes

Matthew J. Germino

 Physiological performance of different seed sources for big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is 

under evaluation. Comparisons among the many populations (genotypes or provenances) of 

each subspecies being grown in common gardens will provide results that will fill crucial gaps 

in the data, enabling the improved development of climatic seed-transfer zones for the 

restoration of big sagebrush. 

 Physiological variability is generally considerably greater among populations than among 

subspecies.

 At mid-summer, preliminary data suggest big sagebrush growing in an Idaho garden 

demonstrated adaptations in water use efficiency to local conditions; while populations in two 

other gardens did not demonstrate these trends in water use efficiency or other measured 

variables associated with photosynthesis or water status. For tetraploid big sagebrush, such as 

Wyoming big sagebrush (A. t. wyomingensis) grown in an Idaho common garden, carbon 

isotopes indicate longer-term patterns of water use efficiency are related to climate of origin.

 An experiment has been established to test sagebrush seedling response to climate and weather 

variability, as a function of their genotype, in post-fire settings.

Evolution of native plants in cheatgrass invaded systems

Elizabeth A. Leger, Erin M. Goergen, and Erin K. Espeland

 Native species and populations differ in their ability to tolerate and compete with cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum). 

 Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) was consistently the best suppressor of cheatgrass biomass, 

and one population of big squirreltail (Elymus multisetus) was very good at both tolerating and 

competing with cheatgrass.

 Remnant native populations growing in invaded areas may be an important source of 

genotypes for restoration of invaded communities, but not all remnant populations will harbor 

more competitive individuals than neighboring uninvaded areas.

 We recommend screening native populations for their ability to both tolerate and compete with 

cheatgrass, and, in addition to considering adaptation to local climate, select restoration 

material based on field performance in invaded conditions.
2012 Highlights

vii

SEED BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

Globemallow and big sagebrush performance under varying conditions

Anthony S. Davis

Sagebrush 

 Overwinter storage of big sagebrush seedlings can be done in a cooler (2 to 4°C); however, 

further study is needed to determine the optimal hardening regimes and lifting dates for freezer 

storage (0 to -2°C).

 Two experiments were conducted to evaluate physiological and morphological variation in 

Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) seedlings grown from 

accessions obtained from each of five locations within the range of this subspecies.

Globemallow

 Munro’s globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana) seeds are physically dormant and possess a 

water gap responsible for water uptake. Dormancy is best relieved by mechanical (93%) or 

boiling water (49%) scarification. 

 Gibberellic acid application, stratification, or the combination of stratification and scarification 

failed to enhance germination compared with scarification alone, indicating an absence of 

additional dormancy types. 

 This perennial, cool-season forb shows considerable potential for restoration use on arid sites, 

but it may not be the best candidate for early competition with cool season grasses during its 

establishment phase.

 Early growth is hindered by cool temperatures; thus, a later sowing date may improve 

establishment in nurseries, seed production areas, and restoration sites.

Development of protocols for germination, seed weight, purity, and seed conditioning/cleaning for 

Great Basin grasses and forbs: banking Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. 

wyomingensis) seed

Robert Karrfalt and Victor Vankus

 A Wyoming big sagebrush seed storage protocol was developed that prevents loss of 

germination for at least 5 years. In conventional storage seeds are mostly dead after 12 to 24 

months. Seeds can now be held in storage until needed for post-fire rehabilitation and 

restoration.

 Using the principles of equilibrium relative humidity, and measuring it using inexpensive 

electronic hygrometers, seed moisture can be managed to maintain high seed viability at all 

stages of seed handling from harvest to long-term storage. 

SEED AND SEEDLING ECOLOGY

Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species

Bruce A. Roundy, Kert Young, and Nathan Cline

 We developed thermal time models for days to 15 cm of rooting depth for 14 Great Basin plant 

materials (forbs, annual grasses, and perennial grasses) by conducting six constant temperature 

and three diurnal temperature growth chamber trials.

 Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) roots grow fastest at cooler temperatures, yet Anatone 

bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata ssp. spicata) and crested wheatgrass 

(Agropyron desertorum) grew well enough to compete with cheatgrass.
2012 Highlights

viii

 Forbs extended roots slower than most measured grasses and may not have sufficient time to 

extend roots before soil drying at some locations.

 We have conducted the field root trials at two locations in Utah for 2 years. We are currently 

analyzing these data.

 We characterized seedbeds at eight locations in the Great Basin and found that seedbeds spend 

a minimal amount of time at extreme (0 to 5°C and >30°C) temperature ranges where thermal 

time models are more variable in their response.

Pre-inoculation of Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings with native arbuscular mycorrhizae: Effects on 

mycorrhizal colonization and community composition after transplanting

Marcelo D. Serpe and Bill E. Davidson

 Pre-inoculation of Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings with native arbuscular mycorrhizae 

increased colonization of the roots that developed after transplanting.

 In sandy soils, the increase in mycorrhizal colonization caused by the pre-inoculation 

treatment led to an increase in seedling survival during periods of water deficits.

Smoke-induced germination of Great Basin native forbs

Robert Cox

 Extensive literature reviews for all Great Basin focal species have been conducted; species 

have been prioritized by germination requirements and potential for smoke response.

 The smoke response of the focal species is currently being tested.

 Future study will examine smoke response of seeds among populations within a species.

 The information can be used by land managers, seed producers and others to better plan 

restoration seedings which take advantage of smoke-responsive species.

PLANT MATERIALS AND CULTURAL PRACTICES

Developing protocols for maximizing establishment of two Great Basin legume species

Douglas A. Johnson and B. Shaun Bushman

 Hardseededness is a feature that often limits rapid, uniform germination in legume species. We 

conducted a greenhouse study in 2012 to determine the influence of seed scarification, soil 

type, and water droplet size (impact of soil crusting) on the speed of emergence of basalt 

milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), western prairie clover (Dalea ornata), Searls’ prairie clover

(Dalea searlsiae), and purple prairie clover (Dalea purpurea).

 Scarification greatly improved emergence in both western and Searls’ prairie clover, but was

much less effective in improving emergence of basalt milkvetch.

 Field seeding studies were established at three locations in 2012. Early spring seedings of 

western prairie clover were more successful than late-fall dormant seedings. The reverse was 

true for NBR-1, a basalt milkvetch release.

 Two natural-track selected germplasms of western prairie clover (Magestic and Spectrum) 

were released in 2011 for use in revegetation of semiarid rangelands in the western U.S.
2012 Highlights

ix

Great Basin forb native forb development and cultural practices

Jason Stettler and Alison Whittaker

 We implemented a study to treat iron deficiency chlorosis in four cultivated native lupine 

species. All species responded positively to seed-applied chelated iron fertilizer.

 We planted a total of 62 sources of 20 native forb species at three farms for stock seed 

production and species evaluation.

 We conducted germination studies for ballhead ipomopsis (Ipomopsis congesta), golden 

princesplume (Stanleya pinnata var. integrifolia), and streambank wild hollyhock (Iliamna 

rivularis). We will use the germination data to develop propagation protocols for these species.

Provisional seed zone-based seed increase

Scott Jensen 

To provide additional stock seed of Central Basin and Range forbs adapted to specific provisional 

seed zones, additional wildland seed collections were harvested and planted in seed increase plots. 

Existing seed increase plots were harvested to provide stock seed for growers. Major 

accomplishments: 

 Twenty-two wildland collections of 10 species were harvested.

 Seed increase plots were installed for 10 species representing 50 source populations and 103 

beds/rows.

 Seed increase plantings yielded seed of 10 species representing 26 different sites.

 Twenty-nine kg of thickleaf beardtongue (Penstemon pachyphyllus) were distributed for 

private sector seed production.

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center report of activities

Loren St. John and Derek Tilley

 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Guides were completed or revised for 

arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata), cutleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza

macrophylla), Hooker’s balsamroot (Balsamorhiza hookeri), yellow beeplant (Cleome lutea), 

tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata), barestem biscuitroot (Lomatium nudicaule), blue 

penstemon (Penstemon cyaneus) and gooseberryleaf globemallow (Sphaeralcea 

grossulariifolia). Plant guides are available at the PLANTS database (www.plants.usda.gov) 

and at the Aberdeen Plant Materials Center website 

(www.id.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/plant.html).

 The Aberdeen Plant Materials Center is progressing toward release of: 

-Douglas’ dustymaiden (Chaenactis douglasii)

-Hoary tansyaster (Machaeranthera canescens)

-Wyeth buckwheat (Eriogonum heracleoides)

Bee pollination and breeding biology studies

James H. Cane

 The seeds of most of the cultivated wildflower species for the Great Basin are susceptible to 

infestation by various little-known seed beetles. These beetles are all natives, most specializing 

on the genus or species of wildflower. Some leave the seed after feeding, but others overwinter 

in the seed and could be transported. None seem able to reproduce in stored seed.
2012 Highlights

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Seed production of Great Basin native forbs

Clinton C. Shock, Erik B. Feibert, Lamont D. Saunders, Cheryl Parris, Nancy Shaw, Douglas A. 

Johnson, B. Shaun Bushman, and Ram K. Sampangi

Four research projects are summarized, including:

 Irrigation requirements for seed production of five perennial species planted in 2005. 

 Preliminary assessment of irrigation requirements for seed production of nine perennial 

species planted in 2009 and two annual species planted in 2011.

 Direct surface seeding strategies for the establishment of two native legume species: western 

prairie clover (Dalea ornata) and basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes).

 Evaluation of tolerance of sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum) to herbicides.

SEED INCREASE

Stock seed production and inventory of native plants for the Great Basin 

Stanford Young and Michael Bouck

 The Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) Buy-Back project facilitates development of 

a seed market for specific germplasm accessions, pooled accessions, and/or formal germplasm 

releases developed through GBNPSIP and rewards initial seed growers financially for the risks 

they have assumed to participate in the program.

 Progress has been made in defining seed accession groupings, knowledge of agronomic seed 

production techniques, and understanding the reality of the commercial seed marketplace.

 Details on the program’s stock seed inventory and distribution, and the seed increase, stock 

seed, and commercial availability are provided.

A strategy for maximizing native plant material diversity for ecological restoration, germplasm 

conservation and genecology research

Berta Youtie

 Use of the Provisional Seed Zone maps facilitates identification of collection gaps, planning for 

seed collection for research studies, seed increase or ex situ conservation, and identification of 

potential locations for in situ conservation. 

 Fifteen collections of 10 species were made in southeastern Oregon for the Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project Research. 

 Site visits were made to three farms producing eight native forbs. 

Cultural thinning of native sagebrush stands to increase seed yields

Brad Geary

 Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) plots recovered from 

chemical and mechanical thinning treatments applied to increase seed production. Data 

indicate the mechanical-strip kill was effective at one location; however, the same results did 

not occur at the second location where there were no differences among the treatments.

 Treatment effects on Wyoming big sagebrush have changed the understory plant populations.

Managing pests of native plant seed production

Robert Hammon

 Insect predators of globemallow (Sphaeralcea) and beardtongue or penstemon (Penstemon) 

were described in two Native Plant Journal publications.
2012 Highlights

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HORTICULTURAL USES OF NATIVE PLANTS

Native annual species for retail nurseries and landscaping

Heidi A. Kratsch

 Established protocols for investigation of native annual species for retail nurseries.

 Evaluated five native annual species for native plant landscaping in western Nevada.

RMRS-CWI research and demonstration gardens and student training program

John Dodson and Alexis Malcomb

 The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Great Basin Research Site in Boise, Idaho, is used for 

research by the USFS and several educational institutions. In cooperation with the student 

employee, student intern, and senior project programs of the College of Western Idaho (CWI), 

the site is maintained and utilized by students.

 RMRS, in collaboration with CWI has created a Demonstration Garden exhibiting plants used

in Great Basin restoration, as well as serving as an educational tool for CWI horticulture 

students and community education.

SPECIES INTERACTIONS

The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of invaded rangelands

Keirith A. Snyder, Elizabeth A. Leger, and Erin M. Goergen

 Some native forbs such as bristly fiddleneck (Amsinckia tessellata) and common fiddleneck 

(A. intermedia) show promise as good competitors against cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)

 The presence of certain native annual forbs, such as Veatch’s blazingstar (Mentzelia 

veatchiana), can enhance the establishment and restoration of native perennial grasses, such as 

big squirreltail (Elymus multisetus) in cheatgrass-invaded rangelands

 The presence of native annual forbs provides a positive, indirect effect that promotes the 

establishment of E. multisetus in the presence of B. tectorum.

CRESTED WHEATGRASS DIVERSIFICATION

Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested wheatgrass seedings

Kent McAdoo and John Swanson

 Preliminary results showed that density of seeded native grasses was highest in plots that 

received the combination of disking+spring glyphosate treatment for reduction of crested 

wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum), significantly greater than that of disk-treated plots, but 

not significantly different than either the spring-treated glyphosate plots or the spring+fallapplied glyphosate plots. Forb densities were highest in the disk+glyphosate plots. For all 

seeded species combined, the spring+fall-applied glyphosate treatment and disk+glyphosate 

treatment produced significantly higher seeded species densities than the disked-only 

treatment.

 Data analysis is currently in progress for data collected in 2012. Preliminary indications are 

that glyphosate was more effective at reducing crested wheatgrass than either imazapic or 

chlorsulfuron+sulfometuron.
2012 Highlights

xii

The ecology of native forb establishment in the Great Basin: A holistic approach

Jeremy James

 Low winter snow pack on rangeland reduced cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) seedling survival probability by 80% or more

 Cheatgrass and bluebunch wheatgrass seedling recruitment was decreased about 20% in soils 

that had been disturbed, mainly due to increased physical crust formation

 Low winter snow pack on rangeland increased fungal pathogen load on native grass and

cheatgrass seed with cheatgrass seed experiencing larger fungal loads than bluebunch

wheatgrass under low snow pack

 Delaying seeding to winter or early spring may avoid these mortality windows in low snow 

years

 Non-native plant competition appears to play only a modest role in inhibiting native plant 

recruitment compared to other biotic and abiotic factors such as winter snow pack, attack by 

fungal pathogens, and physical soil crusts.

Recruitment of native vegetation into crested wheatgrass seedings and the influence of crested 

wheatgrass on native vegetation

Kirk Davies and Aleta Nafus

 We sampled 101 sites with crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) and a range of native 

vegetation establishment between May and August 2012.

 Preliminary analysis suggests native grass cover is positively associated with sites higher in 

silt and clay while crested wheatgrass cover is more positively associated with sites high in 

sand.

RESTORATION STRATEGIES AND EQUIPMENT

Restoration of native understory plants in degraded sagebrush steppe ecosystems

David A. Pyke, Kari Veblen, and Troy Wirth

 Three loamy Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) project sites, 

one each in the Snake River Plain, Owyhee Plateau, and Great Salt Lake Major Land Resource 

Area, were selected and pre-project site monitoring was conducted.

 In fall 2012, two native grass and two forb species were experimentally seeded in undercanopy 

and gap microsites at each of these sites. 

 Planting of seedlings is planned for spring 2013, and all seeds and seedlings will be monitored 

in June 2013.

Revegetation Equipment Catalog website maintenance

Robert Cox

 The Revegetation Equipment Catalog, a repository of information on types, capabilities, 

requirements, and company information for equipment used for revegetation efforts in the 

U.S., is in the process of a complete redesign. http://www.rw.ttu.edu/reveg-catalog/
2012 Highlights

xiii

Evaluation of imazapic rates and forb planting times on native forb establishment

Corey Ransom 

 Effects of imazapic herbicide on cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) germination and early growth 

was examined for two herbicide application rates in petri dish-laboratory and soil-greenhouse 

trials.

 In petri dish trials, imazapic reduced shoot and root length, but not germination or shoot 

biomass; soil trials showed significant differences in emergence, shoot length and shoot 

biomass. Given these results, soil trials appear useful for predicting responses of cheatgrass to 

this herbicide in field settings, whereas petri dish trials have limited utility for this purpose.

 No differences in plant responses were observed relative to the two imazapic application rates 

suggesting that a longer plant growth period is necessary or the rates tested were both above a 

threshold to observe differences in response.

Drill seeding with minimum-till drills

Anne Halford and James Truax

 As part of a collaborative research program underway at the Snake River Birds of Prey 

National Conservation Area, we are assessing inter-seeding treatments of early to mid-seral

native shrub, grass and forb species relative to three disturbance legacies.

 Seeding was conducted in November 2012 within four 49-ha blocks. Seeding treatments were 

carried out with two minimum-till drills, the Truax On-The-Go and Rough Ride. Features and 

performance of the drills are being examined.

Influence of post-fire treatments on exotic, native residual and seeded species production at the Scooby 

wildfire site in Northern Utah

Megan Taylor, Ann Hild, Urzula Norton, and Nancy Shaw

 This research examined the impact of wildfire rehabilitation seedings on the presence of exotic 

annual invaders during the first three growing seasons post-fire. A second objective was to 

track the presence of soil biota beneath seeded perennial grasses and returning exotics to 

document changes in soil biotic diversity following catastrophic wildfire. 

 Native grasses seeded for wildfire rehabilitation of Wyoming big sagebrush in northeastern 

Utah successfully limited the dominance and productivity of the exotic annuals cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum), halogeton (Halogeton glomeratus), and prickly Russian thistle (Salsola 

tragus). 

 In the absence of seeding, post-fire vegetation was dominated primarily by annual exotics 

throughout the study period.

 Soil biota was present and diverse within the first three years post-fire but soil biotic 

communities did not strongly differentiate beneath native grass and exotic microsites.

 Soil communities are temporally variable within a growing season and communities beneath 

the same plant species may shift dramatically as soil moisture is diminished.

 Soil biotic communities should be monitored repeatedly within a growing season and 

microsite to obtain better estimates of their transient nature.
2012 Highlights

xiv

Use of native annual forbs and early seral species in seeding mixtures for improved success in Great 

Basin restoration

Keirith A. Snyder, Elizabeth A. Leger, and Shauna M. Uselman

 Seedling emergence and early survival of early seral native species was generally greater than 

that of late seral native species when seeded with cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) or 

medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae).

 Native grasses were more successful than native forbs and shrubs, especially in a coarsetextured soil.

 Emergence and survival of medusahead was consistently very high on divergent soil types, 

supporting the need for preventive measures against its further spread in the Intermountain 

West.

 Early seral natives show promise for improving success of rangeland restoration/rehabilitation 

reseeding efforts in the Great Basin.

Effects of N-sulate®fabric on germination and establishment of native seeded species

Jason Stettler and Alison Whittaker

 We collected and analyzed establishment data on second-year plots of the Forb Island study. 

We found that the N-sulate®fabric plots had increased survival rates compared to control 

plots.

Reducing cheatgrass: Research into Bromus tectorum and Sordaria symbiosis

George Newcombe

 The potential of using dung fungi in the biocontrol of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) is being 

examined.

 Over 1,100 fungal isolates were made from cheatgrass collections across the western U.S. 

Isolates of several genera of dung fungi were effective at reducing cheatgrass growth and 

fecundity. Sordaria isolate # CID 323 was selected for further testing.

 Dung fungi are spread through herbivore feces. After passage through the GI tracts, these fungi 

then produce spores on the animal’s dung that should multiply and reduce fecundity in new 

generations of cheatgrass. Current work tests the assumptions that CID 323 can be freely 

passed from animal to plant host, and from plant to animal host. A field experiment confirmed 

that CID-infected cheatgrass did pass through the digestive tracts of sheep. A greenhouse 

experiment is underway to see if spores present on the dung will re-infect cheatgrass plants. 

 Concurrent experiments test the effect of CID323 on native grasses used for restoration. The 

assumption is that the growth of native grasses, which have lived with these fungi for 

millennia, will not be negatively affected.

 A Fusarium isolate has been identified that also shows promise as a potential biocontrol agent.

Native plant selection and restoration strategies

Nancy Shaw, Jeff Ott, Matt Fisk, Robin Bjork, Jan Gurr, Erin Denney, and Alexis Malcomb

Comparison of rangeland and minimum-till drill, seeding methods, and Wyoming big sagebrush 

seeding rates 

 Broadcasting small-seeded species through the minimum-till drill provided greater first-year 

density and equal cover during the first two years compared to broadcasting through the 

standard rangeland drill.
2012 Highlights

xv

 Broadcasting small-seeded species through the minimum-till drill provided greater first-year 

density and equal cover during the first two years compared to treatments simulating aerial 

application (hand broadcasting in fall or in winter).

 Drilling large-seeded species with the rangeland drill resulted in greater density, but not 

greater cover than drill seeding them through the minimum-till drill. Cheatgrass density, but 

not cover was lower following seeding with the rangeland drill. 

 Higher Wyoming big sagebrush seeding densities resulted when it was seeded through the 

minimum-till drill compared to the rangeland drill. For both drills, density increased with 

seeding rate over for the range tested: 52-525 PLS m-2. 

Plant Material Development and Distribution 

 Forty-two seed collections were forwarded to the USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station, Pullman, WA for ex situ conservation. Seventy-eight collections were 

provided to cooperators for ongoing research. Fifty-five new collections were added to the 

inventory for research and seed increase. Eight seed lots (G1 and G2) were added to the stock 

seed inventory.
Table of Contents

xvi

GENETICS AND SEED ZONES

BRAD ST. CLAIR

FRANCIS KILKENNY

Genetic diversity and genecology of bluebunch wheatgrass 

(Pseudoroegneria spicata), prairie junegrass (Koeleria 

macrantha), and squirreltail (Elymus elymoides)

 1

RICHARD C. JOHNSON

ERIN K. ESPELAND

MATT HORNING

ELIZABETH A. LEGER

MIKE CASHMAN

KEN VANCE-BORLAND

Conservation, adaptation and seed zones for key Great Basin 

species

 8

BRYCE RICHARDSON

NANCY SHAW

JOSHUA UDALL

Ecological genetics of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata): 

Genetic structure and climate-based seed zone mapping

17

MATTHEW J. GERMINO Selecting sagebrush seed sources for restoration in a variable 

climate: Ecophysical variation among genotypes

23

ELIZABETH A. LEGER

ERIN M. GOERGEN

ERIN K. ESPELAND

Evolution of native plants in cheatgrass invaded systems 35

SEED BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

ANTHONY S. DAVIS Globemallow and big sagebrush performance under varying 

conditions

38

ROBERT KARRFALT

VICTOR VANKUS

Banking Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. 

wyomingensis) seed

44

SEED AND SEEDLING ECOLOGY

BRUCE A. ROUNDY

KERT YOUNG

NATHAN CLINE

Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species 48

MARCELO D. SERPE

BILL E. DAVIDSON

Pre-inoculation of Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings with native 

arbuscular mycorrhizae: Effects on mycorrhizal colonization and 

community composition after transplanting

62

ROBERT COX Smoke-induced germination of Great Basin native forbs 69

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents

xvii

PLANT MATERIALS AND CULTURAL PRACTICES

DOUGLAS A. JOHNSON

B. SHAUN BUSHMAN

Developing protocols for maximizing establishment of Great 

Basin legume species

70

JASON STETTLER

ALISON WHITTAKER

Great Basin native forb development and cultural practices 74

SCOTT JENSEN Provisional seed zone-based seed increase 95

LOREN ST. JOHN

DEREK TILLEY

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center report of activities 103

JAMES H. CANE Bee pollination and breeding biology studies 107

CLINT C. SHOCK

ERIK B. FEIBERT

LAMONT D. SAUNDERS

CHERYL PARRIS

NANCY SHAW

DOUGLAS A. JOHNSON

B. SHAUN BUSHMAN

RAM K. SAMPANGI

Seed production of Great Basin native forbs: 

A. Eight years evaluating the irrigation requirements for native 

wildflower seed production

B. Preliminary estimates of the irrigation requirements for novel 

native wildflower seed production

C. Direct surface seeding strategies for the establishment of two 

native legumes of the Intermountain West

D. Five years of tolerance of sulphur-flower buckwheat to rates 

and mixtures of postemergence herbicides, 2008–2012

111

SEED INCREASE

STANFORD YOUNG

MICHAEL BOUCK

Stock seed production and inventory of native plants for the 

Great Basin

150

BERTA YOUTIE A strategy for maximizing native plant material diversity for 

ecological restoration, germplasm conservation and genecology 

research

153

BRAD GEARY Cultural thinning of native sagebrush stands to increase seed 

yields

161

ROBERT HAMMON Managing pests of native plant seed production 164

HORTICULTURAL USES OF NATIVE PLANTS

HEIDI A. KRATSCH Native annual species for retail nurseries and landscaping 165
Table of Contents

xviii

JOHN DODSON

ALEXIS MALCOMB

RMRS-CWI research and demonstration gardens and student 

training program

168

SPECIES INTERACTIONS

KEIRITH A. SNYDER

ELIZABETH A. LEGER

ERIN M. GOERGEN

The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of invaded 

rangelands

170

CRESTED WHEATGRASS DIVERSIFICATION

KENT MCADOO

JOHN SWANSON

Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested 

wheatgrass seedings

173

JEREMY JAMES The ecology of native forb establishment in the Great Basin: A

holistic approach

177

KIRK DAVIES

ALETA NAFUS

Recruitment of native vegetation into crested wheatgrass 

seedings and the influence of crested wheatgrass on native 

vegetation

181

RESTORATION STRATEGIES AND EQUIPMENT

DAVID A. PYKE

KARI VEBLEN

TROY WIRTH

Restoration of native understory plants in degraded sagebrush 

steppe ecosystems

183

ROBERT COX Revegetation Equipment Catalog website maintenance 185

COREY RANSOM Evaluation of imazapic rates and forb planting times on native 

forb establishment

186

ANNE HALFORD

JAMES TRUAX

Drill seeding with minimum-till drills 189

MEGAN TAYLOR

ANN HILD

URZULA NORTON

NANCY SHAW

Influence of post-fire treatments on exotic, native residual and 

seeded species production at the Scooby wildfire site in northern 

Utah

200

KEIRITH A. SNYDER

ELIZABETH A. LEGER

SHAUNA M. USELMAN

Use of native annual forbs and early seral species in seeding 

mixtures for improved success in Great Basin restoration

212

JASON STETTLER

ALISON WHITTAKER

Effects of N-sulate® fabric on germination and establishment of 

native seeded species

217
Table of Contents

xix

GEORGE NEWCOMBE Reducing cheatgrass: Research into Bromus tectorum and 

Sordaria symbiosis

219

NANCY SHAW

JEFF OTT

MATT FISK

ROBIN BJORK

JAN GURR

ERIN DENNEY

ALEXIS MALCOMB

Native plant selection and restoration strategies 223

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I Research plant species and their occurrence in Great Basin states 238

APPENDIX II UCIA stock seed materials tagging information form 243

APPENDIX III GBNPSIP seed increase, stock seed, and commercial availability 244

APPENDIX IV Workshop: Preparing and seeding multi-species mixtures, and 

drill calibration and operation, held at Initial Point, Boise, Idaho, 

2012 July 18.

250

APPENDIX V Germplasm conservation samples contributed by USDA Forest 

Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID to the USDI 

Bureau of Land Management Seeds of Success Program and 

USDA ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station in 2012

252

APPENDIX VI Seed lots distributed to cooperators in 2012 by USDA Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID

255
1

Project Title Genetic Diversity and Genecology of Bluebunch 

Wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), Prairie Junegrass 

(Koeleria macrantha), and Squirreltail (Elymus 

elymoides)

Project Agreement No. 12-IA-11221632-149

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Brad St. Clair, Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station

3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331-4401

541.750.7294, Fax 541.750.7329

bstclair@fs.fed.us

Francis Kilkenny, Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station

3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331-4401

541.750.7293, Fax 541.750.7329

ffkilkenny@fs.fed.us

Project Description

Bluebunch wheatgrass 

Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) is a cool-season, long-lived, self-incompatible,

perennial bunchgrass of semi-arid regions of western North America. It is found in a wide 

variety of habitats and is a dominant species of many grasslands of the inland Northwest. The 

wide distribution across a diverse range of climates suggests that bluebunch wheatgrass is 

genetically variable, and much of that variation may be adaptive. Nevertheless, many restoration 

projects using bluebunch wheatgrass rely upon a few cultivars that have proven to be useful over 

a wide area (although with less experience in the Great Basin). Few studies have been done, 

however, to evaluate genetic variation in relation to climatic factors across the Great Basin or the 

greater range of the species in a large set of diverse populations, and to compare the mean and 

variation of cultivars with that of the species as a whole. Determining the extent to which 

adaptive genetic variation is related to climatic variation is needed to ensure that the proper 

germplasm is chosen for revegetation and restoration. Furthermore, comparisons of cultivars 

with the natural range of variation will address questions of the suitability of cultivars over larger 

areas.

Objectives

1. Using common gardens, determine the magnitude and patterns of genetic variation 

among bluebunch wheatgrass populations from a wide range of source environments in 

the Great Basin, Columbia Basin, and adjacent areas.

2. Relate genetic variation to environmental variation at collection locations.

3. Compare common cultivars of bluebunch wheatgrass to native sources.

4. Develop seed transfer guidelines.
2

Methods

In 2005, seed was collected from eight western states including many locations in the Great 

Basin. In fall 2006, 125 diverse populations, each represented by two families, along with five 

cultivars, were established in common gardens at Pullman and Central Ferry, WA, and at the 

U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Lucky Peak Nursery near Boise, ID. Data were collected for 20 traits 

of growth, phenology and morphology at each of the three contrasting test sites during 2007 and 

2008. Seed was collected from the common gardens in 2008 and germination tests were 

conducted in 2009 to evaluate population variation in germination rates. Analyses have been 

done to evaluate differences among test sites, years, populations, and families within 

populations, as well as their interactions, and to look at the relationship between population 

variation and climatic variation at source locations. Maps of genetic variation across the 

landscape have been produced, and seed zones have been delineated based on the results. 

Results

Differences among test sites and between years for traits of growth and phenology were 

generally large. Plants grown at the warmest and driest site, Central Ferry, were largest, whereas 

plants grown at the coolest, wettest site, Pullman, were smallest. Reproductive phenology was 

delayed at the coolest site, Pullman, as indicated by later dates of heading, anthesis, and seed 

maturation. Plants were larger in 2007 compared to 2008, indicating that plants were better 

established during the second year. Reproductive phenology was later in 2008. Despite large 

differences among test sites and between years, correlations of population means between test 

sites were generally large for the same traits measured at different sites. Correlations of 

population means between years were also generally large for many traits. Thus, population 

performance was generally consistent between sites and between years.

Considerable variation was found among populations evaluated at each test site. Many traits 

showed that greater than 30% of the variation of individual plants could be attributed to 

differences among populations. Variation among families within populations was small. 

Principal component analysis was done to simplify the analysis by reducing the considerable 

number of traits measured at different sites in different years down to a few uncorrelated linear 

combinations that may be considered independent traits. The first three principal components 

(PC) explained 53% of the variation in all traits. The first PC explained 30% of the variation and 

was related to larger size and more inflorescences. The second PC was related to later 

phenology. The third PC was related to narrower leaves. 

Correlations of population means with climates at the seed sources were moderate to relatively 

strong with many correlations greater than 0.30. Larger plants were generally from areas with 

greater precipitation and moderate temperatures. Plants with later phenology were from cooler, 

less arid climates. Plants with narrow leaves were from hotter and drier climates. These 

relationships make sense from an adaptation perspective. That large population differences 

consistently correlated with environmental variables in meaningful ways suggests adaptively 

significant genetic variation should be considered when moving populations in restoration 

projects. 
3

Regressions between traits, including PCs, and climatic and geographic variables were done and 

the resulting models were used in GIS to produce maps of genetic variation in adaptive traits. 

Seed zones were delineated by dividing the first PC into three homogeneous areas, and the 

second and third PCs into two areas, then overlapping them to indicate areas that were of similar 

values for the three independent multivariate traits that account for the most of the variation in all 

traits that were evaluated (Figure 1). The trait maps and seed zones largely reflect differences 

among Level III ecoregions (Omernik 1987), but with variation within ecoregions corresponding 

to temperature, precipitation and aridity.

Figure 1. Seed zones for bluebunch wheatgrass. Seed zones are numbered 1 to 8 and are based 

on dividing the area into three principle components that represent small, intermediate or large 

plant size, early or late phenology, and narrow or wide leaves.

Prairie junegrass

Prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha) is a highly variable, moderately long-lived, cool season 

perennial bunchgrass that grows 15 to 60 cm (0.5 to 2 ft) tall. It is adapted to a wide variety of 

climates and soils and is an important component of many native plant communities. One of the 

most important uses of prairie junegrass is in seed mixes for restoration of native prairie, 

savanna, coastal scrub, chaparral, and open forest habitats across much of North America. Good 

drought tolerance and fibrous roots also make it beneficial for revegetation and erosion control 

on mined lands, over septic systems, and on construction sites, burns, and other disturbed areas. 

There is a need for greater genetic knowledge of prairie junegrass to ensure adapted populations 

are used for restoration and revegetation projects. Most information will be generated from two 

common garden studies conducted in separate contrasting environments in Oregon. 
4

Objectives

1. Using common gardens, determine the magnitude and patterns of genetic variation 

among prairie junegrass populations from a wide range of source environments in 

Oregon, Washington and Idaho.

2. Relate genetic variation to environmental variation at collection locations.

3. Develop seed transfer guidelines.

Methods

Seed was collected from endemic stands of prairie junegrass during the summers of 2003 to 

2006. Populations came from Oregon, Washington, and adjacent areas of Idaho, primarily east of 

the Cascade Mountains. Two families (maternal parents) were sampled from each of 114 

populations, while only a single family was sampled from 12 populations, for a total of 240 

families from 126 populations. Common garden studies were established in 2008 at two 

contrasting sites in Oregon: the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Materials 

Center, Corvallis, Oregon, and Oregon State University’s Agricultural Experiment Station at 

Powell Butte, Oregon. Plants were measured for a variety of traits including growth, 

morphology, phenology, and fecundity in 2009 and 2010. Analyses have been done to evaluate 

differences among test sites, years, populations, and families within populations, as well as their 

interactions, and to look at the relationship between population variation and climatic variation at 

source locations. Maps of genetic variation across the landscape have been produced, and 

preliminary seed zones have been delineated based on the results. 

Results

Traits at Corvallis were significantly different from traits at Powell Butte. Plants at Corvallis 

were larger and had earlier phenology in both 2009 and 2010. Plants at Powell Butte flowered 

profusely compared to plants at Corvallis in 2009, but plants in Corvallis had a higher 

inflorescence number in 2010. Variation among populations for size traits was much greater

when plants were grown at Corvallis in both years, and plants grown at Powell Butte had 

generally higher variation among populations in phenology traits for both years. The percentage 

of the total phenotypic variation (populations, families, and residual) that was found within 

populations was high for most traits, especially crown width, leaf width, leaf ratio, and dates of 

heading and bloom.

The population x site interaction was significant for most traits. Correlations of population means 

between test sites were higher in 2009 than in 2010, and correlations between years within sites 

were generally high. Populations that had wide crowns, more flowers, wide leaves, upright habit, 

and later phenology at one site were generally the same as those at the other site.

Traits that had large population variation and were correlated with climates at the source 

locations are biomass, crown width, inflorescence number, leaf width, leaf ratio, heading date

and bloom date. As might be expected, leaf width is strongly correlated with leaf ratio (r = -

0.73), and bloom date is strongly correlated with heading date (r = 0.93) though only moderately 

correlated with maturation date (r = 0.46). These traits are generally correlated with 

temperatures, precipitation, and aridity (as measured by the heat moisture index which is a 

function of the ratio of temperature to precipitation). Regression equations of traits on source 

climates used various combinations of temperature, precipitation or aridity variables. Regression 
5

models were used to map patterns of variation for biomass, inflorescence number, leaf ratio, and 

bloom date (Figure 2). R2values ranged from 0.29 to 0.36. Although the magnitudes and nature 

of the relationships between the source climates and traits differ somewhat between the four 

traits, general patterns of variation emerge. Populations from the Columbia Basin have lower 

biomass, narrower leaves, fewer inflorescences, and later phenology when grown together in a 

common environment. Populations from the Blue Mountains have greater biomass, wider leaves, 

more inflorescences, and earlier phenology. Populations from the northern Great Basin are 

similar to the Columbia Basin in having narrow leaves and lower biomass, but are more similar 

to the Blue Mountains in having earlier phenology. The few populations from western Oregon 

have wider leaves, high biomass and the latest phenology. From an adaptation perspective, we 

expect narrow leaves from areas of greater aridity, less precipitation, and warmer summer 

temperatures, and we expect earlier phenology from areas with colder winter temperatures (i.e., 

selection for quicker responses to springtime warming). The general patterns that emerge from 

this preliminary analysis are largely congruent with large-scale ecoregions, suggesting that 

Omernick’s Level III ecoregions may be useful for seed zones. Preliminary seed zones are 

presented (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Preliminary seed zones for prairie junegrass. Seed zones are based on dividing the area 

into three principle components that represent small, intermediate or large plant size, early or late 

phenology, and narrow or wide leaves.

Squirreltail

Squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) is a cool-season, short-lived, self-pollinating perennial 

bunchgrass of semi-arid regions of western North America. It is found in a wide variety of 

habitats from the Pacific coast to the Great Plains and from Canada to Mexico, and ranges in 

elevation from 610 m-3,505 m (2,000 ft-11,500 ft). Squirreltail is considered a “workhorse” 
6

species in native plant restoration. Squirreltail can rapidly colonize disturbed sites, is also 

relatively fire-tolerant, and is a potential competitor to medusahead (Taeniatherum caputmedusae), wildrye (Elyleymus) and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). There are seven cultivars and 

pre-variety germplasm (PVG) collections of squirreltail and big squirreltail (Elymus multisetus) 

that have been or are being developed for restoration purposes, however only one variety, Toe 

Jam Creek, is currently used extensively. Previous studies indicate that there is strong ecotypic 

divergence in squirreltail. Few studies have been done, however, to evaluate genetic variation in 

relation to climatic factors across the Great Basin or the greater range of the species in a large set

of diverse populations, and to compare the mean and variation of cultivars with that of the 

species as a whole. Determining the extent to which adaptive genetic variation is related to 

climatic variation is needed to ensure that the proper germplasm is chosen for revegetation and 

restoration. Furthermore, comparisons of cultivars with the natural range of variation will 

address questions of the suitability of cultivars over larger areas.

Objectives

1. Explore genetic variation in putative adaptive traits in squirreltail from a wide range of 

source environments in the inland West.

2. Explore the relationships between genetic variation in putative adaptive traits and the 

source environments.

3. Compare common cultivars of squirreltail to native sources.

4. Develop seed transfer guidelines.

Methods

With the help of collaborators from a variety of organizations interested in restoration using 

squirreltail (including the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, National Park 

Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of Defense, the Nature Conservancy, 

Washington Department of Natural Resources, and the Yakama Nation), seed was collected from 

two maternal families from 110 populations from five western states, primarily from the northern 

and central Great Basin. In addition to the squirreltail populations, we obtained seed from 

cultivars and PVGs of squirreltail for inclusion in the common garden studies, including Toe Jam 

Creek, Fish Creek, Rattlesnake, Tusas, Antelope Creek, Pleasant Valley, and Sand Hollow (big 

squirreltail),. Common garden studies have been established at three contrasting sites: (1) Reno, 

Nevada, (2) Powell Butte, Oregon, and (3) Central Ferry, Washington.

Results

Data for the first year of the study have been collected and are currently being analyzed.

References

Omernik, J.M. 1987. Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Map (scale 1:7,500,000). 

Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77: 118-125.

Publications

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Horning, M. [In press]. Climate change and the future of seed 

zones. USDA Forest Service National Nursery Proceedings 2012.
7

St.Clair, J. B.; Kilkenny, F. F.; Johnson, R. C.; Shaw, N. L.; Weaver, G. Genetic variation in 

adaptive traits and seed transfer zones for Pseudoroegneria spicata (bluebunch wheatgrass) in 

the northwestern United States. Evolutionary Applications. Accepted.

Presentations

Kilkenny, F. F.; St Clair, J. B. 2012. Climate change and the future of seed zones. USDA Forest 

Service Region 6 Genetics Meeting, 2012 November 15, Hood River, OR.

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Horning, M. 2012. Climate change and the future of seed zones.

Seed Technology for Forest and Conservation Nurseries, 2012 September 11-13, Bend, OR.

St. Clair, J. B.; Kilkenny, F. F. 2012. Genecology and seed zones for bluebunch wheatgrass and 

prairie junegrass. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 

February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines 

These studies indicate that populations of bluebunch wheatgrass and prairie junegrass differ 

greatly across the landscapes of the Great Basin, Columbia Basin, Blue Mountains and adjacent 

ecoregions for traits of plant size, flowering phenology, and leaf width. Much of that variation is 

associated with climates of the source locations, indicating adaptive significance. Seed zones are 

presented for recommendations of bulking seed collections and producing plant material for 

adapted, diverse and sustainable populations for revegetation and restoration. Different levels of 

acceptable risk may be accommodated by choosing whether or not to bulk materials from the 

same zones but in different Level III ecoregions. Results indicate that sources may be 

consolidated over fairly broad areas of similar climate and thus may be shared between districts, 

forests, and different land ownerships. 

Products

 This study provides seed zones and seed transfer guidelines for developing adapted plant 

materials of bluebunch wheatgrass for revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin and 

adjacent areas.

 The research provides guidelines for conservation of germplasm within the National Plant 

Germplasm System. 

 Results for bluebunch wheatgrass have been, and results from prairie junegrass are being,

submitted to a peer-reviewed journal, and will be disseminated through symposia, field 

tours, training sessions, or workshops.
8

Project Title Conservation, Adaptation and Seed Zones for Key Great 

Basin Species

Project No. & Location 10-IA-11221632-023

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Richard C. Johnson, Research Agronomist

USDA-Agricultural Research Service

Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.3771

rcjohnson@wsu.edu

Erin K. Espeland, Research Ecologist

USDA Agricultural Research Service, 

Northern Plains Agricultural Research Laboratory

Pest Management Research Unit

1500 N Central Ave., Sidney MT 59270

406.433.9416

erin.espeland@ars.usda.gov

Matt Horning, Geneticist

U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region

63095 Deschutes Market Road, Bend, OR 97701

541.383.5519

mhorning@fs.fed.us

Elizabeth A. Leger, Associate Professor

Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, MS 186

University of Nevada Reno, NV 89557-0013

775.784.7582, Fax: 775.784.4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Mike Cashman, Biologist

USDA Agricultural Research Service

Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.6219, Fax: 509.335.6654

mjcashman@wsu.edu

Ken Vance-Borland, GIS Coordinator

Conservation Planning Institute

NW Wynoochee Drive, Corvallis, OR 97330

kenvb@consplan.net
9

Project Description 

Among the key restoration species for the Great Basin are Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum 

hymenoides [Roem. & Schult.] Barkworth), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda J. Presl), basin 

wildrye (Leymus cinereus [Scribn. & Merr.] Á. Löve), and Thurber's needlegrass (Achnatherum

thurberianum [Piper] Barkworth). These species are critical for wildlife habitat, livestock 

grazing, soil stabilization, and ecosystem function in the Western U.S. Yet current releases of 

these species do not specifically match natural genetic diversity within the species with local 

climatic variation to develop seed zones. Seed zones matching climate with genetic variation will 

greatly facilitate management decisions, ensuing restoration with diverse, adapted plant material 

while promoting biodiversity needed for future natural selection, especially with climate change.

Our objectives (Figure 1) are:

1. Collections representing the Great Basin are established in common garden studies and 

numerous plant traits associated with phenology, production, and morphology are 

measured and analyzed.

2. Plant traits with genetic variation in common gardens are linked to seed source location 

climates and composite plant traits are developed using multivariate statistics. 

3. Regression models conflating variation in plant traits with source climates are developed 

and used with GIS to map seed transfer zones. 

Figure 1. Schematic showing the steps for genecology studies to establish seed zones for a given

plant species.

Germplasm 

collection

Multivariate 

traits for data 

reduction 

Link plant traits 

to source 

location climate 

Common garden 

evaluations for 

genetic traits

Regression modeling of 

plant traits with source 

location climate

GIS mapping plant of 

plant traits with 

climate for seed zones
10

Indian Ricegrass

A genecology study of Indian ricegrass collected from across the southwestern United States 

including the Great Basin has been completed and published (Johnson et al. 2012). For this 

project plants from 106 collection locations were established in common gardens in 2006 and 

four phenological traits [Phen] (such as blooming date), six production traits [Pro] (such as dry 

weight), and eight morphology traits [Morph] (such as leaf dimensions) were measured in 2007 

and 2008. Analysis of variance revealed that all of these basic garden traits differed among 

source locations (p < 0.01), indicating widespread genetic variation. Within Phen, Pro, and 

Morph categories, canonical correlation (SAS/STAT version 9.2, SAS Institute, Cary, NC) was 

completed between basic garden traits and temperature and precipitation at the source location 

which resulted in six significant (p < 0.01) canonical variates (Phen 1, Pro 1 and 2, and Morph 1, 

2, and 3) representing each category of traits. Linear correlations (r > ± 0.25, p < 0.01) 

consistently linked monthly temperature at collection locations with Phen 1, Pro 1, and Morph1. 

For precipitation, however, correlations were more dependent on month, with the strongest 

correlations during the spring developmental period. Using regression models between traits and 

climate, a map with 12 seed zones was developed representing much of the southwestern United 

States (Figure 2, Table 1). This generally distinguished genetic variation between cooler and 

warmer regions, usually separating more northern, higher elevation areas from more southern, 

lower elevation areas. The correspondence between climate and genetic variation suggested 

climate driven differences in natural selection, likely leading to adaptation. The seed zone map 

is recommended to guide and broaden germplasm collection and utilization for Indian ricegrass 

restoration. 

Within the Southwestern United States we know of three Indian ricegrass ecotypes that have 

been developed and released: Starlake from McKinley County, NM, 'Paloma' from near 

Florence, CO (USDA-NRCS 2000), and Whiteriver from near Rangely, CO (Jones et al. 2010). 

As nearly as could be determined, they originated from within seed zones M1H2H3 and 

MIH2L3 (Figure 2; Table 1), which represent less than 20% of the mapped area. The largest seed 

zone, M1L2H3, representing major portions of the Central Basin and Range, the Wyoming 

Basin, and eastern Colorado, is not represented by any released germplasm. In addition, 

considerable portions of the Colorado and Arizona/New Mexico Plateaus (mapped in blue hues) 

are not represented. Thus, it appears there are substantial germplasm needs for Indian ricegrass in 

the southwestern United States.

Sandberg Bluegrass

Sandberg bluegrass common gardens were established at Powell Butte, OR, Central Ferry, WA, 

and Sidney, MT in 2008 with plants from 130 collection locations, two families within location, 

in a randomized complete block design replicated six times. Data were collected in each garden 

in 2009 and 2010 and analysis of variance completed (Table 2). For both years, location effects 

were highly significant for all traits measured, indicating substantial genetic variation among the 

different seed sources. Also highly significant were the garden site x location interactions for 

each trait. These results showed a contrasting pattern of genetic variation between Powell Butte, 

a relatively cool (annual average 9°C), high elevation (983 m) site, and Central Ferry, a relatively

low (200 m) and warm site (annual average temperature 11.3°C ). 
11

Figure 2. Twelve proposed seed zones for Indian ricegrass in the southwestern United States

resulting from overlays of canonical variate scores (cancorr extracted) derived from phenology 

(Phen 1), production (Pro 1 and 2), and morphology (Morph 1, 2, 3). Model predictions outside 

the range for the original canonical variate scores, shown in white, were not mapped.

Abbreviations H1, M1, and L1 refer to high, middle and low ranges of cancorr extract 1 scores; 

H2 and L2, and H3 and L3, refer to high and low ranges of cancorr extracts 2 and 3, respectively. 

The substantial genetic variation indicated a good potential for successful seed zone mapping of 

Sandberg bluegrass. Further analysis is underway to relate this genetic variation to source 

location climates through regression models needed for seed zone development. 

Basin Wildrye

Common gardens of basin wildrye were established at Pullman and Central Ferry, WA sites in 

2010 with plants from 114 collection locations, two families per location. The cultivars 

'Trailhead', a tetraploid (2n = 4x = 28), and 'Magnar' an octoploid (2n = 8x = 56), were also 

included. Plants were randomized in a complete block design with six replications. Data were 

collected for phenology, production, and morphology traits in 2011 and 2012, and data collection 

will continue in 2013. 
12

For basin wildrye, ploidy differences are likely critical to its distribution and adaptation. 

Collections of basin wildrye were also made in the Columbia Plateau, WA where the octoploid 

form is common, whereas in the Great Basin the tetraploid predominates (Jones and Larson 

2005). Ploidy for all collection locations was determined using cytometry with a Partec 

CyFlow® Ploidy Analyzer as described by Jakubowski et al. (2011). The analysis of field 

collected sources revealed 58 octoploids and 56 tetraploids. This will allow us to understand the 

effect of ploidy on plant traits and adaptation in relation to source location climate. 

Thurber's Needlegrass

Thurber's needlegrass common gardens were established in fall 2011 at Central Ferry, WA, and 

Reno, NV. The study consists of 67 source locations predominantly from the Northern and 

Central Basin and Range ecoregions. Plants from each location were randomized in eight 

complete blocks at each garden site. Data were collected on numerous phenology, production, 

and morphological traits in 2012 and data collection will continue in 2013.

Seeds of Success Activities

Seeds of Success (SOS) and the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) are partnering to 

collect, distribute, and evaluate key native plant materials needed for conservation and 

restoration. More than 7,000 new native plant accessions representing diverse taxa have been 

acquired for the NPGS and nearly 2,400 accessions have been distributed for research at the 

federal, state, and private levels (Figure 3, Table 3).

Table 1. Area represented by each seed zone for Indian ricegrass collection locations across the 

southwestern U.S. and zones corresponding to released germplasm.

Seed zone

Square 

kilometers

Mapped 

area % Number†

H1H2H3 32,845.9 3.03 3

H1H2L3 24,808.1 2.29 1

H1L2H3 119,066.9 11.00 3

H1L2L3 15,440.8 1.42 1

M1H2H3 127,031.1 11.70 32

M1H2L3 68,811.0 6.35 11

M1L2H3 324,657.1 29.90 35

M1L2L3 101,311.2 9.34 8

L1H2H3 48,709.5 4.49 3

L1H2L3 15,630.5 1.44 1

L1L2H3 174,859.6 16.10 7

L1L2L3 31,304.6 2.89 1

Totals 1,084,476.2 100.0 106

†Number of collections falling within a given seed zone.
13

Table 2. Summary of analysis of variance of common gardens traits for Sandberg bluegrass 

growing at Central Ferry, WA and Powell Butte, OR sites in 2009 and 2010 and representing 

seed collection locations across the Great Basin and surrounding areas.

Trait Site Location Site x Location

Mean F-value P-value F-value P-value F-value P-value

Phenology _____________________________________________2009__________________________________________

 Heading, day 123 923 <.0.001 6.06 <.0.001 2.21 <.0.001

 Blooming, day 138 902 <.0.001 7.43 <.0.001 3.39 <.0.001

 Maturity, day 165 201 <.0.001 3.96 <.0.001 2.28 <.0.001

 Heading to bloom, days 15.4 3.98 0.070 3.01 <.0.001 3.64 <.0.001

 Heading to maturity, days 41.9 43.5 <.0.001 4.57 <.0.001 1.97 <.0.001

 Bloom to maturity, days 26.4 35.2 <.0.001 3.57 <.0.001 2.56 <.0.001

Production

 Apparent survival 0.740 0.110 0.750 3.40 <.0.001 1.71 <.0.001

 Panicle number 73.2 9.36 0.012 3.11 <.0.001 3.17 <.0.001

 Dry weight, g 26.6 5.61 0.039 5.24 <.0.001 2.26 <.0.001

 Basal area, cm254.7 1.63 0.231 3.93 <.0.001 1.59 <.0.001

Morphology

 Leaf width, cm 0.275 11.7 0.006 8.69 <.0.001 1.59 <.0.001

 Leaf length, cm 6.35 0.020 0.900 8.09 <.0.001 1.49 0.001

 Leaf length x width, cm21.82 9.32 0.012 11.4 <.0.001 1.57 <.0.001

 Plant habit, 1- 9* 6.09 19.2 0.001 2.46 <.0.001 2.54 <.0.001

 Culm length, cm 38.4 45.2 <.0.001 3.29 <.0.001 2.23 <.0.001

 Panicle length, cm 10.8 9.59 0.011 4.99 <.0.001 2.01 <.0.001

Phenology ______________________________________________2010_________________________________________

 Heading, day 111 313 <.0.001 8.56 <.0.001 2.68 <.0.001

 Blooming, day 131 1749 <.0.001 8.72 <.0.001 2.04 <.0.001

 Maturity, day 171 0.340 0.572 4.43 <.0.001 2.64 <.0.001

 Heading to bloom, days 19.7 230 <.0.001 4.06 <.0.001 3.26 <.0.001

 Heading to maturity, days 59.4 95.7 <.0.001 3.90 <.0.001 2.87 <.0.001

 Blooming to maturity, days 39.8 375 <.0.001 4.16 <.0.001 3.54 <.0.001

Production

 Apparent survival 0.699 0.220 0.650 3.14 <.0.001 1.66 <.0.001

 Panicle number 127 12.2 0.005 2.25 <.0.001 2.83 <.0.001

 Dry weight 110 0.950 0.354 2.48 <.0.001 2.47 <.0.001

 Basal area** 58.6 184 <.0.001 4.27 <.0.001 2.01 <.0.001

Morphology

 Leaf width, cm 0.231 6.46 0.029 6.38 <.0.001 1.33 0.009

 Leaf length, cm 5.69 39.1 <.0.001 6.03 <.0.001 1.92 <.0.001

 Leaf length x width, cm21.40 1.17 0.304 6.78 <.0.001 1.60 <.0.001

 Plant habit, 1- 9* 5.54 65.5 <.0.001 2.53 <.0.001 2.58 <.0.001

 Culm length, cm 32.4 7.90 0.018 3.18 <.0.001 3.28 <.0.001

 Panicle length, cm 10.3 10.6 0.008 5.58 <.0.001 1.40 0.002

*

Plant habit ranges from 1, prostrate to 9, upright.

**Estimated as the product of two perpendicular basal diameter measurements.
14

Figure 3. Seeds of Success yearly and cumulative distribution from the National Plant 

Germplasm System over the last seven years.

Table 3. Institutional sources of Seeds of Success seed orders distributed from the National Plant 

Germplasm System over the last 7 years.

References

Jakubowski, A. R.; Jackson, R. D.; Johnson, R. C.; Hu, J.; Casler, M. D. 2011. Genetic diversity 

and population structure of Eurasian populations of reed canarygrass: cytotypes, cultivars, and 

interspecific hybrids. Crop and Pasture Science. 62: 982-991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/CP11232

Johnson, R. C.; Cashman, M. J.; Vance-Borland, K. 2012. Genecology and seed zones for 

Indian Ricegrass across the Southwest USA. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 65: 523-532.

Jones, T.A., Larson, S.R. 2005. Development of Native Western North American Triticeae 

Germplasm in a Restoration Context. Czech Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 41: 108-111.

Year Foreign State ARS US 

commerce

Other 

Federal

US 

Individual

US

non-profit Other

2006 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0

2007 7 17 2 8 3 13 1 3

2008 25 38 5 18 3 12 3 25

2009 22 35 5 15 4 10 4 23

2010 29 40 7 11 7 10 5 14

2011 40 46 14 16 4 14 7 25

2012 20 40 6 10 8 14 5 56

Totals 143 216 40 78 32 73 25 145
15

Jones, T. A.; Winslow, S. R.; Parr, S. D.; Memmott, K. L. 2010. Notice of release of White

River Germplasm Indian ricegrass. Native Plants Journal. 11: 133-136.

USDA NRCS [United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation 

Service]. 2000. The PLANTS database. Version: 000417. Baton Rouge, LA: USDA NRCS 

National Plant Data Center,. <http://plants.usda.gov>.

Publications

Johnson, R. C.; Cashman, M. J.; Vance-Borland, K. 2012. Genecology and seed zones for 

Indian Ricegrass across the Southwest USA. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 65: 523-532.

Johnson, R. C.; Cashman, M. J.; Vance-Borland, K. 2012. Genecology and seed zones for Indian 

ricegrass across the Southwest USA. In: Society for Range Management 65th Annual Meeting, 

2012 January 28-February 3, Spokane, WA. Abstract. 

St. Clair, J. B.; Kilkenny, F. F.; Johnson, R. C.; Shaw, N. L.; Weaver, G. 2013. Genetic 

variation in adaptive traits and seed transfer zones for Pseudoroegneria spicata (bluebunch 

wheatgrass) in the northwestern United States. Evolutionary Applications. (Accepted with minor 

revisions).

Presentations

Johnson, R. C. 2012. Genecology and seed zones for Indian Ricegrass across the Southwest 

USA. Society for Range Management 65th Annual Meeting, 2012, January 28-February 3, 

Spokane, WA. 

Johnson, R. C. 2012. Genecology of Indian Ricegrass, Sandberg bluegrass and basin wildrye.

Great Basin Native Plants Selection and Seed Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 

22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

Johnson, R. C. 2012. Common ground for common gardens. NGPS Curator's Workshop, 2012 

June 5, Spokane, WA. Invited.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

Maps visualizing the interaction of genetic variability and climate for restoration species allow 

informed decisions regarding the suitability of genetic resources for restoration in varying Great 

Basin and Southwestern environments. 

The recommended seed zone boundaries may be modified based on management resources and 

land manger experience without changing their basic form or links between genetic variation and 

climate.
16

We recommend utilization of multiple populations of a given species within each seed zone to 

promote biodiversity needed for sustainable restoration and genetic conservation.

Collections representing each seed zone should be released, grown, and used for ongoing 

restoration projects.

Products 

 Seed zones for key Great Basin restoration species ensure plant materials used for 

restoration are adapted, suitable, and diverse.

 Collection and conservation of native plant germplasm though cooperation between the 

National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), the Western Regional Plant Introduction 

Station, Pullman, WA, and the Seeds of Success (SOS) program under BLM. This ensures 

availability of native plant genetic resources that otherwise may be lost as a result of 

disturbances such as fire, invasive weeds, and climate change.
17

Project Title Ecological Genetics of Big Sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata): Genetic Structure and Climate-based Seed 

Zone Mapping

Project Agreement No. 10-IA-11221632-266

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Bryce Richardson, Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Shrub 

Sciences Laboratory

735 N 500 E, Provo, UT 84606

801.356.5112

brichardson02@fs.fed.us

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702 

208.373.4360

nshaw@fs.fed.us

Joshua Udall, Assistant Professor

Brigham Young University, Plant and Wildlife Sciences

295 WIDB

Provo, UT 84602

801.422.9307 

jaudall@gmail.com

Project Description

Artemisia tridentata (big sagebrush) is one of the most ecologically important and landscape 

dominant plant species in western North America. This species is a major focus for ecosystem 

restoration after disturbances because of its importance in wildlife diets, invasive weed exclusion 

(e.g., cheat grass, Bromus tectorum), snow catchment, and nutrient cycling. Big sagebrush is 

divided into three major subspecies: tridentata, vaseyana, wyomingensis that typically occupy 

distinct ecological niches. However, subspecies are known to form hybrid zones in some areas 

(Freeman et al. 1991; McArthur et al. 1998). Maladaptation is a serious problem in restoration 

and becomes more complex with climate change. Planting big sagebrush seed sources outside 

their adaptive breadth will lead to continued ecosystem degradation and encroachment of 

invasive species. Successful restoration of big sagebrush requires understanding the climatic 

factors involved in defining subspecies and populations. 
18

Objectives

1) Establish common gardens from seed sources collected across the range of big sagebrush.

2) Develop molecular markers from transcriptome data of subspecies vaseyana and 

tridentata.

3) Elucidate genetic structure using molecular markers and adaptive traits;

4) Determine climatic factors important to adaptation within and among big sagebrush 

ecological races.

5) Develop climate-based seed zone maps across the range of big sagebrush.

Common Garden Study

Collection of seed and plant tissue began in autumn of 2009. A total of 93 seed sources were 

collected, largely by collaborators, in 11 western states. In January 2010, seeds were planted in 

greenhouse containers. Up to 10 families from each of 56 seed sources were outplanted at each 

of the common gardens (Table 1). Outplanting of seedlings occurred in May and June 2010. 

First-year measurements were conducted in October and November 2010. Measurements 

included height, diameter at the ground and overhead photos to calculate crown area. Plants were 

supplemented with water until August and mortality was minimal (< 2%) for the first year. No 

supplemental water will be added in the future. Overall, the subspecies preliminary growth 

patterns have met expectations. Subspecies tridentata yielded the greatest heights and diameters 

and the Ephraim plot produced the highest yields among all subspecies. The preliminary data 

also indicated different allocations of wood development to height. Subspecies tridentata had 

lower ratios (i.e., greater height to wood development) compared to vaseyana (data not shown). 

By late in 2012, mortality was low at two of the common gardens: Orchard at 11.3% and Majors 

Flat at 3.6%. However, at Ephraim, mortality had reached 43%. 

There are strong patterns in which subspecies and populations have survived at Ephraim. 

Preliminary analyses suggest seed source mortality rates are correlated with precipitation and 

temperature interactions. Seed sources with warmer, longer and drier summers suffered higher 

mortality at Ephraim. 

Table 1. Location information for three sagebrush common garden sites.

Site name Latitude Longitude Elevation (m)

Orchard, Ada Co., ID 43.328 -116.003 976

Ephraim, Sanpete Co., UT 39.369 -111.580 1,686

Majors Flat, Sanpete Co., UT 39.337 -111.521 2,088

Molecular Genetics

In September 2009, leaf tissue was collected from two big sagebrush specimens (subspecies

tridentata and vaseyana) growing in Provo, Utah. Total RNA was extracted and the 

transcriptomes were sequenced for both subspecies using a Roche 454 FLX Genome Sequencer. 

The DNA sequence data have been compiled and annotated with over 21,000 sequences 

identified with putative function. These data include over 20,000 SNPs (single-nucleotide 

polymorphisms) and 119 polymorphic microsatellite markers that will be a resource for 

downstream projects such as the development of molecular markers for population genetic and 
19

phylogenetic studies. In September 2010 further RNA sequencing was completed on two 

populations of wyomingensis from Utah (UTW-1) and Montana (MTW-1). After aligning DNA 

sequence reads from the wyomingensis samples with the previous reference sequence developed 

from the tridentata and vaseyana samples, it was found that some interesting SNP patterns 

emerged. Out of approximately 1,000 SNPs between tridentata and vaseyana, wyomingensis was 

heterozygous for over one-third. Most of the remaining SNPs (approximately 60%) match 

vaseyana compared to tridentata (approximately 40%) (Bajgain et al. 2011).

The transcriptome data has been used to develop an array of DNA sequences associated with 

secondary metabolite pathways. These sequences (48 in total) were obtained from 329 

individuals from 48 sites, approximately seven individuals per site (Figure 1). Phylogenetic 

relationships based on approximately 12,000 base pairs of DNA show diploid tridentata and 

vaseyana are distinct subspecies. Tetraploids, including wyomingensis are polyphyletic (i.e., 

multiple origins) and have a tendency to be an admixture of tridentata and vaseyana (Figure 2, 

Richardson et al. 2012). 

Figure 1. The location of 48 seed collection sites for Artemisia tridentata used in the molecular 

genetic study. The symbols identify subsp. wyomingensis, tridentata and vaseyana.
20

Figure 2. Unrooted phylogenetic networks using neighbor-net algorithm. The networks were 

constructed from uncorrected p-distances based on 24 contigs of consensus sequences of each 

collection site. A) Illustrates relationships between 28 diploid collections. B) Includes diploid 

collections and 20 tetraploid collections. Taxonomic differences are represented by colored 

edges and the scale bar indicates expected nucleotide changes per site. The outgroup species is 

Artemisia arbuscula (low sagebrush).

MTV1

IDV4

IDV3

IDV2

ORW3

NVT UTT22

CAT1 IDT3

MTT1

ORT3

ORW2 IDT2

IDT1

COT1

NVW1

NVT1 CAT2

ORT1

ORT2

UTT1

UTT3

CAV1

OUTGROUP

ORV2

NVV2

UTV1

NVV1

CAV2

IDV5

vaseyana diploid

tridentata diploid

vaseyana x tridentata diploid

wyomingensis

vaseyana tetraploid

tridentata tetraploid

A)

B)

LEGEND

8

1 5

AZT1

NMT2

ORV1

ORW3

UTT2

UTW1

UTV3

NVT2

ORW1

IDW2

UTT3

UTT1

CAV1

OUTGROUP

COW1

IDW1

ORT1

MTW1

MTW2

MTW3

IDW3

ORT2

CAT2

NVT1

NVW1

ORT3

IDT2

ORW2

IDT1

MTT1

IDT3

COT1

CAT1

UTV2

NVV3

ORV2

CAV4 CAV3

NVV2

UTV1

NVV1

CAV2

IDV5

COW2

MTV1

IDV4

IDV3

IDV2

NMT1 AZW1

0.0010

62 58
21

Future plans

Common Gardens

Genetic responses in common gardens, including growth, mortality and seed yield, will be used 

to evaluate climatic adaptation. These responses will be used to develop genetic-climate models 

to construct seed zones for current and future conditions.

Molecular Genetics

Future questions to be addressed with molecular genetics include: 1) can tetraploid lineages be 

identified on the landscape; 2) what are the phylogenetic relationships between big sagebrush 

and other sagebrush species; 3) has interspecific hybridization been an important evolutionary 

process in some tetraploid lineages?

Electronic Nose

Determining big sagebrush subspecies from harvested seed is extremely challenging for seed 

warehouses and management agencies, however proper identification is critical for successful 

restoration. We are evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of using an electronic nose as a 

diagnostic tool for subspecies identification, especially for separation of diploid tridentata and 

tetraploids (e.g., wyomingensis). An electronic nose (e-nose) distinguishes differences in volatile 

organic compounds (VOCs, smells). An important factor in this evaluation is to consider 

environmental influences on VOCs, which could complicate diagnostic tests.

References

Bajgain, P.; Richardson, B. A.; Price, J. C.; Cronn, R. C.; Udall, J. A. 2011. Transcriptome 

characterization and polymorphism detection between Artemisia tridentata subspecies. BMC 

Genomics. 12: 370.

Freeman, D. C.; Turner, W. A.; McArthur, E. D.; Graham, J. H. 1991. Characterization of a 

narrow hybrid zone between two subspecies of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata: Asteraceae). 

American Journal of Botany. 78: 805-815.

McArthur, E. D.; Freeman, D. C.; Graham, J. H.; Wang, H.; Sanderson, S. C.; Monaco, T.; 

Smith, B. N. 1998. Narrow hybrid zone between two subspecies of big sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata: Asteraceae). Canadian Journal of Botany. 76: 567-574.

Richardson, B. A.; Page, J. T.; Bajgain, P.; Sanderson, S. C.; Udall, J.A. 2012. Deep sequencing 

of amplicons reveals widespread intraspecific hybridization and multiple origins of polyploidy in 

big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). American Journal of Botany. 99: 1962-1975.

Publications

Richardson, B. A.; Page, J. T.; Bajgain, P.; Sanderson, S. C.; Udall, J.A. 2012. Deep sequencing 

of amplicons reveals widespread intraspecific hybridization and multiple origins of polyploidy in 

big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). American Journal of Botany. 99: 1962-1975.

http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/42420
22

Presentations

Richardson, B. A.; Shaw, N. L.; Udall, J. A. 2012. Ecological genetics of big sagebrush. Society 

for Range Management Meeting: Rangeland Technology and Equipment Council Workshop:

Establishing sagebrush in semi-arid rangelands. Society for Range Management 65th Annual 

Meeting, 2012 January 28-February 3, Spokane, WA.

Richardson, B.; Udall, J.; Page, J.; Bajgain, P.; Sanderson, S. 2012. Phylogenetics of big 

sagebrush. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 

2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, Utah.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

The molecular genetic research changes the taxonomic paradigm of A. tridentata subspecies. 

Subspecies wyomingensis is not a monophyletic group. Therefore, the manner in which seeds of 

wyomingensis are collected and used in the landscape should be done judiciously until we better 

understand the geographic/ecological distributions and any adaptive differences between 

tetraploid lineages.

Products

 Evaluation of quantitative traits for adaptive responses to climate and development of 

seed zones for big sagebrush subspecies (ongoing)

 Development of e-nose technology for A. tridentata subspecies diagnostics (ongoing). 

This could allow seed warehouse personnel to efficiently detect subspecies differences in 

harvested seed.

 Leveraged funding: National Fire Plan 2009-2012 ($65,000 per year), National Fire Plan 

2013-2016 ($72,000 per year)

 Field tour given during the Society for Ecological Restoration Great Basin Chapter 

meeting, 2013 June 18-19, Ephraim, UT.
23

Project Title Selecting Sagebrush Seed Sources for Restoration in a 

Variable Climate: Ecophysiological Variation among 

Genotypes1

Project Agreement No. 11-IA-11221653-098

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Matthew J. Germino, Supervisory Research Ecologist

U.S. Geological Survey

970 Lusk St

Boise, ID 83706

208.426.3353, Fax 208.426.5210

mgermino@usgs.gov

1

This information is preliminary and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the need for timely best 

science. The information is provided on the condition that neither the U.S. Geological Survey nor the U.S. 

Government may be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of this 

information.

Project Description

Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) communities dominate a large fraction of the United States

and provide critical habitat for a number of wildlife species of concern. Loss of big sagebrush,

due to fire followed by poor restoration success, continues to reduce the ecological potential of 

these ecosystem types, particularly in the Great Basin. Choice of appropriate seed sources for 

restoration efforts is currently unguided due to gaps in knowledge concerning genetic variation 

and local adaptation as they relate to a changing landscape. We are assessing the

ecophysiological responses of big sagebrush to climate variation, comparing plants that 

germinated from ~20 geographically distinct populations of each of the three subspecies of big 

sagebrush, in addition to populations that differ in chromosome number (these provenances are 

also distinct genotypes revealed in molecular phylogenetics by B. Richardson). Major factors 

that influence restoration efforts are sagebrush responses to temperature and water stress in 

addition to whether tetraploidy, as demonstrated in other taxa, confers greater stress resistance. 

These remain important, but unanswered, questions.

Seedlings were previously (in 2010) planted into common gardens in Orchard, ID (normally 

supports Wyoming big sagebrush (A. t. wyomingensis) and basin big sagebrush; A. t. tridentata), 

Ephraim, UT (A. t. tridentata), and Majors Flats, UT (mountain big sagebrush; A. t. vaseyana), 

by U.S. Forest Service (USFS) collaborators Drs. B. Richardson and N. Shaw, (USFS Rocky 

Mountain Research Station, Provo, UT and Boise, ID ) as part of a Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project sponsored study. 

Seed sources spanned all states in the conterminous western United States. Germination, 

establishment, growth and ecophysiological responses are being linked to climate of seed origin, 

genomics, and foliar palatability. New information is being produced to help guide the selection 
24

of appropriate seed sources by Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and USFS field offices 

when they are planning seed acquisitions for emergency post-fire rehabilitation projects in 

consideration of climate variability and wildlife needs. 

Selection of seed sources in the absence of seed zone information typically prioritizes use of 

seeds from the closest geographic settings to the restoration site, based on the assumption of 

local adaptation (i.e., that local seed sources have a superior genetic and thus phenotypic match 

to their local growing environment than distant genotypes). 

Objectives

1. Complete the assessment of basic ecophysiological limitations prevailing over the course 

of a year for established plants in the common garden(s).

2. Determine how ecophysiological performance and key physiological limitation vary 

within subspecies (among seed-source populations) and between subspecies to evaluate 

the assumption that local populations perform better than distant ones.

3. Assess how ecophysiological differences relate to whole-plant growth and survival (i.e. 

establishment success) and whether they can indicate if particular adaptive strategies are 

more or less successful.

4. Compare ecophysiological-climate adaptation in established plants with young 

establishing seedlings, and relate differences in ecophysiology to establishment success 

under different management treatment conditions.

Progress

A year-long campaign of measurements of survival and growth (complementing Dr. Richardon’s 

efforts), shoot morphology, photosynthesis, water relations, and freezing avoidance and 

resistance was completed at the Orchard (ID) common garden. Secondly, photosynthesis and 

water status were measured on nine genotypes common to all three gardens (creating a reciprocal 

design with additional tetraploid populations to test for ploidy effects). Third, instrumentation for 

elemental and isotopic analyses was obtained, set up, tested, and applied to the project. Carbon 

isotopes were measured as a proxy for water-use efficiency, in all plants in all gardens, and 

measured %C and %N in all plants from the Orchard garden, totaling >2500 sample analyses. 

Extensive testing and method development was done for use of water isotopes to determine 

depth of soil water sources (as described as an objective in our 2011 report).

Lastly, starting in August 2012, nearly 2,700 seedlings were reared in containers, using native 

soils and an outdoor setting, for two related efforts. A new experiment was established to 

evaluate seed germination and initial seedling performance for three local genotypes under 

ambient and experimentally warmed conditions in the Birds of Prey National Conservation Area 

(BOP NCA). A total of 750 seedlings were successfully outplanted (bareroot) into these plots. 

Secondly, another 1,760 seedlings from 12 genotypes will be outplanted in 2013 into an 

experiment having large, replicated plots that have been grazed, mowed, seeded, treated with 

herbicide, or a combination of these factors.

Methods

Between 5 and 10 individual plants of nearly 20 populations per each of the three subspecies 

were planted into the Orchard, Ephraim, and Majors Flats common gardens in spring of 2010. 
25

At the initiation of measurements, plants were all >18 months in age and ranged in height from 

0.25 to >1 meter in height; all measurements began in August 2011 and concluded in June, 2012. 

We measured plant water status at pre-dawn by excising shoot tips and determining the negative 

tension of xylem water with a pressure chamber (model 1000, PMS Inc., Corvallis, OR). Soil 

water content is periodically determined using TDR probes (Hydrosense, Campbell Scientific, 

Australia). Photosynthesis and transpiration are measured in the field with a model 6400 portable 

photosynthesis instrument (LiCOR Inc, Lincoln, NE), and stomatal conductance, water-use 

efficiency (WUE, photosynthesis/transpiration), and other derivative parameters were calculated. 

Gas exchange rates were determined on a leaf mass basis, a projected leaf-area basis, and a 

silhouette leaf area basis. Leaf area and mass were determined using digital photography and by 

weighing, following 48 h of drying at 60oC. Chlorophyll fluorescence of dark-adapted leaves was 

measured using a fluorometer (Mini-PAM, Walz, Germany), specifically to determine the ratio 

of variable to maximum fluorescence (Fv/Fm) as an indicator of maximum intrinsic light-use 

efficiency. 

We measured leaf 13C/12C isotope ratios, a time-integrated measure of intrinsic WUE (water-use 

efficiency, = photosynthesis/conductance) on shoot tips collected in May 2012. WUE measured 

with isotopes provides a compliment to WUE measured instantaneously via gas exchange 

(described above), with the latter measure also reflecting aerodynamic and leaf microclimate 

effects. Isotopic analyses were done on a Costech flash combustion EA and Picarro cavity ring 

down spectrometer at the USGS Snake River Field Station. 13C/12C of samples relative to a 

standard (Pee Dee Belemnite) is reported using delta notation, with more negative values 

indicating a sample more depleted in 13C. We compared WUE measures with plant growth and 

survival and with each provenance’s climate of origin (spline model, Rehfeldt 2006). All carbon 

analyses here were led by B. Lazarus at the USGS. 

In August 2012, we sowed seeds of twelve genotypes into cone-tainers filled with native mineral 

soil and placed them in a shady outdoor garden in Boise (Table 1). The selected populations 

provide comparisons of subspecies, local adaptation, genotypes that differ in climate of origin, 

and ploidy. We observed reasonably high germination of 3-year old seed and in November we 

outplanted these to five areas burned in 2012 in the Birds of Prey National Conservation Area 

(the Swan, Coyote, Kave, South Point, and Pen fires). In each burn area, we constructed a 2.4-m 

x 2.4-m passive warming treatment using an open-sided chamber design, which increases 

nighttime plant and soil surface temperatures by several degrees Celsius. Plots were fenced and 

instrumented to measure air temperature in addition to the temperature and water content of the 

soil at several depths.

Preliminary Results 

Water-use Efficiency Indicated by Carbon Isotopes at Orchard, ID 

Only small differences in WUE were evident among subspecies and ploidy levels: WUE was 

lowest in tetraploid A .t. vaseyana and wyomingensis, and greatest in diploid A. t. tridentata and 

vaseyana, Figure 1). There was much greater variation in WUE among provenances (Figure 2)

than among subspecies (Figure 1), i.e., greater variation among populations within a 

subspecies/ploidy level than between subspecies.
26

Table 1. Genotypes (provenances or populations) successfully outplanted and also seeded into 

five 2012 wildfires in the Birds of Prey National Conservation Area. At each wildfire site, 

planting and seeding was done into either control plots or plots that are experimentally warmed 

by passive warming chambers.

Figure 1. Mean (± SE) water use 

efficiency (WUE – determined 

with carbon isotopes) of big 

sagebrush subspecies grown in a 

common garden. Letters denote Ttest separation following 1-way 

ANOVA at alpha = 0.05. Data

produced with. Data produced 

with B. Lazarus.

Provenance State Block in Study Subspecies Climate of OriginPloidy

IDT-2 ID Warmed+Control tridentata Local region 2N

BOP-W ID Warmed+Control wyomingensis Local site 2N

IDV-2 ID Warmed+Control vaseyana Local region 2N

NMT-2 NM Control tridentata Warm/Dry 4N

UTT-1 UT Control tridentata Cool/Wet 2N

IDW-2 ID Control wyomingensis Local 2N

ORT-2 OR Control tridentata Warm/Dry 2N

MTW-3 MT Control wyomingensis Cool/Wet 2N

ORV-1 OR Control vaseyana Cool/Wet 4N

IDW-3 ID Control wyomingensis Warm/Dry 2N

IDV-3 ID Control vaseyana Cool/Wet 2N

CAT-2 CA Control tridentata Warm/Dry 2N

H ig h e r W U E

L o w e r W U E

T rid e n ta ta 2 nT rid e n ta ta 4 n

W y o m in g e n s is 4 n

V a s e y a n a 4 nV a s e y a n a 2 n

   C (p e rm il)

-3 0

-2 9

-2 8

-2 7

A A

A B

B B
27

 

Figure 2. Mean (± SE) WUE of big sagebrush provenances organized by subspecies and ploidy 

levels. Means ± SE are of all plants per provenance in the Orchard garden. 

Tetraploid provenances that originated in warmer climates showed higher WUE (Figure 3). No 

relationship between climate of origin, moisture, or temperature was observed for diploid 

provenances.

v a s e y a n a

(4 n )

w y o m in g e n s is

(4 n )

v a s e y a n a

(2 n )

t rid e n ta ta

(4 n )

t rid e n ta ta

(2 n )

L o w e r W U E H ig h e r W U E



  C (p e rm il) 

-3 2 -3 1 -3 0 -2 9 -2 8 -2 7 -2 6 -2 5 P ro v e n a n c e

N V T *W -1

C A T -2

ID T -3

N V T -2

ID T -1

C A T -1

O R T -3

C O T -1

ID T -2

O R T *W -2

U T T -1

O R T -1

U T T -3

N V T -1

U T T -2

M T T -1

W A T -1

O R T *W -3

O R T -2

A Z 'T -1

W A 'T -2

A Z 'T *W -1

N M 'T -1

N M 'T -2

W Y 'W -1

U T 'W *V -2

C O 'W -1

U T 'W -2

O R 'W -1

ID 'W -2

ID 'W -1

W A 'W -1

W Y 'W -2

U T 'W -1

M T 'W -1

M T 'W -3

M T 'W -2

ID 'W -3

U T 'V -3

C O 'V *W -2

N V 'V -3

O R 'V -1

C A 'V -3

C A 'V -4

N V V -1

ID V -5

ID V -4

C A V -1

N V V -2

C A V *W -3

ID V -2

C A V -2

O R V -2

ID V -3

U T V -1

M T V -1
28

Figure 3. Relationship of WUE determined from carbon isotopes to the temperature of the 

geographic origin of seeds, for tetraploid (4n) provenances. Temperature is represented as the 

number of annual degree days > 50C (a measure of growing season warmth). (Each datum is the 

mean for a provenance (population). Squares are A. t. vaseyana, triangles are A. t. wyomingensis, 

and circles are A. t. tridentata.

Tetraploid provenances with higher WUE were also taller (Figure 4). No such relationship 

existed for diploids. Provenances with higher WUE had a broad mortality range (low-high), 

while those with lower WUE had lower mortality (Figure 5). Although plants from provenances 

that grew taller also had greater WUE, WUE was not positively related to survival, and the 

subspecies considered most drought adapted did not have the greatest WUE. Greater 

physiological variability within compared to among subspecies points to the importance of seed 

origins for restoration, particularly with 4N subspecies like Wyoming big sagebrush. Local 

adaptation in WUE is more prevalent in 4N compared to 2N populations, at least in the Orchard, 

ID common garden. Richardson et al. (2013) suggest that 4N genotypes may have originated 

from 2N mountain and basin big sagebrush. Wyoming big sagebrush in particular appears 

polyphyletic and tending to be derived from local basin or mountain sagebrush. These data thus 

point to a hypothesis that local adaptation has increased during the diversification of big 

sagebrush. 

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

 1 3C (p e rm il)

-3 1

-3 0

-2 9

-2 8

-2 7

H ig h e r W U E

L o w e r W U E

C lim a te o f o rig in d e g re e d a y s > 5 C 

R

2

 = 0 .2 6

p = 0 .0 0 8
29

Figure 4. Relationship 

of shrub height to 

WUE determined from 

carbon isotopes, for 

tetraploid (4n) 

provenances (note that 

diploid provenances 

showed no significant 

relationship for these 

variables). Each datum 

is the mean for a 

provenance. Squares 

are A. t. vaseyana, 

triangles are A. t.

wyomingensis, and 

circles are A. t. tridentata. Figure 5. Relationship 

of survival to WUE 

determined from 

carbon isotopes for all 

subspecies and 

provenances (each 

represented by a 

datum showing the 

respective mean). 

Squares are A. t.

vaseyana, triangles are 

A. t. wyomingensis, 

and circles are A. t.

tridentata. Open 

symbols are tetraploid 

(4n) and closed 

symbols are diploid 

(2n). 

 C (p e rm il)

-3 1 -3 0 -2 9 -2 8 -2 7

H e ig h t (c m )

1 5

3 0

4 5

6 0

L o w e r W U E H ig h e r W U E R 2

 = 0 .3 9

p = 0 .0 0 0 8

L o w e r W U E H ig h e r W U E 

1 3C (p e rm il)

-3 1 -3 0 -2 9 -2 8 -2 7

P ro p o rtio n d e a d

0 .0

0 .2

0 .4

0 .6
30

Test for Local Adaptation in Reciprocal Measurements at All Three Gardens

In June 2012, we performed a test of local ecophysiological adaptation by asking if the 

populations (genotypes) of big sagebrush that were most local to each garden exhibited greater 

ecophysiological performance and less stress response than populations from the other gardens. 

Specifically, Wyoming and basin big sagebrush are the subspecies that naturally occur in the 

Orchard, ID, garden, and we asked if the most local seed source of each (IDW1 and IDT1, 

respectively) had greater performance and less stress than the seed sources of these subspecies 

that were most local to the Ephraim and Majors Flats, UT, gardens (which are relatively close 

together; UTW2, UTT1). The Ephraim garden would support basin big sagebrush if the site were 

in an undisturbed and natural condition, and so we asked if UTT1 had greater performance and 

less stress response than IDT1 in that garden. Mountain big sagebrush is the natural big 

sagebrush type for Major Flats, and there we asked if that seed source (UTV1) had greater 

performance and less stress response than that of the Idaho seed source (IDV2).

Photosynthesis was not greater in local genotypes, in any comparisons made (Figure 6). At the 

Orchard garden, photosynthetic carbon gain was not greater for local genotypes in either 

Wyoming (local = 8.27 ± 0.9, Utah = 8.23± 0.93 μmol m-2s

-1

) or basin big sagebrush (local = 7.1 

± 0.84, Utah = 8.23 ± 1.23 μmol m-2s

-1

). In the Ephraim garden, local basin big sagebrush had 

5.9 ± 2.2 μmol m-2s

-1

compared to 7.4 ± 1.6 μmol m-2s

-1

from the distant Idaho genotype. At 

Majors Flat the local and distant Idaho seed sources did not differ (13.4 ± 2.6 verses 12.9 ± 1.6 

μmol m-2s

-1

), respectively.

We did not observe local genotypes to have greater water status or differences in stomatal 

conductance or transpiration compared to distant genotypes. However, at the Orchard garden, 

local genotypes of Wyoming and basin big sagebrush had 19-25% greater WUE and, associated 

with this, maintained a steeper gradient of [CO2] between the air and inside leaves (by 40 ppm, 

with ambient [CO2] near 400 ppm; p < 0.05 for ANOVA). In the Ephraim and Major Flat 

gardens, there were no differences among local and distant genotypes for any of these 

parameters.

The differences in WUE among local and distant genotypes at Orchard, indicated by direct 

measurement of gas exchange, were not consistent with a lack of differences in WUE as 

measured by carbon isotopes (Figures 2 and 6). The isotopic composition of carbon in plants 

reflects carbon assimilated over long time scales, up to the life of the plant, whereas the gas 

exchange approach is a snapshot of physiology at the time of measurement. In this case, we 

measured gas exchange at the onset of summer drought in midsummer, but carbon is gained by 

sagebrush over much of the year. Thus, key differences in water-use efficiency among genotypes 

may occur mainly during summer.
31

Figure 6. Ecophysiological properties of big sagebrush genotypes measured at the Major Flats 

(blue, left bars in each panel), Orchard (green, right bars in each panel), and Ephraim (red bars) 

gardens in June 2012. Values are means of three to five plants per population (genotype) and 

garden, errors are SE. Units are as described in Table 2.

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

Water 

Potential 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Transpiration

0

200

400

600

800

Ci

0

6

12

18

Photosynthesis

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

Conductance 
32

Test for Ploidy Effects across All Three Gardens

We compared water status, specific leaf area, and photosynthetic performance in three tetraploid 

and three diploid genotypes in each of the three gardens in June 2012 (three to five replicate 

plants per population). We hypothesized that the tetraploid plants would exhibit properties that 

confer greater stress resistance, such as greater WUE (photosynthesis/transpiration) and Ci less 

stomatal conductance, and less specific leaf area. Ci is [CO2] inside leaves and indicates stomatal 

constraints relative to carbon demand, thus affecting WUE. Specific leaf area represents a direct 

tradeoff in photosynthesis (growth) and stress resistance, with lower values generally indicative 

of stress acclimation.

There were no differences between ploidy levels in water potential, photosynthesis, conductance, 

Ci, transpiration, and specific leaf area, which are not consistent with the prediction of greater 

stress resistance in tetraploids (Table 1). There was 15% greater WUE 

(photosynthesis/transpiration) in tetraploids, providing slight support for the prediction.

Table 2. Ecophysiological parameters in tetraploid (4n) and diploid (2n) big sagebrush. Values 

are means of the average values for each genotype in each garden (n = 3 gardens) in June 2012. 

Units are MPa for water potential (measured at pre-dawn), μmol m-2s

-1

for photosynthesis, mol 

m

-2

s

-1

for conductance (stomatal), ppm for Ci ([CO2] inside leaves), mol m-2s

-1

for transpiration, 

and cm2/g for specific leaf area. Statistical significance of differences between the ploidy levels 

according to T-tests are shown on the bottom rows.

Water 

Potential Photosynthesis Conductance Ci Transpiration WUE

Specific 

Leaf Area

4n

AZT1 -1.27 9.07 0.088 187 3.31 2.74 4.04

ORV1 -1.96 7.63 0.072 173 2.92 2.62 4.83

UTV3 -1.53 6.55 0.068 203 3.00 2.18 3.64

mean -1.59 7.75 0.08 188 3.08 2.52 4.17

SE 0.20 0.73 0.01 9 0.12 0.17 0.35

2n

UTT1 -1.27 8.03 0.077 192 3.26 2.46 4.01

IDV2 -1.41 9.69 0.103 194 4.42 2.19 3.81

UTV1 -1.72 7.99 0.103 279 4.04 1.98 4.87

mean -1.47 8.57 0.09 222 3.91 2.19 4.23

SE 0.13 0.56 0.01 29 0.34 0.14 0.33

t -0.55 -0.86 -1.27 1.58 -1.8 4.60 0.2

P 0.32 0.24 0.17 0.12 0.1 0.02 0.47
33

New Sagebrush Seedling Experiment

In November, 4-month old cone-tainer stock were outplanted into plots containing our sagebrush 

genotypes and they demonstrated relatively high initial survival as of December 2012. Prior to 

outplanting in November and following several nighttime frosts and high sunlight exposure, we 

measured chlorophyll fluorescence on all populations. The ratio of variable to maximum 

fluorescence emitted from leaves, Fv/Fm, indicates light-use efficiency and thereby health and 

stress level of leaves (maximum value = 0.8). Lower values of Fv/Fm indicate plant stress. 

Preliminary data from our rearing experiment suggest local adaptation to climate in sagebrush 

seedlings is more evident than in adults (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Photochemical light-use efficiency determined by chlorophyll fluorescence following 

a darkening treatment. Seedlings on 2012 October 25 demonstrated a significant difference in 

Fv/Fm as a result of seed origin, F1,48=8.59, p < 0.01. Adult sagebrush demonstrated no significant 

differences on 2011 November 11, F1,68=1.28, p = 0.26. Data produced with M. Brabec.

Future Plans

We will test the hypothesis that access to deeper and wetter soils improves water status and the 

photosynthesis and growth of the top-performing populations using a stable isotope approach. 

We will match ratios of the stable isotopes of water (D:H and 18O:16O) in the xylem of all 

plants to the same ratios of different water sources (from shallow and deep soils). The isotopic 

composition of water in stem xylem is the same as the water source, so a mixing model can be 

used to determine water source. Accomplishment of these analyses will require some refinement 

of our new Picarro laser spectrometer approach for measuring water isotopes, particularly in 

standardizing the measurements. We hypothesize that top performers will not express a waterefficient strategy, but instead will have an isotopic signature that suggests an advantage of access 

to abundant deep soil water derived from winter and spring rain. 
34

We will measure germination and new seedling responses to the climate treatments that have 

been established in the BOP NCA. We are planning to outplant our remaining seedlings into a 

related USGS/Joint Fire Sciences project in the BOP NCA that has created very large treatments 

of mowing, seeding, grazing, and herbicide application.

Publications

We have just completed the majority of analyses planned on the established common-garden 

plants, and several manuscripts are in preparation for submission in 2013.

Presentations 

Germino, M. J. 2012. Field presentation at the Utah Chapter for Society for Range Management 

and Society for Ecological Restoration Field Tour and Summer Meeting, 2012 June 19, 

Epphraim, UT

Germino, M. J.; Vanderveen, J.; Svenson, L.; Richardson, B. 2012. Differences in ecophysiology 

and climate responses among subspecies and provenances of big sagebrush: implications for seed 

selection. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 

February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines 

Our short-term dataset is still in the preliminary stage, but the analyses may serve a key role in 

helping project long-term likelihood of growth and establishment of plants from different seed 

sources. Sagebrush restoration is increasingly of interest for conservation of sagebrushdependent wildlife, and our results will soon compliment other evidence to begin establishing 

bases for seed-transfer guidelines. Our research is indicating that inferences on sagebrush genetic 

adaptation should be drawn from multiple gardens and be from both young establishing 

seedlings as well as established, mature plants.

Products

 Two substantial efforts to leverage the project were made by the U.S. Geological Survey 

Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center because the research meets a priority 

need for solving landscape-level problems in the Great Basin. 

1) Additional technician salary funds were provided in the form of an equivalent match, 

which is key because there are many plants in the common garden (ca. 450) and the 

measurements and subsequent data management and analyses are time consuming. 

2) Grant funds from the USGS Climate Science Center were applied for and obtained, 

enabling construction of the climate experiment at the BOP NCA.
35

Project Title Evolution of Native Plants in Cheatgrass Invaded 

Systems

Project Agreement No. 10-CR-11221632-104

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Elizabeth A. Leger, Associate Professor

Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, MS 186

University of Nevada Reno, NV 89557-0013

775.784.7582, Fax: 775.784.4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Erin M. Goergen*, Assistant Professor of Biology

Department of Natural Sciences, St. Petersburg College

2465 Drew Street, Clearwater, FL 33765

727.791.2561

goergen.erin@spcollege.edu

Erin K. Espeland, Research Ecologist

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Northern Plains Agricultural 

Research Laboratory

1500 N. Central Ave, Sidney, MT 59270

406.433.9416, Fax: 406.433.5038

erin.espeland@ars.usda.gov

*Current address. Work was conducted under the University of Nevada-Reno agreement.

Project Description

Objectives

While the invasion of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) has resulted in the loss of native plant 

diversity across the Great Basin, there are areas where remnant native plants persist in even 

highly invaded environments. This research was designed to ask if these remnant plants represent 

opportunities for restoration. If they are persisting because of particular traits that are adaptive in 

cheatgrass-invaded environments, they may serve as valuable sources of restoration material.

We examined populations of five common native perennial grass species (Sandberg bluegrass, 

[Poa secunda], big squirreltail [Elymus multisetus], Indian ricegrass [Achnatherum hymenoides],

needle and thread [Hesperostipa comata], and Thurber’s needlegrass [A. thurberianum] from 

four locations where paired invaded/uninvaded sites were found in close proximity, addressing 

the following questions: 1) Which species are the most tolerant of cheatgrass competition? 2) 

Which species exert the strongest competitive effect on cheatgrass? 3) Does native plant 

phenology differ between invaded and uninvaded populations? and 4) Are tolerant and/or 
36

competitive plants present in higher frequencies in invaded compared to uninvaded 

communities?

Methods

Three hundred and twenty adult plants were collected from invaded and uninvaded communities 

from four locations near Reno, Nevada, USA. Each plant was divided in two and transplanted 

into the greenhouse. One clone was grown with cheatgrass while the other was grown alone, and 

we measured tolerance (ability to maintain size) and competitive ability (the ability to reduce 

size of cheatgrass) for each plant (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Competition 

experiment between native 

grasses and cheatgrass. 

These two plants are pieces 

of the same individual, 

collected from the wild and 

divided into two pieces. One 

half (left) was grown alone, 

while the other half (right) 

was grown with competition 

from cheatgrass. Using this 

design, we could determine 

when native species most 

affected the biomass of 

cheatgrass, and which native 

species were the most 

tolerant of competition.

Results

Plants from invaded populations consistently had earlier phenology than those from uninvaded

populations, and in two out of four sites, invaded populations were more tolerant of cheatgrass 

competition than uninvaded populations. Sandberg bluegrass and one population of big 

squirreltail had the strongest suppressive effect on cheatgrass, and these two species were the 

only ones that flowered when grown with cheatgrass. The ability to tolerate competition 

(maintain a large size) was not always related to the ability to suppress cheatgrass, indicating that 

different traits may be involved in tolerance and competitive ability in this system.

Conclusions

Our study indicates that response to cheatgrass is a function of both location and species identity, 

with some, but not all, populations of native grasses showing trait shifts consistent with evolution

in response to cheatgrass invasion within the Great Basin. We found differences in the way 

species and populations of the same species performed with an invasive competitor, indicating 

that carefully choosing restoration plants with desired effects could improve restoration success 

in the Great Basin. Including a mix of species, some which are good at tolerating cheatgrass 

competition and others that are good at suppressing it, may be the most effective way to restore 
37

invaded rangelands. In order to find the most tolerant and/or competitive genotypes in the Great 

Basin, we recommend wide-scale collections be undertaken from heavily invaded areas, as these 

populations may be evolving in response to cheatgrass. Studies have shown similar results with 

other natives responding to exotic invasive competitors (Callaway et al. 2005, Mealor and Hild 

2007, Lau 2008, Leger 2008, Cipollini and Hurley 2008, Ferrero-Serrano et al. 2010). In addition 

to considering adaptation to climatic factors in seed source selection, field performance in highly 

invaded areas should be a criterion for deciding which populations will be used for restoration.

References

Callaway, R. M.; Ridenour, W. M.; Laboski, T.; Weir, T.; Vivanco, J. M. 2005. Natural selection 

for resistance to the allelopathic effects of invasive plants. Journal of Ecology. 93: 576-583.

Cipollini, K. A.; Hurley, S. L. 2008. Variation in resistance of experienced and naive seedlings 

of Jewelweed (Impatiens capensis) to invasive garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata). Ohio Journal 

of Science. 108: 47-49.

Ferrero-Serrano, A.; Hild, A.; Mealor, B. 2010. Can invasive species enhance competitive ability 

and restoration potential in native grass populations? Restoration Ecology. 19:545-551.

Lau, J. A. 2008. Beyond the ecological: Biological invasions alter natural selection on a native 

plant species. Ecology. 89: 1023-1031.

Leger, E. A. 2008. The adaptive value of remnant native plants in invaded communities: An 

example from the Great Basin. Ecological Applications. 18: 1226-1235.

Mealor, B. A.; A. L. Hild. 2007. Post-invasion evolution of native plant populations: a test of 

biological resilience. Oikos. 116:1493-1500.

Products

 Research highlighted in: Ogburn, Stephanie. 2012. Weed Wackers. High Country News. 

September 2012: 16-20.
38

Project Title Globemallow and Big Sagebrush Performance under 

Varying Conditions

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-067 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information

Anthony S. Davis, Assistant Professor of Native Plant

Regeneration and Silviculture

P. O. Box 441133

University of Idaho

Moscow, ID 83844

208.885.7211

asdavis@uidaho.edu

Project Description

Big Sagebrush Seedling Cold Storage

Objectives

Limited information is available on nursery cultural and production practices for big sagebrush 

(Artemisia tridentata). In response to a request from growers of big sagebrush in the 

Intermountain West, a study was designed to investigate seedling overwinter cold storage, which 

is an important component of seedling production that can impact seedling quality. We 

hypothesized that seedling quality after transplanting would not be impacted by storage method, 

but that mold issues were more likely to occur in cooler storage. 

Methods

One hundred seedlings were randomly placed in either refrigerated cooler (2 to 4°C) or freezer 

storage (0 to -2°C). Seedlings were placed in storage for 2 months beginning March 2011. On 

May 2011, seedlings were transplanted into 3.8 L pots containing 2:1 sand: vermiculite and 

watered every 5 days. After 2 months of growth in a greenhouse at the University of Idaho Pitkin 

Forest Nursery, Moscow, Idaho, the study was terminated. Morphological parameters measured 

and calculated included: height growth, root-collar diameter (RCD) growth, shoot volume 

growth (Burdett 1979), and root and shoot dry weights. 

Results and Future Directions

Results of an analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that storage treatment had no effect on any 

of the morphological parameters measured; however seedling mortality was higher for freezerstored seedlings. Based on our results, overwinter storage in a cooler can be recommended for 

big sagebrush seedlings. Freezer storage may inhibit the growth of storage molds, but further 

study is needed to determine the appropriate hardening regimes and lifting dates for this storage 

method. 

Variation in Wyoming big sagebrush

There is limited information on within-subspecies variation of big sagebrush, which is a keystone 

species in Great Basin ecosystems. To address this gap in the literature, two studies were 
39

conducted that evaluated phenotypic variation in Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata

ssp. wyomingensis). 

One study evaluated morphological and physiological differences between seedlings grown from 

seed collected from one mother plant at each of five locations within the range of Wyoming big 

sagebrush. Five 1-year old seedlings were transplanted into 9.63 L pots containing 2:1 sand: 

vermiculite. Height growth, RCD growth, root and shoot volume growth, specific leaf area, and 

seedling dry weights were measured 4 months after transplanting. Biweekly gas exchange 

measurements were also made. Data analysis is forthcoming. 

A second study evaluated the morphological response of transplanted Wyoming big sagebrush 

seedlings to water treatments. Seedlings were grown from seed collected from two mother plants 

at each of five locations within the range of Wyoming big sagebrush. One-year old seedlings 

were randomly placed in either a fully saturated treatment or a “dry” treatment that received 20% 

that amount of water, and were transplanted into 5.05 L pots that were 76.2 cm tall and contained 

2:1 sand: vermiculite. Seedlings in both treatments were watered biweekly. Volumetric water 

content of the soil was monitored throughout the 4-month study. At the end of the study, height 

growth, RCD growth, predawn water potentials, root volume growth, and shoot dry weights were 

measured. To further assess root structure, root dry weights were obtained after roots were 

partitioned into three sections (0-25 cm, 25-50 cm, and greater than 50 cm). Data analysis is 

forthcoming.

Globemallow: Seed Dormancy and Seedling Physiology

Introduction

Munro’s globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana [Douglas] Spach; Malvaceae), an herbaceous 

perennial endemic to the Great Basin, is an important candidate for use in restoration. This 

species tolerates drought, extreme temperatures, and establishes on a variety of soil types. It is an 

effective soil stabilizer, serves as an important host for native pollinators, and is a food source for 

numerous animals (Beale and Smith 1970; Pendery and Rumbaugh 1986; Rumbaugh et al. 1993; 

Pavek et al. 2011). The species’ popularity among growers and land managers has recently 

increased but there is still a lack of information regarding seed dormancy and early seedling 

physiology, making the effective use of the species difficult.

Objectives

1. To understand dormancy mechanisms in seeds of Munro’s globemallow.

2. To evaluate the feasibility and efficiency of various dormancy breaking techniques.

3. To evaluate the morphological and physiological characteristics of Munro’s globemallow

seedlings in response to a range of temperature and moisture conditions during early

establishment.

Seed Dormancy and Germination Trials

Four studies designed to investigate the dormancy mechanisms of Munro’s globemallow seed 

and evaluate the suitability of non-traditional scarification techniques for operational use were 

conducted. Specifically, for the first two experiments, seeds were collected in August 2010 near 

Payette, Idaho (N 43° 52’ 49.6”, W 116° 47’ 01.8”), and kept at 21 ± 1°C to avoid the possibility 

of stratification during refrigerated storage. Experiments three and four used seeds obtained from 
40

native stands throughout the Wasatch mountains of northern Utah (Great Basin Seeds LLC, 

Ephraim, UT) and stored at 1.5 ± 0.5°C. All treatments had five, 50-seed replicates except those 

in experiment one, which had ten 15-seed replicates. 

Experiment 1: To ensure that seeds were indeed physically dormant and evaluate the effects of 

two scarification treatments on increasing seed permeability, we compared seed water uptake 

after exposure to three treatments: 1) control, 2) mechanical scarification with a sharp blade, and 

3) boiling water scarification achieved by a 10-second submergence in 100°C water (Kildisheva 

et al. 2011). Seeds in each replicate were weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg and re-weighted at 1 

hour intervals for 10 hours and once at the end of the 24-hour observation period (GamaArachchige et al. 2010). Seed mass increase, expressed as a mean percentage, was calculated. 

Subsamples of control, mechanically scarified, and boiling water scarified seeds were scanned 

with a scanning electron microscope. To understand the morphological changes in the seed coat 

(i.e., whether the boiling water treatment effectively opened the water gap located in the chalazal 

region of the seed), the chalazal region and the dislodged chalazal cap were observed and 

photomicrographed.

Experiment 2: We compared germination of fresh (recently collected) seeds after exposure to: 1) 

control, 2) mechanical scarification, 3) stratification, or 4) combined scarification + stratification 

treatments. Mechanical scarification procedures were consistent with those mentioned above. 

Seeds were stratified at 4.5 ± 0.02° C for 6 weeks on moistened germination paper inside sealed 

Petri dishes (Kildisheva et al. 2011). 

Experiment 3: In order to evaluate the effects of scarification, water, and gibberellic acid on 

germination we subjected seeds to eight treatments: 1) control; 2) mechanical scarification; soak 

in 100 ppm GA3 solution for 3) 24-h or 4) 48-h; scarification plus 5) 24 h or 6) 48 h soak in DI 

water; and scarification plus 7) 24 h or 8) 48-h soak in 100 ppm GA3 solution (Kildisheva et al. 

2011). 

Experiment 4: To investigate the effects of “non-traditional” scarification which can be 

employed for large-scale seed treatment, we subjected fresh seeds to a 1) control; 2) boiling 

water (10 sec submergence in 100°C); 3) tumbling; 4) burning; 5) dry-heat; or 6) burning + dry 

heat scarification treatments. Seeds were tumble-scarified in a rotary rock tumbler with dry 

aluminum oxide grit for 72 h (Kildisheva 2011; Kildisheva et al., submitted). Following 

tumbling, seeds were separated from grit using a series of sieves (Dreesen 2004). For burning 

scarification, seeds were placed onto a metal mesh screen in a single layer, submerged uniformly 

in 95% ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) for 1 min, placed on a fire-resistant surface, ignited with a handheld butane torch, and allowed to burn for 10 sec before being extinguished with deionized (DI)

water (Sugii 2003; Kildisheva et al., submitted). For dry-heat scarification seeds were subjected 

to 80°C for 60 min (Baskin and Baskin 1997). Seeds in the burning + dry-heat scarification 

treatment were burned first. 

General Findings

Results indicate that Munro’s globemallow seeds are physically dormant due to the 

impermeability of the seed coat and the presence of a cap structure covering the water gap, 

which must be dislodged so imbibition can take place. A significant increase in germination was 

documented across all experiments following scarification. We observed no evidence for 
41

additional dormancy types, with both stratification and GA3 failing to improve germination 

compared to scarification alone. Irrespective of treatment, maximum imbibition was reached 

after 7 h, but mass gain was highest for mechanically scarified seeds. Although mechanical 

scarification and scarification + DI water achieved the highest germination across all studies, 

submergence of seed in boiling water resulted in 49% germination and can be a feasible method 

for operational seed treatment. 

Influence of Various Temperature and Moisture Regimes on Early Establishment and Growth of 

Munro’s Globemallow 

Munro’s globemallow seeds were collected from five locations throughout Oregon and Idaho, 

bulked, mechanically scarified to break dormancy, and sown into 66 ml containers (Model 

RLC4, Stuewe and Sons, Inc., Tangent, OR, U.S.A.) (Kildisheva et al. 2011; Kildisheva and 

Davis, in preparation). Following germination, a one-time application of 18-24-16 (N-P-K) 

fertilizer (Water Soluble Rose Plant Food, Scotts Co., Marysville, OH, U.S.A.) was administered 

to all containers at a rate of 3.8 mg N per plant. Treatments included four moisture (3-, 6-, 9- and 

12-day intervals between recharging each container to field capacity) and two diurnal 

temperature (17/3°C or 23/9°C) treatments. Each temperature x moisture treatment combination 

was randomly assigned to 20 seedlings that remained under these growing conditions for 25 

days. Mortality, physiological (photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration), as well 

as morphological (number of true leaves, leaf area, above- and below-ground biomass, and rootto-shoot ratios) assessments were made at the end of the 25-day period. 

Under the tested scenarios, low temperatures (17/3°C) impeded plant growth, largely due to a 

reduction in the belowground growth. Root growth was influenced by moisture availability and 

temperature, but under cool conditions the temperature influence surpassed the influence of 

moisture. Plants grown under the warmest, driest conditions (23/9°C and 12-day irrigation 

interval) reduced shoot but increased root production. None of the tested gas exchange

parameters were significantly affected by the imposed temperature and moisture conditions. Our 

findings suggest that even during early establishment, seedlings of Munro’s globemallow are 

drought tolerant. It seems reasonable to assume that because cool night temperatures inhibit 

growth to a greater extent than the reduction in moisture, a later sowing date (analogous to 

23/9°C diurnal conditions) may enhance the establishment of Munro’s globemallow (Kildisheva 

2011; Kildisheva and Davis, in preparation).

Future Research Recommendations

 Trials with boiling water and other forms of scarification are necessary to further improve 

the germination and seed handling practices of Munro’s globemallow seeds.

 Because seeds that were previously stored germinated better, it is essential to understand 

which factors (environmental conditions during seed set, seed moisture content, storage 

temperature and duration, or additional cleaning procedures) caused this germination 

improvement.

 Although boiling scarification was effective at breaking dormancy and is an appealing 

option for operational use, it is still unclear whether seeds could be treated prior to planting 

and stored for a period of time, without a loss of viability. It is also unclear how pre-treated 

seeds will respond following planting, especially if growing conditions are not favorable 

for establishment at sowing time.
42

 Field observations which evaluate plant responses to environmental conditions during the 

entire life cycle are necessary. 

References

Baskin, J. M.; Baskin, C. C. 1997. Methods of breaking seed dormancy in endangered species 

Iliamna corei (Sherff) (Malvaceae), with special attention to heating. Natural Areas Journal. 17: 

313-323.

Beale, D. M.; Smith, A. D. 1970. Forage use, water consumption, and productivity of prongron 

antelope in western Utah. Journal of Wildlife Management. 34: 570-578.

Burdett, A. N. 1979. A non-destructive method for measuring the volume of intact plants. 

Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 9: 120-122.

Dreesen, D. R. 2004. Tumbling for seed cleaning and conditioning. Native Plants Journal. 5: 52-

54.

Gama-Arachchige, N. S.; Baskin, J. M.; Geneve, R. L.; Baskin, C. C. 2010. Identification and 

characterization of the water gap in physically dormant seeds of Geraniaceae, with special 

reference to Geranium carolinianum. Annals of Botany. 105: 977-990.

Kildisheva, O. A. 2011. Restoration strategies for a native perennial: germination and seedling 

physiology of Sphaeralcea munroana. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. Thesis. 78 p.

Kildisheva, O. A.; Davis, A. S. [In preparation]. Temperature and moisture influence on early 

growth of Sphaeralcea munroana seedlings. 

Kildisheva, O. A.; Davis, A. S.; Dumroese, R. K. 2011. Overcoming dormancy and enhancing 

germination of Sphaeralcea munroana seeds. HortScience 46: 1672–1676. 2011. University of 

Idaho, Moscow, ID.

Kildisheva, O. A.; Davis, A. S.; Dumroese, R. K. [Submitted]. Boiled, tumbled, burned, and 

heated: seed scarification techniques for Munro's globemallow. Native Plants Journal.

Pavek, P. L. S.; Cane, J. H.; Kildisheva, O. A.; Davis, A. S. 2011. Plant guide for Munro’s 

globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana). Pullman, WA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service. 5 p.

Pendery, B. M.; Rumbaugh, M. D. 1986. Globemallows: forbs for Utah rangelands. Utah 

Science 47: 41-45.

Rumbaugh, M. D.; Mayland, H. F.; Pendery, B. M.; Shewmaker, G. E. 1993. Utilization of 

globemallow (Sphaeralcea) taxa by sheep. Journal of Range Management. 46: 103-109.

Sugii, N. C. 2003. Flaming Fabaceae - using an alcohol flame to break seed dormancy. Native 

Plants Journal. 4: 46-47.
43

Publications

Kildisheva, O. A.; Davis, A. S.; Dumroese, R. K. [Submitted]. Boiled, tumbled, burned, and 

heated: seed scarification techniques for Munro's globemallow. Native Plants Journal.

Kildisheva, O. A.; Davis, A. S. [Submitted]. Temperature and moisture influence on early 

growth of Sphaeralcea munroana seedlings. Ecological Restoration.

Overton, E. C.; Pinto, J. R.; Davis, A. S. [Submitted]. Insights into big sagebrush seedling 

storage practices. Native Plants Journal.

Presentations

Overton, E. C.; Davis, A. S. 2011. Enhancing native plant seedling handling practices using 

forest nursery methods. Society of American Foresters National Convention, 2011 November 2-

6, Honolulu, HI.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines 

Information on big sagebrush seedling overwinter storage can be used by Growers to aid in the 

production of high quality seedlings, which may limit mortality at outplanting. 

Evaluating trait variation in Wyoming big sagebrush can aid in understanding of differences in 

growth patterns that may occur between populations on the landscape.

 

Munro’s globemallow seeds exhibit physical dormancy, which is best relieved by mechanical

(93%) or boiling water (49%) scarification. Additional cleaning and dry cold storage may benefit 

seed germination.

Munro’s globemallow shows considerable potential for restoration use on arid sites, but is 

negatively affected by low temperatures( ≤ 17/3°C), which could make it a poor competitor with 

cool season grasses during the establishment phase. 

As a result of growth reduction due to cool temperatures, a later sowing date may improve 

establishment in nurseries, seed production areas, and restoration sites.

Products

 Presentations were given at seedling grower meetings to share the information on refining 

cultural practices for the growth and storage of big sagebrush seedlings. This information 

has also been submitted for publication in Native Plants Journal.
44

Project Title Banking Wyoming Big Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata

ssp. wyomingensis) Seed

Project Agreement No. 12-IA-11221632-149

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Robert Karrfalt, Director

USDA-Forest Service National Tree Seed Laboratory

5675 Riggins Mill Road

Dry Branch, GA 31020

478.751.3551, Fax 478.751.4135

rkarrfalt@fs.fed.us

Victor Vankus, Botanist

USDA-Forest Service National Tree Seed Laboratory

5675 Riggins Mill Road

Dry Branch, GA 31020

478.751.3551, Fax 478.751.4135

vvankus@fs.fed.us

Project Description

National Seed Laboratory Overview

The National Seed Laboratory (NSL), Dry Branch, GA, is developing seed cleaning, testing and 

storage protocols for species selected by the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project. The NSL has a complete range of seed cleaning equipment so that manipulations of raw 

seed of almost any species can be performed in order to produce clean seed of high viability. 

Germination is tested over a range of temperatures and the data analyzed by response surface 

analysis to find the optimum combination of light and temperatures for optimum germination. 

Seed storage studies are done using the new technology of equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) 

to assess seed moisture conditions. Training and information is also offered in workshops and 

conference presentations.

Banking Wyoming Big Sagebrush Seed

Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) seed supplies are variable and tentative in any year because 

they are collected from wild stands influenced by interannual variability in environmental 

conditions. In addition, viability of big sagebrush seed declines rapidly in warehouse storage. 

Because of increasing demand for large quantities of site-adapted Wyoming big sagebrush seed 

for uses including post-fire rehabilitation and sage-grouse habitat improvement is increasing, 

improved techniques for maintaining the viability of seed harvested in good production years is 

needed to provide more economical and genetically appropriate seed supplies.

To examine this problem, we procured five commercially produced seed lots of Wyoming big 

sagebrush from the Great Basin. Portions of each lot were cleaned to low (15-27%) or high (66-
45

80%) purity and stored under various combinations of temperature (20, 2, -8 or -20oC) and 

equilibrium relative humidity (ERH; 30, 40, 50 or 70%) for 5 y in 6-mil polybags (Karrfalt and 

Vankus 2009; Karrfalt and Shaw, in press). See Figure 5 for correlation of ERH with seed 

moisture content. Purity, ERH and storage temperature were all important factors to successful 

seed storage as determined by germination tests (AOSA 2011) conducted following 3, 6, 15, 29, 

41 and 60 months of storage (Figs. 1-2; Karrfalt and Shaw, in press). Results show that

germination was maintained for at least 60 months when high purity seed was dried to 30% 

ERH, sealed in moisture proof containers and kept frozen at temperatures <8

oC. Low purity 

seeds were mostly nonviable after about 24 months of storage at any ERH and temperature 

combination (data not shown). Because they can deteriorate rapidly, Wyoming big sagebrush 

seeds should be dried, cleaned, and placed in storage soon after harvest. Figure 3 provides a 

conversion from the more commonly used percent seed moisture to ERH; ERH is a useful 

measure because it precludes having to dry and weigh the seed.

References

AOSA [Association of Official Seed Analysts]. 2011. Rules for testing seeds. AOSA Inc., Ithaca, 

NY. 307 p. 

Colas, F.; Baldet, P.; Bettez, M. 2010. Water activity measurement: demonstration of a single 

and non-specific optimal storage value for orthodox forest seeds. International Seed Testing 

Association Congress, 2010 June 16–20, Köln, Germany. 

http://cemadoc.irstea.fr/oa/PUB00031002-water-activity-measurement-demonstration-singlean.html

Karrfalt, R. P. 2010. Equilibrium relative humidity as a tool to monitor seed moisture. In: Riley,

L. E., Pinto, J. R., Dumroese, R. K., technical coordinators. National Proceedings: Forest and 

Conservation Nursery Associations—2009. Proc. RMRS-P-62. Fort Collins, CO, USDA Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 43-45. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p062.html.

Karrfalt, R. P.; Shaw, N. [In press]. Banking Wyoming big sagebrush seeds. Native Plants 

Journal.

Karrfalt, R. P.; Vankus, V. 2009. Development of germination protocols, seed weight, purity and 

seed conditioning/cleaning protocols for Great basin grasses and forbs. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 113-116. 

Publications

Karrfalt, R. P.; Shaw, N. [In press]. Banking Wyoming big sagebrush seeds. Native Plants 

Journal.
46

Figure 1. The effect of storage temperature on the germination of Wyoming big sagebrush seeds 

sealed in 6-mil poly bags at A. 70% ERH (equilibrium relative humidity), B. 50% ERH, C. 40% 

ERH, and D. 30% ERH.

A B

C D
47

Figure 3. The relationship of seed moisture for Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis to 

equilibrium relative humidity (ERH).

Presentations

Karrfalt, R. P. 2012. Wyoming big sagebrush: 5-year seed storage results. Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting. 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, Salt 

Lake City, Utah.

Karrfalt, R. P. 2012. Banking Artemisia tridentata spp. wyomingensis seeds. 65th Annual 

Meeting of the Society of Range Management, 2012 January 29-February 3, Spokane, WA.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

By following the recommendations from this seed storage study, seeds of Artemisia tridentata

spp. wyomingensis seeds can be successfully stored for at least 5 years. Use of this procedure 

reduces bulk and permits storage of multiple seed sources in good production years, increasing 

the availability of seed from across the area of concern to meet unpredictable seed source needs. 

Seed acquisition can be conducted in a more orderly, cost effective manner.

Products

 Wyoming big sagebrush seed storage protocol: Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata spp. wyomingensis) seeds can be stored without loss of viability for at least 5 

years when seeds are cleaned to a purity of > 66%, dried to 30% ERH, sealed in 6-mil poly 

bags to maintain the low moisture content, and stored at -8 to -20oC (or lower).

y = 7E-05x3 - 0.0071x2 + 0.2975x + 2.409

R2 = 0.9899

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

16.0

18.0

20.0

22.0

24.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

% Seed Moisture

Equilibrium Relative Humidity

Storage ERH of this study
48

Project Title Modeling Seedling Root Growth of Great Basin Species

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-056

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Bruce A. Roundy, Professor Range Science

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept., 275 WIDB

Brigham Young University

Provo, UT 84602

801.422.8137, Fax 801.422.0008

bruce_roundy@byu.edu

Kert Young, Post-doctoral Research Associate

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept., 275 WIDB

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602

801.422.4133

youngke1@msn.com

Nathan Cline, Ph.D. Candidate Research Associate

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept., 275 WIDB

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602

801.422.4133

ncline1@gmail.com

Project Description

This work is designed to model seedling root growth of revegetation species using thermal 

accumulation. Plant scientists have sought to select plant materials for revegetation of rangelands 

based on physiological and morphological characteristics which allow establishment under 

conditions of limiting temperatures and available water for plant growth. Thermal and 

hydrothermal models have been used to predict germination under the environmental conditions 

of rangelands (Rawlins 2009; Meyer and Allen 2009; Hardegree et al. 2010). However, low 

seedling survival limits revegetation success on rangelands, even if seeds germinate. Using a 

thermal accumulation model to predict seedling root growth would allow us to assess the 

potential for seedlings to survive under a range of field conditions and possibly suggest 

opportunities for plant improvement.

Objectives

1. Develop thermal accumulation models for seedling root penetration for forbs, grasses, and 

cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum).

2. Test the ability of thermal models to predict root depth under diurnal temperatures in the 

growth chamber and in the field.

3. Use thermal models and soil water and temperature data from stations in the Great Basin to 

predict seedling root growth and survival for dry to wet years.
49

Growth Chamber Study

We measured seedling root depths over time for six forbs, five perennial grasses, and three 

cheatgrass collections (Table 1) in relation to constant temperatures in a walk-in growth 

chamber. The experiment was organized in a randomized block design of four blocks and two 

soils in a walk-in growth chamber. Black plexiglass holders were constructed to hold 70 clear 

plastic root tubes (five replicates x 14 collections), each 2.5-cm in diameter by 20-cm long. Each 

block contained two plexiglass holders, one with tubes filled with sand and the other with tubes 

filled with Borvant gravelly loam soil passed through a 0.6-cm screen. The holders kept the tubes 

slanted at a 45° angle, which minimized root exposure to light. For each of six constant 

temperatures runs (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30° C), three seeds of a collection were sown 0.5 cm 

below the soil surface against the lower side of each planting tube. Prior to sowing, Utah 

milkvetch seeds were scarified in sulfuric acid for 15 minutes followed by stratification at 1.5° C 

for 2 weeks with squirreltail seeds. Time to germination was recorded in petri dishes filled with 

25 seeds of each collection and placed on racks below the root experiment in the incubation 

chamber. Tubes were checked 6 days per week and the depth of the deepest root was recorded. 

Soil temperatures were measured with six thermocouples per block placed into the ends of root 

tubes and attached to a CR10X micrologger (Campbell Scientific, Inc., Logan, UT). 

Temperatures were read each minute, and average hourly temperatures were recorded. At the end 

of each temperature run, one tube of each collection per block was harvested and dry weight of 

the root biomass was recorded. The entire experiment was also conducted at three diurnal 

temperatures based on cold, cool, and warm soil temperatures recorded in the field. We will 

compare actual root depths with those predicted from thermal accumulation models.

Table 1. Plant materials tested in root study.

Scientific name Common name Release Source

Collection 

date

Forbs Achillea millefolium Eagle yarrow Eagle Eastern WA 2003

Achillea millefolium White yarrow

WhiteVNS Granite Seed 2003

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris USFS Shrub lab12007

Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch USFS Shrub lab12002

Linum perenne Blue flax ‘Appar’ UDWR22003

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine

Wells, NV; 

UDWR22004

Perennial 

grasses

Agropyron cristatum x A. 

desertorum

Crested 

wheatgrass ‘Hycrest’ UDWR22003

Agropyron desertorum

Crested

wheatgrass ‘Nordan’ Granite Seed 2003

Elymus elymoides Squirreltail Sanpete UDWR22003

Elymus wawaiensis

Snake River 

wheatgrass ‘Secar’ WA; Granite Seed 2003

Pseudoroegneria spicata 

ssp. spicata

Bluebunch 

wheatgrass Anatone Granite Seed 2003

Weedy 

grasses Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Rush Valley, UT 2005

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT 2007

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT 2008

1USFS Shrub Lab: U.S. Forest Service Provo Shrub Sciences Lab, Provo, UT

2UDWR: Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, UT
50

Field Experiment

The same experiment as described above was conducted at two locations in Utah for 2 years 1) 

on the Brigham Young University (BYU) campus, and 2) on the east side of the Onaqui 

Mountains in a Utah juniper/Wyoming big sagebrush plant community where the juniper trees 

have been shredded. In the field experiment the first year, natural precipitation watered root 

tubes. In the second year, root tubes were watered weekly as needed during the growing season. 

Emergence and root depth were recorded five times per week at the BYU campus and at least 

monthly at the Onaqui site. Thermocouples and gypsum blocks were placed in each block in the 

field outside root tubes, but inside soil or sand surrounding tubes. These sensors were read every 

minute and hourly averages recorded with CR10X microloggers.

Modeling

The first step to model or predict days to 15-cm root depth is to model daily root depth as a 

function of constant temperature. A root depth of 15-cm was selected because we were interested 

in seedling establishment, most roots are in the top portion of the soil profile, and we already 

have many thermocouples buried in the field at 15-cm. Second, solve the modeled daily root 

depth equation at 15-cm root depth to derive the number of days to 15-cm root depth. Third, 

invert the number of days to 15-cm root depth. The sum of daily inverses serves as an indicator 

of progress toward the goal of 15-cm root depth. The goal of 15-cm root depth has been achieved 

on average when the sum of the inverses equals 1. The inverse of the mean number of days to 

15-cm root depth for each constant temperature is used as input into TableCurve2D software, 

which fits a non-linear equation to the data. This non-linear equation is the temperature response 

curve used to predict days to 15-cm root depth in diurnal temperature or field root trials. Most 

species temperature response curves had an R

2

greater than 0.9 and all species temperature 

response curves had an R2greater than 0.7, except for Utah milkvetch with an R

2

of 0.47. Days 

to 15-cm root depth are converted to degree days to 15-cm root depth by summing the daily 

average temperatures for each day of a root trial until the 15-cm root depth has been achieved. 

For example, if it took a species 80 days to achieve 15-cm root depth at a constant 7°C, then 

adding the mean daily temperatures of 7°C for 80 days would equal 560 degree days.

Project Status

Growth Chamber Experiment

We conducted all six of the constant temperature runs and all three of the diurnal temperature 

runs in the growth chamber. The statistical results of the experiments so far are as follows:

Actual vs. Predicted for Diurnal Root Trial 4-12°C:

In comparing actual versus predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in diurnal root trial 4-

12°C, predicted degree days showed a slightly greater trend than actual degree days (Figures 1 

and 2). In sand, squirreltail and Nordan predicted degree days were greater than actual. In soil, 

Secar, squirreltail, and longspur lupine predicted degree days were significantly greater than their 

actual degree days. These differences among predicted and actual degree days can be used to 

adjust future model predictions.

Actual vs. Predicted for Diurnal Root Trial 9-17°C:

In sand for diurnal trial 9-17°C, there were no significant differences except in predicted 

squirreltail, which required more degree days than actual (Figure 3). In soil for diurnal trial 9-
51

17°C, all of the species’ predicted values were greater than their actual values except for 

cheatgrass 2005 (Cheat05), cheatgrass 2007 (Cheat07), annual agoseris, and flax (Figure 4).

Sand vs. Soil Actual for Diurnal Root Trial 4-12°C:

For comparing actual sand versus soil degree days in diurnal trial 4-12°C, the grasses required 

more degree days to reach 15-cm root depth in sand than in soil except for Secar, which grew 

equally well in sand and soil perhaps because of inherent slower root penetration (Figure 5). 

Most of the forbs did not achieve 15-cm root depths in sand. The reduced rate of root depth in 

sand was likely due to lower nutrient availability, although other variables probably had an 

influence. Sand versus soil texture and nutrient availability will be analyzed at a later date.

Sand vs. Soil Actual for Diurnal Root Trial 9-17°C:

In diurnal root trial 9-17°C, all grass species required more thermal time in sand than in soil 

except for squirreltail (Figure 6). Most of the forb roots did not achieve 15-cm root depth in 

sand.

Inter-species Comparisons for Diurnal Root Trial 4-12°C:

For inter-species comparisons in sand for root trial 4-12°C, squirreltail required more degree 

days than Nordan and Cheat05 otherwise, there were no inter-species differences in sand. 

Comparing across species in soil, flax required more degree days than any other species. The 

invasive annuals required fewer degree days than all of the forbs and the perennial grasses Secar 

and Hycrest. Annual agoseris required more degree days than all of the grasses except Secar and 

Hycrest. The general trend across species in soil was that annual grasses required the least 

amount of thermal time, forbs required the most thermal time, and perennial grasses were 

intermediate. Secar was quite slow for a grass.

Inter-species Comparisons for Diurnal Root Trial 9-17°C:

For inter-species comparisons in sand for the 9-17°C root trial, there were few significant 

differences, but Cheat05 did require fewer degree days than bluebunch wheatgrass. For interspecies comparisons in soil, flax required the most degree days of any species. Cheat05 and 

(Cheat08) required fewer degree days than annual agoseris, Utah milkvetch, longspur lupine, and 

squirreltail. 

As expected, cheatgrass roots grew the fastest at cool temperatures. However, the crested 

wheatgrasses and bluebunch wheatgrass definitely grew well enough to compete with cheatgrass. 

The importance of faster root growth to establishment is suggested by comparing the heat 

accumulation requirement of the forbs and that of the grasses. Forbs are known to not establish 

as well as grasses in rangeland revegetation projects. Blue flax, one of the most successfullyseeded forbs requires about 700-800 degree days to reach 15-cm root depth, while bluebunch 

wheatgrass requires 250-350 (Figure 2). SageSTEP data from four Great Basin pinyon-juniper 

locations for 2 years were used to calculate wet degree days in spring 2008 and 2009. Degree day 

accumulations when the soil is wet ranged from around 300 in early spring (March and April) to 

around 700 in late spring (May and June). As long as soil moisture is available from March into 

June, robust plants of both forbs and grasses should establish because they will have sufficient 

wet degree days for root growth. However, if soil moisture becomes unavailable by May in a dry 

year, even robust forbs might not establish because they may have insufficient wet degree days 
52

to grow their roots and keep them below the soil drying front. The details of just how many wet 

degree days are available under different field conditions in relation to how many are needed for 

successful establishment will become better understood with specific modeling exercises and 

field validation tests. 

What appears to be a major concern for successful establishment of forbs is the lack of robust 

plants. Occurrence of some vigorous forb plants indicates potential for plant improvement. Such 

plant improvement work could potentially increase forb establishment success.

Field Experiments

We have conducted the field root trials at both BYU campus and the east side of Onaqui 

Mountain for 2 years. We are currently analyzing these data.

Characterization of Establishment Environment

We derived several seasonal variables to characterize the soil temperature and plant available 

water in seedbeds, including wet thermal time and percentage of time at seven temperature 

ranges, frost and frost-free days, and wet period duration. Thus far, we addressed a concern that 

germination timing response at extreme warm (> 30°C) and cool (< 5°C) temperature ranges 

have high variability and may require further investigation if a large sum of thermal time occurs 

at those temperatures. Our preliminary results indicate that a minority of time is spent at the 

temperature ranges of concern. As a result, germination prediction models based on the 

summation of thermal time should be valid (Rawlins et al. 2012b). 

Future Work and Research Perspective

We have conducted all of our experimental work for this grant and continue to analyze data and 

prepare publications. The current research is part of an ongoing research program to better 

understand how seedling establishment relates to environmental conditions and plant growth 

characteristics (Table 2). Additional future work will continue to characterize the establishment 

environment using measurements from 170 soil moisture stations and predict establishment 

success for specific sites, weather scenarios, and plant materials using the germination and 

seedling root growth models we have developed.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

An important application of thermal accumulation modeling is to predict which seeded species 

are most likely to establish given site specific soil temperature and moisture patterns and 

interspecies interference. As plants have to establish in communities, rates of root depth by 

invasive weeds influence the duration of resource availability to other species through resource 

preemption as the soil dries down from spring into summer. Knowing which species are most 

likely to establish on a site should save money by avoiding the planting of species that are not 

likely to establish on certain sites. Thermal accumulation modeling can also serve as a cultivar 

development tool to enable selection for more consistent and vigorously establishing native 

plants.
53

Table 2. Schedule and status of research phases to predict seed germination and seedling 

establishment in the Great Basin.

Research phase Past and current 

work

Major findings Published or planned 

publications 

Characterize 

seedbed 

environment

Soil moisture and 

temperature 

measurements from 30 

sagebrush/bunchgrass, 

pinyon-juniper, crested 

wheatgrass, and 

cheatgrass sites and 170 

stations in the Great 

Basin

Soil moisture and 

temperatures fluctuate much 

more at 1-3 cm in the 

germination zone than 13-30 

cm deep in the seedling 

establishment zone. Wet 

degree days accumulate 

fastest in spring, only slightly 

in winter, and erratically in 

fall as a function of timing 

and amount of precipitation. 

The number of days when the 

soil is wet and within certain

temperature ranges has been 

determined for two sites and 

is being determined for the 

other sites.

Published: 

Chambers et al. 2007; 

Roundy et al. 2007; Rawlins 

et al. (2012b).

In preparation or submitted: 

Young, et al. Effects of 

shredding Utah juniper on 

soil moisture and 

temperature (submitted). 

Cline et al. The germination 

environment of Great Basin 

seedbeds

Cline et al. Soil moisture 

availability and temperature 

of the seedling root zone in 

the Great Basin 

Roundy et al.(2007) Piñonjuniper reduction effects on 

soil temperature and water 

availability of the resource 

growth pool. (Submitted)

Develop models of 

germination and 

seedling growth

Roundy’s lab developed 

germination models for 

14 collections while 

Hardegree’s lab 

developed models for 

numerous desirable 

species collections and 

weed collections.

Roundy’s lab developed 

root growth models for 

14 collections. 

Timing of germination can be 

predicted in relation to 

accumulated time and 

temperature above a threshold 

temperature for non-dormant 

seed lots. The models work 

best at moderate 

temperatures.

Seminal root growth or time 

for roots to reach a soil depth 

can be predicted similarly, but 

will vary with other variables 

besides soil moisture and 

temperature, such as soil 

texture and nutrient 

availability.

Published: Roundy et al. 

2007, Rawlins (2012a).

Hardegree et al. (2013) 

In preparation:

Young et al. Thermal 

accumulation modeling of 

seedling root depth.

Compare modeled 

and actual responses 

in lab and field

Roundy’s lab has 

compared predicted and 

actual timing of 

germination under 

simulated field seedbed 

temperatures in the lab 

and in field seedbeds for 

Thermal accumulation tends 

to overestimate time required 

to germinate seed 

subpopulations, but is 

accurate enough for field 

predictions. Wet thermal 

accumulation models using 

Published: Rawlins et al 

(2012a,b)

In preparation:

Young et al. Field 

prediction of seedling root 

depth using a wet-thermal 
54

Research phase Past and current 

work

Major findings Published or planned 

publications 

2 sites and 2 years. continuous thermal 

accumulation and a wet 

threshold of -1.5 MPa water 

potential best predicted 

germination in the field. 

Accuracy was 80% or greater 

for most collections in late 

winter to spring.

Data from field and 

laboratory comparisons of 

predicted and actual seedling 

root depth is being analyzed.

accumulation model.

Extend predictions 

to a range of plant 

materials, 

environments, and 

land treatments

Roundy et al. (2007) 

Cheatgrass germination 

prediction analysis for 9 

sites in Great Basin.

Cline is currently 

preparing a germination 

prediction analysis of 32 

plant materials for 30 

sites and across a range 

of years and treatments, 

such as prescribed fire 

and mechanical brush or 

tree control.

Roundy, Young, and 

Cline will eventually 

extend the germination 

and root growth model 

predictions to 30 sites 

across the Great Basin to 

predict probability of 

seedling mortality.

In an analysis of cheatgrass 

germination potential for 9 

sites and 4 years (36 siteyears) Roundy et al. (2007) 

found that cheatgrass had 

high germination potential in 

spring, low potential in winter 

and high potential in fall 

when rains occurred before 

temperatures decreased to 

near freezing. 

Published:

Roundy et al. (2007)

In analysis and preparation:

Cline et al. Potential 

germination of weed and 

revegetation species in the 

Great Basin I: Effects of 

seasonal weather, site 

characteristics, and 

treatments.

Cline et al. Potential 

germination of weed and 

revegetation species in the 

Great Basin II: Seedlot 

comparison.

Roundy or TBA et al. 

Predicting seedling 

mortality from thermal 

accumulation models of 

germination and root 

growth.

References

Chambers, J. C.; Roundy, B. A.; Blank, R. R.; Meyer; S. E.; Whittaker, A. 2007. What makes 

Great Basin sagebrush ecosystems invasible by Bromus tectorum? Ecological Monographs. 77:

117-145.

Hardegree, S. P.; Moffet, C. A.; Roundy, B. A.; Jones, T. A.; Novak, S. J.; Clark, P. E.; Pierson, 

F. B.; Flerchinger, G. N. 2010. A comparison of cumulative-germination response of cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum L.) and five perennial bunchgrass species to simulated field-temperature 

regimes. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 69: 320-327.
55

Hardegree, S. P.; Moffet, C. A.; Flerchinger, G. N.; Cho, J.; Roundy, B. A.; Jones, T. A.; James, 

J. J.; Clark, P. E.; Pierson, F. B. 2013. Hydrothermal assessment of temporal variability in 

seedbed microclimate. Rangeland Ecology and Management 66: 127-135.

Meyer, S. E.; Allen, P. S. 2009. Predicting seed dormancy loss and germination timing for 

Bromus tectorum in a semi-arid environment using hydrothermal time models. Seed Science 

Research. 19: 225-239.

Rawlins, J. K. 2009. Wet thermal accumulation modeling of germination of western U.S. 

rangeland species. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 48 p. Thesis. 

Rawlins, J. K.; Roundy, B. A.; Davis, S. M.; Egget, D. 2012a. Predicting germination in semiarid seedbeds. I. Thermal germination models. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 76: 60-

67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2011.10.003

Rawlins, J. K.; Roundy, B. A.; Egget, D.; Cline, N. 2012b. Predicting germination in semi-arid 

wildland seedbeds II. Field validation of wet-thermal models. Environmental and Experimental 

Botany. 76: 68-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2011.10.004

Roundy, B. A.; Hardegree, S. P.; Chambers, K. C.; Whittaker, A. 2007. Prediction of cheatgrass 

field germination using wet thermal accumulation. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 60: 

613-623.

Presentations

Cline, N. L.; Roundy, B. A. 2012. Soil temperature and available soil water characterization of 

sagebrush steppe seedbeds in the Great Basin. Society of Range Management 65th Annual

Meeting, 2012 January 29- February 3, Spokane, WA.

Cline, N. L.; Roundy, B. A. 2012. Germination prediction from soil moisture and temperature in 

the Great Basin. Society of Range Management 65th Annual Meeting, 2012 January 29- February 

3, Spokane, WA.

Roundy, B.; K. Young, K.; N. Cline, N.; Hardegree, S.; Rawlins, J. 2012. Environmental effects 

on seedling establishment. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual 

Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, Utah.

Publications

Rawlins, J. K.; Roundy, B. A.; Davis, S. M.; Egget, D. 2012a. Predicting germination in semiarid seedbeds. I. Thermal germination models. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 76: 60-

67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2011.10.003

Rawlins, J. K.; Roundy, B. A.; Egget, D.; Cline, N. 2012b. Predicting germination in semi-arid 

wildland seedbeds II. Field validation of wet-thermal models. Environmental and Experimental 

Botany. 76: 68-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2011.10.004
56

Figure 1. Actual verses predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in sand for the growth chamber diurnal root trial 4-12°C. Asterisk 

(*) indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.

56
57

Figure 2. Actual verses predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in soil for the growth chamber diurnal root trial 4-12°C. Asterisk 

(*) indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.

57
58

Figure 3. Actual verses predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in sand for the growth chamber diurnal root trial 9-17°C. Asterisk 

(*) indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.

58
59

Figure 4. Actual verses predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in soil for the growth chamber diurnal root trial 9-17°C. Asterisk 

(*) indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level.

59
60

Figure 5. Actual sand verses soil degree days to 15-cm root depth for the growth chamber diurnal root trial 4-12°C. Asterisk (*) 

indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level. 60
61

Figure 6. Actual sand verses soil degree days to 15-cm root depth for the growth chamber diurnal root trial 9-17°C. Asterisk (*) 

indicates significant difference at 95% confidence level. 61
62

Project Title Pre-inoculation of Wyoming Big Sagebrush Seedlings

with Native Arbuscular Mycorrhizae: Effects on 

Mycorrhizal Colonization and Community Composition 

after Transplanting

Project No. 10-JV-11221632-062 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Marcelo D. Serpe, Ph.D., Professor

Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University

1910 University Drive, Boise, ID 83725-1515

208.426.3687

mserpe@boisestate.edu

Bill E. Davidson, Graduate student

Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University

1910 University Drive, Boise, ID 83725-1515

208.830.3458

BillDavidson@u.boisestate.edu

Project Description

Introduction

Reestablishment of Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) has proven 

difficult due to high seedling mortality. Major factors responsible for seedling mortality are 

summer drought and low growth rates(Stahl et al. 1998; Lambrecht et al. 2007). Slow growth 

decreases the plant’s ability to compete for resources and may prevent the seedlings from 

developing an adequate root system to maintain hydration during the dry summer.

One factor that could improve the growth rates and stress tolerance of sagebrush seedlings is the 

establishment of symbiotic associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) (Stahl et al. 

1998). Mycorrhizae are well known to improve nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus, and in 

so doing markedly increase plant growth (Smith and Smith 2011). In addition, colonization by 

AMF can increase tolerance to water deficits (Augé 2001).

Inoculation of seedlings with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is a common practice aimed 

at improving seedling establishment (Allen 1989; St. John 1997; Requena et al. 2001) The 

success of this practice largely depends on the ability of the inoculum to multiply and colonize 

the growing root system after transplanting and on the particular species colonizing the roots 

(Weinbaum et al. 1996; Jones and Smith 2004; Caravaca et al. 2005). In this study, Wyoming big 

sagebrush seedlings were inoculated with native AMF and transplanted to native soil. Following 

transplanting, we evaluated the extent of colonization, possible changes in AMF composition, 

and the effects of mycorrhizal colonization on seedling survival. 
63

Specific Objectives

1) Determine the effect of pre-inoculation with native mycorrhizae on colonization of roots 

that developed after transplanting.

2) Compare the mycorrhizal community of non-inoculated and inoculated seedlings.

3) Analyze the effect of changes in colonization and community composition on seedling 

survival.

Methods

Native AMF were multiplied from soil collected at Kuna Butte, Idaho (N 43° 26’ 43.5”, W 116° 

26’ 51.4”) using Sudan grass pot cultures. The pot cultures contained a mixture of nine 

phylotypes including three known species, Rhizophagus intraradices, Glomus microaggregatum, 

and Funneliformis mosseae. 

Seedlings were first grown in a greenhouse in 50 ml cone-tainers containing roots and soil from 

the pot cultures (pre-inoculated seedlings) or sterilized pot cultures (non-inoculated seedlings). In 

early spring, 3-month old seedlings were transplanted to soil collected from Kuna Butte. This is a 

sandy soil with an available phosphorus content of 8.1 μg g

-1

of soil. The seedlings were grown 

in 24 L tree-pots under natural climatic conditions at the Idaho Botanical Gardens (N 43° 35’ 

52.1”, W 116° 9’ 42.3”). Fifty pots were assigned for each treatment. Mycorrhizal colonization 

was assessed prior to transplanting and 2.5 and 5 months after transplanting. The effect of 

inoculation on colonization and seedling survival was also investigated in seedlings transplanted 

during the fall. For this purpose, we conducted an experiment similar to the one just described, 

but with transplanting in early October. Colonization of seedlings was assessed at the time of 

transplanting and 7 months afterwards. 

Colonization was determined by the intersection method after staining with Chlorazol black E

(McGonigle et al. 1990). Growth and survival of sagebrush seedlings was monitored biweekly. 

At the time of colonization assessment, DNA was isolated from roots and soil samples. The 

isolated DNA was amplified via nested PCR. General fungal primers LR1 and FLR2 were used 

for initial amplification. The second PCR amplification was conducted using the Glomeromycota 

specific primers FLR3 and FLR4 that amplify regions of the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene 

(LSU rDNA) (Gollotte et al. 2004). The resulting amplicons were cloned and then sent to a 

commercial facility for sequencing. The LSU rDNA sequences were aligned using a database of 

reference sequences and subsequently grouped into operational taxonomic units (OTUs) with 

sequence similarities ≥ 95% using the Mothur program (Schloss et al. 2009. These OTUs were 

used to characterize possible differences in AMF community composition among treatments. For 

this purpose, we used the libshuff method, which determines whether communities have the 

same structure based on the Cramer-von Mises test (Schloss et al. 2004).

Results

For both the spring and fall experiments, pre-inoculated seedlings showed at the time of 

transplanting a total colonization above 55% (Figure 1A, C). In contrast, colonization was 

negligible in the non-inoculated seedlings. The arbuscular colonization was much lower than 

total colonization, but pre-inoculated seedlings had significantly higher arbuscular colonization 

than non-inoculated ones (Figure 1B, D). After transplanting in both May and October, the noninoculated seedlings became colonized by mycorrhizae present in the soil. However, several 
64

months after transplanting, the percent colonization in the non-inoculated seedlings remained 

significantly lower than in the pre-inoculated ones. For seedlings transplanted in May, total 

colonization five months after transplanting was 20% for non-inoculated and 48% for preinoculated seedlings (Figure 1A). Similarly, non-inoculated and pre-inoculated seedlings 

transplanted in October 2011 had in May 2012 a total colonization of 23 and 43%, respectively 

(Figure 1C). Differences were also apparent for arbuscular colonization, which through the 

experiment was higher in pre-inoculated than non-inoculated seedlings (Figure 1B, D). Taken 

Figure 1. Total (A,C), and arbuscular colonization (B, D) in non-inoculated and pre-inoculated 

seedlings of Wyoming big sagebrush transplanted on May 6, 2011 (A,B) or October 3, 2011 (C, 

D). For samples collected in July and October of 2011 and in May of 2012, measurements were 

made in roots that developed after transplanting. Mean (± SE) of five to eight seedlings. For a 

particular date, values marked by an asterisk (*) are significantly different from the noninoculated treatment (p < 0.05).

 May 6 Jul 14 Oct 6

 2011 2011 2011

 Oct 3 May 1

 2011 2012
65

together, these results indicate that the AMF inoculum contributed to the colonization of the 

roots that developed after transplanting, resulting in higher levels of colonization than those 

naturally occurring in the soil.

In addition to differences in colonization, the AMF composition of the roots varied depending on 

the inoculation treatment and transplanting time. Based on the molecular analyses, we identified 

a total of 24 OTUs (Figure 2). This suggests substantial AMF diversity, particularly considering 

that the OTUs were identified in a single host species growing in soil from one site (SanchezCastro et al. 2012; vande Voorde et al. 2010). Nine of the 24 OTUs were only present in preinoculated seedlings. Furthermore, three OTUs were only detected in pre-inoculated seedlings 

transplanted in spring (May), while five others only in pre-inoculated seedlings transplanted in 

the fall (October) (Figure 2). These differences in the presence/absence of OTUs combined with 

differences in OTU frequency among treatments indicate dissimilarities in AMF community 

composition. In particular, the AMF community composition of pre-inoculated seedlings was 

different from that of non-inoculated ones, but only for seedlings transplanted during the spring 

(Table 1). In addition, for both inoculated and non-inoculated seedlings, the AMF community of 

samples collected in early fall (spring transplanting) was different from that of samples collected 

in the spring (fall transplanting) (Table 1). These results suggest seasonal changes in the structure 

of the AMF community. 

Figure 2. Depiction of 24 shared and non-shared OTUs between treatments (SS = noninoculated and spring transplanted, SF = non-inoculated and fall transplanted, MS = preinoculated and spring transplanted, MF = pre-inoculated and fall transplanted. Samples for DNA 

extraction were collected 5 and 7 months after the spring and fall transplanting, respectively. 

Sequences were assigned to different OTUs when their pairwise distance was greater than 5%. 
66

Table 1. Comparison of arbuscular mycorrhizae community composition among treatments. 

Comparison Significance1

non-inoculated/spring transplanted vs. pre-inoculated/spring transplanted 0.0007*

non-inoculated/fall transplanted vs. pre-inoculated/fall transplanted 0.0254

non-inoculated/spring transplanted vs. non-inoculated/ fall transplanted <0.0001*

pre-inoculated/ spring transplanted vs. pre-inoculated/fall transplanted <0.0001*

non-inoculated spring transplanted vs. pre-inoculated fall transplanted <0.0001*

non-inoculated fall transplanted vs. pre-inoculated spring transplanted 0.0007*

1

Significant differences were weighted based on the number of multiple comparisons. Only values marked by an 

asterisk (*) are significantly different from each other. 

For the seedlings transplanted during the spring, the observed differences in colonization and 

community composition between non-inoculated and pre-inoculated seedlings were correlated 

with differences in seedlings establishment. Five months after transplanting, seedling survival 

was 24% higher in pre-inoculated than non-inoculated seedlings (p < 0.01). In contrast, no 

seedling mortality was observed for seedlings transplanted during fall. Both non-inoculated and 

pre-inoculated seedlings had 100% survival by June 8, 2012. After this time, the experiment was 

ended because plant growth and survival became limited by the size of the pots. 

References

Allen, E. B. 1989. The restoration of disturbed arid landscapes with special reference to 

mycorrhizal fungi. Journal of Arid Environments. 17:279-286.

Augé, R. M. 2001. Water relations, drought and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. 

Mycorrhiza. 11: 3-42.

Caravaca, F.; Alguacil, M. M.; Barea, J. M.; Roldan, A. 2005. Survival of inocula and native AM 

fungi species associated with shrubs in a degraded Mediterranean ecosystem. Soil Biology & 

Biochemistry. 37:227-233.

Gollotte, A.; van Tuinen, D.; Atkinson, D. 2004. Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 

colonising roots of the grass species Agrostis capillaris and Lolium perenne in a field 

experiment. Mycorrhiza. 14: 111-117.

Jones, M. D.; Smith, S. E. 2004. Exploring functional definitions of mycorrhizas: Are 

mycorrhizas always mutualisms? Canadian Journal of Botany-Revue Canadienne De Botanique. 

82: 1089-1109.

Lambrecht, S. C.; Shattuck, A. K.; Loik, M. E. 2007. Combined drought and episodic freezing 

effects on seedlings of low‐and high‐elevation subspecies of sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). 

Physiologia Plantarum. 130: 207-217.
67

McGonigle, T. P.; Miller, M. H.; Evans, D. G.; Fairchild, G. L.; Swan, J. A. 1990. A new method 

which gives an objective measure of colonization of roots by vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal 

fungi. New Phytologist. 115: 495-501.

Requena, N.; Perez-Solis, E.; Azcon-Aguilar, C.; Jeffries, P.; Barea J. M. 2001. Management of 

indigenous plant-microbe symbioses aids restoration of desertified ecosystems. Applied and

Environmental Microbiology. 67: 495-498.

Sanchez-Castro, I.; Ferrol, N.; Barea, J. M. 2012. Analyzing the community composition of 

arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonizing the roots of representative shrubland species in a 

Mediterranean ecosystem. Journal of Arid Environments.80 :1-9.

Schloss, P. D.; Larget, B. R.; Handelsman, J. 2004. Integration of microbial ecology and 

statistics: a test to compare gene libraries. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 70: 5485-

5492.

Schloss, P. D.; Westcott, S. L.; Ryabin, T., et al. 2009. Introducing mothur: Open-Source, 

Platform-Independent, Community-Supported Software for Describing and Comparing 

Microbial Communities. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 75: 7537-7541.

Smith, S. E.; Smith, F. A. 2011. Roles of Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Plant Nutrition and Growth: 

New Paradigms from Cellular to Ecosystem Scales. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 62: 227-

250.

Stah, P. D.; Schuman, G. E,; Frost, S. M.; Williams, S. E. 1998. Arbuscular mycorrhizae and 

water stress tolerance of Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings. Soil Science Society of America 

Journal. 62: 1309-1313.

St. John, T. 1997. Arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculation in nursery practice. In: Landis TD, South 

DB, technical coordinators. National proceedings, forest and conservation nursery associations. 

Portland (OR): US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research 

Station General Technical Report PNW-GTR-389. p 152–158.

van de Voorde, T. F. J.; van der Putten, W. H.; Gamper, H. A.; Hol, W. H. G.; Bezemer, T. M. 

2010. Comparing arbuscular mycorrhizal communities of individual plants in a grassland 

biodiversity experiment. New Phytologist. 186: 746-754.

Weinbaum, B. S.; Allen, M. F.; Allen, E. B. 1996. Survival of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 

following reciprocal transplanting across the Great Basin, USA. Ecological Applications. 6:

1365-1372.

Acknowledgments

Funding for this research was provided by the USDA-NIFA (grant No 2010-85101-20480) and 

the USDI Bureau of Land Management, Great Basin Restoration Initiative and the USDA Forest 

Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project.
68

Presentations 

Davidson, B.; Serpe, M. D. 2012. Improvement in colonization and seedling survival of 

Wyoming big sagebrush following inoculation with native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 

Mycological Society of America Annual Meeting, 2012 July 15-18, New Haven, Connecticut.

Davidson, B.; Serpe, M. D. 2012. Mycorrhizal colonization and survival of Wyoming big 

sagebrush following inoculation and transplanting. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 12-22, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Davidson, B,; Serpe, M. D. 2012. Improvement in colonization and seedling survival of 

Wyoming big sagebrush following inoculation with native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 

Northwest Scientific Association Annual Meeting, 2012 March 28-31, Boise, ID.

Holten, R.; Roberts, E.; Serpe, M. D. 2012. Survival of native arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculum 

following transplanting of Wyoming big sagebrush. National Conference of Undergraduate 

Research. Annual Meeting, 2012 March 29-31, Ogden, UT.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

The results indicate that pre-inoculation with native arbuscular mycorrhizae can increase 

colonization after transplanting and also seedling survival, particularly for seedlings transplanted 

during the spring. Thus, in sandy soils similar to the ones used in this study, reestablishment of 

Wyoming big sagebrush appears to be partly limited by low mycorrhizal density. In these soils, 

practices aimed at increasing AMF density such as planting of pre-inoculated seedlings or of 

species that can act as mycorrhizal-net builders are likely to increase the success of restoration 

efforts.
69

Project Title Smoke-induced Germination of Great Basin Native Forbs

Project Agreement No. 11-CR-11221632-005 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Robert Cox, Assistant Professor

Department of Natural Resources Management

Texas Tech University 

Box 42125

Lubbock, TX 79409

806.742.2841, Fax 806.742.2280

robert.cox@ttu.edu

Project Description

The first step, to conduct a wide literature review of as many Great Basin species that respond to 

smoke as possible, has been completed. The second step is to test as many species as possible to 

determine smoke response. This portion of the project is now underway. The third step will be to 

further investigate responsive species to determine whether smoke response varies by population 

by testing seeds from as many populations of the species in question as possible. Finally, we aim 

to develop seeding protocols for several of the most responsive species. This will be done by 

testing different methods of smoke application to the seeds followed by seeding of the seeds into 

field settings.

Presentations 

Pendell, E.; Cox, R. 2012. Effect of smoke on native seed germination. Texas Tech University 

Undergraduate Research Conference, Texas Tech University, 2012 April 22-25, Lubbock, TX. 

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines 

Land managers, seed producers or others will use the results to better plan restoration seedings to 

include a higher diversity of native forbs and to plan restoration treatments to take advantage of 

smoke-responsive species. 
70

Project Title Developing Protocols for Maximizing Establishment of

Great Basin Legume Species

Project Agreement No. 11-IA-11221632-007

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Douglas A. Johnson, Plant Physiologist

USDA-Agricultural Research Service

Forage and Range Research Lab 

Utah State University

Logan, UT 84322-6300

435.797.3067, Fax 435.797.3075

doug.johnson@ars.usda.gov

B. Shaun Bushman, Research Geneticist

USDA-Agricultural Research Service

Forage and Range Research Lab 

Utah State University

Logan, UT 84322-6300

435.797.2901, Fax 435.797.3075

shaun.bushman@ars.usda.gov

Project Description

Greenhouse Seedling Emergence Studies

We were interested in identifying techniques that can be used to optimize seed germination and 

seedling emergence in four legume species native to the Great Basin of the western U.S.,

including basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), Blue Mountain or western prairie clover (Dalea 

ornata), Searls’ prairie clover (Dalea searlsiae), and purple prairie clover (Dalea purpurea); 

research on the first two species was supported by the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project. Seedlots of these species were tested with the tetrazolium test by the Utah State 

Seed Laboratory to determine seed viability. Although total viable seed in the non-treated 

seedlots was greater than 85%, hard seed ranged from 79-88%. Seedlots were left untreated or 

scarified. The acid-scarified seeds were treated by soaking the seeds in concentrated sulfuric acid 

for 5 minutes, rinsing in tap water, and air-drying the seed. Other experimental treatments 

included soil type: sand, 33% clay, 67% clay, and clay, and water droplet size. A total of 50 

seeds were planted in greenhouse soil benches for each treatment, and four replications were 

used in a randomized complete block design in a greenhouse with two complete runs of the 

experiment conducted. Seedling counts were made and emerged seedlings were removed on 8-9 

dates starting at Day 3 and going to Day 21. Speed of emergence was calculated based on the 

number of seedlings counted at each day summed across the experimental period (Maguire

1962). 
71

Results of the greenhouse experiment are shown in Table 1. The main effects of water droplet 

size, species, and seed treatment were significant (p < 0.05). The two-way interactions of soil 

type by species (ST X SP) and species by seed treatment (SP X T) were also significant (p <

0.01). The three-way interaction of soil type by species by seed treatment (ST X SP X T) was 

also significant. Speed of emergence was greatest in western prairie clover, followed by Searls’ 

prairie clover, purple prairie clover, and basalt milkvetch. All species emerged faster when the 

seed was scarified; however, this effect was least for basalt milkvetch, which generally had a low 

rate of emergence. For western prairie clover and Searls’ prairie clover, speed of emergence was 

greater in the sand compared to the soils with clay. For basalt milkvetch, emergence was slowest 

in the sand treatment compared to the soils with clay content, probably because of the drying 

effect on seed germination and emergence. 

Table 1. Analysis of variance table for greenhouse seedling emergence study.

Speed of Emergence No. viable seed/day1

Factor df F value Sign2

Droplet (D) 1 9.94 * 

Soil type (ST) 3 0.62 NS 

D X ST 3 0.36 NS

Species (SP) 3 765.5 **

D X SP 3 1.58 NS

ST X SP 9 9.06 **

D X ST X SP 9 0.94 NS

Seed Treatment (T) 1 3,874.08 **

D X T 1 1.69 NS 

ST X T 3 0.65 NS 

D X ST X T 3 0.86 NS

SP X T 3 324.95 **

D X SP X T 3 2.22 NS 

ST X SP X T 9 2.06 * 

D X ST X SP X T 9 1.19 NS

1Based on tetrazolium assessment of viable seed in each 

seed lot. 

2NS = not significant, * = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.01 

Release of Majestic Germplasm and Spectrum Germplasm Western Prairie Clover

Western prairie clover (Dalea ornata) is a perennial leguminous forb that occurs naturally in 

Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, and Nevada. Two natural-track selected germplasms of 

western prairie clover were released in 2011 for use in revegetation of semiarid rangelands in the 

western USA (Bhattarai et al. 2011; Johnson et al. 2011). Majestic Germplasm western prairie 

clover originates from seed collected from indigenous plants in Sherman County, Oregon, 

whereas Spectrum Germplasm western prairie clover originates from seed collected from 

indigenous plants in Malheur County, Oregon. Common-garden and DNA-marker data for 22 
72

collections of western prairie clover were used to develop these releases on a genetic basis. 

Majestic Germplasm was selected to represent a genetically differentiated group of western 

prairie clover from the western Columbia Plateau and western Blue Mountains Ecoregions. 

Spectrum Germplasm was selected to represent the genetically differentiated group from the 

central and eastern Columbia Plateau, central and eastern Blue Mountains, Northern Basin and 

Range, and Snake River Plain Ecoregions. Besides the substantial and significant genetic 

differentiation detected between these two germplasm sources, these germplasms also reflect 

differences in flowering date, which was a significant delineator of the two groups as well as 

significantly correlated with environmental variables at the collection sites. Western prairie 

clover is a new species in the commercial seed trade, and these are the first releases of this 

species. 

Field Seeding Studies

Based on the results of the greenhouse experiments, field seeding studies were established at 

Clarno, Powell Butte, and Ontario, OR. The former two sites were established cooperatively with 

Matt Horning, USFS Deschutes National Forest, and the latter with Clinton Shock and Erik 

Feibert, Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station. Field plots were planted in fall 

2011, spring 2012, and fall 2012. Studies included scarified and non-treated seed of Majestic and 

Spectrum germplasm western prairie clover and NBR-1 germplasm basalt milkvetch. Additional 

treatments at Ontario included a fungicide application on the seed. Establishment data will be 

collected for 2 years post-planting, but sites will be kept to allow for long-term observation.

Preliminary observations from Clarno and Powell Butte suggest that spring plantings of the 

western prairie clover seed were the most successful, and fall plantings of NBR-1 scarified seed 

was the most productive. Plots in Ontario were unsuccessful due to logistical issues.

References

Bhattarai, K.; Bushman, B. S.; Johnson, D. A.; Carman, J. G. 2011. Searls’ prairie clover (Dalea 

searlsiae) for rangeland revegetation: phenotypic and genetic evaluations. Crop Science 51: 716-

727.

Johnson, D. A.; Bushman, B. S.; Bhattarai, K.; Connors, K. J. 2011. Notice of release of Majestic 

germplasm and Spectrum germplasm western prairie clover. Native Plants Journal 12: 249-256.

Maguire, J. D. 1962. Speed of germination – aid in selection and evaluation for seedling 

emergence and vigor. Crop Science 2: 176-177.

Publications

Johnson, D. A.; Bushman, B. S. 2012. Developing protocols for maximizing establishment of 

two Great Basin legume species. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

FY2011 Progress Report. p. 58-60.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2011_Progress_Report.pdf

Johnson, D.A.; Bushman, B. S.; Jones, T. A.; Bhattarai, K. 2012. Identifying geographically 

based metapopulations for development of plant materials indigenous to rangeland ecosystems of 

the western USA. Progress in Botany 74: 265-291.
73

Presentations

Johnson, D. A.; Bushman, B. S. 2012. Challenges of developing North American legumes for 

use on Great Basin rangelands. Eastern Nevada Landscape Coalition Conference; 2012 January 

18-19; Ely, NV. 

Johnson, D. A.; Bushman, B. S.; Jones, T. A.; Connors, K. J. 2012. Effect of seed scarification 

and seeding depth on greenhouse seedling emergence in western prairie clover, Searls’ prairie 

clover, and basalt milkvetch. Society for Range Management Annual Meeting; 2012 January 29-

2 February: Spokane, WA. 

Johnson, D. A.; Bushman, B. S.; Jones, T. A.; Connors, K. J. 2012. Effect of seed scarification 

and seeding depth on greenhouse seedling emergence in western prairie clover,

Searls’ prairie clover and basalt milkvetch. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project Annual Meeting; 2012 February 21-22; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2011.shtml

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

Seed producers will benefit by knowing how to obtain stands of these two species for seed 

production. Land managers will be provided with data to show expected germination and 

establishment in different regions, seasons, and planting practices.

Products

 Germplasm releases for the species 

 Seed production guidelines

 Planting guides

 Peer-reviewed publications
74

Project Title Great Basin Native Forb Development and Cultural 

Practices

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-193, 11-JV-11221632-009, 12-JV-11221632-050

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Jason Stettler, Native Forb Biologist

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 48327

435.283.4441, Fax 435.283.2034

jasonstettler@utah.gov

Alison Whittaker, Project Leader

Great Basin Research Center

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 48327

435.283.4441, Fax 435.283.2034

alisonwhittaker@utah.gov

Project Description

Native Lupine Cultivation

In 2007, we planted cultural practice trials of four common native lupines: silvery lupine 

(Lupinus argenteus), longspur lupine (L. arbustus), hairy bigleaf lupine (L. prunophilus), and 

silky lupine (L. sericeus). Two species, longspur lupine and hairy bigleaf lupine, exhibited signs 

of iron deficiency chlorosis, shortly followed by necrosis. All longspur lupine seedlings died 

shortly after germination and did not regrow the following year. The hairy bigleaf lupine 

plantings in one of our three treatment groups regrew the following year. The species, however,

has shown signs of iron deficiency chlorosis each year and did not flower and set seed until 

2011, 4 years after planting.

Due to the total loss of the longspur lupine plots and the 66% loss of the hairy bigleaf lupine 

plots, as well as the stunted and delayed growth of surviving hairy bigleaf lupine plots, we have 

designed and begun implementing a study of iron deficiency chlorosis. Our objective is to 

identify a practical and effective method of treating iron deficiency chlorosis for these species. 

This study focuses on the four lupine species and four treatments of EDDHA chelated iron: 

control or no application, seed application, foliar application, and a combined seed and foliar 

application (Table 1). We measured germination, establishment, age at first flowering, seed 

yield, overall greenness (with a chlorophyll meter), and nutrient content of seedlings (by random 

destructive sampling). We also began a greenhouse study using the same species and treatments 

to determine plant biomass in response to the EDDHA chelated iron fertilizer applications.
75

Table 1. Codes for study treatments of EDDHA chelated iron (Fe) applications to lupine species.

Code Treatment

Control Control, no treatment

Native Wild population untreated

Seed Fe application to seed

Foliar Chlorophyll measurements of seedlings prior to Fe foliar application

Both

Chlorophyll measurements of seedlings prior to Fe foliar application but which 

received Fe application to seeds 

Foliar2

Chlorophyll measurements after two Fe foliar applications (one immediately after 

seedling chlorophyll measurements and one 2 weeks later) to treatment “Foliar”

Both2

Chlorophyll measurements after two Fe foliar applications (one immediately after 

seedling chlorophyll measurements and one 2 weeks later) to treatment "Both"

In spring of 2012, we calculated germination by sampling seedling density in 0.25 m (0.82 ft) of 

every meter in every seeded row. Silvery lupine failed to germinate and was excluded from the 

rest of the study. In general, the other three species and treatments germinated well (Figure 1).

Plots at our Snow Field Station farm exhibited greater germination than the plots in our Fountain 

Green farm. We did not conduct statistical analyses on the germination data; the data will serve 

as a baseline when we calculate establishment in spring of 2013.

Figure 1. Percent germination of three lupine species and four EDDHA chelated iron treatments 

at Fountain Green and Snow Field Station, Utah. Iron treatments are: Seed—seed application, 

Foliar—foliar application, Both—seed and foliar application, and Control—no application. 

LUAR6 = silvery lupine, LUPR2 = hairy bigleaf lupine, LUSE4 = silky lupine. See Table 2 for 

species code scientific names. % 

Germination
76

Table 2. Lupine species plant code descriptions (USDA-NRCS 2000).

Plant Code Scientific Name Common Name

LUAR6 Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine

LUAR3 Lupinus argenteus Silvery lupine

LUPR2 Lupinus prunophilus Hairy bigleaf lupine

LUSE4 Lupinus sericeus Silky lupine

When plants had between three and four leaves, we used a chlorophyll content meter (OptiSciences CCM-300, Hudson, NH) to measure chlorophyll fluorescence and content of 50 plants 

from each treatment in each block. The CCM-300 measures chlorophyll fluorescence at 700 nm 

and 735 nm and uses this ratio to accurately measure chlorophyll content (mg/m-2; Gitelson et al. 

1999). After the initial readings were taken the foliar application of EDDHA chelated iron was 

applied to the foliar and the combined treatment groups. Two weeks later the application of 

EDDHA chelated iron was repeated. We then measured chlorophyll fluorescence and content of 

all treatment groups that received the foliar application (Table 3).

Table 3. Treatments and timing of EDDHA chelated iron (Fe) applications to lupine species. 

“X” represents Fe application; “M” represents measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence and 

content.

Treatment

Fe application 

to seed

Chlorophyll 

measurement 

on seedlings

(3-4 leaves)

Fe application 

to foliar

Fe application 

to foliar after 

2-wk growth

Chlorophyll 

measurement 

on 2-wk 

growth

Native M

Control M

Seed X M

Foliar M X X M

Both X M X X M

We took readings of natural, untreated populations (‘Native’) of the lupines to be used as a 

baseline comparison of our experimental garden plots. We ran an analysis of variance with the R 

statistical computing program (R Core Team 2012) of both the chlorophyll fluorescence ratio 

and chlorophyll content comparing the treatments within each species. We ran the analysis with 

all farms and blocks collectively only analyzing the treatment differences within each species.
77

Longspur lupine

The chlorophyll fluorescence ratio (CFR) results for longspur lupine indicate that the Native 

population has the greatest CFR and is statistically similar to Both2 (Figure 2). The next highest 

CFR mean values are Both2 and Foliar2, which were statistically similar. Foliar2, Both, and 

Seed treatments are all statistically similar. There was a significant difference between Both and 

Both2 (p = 0.02135). There was also a significant difference between the Foliar and Foliar2 

treatments (p < 0.0001). The Control was statistically similar to Foliar treatment.

The chlorophyll content results for longspur lupine are very similar to the CFR results (Figure 3). 

The native population had the highest mean chlorophyll content and is statistically similar to 

Both2. Both2 has statistically similar chlorophyll content as Foliar2. Seed, Both, and Foliar2 are 

all statistically similar. Control and Foliar had the lowest mean chlorophyll content and are 

statistically similar. Both is significantly lower than Both2 (p = 0.013). Foliar2 is significantly 

greater than Foliar (p < 0.00001).

Hairy bigleaf lupine

The CFR results for hairy bigleaf lupine (Figure 4) indicate that the Native population has the 

highest mean and is statistically similar to Both2, Foliar2, and Seed treatments. Foliar2, Both, 

and Seed treatments are all statistically similar. Foliar has the lowest mean and is statistically 

similar to Control. Both2 was significantly higher than Both (p = 0.02215). Foliar2 was 

significantly greater than Foliar (p < 0.00001).

The chlorophyll content for hairy bigleaf lupine (Figure 5) indicates that the Native population 

has the highest mean and is statistically similar to Both2, Foliar2, and Seed. The mean values for 

Foliar, Foliar2, and Seed) are statistically similar. Control and Foliar have the lowest mean 

values and are statistically similar. Both2 is significantly greater than Both (p = 0.02186). 

Foliar2 is significantly greater than Foliar (p < 0.00001).

Figure 2. Box-and-whisker plot of 

chlorophyll fluorescence ratio, by 

treatment, for longspur lupine. Letters 

above bars statistically compare 

treatments; the same letters represent 

treatments that do not differ (p > 

0.05).

Fluorescence Ratio
78

mg per m

-2

Figure 3. Box-and-whisker plot of 

chlorophyll concentration (mg/m-2), 

by treatment, for longspur lupine.

Letters above bars statistically 

compare treatments; the same letters 

represent treatments that do not 

differ (p > 0.05).

Figure 4. Box-and-whisker plot of 

chlorophyll fluorescence ratio, by 

treatment, for hairy bigleaf lupine. 

Letters above bars statistically 

compare treatments; the same letters 

represent treatments that do not 

differ (p > 0.05).

Figure 5. Box-and-whisker plot of 

chlorophyll concentration (mg/m-2), 

by treatment, for hairy bigleaf

lupine. Letters above bars 

statistically compare treatments; the 

same letters represent treatments that 

do not differ (p > 0.05).

mg per m

-2

Fluorescence Ratio
79

Silky lupine

The CFR results for silky lupine (Figure 6) indicate that Both2 has the highest mean value and is 

statistically similar to the Native population. The Native population and Foliar2 treatments have 

mean values that are statistically similar. Both and Native have mean values that are statistically 

similar. Both and Seed treatments have mean values that are statistically similar. Seed and 

Control have mean values that are statistically similar. Foliar and Control have the lowest mean 

values and are statistically similar. Both2 is significantly greater than Both, as is Foliar2 

compared to Foliar (p < 0.00001).

The chlorophyll content concentration analysis results for silky lupine (Figure 7) indicates that 

Both2 has the greatest mean value and is statistically similar to the Native population. Foliar2 

and Native were statistically similar. Both and Seed treatments are statistically similar. Seed and 

Control are statistically similar. Foliar has the lowest mean value and is statistically similar to 

Control. Both2 is significantly greater than Both (p < 0.00001), as is Foliar2 compared to Foliar 

(p < 0.00001).

Iron Content

We conducted random destructive sampling of 20 plants from all species and treatment groups 

prior to the foliar EDDHA chelated iron application. These were sent to Brigham Young 

University Environmental Analytical Lab, Provo, UT, to be analyzed for iron content. We also 

took plant samples after the foliar Fe applications; however silky lupine was the only species that 

had adequate new foliage in the Control to sample. Leaves harvested from natural populations of 

each species were also sent to the lab to be analyzed; results will serve as a baseline for species’ 

iron content in non-agricultural soil. 

In spring of 2013 we will collect more leaf material from our plots and native populations to be 

sent in for iron content analysis to investigate the long term effects on the iron treatments applied 

to seed or seedlings. We will also be looking for the correlation between iron content and 

chlorophyll fluorescence ratio by taking multiple chlorophyll content meter readings from 

individual plants and sampling these same plants for iron content.

We are currently in the process of analyzing the biomass data from our greenhouse trials. We 

predict that the plants grown from Fe-treated seeds will have greater root mass than plants with 

Fe-treated foliar or which were not treated.

Transplant Study

Arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza saggitata), Hooker’s balsamroot (B. hookeri), tapertip 

hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata), and gray hawksbeard (C. intermedia) pose problems in 

cultivation due to the length of time it takes for them to establish before they flower and produce 

seed, typically 3 to 5 years. Seed growers are not willing to devote agricultural fields to crops 

that are not producing income. In order to determine whether we might shorten the time between 

field planting and seed production, we investigated the feasibility of establishing seed fields from 

transplant stock. We began by seeding beds with 15-cm (5.9-in) row spacing to create a dense 

bed of seedlings that can be transplanted before they are large mature plants. Three beds were 

planted in 2009, eight in 2010, twenty-six in 2011, and 25 in 2012. In the spring of 2013, the first 

beds planted will be ready for transplanting. We will categorize the root stock by crown diameter 
80

and root length and use plant size as treatments in our experimental design. These factors will be 

important to consider because the time it will take for them to flower after transplanting remains 

unknown.

Figure 6. Box-and-whisker plot 

of chlorophyll fluorescence ratio, 

by treatment, for silky lupine. 

Letters above bars statistically 

compare treatments; the same 

letters represent treatments that 

do not differ (p > 0.05).

Figure 7. Box-and-whisker plot 

of chlorophyll concentration 

(mg/m-2), by treatment, for silky 

lupine. Letters above bars 

statistically compare treatments; 

the same letters represent 

treatments that do not differ (p > 

0.05).

Common Garden

Cushion buckwheat (Eriogonum ovalifolium)

In 2010 and 2011, we harvested seed from each accession in the common garden. However, the 

resulting harvests had low seed yields and low seed viability. Due to these factors, we purchased 

pollination cages and set up a study to attempt to increase both seed yield and viability of the Fluorescence Ratio mg per m

-2
81

accessions in the common garden. Unfortunately, the common garden had over-winter die-off 

due to a combination of drought conditions and age. The surviving plants did flower and set 

seed, however, we found evidence of seed predation. The resulting harvest showed no increase in 

seed production or seed viability.

The new cushion buckwheat common garden will be planted in the spring of 2013. The new 

common garden consists of the 11 highest yielding accessions from the 2010 and 2012 common 

garden harvests (Table 4). We planted both wildland-harvested seed and seed harvested from the 

common garden for a total of 22 accessions. The new common garden will be focusing on high 

yield seed production and will investigate if seed yield is a trait that will be carried on in 

subsequent generations. The common garden will be planted on two farms and each consists of 

five randomized complete blocks. We expect the first seed harvest to be in the summer of 2014.

Table 4. Cushion buckwheat common garden highest seed yield accessions 2010-2012.

Lot # Site Ecoregion

EROV-U11-2002 Sand Pass 13k Lahontan Sagebrush Slopes

EROV-U13-2002 Toano 13q Carbonate Woodland Zone

EROV-U20-2005 Crittenden Res. 13r Central Nevada High Valleys

EROV-U23-2005 Crittenden Res. 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau

EROV-U27-2005 Newcastle 13c Sagebrush Basins and Slopes

EROV-U28-2005 Jungo Road 13z Upper Lahontan Basin

EROV-U29-2005 Cobre 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau

EROV-U30-2004 Hwy 26 mm 280-281 12g Eastern Snake River Basalt Plains

EROV-U7-2002 Pequop Foothills 13p Carbonate Sagebrush Valleys

EROV-U8-2002 North Battle Mountain 13m Upper Humboldt Plains

EROV-U9-2002 Adobe Hill 13m Upper Humboldt Plains

Seed Increase and Foundation Fields

We continued to maintain stock seed accessions planted in 2009, 2010, and 2011 which consists 

of 65 accessions of 11 species between the UDWR farms in Fountain Green, Utah and Ephraim, 

Utah (Table 5). In addition to these we planted 15 accessions of four species at the Fountain 

Green, Utah farm, 29 accessions of 18 species at the Ephraim, Utah farm, and 18 accessions of 

five species at the Nephi, Utah farm. These are the stock seed increase fields for our pooled 

source releases that will be distributed to growers as sufficient seed is produced and native plant 

material releases made. We have also planted seed of 19 accessions and 12 species in the 

greenhouse that will be transplanted to the farms in the spring for species’ evaluations.
82

Table 5. Farm plantings at three Utah farms, Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin 

Research Center.

Fountain Green Farm

Species / Source Lot Number Year 

Planted Purpose of Plantings

Balsamorhiza hookeri - Hooker's balsamroot

Palisade BAHO-U2-2009 2009 Root Transplant

Emigrant BAHO-U3-2008 2010 Root Transplant

Card Canyon BAHO-U77-2006 2010 Root Transplant

Palisade BAHO-U2-2009 2011 Seed Increase

Water Canyon BAHO-U2-2009 2011 Seed Increase

Relay Station BAHO-U76-2005 2011 Seed Increase

N. Battle Mountain PSSL-115 2011 Seed Increase

Big Butte PSSL-97 2011 Seed Increase

Balsamorhiza sagittata - arrowleaf balsamroot

Palisade BASA3-U77-2009 2009 Root Transplant

Sand Pass BASA3-U30-2009/PSSL110 2011 Seed Increase

Devil's Playground BASA3-U33-2009 2011 Seed Increase

Twelve Mile BASA3-U35-2002 2011 Seed Increase

Elko BASA3-U73-2005 2011 Seed Increase

Palisade BASA3-U77-2008 2011 Seed Increase

Sand Pass BASA3-U30-2005 2012 Seed Increase

Devil's Playground BASA3-U33-2005 2012 Seed Increase

Twelve Mile BASA3-U35-2005 2012 Seed Increase

Crepis acuminata - tapertip hawksbeard

Relay Station CRAC2-U36-2009 2009 Root Transplant

Soldier Canyon CRAC2-U38-2006 2010 Root Transplant

N of Elko ELCI Site CRAC2-U44-2006 2010 Root Transplant

N. Battle Mountain CRAC2-U5-2002 2010 Root Transplant

Comins Lake CRAC2-B3-2001 2011 Seed Increase

MM 356 I-80 CRAC2-U3-2002 2011 Seed Increase

Relay Station CRAC2-U36-2009 2011 Seed Increase

I-80 MM 273 CRAC2-U37-2004 2011 Seed Increase

N of Elko ELCI Site CRAC2-U44-2006 2011 Seed Increase

N. Battle Mountain CRAC2-U5-2002 2011 Seed Increase

I-80 MM 268 CRAC2-U53-2005 2011 Seed Increase

Hodgsen Pond CRAC2-U54-2002 2011 Seed Increase

Paradise Rancho CRAC2-U59-2007 2011 Seed Increase

Adobe Hill CRAC2-U8-2002 2011 Seed Increase
83

Species / Source Lot Number Year 

Planted Purpose of Plantings

Devil's Canyon PSSL-106 2011 Seed Increase

Suzie Creek PSSL-87 2011 Seed Increase

I-80 MM 356 CRAC2-U3-2002 2012 Seed Increase

Relay Station CRAC2-U36-2006 2012 Seed Increase

I-80 MM 273 CRAC2-U37-2004 2012 Seed Increase

N. Battle Mountain CRAC2-U5-2006 2012 Seed Increase

I-80 MM 268 CRAC2-U53-2005 2012 Seed Increase

Paradise Hill CRAC2-U59-2007 2012 Seed Increase

Crepis intermedia - gray hawksbeard

Mineral Mountain CRIN4-U58-2005 2009 Root Transplant

Elko ELCI Site CRIN4-U45-2005 2010 Root Transplant

Nephi Dry Farm CRIN4-U56-2005 2010 Root Transplant

Mineral Mountain CRIN4-U58-2005 2010 Root Transplant

Buster Mt. CRIN4-B1-2003 2011 Seed Increase

Elko ELCI site CRIN4-U45-2005 2011 Seed Increase

Nephi Dry Farm CRIN4-U56-2011 2011 Seed Increase

Mineral Mt. CRIN4-U58-2005 2011 Seed Increase

Mineral Mountain CRIN4-P1-2005 2012 Seed Increase

Nephi Dry Farm CRIN4-U56-2011 2012 Seed Increase

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia - gooseberryleaf globemallow

Sevier Lake PSSL-122 2011 Seed Increase

Major's Place PSSL-130 2011 Seed Increase

Cove Fort PSSL-173 2011 Seed Increase

Scooby RMRS-1225 2011 Seed Increase

Wadsworth Ranch SPGR2-U65-2009 2011 Seed Increase

Major's Place PSSL-130 2012 Seed Increase

Road to Lund SPGR2-U15-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Cherry Creek SPGR2-U30-2004 2012 Seed Increase

Pioche SPGR2-U63-2008 2012 Seed Increase

Antelope Springs SPGR2-U64-2009 2012 Seed Increase

Cove Fort SPGR2-U71-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Nephi Dry Farm

Species / Source Lot Number Year 

Planted Purpose of Plantings

Balsamorhiza hookeri - Hooker's balsamroot

Eco Road PSSL-105 2012 Seed Increase

Balsamorhiza sagittata - arrowleaf balsamroot
84

Species / Source Lot Number Year 

Planted Purpose of Plantings

ARS Plots BASA3-B23-2004 2012 Seed Increase

Richmond BASA3-B29-2004 2012 Seed Increase

Ox Valley BASA3-U36-2006 2012 Seed Increase

Pocatello Valley BASA3-U54-2004 2012 Seed Increase

Pequop Pass BASA3-U70-2005 2012 Seed Increase

Soldier Canyon BASA3-U72-2009 2012 Seed Increase

Crepis acuminata - tapertip hawksbeard

Coyote Hills CRAC2-U10-2006 2012 Seed Increase

Crepis intermedia - gray hawksbeard

Pequop Pass CRIN4-U2-2008 2012 Seed Increase

Iliamna rivularis – streambank wild hollyhock

Freemont ILRI-U1-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Sphaeralcea munroana - Munro's globemallow

Overstreet Adrian SPMU1-BY10 2012 Seed Increase

Road to Hoo Doo Ridge SPMU2-BY09 2012 Seed Increase

Owyhee Dam Road SPMU2-BY10 2012 Seed Increase

Crowley SPMU4-BY10 2012 Seed Increase

Harney Lake SPMU5-BY10 2012 Seed Increase

Burns Junction SPMU6-BY10 2012 Seed Increase

Twin Springs SPMU8-BY10 2012 Seed Increase

I-84W MP11 - 2012 Seed Increase

Sandhollow 1 - 2012 Seed Increase

Sandhollow 2 - 2012 Seed Increase

I-84E MP8 - 2012 Seed Increase

Snow Field Station

Species / Source Lot Number Year 

Planted Purpose of Plantings

Aquilegia formosa - western columbine

Loop Road AQFO-U3-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Wales AQFO-U5-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Aster sp. - Aster

Log Canyon ASTER-U1-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Balsamorhiza hookeri - Hooker's balsamroot

CTTNCK BAHO-P4-2011 2011 Seed Increase

Indian Creek Reservoir 2012 Seed Increase

Balsamorhiza sagittata - arrowleaf balsamroot 

Coyote Hills BASA3-U32-2007 2011 Seed Increase
85

Species / Source Lot Number Year 

Planted Purpose of Plantings

Buck Lake BASA3-U45-2003 2011 Seed Increase

Coffee Pot Crater BASA3-U50-2003 2011 Seed Increase

Stinking Water BASA3-U65-2004 2011 Seed Increase

Willow Creek PSSL-104 2011 Seed Increase

Castilleja sp. - Indian paintbrush

Log Canyon CAST11-U1-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Crepis acuminata - tapertip hawksbeard

Diamond Peak CRAC2-B5-2002 2011 Seed Increase

Robinson Pass CRAC2-B8-2003 2011 Seed Increase

Limerick Canyon CRAC2-U12-2002 2011 Seed Increase

Lamoille Canyon CRAC2-U22-2006 2011 Seed Increase

Cherry Creek CRAC2-U39-2004 2011 Seed Increase

Toano CRAC2-U6-2001 2011 Seed Increase

Winnemucca Mt. CRAC2-U7-2005 2011 Seed Increase

Vernon Creek PSSL-152 2011 Seed Increase

Angel Lake PSSL-85 2011 Seed Increase

Crepis occidentalis - western hawksbeard

Baldies CROC-U1-2009 2011 Species Evaluation

Delphinium nuttallianum - twolobe larkspur

Bald Mt. Pass DENU2-U1-2011 2011 Species Evaluation

Iliamna rivularis - streambank wild hollyhock

Freemont ILRI-U1-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Linum kingii - King's flax

Kirch WMA LIKI2-U1-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Muhlenbergia asperifolia - scratchgrass

Hinkley MUAS-U1-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Penstemon eatonii - firecracker penstemon

Monroe PEEA-U1-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Wales PEEA-U2-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Beaver PEEA-U3-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Chalk Canyon PEEA-U4-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Shoal Creek PEEA-U5-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Penstemon procerus - littleflower penstemon

Baldy Mt. PEPR2-U1-2011 2011 Species Evaluation

Baldy Mt. PEPR2-U1-2011 2012 Seed Increase

Penstemon rostriflorus - Bridge penstemon

Shoal Creek PERO10-U1-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Beaver PERO10-U2-2012 2012 Seed Increase
86

Species / Source Lot Number Year 

Planted Purpose of Plantings

Penstemon rydbergii - Rydberg's penstemon

PERY-U1-2011 Snow Field 2011 Species Evaluation

PERY-U1-2011 Snow Field 2012 Seed Increase

Penstemon strictus - Rocky Mountain penstemon

Pleasant Valley PEST2-U1-2011 2011 Species Evaluation

Pleasant Valley PEST2-U1-2011 2012 Seed Increase

Perideridia bolanderi - Bolander's yampah

Relay Station PEBO2-U21-2007 2011 Seed Increase

Stampede Ranch PEBO2-U2-2006 2011 Seed Increase

Suzie Creek PEBO2-U3-2005 2011 Seed Increase

Swales PEBO2-U5-2002 2011 Seed Increase

Pole Creek PEBO2-U6-2006 2011 Seed Increase

Potentilla arguta - tall cinquefoil

Log Canyon POAR7-U1-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Rudbeckia occidentalis - western coneflower

Log Canyon RUOC2-U1-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Loop Road RUOC2-U2-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Scrophularia lanceolata - lanceleaf figwort

Log Canyon SCLA-U1-2012 2012 Species Evaluation

Sphaeralcea coccinea - scarlet globemallow

Pony Express Road PSSL-101 2011 Seed Increase

Mona SPCO-U10-2011 2011 Seed Increase

Eagle Mt. SPCO-U55-2005 2011 Seed Increase

Highway to Springville SPCO-U11-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Sphaeralcea parvifolia - smallflower globemallow

Pioche PSSL-37 2012 Seed Increase

White River SPAM2-P2-2008 2012 Seed Increase

Mule Shoe Valley SPPA2-P2-2005 2012 Seed Increase

Beryl Junction SPPA2-U60-2012 2012 Seed Increase

Geyser Ranch SPPA-U28-2005 2012 Seed Increase

Pole Creek SPPA-U57-2006 2012 Seed Increase

Wildland Seed Collection

In 2011, we compiled a database on historic population locations and collection sites, as well as, 

historic herbaria sites of our target species throughout the Great Basin. In 2012, this tool served 

us well in prioritizing sites to search for new populations for seed harvest. We located 76 new 

sites with populations of at least 50 plants (Figure 8). At each site we collected three herbarium 
87

specimens. One specimen will be kept in our office herbarium, one will be sent to the Stanley L. 

Welsh Herbarium at Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, and the third will be available for 

loan by request of collaborators. We were unable to harvest seed from all 76 sites in 2012; hence, 

the unsampled sites will be included in prioritization of seed harvest trips in the coming seasons.

Although drought reduced the number of populations and species able to produce seed, we were 

able to harvest seed from 52 accessions of 29 species (Table 6). The majority of the species we 

observed flowered in the early summer but failed to produce seed due to dry conditions. The 

populations from which we did harvest seed had poor yields per plant. We moved the focus of 

our collecting from the lower basins and valleys where target species were not producing seed, to 

montane and riparian habitats where species were flowering and producing seed.. The exceptions 

we observed are firecracker penstemon and Bridge penstemonwhich flowered and produced seed 

throughout their range; and gooseberryleaf globemallow, smallflower globemallow, and James’ 

galleta populations growing in the southern portion of the Great Basin that received the 

monsoonal moisture events during the late summer and flowered and set seed in mid-October. In 

the coming year we will be identifying and collecting from more sites of firecracker penstemon 

and Bridge penstemon due to their ability to flower and produce seed in drought years.

Figure 8. These maps demonstrate the majority of the 76 new populations we found and the 52 

sites from which we harvested seed in western Utah (Table 6). We will continue to use historic 

herbaria records to prioritize our seed collecting.
88

Table 6. Species collected in 2012.

USDA Plant 

Code Scientific Name Common Name

No. of 

Collections

AGUR Agastache urticifolia nettleleaf giant hyssop 6

AQCOO Aquilegia coerulea var. ochroleuca white Colorado columbine 1

AQFO Aquilegia formosa western columbine 5

ARMU Argemone munita flatbud pricklypoppy 1

ARPU9 Aristida purpurea purple threeawn 1

ASCO12 Astragalus convallarius lesser rushy milkvetch 1

ASTER Aster sp. aster 1

CAST11 Castilleja sp. Indian paintbrush 1

CHANA2 Chamerion angustifolium fireweed 1

DENU2 Delphinium nuttallianum upland larkspur 1

ENNU Enceliopsis nudicaulis nakedstem sunray 2

GEVI Geranium viscosissimum sticky purple geranium 4

ILRI Iliamna rivularis streambank wild hollyhock 1

IPCO5 Ipomopsis congesta ballhead ipomopsis 1

LIKI2 Linum kingii King's flax 2

LOUT Lotus utahensis Utah bird's-foot trefoil 1

MUAS Muhlenbergia asperifolia scratchgrass 1

PEEA Pensetomon eatonii firecracker penstemon 5

PERO10 Penstemon rostriflorus Bridge's penstemon 2

PHACE Phacelia sp. phacelia 1

PLJA Pleuraphis jamesii James' galleta 2

POAR7 Potentilla arguta tall cinquefoil 1

POGR Potentilla gracilis slender cinquefoil 1

RUOC2 Rudbeckia occidentalis western coneflower 2

SADO4 Salvia dorii purple sage 2

SCLA Scrophularia lanceolata lanceleaf figwort 1

SPCO Sphaeralcea coccinea scarlet globemallow 1

SPGR2 Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf globemallow 2

SPPA2 Sphaeralcea parvifolia smallflower globemallow 1

Germination Studies

Ballhead ipomopsis

Little is known about the germination requirements of ballhead ipomopsis. Therefore, we 

examined the effect of a 10-wk cold-stratification of seeds on germination compared to a control 

group. From each accession 50 seeds were placed onto moistened blotter paper in 10 petri dishes. 

Five dishes were kept at 4°C (39.2oF) for 10 weeks before being placed in an incubator 

(Precision Scientific Low Temperature Illuminated Incubator, Winchester, VA). The other five 

dishes were placed directly into an incubator. Germination was recorded every 7 days for 21 
89

days; after which the % germination could be calculated (number of seedlings/total seeds 

planted). 

In 2011 we were able to make several collections of ballhead ipomopsis from western Utah. 

Crystal Peak and Snake Pass accessions were collected in central western Utah located 

approximately 110 km (68 mi) west of Fillmore; Utah and Uvada accessions were collected in 

southwest Utah located approximately 80 km (50 mi) northwest of St. George, Utah on the 

Nevada border.

The Crystal Peak and Snake Pass accessions had increased germination in response to coldstratification (Figure 9); however, in a statistical comparison, only the Crystal Peak accession 

showed a significant difference (p = 0.0278, ANOVA). The Uvada accession had decreased 

germination in response to cold-stratification (Figure 9). The differences in response to the 

stratification period may be due to winter climate at the collections sites (Kitchen 2001). 

However, our data are inconclusive and we will need to evaluate germination responses from 

accessions collected throughout the species’ range to determine germination regulatory functions 

of each ecotype (Meyer 1992) before such a conclusion can be made.

Figure 9. Effect of cold-stratification on germination of ballhead ipomopsis on three western 

Utah accessions. Cold-stratification improved germination in two of three accessions and 

decreased germination in the third accession.

Golden princesplume

Little is known about the stratification requirements for golden princesplume. Therefore, we 

examined the effect of a 10-wk cold-stratification of seeds on germination compared to a control 

group. From each accession, 50 seeds were placed onto moistened blotter paper in 10 petri 

dishes. Five dishes were kept at 4°C (39.2oF) for 10 weeks before being placed in an incubator. 

The other five dishes were placed directly into an incubator. Germination (number of seedlings) 

was recorded every 7 days for 21 days.

0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

40.0%

45.0%

Crystal Peak Snake Pass Uvada

Germination

Ballhead ipomopsis

Control

Cold Stratification
90

In 2011 we collected three accessions of golden princesplume from western Utah and eastern 

Nevada. The collection sites were Bidwell Pass located approximately 18 km (11 mi) north of 

West Wendover, Nevada; Smelter Knolls located approximately 25 km (16 mi) northwest of 

Delta, Utah; and Silver Peak located approximately 35 km (22 mi) west of Cedar City, Utah. 

Stratification significantly reduced germination compared to the control groups for all three 

accessions (Figure 10; p < 0.000001. The accession from Bidwell Pass had the highest % 

germination in the control group and the lowest % germination in the stratification group (Figure 

10). This species is non-dormant, and stratification did not improve germination in our trials.

Figure 10. Golden princesplume seed from all accessions was non-dormant, and stratification 

decreased germination.

Streambank wild hollyhock

Streambank wild hollyhock (Iliamna rivularis) commonly grows in riparian and aspen/fir 

communities throughout the intermountain west (Welsh et al. 2003). Mountain hollyhock is an 

early seral stage? species that dominates sites following forest fires and may become abundant 

following clear cutting or mechanical treatments (Matthews 1993). We examined mechanisms 

controlling seed dormancy and germination in our trials by replicating the effects that fire, heat, 

and smoke may have on seed. We examined the effects of smoke, the hormone gibberellic acid, 

boiling water, and dry heat at two temperature ranges. We also investigated other ways to scarify 

the seeds including chemical scarification with sulfuric acid, the hydrophobic solvents xylene 

and brake cleaner, and mechanical scarification using an electric scarifier (Seedburo Electric 

Seed Scarifier, Des Plaines, IL).

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Bidwell Pass Smelter Knolls Silver Peak

Germination

Golden princesplume

Control

Cold Stratification
91

In 2012, we harvested a large amount of seed from a site west of Richfield, Utah and used seed 

from this accession in our study. Following the various seed treatments, 25 seeds from each 

treatment were placed into 16 petri dishes: four petri dishes were cold-stratified for 0, 8, or 16 

weeks at 6° C. The petri dishes were then placed in an incubator, and germination was recorded 

every 7 days for 21 days. Generally, there was greater germination in each subsequent period of 

stratification. As not all treatments produced an enhancement in germination, we do not list all of 

the results at this time. Listed below are the three treatment groups with the greatest germination 

responses.

Boiling Water Treatment

Seed was kept at a constant temperature in boiling water for five periods of time: 5, 10, 15, 30, 

and 60 seconds. Initial germination response in the group that was unstratified was extremely 

low at 3% in the 10 sec treatment. However, with increased stratification time came increased 

germination. Eight weeks of stratification produced 18% germination in both the 10 and 30 sec 

treatments. The highest germination rate came after 16 weeks of stratification in the 15 sec 

treatment group with 41% germination (Figure 11).

Mechanical Scarification

We scarified seed using an electric scarifier, running batches of seed through the scarifier at 1 

second intervals from 1 to 10 sec. Highest germination was reached at the 7 sec scarification 

with 99% and 98% germination at 8 and 16 week stratification, respectively. However, 93% 

germination of the unstratified seed (0 wk) was obtained at 10 sec scarification (Figure 12).

Chemical Scarification

Using sulfuric acid we scarified the seed batches for 1 minute intervals from 1 to 10 minutes. 

The seed were then stratified for the described periods or incubated. The highest germination rate 

of 27% in the unstratified group was achieved with an 8 min scarification period. Germination of 

54% in the 8-week stratification period was achieved with a 10 min scarification period. Overall, 

the highest germination of 59% was reached with 9 min of scarification and 16 weeks of 

stratification (Figure 13).

Figure 11. Using 

boiling water 

scarification, highest 

germination of 

streambank wild 

hollyhock (41%) was 

achieved with 15 sec 

boiling water 

treatment and a 16-

week stratification 

period.

0%0%0%0%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

5 sec 10 sec 15 sec 30 sec 60 sec Control

Germination

Boiling Water Treatment

Iliamna rivularis

0 Week

8 Week

16 Week

Streambank wild hollyhock
92

Figure 12. Using 

mechanical 

technology, the

highest germination in 

steambank wild 

hollyhock was 

reached at the 7 sec 

scarification with 

99% and 98% 

germination at 8 and 

16 week stratification, 

respectively. 

Figure 13. Using 

chemical 

scarification, highest 

germination of 

streambank wild 

hollyhock (59%) 

occurred with 9 min 

sulfuric acid 

scarification and a 16-

week stratification 

period.

Acknowledgements

Scott Jensen, USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, for data analysis used in 

native lupine cultivation project.

Tom Wacek, Plant Probiotics Indianapolis, IN, for providing multiple legume rhizobium 

inoculants used in farm and greenhouse trials.

0%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Germination

Mechanical Scarification

Iliamna rivularis

0 Week

8 Week

16 Week

Streambank wild hollyhock 0%0%

0%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Germination

Sulfuric Acid Scarification

Iliamna rivularis

0 Week

8 Week

16 Week

Streambank wild hollyhock
93

References

Gitelson, A. A.; Buschmann, C.; Lichtenthaler, H. K. 1999. The chlorophyll fluorescence ratio 

F735/F700 as an accurate measure of chlorophyll content in plants. Remote Sensing 

Environment 69: 296-302.

Kitchen, S. G. 2001. Intra-specific variability in germination behavior and seed testing protocols: 

the challenge of intermountain species. Seed Technology 23: 68-77.

Matthews, R. F. 1993. Iliamna rivularis. In: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, producer. Fire Effects Information 

System, http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Meyer, S. E. 1992. Habitat correlated variation in firecracker penstemon (Penstemon eatonii

Gray: Scrophulariaceae) seed germination response. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 119: 

268-279.

R Core Team. 2012. R: A language and Environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for 

Statistical Computing Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0, http://www.R-project.org/.

USDA NRCS [United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation 

Service]. 2000. The PLANTS database. Version: 000417. Baton Rouge, LA: USDA NRCS 

National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov

Welsh, S. L.; Atwood, D.; Goodrich, S.; Higgins, L. C. 2003. A Utah Flora. 3d edition. Brigham 

Young University, Provo, Utah: 437-438.

Publications

Jensen, S.; Stettler, J. 2012. Applying provisional seed zones to Great Basin forb production, and 

cultural practice notes. Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2011 Progress Report: 70-

84. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2011_ProgressReport.pdf

Stettler, J.; Whittaker, A. 2012. Native plant material development and cultivation. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2011 Progress Report: 61-69.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2011_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations

Jensen, S.; Stettler, J. 2012. Applying provisional seed zones to plant materials development in 

the Great Basin and cultural practices. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/PowerPoint_Presentations/2012/Jensen.pdf

Jensen, S.; Stettler, J. 2012. Applying provisional seed zones and cultural practices. Society for 

Range Management Summer Tour, 2012 June 18-20, Ephraim, UT.
94

Jensen, S.; Stettler, J. 2012. Applying provisional seed zones in the Great Basin. 65th Society for 

Range Management Annual Meeting and Trade Show, 2012 January 29-February 3. Spokane, 

WA.

Jensen, S.; Stettler, J. 2012. Incorporating technology in plant materials collecting tasks. 65th

Society for Range Management Annual Meeting and Trade Show, 2012 January 29-February 3, 

Spokane, WA.

Stettler, J. 2012. Native plant materials development. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/PowerPoint_Presentations/2012/Stettler.pdf

Whittaker, A.; Summers, D.; Stettler, J.; Jensen, S. 2012. Planting methods for establishing 

native forbs on the landscape. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual 

Meeting, 2012 February 22-23, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/PowerPoint_Presentations/2012/Whittaker.pdf

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

Land Managers

N-sulate®fabric appears to be a potential option to help establish native forbs in a wildland 

setting particularly on dry sites with minimal cheatgrass or other weedy annual species. This is 

not a treatment that a land manager could cost effectively apply to an entire landscape scale 

project, but could be used to establish forbs in specific small areas of a site.

Seed Producers

Longspur and hairy bigleaf lupines are susceptible to iron deficiency chlorosis when grown in 

basic and calcareous agronomic soils. Our preliminary studies have shown a visual decrease in 

seedling chlorosis when the seed is pretreated with EDDHA chelated iron. Using a chlorophyll 

content meter we were able to quantify the increases in chlorophyll content and decreases in 

chlorosis. We will evaluate if the decreases in chlorosis will increase survival and establishment 

in 2013. While silky lupine is more tolerant to iron deficiency chlorosis, the seed pretreated with 

iron chelate EDDHA also improves chlorophyll content.

Products

 Wildland seed collection

-52 collections of 30 species of forbs

 Stock Seed Production – Seed Increase Plots

-62 accessions of 20 native forb species were planted into 107 beds on three Utah farms

 Seed Distribution to Growers

-Iliamna rivularis, Gunnell Farm Logan, UT

-Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia, Gunnell Farm Logan, UT

-Sphaeralcea parvifolia, Gunnell Farm Logan, UT

-Penstemon procerus, Gunnell Farm Logan, UT

-Cleome serrulata, Matt Tabolt Spring City, Utah
95

Project Title Provisional Seed Zone-based Seed Increase

Project Agreement No. 11-IA-11221632-077

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Scott Jensen, Botanist

U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

Shrub Sciences Laboratory

735 N. 500 E., Provo, UT 84606 – 1865

801.319.5105, Fax 801.375.6968

sljensen@fs.fed.us

Project Description

Wildland Seed Collection

Seed collection efforts in 2012 focused on four areas: targeted collections of priority species for 

germplasm increase; bulk collections for distribution to growers; limited biotype collection for 

species screening, and collections for germplasm preservation for the Seeds of Success (SOS) 

program. We developed a tiered collecting list based on species priorities, known populations 

not yet represented in collections, collected populations with limited seed quantity, species of 

interest, and unverified herbarium locations. Our priority species include:

Bigflower agoseris (Agoseris grandiflora), annual agoseris (Agoseris heterophylla), Hooker’s 

balsamroot (Balsamorhiza hookeri), yellow beeplant (Cleome lutea), Rocky Mountain beeplant 

(Cleome serrulata), tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata), gray hawksbeard (Crepis 

intermedia), Western hawksbeard (Crepis occidentalis), nakedstem sunray (Enceliopsis 

nudicaulis), Nevada goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis), scarlet gilia (Ipomopsis 

aggregata), Lewis flax (Linum lewisii var. lewisii), barestem biscuitroot (Lomatium nudicaule),

smoothstem blazingstar (Mentzelia laevicaulis), thickleaf beardtongue (Penstemon pachyphyllus)

scarlet globemallow (Sphaeralcea coccinea), gooseberryleaf globemallow (Sphaeralcea 

grossulariifolia), Monro’s globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana).

In 2012, crews visited in excess of 300 sites; however drought conditions throughout the Great 

Basin resulted in exceptionally poor seed production and just 22 small wildland collections from 

10 species were made (Table 1). None were adequately large for either direct distribution to 

producers or distribution to the SOS germplasm preservation program. These sources will be 

increased at our farm facilities.

Seed Distributions

Seed collected from wildland sites in previous years or increased at farm sites was distributed to 

private industry for establishment of a commercial seed production field and to partnering 

organizations for cultural practice studies.
96

Table 1. Wildland seed collections made in 2012.

Scientific Name Common Name 2012 Collections

Agoseris heterophylla annual goat chicory 1

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot 2

Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot 2

Crepis acuminata Tapertip hawksbeard 5

Enceliopsis nudicaulis Nakedstem sunray 1

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis Nevada goldeneye 3

Ipomopsis aggregata Scarlet gilia 3

Linum lewisii var. lewisii Prairie flax 2

Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot 1

Mentzelia laevicaulis Smoothstem blazingstar 2

Private Industry

One pooled lot of thickleaf penstemon from the Central Basin and Range ecoregion was 

distributed to private industry for commercial seed production (Table 2).

Table 2. Seed distributions to private sector seed producers.

Scientific Name Composition Provisional Seed Zone Quantity

Penstemon pachyphyllus Pooled (2)(G0,G1) 14-24 in precipitation / 70-80oF

29 kg 

(65 lb)

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project (GBNPSIP) Cooperators

Seed of seven species was distributed to cooperators at the Oregon State University Malheur 

Experiment Station, Ontario, OR for research projects (Table 3).

Seeds of Success

We partner with the Bureau of Land Management SOS program by contributing native forb and 

grass germplasm from the Great Basin to long-term conservation storage. In 2012, Generation 1 

(G1) seed from 11 sources of five species was harvested from production farms (Table 4). This 

seed was entered into the SOS program with the remainder available for research or distribution 

to producers.

Seed Increase

Strategy

Our seed increase efforts follow the model described by Johnson et al.(2010) to develop locallyadapted and regionally- appropriate native seed sources. Johnson et al. (2010) recommended 

seed sources be composed of more than 50 parents from at least five populations from the same 
97

ecosystem. We selected Bower’s (Bower et al. 2010) provisional seed zone (PSZ) map as our 

surrogate for genecologically-derived seed zones because empirical zones have not been 

developed for any species currently in our increase program. Our wildland seed collection 

protocol restricts seed gathering to populations with more than 25 individual plants thus retaining 

a broad genetic base. Most collections represent hundreds of plants. We assign each species 

collection site a PSZ based on its mapped location. Seed sources from the same PSZ of the same 

species are increased without regard for isolation. Sources from different zones are increased at 

different farms to prevent cross-pollination. 

Table 3. Seed distributions to GBNPSIP cooperators.

Scientific Name Lot # Purpose of Allocation

Ipomopsis aggregata ssp. aggregata

IPAG-G1-P8-2011-

Cut

Irrigation trials, establishment trials, 

herbicide trials

PSSL-57

IPAG-G1-P2-07

Nicotiana attenuata

Coyote tobacco

PSSL-193

NIAT-P1-2008

NIAT-G1-2009

NIAT-P2-2008

Mentzelia albicaulis

Whitestem blazingstar

PSSL-107

PSSL-82

PSSL-83

Phacelia crenulata var. corrugata

Cleftleaf wildheliotrope PHCRC-P1-2009

Thelypodium milleflorum

Manyflower thelypodium

THMI5-P1-2008

THMI5-P2-2008

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis

HEMUN-P7-2009

HEMUN-P5-2007

PSSL-190

HEMUN-B4-2009

HEMUN-B3-2008

Enceliopsis nudicaulis

ENNU-G1-B2-2012

ENNU-G1-P2-11

ENNU-G1-PSSL-138-

12

. 
98

Table 4. Seed provided to SOS for germplasm preservation.

SOS Reference Number Common Name, Scientific Name (Common name)

PSSL-414 Hesperostipa comata (needle and thread)

PSSL-415 Hesperostipa comata

PSSL-416 Hesperostipa comata

PSSL-417 Hesperostipa comata

PSSL-418 Hesperostipa comata

PSSL-419 Hesperostipa comata

PSSL-420 Hesperostipa comata

PSSL-421 Penstemon pachyphyllus

PSSL-422 Heliomeris multiflora nevadensis

PSSL-423 Mentzelia laevicaulis

PSSL-424 Erigeron speciosus (aspen fleabane)

PSSL-425 Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis

Planting

In 2012 we installed seed increase plantings for 10 species representing 50 source populations

and103 beds/rows (Table 5). For all species planted, the recommended number of parental plants 

(50) was met. Only three species, however, were represented by an adequate number of 

populations (>five).

Annual seed collection efforts focus on locating and collecting seed from species/PSZ 

combinations underrepresented in our increase program. G1 seed, increased under this program, 

is made available to the private sector through the Utah Crop Improvement program for 

establishment of commercial seed production fields.

Seed Harvest

In 2009 we began establishing seed increase and evaluation plantings at farm facilities in Juab 

and Sanpete counties, UT. Information generated from these plantings provides a better 

understanding of appropriate cultural practices necessary to grow specific plant materials and 

dramatically increase the quantity of seed available for distribution to researchers and private 

sector seed producers. In 2012 we harvested seed of 10 species representing 26 different sites 

(Table 6). In most cases additional quantities are needed before volumes are adequate to permit 

commercial seed production. 

Cultural Practice Studies

Effect of Plateau herbicide on individual species

Plateau (BASF) herbicide applied in late fall at 5 oz. per acre to green basal rosettes of thickleaf 

penstemon prevented seed production the following year. The same effect (no seed production) 

was observed when Plateau was applied to dormant plants of desert frasera, nakedstem sunray,

Nevada goldeneye and tapertip hawksbeard.
99

Table 5. Plots planted in 2012 for seed increase. 

Scientific Name Common Name Farm Provisional Seed Zone

Precipitation (in) / 

Temperature (oF)

Source / Lot Beds/ Rows

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Orovada G2 1 bed

Enceliopsis nudicaulis Nakedstem sunray Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 W. of Milford 4 rows

Ft. Green <10 / <80 Blind Valley 3 beds

Ft. Green <10 / <80 Painted Pot Road 2 beds

Ft. Green <10 / <80 Halfway Summit 2 beds

Ft. Green <10 / <80 Crystal Peak 1 bed

Ephraim 10-14 / 80-90 Silver King 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 Jackrabbit Mine 1 row

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 Patterson Pass 1 row

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Newcastle 3 beds

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Newcastle Reservior 1 bed

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Panaca 1 bed

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Pioche 5 beds

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Patterson Pass 4 beds

Ipomopsis aggregata Scarlet gilia Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 IPAG-G1-P8-2010-cut 10 beds

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Secret Valley G1 2 beds

Linum lewisii var. lewisii Prairie flax Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Patterson Pass 0.5 bed

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Cave Valley 0.5 bed

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Ely 0.5 bed

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Major's Place 0.5 bed

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Jackrabbit Mine 0.5 bed

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Wilson Reservoir 0.5 bed

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Long Hill 1 bed

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Water Canyon 1 bed

Penstemon pachyphyllus Thickleaf beardtongue Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 Pleasant Valley 4 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 Ward Mt 4 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 Schellbourne 4 rows

Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 Robinson Pass 1 bed

Cleome lutea Yellow beeplant Ft. Green 10-14 / 80-90 Bradshaw Mountains 1 bed

Cleome serrulata Rocky Mountain Ft. Green <10 / >80 Pleasant Valley 2 beds

beeplant Ft. Green <10 / >80 Spring Valley 1 bed

Ft. Green <10 / >80 Tippet 1 bed

Frasera ablomarginata Desert frasera Ft. Green 10-14 / 70-80 North Cave Valley 3 beds

Hesperostipa comata Needle and thread Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-B18-2003 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-B9-2003 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-U16-2002 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-U22-2003 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-U27-2003 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-U29-2003 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-U39-2005 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-U41-2005 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-U4-1998 2 rows

Ephraim 10-14 / 70-80 HECO26-U43-2005 2 rows
100

Table 6. Seed increase harvest in 2012.

Scientific Name Lot #

Provisional Seed Zone

Precipitation (in) / oF

Quantity 

(g)

Crepis intermedia CRAC-U58-G1-FG-12 10-14/ 70-80 *

Enceliopsis nudicaulis ENNU-G1-B2-2012 <10. / <80 1053

Enceliopsis nudicaulis ENNU-G1-PSSL-138-2012 <10 / <80 221

Erigeron speciosus ERPS4-G1-P3-12 14-24 / <70 *

Frasera albomarginata FRAL5-P4-G1-FG-12 10-14 / 70-80 97

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis HEMUN-G1-P6-12 10-14 / 80-90 *

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis HEMUN-G1-B3-12 10-14 / 70-80 336

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis HEMUN-P7-G1-12 10-14 / 70-80 397

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis HEMUN-P5-G1-2012 14-24 / 70-80 *

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis HEMUN-B4-G1-2012 14-24 / 70-80 *

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis HEMUN-P7-G1-2012 14-24 / 70-80 *

Hesperostipa comata HECO26-U17-FG-G1-12 <10 / <80 312

Hesperostipa comata HECO26-U36-FG-G1-12 <10 / <80 840

Hesperostipa comata HECO26-U14-FG-G1-12 <10 / <80 679

Hesperostipa comata HECO26-B17-FG-G1-12 <10 / <80 1041

Hesperostipa comata HECO26-U40-FG-G1-12 <10 / <80 249

Hesperostipa comata HECO26-B13-FG-G1-12 <10 / <80 513

Hesperostipa comata HECO26-B12-FG-G1-12 <10 / <80 300

Ipomopsis aggregata ssp. aggregata IPAGA3-PSSL-57-G1-FG-12 14-24 / 70-80 102

Ipomopsis aggregata ssp. aggregata IPAGA3-P8-G1-FG-12 14-24 / 70-80 208

Mentzelia laevicaulis PSSL-192-SF-G1-12 14-24 / 70-80 898

Nicotiana attenuata NIAT-PSSL-193-G1-12 14-24 / 70-80 *

Penstemon pachyphyllus PEPA6-B4-FG-G1-12 10-14 / 70-80 1322

Penstemon pachyphyllus PEPA6-P1-FG-G1-12 14-24 / <70 131

Penstemon pachyphyllus PEPA6-B5-FG-G1-12 14-24 / 70-80 376

Penstemon pachyphyllus PEPA6-PSSL-178-FG-G1-12 14-24 / <70 280

*quantity not yet known because seed at 

cleaning facility

Can overcompensation resulting in increased seed yield be induced in scarlet gilia through 

appropriately timed clipping?

Some populations of scarlet gilia are reported to overcompensate from herbivory or simulated 

herbivory by increasing aboveground biomass and/or seed yield. We tested whether clipping 

over a 4-week period would result in increased seed yield. Seeds from two central Nevada 

sources (Secret Valley, Soldier Canyon) were planted at the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 

farm facility in Fountain Green, UT. Each source was planted in a configuration of three rows at 

19 in spacing onto a 100 ft. raised nursery bed in 2010. Each bed was partitioned into nine 

blocks with five randomly assigned treatments per block representing 4 weekly sequential cut 

dates and an uncut control. In 2012, rosettes within each block were hand trimmed to 5 cm (2 in) 
101

in height at weekly intervals beginning 25 April 2012. Ripened seed was collected weekly from 

first ripening through plant senescence (4 w) beginning 12 July 2012 with a badminton racquet 

and hopper. Seed production was tallied on a weekly basis by source and treatment. 

Overcompensation was not 

observed among any treatments. 

For the Soldier Canyon site there 

was no difference in seed yield 

based on cut date (p ≤ 0.05, 

Figure1). Secret Valley 

decreased in yield with the 

control and first cut producing a 

similar quantity of seed, the 

second and third cuts producing 

less seed than the control and the 

fourth cut producing less seed 

than the control or first cut.

Comparing the two sources there 

were no differences in seed 

production among similar treatments. 

Based on this experiment, cutting 

treatment to increase seed yield 

through overcompensation would not 

be beneficial for either of these 

sources.

Literature cited

Bower, A.; St. Clair, J. B.; Erickson, V. J. 2010. Provisional seed zones for native plants.

http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/nativeplantmaterials/rightmaterials.shtml

Johnson, G. R.; Stritch, L.; Olwell, P.; Lambert, S.; Horning, M. E.; Cronn, R. 2010. What are 

the best seed sources for ecosystem restoration on BLM and USFS lands? Native Plants 11: 117-

131.

Publications

Tilley, D.; Jensen, S.; St. John, L. 2012. Plant guide for a tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis 

acuminata). Aberdeen, ID. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Material Center. 3 p. www.plants.usda.gov

Presentations

Jensen, S. 2012. Applying provisional seed zones to plant materials development in the Great 

Basin and cultural practice notes. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

Annual Meeting, February 21 – 22, 2012, Salt Lake City, UT. 

www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/PowerPoint_Presentations/2012/Jensen.pdf Mean Weight (g)

Treatment

Sources

Figure 1. Seed yield of two sources of scarlet gilia

grown at Fountain Green, UT. Treatment refers to dates 

of cutting done at weekly intervals beginning 25 April 

2012. Treatments and sources with the same letter are 

not significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). 
102

Jensen, S.; Stettler, J. 2012. Incorporating technology in plant materials collecting tasks. 65th

Annual meeting of the Society for Range Management, 2012 February, Spokane, WA. Poster.

Jensen, S.; Stettler, J. 2012. Plant materials: bridging the Great Divide between cultivars and 

local sources with pooled materials from provisional seed zones. 65th Annual meeting of the 

Society for Range Management, 2012 February, Spokane, WA. Poster.

Jensen, S.; Stettler, J. 2012. Plant material screening and increasing Great Basin native forbs by 

provisional seed zones. Great Basin Chapter of the Society for Ecological Restoration and the 

Utah Section of the Society for Range Management. June 18 – 20, 2012. Ephraim, Utah.

Youtie, B.; Shaw, N.; Fisk, M.; Jensen, S. 2012. A strategy for maximizing native plant material 

diversity for restoration and genecology research. 8th European Conference on Ecological 

Restoration. 2012 September 9-14, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic. Poster.
103

Project Title Aberdeen Plant Materials Center Report of Activities

Project Agreement No. 10-IA-11221632-039, 11-IA-11221632-004

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Loren St. John, Team Leader

USDA NRCS, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

P. O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210

208.397.4133, Fax 208.397.3104

Loren.Stjohn@id.usda.gov

Derek Tilley, Agronomist

USDA NRCS, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

P. O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210

208.397.4133, Fax 208.397.3104

Derek.Tilley@id.usda.gov

Project Description

Plant Guides

The Aberdeen Plant Materials Center (PMC) is gathering information on selected plant species 

to create USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) plant guides. Plant guides 

offer the most recent information on plant establishment methods, as well as seed and plant 

production suggestions. General information for the species can also be found in the plant guide, 

including information on potential uses, ethnobotanical significance, adaptation, and pests and 

potential problems. In 2012, plant guides were completed or revised for arrowleaf balsamroot 

(Balsamorhiza sagittata), cutleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza macrophylla), Hooker’s balsamroot

(Balsamorhiza hookeri), yellow beeplant (Cleome lutea), tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis 

acuminata), barestem biscuitroot (Lomatium nudicaule), blue penstemon (Penstemon cyaneus)

and gooseberryleaf globemallow (Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia). In 2013 the Aberdeen PMC will 

produce plant guides for bigflower agoseris (Agoseris grandiflora) and limestone hawksbeard 

(Crepis intermedia). Plant guides are available at the PLANTS database (www.plants.usda.gov) 

and at the Aberdeen Plant Materials Center website 

(www.id.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/plant.html).

Plant Materials Development

Douglas’ dustymaiden

Fifteen accessions of Douglas’ dustymaiden (Chaenactis douglasii) were evaluated at the 

Aberdeen PMC from 2009 to 2010. The accessions were evaluated for establishment, growth, 

and seed production. Following field evaluations, Accession 9076577 was chosen for selected 

class release as it ranked at or near the top in percent establishment, plant vigor, height, flower 

production and seed yield. Accession 9076577 was collected in Boise County, Idaho, near Arrow 

Rock and Lucky Peak Reservoirs, approximately 0.8 km (0.5 mi) west of the dam on Forest 
104

Road 268. The site is a mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana)/bitterbrush 

(Purshia tridentata) community in coarse granitic soils at 960 m (3150 ft) elevation. 

In the fall of 2010, a 500-ft row of weed barrier fabric was planted with seed of Accession 

9076577; however, problems encountered during planting resulted in poor germination and 

establishment. In fall 2011, an additional 1,000 ft of fabric was seeded. Dry winter conditions 

resulted again in poor establishment (approximately 25%). Seed was harvested by hand and with 

backpack vacuum cleaners in summer 2012. A total of 1.8 kg (4 lb) dirt weight was cleaned to 

0.7 kg (1.5 lb) pure live seed (PLS). Release documentation is being developed and official 

release will occur once the PMC has produced a sufficient amount of early generation seed. 

Hoary tansyaster

Nine accessions of hoary tansyaster (Machaeranthera canescens) were evaluated from 2009 

through 2011 for establishment, plant growth and seed production. Accession 9076670 had the 

best establishment and stands in 2009 and 2010, the best rated vigor in 2010, and the tallest 

plants in the study. Although we were not able to evaluate seed production in 2010 due to wind 

storms when seed was ripening, Accession 9076670 was observed to be an excellent seed 

producer. Accession 9076670 was collected near the St. Anthony Sand Dunes in Fremont 

County, Idaho, at 5,000 ft (1,524 m) elevation. The site has sandy soils and supports a 

bitterbrush, Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides), yellow rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus 

visiciflorus), and lemon scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum) plant community. The location 

receives on average between 10 and 15 inches (250 and 380 mm) of annual precipitation. 

In 2010, the original population was revisited to collect additional seed to use in a seed increase 

planting at IDPMC. In 2010, a 500 foot (150 m) row of weed barrier fabric was planted. An 

additional 1,000 feet (300 m) row was planted in 2011. Dry winter conditions resulted in poor 

stands and the site was reseeded in the spring of 2012. An additional 0.6 acres (0.25 ha) of hoary 

tansyaster was drill seeded in spring 2012 to investigate agronomics without using weed barrier 

fabric. We also planted a small 0.08 acre (0.03 ha) plot of hoary tansyaster with a nurse crop of 

winter wheat in August 2012 to evaluate late summer seeding and weed control options without 

fabric. 

The 2010 plants were harvested in fall 2012 using a small-plot combine to compare a single 

combine harvest with multiple vacuum harvests as was done in 2011. The single combining 

yielded 55 lbs (25 kg) dirt weight which cleaned to 0.72 lbs (0.33 kg) PLS. The single combining 

method takes less time in the field. However this method yields correspondingly less seed, and 

significantly more time is required to clean the seed compared to vacuum harvesting. Release 

documentation is being developed and official release will occur once the PMC has produced a 

sufficient amount of early generation seed.

Wyeth or whorled buckwheat

Thirty-nine accessions of Wyeth and sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum heracleoides and E. 

umbellatum) were compared in a common garden study from 2007 through 2011. Accession 

9076546 Wyeth buckwheat showed good establishment, seed production and longevity 

compared with the other accessions.
105

In fall 2011, two 500-ft rows of weed barrier fabric were planted with seed of Accession 

9076546. Accession 9076546 was collected in Caribou County, Idaho northeast of Soda Springs 

in an 18-20 inch precipitation area occurring with mountain big sagebrush, three-tip sagebrush 

(Artemisia tripartita), bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) and basin wildrye 

(Leymus cinereus). Germination in 2012 was poor, likely due to drier and warmer than normal 

winter and early spring conditions. Plants will be propagated in the greenhouse in winter/spring 

2013 and transplanted in the weed barrier fabric rows in summer 2013.

Publications

St. John, L.; Tilley, D. 2012. Plant guide for Hooker’s balsamroot (Balsamorhiza hookeri). 

Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center. 5 p.

St. John, L.; Tilley, D. 2012. Plant guide for cutleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza macrophylla).

Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center. 3 p. http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_bama4.pdf

Tilley, D.; Cane, J.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Plant guide for yellow beeplant 

(Cleome lutea). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center. 3 p. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/41957

Tilley, D.; Jensen, S.; St. John, L. 2012. Plant guide for tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata). 

Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center. 3 p. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/41956

Tilley, D.; St. John, L. 2012. Plant guide for barestem biscuitroot (Lomatium nudicaule). 

Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center. 3 p. ftp://ftpfc.sc.egov.usda.gov/ID/programs/plant/plant_guides/pg_barestem_biscuitroot.pdf

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Plant guide for blue penstemon (Penstemon 

cyaneus). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center. 3 p. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/41955

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Plant guide for gooseberryleaf globemallow 

(Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. 4 p.

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Propagation protocol for production of 

Lomatium grayi (J. M. Coult. & Rose) seeds. Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. Moscow, ID: 

University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. 

http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org 
106

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N.; Cane, J. 2012. Propagation protocol for production 

of Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.) Mathias & Constance seeds. Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. 

Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. 

http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org 

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N.; Cane, J. 2012. Propagation protocol for production 

of Lomatium triternatum (Pursh) seeds. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, 

College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Shaw, N. 2012. Plant guide for arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza 

sagittata). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center. 5 p. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/41958

Presentations

Tilley, D.; St. John, L. 2012. Aberdeen PMC report of activities, 2011. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2012.shtml

Simonson, B.; St. John, L. 2012. Mixing seed with rice hulls. Drill calibration workshop, 2012 

July 18, Boise, ID.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines 

Douglas’ dustymaiden, hoary tansyaster and Wyeth buckwheat are feasible for commercial seed 

production. Douglas’ dustymaiden establishes well using fall dormant seedings. Hoary tansyaster 

has no seed dormancy issues and can be established with fall or spring seeding. Weed control in 

seed production fields of native forbs remains an obstacle, and various control methods are being 

evaluated. The use of weed barrier fabric is encouraged. Seed ripening is indeterminate and 

poses problems for a single harvest system. However, high yields can be obtained with multiple 

harvests conducted by hand or with a vacuum-type harvester followed by a final combining.

Products

 Plant Guides are available for arrowleaf balsamroot, barestem biscuitroot, blue penstemon, 

cutleaf balsamroot, Douglas’ dustymaiden, fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum), 

gooseberry leaf globemallow, Gray’s biscuitroot (L. grayi), hoary tansyaster, Hooker’s 

balsamroot, hotrock or scabland penstemon (Penstemon deustus), nineleaf biscuitroot (L.

triternatum), royal penstemon (P. speciosus), Searls’ prairie clover (Dalea searlsiae), 

sharpleaf penstemon (P. acuminatus), tapertip hawksbeard, and yellow beeplant.

 Propagation protocols are available for Douglas’ dustymaiden, hoary tansyaster, nineleaf 

biscuitroot, fernleaf biscuitroot, Gray’s biscuitroot, and Searls’ prairie clover.

 Early generation certified seed of hoary tansyaster, Douglas’ dustymaiden and Wyeth 

buckwheat is being produced and will be available through Utah Crop Improvement 

Association and University of Idaho Foundation Seed Program when release is approved.
107

Project Title Bee Pollination and Breeding Biology Studies

Project Agreement No. 11-IA-11221632-010

 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

James H. Cane, Research Entomologist

USDA ARS Bee Biology and Systematics Lab

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5310 USA, 

435.797.3879, Fax 435.797.0461

Jim.Cane@ars.usda.gov

Project Description

Successful reproduction by flowering plants requires the confluence of several favorable factors. 

Some are intrinsic to the plant (e.g., age, nutritional status); others are external, either abiotic 

(e.g., rainfall) or biotic. The survival and performance of perennial sagebrush-steppe forbs after 

fire is an unknown with great ramifications for pollinators and for management tactics to retain 

their remnant communities while awaiting establishment of new seedlings. Among biotic factors, 

insect pollinators are often needed for seed production.

Fire Impact on Forb Survival

Changes in the frequency and intensity of fire in the sagebrush steppe have become key factors

in degrading native plant communities in basin and foothill habitats. We know that many of the 

dominant Great Basin shrubs are consumed by fire and do not resprout. Some forbs clearly 

survive wildfires to thrive and bloom thereafter, but the observations are anecdotal and not 

related to fire attributes. Hence, we do not know which native forb species survive fires of a 

particular intensity. To examine the individual plant’s response to wildfire, six common Great 

Basin perennial forb species were experimentally burned at increasing intensities in 2012 using a 

custom portable propane burner designed to mimic wildfire attributes. The plants were growing

at the Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station in Ontario, Oregon in adjacent 60 

meter monoculture rows. Soils are uniform. Plants were mature and of the same age. All 

members of a species received the same controlled sub-irrigation and pest management. 

Individuals of basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), prairie clover (Dalea ornata), sulfur-flower 

buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum), fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum), blue penstemon 

(Penstemon cyaneus), and gooseberryleaf globemallow (Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia) were 

chosen for their contrasting life histories and morphological traits, as well as their importance to 

native bees. Prior to treatment application, 1-m

2

plots were marked to be burned. The number of 

plants in each plot to be burned was counted and dead material trimmed to 10 cm height; loose 

dead vegetation was cleared from the burn zone to equalize combustibles. Six propane fuel 

prescription treatments were used to mimic wildfire conditions (Table 1). After burning, each 

plot was sprayed with 1 liter of water to extinguish any embers. Number of surviving plants per 

plot will be counted in green-up in 2013.
108

Table 1. Propane fuel treatments used on native plants to mimic wildfire conditions.

Seed predators

Pollination is no guarantee of successful reproduction because pre-dispersal frugivores and seed 

predators often consume or damage maturing seeds in both agricultural fields and wildland 

environments. Our objective in 2012 was to compile and confirm identities, distributions and 

prevalence of seed beetles collected by us in the field over the past 7 years from the seed and 

flowers of forbs that have begun to be cultivated for seed for wildland restoration. Seed beetles 

were prevalent among our rangeland collections of legume seed from across the Great Basin; our 

samples include many new plant host, county and state records. All observed seed beetles are 

miniscule. For prairie clover sampled across Idaho, Oregon and Washington, 18 of 22 bulk seed 

samples had mostly mixed infestations of the seed beetles Apion amaurum and Acanthoscelides 

oregonensis. At 29 sites where sampled populations of basalt milkvetch hosted seed beetles, only 

one seed beetle species, Acanthoscelides pullus, was nearly ubiquitous. It has a wider host range 

than many congenerics. Several other less common seed beetle species were taken from basalt 

milkvetch, including adults of two species of the weevil genus Tychius. From umbels bearing 

young developing seeds of fernleaf biscuitroot, we collected adult Smicronyx weevils, and from 

several species of globemallow, we obtained adults of the seed weevil Macrorhoptus hispidus.

Most of these species pupate and overwinter in the seeds. There is therefore the risk of them 

being transported to storage warehouses and distributed to new seedings unless they are first 

detected and controlled. None seem able to infest stored seed, so they should not harm seed 

already in storage.

Future plans

1) In the spring of 2013, we will collect survival data from the forb burning experiment. Plant 

mortality by species will be scored and then compared among burning treatments using logistic 

regression. The list of perennial forbs that we could burn is limited by their availability in 

uniform cultivation; newly available species can be added if a thermal gradient effect is detected. 

Knowing which species will succumb to or survive fires of measured intensities will guide the 

composition of seed mixes for post-fire restoration (e.g. surviving species need not be reseeded).

2) We will begin exploring a novel trap-cropping technique for seed beetle control to help 

growers avoid broadcast insecticide sprays during bloom that also kill needed pollinators. 

Because the beetles are specialists, using alternative hosts for trapping will not work. Instead, we 

will try advancing bloom on a short cultivated row of a given forb under a portable grow tunnel. 

Category Prescription Heat attained (oC)

Control No fuel applied Ambient

Very Low 7.5 psi, 25 sec 100

Low 7.5 psi, 50 sec 200

Medium 15 psi, 65 sec 300

High 15 psi, 175 sec 500

Very High 15 psi, 240 sec 600
109

We will remove the cover at bloom, when the rest of the crop remains in bud, to determine 

whether it will attract and concentrate fresh adult beetles on the new flowers where control can 

be focused, possibly even by simple sweep netting.

3) After several failed attempts, we successfully established 50 transplanted silverleaf phacelia 

(Phacelia hastata) in our common garden, a number of which bloomed by late summer. In 2013, 

we will cage them and, through manual pollinations, establish the species’ breeding biology. 

Some rows outside the cage will be observed for bee visitation and tracked for seed set. Wild 

populations will be sampled in our region for their complement of pollinators.

Publications

Cane, J. H.; Love, B.; Swoboda, K. A. 2012. Breeding biology and bee guild of Douglas’ 

dustymaiden, Chaenactis douglasii (Asteraceae, Helenieae). Western North American Naturalist

72: 563-568.

Cane, J. H.; Weber, M.; Miller, S. 2012. Breeding biologies, pollinators and seed beetles of two 

prairie-clovers, Dalea ornata and D. searlsiae (Fabaceae: Amorpheae), from the Intermountain 

West USA. Western North American Naturalist 72: 16-20.

Presentations 

Cane, J. 2012. Gardening and landscaping for native bees. Idaho Horticulture Expo, 2012 

January 19-21, Boise, ID. Invited speaker.

Cane, J. 2012. Native bees for wildflower seed farming and large-scale wildland restoration in 

the western USA. International Symposium on Pollinator Conservation, 2012 January 25-28, 

Fukuoka, Japan. Invited speaker.

Cane, J. 2012. Breeding biology and pollinators of dusty maiden, Chaenactis douglasii. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt 

Lake City, UT.

Love, B. 2012. Win-win strategies: integrating native pollinators in conservation and land 

management practices. Utah Native Pollinator Workshop, 2012 September 12, Logan, UT. 

Invited speaker.

Love, B. 2012. Response of bees to wildfire: Rockin’ the shock phase. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Presentation.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

We now know to expect seed beetles in collections of wild seed, and eventually, on many farms

that utilize the seed. Small seed collections can be easily fumigated with dichlorvos strips

(“Nuvan”, formerly “Vapona”, Amvac Chemical Corp, Los Angeles, CA). If producers contact 
110

us when large infestations of harvested seed are found, then we can use them to evaluate 

practical methods for killing beetles without killing seed, likely by freezing shock.

Products

 Tilley, D.; Cane, J.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D; Shaw, N. 2012. Plant guide for yellow beeplant 

(Cleome lutea). Aberdeen, ID: U. S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources 

Conservation Service. 3 p. Available online: 

http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_cllu2.pdf

 Cane, J. H. 2012. Gardening for bees in Utah and beyond. Utah Pests Fact Sheet ENT133-09. Logan, UT: Utah State University Extension and Utah Plant Pest Diagnostic 

Laboratory. 9 p. Available online: 

http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/factsheet/plants-pollinators09.pdf

Two programs on Wild About Utah, a weekly nature series produced by Utah PBS 

Available online: http://www.bridgerlandaudubon.org/wildaboututah/archive.htm

-From flood to fire, Utah’s evolving role in mending rangelands, aired 2012 December 29. 

-Reseeding the West after Fire, aired 2012 November 29.
111

Project Title Seed Production of Great Basin Native Forbs:

A. Eight Years Evaluating the Irrigation Requirements 

for Native Wildflower Seed Production 

B. Preliminary Estimates of the Irrigation Requirements 

for Novel Native Wildflower Seed Production 

C. Direct Surface Seeding Strategies for the 

Establishment of Two Native Legumes of the 

Intermountain West 

D. Five Years of Tolerance of Sulphur-flower 

Buckwheat to Rates and Mixtures of Postemergence 

Herbicides, 2008–2012

Agreement No. 12-JV-11221632-066

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Clinton C. Shock,

Superintendent/Professor

Oregon State University

Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Avenue, Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831

clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu

Erik B. Feibert, Research Assistant

OSU, Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Avenue, Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831

erik.feibert@oregonstate.edu

Lamont D. Saunders, Biosciences 

Research Technician and Farm Foreman

Oregon State University

Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831

monty.saunders@oregonstate.edu

Cheryl Parris, Grad. Research Assistant

OSU, Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist

USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

208.373.4360, Fax 208.373.4391

nshaw@fs.fed.us

Douglas A. Johnson, Research Plant 

Physiologist

USDA ARS Forage and Range Res. Lab

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322

435.797.3067, Fax 435.797.3075

doug.johnson@ars.usda.gov

B. Shaun Bushman, Research Geneticist

USDA ARS Forage and Range Res. Lab 

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322

435.797.2901, Fax 435.797.3075

shaun.bushman@ars.usda.gov

Ram K. Sampangi, Plant Pathologist

University of Idaho, Parma R&E Center

29603 University of Idaho Lane 

Parma, ID 83660

208.722.6701, Fax 208.722.6708

sampangi@uidaho.edu

parrisc@onid.orst.edu
112

A. Eight Years of Evaluating the Irrigation Requirements for Native Wildflower Seed 

Production

Project Description

Native wildflower seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial 

seed production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A 

major limitation to economically viable commercial production of native wildflower (forb) seed 

is stable and consistent seed productivity over years. 

On native rangelands, the natural variations in spring rainfall and soil moisture result in highly 

unpredictable water stress at flowering, seed set, and seed development, which for other seed 

crops is known to compromise seed yield and quality. Native wildflower plants are not well 

adapted to croplands as they are often not competitive with crop weeds in cultivated fields. Poor 

competitiveness with weeds could also limit wildflower seed production. Both sprinkler and 

furrow irrigation could provide supplemental water for seed production, but these irrigation 

systems risk further encouraging weeds. Sprinkler and furrow irrigation can lead to the loss of 

plant stand and seed production due to fungal pathogens. By burying drip tapes at a 12-inch 

depth and avoiding wetting the soil surface, we hoped to assure flowering and seed set without 

undue encouragement of weeds or opportunistic diseases. The trials reported here tested the 

effects of three low rates of irrigation on the seed yield of 13 native forb species. 

Materials and Methods

Plant Establishment

Seed of seven Intermountain West forb species (the first seven species in Table 1) was received 

in late November in 2004 from the Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, Idaho. The plan 

was to plant the seed in the fall of 2004, but due to excessive rainfall in October, ground 

preparation was not completed and planting was postponed to early 2005. To try to ensure 

germination, the seed was submitted to cold stratification. Seed was soaked overnight in distilled 

water on January 26, 2005, after which the water was drained and the seed was soaked for 20 

min in a 10 percent by volume solution of 13 percent bleach in distilled water. The water was 

drained and the seed was placed in thin layers in plastic containers. The plastic containers had 

lids with holes drilled in them to allow air movement. These containers were placed in a cooler 

set at approximately 34°F. Every few days the seed was mixed and, if necessary, distilled water 

added to maintain seed moisture. In late February, seed of Lomatium grayi and L. triternatum

(see Table 1 for common names) had started to sprout. 

In late February, 2005 drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at a 12-inch depth 

between two 30-inch rows on a Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic matter. 

The drip tapes were buried in alternating inter-row spaces 5 ft apart. The flow rate for the drip 

tape was 0.34 gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 in apart, resulting in a water 

application rate of 0.066 in/hour.

On March 3, seed of all species was planted in 30-inch rows using a custom-made experimental 

plot grain drill with disk openers. All seed was planted at 20-30 seeds/ft of row. The Eriogonum 

umbellatum and the Penstemon spp. were planted at 0.25-inch depth and the Lomatium spp. at 
113

0.5-inch depth. The trial was irrigated with a minisprinkler system (R10 Turbo Rotator, Nelson 

Irrigation Corp., Walla Walla, WA) for even stand establishment from March 4 to April 29. 

Risers were spaced 25 ft apart along the flexible polyethylene hose laterals that were spaced 30 ft 

apart and the water application rate was 0.10 inches/h. A total of 1.72 inches of water was 

applied with the minisprinkler system. Eriogonum umbellatum, Lomatium triternatum, and L. 

grayi started emerging on March 29. All other species except L. dissectum emerged by late April. 

A total of 3.73 inches of water was applied with the drip system from June 24 to July 7. The field 

was not irrigated further in 2005. 

Plant stands for Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp., Lomatium triternatum, and L. grayi

were uneven. Lomatium dissectum did not emerge. None of the species flowered in 2005. In 

early October, 2005 more seed was received from the Rocky Mountain Research Station for 

replanting. The empty lengths of row were replanted by hand in the E. umbellatum and 

Penstemon spp. plots. The entire row lengths of the Lomatium spp. plots were replanted using the 

planter. The seed was replanted on October 26, 2005. In spring 2006, plant stands of the 

replanted species, except for P. deustus, were excellent.

On April 11, 2006 seed of three globemallow species (Sphaeralcea parvifolia, S. 

grossulariifolia, S. coccinea), two prairie clover species (Dalea searlsiae D. ornata), and basalt 

milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) was planted at 30 seeds/ft of row. The field was sprinkler irrigated 

until emergence. Emergence was poor. In late August 2006 seed of the three globemallow 

species was harvested by hand. On November 9, 2006, the six forbs that were planted in 2006 

were mechanically flailed and on November 10, they were replanted. On November 11, the 

Penstemon deustus plots were also replanted at 30 seeds/ft of row. 

Table 1. Forb species planted in the drip irrigation trials at the Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Species Common names

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie clover, western prairie clover 

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot, Gray’s lomatium

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot, nineleaf desert parsley

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon, hotrock penstemon

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon

Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow, red globemallow

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow

Sphaeralcea parvifolia Smallflower globemallow

Irrigation for Seed Production 

In April, 2006 each planted strip of each forb species was divided into plots 30 ft long. Each plot 

contained four rows of each species. The experimental design for each species was a randomized 
114

complete block with four replicates. The three irrigation treatments were a nonirrigated check, 1 

inch per irrigation, and 2 inches per irrigation. Each treatment received four irrigations that were 

applied approximately every 2 weeks starting with flowering of the forbs. The amount of water 

applied to each treatment was calculated by the length of time necessary to deliver 1 or 2 inches

through the drip system. Irrigations were regulated with a controller and solenoid valves. After 

each irrigation, the amount of water applied was read on a water meter and recorded to ensure 

correct water applications. 

In March 2007, the drip-irrigation system was modified to allow separate irrigation of the species 

due to different timings of flowering. The three Lomatium spp. were irrigated together and 

Penstemon deustus and P. speciosus were irrigated together, but separately from the others. 

Penstemon acuminatus and Eriogonum umbellatum were irrigated individually. In early April 

2007 the three globemallow species, two prairie clover species, and basalt milkvetch were 

divided into plots with a drip-irrigation system to allow the same irrigation treatments that were 

received by the other forbs. 

Irrigation dates can be found in Table 2. In 2007 irrigation treatments were inadvertently 

continued after the fourth irrigation. Irrigation treatments for all species were continued until the 

last irrigation on June 24, 2007. 

Soil volumetric water content was measured by neutron probe. The neutron probe was calibrated 

by taking soil samples and probe readings at 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths during installation of the 

access tubes. The soil water content was determined volumetrically from the soil samples and 

regressed against the neutron probe readings separately for each soil depth. Regression equations 

were then used to transform the neutron probe readings into volumetric soil water content. 

Flowering, Harvesting, and Seed Cleaning 

Flowering dates for each species were recorded (Table 2). The Eriogonum umbellatum and 

Penstemon spp. plots produced seed in 2006, in part because they had emerged in the spring of 

2005. Each year, the middle two rows of each plot were harvested when seed of each species was 

mature (Table 2) using the methods listed in Table 3. The plant stand for P. deustus was too poor 

to provide reliable seed yield estimates. Replanting P. deustus in fall 2006 did not result in 

adequate plant stand in spring 2007.

Eriogonum umbellatum seeds did not separate from the flowering structures in the combine; the 

unthreshed seed was taken to the USFS Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise, Idaho, and run through a 

dewinger to separate seed. The seed was further cleaned in a small clipper seed cleaner. 

Penstemon deustus seed pods were too hard to be opened in the combine; the unthreshed seed 

was precleaned in a small clipper seed cleaner. Seed pods were broken manually by rubbing the 

pods on a ribbed rubber mat. The seed was then cleaned again in the small clipper seed cleaner. 

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus were threshed in the combine and the seed was further 

cleaned using a small clipper seed cleaner. 
115

Cultural Practices in 2006

On October 27, 2006, 50 lb phosphorus (P)/acre and 2 lb zinc (Zn)/acre were injected through 

the drip tape to all plots of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp., and Lomatium spp. On 

November 11, 100 lb nitrogen (N)/acre as urea was broadcast to all Lomatium spp. plots. On 

November 17, all plots of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp. (except P. deustus), and 

Lomatium spp. had Prowl®at 1 lb ai/acre broadcast on the soil surface. Irrigations for all species 

were initiated on May 19 and terminated on June 30. Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for 

each species are listed in Table 3.

Cultural Practices in 2007

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus were sprayed with Aza-Direct®at 0.0062 lb ai/acre for 

lygus bug control on May 14 and 29. Irrigations for each species were initiated and terminated 

on different dates (Table 2). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in 

Table 3. All plots of the Sphaeralcea spp. were flailed on November 8, 2007. 

Cultural Practices in 2008

On November 9, 2007 and on April 15, 2008, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots for 

weed control. Capture®2EC at 0.1 lb ai/acre was sprayed on all plots of Penstemon acuminatus 

and P. speciosus on May 20 for lygus bug control. Irrigations for each species were initiated and 

terminated on different dates (Table 2). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species 

are listed in Table 3.

Cultural Practices in 2009

On March18, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre and Volunteer®at 8 oz/acre were broadcast on all plots for 

weed control. On April 9, 50 lb N/acre and 10 lb P/acre were applied to the three Lomatium

species through the drip irrigation system. 

The flowering, irrigation timing, and harvest timing were recorded for each species (Table 2). 

Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 3. On December 4, 

2009, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast for weed control on all plots. 

Cultural Practices in 2010

The flowering, irrigation, and harvest timing of the established forbs were recorded for each 

species (Table 2). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 3. 

On November 17, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots for weed control. 

Cultural Practices in 2011

On May 3, 2011, 50 lb N/acre was applied to all Lomatium spp. plots as Uran (urea ammonium 

nitrate) injected through the drip tape. The timing of flowering, irrigations, and harvests varied 

by species (Table 2). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 

3. On November 9, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots for weed control. 

Cultural Practices in 2012

The soil volumetric water content was very low in 2012 prior to the onset of irrigation for each 

species. Iron deficiency symptoms were prevalent in 2012. On April 13, 50 lb N/acre, 10 lb 
116

P/acre, and 5 lb Fe/acre was applied to all Lomatium spp. plots as liquid fertilizer injected 

through the drip tape.

Table 2. Native forb flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species in 2006–2011, 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Flowering Irrigation

Harvest Species Start Peak End Start End

2006

Eriogonum umbellatum 19-May 20-Jul 19-May 30-Jun 3-Aug

Penstemon acuminatus 2-May 10-May 19-May 19-May 30-Jun 7-Jul

Penstemon deustus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 4-Aug

Penstemon speciosus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 13-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium grayi 19-May 30-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia

Sphaeralcea coccinea

Dalea searlsiae

Dalea ornata

2007

Eriogonum umbellatum 25-May 25-Jul 2-May 24-Jun 31-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 19-Apr 25-May 19-Apr 24-Jun 9-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun 23-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 5-Apr 24-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 1-Jun 5-Apr 24-Jun 29-Jun, 16-Jul

Lomatium grayi 5-Apr 10-May 5-Apr 24-Jun 30-May, 29-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 13-Aug

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 13-Aug

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 13-Aug

Dalea searlsiae 20-Jun, 10-Jul

Dalea ornata 20-Jun, 10-Jul

2008

Eriogonum umbellatum 5-Jun 19-Jun 20-Jul 15-May 24-Jun 24-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 29-Apr 5-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 11-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 17-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 29-May

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 5-Jun 10-Apr 29-May 3-Jul

Lomatium grayi 25-Mar 15-May 10-Apr 29-May 30-May, 19-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Dalea searlsiae 19-Jun

Dalea ornata 19-Jun
117

Table 2 (cont.). Native forb flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species in 2006–

2012. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Flowering Irrigation

Harvest

Species start peak end start end

2009

Eriogonum umbellatum 31-May 15-Jul 19-May 24-Jun 28-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 2-May 10-Jun 8-May 12-Jun 10-Jul

Penstemon deustus 19-May 24-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 14-May 20-Jun 19-May 24-Jun 10-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 7-May 20-Apr 28-May 16-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 10-Apr 7-May 1-Jun 20-Apr 28-May 26-Jun

Lomatium grayi 10-Mar 7-May 20-Apr 28-May 16-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

2010

Eriogonum umbellatum 4-Jun 12-19 Jun 15-Jul 28-May 8-Jul 27-Jul

Penstemon speciosus 14-May 20-Jun 12-May 22-Jun 22-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 25-Apr 20-May 15-Apr 28-May 21-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 15-Jun 15-Apr 28-May 22-Jul

Lomatium grayi 15-Mar 15-May 15-Apr 28-May 22-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

2011

Eriogonum umbellatum 8-Jun 30-Jun 20-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 1-Aug

Penstemon speciosus 25-May 30-May 30-Jun 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 8-Apr 25-Apr 10-May 21-Apr 7-Jun 20-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 30-Apr 23-May 15-Jun 21-Apr 7-Jun 26-Jul

Lomatium grayi 1-Apr 25-Apr 13-May 21-Apr 7-Jun 22-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 26-May 15-Jun 14-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 26-May 15-Jun 14-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 26-May 15-Jun 14-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

2012

Eriogonum umbellatum 30-May 20-Jun 4-Jul 30-May 11-Jul 24-Jul

Penstemon speciosus 2-May 20-May 25-Jun 2-May 13-Jun 13-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 9-Apr 16-Apr 16-May 13-Apr 24-May 4-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 12-Apr 17-May 6-Jun 13-Apr 24-May 21-Jun

Lomatium grayi 15-Mar 25-Apr 16-May 13-Apr 24-May 14-Jun
118

Table 3. Native forb seed harvest and cleaning by species, Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Species Number of 

harvests/year Harvest method Precleaning

Threshing 

method

Cleaning 

method

Eriogonum umbellatum 1 combineanone dewingerb mechanicalc

Penstemon acuminatus 1 combinednone combine mechanicalc

Penstemon deustus 1 combinea mechanicalchande mechanicalc

Penstemon speciosusf1 combinednone combine mechanicalc

Lomatium dissectum 1 hand hand none mechanicalc

Lomatium triternatum 1 – 2 hand hand none mechanicalc

Lomatium grayi 1 – 2 hand hand none mechanicalc

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 1 – 3 hand or combinednone combine none

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 1 – 3 hand or combinednone combine none

Sphaeralcea coccinea 1 – 3 hand or combinednone combine none

Dalea searlsiae 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanicalc

Dalea ornate 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanicalc

aWintersteiger Nurserymaster small-plot combine with dry bean concave.

b

Specialized seed threshing machine at USDA Lucky Peak Nursery used in 2006. Thereafter an adjustable handdriven corn grinder was used to thresh seed.

cClipper seed cleaner.

dWintersteiger Nurserymaster small-plot combine with alfalfa seed concave. For the Sphaeralcea spp., flailing in the 

fall of 2007 resulted in more compact growth requiring only one combine harvest in 2008, 2009, and 2010.

eHard seed pods were broken by rubbing against a ribbed rubber mat.

fHarvested by hand in 2007 and 2009 due to poor seed set.

Results and Discussion

Very low precipitation in November and December 2011 was followed by close to average 

precipitation from January through June 2012 resulting in a dry spring and in lower soil 

volumetric water content early in the wildflower growing season. For example, in 2012 the soil 

water in the non-irrigated plots of Eriogonum umbellatum was much drier compared to wetter 

years such as 2006 and 2011 (Figure 1). The soil volumetric water content for all species started 

very dry in 2012 but responded to the irrigation treatments (Figures 2-6). The accumulated 

precipitation and growing degree days (50-86 oF) from January through June 2012 were close to 

the average (Table 4, Figures 7 and 8). The relatively dry soil at the beginning of the growing 

season may have been detrimental to the seed yield of all species in 2012.

Flowering and Seed Set

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus had poor seed set in 2007, partly due to a heavy lygus 

bug infestation that was not adequately controlled by the applied insecticides. In the Treasure 

Valley, the first hatch of lygus bugs occurs when 250 degree-days (52°F base) are accumulated. 

Data collected by an AgriMet weather station adjacent to the field indicated that the first lygus 

bug hatch occurred on May 14, 2006; May 1, 2007; May 18, 2008; May 19, 2009; and May 29, 

2010. The average (1995-2010) lygus bug hatch date was May 18. Penstemon acuminatus and P. 

speciosus start flowering in early May. The earlier lygus bug hatch in 2007 probably resulted in 
119

harmful levels of lygus bugs present during a larger part of the Penstemon spp. flowering period 

than normal. Poor seed set for P. acuminatus and P. speciosus in 2007 also was related to poor 

vegetative growth compared to 2006 and 2008. In 2009, all plots of P. acuminatus and P. 

speciosus again showed poor vegetative growth and seed set. Root rot affected all plots of P. 

acuminatus in 2009, killing all plants in two of the four plots of the wettest treatment (2 inches 

per irrigation). Root rot affected the wetter plots of P. speciosus in 2009, but the stand partially 

recovered due to natural reseeding.

The three Sphaeralcea spp. (globemallow) flowered over a long period (early May through 

September) in 2007. Multiple manual harvests were necessary because the seed falls out of the 

capsules once they are mature. The flailing of the three Sphaeralcea spp. starting in fall 2007 

was done annually to induce a more concentrated flowering, allowing only one mechanical 

harvest. Precipitation in June 2009 (2.27 inches) and 2010 (1.95 inches) was substantially higher 

than average (0.76 inches). Rust (Puccinia sherardiana) infected all three Sphaeralcea spp. in 

June 2009 and 2010, causing substantial leaf loss and reduced vegetative growth.

Figure 1. Soil volumetric water 

content in non-irrigated 

Eriogonum umbellatum in 7 

years (2006-2012) by Julian day. 

Soil volumetric water content is 

the combined average at the 8-, 

20-, and 32-inch depths. 

Figure 2. Soil volumetric water 

content for Eriogonum 

umbellatum over time in 2012 by 

Julian day. Soil volumetric water 

content is the combined average at 

the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. 

Irrigations started on May 30 and 

ended on July 11. Arrows denote 

irrigations. E. umbellatum was 

harvested on July 24 (day 205). 
120

Figure 3. Soil volumetric water 

content for Penstemon speciosus

over time in 2012 by Julian day. 

Soil volumetric water content is the 

combined average at the 8-, 20-, 

and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on May 2 and ended on 

June 13. Arrows denote irrigations. 

P. speciosus was harvested on July 

13 (day 194). 

Figure 4. Soil volumetric water 

content for Lomatium triternatum

over time in 2012 by Julian day.

Soil volumetric water content is 

the combined average at the 8-, 20-

, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on April 13 and ended on 

May 24. Arrows denote irrigations. 

L. triternatum was harvested on 

June 21 (day 172). 

Figure 5. Soil volumetric water 

content for Lomatium grayi over 

time in 2012 by Julian day. Soil 

volumetric water content is the 

combined average at the 8-, 20-, 

and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on April 13 and ended on 

May 24. Arrows denote 

irrigations. L. grayi was 

harvested on June 14 (day 165). 
121

Figure 6. Soil volumetric water 

content for Lomatium dissectum

over time in 2012 by Julian day.

Soil volumetric water content is 

the combined average at the 8-, 

20-, and 32-inch depths. 

Irrigations started on April 13 

and ended on May 24. Arrows 

denote irrigations. L. dissectum

was harvested on June 4 (day 

155). 

Figure 7. Cumulative annual and 

22-year average growing degreedays by Julian day at the Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR.

Figure 8. Cumulative annual 

and 68-year average 

precipitation from January 

through July at the Malheur 

Experiment Station
122

Seed Yields

Eriogonum umbellatum

In 2006, seed yield of Eriogonum umbellatum increased with increasing water application, up to 

8 inches, the highest amount tested (Table 5, Figure 9). In 2007-2009 seed yield showed a 

quadratic response to irrigation rate (Tables 5 and 6). Seed yields were maximized by 8.1 inches, 

7.2 inches, and 6.9 inches of water applied in 2007, 2008, and 2009, respectively. In 2010, there 

was no significant difference in yield between treatments. In 2011, seed yield was highest with 

no irrigation. The 2010 and 2011 seasons had unusually cool (Table 4, Figure 1) and wet weather 

(Figure 2). The accumulated precipitation in April through June 2010 and 2011 was greatest over 

the years of the trial (Table 4). The relatively high seed yield of E. umbellatum in the 

nonirrigated treatment in 2010 and 2011 seemed to be related to the high spring precipitation. 

The negative effect of irrigation on seed yield in 2011 might have been related to the presence of 

rust. Irrigation could have exacerbated the rust and resulted in lower yields. In 2006, seed yield 

of Eriogonum umbellatum increased with increasing water application, up to 8 inches, the 

highest amount tested (Table 5, Figure 9). Averaged over 7 years, seed yield of E. umbellatum

increased with increasing water applied up to 8 inches, the highest amount tested (Figure 9). The 

quadratic seed yield responses most years suggests that additional irrigation above 8 inches 

would not be beneficial.

Figure 9. Average annual Eriogonum umbellatum seed yield response to irrigation water 

applied in 7 years (2006-2012) and averaged over 7 years.

Penstemon acuminatus

There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments for P. acuminatus

in 2006 (Table 5). Precipitation from March through June was 6.4 inches in 2006. The 64-yearaverage precipitation from March through June is 3.6 inches. The wet weather in 2006 could 

have attenuated the effects of the irrigation treatments. In 2007, seed yield showed a quadratic 

response to irrigation rate (Figure 10). Seed yields were maximized by 4.0 inches of water 

applied in 2007. In 2008 seed yield showed a linear response to applied water. In 2009 there was 

Regression equations: 

2006: Y = 137.9 + 27.8X, R2= 0.68, P = 0.01

2007: Y = 79.6 + 28.3X – 1.75X2, R2= 0.69, P = 0.05 

2008: Y = 121.3 + 34.6X – 2.4X2, R2= 0.73, P = 0.01 

2009: Y = 132.3 + 31.9X – 2.3X2, R2= 0.60, P = .05 

2010: Y = 252.9 + 9.21X – 1.8X2, R2= 0.08, P = NS 

2011: Y = 232.7 – 16.0X, R2= 0.58, P = 0.01 

2012: Y = 71.2 + 15.5X, R2= 0.61, P = 0.01 

7-year average:

Y = 157.2 + 7.9X, R2= 0.68, P = 0.01.
123

no significant difference in seed yield between treatments (Table 6). However, due to root rot 

affecting all plots in 2009, the seed yield results were compromised. By 2010, substantial lengths 

of row contained only dead plants. Measurements in each plot showed that plant death increased 

with increasing irrigation rate. The stand loss was 51.3, 63.9, and 88.5 percent for the 0-, 4-, and 

8-inch irrigation treatments, respectively. The trial area was disked out in 2010. Following the 

2005 planting, seed yields were substantial in 2006 and moderate in 2008. P. acuminatus is a 

short-lived perennial.

Figure 10. Annual Penstemon acuminatus seed yield response to irrigation water. 

Penstemon speciosus

In 2006-2009 seed yield of P. speciosus showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Figure

11, Tables 5 and 6). Seed yields were maximized by 4.3, 4.2, 5.0, and 4.3 inches of water applied 

in 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, respectively. In 2010, 2011, and 2012 there was no difference in 

seed yield between treatments. Seed yield was low in 2007 due to lygus bug damage, as 

discussed previously. Seed yield in 2009 was low due to stand loss from root rot. The plant stand 

recovered somewhat in 2010 and 2011, due in part to natural reseeding, especially in the 

nonirrigated plots. Averaged over the 7 years, seed yield was maximized by 4.5 inches of water 

applied.

Penstemon deustus

There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments for P. deustus in 

2006 or 2007. Both the replanting of the low stand areas in October 2005 and the replanting of 

the whole area in October 2006 resulted in very poor emergence and plots with very low and 

uneven stands. The planting was disked out. 

Regression equations: 

2006: Y = 538.4 + 35.6X – 4.4X2, R2= 0.03, P = NS 

2007: Y = 19.3 + 15.4X – 1.9X2, R2= 0.44, P = 0.10 

2008: Y = 84.5 + 13.6X, R2= 0.49, P = 0.05
124

Figure 11. Annual and 7-year average Penstemon speciosus seed yield response to irrigation 

water.

Lomatium triternatum

Lomatium triternatum showed a trend for increasing seed yield with increasing irrigation rate in 

2007 (Table 5). The highest irrigation rate resulted in significantly higher seed yield than the 

nonirrigated check treatments. Seed yields of L. triternatum were substantially higher in 2008-

2011 (Tables 5 and 6). In 2008–2011, seed yields of L. triternatum showed a quadratic response 

to irrigation rate (Figure 12). Seed yields were estimated to be maximized by 8.4, 5.4, 7.8, and 

4.1 inches of water applied in 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011, respectively. In 2012, seed yield 

increased with increasing water applied up to the highest amount of 8 inches. Averaged over 6

years, seed yield of L. triternatum was estimated to be maximized by 6.2 inches of applied water. 

Irrigation requirements were lower in 2011.

Figure 12. Annual and 6-year average L. triternatum seed yield response to irrigation water.

Regression equations: 

2006: Y = 163.5 + 85.1X – 9.9X2, R2= 0.66, P = 0.05 

2007: Y = 2.5 + 3.2X – 0.38X2, R2= 0.48, P = 0.10 

2008: Y = 94.1 + 113.7X – 11.4X2, R2= 0.56, P = 0.05 

2009: Y = 6.8 + 4.4X – 0.52X2, R2= 0.54, P = 0.05 

2010: Y = 147.2 + 29.81X – 2.1X2, R2= 0.35, P = NS 

2011: Y = 360.6 – 2.82X, R2= 0.01, P = NS 

2012: Y = 103.8 + 19.3X – 2.5X2, R2= 0.30, P = NS 

7-year average: 

Y = 127.8 + 21.2X – 2.4X2; R2= 0.37, P = NS

Regression equations: 

2007: Y = 3.26 + 3.06X, R2= 0.52, P = 0.01 

2008: Y = 195.3 + 283.9X – 16.9X2, R2= 0.77, P = 0.01 

2009: Y = 181.6 + 237.4X – 22.0X2, R2= 0.83, P = 0.001 

2010: Y = 1637.2 + 401.5X – 25.9X2, R2= 0.83, P = 0.001 

2011: Y = 1982.932 + 315.1X – 38.7X2, R2= 0.45, P = 0.10

2012: Y = 277.8 + 61.8X, R

2

= 0.49, P = 0.05

6-year average: 

Y = 706.3 + 227.1X – 18.5X2, R2= 0.80, P = 0.001
125

Lomatium grayi

Lomatium grayi showed a trend for increasing seed yield with increasing irrigation rate in 2007 

(Table 5). The highest irrigation rate resulted in significantly higher seed yield than the 

nonirrigated check. Seed yields of L. grayi were substantially higher in 2008 and 2009. In 2008, 

seed yields of L. grayi showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Figure 13). Seed yields 

were estimated to be maximized by 6.9 inches of water applied in 2008. In 2009, seed yield 

showed a linear response to irrigation rate. Seed yield with the 4-inch irrigation rate was 

significantly higher than in the nonirrigated check, but the 8-inch irrigation rate did not result in 

a significant increase above the 4-inch rate. In 2010, seed yield was not responsive to irrigation. 

The unusually wet spring of 2010 could have caused the lack of response to irrigation. A further 

complicating factor in 2010 that compromised seed yields was rodent damage. Extensive rodent 

(vole) damage occurred over the 2009-2010 winter. The affected areas were transplanted with 3-

year-old L. grayi plants from an adjacent area in the spring of 2010. To reduce their 

attractiveness to voles, the plants were mowed after becoming dormant in early fall of 2010. In 

2011, seed yield again did not respond to irrigation. The spring of 2011 was unusually cool and 

wet. In 2012, seed yields of L. grayi showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate, with a 

maximum seed yield at 5.5 inches of applied water (Figure 13). Averaged over 6 years, seed 

yield of L. grayi was estimated to be maximized by 5.2 inches of applied water. More 

appropriately, irrigation probably should be variable according to precipitation.

Figure 13. Annual and 6-year average L. grayi seed yield response to irrigation water.

Lomatium dissectum

Lomatium dissectum had very poor vegetative growth in 2006-2008, and produced only very 

small amounts of flowers in 2008. In 2009, vegetative growth and flowering for L. dissectum

were greater. Seed yield of L. dissectum showed a linear response to irrigation rate in 2009 

(Figure 14). Seed yield with the 4-inch irrigation rate was significantly higher than with the 

nonirrigated check, but the 8-inch irrigation rate did not result in a significant increase above the 

4-inch rate. In 2010 and 2011, seed yields of L. dissectum showed a quadratic response to 

irrigation rate. Seed yields were estimated to be maximized by 5.4 and 5.1 inches of applied 

Regression equations: 

2007: Y = 37.5 + 12.0X, R2= 0.26, P = 0.10

2008: Y = 393.3 + 315.4X – 23.0X2, R2= 0.93, P = 0.001 

2009: Y = 378.7 + 40.8X, R2= 0.38, P = 0.05 

2010: Y = 1035.7 + 95.3X – 17.1X2, R2= 0.22, P = NS 

2011: Y = 608.2 – 27.8X, R2= 0.07, P = NS

2012: Y = 231.9 + 68.1X – 6.2X2, R2= 0.66, P = 0.01

6-year average: 

Y = 437.9 + 98.5X – 9.5X2, R2= 0.49, P = 0.05
126

water in 2010 and 2011, respectively. In 2012, seed yields of L. dissectum were not responsive to 

irrigation rate (Figure 14). Averaged over the 4 years, seed yield showed a quadratic response to 

irrigation rate and was estimated to be maximized by 5.1 inches of applied water.

All the Lomatium species tested were affected by Alternaria fungus, but the infection was 

greatest on the L. dissectum selection planted in this trial. This infection might have delayed L. 

dissectum plant development.

Figure 14. Annual and 3-year average L. dissectum seed yield response to irrigation water.

Sphaeralcea spp.

In 2007-2011 there were no significant differences in seed yield among irrigation treatments for 

the three Sphaeralcea species (Tables 5 and 6). Stand of the three Sphaeralcea species was poor 

in 2012 and the planting was eliminated.

Conclusions

Subsurface drip irrigation systems were tested for native seed production because they have two 

potential strategic advantages: a) low water use, and b) the buried drip tape provides water to the 

plants at depth, precluding stimulation of weed seed germination on the soil surface and keeping 

water away from native plant tissues that are not adapted to a wet environment. 

Due to the arid environment, supplemental irrigation may often be required for successful 

flowering and seed set because soil water reserves may be exhausted before seed formation. The 

total irrigation requirements for these arid-land species were low and varied by species (Table 7). 

The Sphaeralcea spp. and Penstemon acuminatus did not respond to irrigation in these trials. 

Natural rainfall was sufficient to maximize seed production in the absence of weed competition.

Lomatium dissectum required approximately 6 inches of irrigation. Lomatium grayi, L. 

triternatum, and Eriogonum umbellatum responded quadratically to irrigation with the optimum 

Regression equations: 

2009: Y = 86.4 + 34.6X, R2 = 0.31, P = 0.10

2010: Y = 265.8 + 109.8X – 10.1X2, R2 = 0.68, P = 0.01

2011: Y = 567.5 + 319.3X – 31.4X2, R2 = 0.86, P = 0.001 

2012: Y = 402.7 + 7.0X, R2 = 0.04, P = NS

4-year average: 

Y = 318.0 + 165.7X – 16.4X2, R2 = 0.79, P = 0.001
127

varying by year. The other species tested had insufficient plant stands to reliably evaluate their 

response to irrigation.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

The report above describes practices that can be immediately implemented by seed growers. A 

multi-year summary of research findings is found in Table 7.

Table 4. Precipitation and growing degree-days at the Malheur Experiment 

Station, Ontario, OR.

Precipitation (inches) Growing degree-days (50-86°F)

Year Jan-June April-June Jan-June

2006 9.0 3.1 1120

2007 3.1 1.9 1208

2008 2.9 1.2 936

2009 5.8 3.9 1028

2010 8.3 4.3 779

2011 8.3 3.9 671

2012 5.8 2.3 979

67-year average 5.8 2.7 1028a

a

25-year average.
Table 5. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) in 2006, 2007, and 2008. Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

2006 2007 2008

Species

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

----------------------------------------------------- lb/acre ---------------------------------------------------

Eriogonum umbellatuma 155.3 214.4 371.6 92.9 79.6 164.8 193.8 79.8 121.3 221.5 245.2 51.7

Penstemon acuminatusa 538.4 611.1 544.0 NS 19.3 50.1 19.1 25.5b 56.2 150.7 187.1 79.0

Penstemon deustusc1,246.4 1,200.8 1,068.6 NS 120.3 187.7 148.3 NS --- very poor stand ---

Penstemon speciosusa 163.5 346.2 213.6 134.3 2.5 9.3 5.3 4.7b94.0 367.0 276.5 179.6

Lomatium dissectumd---- no flowering ---- --- no flowering --- - very little flowering -

Lomatium triternatumd---- no flowering ---- 2.3 17.5 26.7 16.9b195.3 1,060.9 1,386.9 410.0

Lomatium grayid---- no flowering ---- 36.1 88.3 131.9 77.7b393.3 1,287.0 1,444.9 141.0

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae1,062.6 850.7 957.9 NS 436.2 569.1 544.7 NS

Sphaeralcea grossulariifoliae442.6 324.8 351.9 NS 275.3 183.3 178.7 NS

Sphaeralcea coccineae279.8 262.1 310.3 NS 298.7 304.1 205.2 NS

a Planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005.

b LSD (0.10).

c Planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005 and whole area replanted in October 2006. Yields in 2006 are based on small areas 

with adequate stand. Yields in 2007 are based on whole area of very poor and uneven stand.

d Planted March, 2005, whole area replanted in October 2005.

e Planted spring 2006, whole area replanted in November 2006.

128
Table 6. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2- to 6-year averages. 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

2009 2010 2011

Species

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

--------------------------------------------------- lb/acre ----------------------------------------------

Eriogonum umbellatuma 132.3 223.0 240.1 67.4 252.9 260.3 208.8 NS 248.7 136.9 121.0 90.9

Penstemon acuminatusa 20.7 12.5 11.6 NS -- Stand disked out --

Penstemon speciosusa 6.8 16.1 9.0 6.0b 147.2 74.3 69.7 NS 371.1 328.2 348.6 NS

Lomatium dissectumd 50.6 320.5 327.8 196.4b 265.8 543.8 499.6 199.6 567.5 1,342.8 1,113.8 180.9

Lomatium triternatumd181.6 780.1 676.1 177.0 1,637.2 2,829.6 3,194.6 309.4 1,982.9 2,624.5 2,028.1 502.3b

Lomatium grayid359.9 579.8 686.5 208.4 1,035.7 1,143.5 704.8 NS 570.3 572.7 347.6 NS

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae285.9 406.1 433.3 NS 245.3 327.3 257.3 NS 81.6 142.5 141.2 NS

Sphaeralcea grossulariifoliae270.7 298.9 327.0 NS 310.5 351.0 346.6 NS 224.0 261.9 148.1 NS

Sphaeralcea coccineae332.2 172.1 263.3 NS 385.7 282.6 372.5 NS 89.6 199.6 60.5 NS

2012 2- to 7-year averages

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

Species (0.05)

Eriogonum umbellatuma61.2 153.2 185.4 84.4 154.5 194.2 217.4 30.8

Penstemon acuminatusa163.8 204.8 189.9 NS

Penstemon speciosusa103.8 141.1 99.1 NS 127.8 174.8 145.8 30.5b

Lomatium dissectumd388.1 460.3 444.4 NS 318.0 719.1 596.4 179.4

Lomatium triternatumd238.7 603.0 733.2 323.9 706.3 1319.3 1341.0 192.4

Lomatium grayid231.9 404.4 377.3 107.4 437.9 679.3 615.5 185.5

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae449.9 495.9 495.8 NS

Sphaeralcea grossulariifoliae339.5 323.4 309.4 NS

Sphaeralcea coccineae320.5 275.8 284.2 NS

a Planted March, 2005, areas of low stand 

replanted by hand in October 2005

b LSD (0.10)

d Planted March, 2005, whole area 

replanted in October 2005

e Planted spring 2006, whole area 

replanted in November 2006

129
130

Table 7. Amount of irrigation water for maximum native wildflower seed yield, years to seed 

set, and life span. A summary of multi-year research findings, Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Species Optimum amount of irrigation Years to first 

seed set

Life 

span

inches/season from fall planting years

Eriogonum umbellatum 0 in wet years, 7 to 8 in dry years 1 7+

Penstemon acuminatus no response 1 3

Penstemon speciosus 0 in wet years, 4 in dry years 1 3

Lomatium dissectum 5 4 7+

Lomatium triternatum 4 to 8 depending on precipitation 2 7+

Lomatium grayi 0 in wet years, 5 in dry years 2 7+

Sphaeralcea parvifolia no response 1 5

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia no response 1 5

Sphaeralcea coccinea no response 1 5

B. Preliminary Estimates of Irrigation Requirements for Novel Native Wildflower Seed 

Production 

Project Description

Native wildflower seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial 

seed production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A 

major limitation to economically viable commercial production of native wildflower (forb) seed 

is stable and consistent seed productivity over years. 

On native rangelands, the natural variations in spring rainfall and soil moisture result in highly 

unpredictable water stress at flowering, seed set, and seed development, which for other seed 

crops is known to compromise seed yield and quality. Native wildflower plants are not well 

adapted to croplands as they are often not competitive with crop weeds in cultivated fields. Poor 

competitiveness with weeds could also limit wildflower seed production. Both sprinkler and 

furrow irrigation could provide supplemental water for seed production, but these irrigation 

systems risk further encouraging weeds. Also, sprinkler and furrow irrigation can lead to the loss 

of plant stand and seed production due to fungal pathogens. By burying drip tapes at 12-inch 

depth and avoiding wetting the soil surface, we hoped to assure flowering and seed set without 

undue encouragement of weeds or opportunistic diseases. The trials reported here tested the 

effects of three low rates of irrigation on the seed yield of 10 native forb species (Table 1) 

planted in 2009. 

Materials and Methods

Plant Establishment

In November 2009, drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch depth between 

two 30-inch rows of a Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic matter. The drip 
131

tape was buried in alternating inter-row spaces (5 ft apart). The flow rate for the drip tape was 

0.34 gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches apart, resulting in a water application 

rate of 0.066 inch/hour.

On November 25, 2009, seed of nine perennial species (Table 1) was planted in 30-inch rows 

using a custom-made small-plot grain drill with disk openers. All seed was planted on the soil 

surface at 20-30 seeds/ft of row. After planting, sawdust was applied in a narrow band over the 

seed row at 0.26 oz/ft of row (558 lb/acre). Following planting and sawdust application, the beds 

were covered with row cover. The row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO) covered 

four rows (two beds) and was applied with a mechanical plastic mulch layer. The field was 

irrigated for 24 hours on December 2, 2009, due to very dry soil conditions.

Cultural Practices in 2010

After the newly planted forbs had emerged, the row cover was removed in April. The irrigation 

treatments were not applied to these forbs in 2010. Stands of Penstemon cyaneus, Penstemon 

pachyphyllus, and Eriogonum heracleoides were not adequate for an irrigation trial. Gaps in the 

rows were replanted by hand on November 5. The replanted seed was covered with a thin layer 

of a mixture of 50 percent sawdust and 50 percent hydro-seeding mulch (Hydrostraw LLC, 

Manteno, IL) by volume. The mulch mixture was sprayed with water using a backpack sprayer. 

On November 18, 2010, seed of Cleome serrulata was planted as previously described.

Cultural Practices in 2011

Seed from the middle two rows in each plot of Penstemon deustus and Eriogonum heracleoides

was harvested with a small plot combine. Seed from the middle two rows in each plot of the 

other species was harvested manually. On November 11, 2011, seed of Cleome serrulata was 

planted as previously described. On December 5, 2011, seed of Cleome lutea was planted as 

previously described. 

Cultural Practices in 2012

Many areas of the wildflower seed production was suffering from severe iron deficiency early in 

the spring of 2012. On April 13, 2012, 50 lb N/acre, 10 lb P/acre, and 5 lb Fe/acre was applied to 

all plots of Lomatium nudicaule, Cymopterus bipinnatus, Penstemon deustus, Penstemon 

cyaneus, and Penstemon pachyphyllus as liquid fertilizer injected through the drip tape. On April 

23, 2012, 5 lb Fe/acre was applied to all plots of Penstemon deustus, Penstemon cyaneus, 

Penstemon pachyphyllus, Eriogonum heracleoides, Dalea searlsiae, Dalea ornata, and

Astragalus filipes as liquid fertilizer injected through the drip tape.

Flea beetles were observed feeding on leaves of Cleome serrulata and Cleome lutea in April. On 

April 29, all plots of Cleome serrulata and Cleome lutea were sprayed with Capture at 5 oz/acre 

to control flea beetles. On June 11, C. serrulata was again sprayed with Capture at 5 oz/acre to 

control a reinfestation of flea beetles.

A substantial amount of plant death occurred in the Penstemon deustus plots during winter and 

spring 2011/2012. For P. deustus, only the undamaged parts in each plot were harvested. Seed of 

all species was harvested and cleaned manually. 
132

Table 1. Forb species planted in the fall of 2009 at the Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR. All species are perennial except Cleome serrulata and Cleome lutea.

Species Common names

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch

Cleome lutea Yellow beeplant

Cleome serrulata Rocky Mountain beeplant

Cymopterus bipinnatus Hayden’s cymopterus

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie clover

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover 

Eriogonum heracleoides Parsnipflower buckwheat

Lomatium nudicaule Barestem lomatium 

Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon, hotrock penstemon

Penstemon pachyphyllus Thickleaf beardtongue

Irrigation for Seed Production

In April 2011, each strip of each forb species was divided into plots 30 ft long. Each plot 

contained four rows of each species. The experimental design for each species was a randomized 

complete block with four replicates. The three irrigation treatments were a nonirrigated check, 1 

inch per irrigation, and 2 inches per irrigation. Each treatment received four irrigations that were 

applied approximately every 2 weeks starting with flowering of the forbs. The amount of water 

applied to each treatment was calculated by the length of time necessary to deliver 1 or 2 inches 

through the drip system. Irrigations were regulated with a controller and solenoid valves. After 

each irrigation, the amount of water applied was read on a water meter and recorded to ensure

correct water applications. 

The drip-irrigation system was designed to allow separate irrigation of the species due to 

different timings of flowering and seed formation. The three Penstemon spp. were irrigated 

together and the two Dalea spp. were irrigated together. Eriogonum heracleoides and Astragalus 

filipes were irrigated individually. Flowering, irrigation, and harvest dates were recorded (Table 

2). Lomatium nudicaule flowered in 2012; irrigation treatments were applied and seed was 

harvested. Cymopterus bipinnatus has not flowered as of 2012, but differential irrigation 

treatments were applied to Cymopterus bipinnatus in 2012. 

Soil volumetric water content was measured by neutron probe. The neutron probe was calibrated 

by taking soil samples and probe readings at 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths during installation of the 

access tubes. The soil water content was determined volumetrically from the soil samples and 

regressed against the neutron probe readings, for each soil depth. Regression equations were then 

used to transform the neutron probe readings during the season into volumetric soil water 

content. 
133

Table 2. Native forb flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species. 

Flowering Irrigation

Species start peak end start end Harvest

2011

Penstemon cyaneus 23-May 15-Jun 8-Jul 13-May 23-Jun 18-Jul

Penstemon pachyphyllus 10-May 30-May 20-Jun 13-May 23-Jun 15-Jul

Penstemon deustus 23-May 20-Jun 14-Jul 13-May 23-Jun 16-Aug

Eriogonum heracleoides 26-May 10-Jun 8-Jul 27-May 6-Jul 1-Aug

Dalea searlsiae 8-Jun 20-Jun 20-Jul 27-May 6-Jul 21-Jul

Dalea ornata 8-Jun 20-Jun 20-Jul 27-May 6-Jul 22-Jul

Astragalus filipes 20-May 26-May 30-Jun 13-May 23-Jun 18-Jul

Cleome serrulata 25-Jun 30-Jul 15-Aug 21-Jun 2-Aug 26-Sep

Lomatium nudicaule No flowering

Cymopterus bipinnatus No flowering

2012

Penstemon cyaneus 16-May 30-May 10-Jun 27-Apr 7-Jun 27-Jun

Penstemon pachyphyllus 23-Apr 2-May 10-Jun 27-Apr 7-Jun 26-Jun

Penstemon deustus 16-May 30-May 4-Jul 27-Apr 7-Jun 7-Aug

Eriogonum heracleoides 23-May 30-May 25-Jun 11-May 21-Jun 16-Jul

Dalea searlsiae 23-May 10-Jun 30-Jun 11-May 21-Jun 10-Jul

Dalea ornata 23-May 10-Jun 30-Jun 11-May 21-Jun 11-Jul

Astragalus filipes 28-Apr 23-May 19-Jun 11-May 21-Jun 5-Jul

Cleome serrulata 12-Jun 30-Jun 30-Jul 13-Jun 25-Jul 24-Jul to 30-Aug

Cleome lutea 16-May 15-Jun 30-Jul 2-May 13-Jun 12-Jul to 30-Aug

Lomatium nudicaule 12-Apr 1-May 30-May 18-Apr 30-May 22-Jun

Cymopterus bipinnatus No flowering

Results and Discussion

Seed Yields in 2011

Seed yield of all species, except Cleome serrulata, either had a negative response to irrigation 

(Dalea searlsiae and Penstemon deustus) or did not respond to irrigation (Dalea ornata and 

Astragalus filipes) (Table 3, Figures 1-3). Seed yield of Cleome serrulata was highest with the 

highest amount of water applied (8 inches). The higher than average winter moisture and 

precipitation in March and May reduced the effect of the irrigation treatments for the species that 

flowered in May and June (Figure 4). Cleome serrulata started flowering in late June and peaked 

in August, when precipitation was lower. Seed yields of Penstemon cyaneus and P. pachyphyllus

did not respond to irrigation, but the results might be compromised by the poor stand in many 

plots.

Seed Yields in 2012

Precipitation was lower in 2012 than in 2011(Figure 4) and the accumulated growing degree 

days was higher in 2012 than in 2011 (Figure 5). Very low precipitation in November and 

December of 2011 was followed by close to average precipitation from January through June in 

2012 resulting in a dry spring and in lower soil volumetric water content early in the wildflower 

growing season. The soil volumetric water content was very low for Penstemon deustus (Figure 
134

6) at the start of the growing season. The soil volumetric water content responded to the 

irrigation treatments on each species (Figures 7-12). 

Seed yield of Penstemon cyaneus was highest with the highest amount of water applied. Seed 

yield of Dalea searlsiae increased with increasing irrigation rate up to 6.6 inches of water 

applied (Table 3, Figure 13). Seed yield of D. ornata increased with increasing irrigation rate up 

to 7.7 inches of water applied (Table 3, Figure 14). None of the other species tested had 

statistically significant seed yield responses to irrigation in 2012.

Figure 1. Penstemon deustus seed 

yield response to irrigation water 

applied in 2011. Malheur Experiment 

Station, Oregon State University, 

Ontario, OR.

Figure 2. Cleome serrulata seed yield 

response to irrigation water applied in 

2011. Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Figure 3. Dalea searlsiae seed yield 

response to irrigation water applied in 

2011. Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.
135

Figure 4. Cumulative annual 

(2011 and 2012) and 66-year 

average precipitation from January 

through July at the Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR.

Figure 5. Cumulative growing 

degree-days (50–86 oF ) for 

selected years and 20-year 

average at the Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon 

State University, Ontario, OR.

Figure 6. Soil volumetric water 

content for Penstemon deustus by 

Julian day in 2012. Soil volumetric 

water content is the combined 

average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch 

depths. Irrigations started on April 

27 and ended on June 7. Arrows 

denote irrigations. P. deustus was 

harvested on August 7 (day 219). 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon 

State University, Ontario, OR, 2012.
136

Figure 7. Soil volumetric water 

content for Eriogonum heracleoides

by Julian day in 2012. Soil volumetric 

water content is the combined average 

at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. 

Irrigations started on May 11 and 

ended on June 21. Arrows denote 

irrigations. E. heracleoides was 

harvested on July 16 (day 197). 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon 

State University, Ontario, OR, 2012.

Figure 8. Soil volumetric water 

content for Penstemon cyaneus by 

Julian day in 2012. Soil 

volumetric water content is the 

combined average at the 8-, 20-, 

and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on April 27 and ended on 

June 7. Arrows denote irrigations. 

P. cyaneus was harvested on June 

27 (day 178). Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR, 2012.

Figure 9. Soil volumetric water 

content for Penstemon pachyphyllus

by Julian day in 2012. Soil 

volumetric water content is the 

combined average at the 8-, 20-, and 

32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

April 27 and ended on June 7. 

Arrows denote irrigations. P. 

pachyphyllus was harvested on June 

26 (day 177). Malheur Experiment 

Station, Oregon State University, 

Ontario, OR, 2012.
137

Figure 10. Soil volumetric 

water content for Dalea 

searlsiae by Julian day in 

2012. Soil volumetric water 

content is the combined 

average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-

inch depths. Irrigations started 

on May 11 and ended on June 

21. Arrows denote irrigations.

D. searlsiae was harvested on 

July 10 (day 191). Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon 

State University, Ontario, OR, 

2012.

Figure 11. Soil volumetric water 

content for Dalea ornata by Julian 

day in 2012. Soil volumetric water 

content is the combined average at 

the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. 

Irrigations started on May 11 and 

ended on June 21. Arrows denote 

irrigations. D. ornata was harvested 

on July 11 (day 192). Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State

University, Ontario, OR, 2012.

Figure 12. Soil volumetric water 

content for Astragalus filipes by Julian 

day in 2012. Soil volumetric water 

content is the combined average at the 

8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations 

started on May 11 and ended on June 

21. Arrows denote irrigations. A. filipes

was harvested on July 5 (day 186). 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon 

State University, Ontario, OR, 2012.
138

Table 3. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season). Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

Ontario, OR.

2011 2012 Average

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

Species (0.05)

--------- lb/acre --------- --------- lb/acre --------- --------- lb/acre ---------

Penstemon cyaneus 857.2 821.4 909.4 NS 343.3 474.6 581.2 202.6b600.3 648.0 745.3 NS

Penstemon pachyphyllus 569.9 337.6 482.2 NS 280.5 215.0 253.7 NS 425.2 276.3 368.0 NS

Penstemon deustus 637.6 477.8 452.6 NS 308.7 291.8 299.7 NS 512.7 403.1 374.2 NS

Eriogonum heracleoides 55.2 71.6 49.0 NS 252.3 316.8 266.4 NS 153.8 194.2 157.7 NS

Dalea searlsiae 262.7 231.2 196.3 50.1 175.5 288.8 303.0 93.6 219.1 260.0 249.6 NS

Dalea ornata 451.9 410.8 351.7 NS 145.1 365.1 431.4 189.3 298.5 387.9 391.6 NS

Astragalus filipes 87.0 98.4 74.0 NS 22.7 12.6 16.1 NS 87.0 98.4 74.0 NS

Lomatium nudicaule 53.8 123.8 61.1 NS

Cleome serrulata 446.5 499.3 593.6 100.9b184.3 162.9 194.7 NS 154.5 194.2 217.4 NS

Cleome lutea 111.7 83.7 111.4 NS

b

LSD (0.10)

138
139

Figure 13. Dalea searlsiae seed yield response to irrigation water applied in 2012. Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Figure 14. Dalea ornata seed yield response to irrigation water applied in 2012. Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.
140

C. Direct Surface Seeding Strategies for the Establishment of Two Native Legumes of the 

Intermountain West

Project Description

Legumes provide an important role for restored rangelands of the Intermountain West. Reliable 

commercial seed production is desirable to make seed readily available. Direct seeding of native 

range plants has been generally problematic, especially for certain species. Rangeland legumes 

have been extremely difficult to establish.

In established native perennial seed fields at the Malheur Experiment Station and in rangelands 

we have observed prolific natural emergence from seed that falls on the soil surface and is 

covered by thin layers of organic debris. Seed of some legumes has a hard seed coat that slows 

germination. Scarification of the seed coat might improve water penetration and improve 

emergence. Fall planting is important for many native plant species because their seed requires a 

period of cold to break dormancy (vernalization). Loss of soil moisture, soil crusting, and bird 

damage are some detrimental factors hindering emergence of fall planted seed. Row cover can be 

a protective barrier against soil desiccation and bird damage. Seed treatment can protect the 

emerging seed from fungal pathogens that might cause seed decomposition or seedling damping 

off. This trial tested the effect of timing of planting (fall vs. spring), seed scarification, row 

cover, and seed treatment on germination of surface-planted seed of two legume species, Blue 

Mountain prairie clover (Dalea ornata) and basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), that are native 

to Malheur County and surrounding rangelands and for which stand establishment has been 

problematic.

 

Materials and Methods

Two selected germplasms of Blue Mountain prairie clover, Majestic and Spectrum, and one 

selected germplasm of basalt milkvetch, NBR-1, were included in the stand establishment trials. 

One seed lot of each of these three plant materials was scarified by immersion for 5 min in 98 

percent sulfuric acid. After scarification, seed packets of each seed lot were prepared with 120 

seeds per packet. Half of the seed from each scarified and non-scarified packet was treated 

briefly with a liquid mix of the fungicides Allegiance (metalaxyl) and Captan (100 g Allegiance, 

100 g Captan in 1 liter of water) then dried. The seed packets were assigned to one of six 

treatments (Tables 1-3). Seed was planted manually on November 11, 2011 and again on 

February 28, 2012. Immediately before the spring 2012 planting, a manual clodbuster was run 

over the surface of the beds to break the crust formed over the winter. The experimental design 

was a randomized complete block with four replications. Plots were one 30-inch-wide by 5-ftlong bed. Each plot had 120 seeds planted in 5 feet of two rows on the bed. 

After planting, some of the beds were covered with row cover. The row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt 

Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO) covered four rows (two beds) and was applied with a mechanical plastic 

mulch layer. 

On March 12, 2012, the row cover was removed and emergence counts were made in each plot. 

Emergence counts were again taken on March 22, April 2, April 12, April 24, and May 8, 2012. 
141

The row cover for the fall-planted seed was replaced after the March 12 count. The row cover for 

the spring planted seed was replaced after the March 12 and March 22 counts.

Tetrazolium tests were conducted to determine seed viability of each species. Seed viability was 

89 percent for unscarified and 91percent for scarified Dalea ornata (Spectrum germplasm, 

2010), 88 percent for unscarified and 92 percent for scarified Dalea ornata (Majestic germplasm, 

2009), and 97 percent for unscarified and 95 percent for scarified Astragalus filipes (Lot No. 

NBR-1 2010). The tetrazolium results were used to correct the emergence data to emergence of 

viable seed. 

Data were analyzed using analyses of variance (General Linear Models Procedure, NCSS, 

Kaysville, UT). Means separation was determined using Fisher’s least significant difference test 

at the 5 percent probability level, LSD (0.05). 

Results and Discussion

The winter of 2011/2012 at the Malheur Experiment Station had no snowfall compared to the 68-

year winter (October to March) average of 18 inches. Snow cover may reduce fluctuations in 

temperature and moisture and thus may be an important factor in vernalization of surface planted 

seed. Precipitation from October 2011 through March 2012 (6.1 inches) was close to the 68-year 

average of 6.4 inches.

Dalea ornata

Emergence and stand for both D. ornata selected germplasms was very poor for the fall-planted 

seed for all treatments (Tables 1 and 2). There were no statistically significant differences in 

stand between treatments for the fall-planted seed. Emergence and stand for the spring-planted 

seed was significantly better than for the fall-planted seed, but was nevertheless poor. The 

highest stand for the spring-planted seed was achieved with row cover and scarified seed with no 

fungicide (24% for Spectrum and 34.7% for Majestic). For the spring-planted seed, row cover 

resulted in significantly higher stand than uncovered seed for both germplasms. Scarified seed 

resulted in significantly higher stand than non-scarified seed for both germplasms. Seed 

treatment resulted in lower stand than untreated seed for both germplasms. 

Astragalus filipes

Fall planting resulted in higher stand than spring planting (Table 3). Emergence and stand for the 

fall planted seed was nevertheless poor. The highest stand for the fall-planted seed was achieved 

with row cover and scarified, untreated seed (36.2%). For the fall-planted seed, row cover 

resulted in significantly higher stand than uncovered seed. Scarified seed resulted in significantly 

higher stand than non-scarified seed. Seed treatment resulted in lower stand than untreated seed. 

Conclusions

Stand survivability was very poor for both species. By May 8, 2012 stand was 10% or less for all 

treatments and both germplasms of D. ornata and 12% or less for all treatments of A. filipes. 
142

Table 1. Stand of Dalea ornata (Majestic selected germplasm) in response to timing of 

planting and three treatments. Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, 

OR. Stand counts were based on live plants as a percent of live seed planted.

Timing Row cover Scarification Seed treatment 12-Mar 22-Mar 2-Apr 12-Apr 24-Apr 8-May

------------------------------ % stand -------------------------

Fall 2011 no no no 0.00 0.24 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00

no no yes 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

no avg 0.00 0.12 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00

no yes no 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.00

no yes yes 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.45 0.00 0.00

no avg 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.34 0.00 0.00

avg 0.00 0.06 0.12 0.17 0.00 0.00

yes no no 3.31 0.00 0.95 0.71 0.00 0.47

yes no yes 2.37 0.24 0.47 1.89 0.00 0.24

yes avg 2.84 0.12 0.71 1.30 0.00 0.36

yes yes no 1.81 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.00 0.00

yes yes yes 4.08 1.59 1.59 0.68 0.23 0.23

yes avg 2.94 1.25 1.25 0.79 0.11 0.11

avg 2.89 0.68 0.98 1.05 0.06 0.23

avg 1.45 0.37 0.55 0.61 0.03 0.12

Spring 2012 no no no 0.00 0.00 0.71 0.24 0.47 0.00

no no yes 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.47 1.18 0.00

no avg 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.36 0.83 0.00

no yes no 0.00 1.59 8.38 12.23 3.85 3.17

no yes yes 0.00 0.00 1.13 6.57 3.17 2.72

no avg 0.00 0.79 4.76 9.40 3.51 2.94

avg 0.00 0.40 2.56 4.88 2.17 1.47

yes no no 0.00 2.60 3.08 3.79 2.84 0.24

yes no yes 0.00 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.00 0.24

yes avg 0.00 1.42 1.66 2.01 1.42 0.24

yes yes no 0.00 33.97 34.65 22.87 17.66 5.89

yes yes yes 0.00 2.94 7.02 14.49 0.45 0.23

yes avg 0.00 18.46 20.83 18.68 9.06 3.06

avg 0.00 9.94 11.25 10.35 5.24 1.65

avg 0.00 5.17 6.90 7.61 3.70 1.56

LSD (0.05)

Species x timing 2.92 2.55 2.48 2.02 2.21 1.27

Species x timing x row cover 4.13 3.60 3.51 2.86 3.13 NS

Species x timing x row cover x scarification 1.49 3.85 4.19 NS 2.81 NS

Species x timing x row cover x scarif. x seed treatment 4.71 7.98 5.41 NS 2.38 NS
143

Table 2. Stand of Dalea ornata (Spectrum selected germplasm) in response to timing of 

planting and three treatments. Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, 

OR. Stand counts were based on live plants as a percent of live seed planted.

Timing Row cover Scarification Seed treatment 12-Mar 22-Mar 2-Apr 12-Apr 24-Apr 8-May

------------------------------ % stand -------------------------

Fall 2011 no no no 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.23 0.00

no no yes 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.00 0.00

no avg 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.12 0.00

no yes no 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.00

no yes yes 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.00

no avg 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.00

avg 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.29 0.06 0.00

yes no no 3.75 0.23 2.81 1.87 0.23 0.70

yes no yes 3.51 0.70 2.57 4.45 2.11 2.34

yes avg 3.63 0.47 2.69 3.16 1.17 1.52

yes yes no 3.21 0.69 1.14 1.37 0.23 0.23

yes yes yes 4.35 0.23 1.14 1.37 0.00 0.00

yes avg 3.78 0.46 1.14 1.37 0.11 0.11

avg 3.70 0.46 1.92 2.27 0.64 0.82

avg 1.85 0.26 0.96 1.28 0.35 0.41

Spring 2012 no no no 0.00 0.00 0.47 2.57 1.17 0.23

no no yes 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.70 0.23

no avg 0.00 0.00 0.23 1.52 0.94 0.23

no yes no 0.00 0.00 2.98 6.87 5.95 2.29

no yes yes 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.69

no avg 0.00 0.00 1.49 3.55 2.98 1.49

avg 0.00 0.00 0.86 2.54 1.96 0.86

yes no no 0.00 2.11 0.94 2.11 1.87 0.47

yes no yes 0.00 0.00 1.40 3.51 0.94 0.47

yes avg 0.00 1.05 1.17 2.81 1.40 0.47

yes yes no 0.00 16.48 24.04 16.94 11.68 3.89

yes yes yes 0.00 0.00 2.75 4.35 1.60 1.14

yes avg 0.00 8.24 13.39 10.65 6.64 2.52

avg 0.00 4.65 7.28 6.73 4.02 1.49

avg 0.00 2.32 4.07 4.63 2.99 1.18

LSD (0.05)

Species x timing 2.92 2.55 2.48 2.02 2.21 1.27

Species x timing x row cover 4.13 3.60 3.51 2.86 3.13 NS

Species x timing x row cover x scarification 1.49 3.85 4.19 NS 2.81 NS

Species x timing x row cover x scarif. x seed treatment 4.71 7.98 5.41 NS 2.38 NS
144

Table 3. Stand of Astragalus filipes (NBR-1 selected germplasm) in response to timing of 

planting and three treatments. Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, 

OR. Stand counts were based on live plants as a percent of live seed planted.

Timing Row cover Scarification Seed treatment 12-Mar 22-Mar 2-Apr 12-Apr 24-Apr 8-May

------------------------------ % stand -------------------------

Fall 2011 no no no 0.00 0.43 0.00 0.64 0.64 0.64

no no yes 0.00 0.21 0.21 0.43 0.00 0.21

no avg 0.00 0.32 0.11 0.54 0.32 0.43

no yes no 0.00 4.17 1.10 2.41 3.07 2.41

no yes yes 0.44 3.51 0.22 2.41 2.19 0.66

no avg 0.22 3.84 0.66 2.41 2.63 1.54

avg 0.11 2.08 0.38 1.47 1.48 0.98

yes no no 13.75 12.03 9.24 8.81 4.30 4.08

yes no yes 5.58 8.38 2.36 4.08 2.36 0.43

yes avg 9.66 10.20 5.80 6.44 3.33 2.26

yes yes no 29.82 36.18 28.29 24.78 17.54 11.40

yes yes yes 14.91 14.91 8.99 8.99 5.04 5.04

yes avg 22.37 25.55 18.64 16.89 11.29 8.22

avg 16.02 17.88 12.22 11.66 7.31 5.24

avg 8.06 9.98 6.30 6.57 4.39 3.11

Spring 2012 no no no 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.64 0.00

no no yes 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

no avg 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.32 0.00

no yes no 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.22 1.10

no yes yes 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.88 0.88

no avg 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.55 0.99

avg 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.44 0.49

yes no no 0.00 0.00 0.21 2.58 1.72 1.07

yes no yes 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.86 0.21 0.21

yes avg 0.00 0.11 0.11 1.72 0.97 0.64

yes yes no 0.00 1.32 4.82 14.25 3.07 2.85

yes yes yes 0.00 0.22 1.32 3.29 0.44 0.66

yes avg 0.00 0.77 3.07 8.77 1.75 1.75

avg 0.00 0.44 1.59 5.25 1.36 1.20

avg 0.00 0.22 0.79 2.79 0.90 0.85

LSD (0.05)

Species x timing 2.92 2.55 2.48 2.02 2.21 1.27

Species x timing x row cover 4.13 3.60 3.51 2.86 3.13 NS

Species x timing x row cover x scarification 1.49 3.85 4.19 NS 2.81 NS

Species x timing x row cover x scarif. x seed treatment 4.71 7.98 5.41 NS 2.38 NS
145

D. Five years of Tolerance of Sulphur-flower Buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum) to Rates 

and Mixtures of Postemergence Herbicides, 2008-2012

Project Description

Native forb seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial seed 

production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A major 

limitation to economically viable commercial production of native forb seed is weed 

competition. Weeds are adapted to growing in disturbed soil, and native forbs are not 

competitive with these weeds. The use of preemergence and postemergence herbicides for forb 

weed control is important, because forbs are fall planted. Fall planting results in nearly 

simultaneous forb and weed emergence early in the spring, complicating weed control. There is 

considerable knowledge about the relative efficacy of different herbicides to control target 

weeds, but few trials have tested the tolerance of native forbs to commercial herbicides. This trial 

evaluated the tolerance of sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum) to the herbicides 

Select®(clethodim), Prowl®(pendimethalin), and Outlook®(dimethenamid).

This work sought to discover products that could eventually be registered for use for native forb 

seed production. The information in this report is for the purpose of informing cooperators and 

colleagues in other agencies, universities, and industry of the research results. Reference to 

products and companies in this publication is for the specific information only and does not 

endorse or recommend that product or company to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. 

Nor should any information and interpretation thereof be considered as recommendations for the 

application of any of these herbicides. Pesticide labels should always be consulted before any 

pesticide use. Considerable efforts may be required to register these herbicides for use in native 

forb seed production.

Materials and Methods 

The trial was conducted on a field of Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic 

matter. Before planting, drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch depth 

midway between two 30-inch rows. The drip tapes were buried 5 ft apart in alternating inter-row 

spaces. The flow rate for the drip tape was 0.34 gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 

inches apart, resulting in a water application rate of 0.066 inch/hour.

In the fall of 2006, sulphur-flower buckwheat was planted in an area 10 ft wide and 220 ft long. 

The seeds were planted at 0.25 inch depth in 4 rows 30 inches apart. The field previously had 

been disked, ground hogged, and marked in rows 30 inches apart. A total of 4 drip irrigations 

applying 1 inch of water each were applied at 2-week intervals in 2007–2010. Drip irrigations 

were started when the flowering began. The trial was not irrigated in 2011.

On March 12, 2008; March 20, 2009; April 7, 2010; April 1, 2011; and April 10, 2012, thirteen 

herbicide treatments (Table 2) were applied to plots 4 rows wide and 5 ft long. The treatments 

consisted of different rates and combinations of the soil-active herbicides Prowl and Outlook. 

The treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. 
146

Treatments were applied at 30 psi, 2.63 mph, and 20 gal/acre using 8002 nozzles with 6 nozzles 

spaced 20 inches apart. Seed was harvested at maturity from the middle two rows in each plot 

each year. 

General Considerations

The focus of the evaluations was forb tolerance to the herbicides, not weed control, so weeds 

were removed as needed.

Treatment differences were compared using analysis of variance and protected least significant 

differences at the 95 percent confidence level, LSD (0.05), using NCSS Number Cruncher 

software (NCSS, Kaysville, UT).

Results and Discussion 

All observations made on the herbicides tested are strictly preliminary observations. Herbicides 

that damaged forbs as reported here might be helpful if used at a lower rate or in a different 

environment. The herbicides were relatively safe for sulphur-flower buckwheat in this trial but 

they might be harmful if used at higher rates or in a different environment. Nothing in this report 

should be construed as a recommendation.

Symptoms of herbicide injury were not observed in any of the plants in any year. Foliar injury 

would not be expected since all herbicides tested (except Select) were soil active and were 

applied early. There were no significant differences in seed yield between the herbicide 

treatments and the untreated check in 2008 and 2009 (Table 1). In 2010, Prowl at 1.43 lb ai/acre 

produced a higher seed yield than the check. In 2011, Prowl at 1.43 lb ai/acre and the mixture of 

Prowl at 1.19 lb ai/acre with Outlook at 0.84 lb ai/acre had a higher yield than the check. These 

herbicide treatments could have provided better weed control than the check, had the check not 

been kept weed free by hand weeding. In 2012, there were no significant differences in seed 

yield between the herbicide treatments and the untreated check.

Summary 

Sulphur-flower buckwheat was tolerant to Prowl and Outlook applied as post-emergence 

treatments at the rate and timing and on the soils used in these trials. Prowl and Outlook are 

broad-spectrum, soil-active herbicides that prevent weed emergence during the growing season. 

Select is a foliar-contact grass herbicide. The use of these three herbicides may provide the basis 

for an effective weed control program for seed production of sulphur-flower buckwheat. Further 

tests are warranted to describe the range of safety for these herbicides and whether or not they 

have any undesirable interactions.

Seed yields in 2012 were low. The soil water started very low in April, which may have had a 

detrimental effect on the seed yield of all of the treatments.
147

Table 1. Seed yield (lb/acre) of sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum) in 

response to repeated post-emergence herbicides applied on March 12, 2008; March 20, 

2009; April 7, 2010; April 1, 2011; and April 10, 2012. Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR. Prowl and Outlook are soil active and Select is a 

foliar-contact grass herbicide.

Treatment Rate 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

(lbs ai/acre) ---------------- lb/acre -----------------

Weed free, untreated control 276.5 430.0 622.6 346.2 89.5

Select 2.0 ECa 0.094 149.1 475.2 618.1 285.3 141.2

Prowl 0.95 387.2 440.8 549.7 406.9 120.9

Prowl 1.19 533.1 596.6 736.5 356.0 105.1

Prowl 1.43 250.6 596.4 988.8 502.3 105.9

Outlook 0.84 319.8 474.5 725.2 440.1 89.7

Outlook 0.98 143.5 501.4 627.4 251.7 137.1

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.66 300.9 555.5 795.5 357.0 154.9

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.84 440.0 763.8 861.3 464.0 61.2

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.98 330.9 569.1 614.8 436.0 59.8

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.66 244.0 699.8 618.5 433.7 129.7

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.84 336.7 556.0 592.2 513.6 57.9

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.98 285.6 506.2 684.3 367.0 126.3

Average 307.5 551.2 695.0 396.9 106.1

LSD (0.05) NS NS 241.7 149.5 NS

aApplied with Herbimax adjuvant at 1 percent v/v.

Publications

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Parris, C.; Saunders, L. D.; Johnson, D.; Bushman, S.; Shaw, N. 

2012. Evaluation of seed scarification for the establishment of three Intermountain West native 

legumes. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2011, Department of 

Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 141. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Agricultural 

Experiment Station. p. 136-138. 

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/ForbEmergenceLegumes2011.php

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Parris, C.; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Direct surface 

seeding strategies for establishment of Intermountain West native plants for seed production. In: 

Shock, C. C., ed. Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2011, Department of Crop and Soil 

Science Ext/CrS 141. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station. 

p. 130-135. http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/Forbemergence2011.php
148

Shock, C. C., Feibert, E.B.G.; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Tolerance of sulphur-flower 

buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum) to rates and mixtures of postemergence herbicides, 2008-

2011. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2011, Department of 

Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 141. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Agricultural 

Experiment Station. p. 171-173. 

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/ERUMProwlOutlook2011.php

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N.; Sampangi, R. S. 2012. Irrigation 

requirements for native wildflower seed production. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Malheur Experiment 

Station Annual Report 2011, Department of Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 141. Corvallis, OR: 

Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station. p. 139-160 

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/ForbIrrigation2011.php

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N.; Sampangi, R. S. 2012. Irrigation 

requirements for novel native wildflower seed production. In: Shock, C.C., ed. Malheur 

Experiment Station Annual Report 2011, Department of Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 141.

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station. p. 161-170.

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/ForbIrrigationNew2011.php

Shock, M. P.; Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Parris, C. A.; Saunders, L. D.; Sampangi, R. K.; 

Shaw, N. L.; Welch, T. K. 2012. Fernleaf biscuitroot, Lomatium dissectum (LODI). Sustainable 

Agriculture Techniques. Ext/CrS 138. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Department of 

Crop and Soil Science. 6 p. http://www.cropinfo.net/FernleafBiscuitroot.pdf

Shock, M. P.; Shock, C.C.; Feibert, E. G. B.; Shaw, N. L.; Saunders, L. D.; Sampangi, R. K. 

2012. Cultivation and irrigation of fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum) for seed 

production. HortScience. 47: 1525-1528.

Presentations

Feibert, E.B.G.; Shock, C. C. 2012. Establishing plant stands. Native Plant Seed Production Field 

Day, Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, 2012 May 16, Ontario, OR.

Sampangi, R. K.; Mohan, S. K.; Shock, C. C. 2012. Diagnosing abiotic disorders of native 

plants. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 

21-22, Salt Lake City, UT.

Shock, C. C. 2012. Native plant irrigation for seed production. Native Plant Seed Production 

Field Day. Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, 2012 May 16, Ontario, OR.

Shock, C. C. 2012. Wildflower and native plant seed production. Summer Farm Festival, Oregon 

State University, Malheur Experiment Station, 2012 July 11, Ontario, OR.

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L. D.; Parris, C.; Shaw, N. L. 2012. Stand 

establishment of native forb species for seed production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT.
149

Shock, C. C., Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L. D.; Parris, C.; Shaw, N. L. 2012. Planting systems 

for improved stands of fall planted native perennials. American Society of Horticultural Science, 

2012 July 31-August 3, Miami, FL.

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L. D.; Sampangi, R. K.; Shaw, N. L. 2012. Irrigation 

requirements of native forb species for seed production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22. Salt Lake City, UT.

Shock, C. C., Felix, J.; Saunders, L. D.; Doniger, A.; Ishida, J.; Shaw, N. 2012. Oregon 2011 

report. W2128 Microirrigation for Sustainable Water Use, 2012 November 1-3, Orlando, FL. 

Shock, C. C., Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N. L.; Sampangi, R. S. 2012. Long term SDI for seed 

production of western rangeland native wildflowers. International Irrigation Show, 2012 

November 4-6, Orlando, FL.

Products

 Seed produced from these planting was used to establish commercial seed production 

fields.

 A field tour for growers was conducted in May 2012.

 A tour of the seed production trials was incorporated into the annual Malheur Experiment 

Station Field Day activities in July of 2012.

 Five research reports on seed production of native perennials were published in the Annual 

Experiment Station Bulletin, one report was published in a peer-reviewed journal, and one 

extension bulletin was published.

 Continued improvement of the native plant database on the internet: 

http://www.malag.aes.oregonstate.edu/wildflowers/

 Three presentations were made at national meetings and three at regional meetings.
150

Project Title Stock Seed Production and Inventory of Native Plants for 

the Great Basin

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-268

Principle Investigators and Contact Information 

Stanford Young, Secretary-Manager

Utah Crop Improvement Association

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855

435.797.2082, Fax 435.797.0642

stanford.young@usu.edu

Michael Bouck, Field Supervisor-Northern Utah

Utah Crop Improvement Association

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855

435.797.2101, Fax 435.797.0642 

michael.bouck@usu.edu

Project Description

This project was initially titled “Establishment and Maintenance of the Buy-Back Program for 

Certified Seed”. It was funded through a Memorandum of Understanding between the USDA 

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID and the Utah Crop Improvement 

Association (UCIA), initiated in fall 2003 and renewed with additional funds in fall 2004 and fall

2007. A new joint venture agreement titled “Stock Seed Production of Native Plants for the 

Great Basin” was completed on 17 August 2009. Seed has been distributed during this time 

period using the Buy-back option, a mechanism for returning a portion of the seed increased by 

private growers back to the UCIA for redistribution to the original and additional seed growers 

for further seed increase.

A synopsis of the Stock Seed Buy-Back Program follows, applicable to the period 1 January-31 

December 2012.

This program encourages and allows seed growers to benefit economically in a timely manner as 

an incentive to participate in the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program. The program helps 

accelerate the increase in stock seed supplies and ultimately increase seed supplies on the open 

market for commercial revegetation use.

The objectives of the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program, funded through the Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project (GBNPSIP), are to: a) facilitate development of a 

seed market for specific germplasm accessions, pooled accessions, and/or formal germplasm 

releases developed through GBNPSIP; b) reward initial seed growers financially for the risks 

they have assumed to participate in the program; c) document germplasm identity through the 

seed increase process by utilizing seed certification protocols; and d) increase stock seed 
151

available for potential secondary seed growers. This program is administered through the Utah 

Crop Improvement Association, and a detailed procedure has been outlined in previous 

GBNPSIP reports.

In addition, some species germplasms are distributed to growers without specific agreements for 

stock seed buyback. In these cases, UCIA prints Source Identified certification tags from 

information provided by the germplasm developer on the UCIA Stock Materials Tagging 

Information Form (Appendix II). This legitimizes the seed transfer and the grower can enter the 

field for certification, whether the production is meant to have a buy-back contract written or not. 

Publications

Young, S.; Bouck, M. 2012. Stock seed production of native plants for the Great Basin. In: Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2011 Progress Report: 135-138.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2011_ProgressReport.pdf

Presentations

Young, S. 2012. GBNPSIP Germplasms: Successes in developing plant materials that are 

available in the marketplace. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual 

Meeting, 2012, February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2012.shtml

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

For most of the species being studied by GBNPSIP cooperators, wildland seed collection is 

insufficient to provide for reclamation planting needs. Thus, accessions consisting of limited 

quantities of seed obtained from defined wildland stands, or pooled from defined geographic 

areas, must be increased in commercial fields or nurseries in order to be available in the 

marketplace in sufficient quantities to supply reclamation projects of the scope called for in the 

Great Basin. 

The UCIA Buy-Back project provides a bridge between a) small-quantity initial accessions and 

b) commercial marketplace production, by working with specialized growers who are willing to 

provide land, time, and expertise to produce increased amounts of stock seed from the former, 

and, with UCIA facilitation, make the stock available for the latter. 

This process has been more successful for some species than others, but in general, great 

progress has been made in defining seed accession groupings, knowledge of agronomic seed 

production techniques, and understanding the reality of the commercial seed marketplace.

The seed market status of grasses and forbs that have been forwarded to growers under the 

auspices of the GBNPSIP for the periods 2002-2011 and updated for 2012 are summarized in 

Table 1. Grasses are easier to produce, and are generally used in greater quantities than forbs in 

reclamation plantings. The stock seed quantities in the table reflect this. Seed increase, stock 

seed, and commercial availability are detailed in Appendix III.
152

Table 1. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project stock seed inventory and distribution, 2004-2012.

2004-2011 2012 2012 2012

Distributed Distributed 

Class/ from Added to from

Species/Crop Variety/Germplasm ID Generation Lot # inventory Inventory inventory Inventory

bulk lbs bulk lbs bulk lbs bulk lbs

Achillea millefolium Eagle ?? Germplasm S G3 ACMI2-RMRS-63-G3-ERSTROM-10 3.3

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm S G3 RMRS-ACMI2-11 0.5 0.0

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm S G2 NWS-1-YAR-FDN 12.0

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm S G1 NSW4-1-EMY1-1 6.5 0.0

Achnatherum thurberianum Orchard Idaho Site SI G1 2005.0394-1 13.0 0.0

Achnatherum thurberianum Orchard Idaho Site SI G1 2005.0394-2 1.0

Achnatherum thurberianum Orchard Idaho Site SI G1 2005.0394-C 6.0

Achnatherum thurberianum Orchard Idaho Site SI G1 2007.0498 1.0 0.0

Balsamorhiza hookeri BAHO B1 SI G0 BAHO B1-02 0.6

Balsamorhiza hookeri BAHO B1 SI G1 2009.0426 15.9 15.9

Elymus elymoides Little Sahara SI/ G0 Lot # CU-907 91.0 32.0

Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm S G4 Lot # LHS1B2G-335 40.2

Elymus elymoides Fish Creek Germplasm S G3 Lot # LHS1B2H-335 47.1

Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm S G4 Lot # LHS1B2J-337 127.5

Elymus elymoides Fish Creek Germplasm S G3 Lot # LHS1B2K-337 113.5

Eriogonum heracleoides NBR/SRP SI G1 BFI-10-10139687 220.0

Leymus cinereus UDWR Intermountain Tetra Germplasm S/G2 BFI-11-1159676 4350.0 350.0

Lomatium dissectum NBR SI/G1 LODI TD-10 1.2 0.0

Penstemon cyaneus PECY B6-02 SI G1 2009-0570 6.1 0.0

Penstemon cyaneus PECY B6-02 SI G1 2004.0448 16.0 0.0

Penstemon cyaneus PECY B6-02 SI G2 2006.0413 5.0 0.0

Penstemon cyaneus PECY B6-02 SI G2 PPI-04-1 3.0 0.0

Penstemon deustus PEDE B11 Banks SI G2 CD-12-265 20.0 20.0

Penstemon pachyphyllus Pine Hollow Canyon SI G1 A5-4-P1 11.9 38.1

Penstemon palmerii Cedar Variety Foundation CPP KL-05-3, GBRI 36 10.0

Penstemon palmerii Cedar Variety Foundation CPP KL-05-2, GBRI 26 4.0

Penstemon palmerii Cedar Variety Foundation CPP KL-05-1, GBRI 16 46.5 50.0 36.5

Penstemon speciosus PESP-NBR-PO1-RMRS SI BFI-12-10178761 20.0 20.0

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm S/ G1 NBS-RR8-MTH-1 514.0 315.0 171.0

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm S/ G1 NBS-RR9-MTH-1 534.0

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm SI G2 557-215-31A 304.0

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm SI G2 016-215-611A 112.0

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm SI G1 JA-03, UCIA 44 300.0

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia SPGR-U63-2007 ?? SPGR2-U63-2007-2012 6.0 3.0 3.0

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia CBR SI G1 GBGM-12 40.0 40.0

Sphaeralcea munroana NBR SI G1 MGM-12-B 24.0 24.0

Sphlaeralcea parvifolia SPGR U14 SI G1 S04-2-4 5.0

152
153

Project Title A Strategy for Maximizing Native Plant Material 

Diversity for Ecological Restoration, Germplasm 

Conservation and Genecology Research

Project Agreement No. 12-JV-11221632-044

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Berta Youtie, Owner

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services (EOSS)

P.O. Box 606, Prineville, OR 97754

541.447.8166, Fax 541.447.6228

byoutie@crestviewcable.com

Project Description

This project is comprised of three distinct, but interrelated components: A. Use of the Provisional 

Seed Zone Map, B. Seed Collection, and C. Liaison Work with Seed Growers.

Selection of native plant materials that are ecologically appropriate and genetically diverse is a 

vital element of any restoration project. Adapted materials are essential for restoring healthy, 

self-sustaining ecosystems with the diversity required to provide resiliency in the face of climate 

change and other environmental perturbations (Johnson et al. 2010). Species-specific seed zones 

are used to select plant materials for restoration that are best adapted to current and projected 

future climatic and environmental conditions (St. Clair et al. 2005). Genecology research, 

including common garden and reciprocal transplant studies, has long been conducted in the 

United States and elsewhere to develop and refine species-specific seed zones for tree species. 

Common garden studies aim to correlate observed intraspecific genetic variation to source 

environments to suggest adaptive traits determined by natural selection (Johnson et al. 2004). 

Adaptive genetic variation is then mapped over the area of interest to delineate species-specific 

seed transfer zones. 

Seed harvested from within a seed zone can be planted directly, increased in agricultural seed 

fields or propagated in a nursery to provide seed or plants for restoration projects. Collection 

from at least 50 widely separated plants in each of five or more populations within a seed zone is 

recommended to provide genetically diverse material (Johnson et al. 2010) for restoration. In 

addition, species-specific seed zone maps can be used to identify collection gaps for genecology 

studies and strategies for in situ and ex situ germplasm conservation. 
154

A. Use of the Provisional Seed Zone Map for Planning Seed Collection – Examples from the 

Great Basin 

Common garden studies for 

development of species-specific 

seed zones have only recently been 

initiated for grasses, forbs and 

shrubs (Erickson et al. 2004, 

Johnson et al. 2012). Because 

emphasis on the use of native 

species is increasing, the number of 

species utilized for restoration is 

large, and genecology studies are 

costly and time-consuming, 

surrogate tools are required for 

making decisions regarding seed 

source selections. Provisional seed 

zones are one tool that can be used 

when genetic research is lacking 

(Bower et al. 2010). These zones 

are based precipitation and 

temperature that are known to 

influence adaptation and plant 

distributions (Figure 1).

We selected three widespread 

native forbs that are candidates for 

restoration use in the Wyoming big 

sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. 

wyomingensis) ecosystem of the 

northern Great Basin to illustrate 

the use of provisional seed zones.

These were sharpleaf penstemon 

(Penstemon acuminatus), royal 

penstemon (P. speciosus) and 

Douglas’dustymaiden (Chaenactis 

douglasii).

Methods

Location data for each of the populations of sharpleaf penstemon, royal penstemon, and

Douglas’ dustymaiden was extracted from the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project (GBNPSIP) database and plotted on the provisional seed zone map. These data consist of 

the GBNPSIP collection sites only and are not all known populations for the species (e.g., 

herbarium collections). Maps were examined to identify dominant seed zone(s) of our 

populations and delineate gaps where additional seed collection is needed.

Figure 1. Great Basin provisional seed zone map 

(Bower et al. 2011). Seed zones were delineated using 

mean maximum daily growing season temperatures 

(April through September) and annual precipitation 

(PRISM, http://www.prismclimate.org) derived from 

climate normals for 1971-2000.
155

Results

Sharpleaf penstemon: Populations (n=37) are largely restricted to sandy and sandy loam soils in 

two provisional seed zones (< 250 mm/< 27oC and < 250 mm/> 27oC; Figure 2). Northern 

populations in each zone are adequate in number and distribution to provide seed collections that

can be pooled to prepare restoration plant materials. Northern populations can also be selected 

for in situ or ex situ conservation or for common garden studies. Although the species is not 

known from Utah, it is widely distributed in Nevada (USDA-NRCS 2012) where currently 

identified sites are confined to locations along a single highway corridor. Further reconnaissance 

and collection in Nevada may be facilitated by use of the provisional seed zone map combined 

with examination of floras, herbarium databases, soil surveys, ecological site descriptions, and 

consultation with local authorities.

Figure 2. Sharpleaf penstemon plant and collections sites (green points) in the Great Basin.

Royal penstemon: Populations are widespread within the Wyoming big sagebrush ecosystem. 

They are located primarily within the 250-370 mm/21-27oC seed zone on loam to fine sandy 

loam soils (Figure 3). 

Figure 3. Royal penstemon plant and collection sites (green points) in the Great Basin.
156

Known collection sites may be selected for in situ or ex situ germplasm conservation. However, 

because the species occurs over a large area and several seed zones, identification of additional 

populations is desirable to provide a better distribution of populations if accessions are to be 

pooled to prepare restoration plant materials. A larger number of populations from the Wyoming 

big sagebrush ecosystem plus populations from higher elevation plant communities where the 

species also occurs would be essential for genecological research to develop a species-specific 

seed zone map for the Great Basin.

Douglas’ dustymaiden: This species occurs widely across the Great Basin on dry, sandy, 

gravelly, and rocky sites and on recent disturbances in communities ranging from salt desert 

shrublands on basin floors to alpine ridges (Morefield 2006; Figure 4). Collection efforts were 

only recently initiated and focused on the Wyoming big sagebrush ecosystem. Site descriptions 

for known populations, the provisional seed zone map, and other available resources should be 

consulted to guide future surveys. Because of the species’ wide distribution, areas where the 

species is most abundant and restoration needs greatest should be defined and targeted for 

development of restoration seed sources.

Unlike the two penstemon species, Douglas’ dustymaiden includes overlapping subspecific taxa, 

Douglas’ dustymaiden (C. d. douglasii) and alpine dustymaiden (C. d. alpina) (Morefield 2006). 

Furthermore, some polyploid populations have been found at lower elevations of the species’ 

range and on Pleistocene disturbances (Mooring 1980). These factors impose additional 

restrictions on seed transfer. 

Figure 4. Douglas’ dustymaiden plant and collection sites (green points) in the Great Basin.

B. Seed Collection

Methods

Prioritization of seed collection effort was determined based on identified gaps and on needs and 

considerations by GBNPSIP scientists, including:

a) Common garden studies and germplasm conservation: 

What is the relationship of current collections to the distribution of the species?

b) Seed increase or immediate use in restoration: 
157

Are restoration materials needed for a specific seed zone?

 If materials are needed, what are the past, ongoing, or anticipated disturbances in this 

seed zone and what local species are appropriate for restoring them? Consider life 

forms, functional traits, etc.

 If few or no collections of a species have been located within a seed zone, does the 

distribution map or do other resources indicate that the species is abundant in that 

seed zone? Are there other species that are more abundant that would fill the same 

niche in restoration seeding?

How many collections do we need from a seed zone?

 Geneticists recommend pooling seeds from at least 5 and preferably up to 20 

populations within each seed zone to provide the genetic variation required to meet 

future environmental challenges (Johnson et al. 2004, 2010). This also minimizes the 

risk of inbreeding or outbreeding depression as planted genotypes will be from the 

same zone as local vegetation near the planting site.

How do we pool our populations for initial increase needs?

 Consider pooling or subdividing collections from within a single seed zone or 

combining collections from more than one zone.

 Consider characteristics of the seed zone—geographic extent, weather pattern 

variation, geology, and soils. 

 Consider the species biology—gene flow, breeding system, seed dispersal, 

generation time. 

Consider climate change—is there a need to add populations, for example material from an 

adjoining warmer zone that will pre-adapt restoration materials to changing conditions?

Results 

Fifteen seed lots from ten target species for GBNPSIP 2012 collecting were harvested by 

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services (EOSS) (Tables 1 and 2) for scientists collaborating in the 

GBNPSIP and delivered to the USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station Laboratory in Boise, ID. 

C. Liaison Work with Seed Growers

I visited three native seed farms in the Columbia Basin of Washington in May 2012 and 

evaluated the seed production status of forb seed production fields of hoary aster

(Machaeranthera canescens), royal penstemon (Penstemon speciosus), basalt milkvetch

(Astragalus filipes), parsnipflower buckwheat (Eriogonum heracleiodes), sulfur-flower 

buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum), Douglas’ dustymaiden (Chaenactis douglasii), Blue 

Mountain prairie clover (Dalea ornata), and Lewis flax (Linum lewisii). Growers were 

concerned about finding markets for the forb species they were already growing. After the 

current year BLM seed buy list with its greater variety of forb species than in previous years was 

released, growers were much more interested in continuing to experiment with and grow native 

forbs. 
158

Table 1. Forb species collected in 2012 for use by Great Basin Native Plant Selection

and Increase Project collaborators.

Scientific name Common name

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dustymaiden

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot

Lomatium nudicaule Barestem lomatium

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot

Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster

Mentzelia laevicaulis Smoothstem blazing star

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon

Phacelia hastate Silverleaf phacelia

Phacelia heterophylla Varileaf phacelia

Phacelia linearis Threadleaf phacelia

Table 2. Bulk seed lots collected in southeastern Oregon during the 2012 field season for Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project.

EOSS site number Collection location and county Collection date No. plants

CHDO1BY12S Owyhee Dam Road, Malheur Co. 6/28/12 75

CHDO1BY09 Castle Rock, Malheur Co. 7/20/12 1000

LODI1BY12S Sag Road, Halfway, Baker Co. 7/13/12 75

LONU2BY08 Castle Rock, Malheur Co. 7/1/12 75

LOTR39 Castle Rock, Malheur Co. 7/1/12 100

MACA1BY12S Juniper Gulch, Juntura, Malheur Co. 10/11/12 800

MACA2BY12S Brogan Hill, Malheur Co. 10/12/12 300

MELA1BY12S Brogan Hill, Malheur Co. 9/15/12 50

MELA2BY12S Juniper Gulch, Juntura, Malheur Co. 9/27/12 50

PEAC1BY12S Halliday Road, Malheur Co. 6/30/12 20

PEAC11 Keeney Pass, Malheur Co. 6/30/12 75

PHHA1BY10 Owyhee Dam Road, Malheur Co. 6/28/12 75

PHHE1BY12S Brogan Hill, Malheur Co. 6/30/12 50

PHHE2BY12S Ranch out of Ironside, Malheur Co. 6/30/12 150

PHLI2BY10 Owyhee Dam Road, Malheur Co. 6/8/12 75
159

Conclusions

The Great Basin provisional seed zone map provides a valuable decision support tool that can aid 

in making germplasm collection and conservation decisions when genetic research is lacking. 

Local knowledge of physiography and plant ecology can be used to adjust provisional seed zone 

boundaries. Knowledge of a species’ biology and edaphic and biotic factors influencing its 

distribution should direct surveys and deployment of restoration material within each zone. 

Most restoration species do not occur in all seed zones. In addition, the scale of restoration 

occurring in each zone varies. Thus, it may be possible to limit initial survey efforts to priority 

areas and zones to expedite development of urgently needed plant materials. 

Provisional seed zone maps for the United States and completed species-specific seed zone maps 

and associated literature are available on the USDA Forest Service Western Wildlands 

Environmental Threat Assessment Center Seed Mapper website: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/wwetac/threat_map/SeedZones_Intro.html. Mapping applications are 

available in formats ranging from geobrowser to ArcGIS ArcMap to facilitate user applications 

References

Bower, A. B., St. Clair, B.; Erickson, V. 2010. Provisional seed zones for native plants. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/nativeplantmaterials/documents/ProvisionalSeedZonesForNati

vePlantsUpdated2011.pdf

Erickson, V. J.; Mandel, N. L.; Sorensen F. C. 2004. Landscape patterns of phenotypic variation 

and population structuring in a selfing grass, Elymus glaucus (blue wildrye). Canadian Journal of 

Botany. 82: 1776-1789. 

Johnson, G. R.; Sorensen, F. C.; St. Clair, J. B.; Cronn, R. 2004. Pacific Northwest forest tree 

seed zones-a template for native plants? Native Plants Journal. 5: 131-140.

Johnson, R.; Stitch, L.; Olwell, P.; Lambert, S.; Horning, M.; Cronn, R. 2010. What are the best 

seed sources for ecosystem restoration on BLM and USFS lands? Native Plants Journal. 11: 117-

130.

Johnson, R. C.; Cashman, M. J.; Vance-Borland, K. 2012. Genecology and seed zones for Indian 

ricegrass collected in the Southwestern United States. Rangeland Ecology & Management 65:

523-532. 

Mooring J. S. 1980. A cytogeographic study of Chaenactis douglasii (Compositae, Helenieae). 

American Journal of Botany. 67: 1304-1319.

Morefield, J. D. 2006. 378. Chaenactis. In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds.,

Flora of North America. Vol. 21 Magnoliophyta: Asteridae, part 8: Asteraceae, part 3. New 

York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 400-414. 
160

St. Clair, J. B.; Mandel, N. L.; Vance-Borland, K. W. 2005. Genecology of Douglas-fir in 

western Oregon and Washington. Annals of Botany. 96: 1199-1214.

USDA-NRCS. 2012. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, NC: National Plant Data Team. 

Available: http://plants.usda.gov [2012 November 2012]

Publications

Youtie, B.; Shaw, N.; Fisk, M.; Jensen, S. [Submitted]. Strategy for maximizing native plant 

material diversity for restoration and genecology research. SER Europe Knowledge Base on 

Ecological Restoration in Europe.

Presentations

Youtie, B. 2012. Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials development, seed increase and use 

2011. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting. 2012 February 

21-22, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Youtie, B.; Shaw, N.; Fisk, M.; Jensen, S. 2012. A strategy for maximizing native plant material 

diversity for restoration and genecology research. 8th European Conference on Ecological 

Restoration. 2012 September 9-14, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic. Poster. 

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

Increased communications and collaboration has led to better seed distribution to growers for 

seed development of new forb species that may be used in BLM seed buys and restoration 

projects in the future. USFS preliminary seed zone maps for the Great Basin are used for 

developing seed accessions for on-the-ground restoration.
161

Project Title Cultural Thinning of Native Sagebrush Stands to Increase 

Seed Yields

Project No. 08-JV-11221632-226 

Principle Investigators and Contact Information

Brad Geary, Associate Professor

Brigham Young University, 263 WIDB

Provo, Utah 84663

801.422.2369, Fax 801.422.0008

Brad_geary@byu.edu

Project Description

Seed harvesting has become an important part of restoration on public lands and increasing seed 

production of native wildland shrub populations would be beneficial for this effort. There is a 

crucial need for large volumes of sagebrush seed of higher quality for the use in rehabilitation 

projects (Beetle and Young 1965). By removing neighboring plants, there is less competition for 

water for the remaining stand (Armstrong 2007). This study is designed to expand previous 

research by determining if thinning stands can improve seed yields in established native 

populations of Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis). The specific 

objective of this research is to determine if treated native stands of Wyoming big sagebrush can 

increase seed yield over natural stands of sagebrush. Removal of competition between shrubs has 

been the best application for increasing seed yield. Therefore the objectives of this research are: 

1- determine if chemical elimination of competing shrubs increases seed yield over natural 

stands; 2- determine if mechanical elimination of competing shrubs increases seed yield over 

natural stands; 3- determine if treatments are viable options for increasing seed production.

Treatments involved in this research have the potential for reducing overall seeding costs to 

revegetate large areas of disturbed grounds with Wyoming big sagebrush seed.

Two sites were chosen for this study based on area (> 20 ha or 50 acres), sagebrush stand 

uniformity, and sagebrush density. Both sites are in Utah. The first site is approximately 16 km 

(10 mi) south of Scipio along the I-15 corridor. The second site is found approximately 16 km 

southeast at the main entrance to the Little Sahara Recreation Area. Treatments in this study are: 

1- Control (natural stand undisturbed); 2- General mechanical thinning (Figure 1); 3- Mechanical 

kill in 3.05-m (10-ft) strips; 4- General chemical thinning; and 5- Chemical kill in 3.05-m strips

(Figure 2). All treatments were established during summer 2010. See Table 1 for details. Control 

areas were left untouched.
162

Figure 1. Mechanical thin where the Dixie Harrow was dragged once- over the stand to reduce 

shrub density.

Figure 2. Chemical kill application. Note the variation of live foliage to the dead area where the 

chemical has been applied.

Based on one year of data, we saw an improvement in seed yield through the use of general 

mechanical strip thinning at one location. The same results did not occur at the second location 

where there were no differences among the treatments.
163

Table 1. Wyoming big sagebrush stand treatments at applied in summer 2010 near Scipio and the 

Little Sahara Recreation Area, Utah. 

Treatment Procedure

Chemical 

Application Rate

Adjuvant 

Oil Added

Control Untreated N/A N/A

General 

mechanical 

thinning

Dixie harrow pulled once across plot 

46 m x 213 m (150 ft x 700 ft) area to 

thin the shrubs. N/A N/A

Mechanical 

kill strips 

Dixie harrow pulled across 3.05-m 

(10-ft) strips three times in opposite 

successive passes. N/A N/A

Chemical 2,4-D applied foliarly to thin the stand. 

2-4D at 10 liters/ha 

in 275L of 

water/ha N/A

Chemical

2,4-D applied to 3.05-m (10-ft) strips. 

Adjuvant oil added to increase kill. 

2-4D at 10 liters/ha 

in 275L of 

water/ha 

Surfactant at 

0.8 liters/ha

References

Beetle, A. A.; Young, A. 1965. A third subspecies in the Artemisia tridentata complex. Rhodora 

67: 405-406.

Armstrong, J. 2007. Improving sustainable seed yield in Wyoming big sagebrush. Brigham 

Young University, Provo, UT. Thesis. 39 p.

Presentations 

Elder, K.; Geary, B.; Anderson, V.; Nicholson, J.; Fugal, R.; Nordin, A. 2012. Increasing seed 

yield in big sagebrush by mechanical and chemical treatments. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT.

Management Implications

Seed production will need to be monitored for several years in order to determine the true effects 

of the treatments. In treatment areas, the increase in cheatgrass was obvious and is a concern 

because of the increased fire potential.

Products

 Research locations are open as demonstration sites, and these locations will be monitored 

for several years to determine treatment effects on long-term seed production.
164

Project Title Managing Pests of Native Plant Seed Production

Project Agreement No. 10-CR-11221632-070

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Robert Hammon, Area Extension Agent

Colorado State University, Tri River Area Extension

P. O. Box 20,000-5028, 2775 Hwy 50

Grand Junction, CO 81502-5028

970.244.1838, Fax 970.244.1700

bob.hammon@mesacountry.us

Project Description

Seed-feeding insects impacting globemallow seed production

Weevils (Anthonomus sphaeralciae Fall [Coleoptera: Curculionidae]), which attack flowers and 

developing seeds, can significantly impact globemallow (Sphaeralcea spp. A. St.-Hil. 

[Malvaceae]) seed production without a grower even noticing there was insect damage. This 

weevil damaged almost one-quarter of the flowers in a seed production field in Delta County, 

Colorado, during 2007 (Hammon and Franklin 2012a).

Some insects affecting penstemon seed production

Beardtongue (Penstemon spp. Schmidel [Scrophulariaceae]) seeds are often produced without 

apparent damage from pests, but several species of native insects can adversely impact seed 

production fields. Tarnished plant bug (Lygus lineolaris Palisot) and western plant bug (Lygus 

hesperus Knight [Hemiptera: Miridae]), penstemon weevil (Hesperobaris sp. Casey [Coleoptera: 

Curculionidae]), penstemon clearwing moth (Penstemonia spp. [Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)), and 

ebony bug (Corimelaena extenso Uhler [Hemiptera: Thyreocoridae]) have all been recorded as 

pests in penstemon seed production fields in the western U.S. (Hammon and Franklin 2012b).

Publications

Hammon, R.; Franklin, M. 2012a. Seed-feeding insects impacting globemallow seed production. 

Native Plants Journal 13: 95-97.

Hammon, R.; Franklin, M. 2012b. Some insects affecting Penstemon seed production. Native

Plants Journal 13: 107-111.
165

Project Title Native Annual Species for Retail Nurseries and 

Landscaping

Project Agreement No. 11-CR-11221632-008

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Heidi A. Kratsch, Western Area Horticulture Specialist

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension

4955 Energy Way

775.784.4848, Fax 775.784.4881

kratschh@unce.unr.edu 

Project Description

Introduction

A common problem for sellers of native plants to the public is that many native plants are not 

looking their best at the time of sale, making them less desirable for purchase. Annual flowers 

are one of the most valuable aspects of a retail nursery or garden center because they provide 

instant color and stimulate impulse purchases by consumers. A strategy for retail nurseries to 

increase the sale of native plants for landscaping is to include native annual flowers in their 

inventory. They can market native annual flowers to the public by citing the following facts:

- Native annuals provide quick and reliable color to the landscape.

- Many native annuals re-seed and return year after year.

- Native annuals provide a naturalized look to a garden space and enhance the “native feel” of 

the landscape.

- Native annuals are attractive to and provide food and shelter for native pollinators.

- Native annuals are safe to use within the defensible space zone (within 30 feet of the home) 

because they have a high moisture content during the growing season and die back to the 

ground at the end of the season when wildfire risk is greatest.

Objectives

- Determine germination constraints of the five native annuals.

- Investigate flower induction strategies for efficient production for point-of-sale marketing.

Methods 

We investigated the nursery production and landscape value of five native annual species: Botta's 

clarkia (Clarkia bottae: Onagraceae), purple Chinese houses (Collinsia heterophylla: 

Scrophulariaceae), bird’s-eye gilia (Gilia tricolor: Polemoniaceae), baby blue eyes (Nemophila 

menziesii: Hydrophyllaceae), and desertbells (Phacelia campanularia: Hydrophyllaceae). Seeds 

were purchased from the Theodore Payne Foundation in Sun Valley, California. Seeds were 

germinated by direct-seeding into standard peat-based potting mix in 3.8-cm (1.5-inch) by 20.3-

cm (8-inch) cone-tainers that were kept moist on a greenhouse misting bench. Half the seeds of 

each species were cold-, moist-stratified for 2 weeks prior to seeding; 
166

Results and Discussion

Although stratification simulates natural winter conditions necessary for some species to 

germinate, none of the species required cold, moist stratification for germination (Table 1). 

Examination of floral induction is ongoing. 

Species responses: 

Botta's clarkia – The species germinates easily and flowers early and profusely. It does seem to 

require extra water but could be used to draw customers in and encourage native plant purchases.

Purple Chinese houses – Plants produce beautiful flowers, but flower induction is touchier - we 

did not experience good results. It requires regular watering to keep it looking good, so it is not a 

species that will be pursued further in this project.

Bird’s-eye gilia – This species germinates easily and has gorgeous flower. It may be marketable, 

but needs more work on flower induction strategy.

Baby blue eyes – Under proper conditions it germinates quite well and flowers easily and 

profusely. It is native to the Great Basin so it should do well and be highly marketable here. The 

species requires further investigation. 

Desertbells – This species has potential but requires further investigatation into its flowering 

response, as flowering did not occur under the conditions we tested. 

Table 1. Germination and flower induction requirements for five native annuals.

Species Germination Flower Induction1

Photoperiod Light intensity Temperature

Botta's clarkia

Germinates with or 

without stratification

Response 

unknown

Irradiation 

Indifferent

18.3-23.9oC 

(65-75oF)

Purple Chinese 

houses

Germinates with or 

without stratification; 

requires light 

Facultative 

long-day

Irradiation 

indifferent

Response 

unknown

Bird’s-eye 

gilia

Germinates with or 

without stratification 

Response 

unknown

Irradiation 

indifferent

Response 

unknown

Baby blue eyes

Germinates with or 

without stratification; 

inhibited by high 

temperature (>65oF)

and light Day neutral

Irradiation 

indifferent

18.3-23.9oC 

(65-75oF)

Desertbells

Germinates with or 

without stratification; 

inhibited by high 

temperature (>65oF) 

and light Day neutral 

Irradiation 

indifferent

Response 

unknown

1Currey et al. (2011). Observation and inference by H. Kratsch relative to Reno, NV environmental conditions.
167

Future Plans

The above work will be continued with inclusion of species more conducive to the southern 

Great Basin region. We are also completing a native plant module that will be included in our 

core master gardener volunteer training. This will be available online by way of the e-Xtension 

website (www.extension.org) and shared with western states by way of the multistate project: 

Western Education/Extension and Research Activity (WERA 1013), Intermountain Regional 

Evaluation and Introduction of Native Plants.

References

Currey, C. J.; Lopez, R. G.; Mattson, N. S. 2011. Commercial greenhouse and nursery 

production: flower induction of annuals. Purdue Extension HO-249-W, Purdue University, West 

Lafayette, IN. 10 p.

Publications

Kratsch, H. 2012. Boron- and salt-tolerant trees and shrubs for northern Nevada. University of 

Nevada Cooperative Extention (UNCE) Special Publication: SP-12-04. Reno, NV. 10 p. 

http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ho/2012/sp1204.pdf

Kratsch, H; Skelly, J. A. 2011. Designing landscapes for northern Nevada’s arid climate. 

University of Nevada Cooperative Extention (UNCE) Special Publication: SP-11-15. Reno, NV. 

9 p. http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ho/2011/sp1115.pdf

Sriladda, C.; Kratsch, H. A.; Larson, S. R.; Kjelgren, R. K. 2012. Morphological and genetic 

variation among four high desert Sphaeralcea species. HortScience 47: 715-720.

Presentations

Kratsch, H. A. 2012. UNCE master gardener native plant club: connecting master gardeners to 

the university using native plants. 5th Annual Meeting of the Multistate Research Project, WERA 

1013: Intermountain Regional Evaluation and Introduction of Native Plants, 2012 October 12, El 

Paso, TX.

Kratsch, H. A. 2012. Nevada master gardeners volunteer their expertise to facilitate on-campus 

student learning. Workshop: Master gardener volunteer program management and project ideas 

that work. Annual Conference of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 2012 July 31,

Miami, FL. Invited presentation. 

Products

 A list of intermountain regional native plant growers has been revised and sent to the 

WERA 1013 website http://www.uwyo.edu/wera1013/
168

Project Title RMRS-CWI Research and Demonstration Gardens and 

Student Training Program

Project Agreement No. 11-CR-11221632-142

 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

John Dodson, Assistant Professor

College of Western Idaho, Horticulture Technology

P.O. Box 3010 MS8000

Nampa, ID 83653

208.562.2468, Fax 208.562.2471

johndodson@cwidaho.cc

Alexis Malcomb, Biological Science Technician

USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

208.373.4340, Fax 208.373.4391

amalcomb@fs.fed.us

Project Description

The USFS Great Basin Research Site

The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Great Basin Research 

Site is a 0.8 ha (2 ac) plot of land near the College of 

Western Idaho (CWI) Horticulture Center, Boise, 

Idaho. The site is used for research studies by USFS, 

Boise State University (BSU), Idaho State University, 

University of Idaho (UI), and CWI.

CWI helps maintain the site through student employees, student interns, and senior project 

programs. Several studies have been conducted at the site including, in 2012, BSU and UI 

graduate research projects on sagebrush. The site is ideal for visiting scientists to view 

experimental plots of mature Eriogonum and Lomatium.
169

Demonstration Garden and CWI Horticulture Internship and Senior Project Programs

RMRS, in collaboration with CWI, has created a demonstration garden of plants used for 

restoration within big sagebrush and associated Great Basin plant communities. The garden 

serves as an educational tool for CWI horticulture students and for community education. RMRS 

has been working closely with CWI in helping to develop knowledge and skill sets of the 

students to expand their breadth of knowledge and gain real-world experience.

The majority of the students’ time is spent working on developing the Great Basin 

Demonstration garden. However, students also participate in on-going projects within RMRS. 

Activities may involve data collection on field projects, helping with cooperative projects, 

learning to collect seeds from shrubs and forbs, helping set up study sites, plant research, or 

anything found to be of practical use or interest to help develop their skills.

RMRS utilizes the CWI Internship and Senior Project programs as an effective way to allow 

students to have a measure of creative freedom while experiencing the development of a native 

garden. This helps them to communicate the purpose of the garden and the plants within it 

throughout the community. Additionally, this gives students the ability to practice skills learned 

in their academic environment while applying practical applications of time management, native 

plant care, propagation and community out-reach.

To date, three students have participated in program.

The Great Basin Demonstration Garden will be featured as a stop in the Boise Spring Garden 

Tour in June 2013.
170

Project Title The Role of Native Annual Forbs in the Restoration of 

Invaded Rangelands

Project Agreement No. 09-IA-11221632-170

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Keirith A. Snyder, Research Ecologist

USDA-Agricultural Research Service

Great Basin Rangelands Research Unit 

920 Valley Road, Reno, NV 89512

775.784.6057 x 245, Fax 775.784.1712

kasnyder@unr.edu

Elizabeth A. Leger, Associate Professor

Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, MS 370

University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557 

775.784.7582, Fax 775.784.4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Erin M. Goergen*, Assistant Professor of Biology

Department of Natural Sciences, St. Petersburg College

2465 Drew Street, Clearwater, FL 33765

727.791.2561

goergen.erin@spcollege.edu

*Current address. Work was conducted under the University of Nevada-Reno agreement.

Project Description

Background

In arid systems, facilitation may be an important component of vegetation recovery after 

disturbance. Establishment of native perennial species in disturbed western rangelands is 

desirable, but is severely limited by the presence of the highly competitive exotic annual grass, 

cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). Greater restoration success may be achieved with seed mixes that 

mimic natural succession in Great Basin systems, which include native annuals as a key 

component of the post-disturbance community. Due to overlapping phenology, there is the 

potential for strong competitive interactions between native and exotic annuals, which could 

indirectly facilitate establishment of perennial species. 

Objectives

The objectives of this study were to (1) Determine the effect of select native annual forbs on the 

performance of cheatgrass and big squirreltail (Elymus multisetus) under field and greenhouse 

conditions and (2) Determine if the presence of native annual forbs increases the performance of 

big squirreltail when grown with cheatgrass.
171

Methods

In greenhouse and field experiments, seedlings of a native perennial grass, big squirreltail, were

grown individually with each of five native annual forbs (bristly fiddleneck [Amsinckia 

tesselata], common fiddlehead [A. intermedia], Veatch’s blazingstar [Mentzelia veatchiana],

rough eyelashweed [Blephariappus scaber], and western tansymustard [Descurania pinnata]) 

and with an annual forb mix (bristly fiddleneck, Veatch’s blazingstar, wingnut cryptantha 

[Cryptantha pterocarya], and Great Basin woollystar [Eriastrum sparsiflorum]). Half of the 

replicates were seeded with cheatgrass. We recorded the number of green leaves on big 

squirreltail plants after planting to assess treatment effects on growth rate and measured 

aboveground biomass of big squirreltail and neighboring plants after one growing season.

Additionally, cheatgrass was grown with native annuals in the greenhouse and field to determine 

the effect of native annual forbs on cheatgrass biomass and seed production. Structural equation 

modeling (SEM) was also used to examine the direct and indirect effects of native annual forbs 

on big squirreltail performance under greenhouse and field conditions.

Results

Bristly fiddleneck and common fiddleneck were the most competitive native annuals with 

cheatgrass, suppressing biomass and seed production more than other forb species (Figure 1). In 

the greenhouse, big squirreltail growth and seasonal biomass production were lower when grown 

with cheatgrass than with any of the native annuals. Additionally when in competition with 

cheatgrass, big squirreltail’s growth performance was best when Veatch’s blazingstar was also 

present, and growth rates were significantly greater when any of the annual forbs were also 

present. Although bristly fiddleneck was beneficial to big squirreltail in the greenhouse, under 

field conditions, the fiddleneck had a negative effect on the squirreltail performance. However, 

over time, these negative effects decreased and could potentially lead to facilitation of big 

squirreltail later in the season because of 

its perennial habit and longer growing 

season. 

Conclusions 

The results of our greenhouse and field 

experiments support the hypothesis that 

some native annual forbs can be 

effective at suppressing cheatgrass and 

that the presence of certain native annual 

forbs can enhance the establishment of 

big squirreltail under some 

circumstances. Native annual forbs are 

often overlooked as restoration 

materials, in part because they are 

weedy, ruderal species. However, these 

same characteristics may pre-empt 

space and resources and result in 

reduced recruitment of exotic species 

like cheatgrass. The important 

difference between native annual forbs and other introduced annuals is that they have evolved 

Figure 1. Bristly fiddleneck outcompeting cheatgrass in 

a field experiment.
172

with the more desirable native plants that we are trying to establish and are themselves desirable 

for pollinator communities, insects, and wildlife. Native annual forbs may naturally decrease in 

abundance over time, remaining in the seed bank until future disturbance occurs. In this way, the 

restoration of native annual forbs in seriously degraded systems could improve both the 

restoration success of seeding in a given year, as well as provide site resilience to future 

disturbances. Future studies are needed to examine the longer-term consequences of early season 

interactions between native annual forbs and exotic annuals. Additionally, more work is needed 

to understand germination strategies and competitive abilities of additional native annual forb 

species so that recommendations can be made to seed growers and land managers regarding 

which species to invest in.

Publications

Goergen, E., Leger, E.A., and Forbis, T. [Submitted] Native annual forbs reduce Bromus 

tectorum biomass and indirectly facilitate establishment of a native perennial grass. Journal of 

Applied Ecology.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

This research examines an ecologically rational strategy for management of cheatgrass-invaded 

rangelands. By utilizing principles of natural succession of Great Basin rangelands, two goals are 

met: (1) restoring rangelands to their proper functioning using native plant materials and (2) 

producing an ecological and economic benefit to land managers through increased restoration 

success. Understanding if native annual forbs can increase establishment of perennial grasses 

such as big squirreltail in degraded rangelands will allow managers and seed producers to take 

the following steps to maintain healthy systems: (1) include highly competitive annual forbs in 

restoration seed mixes to promote establishment of early successional perennial grasses such as 

big squirreltail , (2) for seed increase programs, target annual forbs that have the greatest positive 

effect on big squirreltail and negative effects on cheatgrass biomass and reproduction, and (3) 

manage and maintain sites with high annual forb diversity, as these populations may be a vital 

component for successful restoration of disturbed rangelands. Future research should determine 

the feasibility of growing these native forbs in cultivation, as well as testing the efficacy of 

annual forbs in large-scale restorations.

Products

 Research featured in: Ogburn, S. 2012. Weed Wackers. High Country News. September 

2012: 16-20.
173

Project Title Evaluating Strategies for Increasing Plant Diversity in 

Crested Wheatgrass Seedings

Project Agreement No. 10-CR-11221632-117

Principle Investigator and Contact Information

Kent McAdoo, Natural Resources Specialist

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension

701 Walnut Street

Elko, NV 89801

775.738.1251, Fax 775.753.7843

mcadook@unce.unr.edu

John Swanson, Rangeland Ecologist

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

University of Nevada

235 Max Fleischman Agriculture Building

Reno, NV 89557

775.784.1449, Fax 775.784.4583

jswanson@cabnr.unr.edu

Project Description

Objectives of this research include:

1. Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass (Aropyron desertorum) control methods on 

crested wheatgrass density and cover.

2. Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass control methods and revegetation on 

establishment of seeded species.

Methods

Study Site

The study site, approximately 15 mi southeast of Elko, Nevada, is located within the 8–10 inch 

precipitation zone on sandy loam soil (Orovada Puett association) and was formerly dominated 

by Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis). The area was seeded to 

crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) during the 1970s. Located within the boundaries area 

of South Fork State Park, the site has had the necessary cultural resources clearance from the 

Nevada State Historic Protection Office and is fenced to eliminate livestock grazing. 

Crested Wheatgrass Control and Revegetation Treatments

A randomized block, split-split plot design is being used to examine crested wheatgrass control 

and revegetation treatments in crested wheatgrass stands. The study is comprised of five 5-acre 

blocks. Within 1-acre plots in each block, the following methods of control (mechanical and 

chemical) and revegetated verses non-revegetated strategies are being compared:
174

1. Untreated crested wheatgrass plots receiving no chemical or mechanical treatment, but 

divided into unseeded and seeded sub-plots.

2. Partially controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into three-way disked or herbicidetreated plots, these each divided into unseeded and seeded sub-plots. 

3. Completely controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into combined three-way disked and 

herbicide-treated plots or combined spring and fall herbicide-treated plots, these each 

divided into unseeded and seeded sub-plots. 

Treatment Implementation and Sampling

The disked-only plots were three-way disked in November 2007. The spring-applied herbicide 

plots and combined disk + herbicide plots were sprayed with 66 oz glyphosate (Roundup®)/acre) 

in May 2008. In early October 2008, combined spring + fall-applied herbicide plots were sprayed 

with 66 oz glyphosate/acre. Sub-plots targeted for seeding were seeded at NRCS-recommended 

rates in late October 2008 by personnel from the NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center with a 

Truax Rough Rider rangeland drill. For small-seeded species, seed tubes were pulled so that seed 

fell on the soil surface; drill disks were raised, no furrows made, and a brillion-type cultipacker 

was attached to the rear of the drill to press broadcast seeds into the soil surface. The seed 

mixture used is identified in Table 1. 

During May 2010, another treatment trial was implemented within the same general study area 

and using the same randomized block, split-split plot design. Crested wheatgrass suppression 

treatments consisted of (1) imazapic (Panoramic 2SL®); (2) chlorsulfuron + sulfometuron 

methyl (Landmark XP®); glyphosate (Roundup®) full rate; glyphosate half-rate); and (4) 

untreated. The study site was comprised of five 5-acre blocks, with each 1-acre treatment plot 

divided into 0.5-acre seeded and unseeded sub-plots. All treatments were seeded during late 

October 2010, using the same seed mixture (Table 1), rates, and methodology described above.

During the summers of 2009 through 2012, we measured cover and density of crested 

wheatgrass, as well as nested frequency of crested wheatgrass seedlings. We also measured 

density of seeded species. All parameters were measured for each sub-plot within ten 0.5-m

2

quadrats placed randomly on each of five transects and perpendicular to each transect. 

Preliminary Results

Preliminary results based on the 2009 and 2910 data were presented in the 2011 Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project report (McAdoo 2012) and are summarized below.

2009

Complete (100%) control/mortality of crested wheatgrass was not obtained with any of the 

control treatments. However, spring-applied glyphosate, combined spring + fall-applied 

glyphosate, and combined disk + glyphosate treatments all significantly reduced crested 

wheatgrass cover (p < 0.05) as compared to untreated plots, with no significant differences 

among these treatments (p > 0.05). Similarly, these same three treatments all significantly 

reduced crested wheatgrass density (p < 0.05), again with no significant differences among the

three treatments. However, crested wheatgrass density was significantly greater on disked plots 

(p < 0.05) than on the untreated plots and plots receiving the other treatments, whereas cover was 

not significantly different (p > 0.05) between disked and untreated plots.
175

Preliminary observations showed the following: (1) four of the six seeded native grass species 

established (basin wildrye, bluebunch wheatgrass, squirreltail, and Indian ricegrass); (2) each of 

the seeded forb species (western yarrow, Lewis flax, and Munro’s globemallow) established; and 

(3) of the two seeded shrub species, establishment of Wyoming big sagebrush was very spotty 

and spiny hopsage establishment was not documented. Seeded native grasses germinated on 

plots both with and without crested wheatgrass control, but were much taller and more robust in 

plots where crested wheatgrass was suppressed. Spring growing conditions were nearly ideal, 

with an extremely wet June. Some grass and forb plants produced seed in the first growing 

season.

Table 1. Seed mix for South Fork study plots, Elko County, NV, on sandy loam soil (Orovada 

Puett association), approximately 8 inch precipitation zone.

Species Kind/Variety Seeding Rate 

(PLS lb/acre)

Total no. lb

(for 12.5 acres)

Indian ricegrass1

(Achnatherum hymenoides) ‘Nezpar’ 2.0 25

Bottlebrush squirreltail1

(Elymus elymoides) Toe Jam Creek 2.0 25

Needle-and-thread grass2

(Stipa comata) 2.0 25

Basin wildrye3

(Leymus cinereus) ‘Magnar’ 2.0 25

Bluebunch wheatgrass3

(Psuedoroegneria spicata) ‘Secar’ 1.0 12.5

Sandberg bluegrass4

(Poa secunda) 0.75 9.4

Munro’s globemallow4

(Sphaeralcea munroana) 0.50 6.25

Lewis flax3

(Linum lewisii) ‘Appar’ 0.75 9.4

Western yarrow4

(Achillea millefolium) 0.20 2.5

Wyoming big sagebrush3

(Artemisia tridentata spp. 

wyomingensis)

 0.20 2.5

Spiny hopsage5

(Grayia spinosa) 0.50 6.25

Totals 11.9 148.8

1Granite Seed Co.

2BFI Native Seeds

3Comstock Seed Co.

4

FS Collection

5Native Seed Co.

2010

During 2010, density of crested wheatgrass seedlings continued to be significantly higher (p <

0.05) in the untreated plots and disked plots. Density of seeded native grasses was highest in 

plots that received the combination of disking + spring glyphosate treatment, significantly 
176

greater than that in the disk-treated plots (p < 0.05), but not significantly different than either the 

spring-treated glyphosate plots or the spring + fall-applied glyphosate plots. 

Forb densities were highest in the spring + fall-applied glyphosate plots and the disk + 

glyphosate plots, but because of large standard errors, only the latter treatment was significantly 

greater (p < 0.05) than the untreated plots and the disked-only plots. For all seeded species 

combined, the spring + fall-applied glyphosate treatment and disk + glyphosate treatment 

produced significantly higher seeded species densities than the disked-only treatment (p < 0.05).

2011 - 2012

Data analysis is currently in progress for data collected in 2011-2012. We noted an obvious 

increase in exotic annual forbs during the 2011 growing season, especially tansy mustard 

(Sisymbrium altissimum). During 2012, the mustard infestation was considerably reduced. 

Preliminary indications are that, based on the second trial, glyphosate was more effective for 

reducing crested wheatgrass than either imazapic or chlorsulfuron + sulfometuron.

2013

During 2013, we will continue to collect vegetation data, as described above, for both treatment 

trials (fifth-year data for the first trial, third-year data for second trial). Data will be analyzed 

using mixed model analysis, with blocks and years considered random and other treatments 

considered fixed.

References

McAdoo, J. K. 2012. Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested wheatgrass 

seedings. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY 2011 Progress Report.

USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station and U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office: 155-161.

Presentations 

McAdoo, J .K. 2012. Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested wheatgrass 

seedings. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 

February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

The relative success and/or failure of revegetation strategies and methodologies used in this 

research will be communicated in appropriate venues for the benefit of both public and private 

land managers and resource users. This research will add to the body of knowledge regarding the 

rehabilitation, functionality, and restoration of Great Basin rangelands. 

Products

 Field Tour: We conducted a field tour on 2012 July 7 to look at the results of applying 

crested wheatgrass reduction methodologies and seeding native species.
177

Project Title The Ecology of Native Forb Establishment in the Great 

Basin: A Holistic Approach

Agreement No. 11-IA-11221632-023

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Jeremy James*, Plant Physiologist

UC Sierra Foothill Research & Extension Center

8279 Scott Forbes Road

Browns Valley, CA 95918

530.639.8803

jjjames@ucanr.edu

*Current address. Work was conducted under agreement with USDA-ARS, Eastern Oregon 

Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR.

Project Description

Objectives

Forbs are a critical functional component of sagebrush steppe systems and a central focus of the 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project (GBNPSIP). However, forb seed is

expensive and forb establishment rates are very low, threatening our ability to use forbs widely 

in restoration. While environmental conditions and competition from non-native species may 

contribute to low forb establishment rates, underlying drivers of forb seeding failures appear to 

be more complex. For example, previous research in the GBNPSIP program has shown that 

although crested wheatgrass and cheatgrass control treatments can lower non-native plant 

abundance two-fold, this decrease did not improve native forb establishment (Hulet et al. 2010). 

The broad objective of this research is to identify the major demographic processes and 

environmental conditions that influence forb seedling recruitment in the Great Basin. We 

examine these patterns for three common forb species across five sites in eastern Oregon 

providing the first broad-scale evaluation of recruitment limitations. These results will directly 

link to native plant increase efforts and will guide increased efficiency of forb utilization in Great 

Basin restoration. 

Methods

This project consists of two phases. The first phase was to assess general patterns of survival of 

native grass and forb seed. The second phase, 2012-2014, was manipulation and quantification of 

ecological processes and conditions limiting native forb establishment. 

For the first phase, we followed seed and seedling fate of mixtures of native grasses and forbs 

that the USDI Bureau of Land Management (BLM) seeded across four fire sites in eastern 

Oregon and in experimental plots at the Eastern Oregon Experimental Range. At the fire sites 

we used germination bags to quantify the proportion of seeds that germinated and censused 

control and drill-seeded plots bi-weekly to quantify patterns of emergence, death, and survival 
178

over two growing seasons. At the experimental range we manipulated soil disturbance and snow 

cover during winter. In these treatments we measured bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria 

spicata) and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) seedling emergence and survival, seed pathogens, 

soil crusting and number of freeze-thaw events.

The second phase of this project examines the ecological processes and conditions limiting forb 

establishment. The core aspects of this study design include crested wheatgrass (Agropyron 

desertorum) competition (two levels), site (five sites spanning a long-term precipitation gradient 

of 100 to 300 mm) and three forb species: Western yarrow (Achillea millefolium), lomatium 

(Lomatium sp.), and globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana). Seeds were sown in 2- x 2-m plots 

in fall 2012 with five replications per treatment combination. Germination bags will be pulled 

monthly in winter and spring of 2012-2013 and 2013-2014 to quantify germination rates and 

long-term seed viability. Plots will be monitored bi-weekly for demographic transitions key in 

seedling recruitment including emergence and survival during the first spring and then monthly 

through the second growing season. Forb and crested wheatgrass survival will be measured in 

spring 2012 and spring 2013. Final data will be summarized and published in the last year of the 

study.

Results

First phase

Grass and forb response across the four fire sites seeded by BLM have been reported in earlier 

reports and are now published (James et al., accepted). New results are centered on bluebunch 

wheatgrass and cheatgrass seed and seedling responses to soil disturbance and snow 

manipulations. Low winter snow pack on rangeland reduced seedling survival probability by 

80% or more (Figure 1). Soil disturbance prior to seeding also significantly reduced seedling 

survival probability (Figure 1). Low snow increased fungal pathogen load on seed compared to 

both ambient snow and high snow conditions; this increase was larger for cheatgrass than for 

bluebunch wheatgrass (Figure 2). 

Figure 1. Influence of snow cover and soil 

disturbance (ND = no disturbance, D = tilled) on 

cheatgrass and bluebunch wheatgrass seedling 

survival. Asterisk above bars indicates significant 

difference between means (+ SE).

cheatgrass bluebunch

wheatgrass

Figure 2. Influence of snow cover on 

fungal biomass on cheatgrass and 

bluebunch wheatgrass seed. Significant 

differences between means (+ SE) are 

indicated by differing letters above bars.

cheatgrass bluebunch

wheatgrass

178
179

Second phase

The second phase of the study was implemented in 2012 with the bulk of the work focused on 

controlling cheatgrass seed banks, obtaining clearance for plots on five BLM sites, fencing each 

site (2.02 ha or 5 acres per site) and installing an extensive network of soil and above-ground 

environmental sensor systems (Figures 3 and 4). Full sensor networks were installed at each site 

consisting of soil moisture and temperature at three depths and a suite of atmospheric variables 

(radiation, wind speed, temperature, precipitation), allowing us to use the SHAW model to 

model near-surface seedbed micro-environmental conditions.

Future plans

2013 and 2014 will be major data collection years for this study, allowing us to fully 

parameterize the demographic models. If logistics and resources permit, we would like to add a 

second seeding year to give us 10 site x year combinations. This project is linked to and forms 

the basis of a four-year NIFA Rangeland Research Grant that examines seedling recruitment 

patterns at 15 sites in three states in the Great Basin. Ideally we would like to integrate the data 

collection approaches in both studies so we can compare across species and sites.

References

Hulet A.; Roundy, B. A.; Jessop, B. 2010. Crested wheatgrass control and native plant 

establishment in Utah. Rangeland Ecology & Management 63: 450-460.

James, J. J.; Rinella, M. J.; Svejcar, T. Grass seedling recruitment in Wyoming big sagebrush 

steppe: germination timing, seedling emergence and seedling death. Rangeland Ecology & 

Management. Accepted.

Publications

Hardegree, S. P.; Cho, J.; Moffet, C. A.; Roundy, B. A.; James, J. J. Hydrothermal indices for 

classification of seedbed microclimate. Rangeland Ecology & Management. Accepted.

Figure 3. Plots and sensor system installed at 

low precipitation site.

Figure 4. Seeded forb plots at the high 

precipitation site.
180

James, J. J. 2012. Species performance: the relationship between nutrient availability, life history 

traits and stress. In: Monaco, T. M.; Sheley, R. L., eds. Invasive plant ecology and management: 

linking processes to practice. Oxfordshire, UK: CABI Publishing: 142-153.

James, J. J.; Rinella, M. J.; Svejcar, T. Grass seedling recruitment in Wyoming big sagebrush 

steppe: germination timing, seedling emergence and seedling death. Rangeland Ecology & 

Management. Accepted.

Presentations 

James, J. J. 2012. Seedling establishment on disturbed landscapes: the relative importance of 

abiotic and biotic factors. 65th Annual Meeting of the Society for Range Management; 2012 

January 29–February 3, Spokane, WA. Invited speaker. 

James, J. J. 2012. Systems approaches to ecological restoration. University of California, 2012 

September 20, Berkeley, CA. 

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines 

Results to date fundamentally shift how practitioners understand and manage native plant 

restoration efforts in the Great Basin. While this line of work is still relatively young, we have 

shown that for our study species, which include the most commonly seeded bunchgrasses in the 

Great Basin, most mortality occurs after germination, but before emergence. Thus, factors such 

as weed competition, grazing, and spring drought likely are not principle drivers of native plant 

recruitment failures. Instead, results are beginning to show that winter time processes, such 

freeze-thaw events, fungal pathogens, and formation of vesicular crust, pose the predominant 

barrier to recruitment. Targeting management of these specific processes can improve restoration 

outcomes greatly.

Products

 Grants:

-James, J. J.; Sheley, R. L.; Hardegree, S. P.; Leger, E. A.; Brunson, M.; Adler, P. 2011. A 

systems approach for managing seedling establishment on rangeland. NIFA Rangeland 

Research Program (Award 2011-38415-31158) ($500,000).

-James, J. J. 2012. Australia Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority, 2012 April 15-28,

Visiting Distinguished Scholars Program.
181

Project Title Recruitment of Native Vegetation into Crested 

Wheatgrass Seedings and the Influence of Crested 

Wheatgrass on Native Vegetation

Project Agreement No 11-IA-11221632-003

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Kirk Davies, Rangeland Scientist

USDA Agricultural Research Service

67826-A Hwy 205

Burns, OR 97720

541.573.4074, Fax 541. 573.3042

Kirk.Davies@oregonstate.edu

Aleta Nafus, Doctoral student

USDA Agricultural Research Service

67826-A Hwy 205

Burns, OR 97720

541.573.3042, Fax 541. 573.3042

Aleta.Nafus@oregonstate.edu

Project Description

Objectives

The objectives of our study were to determine 1) what factors (management, site/environmental 

characteristic, etc.) are associated with native plant recruitment in crested wheatgrass (Agropyron 

cristatum) plant communities and 2) if crested wheatgrass displaces native vegetation from plant 

communities.

Methods

We sampled 101 crested wheatgrass plant communities in southeastern Oregon between May 

and August 2012 to identify factors that promote native plant recruitment in these communities. 

Sites were selected with input from BLM Rangeland Management Specialists to represent a wide 

range of management practices such as timing (spring or fall) and intensity (distance to 

water/fencelines) of grazing, time since seeding and a variety of environmental factors 

(elevation, aspect and slope, proximity to untreated areas). Slope, aspect, elevation and UTM 

location were recorded at each site. Vegetation was sampled in 60- x 50-m plots at each site. In 

each plot, four 50-m transects were established at 20-m intervals along the 60-m sides. Along 

each transect, herbaceous vegetation basal cover and density were visually estimated by species 

inside 40- x 50-cm frames located at 3-m intervals on each transect line (starting at 3 m and 

ending at 45 m), resulting in 15 frames per transect and 75 frames per plot. Percentage ground 

cover (bare ground, rock, litter and crypto-biotic crust) were measured in the 40- x 50-cm 

frames. Shrub canopy cover by species was measured by line intercept (Canfield 1941). Canopy 

gaps less than 15 cm were included in the canopy cover measurements. Shrub density was
182

determined by counting all rooted individuals in five 2- x 50-m belt transects in each plot. Soil 

samples were collected at three locations in each plot from 60-cm holes located at the center of 

the plot and at 15 m NW and SE of the center of the plot. Soil samples were taken from each of 

these holes at 0-15 cm, from 0-20 cm and from 20-60 cm. Depth to hardpan was recorded if it 

was less than 60 cm. The values for each of the samples per plot were averaged into a single plot 

value. Soil texture for the 0-20 cm and 20-60 cm samples was measured using the hydrometer 

method (Bouyoucos 1962). The 0-15 cm samples were used to obtain soil pH, nitrogen, carbon 

and total organic matter for each site. Collection of actual grazing use data for each of the sites is 

in progress. Disturbance and seeding history are collected for each site whenever possible. Data 

are still being collected and summarized. Future plans are to collect data from at least 25 more 

sample sites and continue to obtain management information for each of the sites. 

References

Bouyoucos , G. J. 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analysis of soils. 

Agronomy Journal. 54: 464-465.

Canfield, R. H. 1941. Application of the line interception method in sampling range vegetation. 

Journal of Forestry. 39: 388-394.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

Results are still preliminary and should not yet be applied to management applications.
183

Project Title Restoration of Native Understory Plants in Degraded 

Sagebrush Steppe Ecosystems

Project 12-IA-11221632-149

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

David A. Pyke, Supervisory Research Ecologist

U.S. Geological Survey

3200 SW Jefferson Way

Corvallis, OR 97331

541.750.7334

david_a_pyke@usgs.gov

Kari Veblen, Assistant Professor (Rangeland Ecologist)

Utah State University

5230 Old Main Hill

Logan, UT 84322

435.797.3970

kari.veblen@usu.edu

Troy Wirth, Ecologist

U.S. Geological Survey

3200 SW Jefferson Way

Corvallis, OR 97331

541.750.0941

twirth@usgs.gov

Project Description

In the Great Basin, efforts to restore native sagebrush steppe plant communities typically begin 

after sagebrush shrubs have been killed (e.g., after wildfires) or mechanically removed to 

facilitate traditional revegetation approaches such as drill seeding. However, it may be feasible to 

begin restoration of native herbaceous plants while the sagebrush canopy is still intact. Our 

overall goal is to evaluate whether native bunchgrass and forb establishment from seeds and 

seedlings differs between sagebrush understories and interspaces in degraded sagebrush steppe 

ecosystems. We are addressing the following questions: 1) Does native bunchgrass and forb 

establishment differ in sagebrush understories vs. interspace gaps? 2) Do these patterns differ for 

seeds vs. seedlings? Two native bunchgrasses, Thurber’s needlegrass (Achnatherum thurberianum)

and squirreltail (Elymus elymoides [Raf.] Swezey), and two native forbs, largeflower hawksbeard 

(Crepis occidentalis Nutt.) and Munro’s globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana [Douglas] 

Spach), are the focal species for this study. At each of the three sites, we have established 50 

different planting locations per microhabitat (sagebrush understory, interspace) per planting type 

(seeds, seedlings) per plant species (Table 1). Seeding occurred in fall 2012, while planting of 

seedlings will occur in spring 2013. In summer 2013, for seeded plants we will record 
184

establishment, average height, and number of tillers. For seedlings we will measure the initial 

number of tillers, survival (live, dead), average height, and basal circumference. 

Table 1. Characteristics of planting locations.

Factor Number Attributes

Sites 3 Loamy, 8-12 inch precipitation zone, Wyoming big 

sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass—Thurber’s needlegrass 

(Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis/Pseudoroegnaria 

spicata—Achnatherum thurberianum) ecological sites

Focal species 4 Squirreltail, Thurber’s needlegrass, Western hawksbeard, 

Munro’s globemallow

Microhabitats 2 Sagebrush understory, Interspace

Plant type 2 Seed, Seedling

Planting locations 50 Per plant stage per microhabitat per species per site

TOTAL 2400
185

Project Title Revegetation Equipment Catalog Website Maintenance

Project Agreement No. 12-IA-11221632-149

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Robert Cox, Assistant Professor

Department of Natural Resources Management

Texas Tech University 

Box 42125

Lubbock, TX 79409

806.742.284

robert.cox@ttu.edu

Project Description

The Revegetation Equipment Catalog is an online repository of descriptions, photos, and 

company information for equipment that is used for revegetation efforts in the United States. 

With pages on topics ranging from “All-terrain Vehicles” and “Fertilizing and Mulching,” to 

“Transport Trailers,” the catalog is an important reference for information about revegetation 

equipment. During 2011, the website was updated with all links checked and corrected. During 

2012, the process of fully redesigning the website was begun. Once this is finished, it will be 

fully hosted at Texas Tech University.

Publications

Website: http://reveg-catalog.tamu.edu/

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines 

Land managers, seed producers or others can use the Revegetation Equipment Catalog to gain 

understanding about the types, capabilities, and requirements of various revegetation equipment 

items they might use to manage their projects. 

Products

 The Revegetation Equipment Catalog is a stand-alone website designed to provide 

information about equipment that is used for revegetation efforts in the United States.
186

Project Title Evaluation of Imazapic Rates and Forb Planting Times 

on Native Forb Establishment 

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-100

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Corey Ransom, Assistant Professor-Weed Science

Utah State University

Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, Utah 84322-4820

435.797.2242, Fax 435. 797.3376

corey.ransom@usu.edu

Project Description

Successful establishment of native forb species is critical in order to re-establish structure and 

function to disturbed range sites. A large portion of the degraded rangeland in the Intermountain 

Region of the Western U.S. is invaded by cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). The most common 

herbicide currently available for cheatgrass control is imazapic (Plateau®). Since restoration sites 

will likely be treated with imazapic for cheatgrass control prior to establishment of desirable 

species, a greater understanding of the tolerance of different forb species to imazapic is needed. 

This project aims to describe native forb and grass species tolerance to imazapic and other 

herbicides applied to suppress cheatgrass. This project will also examine the effect of herbicide 

application timing and planting dates on successful species germination and growth.

Materials and Methods

No additional field research was initiated in 2012 due to doubt about successful establishment of 

test species. Efforts were focused on maintaining an established field of basalt milkvetch 

(Astragalus filipies) and Blue Mountain prairie clover (Dalea ornata) for future testing. 

A comparison of plant response to herbicides performed in petri-dishes in the laboratory or in 

soil in pots in the greenhouse was conducted with cheatgrass as a test species due to its known 

sensitivity to imazapic. Cheatgrass seed was collected from the field, randomly selected, and 

divided into four replicates of 20 seeds each for imazapic treatments and an untreated control. 

Seeds were evaluated for germination in two trials: 1) in 9-cm petri dishes on filter paper and 2) 

in 0.6 l (0.16 gal) pots with field soil (Millville silt loam). Imazapic was applied at 105 g ai ha-1

and 210 g ai ha-1pregermination to seeds in both the petri dish and field soil trials with a 

chamber sprayer calibrated to deliver 225 l ha-1. Treatments were applied to the soil surface, or in 

the case of the petri dishes, directly to seeds placed on #3 Whatman filter paper. After spraying, 

5 ml water was applied to each dish and lids were replaced and sealed with parafilm. Seeds in 

petri dishes were germinated in a controlled environment at constant 20 to 25 oC and were 

evaluated 7 d and 14 d after treatment (DAT); seeds were counted as germinated when the 

radicle or shoot had emerged a minimum of 3 mm from the seed coat. At the end of the 
187

germination period, lengths of roots and shoots from germinated seedlings were measured and 

shoots were harvested for biomass. Harvested biomass was dried at 26 oC for 36 to 48 h. Seeds 

grown in pots were placed in the greenhouse and were evaluated 7, 14, 21, and 28 DAT. 

Evaluations included emergence counts, height measurements and collection of above-ground 

biomass. Each trial was repeated. Data measurements were converted to a percent of the 

untreated. Data were analyzed using ANOVA. Run was not a significant factor, so data are

combined for each method. Treatment means were separated using Fishers Protected LSD (p < 

0.05).

Results

In the petri dish trials, imazapic significantly reduced shoot and root length, but did not reduce 

germination or shoot biomass (Table 1). In the greenhouse trials conducted in pots filled with a 

silt loam soil, imazapic reduced cheatgrass emergence, shoot length, and shoot biomass. The 

results of these trials suggest that petri dish trials have limited utility in determining species 

sensitivity as results do not compare directly with results from trial conducted using soil. 

Another concern for both petri dish and greenhouse trials is that plant response was not 

significantly influenced by imazapic rate even though the high rate was double the low rate. The 

inability to observe a rate response in these types of trials limits the utility of determining a how 

a tested species would respond to different imazapic rates in the field. It is possible that 

extending the duration of experiments would allow separation of different herbicide rates by 

allowing more time for imazapic symptoms to develop. It is also possible that both rates 

evaluated were high enough to overwhelm cheatgrass and that trials evaluating much lower rates 

would show a rate response.

Table 1. Comparison of species germination, shoot length, root length, and biomass response to 

imazapic exposure in petri dishes on filter paper or in 0.6 l pots of Milville silt loam field soila.

Cheatgrass – Petri-dish trials

Treatmentb Rate Germination Shoot length Root length Biomass

g ai ha-1 __________________________ % of untreatedc

_________________________

Untreated --- 100 a 100 a 100 a 100 a

Imazapic 105 100 a 74 b 68 b 97 a

Imazapic 210 96 a 79 b 64 b 92 a

Cheatgrass – Pot trials

Treatment Rate Emergence Shoot length -- Biomass

g ai ha-1 __________________________ % of untreated _________________________

Untreated --- 100 a 100 a -- 100 a

Imazapic 105 59 b 21 b -- 5 b

Imazapic 210 51 b 18 b -- 3 b

aMeans in each column of each section of the table followed by the same letter are not significantly 

different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD (p < 0.05). 

bTreatments applied to seeds in 9 cm petri dishes on filter paper or to the soil surface of 0.6 l pots.
188

Plans for 2013

In 2013, a new research location will be established near Logan, Utah utilizing species with 

consistent germination. Further efforts will be made to evaluate plant native forb response in 

greenhouse trials utilizing a much broader rate range than tested in the preliminary trials. An 

additional trial will determine if evaluations of germination and growth in test tubes containing 

growth media infused with herbicides can be used to evaluate plant response to herbicides.
189

Project Title Drill Seeding with Minimum-till Drills

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-068

 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Anne Halford, Restoration Ecologist

USDI Bureau of Land Management

Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area

3948 South Development Avenue

Boise, ID 83705

208.384.3335

ahalford@blm.gov

James Truax, Owner

Truax Company

5300 Quebec Avenue North

New Hope, Minnesota 55428

763.537.6639, Fax 763.537.8353

truax@pclink.com

Project Description

Introduction

The Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area (BOP NCA) provides a unique 

opportunity to leverage on-going projects to diversify the structural and compositional vegetation 

attributes on sites that have been stabilized by past Emergency Rehabilitation efforts and now 

require diversification to meet the needs of raptor prey base species and pollinators. The U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) Joint Fire Science Project (JFSP) aims to integrate the seeding of 

natives with varying fuel treatments including mowing, herbicide applications and winter 

grazing. Tandem studies are also being conducted and include Boise State University 

investigations on the effects of fuel treatments on below-ground soil resources and a USGS 

pollinator response study. These studies will provide the experimental framework and necessary 

replication to generate information on the effectiveness of these fuel/restoration treatments.

The current JFSP study site also provides an opportunity to assess inter-seeding treatments in 

stabilized sites that exhibit response variables to three different disturbance legacies including 

agriculture, fire (past and recent), and seedings implemented with traditional rangeland drills.

Our species selection for seeding includes a mix of early to mid-seral native shrub, grass and 

forb species (Table 1) that exhibit competitive attributes. These species may also provide other 

applied research opportunities to assess restoration plant materials under different disturbance 

legacy scenarios. This project provides the scientific framework to integrate the best available 

drill technology to increase native plant seeding success in a geographic area that currently has a 

dearth of applied research projects associated with diversification of altered, but stabilized 

Emergency Stabilization sites.
190

General Site Description 

The project area is located 32 km (20 mi) south of Kuna, Idaho and extends southeast of 

Dedication Point (Figure 1). It is within Ada County at an elevation of 945 m (3,100 ft). Average 

annual precipitation is 20 cm (7.88 in) at Swan Falls Dam and 26.6 cm (10.06 in) at Kuna 

(Station: Kuna 2 NNE, Western Regional Climate Data 2012: http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgibin/cliGCStP.pl?id5038).

Soils

The majority of the project area soils are representative of a Loamy 8”-12” and Shallow Loamy 

8”-12” ecological site (NRCS 2011). The predominantly loess soils, formed in alluvium and 

residuum derived from sedimentary materials and basalt, occur on nearly level to moderately 

sloping basalt plains and alluvial terraces in the Snake River Sediments and Volcanic Plateaus, 

Hills, and Plains ecoregions. They have moderate to high erosion potential without vegetative 

cover. 

Vegetation

Frequent wildfires and other disturbances have converted over seventy percent of the NCA 

landscape from native sagebrush habitat to a non-native annual-dominated system. More than 

59% of the NCA burned between 1980 and 2003, and ~32% has burned two or more times 

during that period. Only 37% of the NCA is still occupied by native shrublands leading to a loss 

of habitat for raptor prey-base species. The project area burned most recently in 1985 and was 

drill seeded and chained with generic rangeland seed mixes to provide site stabilization. These 

treatments can often incur unwanted impacts, including removal of biological soil crusts, loss of 

extant native bunchgrasses, and mixing of soil profiles, which alter biophysical and biological 

soil properties (USDI 2000).

The current vegetation composition consists of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) stands interspersed 

with annual mustards (Brassica spp.), Russian thistle (Salsola tragus) and sparse pockets of 

native Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda). In August 2011, the Big Foot Fire consumed part of 

the proposed project area (Figure 1). Prior to the fire, vegetation composition was similar to the 

other proposed project area blocks. 

Seeding dates and weather conditions

Seeding occurred 7-16 November 2012. Weather conditions were dry and in the high 50’s (oF)

for two days then the weather shifted to windy rain/snow conditions the remainder of the 

seeding. Between 20 October and 20 November, 109 mm (4.3 in) of precipitation was recorded 

from the Idaho National Guard RAWS station.
191

Table 1. Plant species and seeding rates (Joint Fire Science) – NCA BOP

Plant Species

Common 

Name TZ Purity PLS

PLS Seeds/ 

bulk lb.

PLS

Seeds/ft. 2

PLS 

lbs/acre

Total 

Acres

Bulk Lbs.

/acre

Total 

Bulk lbs

Shrubs

Artemisia tridentata ssp. 

wyomingensis (Oneida, ID 

4,500 ft.)

Wyoming big 

sagebrush 72 23.17 0.17 612,453 57 0.95 80 5.61 448

Ericameria nauseosa

Rubber 

rabbitbrush 82 42.00 0.34 350,611 16 0.39 80 1.15 92

Krascheninnikovia lanata

Winterfat 80 73.04 0.58 110,000 2.5 0.25 80 0.43 34

Perennial Grasses

Poa secunda

Sandberg 

bluegrass (Mt. 

Home) 85 99.22 0.84 852,879 21.8 0.39 80 0.47 37

Elymus elymoides Squirreltail 91 97.09 0.88 138,858 4.4 0.39 80 0.45 36

Elymus wawawaiensis

Snake River 

wheatgrass 85 98.93 0.83 170,000 3.9 0.35 80 0.42 33

Forbs

Achillea millefolium

Eagle western 

yarrow 86 97.49 0.83 2,705,843 62 0.14 80 0.17 13

Astragalus filipes

Basalt 

milkvetch 95 95.35 0.90 114,350 1.31 0.12 80 0.12 9

Sphaeralcea munroana 

Munro’s 

globemallow 85 95.30 0.80 159,797 3.72 0.15 80 0.19 15

Lomatium dissectum

Fernleaf 

biscuitroot 69 98.28 0.67 45,000 1 0.10 80 0.15 12

191
192

Figure 1. Project area map in southwestern Idaho showing locations of experimental and control 

study blocks.
193

Study Design and Seeding Methods

There are a total of 28 ha (69 ac) seeded plots throughout four 49-ha blocks (Figures 1 and 2; 

USGS 2011). 

Each block is 700 m x 700 m (49 ha), with sixteen 100 m x 100 m (1-ha) treatment plots (treated 

and control), a 100-m untreated buffer between all plots, and a 50-m untreated buffer around the 

edge of the entire block (Figure 3). The total area treated in each of the three individual primary 

experimental blocks is shown in Figure 3. The seed mixes and distribution rates are shown in 

Table 2.

Figure 2. Treatment area within each block. Block 4, Big Foot burn, would have a total of 4 

seeded ha (10 seeded acres). From USGS (2011).
194

 700m

MH

-UG 100

m

CUG H-G H-G

100

m

HUGHUG C-GMH

-G

CUGMH

-UG

MH

-G

C-G

MUGMUGMGMG

 400m

 Treatment / Block Layout Legend:

SeedMix1

M = Mowed

H = Herbicide

G = Grazed

UG = Ungrazed

C= Control

Fenced 

Exclosure

Untreated

Buffer

No seed

Figure 3. Treatment block design and dimensions (plot treatments for illustration only). From 

USGS (2011).

800m

800m 

700m

50m

100 m

50m
195

Table 2. Composition and distribution rate of drill and broadcast mixes. Drill calibrations 

performed by Loren St. John, Natural Resources Conservation Service Aberdeen Plant Material 

Center (Table 1).

Drill Mix #11

Bulk 

pounds/acre Broadcast Mix #12

Bulk 

pounds/acre

Snake River wheatgrass 0.42 Wyoming big sagebrush 5.61

Bottlebrush squirreltail 0.45 Rubber rabbitbrush 1.15

Basalt milkvetch 0.12 Winterfat 0.43

Fernleaf biscuitroot 0.15 Sandberg bluegrass 0.47

Gooseberryleaf globemallow 0.19 Eagle yarrow 0.17

Rice hulls 2.58 No rice hulls --

1Drill setting 7.5 and gate open 2

Fluffy box setting sprocket 2/2 and no shields

Calibration 4.0 grams/spout Calibration 11.84 grams/spout

Drill Specifications, Performance and Modifications

The Truax On-The-Go (OTG) Minimum-till Drill (Figure 3) has an 8’ planting width with 12 

planters. The OTG has double disc openers unlike the single disc openers on the Rough Rider 

(RR) Minimum-till Drill and the planters are mounted on two ranks about 1’ apart, unlike the RR 

which is 4’ spacing between ranks.

The primary benefit of the OTG drill is the feature that allows you to change from drilling with 

the no-till hydraulically down for inter-seeding or by simply moving a lever to hydraulically 

raise the no-till for planting in bare ground or prepared seed beds. Second, the redesigned 

planters utilize a much heavier duty disc bearing similar to those used on corn planters. Third, 

the output shifter controls for both the cool- season seed box and the small legume seed box have

been redesigned to improve the adjustment of the seed output. Forth, imprinters are available, 

similar to the ones used on the RR, which will interchange with planter assemblies so you can 

plant the surface-sown species concurrently with drilling the grasses. The new OTGs weigh 

nearly as much as the RRs; for example the RR weighs 8,000 lb and the 10’ OTG-7516, which 

plants the same width, weighs 7,500 lb.

Other benefits of minimum till drill technology that drove its use for this project in the NCA are 

1) reduced soil disturbance, 2) improved flexibility for planting different species combinations in 

separate rows, 3) improved hydraulic control of planting units, 4) increased control of seeding 

depth, 5) improved seed-to-soil contact with the addition of press wheels, and 5) enhanced seed 

slot opening and closure (Figures 4-6).
196

Figure 4. The Truax On-The-Go (OTG) Minimum-till Drill (left); broadcast seed box 

modification (right).

Figure 5. Example of typical terrain and Sandberg’s bluegrass and cheatgrass matrix with drill 

rows more prominent in open sections.
197

Figure 6. A. Example of brillion imprint and successful broadcast seed application

B. Example of drill row in dense Sandberg’s blue grass. Some seed was dispersed outside the 

drill row. C. Drill rows during rain/snow event.

The OTG performed well without any mechanical issues that interfered with operation or project 

efficiency. One disc arm became slightly bent due to a disc being torched by going over a 

slightly rocky section, but this did not hinder subsequent performance. The drill was set-up to 

accommodate both a broadcast and drill seed mix. Broadcast and drill seed boxes were filled 

alternately and empty boxes were sealed with duct tape to ensure broadcast and drill seed rows 

did not overlap. Pins in drill seed boxes had to be shortened by hammering away from the base 

to reduce puncturing of duct-taped sections. To maximize broadcast box fill, cardboard sections 

were added.
198

Seeding acreage per day averaged 11.4 which included pre-equipment check, seed box check and 

fill, and travel between blocks and nested plots. This was less acreage per hour than the projected 

3-4 ac/h. The terrain was generally level with very few rocky sections and dominant vegetation 

consisted of moderately dense patches of Sandberg’s bluegrass with larger sections of 

cheatgrass, tumble mustard (Thelypodiopsis), and Russian thistle. Some mowed plots contained a 

large release of Russian thistle, but the OTG did not accumulate these between the discs or 

brillion attachments. 

Seed flow of both broadcast and seeded species was consistent, but the larger seeded fernleaf 

biscuitroot and squirreltail often did not fall into the drill furrows. Drill furrows were most 

distinct in more open areas and less so in dense bluegrass-dominated areas. 

The overall impact to soils and biological soil crusts using the OTG was minimal, e.g., less than 

10% of the soil surface was displaced outside individual drill rows within a drill swath and no 

churning, or removal of biological soil crusts was observed. 

Boise District operations staff noted several design features that they foresaw as beneficial as 

well as potentially problematic with the OTG model; 

The positive: seed stops feeding when implement is raised and it is easier to mount than the 

Rough Rider minimum till drill.

The negative: the front cutting discs swing too freely, potentially damaging each other and the 

frame parts of the machine. Also, because the planting arms are made of two pieces of heavy 

flat bar that flex and twist this could cause damage to the arms when planting on uneven 

surfaces.

Current status of OTG

The drill is currently being stored at the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Horse Corrals and 

has been winterized and covered with a tarp. Although the drill has been offered for use to fuels 

and other operations staff on the Boise District for such projects as fuel breaks, no one has 

requested its use. The OTG is planned for use in FY13 by BOP NCA staff, which will be the last 

year to “test” this specific drill.

Currently, there are up to eight Rough Rider minimum till drills on the Vale District, however 

none currently meet the up-to-date specifications on the Rough Rider being used on many Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Projects. Specifically, no broadcast seed (brillion

imprinter) attachments are available, seed tubes and discs are bent on some drills, and seed box 

number and design vary widely. Operators are reluctant to use minimum till drills due to the 

commensurate maintenance issues associated with this subpar-standard equipment. It is unlikely 

that minimum till technology will be used on the Boise BLM district without a more universal 

availability of up-to-date, functional minimum till drills. 

Acknowledgements

The implementation of this phase of the JFSP project would not have been possible without the 

support of Mike Pellant, BLM; Nancy Shaw, USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station; and Jim 

Truax who generously provided the BLM with the opportunity to experiment with the new “Onthe-Go” model drill. Special thanks to Jared Fluckiger from BOP NCA staff who drove the 
199

tractor and to Dale Nichols from Boise District Ops. staff who provided fuel and logistical 

support.

References

WRCC [Western Regional Climate Center]. 2012. Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV. 

http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/

NRCS [USDI National Resource Conservation Service]. 2011. Ada County, Idaho Soil Survey. 

websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov. Accessed 8/8/2011

USDI [U.S. Department of Interior]. 2000. Ecology and management of biological soil crusts. 

BLM Tech Reference 1730-2. BLM/ID/ST-01/001 + 1730

USGS [Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey]. 2011. Quantifying and predicting 

fuels and the effects of reduction treatments along successional and invasion gradients in 

sagebrush habitats. Douglas J. Shinneman, U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland 

Ecosystem Science Center. Joint Fire Science Study Proposal - Project ID: 11-1-2-30

Products

 A workshop Preparing and seeding multi-species mixtures, and drill calibration and 

operation was held at Initial Point, Boise, ID, 18 July 2012 (Appendix IV).
200

Project Title Influence of Post-fire Treatments on Exotic, Native 

Residual and Seeded Species Production at the Scooby 

Wildfire Site in Northern Utah

Project Agreement No. 11-JV-11221632-090

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Megan Taylor, Graduate Student

University of Wyoming

1000 E. University Ave.

Laramie, WY 82071

478.455.1399

Mtaylo26@uwyo.edu

Ann Hild, Professor and Rangeland/Shrubland Ecologist

Department of Ecosystem Science and Management

University of Wyoming

P.O. Box 3354

Laramie, WY 82071

307.766.5471, Fax 307.755.6403

annhild@uwyo.edu

Urzula Norton, Assistant Professor of Agroecology

Department of Plant Sciences

University of Wyoming

Laramie, WY 82071

307.766.5196, Fax 307.766.5549

unorton@uwyo.edu

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702

208.373.4360, Fax 208. 373.4391

nshaw@fs.fed.us

Project Description

Introduction and Objectives

In Western states, exotic annuals such as cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), halogeton (Halogeton 

glomeratus) and prickly Russian thistle (Salsoa tragus) often gain dominance following wildfire. 

Post-fire entry of exotics influences establishment of seeded native species and diminishes 

habitat quality and forage availability for wildlife and domestic livestock. This study, conducted 

in 2010 and 2011, documents the productivity of annual exotics relative to wildfire rehabilitation 

seeding treatments to understand trade-offs between the productivity of seeded grasses and forbs 
201

and their exotic competitors. We compare seeding treatments applied in 2008 for their impact on 

the biomass production of the three exotic annuals: cheatgrass, halogeton, and prickly Russian 

thistle. In 2011 we also examined seeding treatments relative to soil biota associated with 

cheatgrass, prickly Russian thistle and bluebunch wheatgrass. 

Methods

The study was conducted on the site of the August 2008 Scooby Fire, which burned in a 

Wyoming big sagebrush community in northern Utah. Treatments evaluated strategies and 

equipment for reestablishing the native community and included application of seed mixes of 

native shrubs, grasses, and forbs (Table 1) planted in the area using drill seeding and hand 

broadcasting methods in a randomized complete block design to evaluate strategies and 

equipment for reestablishing the native community.

Table 1. Seed mixes for post-fire seedings in the burn area of the Scooby Fire (August 2008) 

near the Great Salt Lake, UT. Drill seed mix does not vary among treatments; broadcast mix 

varies only by big sagebrush seeding rate (see Table 2 for rates). 

Common name Species % 1X 5X 10X

Broadcast mix

Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata 

spp. wyomingensis

Sanpete Co., UT (1460 m) 17.5 52 234 495

rubber rabbitbrush Ericameria 

nauseosa

Sanpete Co., UT (1460 m) 14.8 86 86 86

Sandberg bluegrass Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 81.6 91 91 91

Western yarrow Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm 88.2 100 100 100

blue penstemon Penstemon cyaneus Lincoln Co., ID (1370 m) 69.2 76 76 76

Total Broadcast 405 587 848

Drill mix

bluebunch wheatgrass Pseudoroegneria 

spicata

Anatone Germplasm 88.9 67 67 67

Indian ricegrass Achnatherum 

hymenoides

'Rimrock' 98.0 51 51 51

bottlebrush squirreltail Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm 94.3 47 47 47

Munro's globemallow Sphaeralcea 

munroana

Uintah Co., UT (1550 m) 65.8 93 93 93

sulfur-flower buckwheat Eriogonum 

umbellatum

Northern Great Basin - pooled 50.4 11 11 11

Total Drill 269 269 269

Total Drill + Broadcast 674 856 1117

 Pure Live Seed/m2 Mix

Collection site or 

Germplasm
202

Biomass Sampling, Summer 2010 and 2011 

Biomass samples were harvested by species or species’ group from two 0.25 m2quadrats, placed 

2 m away from each of two transects in each of the 13 seeding treatments (Table 2) for a total of 

four quadrats in each treatment plot (see Taylor et al. 2011 for details). Biomass of samples from 

the four quadrats in each plot was summed to estimate production (g/m2) in each treatment plot 

in four replicate blocks for analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Table 2. Rehabilitation treatments seeded at the Scooby Fire site in 2008.

Drill Drill Seed Mix 

Application

Broadcast Seed Mix 

Application (Sagebrush 

Rate)*

Treatment 

Symbol

No Drill No Seed No Seed C

Rangeland**

No Seed No Seed R0

Drill Drill (1x)* R1x

Drill Drill (5x)* R5x

Drill Drill (10x)* R10x

Drill Hand broadcast, fall (5x) RBC5x

Drill Hand broadcast, winter (5x) RwBC5x

Minimum-till***

(Broadcast seed covered 

with brillion packer)

No Seed No Seed M0

Drill Drill (1x) M1x

Drill Drill (5x) M5x

Drill Drill (10x) M10x

Drill Hand broadcast, fall (5x) MBC5x

Drill Hand broadcast, winter (5x) MwBC5x

*1x, 5x, and 10x are rates of Wyoming big sagebrush rate, 1x = 52 Pure Live Seed/m2. 

**Broadcast seed planted through the drill was covered by dragging a chain behind the drill. 

Hand broadcast seed was not covered. 

***Broadcast seed was pressed into the soil surface with imprinter wheels. Hand broadcast seed 

was not covered. 

Three exotics, cheatgrass, halogeton and prickly Russian thistle, were clipped and bagged 

separately by species. Seeded forbs (western yarrow [Achillea millefolium], sulphur-flower 

buckwheat [Eriogonum umbellatum], blue penstemon [Penstemon cyaneus], and Munro’s 

globemallow [Sphaeralcea munroana]) were collected separately by species. All native grasses, 

volunteer (primarily Sandberg bluegrass [Poa secunda]) and seeded (Indian ricegrass 

[Achnatherum hymenoides], squirreltail [Elymus elymoides], Sandberg bluegrass and bluebunch 

wheatgrass [Pseudoroegneria spicata]) were clipped as a group. Residual forbs (primarily 

mustards [Brassica sp., Sisymbrium altissimum, and Descurainia spp.], lambsquarters 

[Chenopodium album], yellow salsify [Tragopogon dubius] and desert princesplume [Stanleya 

pinnata]) were also clipped as a group. 

Soil Biota Sampling, Summer 2011 

In addition to biomass harvests, we collected soil samples for soil biota analyses from microsites 

under the seeded grasses bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg bluegrass, and two exotic annuals 
203

(halogeton and cheatgrass). Samples were collected in a subset of the 13 seeding treatments: the 

three controls [C, M0 and R0], R5x and M5x (Table 2). We collected cheatgrass and seeded 

bunchgrass samples in early June and returned in July to collect halogeton and repeat seeded 

bunchgrass sampling.

Soil biota presence (Gram negative bacteria, Gram positive bacteria, general fungi, arbuscular 

mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, and protozoans) was documented in soils under seeded grasses and 

exotic annuals using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) extraction assays. Analyses also included 

comparison of soil biota collected beneath bluebunch wheatgrass in June and July. 

Results

Biomass

Seeded species established well in all seeded plots, perhaps in part, because of favorable 

moisture in June 2009, the first spring following the seeding (Figure1). Total plant biomass was 

comparable in all treatments in 2010 (p = 0.0957). In contrast, in 2011 there were several 

differences in total plant biomass among treatments (p = 0.0054), primarily with controls 

producing less biomass than other treatments (Figure 2).

Total exotic production (sum of cheatgrass, halogeton, and prickly Russian thistle) was at least 

five times as great in the unseeded controls as in the seeded treatments in 2010 and 2011 (Figure 

2). In particular, prickly Russian thistle and cheatgrass weights were much lower in seeded 

treatments than in the three controls. Seeded forbs were absent from the controls and did not 

differ among the seeded treatments (Figures 2 and 3; p = 0.1670). Residual forbs (primarily 

native and exotic annual mustards) were twice as productive in the unseeded controls as in any of 

the seeded treatments (Figure 2). 

Because total biomass production did not differ among treatments in 2010, greater native 

production reduced the relative and absolute amount of residual forbs and exotics relative to 

controls (Figure 2). Soil disturbance caused by empty drills (R0, M0) appeared to enhance 

recruitment of prickly Russian thistle relative to undisturbed controls in 2010 (p < 0.0001); 

however, by 2011 that difference had disappeared (p = 0.1159; Figure 3a).

In general, seeding increased desired species which provided greater competition with exotic and 

residual annuals (Figures 2 and 3) relative to unseeded controls. These differences are less 

apparent in 2010 (p = 0.0957) than in 2011 when seeded species are more fully established (p = 

0.0054; Figure 2). Otherwise, few differences are apparent within the seeded treatments and 

reasons for the somewhat lower total production in 2011 within the rangeland 5x and minimum 

till 10x treatments are not readily apparent (Figure 2).

Soil Biota

The total abundance (i.e., volume) of soil biota beneath cheatgrass increased with greater soil 

moisture (p < 0.0001; Figure 4a). There was no apparent relationship between soil moisture and 

soil biota under the perennials bluebunch wheatgrass (p = 0.0636; Figure 4b) or Sandberg 

bluegrass (p = 0.2282; Figure 4c). 

Soil fungi were in greater abundance in M0 than in M5x treatments within Sandberg bluegrass 

microsites (Figure 5) suggesting that seeding reduced soil fungi abundance. Fungi in cheatgrass 

microsites were reduced in the minimum till treatments (M0 versus M5x) relative to other 
204

control and rangeland drill treatments. Within bluebunch microsites, general fungi, arbuscular

mycorrhizal fungi, and protozoans increased from June to July 2011 (Figure 6) although soil 

moisture declined during the same period.

Figure 1. Monthly (blue bars) and long-term precipitation (red line) for the Scooby Fire site 

(WRCC 2012). Monthly data were collected at Rosette, UT, approximately 32 km (20 mi) W of 

the study site. The 117-year norm is average precipitation data from Rosette and Snowville, UT, 

located approximately 30 km (19 mi) NE of the study site.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Precipitation (mm)

2008 2009 2010 2011

Fire

Drill seeding 

and hand 

broadcast Hand 

broadcast Biomass 

collection

Biomass 

collection

117-Year Norm
205

Figure 2. Biomass production (± SE) by plant group within all 13 treatments in July 2010 (a) 

and July 2011 (b). Means with the same letter do not differ (p > 0.05, LSD).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Biomass g/m2

Treatment

a. 2010

Native Grasses Exotic Annuals Volunteer Forbs Seeded Forbs

AB

ABCD

A

AB

AB

CD

CD

D

AB AB

BCD

AB

ABC

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Biomass g/m2

Treatment

b. 2011

Native Grasses Exotic Annuals Volunteer Forbs Seeded Forbs

p = 0.0957

p = 0.0054
206

Figure 3. Prickly Russian thistle, halogeton, and cheatgrass biomass in seeded and control 

treatments (± SE) in July 2010 and July 2011. Mean separation, LSMeans contrast, was 

calculated within year; capital letters separate 2010 means and lowercase letters separate 2011

means.

C

A

B

A

a a a a C a

0

20

40

60

80

100

Rangeland

Drill

R0 Control M0 Minimum-Till

Drill

Biomass g/m2

Treatment

a. Prickly Russian thistle

2010 2011

A

A

A

A

A

a a a a a

0

10

20

30

40

50

Rangeland

Drill

R0 Control M0 Minimum-Till

Drill

Biomass g/m2

Treatment

b. Halogeton

2010 2011

B

B

A

A

B

b

a

a

a

b

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Rangeland

Drill

R0 Control M0 Minimum-Till

Drill

Biomass g/m2

Treatment

c. Cheatgrass

2010 2011

2010, p < 0.0001

2011, p = 0.1159

2010, p = 0.0865

2011, p = 0.5988

2010, p < 0.0001

2011, p< 0.0001
207

a. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)

b. Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata)

c. Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda)

Figure 4. Soil biota abundance (i.e., volume) increased as a function of gravimetric soil water 

content in cheatgrass microsites, (a), p < 0.0001, linear fit. The relationship was not significant 

with increasing soil moisture under bluebunch wheatgrass, (b), p = 0.0636, linear fit, or under 

Sandberg bluegrass, (c), p = 0.2282.
208

Figure 5. Soil fungi (± SE) present beneath cheatgrass (Brte) and Sandbergs bluegrass (Pose) in 

three control treatments (C, R0 and M0) and two seeded treatments (R5x and M5x) seeded with 

the rangeland (R) or minimum-till (M) drills. Means sharing the same capital letter do not differ 

(p > 0.05).

ABC

C

AB AB

ABC ABC

C

A

C

BC

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Brte Pose Brte Pose Brte Pose Brte Pose Brte Pose

R5x R0 C M0 M5x

μg Fatty Acid/g soil

General fungi

p=0.0404
209

Figure 6. Soil biotic community traits (± SE) in June (dark gray) and July (light gray) 2011 in 

bluebunch wheatgrass microsites within the R5X and M5X treatments. P-values are reported for 

tests of inter-month differences. Letters above mean bars compare seeding treatments by month; 

means sharing the same letter do not differ (p > 0.05). 

B B

A

A

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

R5x M5x

μg Fatty Acid/g soil

e. Protozoans

p=0.0118

B B

A

A

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

R5x M5x

d. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

p=0.0205

B B

A

A

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

R5x M5x

μg Fatty Acid/g soil

c. General fungi

p=0.0224

B B

A

A

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

R5x M5x

μg Fatty Acid/g soil

a. Gram - bacteria

p=0.0011

B

B

A

A

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

R5x M5x

b. Gram + bacteria

p=0.0057

A A

B

B

0

2

4

6

8

R5x M5x

%

f. Gravimetric soil water

p=0.0134

μg Fatty Acid/g soil μg Fatty Acid/g soil
210

Discussion

Native seedings can effectively reduce the production of annual forbs (this group was mostly 

exotic) and exotic species following wildfire. Soil biotic communities beneath annual exotic 

species appear to be more abundant than those beneath perennial grasses. However, perennial 

grasses have great flexibility in soil biotic abundance and community makeup, as demonstrated 

by the shift of the soil biotic community between June and July 2011. It is reasonable to expect 

that soil communities are tied to soil moisture, however, soil moisture diminished beneath the 

bluebunch microsites in this short time period (likely because of the robust drill row of grasses, 

which extracted greater amounts of soil moisture than did the inter-row spaces which contained 

few perennials). 

Future studies that undertake characterization of soil biota within reclamation seedings are 

needed. Such studies should be careful to sample in microsites under plant species and to sample 

repeatedly during the growing season to understand the community shifts that seem to occur 

quickly (June to July in this study) under identical plant species (microsites). Single samples 

within a growing season may be misleading for characterizing soil biota even within the same 

microsite and seeding treatment.

References

Hafenrichter, A. L. 1958. New grasses and legumes for soil and water conservation. In: Norman, 

A. G., ed. Advances in Agronomy, Vol. X. Academic Press, New York, NY: 349-406.

Hull, A. C. 1974. Species for seeding arid rangeland in southern Idaho. Journal of Range 

Management. 27: 216-218. 

Jessop, B. D.; Anderson, V. J. 2007. Cheatgrass invasion in salt desert shrublands: benefits of 

postfire reclamation. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 60: 235-243.

Taylor, M.; Hild, A.; Norton, U.; Shaw, N. 2011. Influence of post-fire treatments on exotic, 

native residual and seeded species production at the Scooby wildfire site in Northern Utah, 2010. 

In: Shaw, N.; Pellant, M. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2011 Progress 

Report. Boise, ID: USDI Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office and USDA Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 179-187.

WRCC [Western Regional Climate Center]. 2012. Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV. 

http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

Managers may be tempted to seed non-native species to dominate sites subjected to wildfire 

because historically, introduced grasses were used in restoring degraded rangelands

(Hafenrichter 1958; Hull 1974) in belief that introduced perennial species may more effectively 

compete with exotic invasive annuals than native species. However, this study provides evidence 

reported by others (Jessop and Anderson 2007) that native seedings are a viable option for 

restoration and can limit exotic annual production following wildfire.
211

Publications

Taylor, M. [In preparation]. Exotic, native and seeded species, and soil biology response to postfire seedings in northern Utah. University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY. Thesis.

Presentations 

Taylor, M. M.; Hild, A. L.; Shaw, N. L.; Denney, E. K.; Fisk, M.. 2012. Response of natives to 

exotic presence in post-fire seedings. Society for Range Management, 2012 January 29 –

February 3, Spokane, WA. Abstract.
212

Project Title Use of Native Annual Forbs and Early Seral Species in 

Seeding Mixtures for Improved Success in Great Basin 

Restoration

Project No. & Location 11-IA-11221632-001

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Keirith A. Snyder, Research Ecologist

USDA-Agricultural Research Service

Great Basin Rangelands Research Unit

920 Valley Road, Reno, NV 89512

775.784.6057 x 245, Fax 775.784.1712

keirith.snyder@ars.usda.gov

Elizabeth A. Leger, Associate Professor

Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, MS 370

University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557

775.784.4111, Fax 775.784.4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Shauna M. Uselman, Research Scientist/Temporary Academic 

Faculty

Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, MS 370

University of Nevada-Reno, Reno, NV 89557

775.784.6057 x237, Fax 775.784.1712

s.uselman@sbcglobal.net

Project Description

Background/Objectives/Hypotheses

Use of native annual and early seral species in Great Basin rangeland reseeding efforts may 

increase invasion resistance and facilitate succession to desired vegetation, thus improving 

restoration/rehabilitation success. Early serals may be similar to exotic annual grasses in growth 

and resource acquisition strategies. Because they occupy a similar ecological niche, due to 

functional trait similarities such as growth rates and resource acquisition strategies, theory 

predicts that early serals would compete more strongly against invasives like cheatgrass (Bromus 

tectorum) and medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae). As invasion and success of exotic 

grasses appears to be associated with soil type, competitive interactions may also depend on soil 

type. 

In this study, we used a common garden approach to evaluate the performance of two exotic 

annual grasses (either cheatgrass or medusahead) and mixtures of native species growing in two 

soil types of contrasting texture. We assessed seedling emergence and early survival, because 

early life stages are critical to restoration success. Our first objective was to assess the relative 

performance of two native seed mixes, a novel seed mix composed of early seral species versus a 
213

representative traditional seed mix composed of late seral species, when seeded in the presence 

of an exotic annual grass. We hypothesized that the early seral seed mix would be more 

successful in early seedling life stages in comparison to the late seral seed mix, when growing in 

the presence of an exotic annual grass. Our second objective was to test the potential suppressive 

effect of the early versus late seral seed mix on the early life stages of exotic annual grasses. 

Here we hypothesized that the early seral seed mix would have a greater suppressive effect on 

the exotic annual grasses in comparison to the late seral seed mix, and that this effect would be 

strongest in the soil type to which the exotic is presumed to be least well adapted. Our third 

objective was to examine the performance of exotics and natives in two different soil types 

contrasting in texture (i.e., a clay loam vs. a sandy loam). We hypothesized that the exotics 

would be more successful when growing in the soil type to which the exotic is presumed to be 

most well adapted. Specifically, we predicted that medusahead would be most successful on the 

clay loam, while cheatgrass would be most successful on the sandy loam. For the natives, we 

hypothesized that performance would differ by soil type when growing with exotics due to soil 

preference by the exotics. 

Methods

We used a common garden approach to assess exotic and native plant performance in two soil

types under the same climatic conditions. Three experiments were performed, using completely 

randomized designs. Two parallel 2x3 factorial experiments, one with each exotic annual grass 

(either cheatgrass or medusahead), were designed to assess the performance of the early seral 

native seed mix versus the late seral seed mix when growing in the presence of an exotic annual 

grass, as well as the relative performance of these two exotic annuals when growing with and 

without natives. In these experiments, two levels of soil type (clay loam and sandy loam) were 

crossed with three levels of seed mix (early seral mix, late seral mix, and no mix). A third 

experiment was designed to evaluate the performance of natives when growing in the absence of 

exotics. In this ‘No Exotic’ experiment, levels of soil type (clay loam and sandy loam) were 

crossed with two levels of seed mix (early seral mix and late seral mix).

Each seed mix consisted of two forbs, two perennial grasses, and one shrub. A novel early seral 

mix was composed of the following species: bristly fiddleneck (Amsinckia tessellata), Veatch’s 

blazingstar (Mentzelia veatchiana), squirreltail (Elymus elymoides), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa 

secunda) and rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa), and these seeds were collected from 

multiple wild populations. A late seral mix, representative of traditional seeding mixes used in 

past restoration efforts, was composed of the following species: Palmer’s penstemon (Penstemon 

palmer), goosberryleaf globemallow (Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia), Snake River wheatgrass 

(Elymus wawawaiensis), Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides), and Wyoming big 

sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp. wyomingensis). These seeds were commercially purchased

from Comstock Seeds (Gardnerville, NV). A representative clay loam soil (clayey, smectitic, 

mesic, Lithic Argixeroll) and a representative sandy loam soil (fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, 

mesic Durinodic Xeric Haplargid) were collected from multiple field locations, homogenized by 

soil type, and filled into 41-cm deep treepots. The pots were then sunk into the ground at the 

University of Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station in Reno, NV. In each pot, seeds were 

sown by hand into randomized locations within each pot (15x15 cm

2

surface area) using a 20-

location fixed grid (Oct. 2010). In the ‘No Exotic’ experiment, we used two species 

combinations: (1) early seral native species only (10 seeds, consisting of two of each species) 
214

and (2) late seral native species only (10 seeds, consisting of two of each species). In the two 

parallel experiments with exotic grasses, we used three species combinations: (1) exotic species 

only (10 seeds), (2) exotic and early seral native species together (10 + 10 seeds), and (3) exotic 

and late seral native species together (10 + 10 seeds).

Emergence and seedling survival were monitored biweekly from first emergence (November 

2010) through spring of the following year (May 2011) (Fig. 1). We also measured aboveground 

biomass production, seed output, and final establishment though fall 2011, which will be 

summarized in planned manuscripts. Logistic regression analysis was performed on the 

emergence and survival of exotics and natives in each experiment. Models included seed mix 

and soil type as factors. For the natives models, functional group (grass, forb, shrub) was also 

included as a factor. Additionally, ANOVA was used to assess treatment differences in timing of 

emergence, both for exotics and for natives, using the same model structure described above.

Analyses were performed using SAS 9.3 or JMP 9.0 statistical analysis software (SAS Institute, 

Inc., Cary, NC).

Results

We found that early seral species generally 

outperformed late seral species when 

growing with exotic annual grasses, for 

emergence probabilities (p < 0.0001), 

survival probabilities (p < 0.05, with 

medusahead), and earlier emergence timing 

(p < 0.0001), though results differed among 

functional groups and soil types. When 

growing with cheatgrass, early and late seral 

native survival differed in sandy loam but 

not clay loam (P<0.01). Within each seed 

mix, native grasses exhibited the highest 

emergence probabilities of the functional 

groups (p < 0.0001). In both the cheatgrass and medusahead experiments, we found that the 

presence of native species did not have a suppressive effect on the exotics. In contrast, cheatgrass

had a higher probability of survival when it was growing with either of the native seed mixes (p 

< 0.05). A suppressive effect of the natives on the exotics is more likely to be expressed in later 

life stages. In terms of soil preference, we found that cheatgrass performed better in sandy loam, 

as predicted, both for emergence and survival (p < 0.0001). Contrary to our prediction, 

medusahead did not have a preference for the clay loam; rather it demonstrated superior 

performance in both soils. Emergence of all native functional groups was generally higher on 

sandy loam when growing with exotics (p < 0.01). We also found that native grasses had higher 

survival in sandy loam while forbs and shrubs had higher survival in clay loam when growing 

with exotics (p < 0.0001). 

Conclusions

Given their generally higher performance, the early seral natives may have a greater chance of 

persisting in the presence of cheatgrass or medusahead in comparison to the late seral natives.

Success of seeded natives at the seedling stage is likely critical in determining the eventual 

Figure 1. Photo of one of the replicates in the 

medusahead experiment where several individuals 

of the exotic and the early seral natives have 

emerged, taken during emergence monitoring 

approximately 3 weeks after seeding.
215

success of native reseeding efforts. Our findings suggest that use of native annuals and early 

serals in reseeding efforts may result in greater density of natives in communities where exotics 

are present, though additional studies will be needed to assess whether these species are able to 

persist in the long-term. Differences in native performance on the two different soil types when 

growing with exotics suggest that use of early serals in restoration seedings may result in greater 

success in more coarse-textured soils, particularly when native grasses comprise a large 

proportion of the native seed mix. We also found that performance of medusahead is comparable 

in the two soil types. To date, medusahead invasion has been most closely associated with finetextured soils, but it has been observed on certain sites with more coarse-textured soils (Dahl and 

Tisdale 1975). Our results support these observations and suggest that medusahead is capable of 

expanding its current range in the Intermountain West. 

References

Dahl, B. E.; Tisdale, E. W. 1975. Environmental factors related to medusahead distribution. 

Journal of Range Management 28: 463-468.

Collaborator

Sara E. Duke, Statistician, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Area, College 

Station, TX 77845, Phone: 979.260.9320, Fax: 979.260.9377, Email: sara.duke@ars.usda.gov.

Publications

Uselman, S. M.; Snyder, K. A.; Leger, E. A.; Duke, S. E. [In preparation]. Use of native annual 

forbs and early seral species in seeding mixtures for improved success in Great Basin restoration: 

seedling emergence and early survival.

Presentations

Uselman, S. M.; Snyder, K. A.; Leger, E. A.; Duke, S. E. 2012. Use of native annual forbs and 

early seral species in seeding mixtures for improved success in Great Basin restoration. 

Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting, 2012 August 5-10, Portland, OR.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

This research lends support to the use of early seral natives to improve success rates of rangeland 

restoration/rehabilitation reseedings in the Great Basin. Given their greater performance when 

growing with exotics during early life stages, early seral species may have a greater chance of 

persisting in communities where exotic annual grasses are present. If they persist, and possibly 

suppress exotics once they mature, their establishment may facilitate succession to a more native 

dominant community of desired later seral vegetation. Our research findings also suggest that it 

would be advisable to rely more on native grasses in Great Basin restoration seedings, based on 

the relative performance of the different native functional groups in this study. Although the 

forbs in this study did not perform as well as the native grasses, certain species may show 

promise for use in rangeland reseedings and additional research is warranted. Differences in 

native performance in the two soil types suggest that restoration seedings, particularly those 

using native grasses, may be more successful in more coarse-textured soils when native seeds are 
216

added to an existing exotic seedbank. The strong performance of medusahead in both soil types 

indicate that it is able to expand its range beyond fine-textured soils, and these findings bolster 

the call for greater efforts to prevent its further spread in the Great Basin.

Products

 Outreach: Brochures for the public at the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station Field 

Day, College of Agriculture, Biotechnology, and Natural Resources, University of 

Nevada-Reno, September 2012, Reno, Nevada.
217

Project Title Effects of N-sulate®Fabric on Germination and 

Establishment of Native Seeded Species

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-193, 11-JV-11221632-009, 12-JV-11221632-050

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Jason Stettler, Native Forb Biologist

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 48327

435.283.4441, Fax 435.283.2034

jasonstettler@utah.gov

Alison Whittaker, Project Leader

Great Basin Research Center

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 48327

435.283.4441, Fax 435.283.2034

alisonwhittaker@utah.gov

Project Description

Forb Island Study

In previous work using N-Sulate®fabric on our research farms we saw a significant increase in 

germination. After seeing this increase in germination we wanted to test the use of this fabric in a 

wildland setting. This study was implemented in 2009 and 2010. Four sites were selected in 

Utah, two in Tooele County, one in Sanpete County, and one in Carbon County. This study 

examines the effect of N-Sulate®fabric on the germination and establishment of seeded species.

Each study site consists of five randomized complete blocks, treatments are two seed mixes 

(Table 1) and two mulch treatments covered with N-sulate®fabric and an uncovered control. The 

study sites were prepared by mechanically removing sagebrush and other vegetation with two 

passes of a pipe harrow. The seed mixes were sown with rice hulls using a hand-operated seed 

broadcaster to a rate of 20-25 seeds ft2, depending on the species. The plots were then compacted 

with a Brillion packer wheel (Brillion Farm Equipment, Brillion, WI) to ensure good seed to soil 

contact.

2009 Plots

Germination and establishment data were recorded in 2010 and 2011. The N-sulate®fabric 

increased spring germination and second-year survival. The most dramatic increases in 

germination and establishment were on the two sites in Tooele County that receive less annual 

precipitation than the other two sites. 
218

2010 Plots

We recorded initial emergence in 2011, and second-year survival in 2012. In 2011, while 

recording emergence at the Lookout Pass site in Toole County, we observed that common or 

winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) was inadvertently seeded in all plots and the long- term effects 

were noticed the following year. There was extremely low establishment of the seeded forbs in 

2012 and reduced densities of annual weedy species like cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). The 

wheat appeared to be more competitive and used water resources faster than the seeded species 

which resulted in minimal establishment. 

Data from all plots and years are currently being compiled and analyzed to compare germination 

and establishment between and among all four sites and both planting years. We will also look at 

the correlation between the presence of annual weeds and the establishment of the seeded species 

on all treatments. Initial observations suggest that the presence of cheatgrass or other weedy 

annuals may suppress the germination and establishment of the seeded species. Further 

monitoring of these plots will take place to record the long term effect of using N-sulate®fabric 

to increase initial germination of seeded species.

Table 1. Forb Island study seed mixes.

Seed Mix 1

USDA 

Plant Code Common Name Scientific Name Accession No.

Seeded 

Rate (g)

BASA3 Arrowleaf balsamroot Balsamorhiza sagittata Basa-I-UT-R2 17.0

CLSE Rocky Mountain beeplant Cleome serrulata CSE-107 2.8

HEBO Utah sweetvetch Hedysarum boreale 2008.0366 21.3

LILE3 Blue flax Linum perenne Appar NBS-RR8-APP-2 3.12

LUAR3 Silvery lupine Lupinus argenteus 122 63.8

PEPA6 Thickleaf beardtongue Penstemon pachyphyllus PEPA6-B5-2009 4.3

POFE Muttongrass Poa fendleriana 2006.04.08 1.1

SPGR2 Gooseberryleaf globemallow Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 287 2.3

Seed Mix 2

USDA 

Plant Code Common Name Scientific Name Accession No.

Seeded 

Rate (g)

AGGR2 Bigflower agoseris Agoseris grandiflora AGGLG 28080 LPN 4.5

AGHE2 Annual agoseris Agoseris heterophylla SI-1 1.9

ARMU Flatbud pricklypoppy Argemone munita ARMU-U1-2009 8.7

HEMUN Nevada goldeneye

Heliomeris multiflora var. 

nevadensis HEMUN-B4-2009 1.9

LONU2 Barestem biscuitroot Lomatium nudicaule Big Butte source 28.4

NIAT Coyote tobacco Nicotiana attenuata Mud Springs source 0.4

THMI5 Manyflower thelypodium Thelypodium milleflorum THMI5-P2-2009 0.4
219

Project Title Reducing Cheatgrass: Research into Bromus tectorum

and Sordaria Symbiosis

Project Agreement No. 10-CR-11221632-182

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

George Newcombe, Associate Professor of Forest Pathology 

Department of Forest, Rangeland, and Fire Sciences

University of Idaho

P. O. Box 441133

Moscow, ID 83844-1133

208.885.5289

georgen@uidaho.edu

Project Description

Experiments to Assess Animal-Plant Lifecycle of Sordaria Strain CID 323

Dung fungi are being examined in the biocontrol of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). These fungi, 

which occur symbiotically with cheatgrass, are consumed by herbivores and then spread through 

the herbivore’s feces. After passage through the GI tract, these fungi then produce spores on the 

animal’s dung that should multiply and reduce fecundity in new generations of cheatgrass. 

Current work tests the assumptions that CID 323 can be freely passed from animal to plant host, 

and from plant to animal host. A field experiment confirmed that CID-infected cheatgrass did 

pass through the digestive tracts of sheep. A greenhouse experiment is underway to see if spores 

present on the dung will re-infect cheatgrass plants. 

The early part of the year was spent in efforts to determine vectors of introduction of the fungus

Sordaria CID 323 into both field plots of cheatgrass and animal hosts (sheep, Ovis aries). Foliar 

inoculation by spraying a mixture of mycelia and spores was previously shown by Baynes (2011)

to be successful in introducing CID 323 into stands of cheatgrass in the field. In order to confirm 

a complete lifecycle of CID 323 with animal and plant hosts, several experiments were 

conducted to test whether CID 323 can be freely passed from animal to plant hosts, and from 

plant to animal hosts.

CID 323-infected foliage of cheatgrass was fed to sheep, and dung was collected to test for the 

presence of CID 323. The first experiment was unsuccessful because of two confounding factors: 

a) the test subjects (sheep) had been exposed to CID 323 or a similar strain through feed (i.e., 

CID 323 was present in control subjects); b) efforts to use alfalfa pellets to ‘cleanse’ the sheep 

digestive system were too successful (i.e., all dung fungi were absent from alfalfa-treated 

subjects). This led to a refined experiment, where sheep treated with alfalfa for several days to 

clear their system were fed a mixture of cooked feed free of CID 323 for several days, then 

randomly assigned to control and treatment groups. CID 323 was introduced to the sheep in a 

bolus of mycelia and spores, and the presence of CID 323 was confirmed in the treatment group 

through incubation of dung in a moist chamber with sterile filter paper acting as a selective 

medium for cellulolytic fungi. 
220

Several more experiments were conducted in fall 2011 and spring 2012 to refine the process of 

introducing CID 323 to sheep and to control for various confounding effects of feed, interference 

from other dung fungi (e.g., zygomycetes), and related concerns. The design of custom moist 

chambers to the detect presence of CID 323 in dung was also refined during this period.

In April 2012, a field plot at Parker Farm on the University of Idaho campus was prepared for 

use in a sheep-cheatgrass-CID 323 experiment. Approximately 0.5 acre of cheatgrass-dominated 

grassland was sprayed with CID 323 inoculum. After the CID 323 was given time to successfully 

infect and establish itself in the inoculated field plots, an area was fenced and divided into four 

subplots, where sheep were pastured for a week after being ‘cleared out’ with the alfalfa-clean 

feed process. Dung was collected throughout the pasturing time. Incubation of dung samples 

confirmed that all sheep were free of CID 323 at time of pasturing. Dung samples collected after 

72 h of feeding on CID 323-infected cheatgrass were incubated, and the presence of CID 323 

was confirmed in the dung of all test subjects. 

Currently, two experiments are in progress to conclusively describe the complete lifecycle of 

CID 323 as an endophytic dung fungus (i.e., having distinct but related animal host and plant 

host phases). CID 323-infected dung is being used in a greenhouse experiment to show that 

fruiting bodies growing on the dung can directly infect cheatgrass foliage in close proximity. 

Additionally, a laboratory experiment aims to show that spores ejected from CID 323 perithecia 

can germinate on the surface of cheatgrass leaves and infect the plants directly. This is an effort 

to address a long standing assumption in the dung-fungi literature that spores germinate 

primarily in the digestive tracts of herbivores and that plants act primarily as a passive medium 

for spores on the surface to regain entrance to the digestive tracts of herbivores. By 

demonstrating that spores can germinate on the leaves of cheatgrass and infect the plant, the 

hypothesis that CID 323 is an endophytic dung fungus (should be fungus?) , with both animal 

and plant hosts, will be supported. 

Experiments to Assess the Effects of CID 323 on Native Grasses and on Competition between 

Cheatgrass and Native Grasses

Starting in late spring 2012, a series of experiments were initiated to assess the effects of CID 

323 infection on various native grasses. Following from Baynes (2011) which showed that CID 

323 reduces fecundity and biomass of cheatgrass, these experiments will assess what, if any, 

effect CID 323 has on natural competitors of cheatgrass in the Great Basin and Intermountain 

West regions of the United States. 

It was determined in the laboratory that surface sterilization of native perennial grass seeds 

(bluebunch wheatgrass [Pseudoroegneria spicata],; squirreltail [Elymus elymoides], Sandberg 

bluegrass [Poa secunda], and needle and thread [Hesperostipa comata]) is best accomplished by 

soaking the seeds in a 0.6% NaClO solution for 5 min followed by a sterile deionized water

rinse. Control of surface contaminant fungi and bacteria was more effective and germination 

greater using the 0.6% NaClO soak than a 5 min soak in 70% ethanol.

Cohorts of the four native perennial grasses are currently being raised in the greenhouse on UI 

campus for treatment with CID 323 to determine if there is an effect on biomass after an 

arbitrary length of time (~100 d). Cheatgrass seedlings are being vernalized at 4°C for 90 d, and 
221

will be grown in 3.8 l (1 gal) pots with size-matched seedlings of native grasses to assess 

competition coefficients in the presence and absence of CID 323 infection. 

Effects of Endophytic Fusaria Isolated from North Africa grass (Ventenata dubia) on Cheatgrass

and Native Grasses

A recent development as of summer 2012 was the isolation of distinctive communities of fungi 

in the genus Fusarium from North Africa grass (Ventenata dubia) and cheatgrass root tissue. 

Preliminary experiments are being prepared to determine whether the Fusarium isolates (~28 

distinct strains in two groups, one associated with Ventenata and one with cheatgrass) have 

pathogenic effects on cheatgrass and native grasses. Initial tests are being conducted with 

bluebunch wheatgrass and squirreltail. These are based on the observation that Ventenata plants 

from which half of the Fusaria were isolated did not show signs of disease or reduced growth, 

while cheatgrass plants from which Fusaria were isolated were not as healthy as Fusaria-free 

plants. This could support a novel weapons hypothesis (Callaway and Ridenour 2004) related to 

observed cheatgrass die-offs in the last decade or so, namely, that North Africa grass may have 

an endophytic association with strains of Fusarium which are pathogenic to cheatgrass and 

native grasses, thus enabling invasion. Alternately,North Africa grass may be resistant to 

Fusarium-related disease in a manner different from cheatgrass and native grasses, thus 

facilitating invasion. 

Cheatgrass and native grasses grown in the greenhouse on the University of Idaho campus will 

be treated with inoculum from cheatgrass-derived and North Africa grass-derived Fusarium 

strains and assessed for signs of disease or reduced growth after an arbitrary amount of time has 

elapsed (~100 d). 

References

Baynes, M. 2011. Endophytic fungal communities of Bromus tectorum: mutualisms, community 

assemblages and implications for invasion. University of Idaho, Moscow, ID. Thesis. 103 p. 

Callaway, R. M.; Ridenour, W. M. 2004. Novel weapons: invasive success and the evolution of 

increased competitive ability. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2: 436–443.

Publications

Baynes, M. A.; Newcombe, G.; Dixon, L.; Castlebury, L.; O’Donnell, K. 2012. A novel plantfungal mutualism associated with fire. Fungal Biology 116: 133-144.

Baynes, M. A.; Russell, D. M.; Newcombe, G.; Carta, L. K.; Rossman, A. Y.; Ismail, A. 2012. A 

mutualistic interaction between a fungivorous nematode and a fungus within the endophytic 

community of Bromus tectorum. Fungal Ecology 5: 610-623.

Presentations

Presentation made on Sordaria-Bromus symbiosis and implications for rangeland restoration to 

staff scientists and visitors at MPG Ranch in Missoula, Montana in June, 2012.
222

A presentation on the effects of CID 323 on cheatgrass was made to staff scientists and visitors 

at MPG Ranch in Missoula, MT on June 19, 2012. 

Management Applications

Although exploration of the Sordaria-cheatgrass-native grass system is in the preliminary stages, 

work will likely lead to useful information for land managers in the future. The work on fungal 

endophytes (and Fusarium endophytes and rhizosphere pathogens) will broaden the knowledge 

base on why some native grass plantings fail, how cheatgrass and North African grass are 

successfully invading native perennial grasslands and sagebrush steppe, and potential ways to 

reduce cheatgrass and North African grass infestations.

Outreach and Field Work Collaborations

The presentation and meetings with staff scientists at MPG who research cheatgrass and native 

grasses (see Presentations, above) has laid the groundwork for collaborative field-work starting 

in November 2012. MPG Ranch is a privately owned venture conducting research in 

conservation and restoration ecology. Field sites are being prepared in the Bitterroot Valley of 

Montana on MPG managed lands to test the effectiveness of CID 323 inoculation in reducing 

cheatgrass infestations and/or facilitating re-introduction of native grasses. The current 

experiment will assess the relative effectiveness in reduction of cheatgrass fecundity and biomass 

of fall inoculation (post emergence) versus spring inoculation (post vernalization). 

In addition to developing a relationship with MPG Ranch and associated scientists, working 

relationships are being formed with several ranchers and farmers in Washington and Idaho. 

Verbal agreements to secure access to field sites have been reached with two landowners with 

cattle ranching interests in the area. 

A potential field site is located on semi-arid benchland on the north shore of the Snake River 

west of Pullman, Washington. This site has a mix of native bunchgrasses, cheatgrass, North 

African grass, and several other invasives, and is used as low-intensity grazing land. The owner 

is very interested in how CID 323 might affect the invasive grasses and their relationship to 

native plants, and has offered land for that purpose.

A verbal agreement has been reached with a landowner of property north of the Salmon River on 

the Nez Perce Reservation in North-Central Idaho. This is semi-arid grassland characterized by 

native grasses mixed with cheatgrass and North African grass. This large ranch, used for 

seasonal cattle grazing, has large monocultures of cheatgrass, and is in the first stages of 

significant North African grass invasion. The owner, a retired extension agent for the state of 

Idaho, has offered use of his land for experimental purposes, and is also very interested in 

communicating future findings of these studies to his extensive contacts in ranching, farming, 

and forestry. 
223

Project Title Native Plant Selection and Restoration Strategies

Project Agreement No. 11-IA-11221632-077

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist Jeff Ott, Post-doctoral Research Geneticist

 USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401 322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702 Boise, ID 83702

208.373.4360, Fax 208.373.4391 208.373.4353, Fax 208.373.4391

nshaw@fs.fed.us jeott@fs.fed.us

Matt Fisk, Robin Bjork,

 Jan Gurr, Erin Denney, Alexis Malcomb

Biological Science Technicians

 USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

208.373.4340, Fax 208.373.4391

A. Seeding Native Species following Wildfire in Wyoming Big Sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata ssp. wyomingensis)*

Additional collaborators: 

Mike Pellant Robert Cox

USDI Bureau of Land Management Department of Natural Resources Management

Idaho State Office Texas Tech University

1387 Vinnell Way Box 42125

Boise, ID 83702 Lubbock, TX 79409

208.373.3823, Fax 208.373.3805 806.742.2280, Fax 806.742.2841 

mike_pellant@blm.gov robert.cox@ttu.edu

Dennis Eggert Bruce Roundy

Department of Statistics Department of Plant and Wildlife Sciences

233A TMCB 463 WIDB

Brigham Young University Brigham Young University 

Provo, UT 84602 Provo, UT 84602

801.422.4199, Fax 801.422.0635 801.422.8137, Fax 801.422.

theegg@byu.edu Bruce_Roundy@byu.edu

*Partial funding provided by the Joint Fire Sciences Program and the National Fire Plan
224

Project Description

The cycle of annual weed invasion and wildfire has altered western shrublands, disrupted 

ecosystem functioning, and increased wildfire size, intensity and frequency. These impacts are 

costly in terms of losses to native species and ecosystems. Post-fire rehabilitation provides an 

opportunity to stabilize and revegetate at-risk shrublands. USDI Bureau of Land Management 

policies and regulations encourage the use of native species, but improved seeding equipment 

and strategies are required to increase the success of multi-species native seedings. We

examined the effectiveness of two drills, a standard rangeland drill and a minimum-till drill; 

techniques for seeding small-seeded species; and sagebrush seeding rates as approaches for reestablishing native species in Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis) 

shrublands following wildfire.

Methods

Post-fire seeding treatments were established at four locations in the northern Great Basin 

following wildfires in 2007-2010 (Figure 1; Table 1). A total of 13 treatments differing by drill 

type (standard rangeland drill or minimum-till drill), seeding method, and sagebrush seeding rate 

(Table 2) were applied to 30-m x 70-m plots in fall or winter following each fire. A randomized 

complete block design with five blocks was replicated at each site. A drill seed mix (large seeds) 

(Table 3) was seeded in alternate rows. The seed passed from the large seed box through the drill 

assembly of each drill. The broadcast mix (small seeds) (Table 3) was allowed to fall to the soil 

surface of the intervening rows from the broadcast seed box and was covered by chains 

(rangeland drill) or imprinter units (minimum-till drill). Aerial seeding was simulated by handseeding the broadcast mix in fall or winter on plots that had been drill- seeded in alternate rows 

with the broadcast seed boxes empty. All plots were fenced to exclude livestock.

Figure 1. Great Basin post-fire seeding locations.
225

Table 1. Northern Great Basin seeding locations, wildfire and seeding dates, and site 

descriptions.

Mountain Home Glass Butte Scooby Saylor Creek 

Location 42o

58'42" N, 

115o37'57" W 

43o31'44" N, 

119o54'4" W 

41o51"16" N, 

113o2'46" W

42o39'43" N, 

115o28'18" W

County, State Elmore, ID Lake, OR Box Elder, UT Elmore, ID 

Wildfire (date) 6 Jul 2007 5 Jul 2007 22 Sep 2008 29 Jun 2010

Fall seeding 29-30 Oct 2007 31 Oct-1 Nov 2007 18-19 Nov 2008 27-28 Oct 2010

Winter broadcast 

(date) 18 Jan 2008 16 Jan 2008 29 Jan 2009 15 Feb 2011

Elevation (m) 911 1,430 1,422-1,475 1,204

Annual 

precipitation 

(mm)1

178-305 203-305 203-356 203-330

Frost-free days1100-170 50-90 100-150 90-170

Soil1 Coarse-silty, mixed, 

superactive mesic 

Xereptic and Xeric 

Haplocalcids 

Ashy, glassy, frigid 

Vitriorrandic 

Haploxerolls

Loamy- skeletal, 

mixed, mesic Xeric 

Haplocalcids; 

Sandy-skeletal, 

mixed, mesic Xeric 

Torriorthents 

Fine-silty, mixed, 

superactive, mesic 

Haploxeralfic 

Argidurids, Durinodic 

Xeric Haplargids, and 

Xeric Natridurids

1

Soil Survey Staff (2011).

Table 2. Seeding treatments applied to post-fire seedings in the Northern Great Basin.

1One drill mix was used for all seeding treatments. 

2The broadcast mix varies among treatments only by the Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rate. 

Treatment Drill 

Drill 

mix1 Broadcast mix2

Wyoming big 

sagebrush 

seeding rate2

C Control (no drill, no seed)

R0

Rangeland 

drill 

No seed 

R1X

Drilled in 

alternate 

rows in 

fall

Broadcast through drill 

in alternate rows - fall

1X

R5X 5X

R10X 10X

Rf+BC5X Hand broadcast in fall 5X

Rw+BC5X Hand broadcast in winter 5X

M0

Minimumtill drill

No seed 

M1X

Drilled in 

alternate 

rows in 

fall

Broadcast through drill 

in alternate rows in fall

1X

M5X 5X

M10X 10X

Mf+BC5X Hand broadcast in fall 5X

Mw+BC5X Hand broadcast in winter 5X
226

Table 3. Seed mixes for post-fire seedings in the Northern Great Basin.

PLS*/m2

MT. Broadcast mix PLS 

(%)

 

1X** 5X 10X

HOME Artemisia tridentata spp.

wyomingensis Lincoln/Blaine/Jerome Co., ID (1230 m) 20.9 52 262 525

Ericameria nauseosa Uinta Co., WY (2060m) 27.0 86 86 86

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 83.9 91 91 91

Penstemon deustus Northern Great Basin - pooled 56.2 76 76 76

Total Broadcast 305 515 778

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 86.3 67 67 67

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 85.7 51 51 51

Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm 91.6 47 47 47

Sphaeralcea munroana Utah Co., UT (1470 m) 53.2 93 93 93

Eriogonum umbellatum Northern Great Basin - pooled 61.0 8 8 8

Total Drill 266 266 266

Total Drill + Broadcast 571 781 1044

GLASS Broadcast mix

BUTTE A. tridentata ssp. wyomingensis Elko/Humboldt Co., NV (1220-1830 m) 29.3 52 234 495

Ericameria nauseosa Uinta Co., WY (2060 m) 27.0 86 86 86

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 83.9 91 91 91

Penstemon deustus Northern Great Basin - pooled 56.2 76 76 76

Total Broadcast 305 487 748

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 86.3 67 67 67

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 85.7 51 51 51

Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm 91.6 47 47 47

Sphaeralcea munroana Utah Co., UT (1470 m) 53.2 93 93 93

Eriogonum umbellatum Northern Great Basin - pooled 61.0 11 11 11

Total Drill 269 269 269

Total Drill + 

Broadcast 574 756 1017

SCOOBY Broadcast mix

A. tridentata spp. wyomingensis Sanpete Co., UT (1460 m) 17.5 52 234 495

Ericameria nauseosa Sanpete Co., UT (1460 m) 14.8 86 86 86

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 81.6 91 91 91

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm 88.2 100 100 100

Penstemon cyaneus Lincoln Co., ID (1370 m) 69.2 76 76 76

Total Broadcast 405 587 848

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 88.9 67 67 67

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 98.0 51 51 51

Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm 94.3 47 47 47

Sphaeralcea munroana Uintah Co., UT (1550 m) 65.8 93 93 93

Eriogonum umbellatum Northern Great Basin - pooled 50.4 11 11 11

Total Drill 269 269 269

Total Drill + 

Broadcast 674 856 1117

SAYLOR Broadcast mix

CREEK A. tridentata spp. wyomingensis Power Co., ID (1390 m) 28.4 50 250 500

Ericameria nauseosa Utah Co., UT (1650 m) 40.5 85 85 85

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 82.0 100 100 100

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm 94.3 100 100 100

Penstemon speciosus Northern Great Basin - pooled 57.8 15 15 15

Total Broadcast 350 550 800

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 80.0 60 60 60

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 96.6 50 50 50

Elymus elymoides Emigrant Germplasm 97.0 35 35 35

Achnatherum thuberianum Snake River Plain - pooled 55.4 30 30 30

Hesperostipa comata Millard Co., UT 77.6 20 20 20

Sphaeralcea munroana Uintah Co., UT (1550 m) 61.0 40 40 40

Astragalus filipes Dry River, Deschutes Co., OR (1330 m) 90.0 14 14 14

Total Drill 249 249 249

Total Drill + 

Broadcast 599 799 1049

*Pure live seed.

**Drill seed mix does not vary among treatments. Broadcast mix varies only by big sagebrush seeding rate, see Table 2. 
227

Data Analysis

Density (first year only) and cover of broadcast species, drilled species and cheatgrass (Bromus 

tectorum) were analyzed in SAS 9.3 (SAS Institute Inc. 2011) as general linear mixed effects 

models with the Poisson distribution. Tukey’s HSD was used for mean comparisons. Effects of 

sagebrush seeding rate and drill/broadcast seeding method were analyzed separately by parsing

out relevant treatment levels. The effect of drill impact—independent of seeding—on cheatgrass 

and non-seeded residual species was analyzed by parsing out treatments with no seed. Site and 

block were nested random effects in these analyses which included all four sites. We also 

compared sites but without formal statistical tests.

Results

Effects of Drill Type and Seeding Method/Timing

When the broadcast species mix was broadcast through the drills, first-year density (Figure 2) 

was higher and cover within years (Figure 3) was similar for the minimum-till compared to the 

rangeland drill. When hand seeded, the fall (as opposed to winter) broadcast yielded higher 

density and cover of broadcast species in the rangeland drill, but not in the minimum-till (Figures 

2 and 3). When seed was broadcast through the minimum-till drill, first year density was greater 

and cover within years was similar compared to hand-seeded broadcast treatments (Figures 2 and 

3).

Density, but not cover, of the drilled species mix was higher with the rangeland drill than the 

minimum-till drill (Figures 2 and 3). Rangeland drill treatments had significantly lower 

cheatgrass density than equivalent minimum-drill treatments (Figure 2); however cheatgrass 

cover did not differ except among non-seeded treatments (Figure 3). Mean cheatgrass densities 

during the first year were all less than 40 m-2(Figure 2). Cover of all species categories 

(cheatgrass, broadcast species and drilled species) increased substantially between the first and 

second years (Figure 3).

Sagebrush Seeding Rate Effects

First-year sagebrush seedling density increased linearly to geometrically with each increase in 

seeding rate (Figure 4). Higher densities were achieved with the minimum-till drill (Figure 4).

Densities declined in all treatments by the second year but treatment differences remained 

(Figure 4).

Drill Impact Independent of Seeding

Drilling with empty seed boxes was used to simulate failed seedings and allowed drill impacts to 

be examined independent of seeding effects. Cover of residual non-seeded plants was higher in

minimum-till than rangeland drill treatments (Figure 5), but cheatgrass cover was also higher in 

minimum till (Figure 6). On the other hand, neither minimum-till nor rangeland drill treatments 

differed significantly from the control treatment (no drilling or seeding) in cover of residual nonseeded plants and cheatgrass (Figures 5 and 6).

Variation by Site 

Sites differed noticeably in seeded species establishment and cheatgrass dominance, as illustrated 

by graphs of 2nd year mean cover by site and treatment (Figure 7). These site differences can be 

interpreted in terms of site potential, which is largely a function of elevation, and precipitation 
228

patterns during the post-treatment period. Glass Butte and Scooby are higher elevation sites 

(relative to Mountain Home and Saylor Creek) and thus appear to have greater potential for 

seeding success, but because of differences in post-treatment precipitation and the greater 

presence of residual perennial grasses and forbs at Glass Butte, drilled species establishment was 

higher at Scooby than Glass Butte (Figure 7). Even so, Glass Butte had relatively high 

establishment of broadcast species (Figure 7). Saylor Creek and Mountain Home also differed in 

post-treatment precipitation and seeding establishment; Saylor Creek seedings were moderately 

successful and had only moderate amounts of cheatgrass, while Mountain Home had poor 

seedling establishment and high cheatgrass dominance (Figure 7) in conjunction with low 

precipitation during the first two years post-treatment.

Conclusions

The minimum-till drill performs similarly to the rangeland drill for drilled species and better for 

broadcast species including sagebrush. Seeding broadcast species through the minimum-till drill 

provided greater or equal cover than any treatments that simulated aerial seeding. The rangeland 

drill reduces cheatgrass density during the first year following treatment but also reduces residual 

plant recovery compared to the minimum-till drill. Appropriate seeding techniques, timing and 

rates can improve native plant seeding success, but adverse site conditions, such as low 

precipitation, weed seed banks, etc. remain an issue.

Figure 2. First-year density by drill type and 

seeding method/ broadcast timing. Within 

each species category, means with the same 

letter are not significantly different (p > 0.5).
229

Figure 3. Cover by drill type and seeding method/broadcast timing. For each species category, 

within-year means with the same letter are not significantly different (p > 0.5). Year 2 means 

were significantly higher than Year 1 within treatments.
230

Figure 4. Density of Wyoming big sagebrush by drill type and seeding rate. Within-year means 

with the same letter are not significantly different (p > 0.5). Year 2 means were significantly 

lower than Year 1 means within treatments.

Figure 5. Cover of non-seeded plants 

in non-seeded treatments. Within-year 

means with the same letter are not 

significantly different 

(p > 0.5). Year 2 means were 

significantly higher than Year 1 means 

within treatments.
231

Figure 6. Cover of cheatgrass in non-seeded 

treatments. Within-year means with the same 

letter are not significantly different (p>=0.5). 

Year 2 means were significantly higher than 

Year 1 means within treatments.

Figure 7. Second-year cover by site and treatment for three species categories.
232

B. Plant Materials Development and Distribution

Seed Collection

Fifty-five collections of 25 species were made in 2012.

 

Distribution of Seed to Growers

Seed of two species was distributed to one private sector seed grower for seed increase and 

commercial sales. Seed of two species was provided to the USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center and Utah Division of Wildlife Resources for seed stock increase (Table 1).

Seed Distribution

1. Forty-two total collections consisting of 19 species were distributed to the USDA Agriculture 

Research Service Western Regional Plant Introduction Station/Seeds of Success Program for 

addition to the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) system: http://www.arsgrin.gov/ system (Appendix V). 

2. Seventy-eight collections and seed mixes were distributed to cooperators and other users, 

totaling 33.7 kg (Appendix VI). 

Table 1. Seed lots distributed to private growers, seed increase, and stock seed provided to Utah 

Crop Improvement Association in 2012. 

Species Distribution

Seed Origin 

(county, state or 

ecoregion) 

Source 

Type Kg

Number 

of 

growers

Achillea millefolium 

var. occidentalis

Western yarrow

Eagle germplasm 

private 

grower Snake River Plain Singe 4.237 1

Balsamorhiza 

sagittata 

Hooker's balsamroot seed increase Snake River Plain Single 0.454 1

Pseudoroegneria 

spicata

Bluebunch 

wheatgrass seed increase Columbia Plateau Single 0.39 1

Penstemon 

acuminatus 

Sharpleaf penstemon

private 

grower Snake River Plain Pooled 3.175 1

TOTAL SEED 

DISTRIBUTED 

(kg) 8.256
233

Publications

Friggens, M. M.; Pinto, J. R.; Dumroese, R. K.; Shaw, N. L. 2012. Chapter 8. Decision support: 

vulnerability, conservation, and restoration. In: Finch, D. M., ed. Climate change in grasslands, 

shrublands, and deserts of the interior American West: a review and needs assessment. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-285. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Research Station: 116-139.

Karrfalt, R.; Shaw, N. [In press]. Banking Wyoming big sagebrush seeds. Native Plants Journal.

Parkinson, Hilary; Zabinski, Cathy; Shaw, Nancy. 2012. Impact of native grasses and cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum) on Great Basin forb seedling growth. Rangeland Ecology & Management. 

doi: http://www.srmjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.2111/REM-D-11-00028.1 

Richardson, B. A.; Shaw, N. L.; Pendleton, R. L. 2012. Chapter 4. Plant vulnerabilities and 

genetic adaptation. In: Finch, D. M., ed. Climate change in grasslands, shrublands, and deserts of 

the interior American West: a review and needs assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-285. 

Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research 

Station: 48-59. 

Shaw, N.; Pellant, M.; Fisk, M.; Denney, E. 2012. A collaborative program to provide native 

plant materials for the Great Basin. Rangelands 34: 11-16. 

St.Clair, J. B.; Kilkenny, F. F.; Johnson, R. C.; Shaw, N. L.; Weaver, G. Genecology and seed 

transfer zones for Pseudoroegneria spicata (bluebunch wheatgrass) in the inland northwestern 

United States. Evolutionary Applications. Accepted.

Kiehl, K.; Kirmer, A.; Shaw, N.; Tischew, S., eds. [In preparation]. Guidelines for native seed 

production and grassland restoration. Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K., Cambridge Scholars 

Publishing.

Annual Reports

Shaw, N.; Pellant, M. 2012. The Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2011 

Progress Report. Boise, ID: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Grassland, 

Shrubland and Desert Research Program. 212 p. 

Extension Bulletins and Reports

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Parris, C.; Saunders, L. D.; Johnson, D.; Bushman, S.; Shaw, N. 

2012. Evaluation of seed scarification for the establishment of three Intermountain West native 

legumes. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2011, Department of 

Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 141. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Agricultural 

Experiment Station. p. 136-138. 

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/ForbEmergenceLegumes2011.php

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Parris, C.; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Direct surface 

seeding strategies for establishment of Intermountain West native plants for seed production. In: 

Shock, C. C., ed. Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2011, Department of Crop and Soil 
234

Science Ext/CrS 141. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station. 

p. 130-135. http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/Forbemergence2011.php

Shock, C. C., Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Tolerance of sulphur-flower 

buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum) to rates and mixtures of postemergence herbicides, 2008-

2011. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2011, Department of 

Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 141. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Agricultural 

Experiment Station. p. 171-173. 

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/ERUMProwlOutlook2011.php

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N.; Sampangi, R. S. 2012. Irrigation 

requirements for native wildflower seed production. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Malheur Experiment 

Station Annual Report 2011, Department of Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 141. Corvallis, OR: 

Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station. p. 139-160 

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/ForbIrrigation2011.php

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N.; Sampangi, R. S. 2012. Irrigation 

requirements for novel native wildflower seed production. In: Shock, C.C., ed. Malheur 

Experiment Station Annual Report 2011, Department of Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 141.

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station. p. 161-170.

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/ForbIrrigationNew2011.php

Shock, M. P.; Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Parris, C. A.; Saunders, L. D.; Sampangi, R. K.; 

Shaw, N. L.; Welch, T. K. 2012. Fernleaf biscuitroot, Lomatium dissectum (LODI). Sustainable 

Agriculture Techniques. Ext/CrS 138. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Department of 

Crop and Soil Science. 6 p. http://www.cropinfo.net/FernleafBiscuitroot.pdf

Shock, M. P.; Shock, C.C.; Feibert, E. G. B.; Shaw, N. L.; Saunders, L. D.; Sampangi, R. K.

2012. Cultivation and irrigation of fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum) for seed 

production. HortScience. 47: 1525-1528.

Plant Guides

Tilley, D.; Jensen, S.; St. John, L. 2012. Plant guide for a tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis 

acuminata). Aberdeen, ID. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Material Center. 3 p. www.plants.usda.gov

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Plant guide for blue penstemon (Penstemon 

cyaneus). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center. 3 p. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/41955

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Plant guide for gooseberryleaf globemallow 

(Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. 4 p.
235

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Shaw, N. 2012. Plant guide for arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza 

sagittata). Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center. 5 p. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/41958

Plant Propagation Protocols 

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Propagation protocol for production of 

Lomatium grayi (J. M. Coult. & Rose) seeds. Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. Moscow, ID: 

University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. 

http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org 

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N.; Cane, J. 2012. Propagation protocol for production 

of Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.) Mathias & Constance seeds. Aberdeen, ID: USDA Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. 

Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. 

http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org 

Tilley, D.; St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; Shaw, N.; Cane, J. 2012. Propagation protocol for production 

of Lomatium triternatum (Pursh) seeds. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. In: Native Plant Network. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, 

College of Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery. http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org

Presentations

Cox, R.; Shaw, N.; Pellant, M. 2012. Seeding Wyoming big sagebrush in the northern Great 

Basin. Rangeland Technology and Equipment Council Workshop, 2012 January 28, Spokane, 

WA. 

Fisk, M.; Denney, E.; Cox, R.; Shaw, N. 2012. Post-fire native seeding strategies: results from a 

Wyoming big sagebrush site in northern Nevada. Society for Range Management 65th Annual 

Meeting, 2012 January 28 – February 3, Spokane, WA. (poster). Also presented at the Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt 

Lake City, UT. 

Fisk, M. R.; Malcomb, A. 2012. Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program: 

Collaboration and research challenges, College of Western Idaho, 2012 October 31, Boise, ID. 

McAdoo, K.; Swanson, J.; Shaw, N. 2012. Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in 

crested wheatgrass seedings. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual 

Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Richardson, B.; Udall, J.; Shaw, N. 2012. Ecological genetics of big sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata). Society for Range Management 65th Annual Meeting, 2012 January 28 – February 3, 

Spokane, WA.
236

Shaw, N. 2012. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. Special session on 

regional plant materials programs. Ecosummit 2012, 2012 Sept 30-Oct 5, Columbus, Ohio.

Shaw, N. 2012. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project – Research Update. 

Colorado Plateau Restoration Initiative Annual Meeting, 2012 March 20-21, Page, AZ. 

Shaw, N. A. 2012. Collaborative program to provide native plant materials and restoration 

strategies for the Great Basin. Sagebrush Steppe Seminar, 2012 April 25, Boise State University, 

Boise, ID. 

Shaw, N.; Cox, R.; Pellant, M.; St. John, L.; Truax, J.; Ganguli, A.; Hild, A. 2012. Equipment 

and strategies to enhance post-wildfire establishment of Great Basin native plants. Society for 

Range Management 65th Annual Meeting, 2012 January 28 – February 3, Spokane, WA.

Shock, C; Feibert, E; Saunders, M; Sampangi, R; Shaw, N. 2012. Irrigation requirements of 

native forbs for seed production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual 

Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Shock, C; Feibert, E; Saunders, M; Parris, C; Shaw, N. 2012. Stand establishment of native forb 

seed species for seed production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual 

Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Taylor, M.; Hild, A.; Shaw, N.; Denney, E.; Fisk, M. 2012. Rehabilitation seeding and soil 

dynamics associated with invasive species in a semi-desert sagebrush shrubland. Society for 

Range Management 65th Annual Meeting, 2012 January 28-February 3, Spokane, WA (received 

best M.S. presentation award). Also presented at Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Youtie, B.; Shaw, N.; Fisk, M.; Jensen, S. 2012. A tool for developing genetically diverse 

regionally adapted native plant material for restoration in the Great Basin, USA. 8th European 

Conference on Ecological Restoration, 2012 September 9-14, České Budějovice, Czech 

Republic.

Workshops

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2012 Annual Meeting, 2012 February 

21-22, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Native plant material programs and arid land issues and restoration strategies – field tour for 

Kuwaiti Scientists, 2012 October 8-9, Boise, ID. Field tour sponsored by USDI BLM. 

Preparing and seeding multi-species mixtures, drill calibration and operation, 2012 July 18, 

Boise, ID. Workshop co-sponsored by USDI BLM, Morley Nelson Birds of Prey National 

Conservation Area. 

Co-organized a session on native plant materials for the 8

th European Conference on Ecological 

Restoration, 2012 September 9-14, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
237

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Exhibit

Presented at: 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2012 February 21-22, 

Salt Lake City, UT. 

Native Plant Field Day at the Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, 2012 May 

16, Ontario, OR.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

Emergence of broadcast-seeded species, but not drilled species is enhanced by use of the 

minimum-till drill. Seeding broadcast species through the minimum-till drill provided greater or 

equal cover than any treatments that simulated aerial seeding, thus a one-pass seeding of largeand small-seeded species through the minimum-till drill could be as effective as and more 

economical than drilling large-seeded species followed by aerial seeding. Use of the minimumtill drill can also reduce loss of residual species compared to the rangeland drill, but the 

rangeland drill does bury some cheatgrass seed, reducing its density. Operationally, use of one 

drop for the generally more expensive small-seeded species might be adequate to provide added 

diversity to native seedings. 

Products 

 A workshop held at the USDI BLM Morley Nelson Birds of Prey National Conservation 

Area provided users with instruction on seeding multi-species mixtures and drill 

calibration and operation. 

 Collaboration with the USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant Material Center and the Oregon State 

University Malheur Experiment Station resulted in publication of six Extension Bulletins 

and Reports, five Plant Guides, and three Plant Propagation Protocols. These publications 

summarize information on seed technology and seed production for use by seed growers. 

 Seed lots of eight species were added to the stock seed inventory available to growers.
238

Appendix I. Research species and their occurrence in Great Basin states.

Family 

Idaho Nevada Oregon Utah

Species

Apiaceae Carrot Family

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot √ √ √ √

Lomatium grayi Gray's biscuitroot √ √ √ √

Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot √ √ √ √

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot √ √ √ √

Perideridia bolanderi Bolander’s yampah √ √ √ √

Asteraceae Sunflower or Aster Family

Achillea millefolium 

occidentalis Western yarrow √ √ √ √

Agoseris grandiflora Bigflower agoseris √ √ √ √

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris √ √ √ √

Artemisia tridentata tridentata Basin big sagebrush √ √ √ √

Artemisia tridentata vaseyana Mountain big sagebrush √ √ √ √

Artemisia tridentata 

wyomingensis Wyoming big sagebrush √ √ √ √

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker balsamroot √ √ √ √

Balsamorhiza sagittata Arrowleaf balsamroot √ √ √ √

Blepharipappus scaber Rough eyelashweed √ √ √

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden √ √ √ √

Crepis acuminata Tapertip hawksbeard √ √ √ √

Crepis intermedia Gray hawksbeard √ √ √ √

Crepis occidentalis Western hawksbeard √ √ √ √

Enceliopsis nudicaulis Nakedstem sunray √ √ √

Erigeron speciosus Aspen fleabane √ √ √ √

Eriophyllum lanatum Common woolly sunflower, 

Oregon sunshine √ √ √ √

Gaillardia aristata Blanketflower √ √ √
239

Family 

Idaho Nevada Oregon Utah

Species

Heliomeris multiflora 

multiflora Showy goldeneye √ √ √

Heliomeris multiflora 

nevadensis Nevada goldeneye √ √

Heterotheca villosa Hairy false goldenaster √ √ √ √

Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster √ √ √ √

Wyethia amplexicaulis Mule-ears √ √ √ √

Boraginaceae Borage Family

Amsinckia menziesii

intermedia Common fiddleneck √ √ √ √

Amsinckia tessellata Bristly fiddleneck √ √ √ √

Cryptantha pterocarya Wingnut cryptantha √ √ √ √

Lappula occidentalis Flatspine stickseed √ √ √ √

Phacelia crenulata Cutleaf wildheliotrope √ √

Plagiobothrys tenellus Pacific popcornflower √ √ √ √

Brassicaceae Mustard Family

Descurainia pinnata Western tansymustard √ √ √ √

Thelypodium milleflorum Manyflower thelypodium √ √ √ √

Capparaceae Caper Family

Cleome lutea Yellow beeplant √ √ √ √

Cleome serrulata Rocky Mountain beeplant √ √ √ √

Fabaceae Legume Family

Astragalus eremiticus Hermit milkvetch √ √ √ √

Astragalus filipes (A. 

stenophyllus) 

Basalt milkvetch, threadstalk 

milkvetch √ √ √ √

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie 

clover, prairie clover √ √ √

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover √ √

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine √ √ √ √

Lupinus argenteus Silvery lupine √ √ √ √

Lupinus caudatus Tailcup lupine √ √ √ √

Lupinus malacophyllus Jawleaf lupine √
240

Family 

Idaho Nevada Oregon Utah

Species

Lupinus polyphyllus Bigleaf lupine √ √ √

Lupinus prunophilus Hairy bigleaf lupine √ √ √ √

Lupinus sericeus Silky lupine √ √ √ √

Gentianaceae Gentian Family

Frasera albomarginata Desert frasera √ √

Hydrophyllaceae Waterleaf Family

Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia √ √ √ √

Phacelia linearis Threadleaf phacelia √ √ √ √

Lamiaceae Mint Family

Agastache urticifolia Nettleleaf giant hyssop √ √ √ √

Liliaceae Lily Family

Allium acuminatum Tapertip onion √ √ √ √

Linaceae Flax Family

Linum lewisii Lewis flax √ √ √ √

Linum subteres Sprucemont flax √ √

Loasaceae Loasa Family

Mentzelia albicaulis Whitestem blazingstar √ √ √ √

Mentzelia laevicaulis Smoothstem blazingstar √ √ √ √

Mentzelia veatchiana Veatch’s blazingstar √ √

Malvaceae Mallow Family

Sphaeralcea ambigua Globemallow √ √

Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow √ √ √ √

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow √ √ √ √

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro’s globemallow √ √ √ √

Sphaeralcea parvifolia Small-flower globemallow √ √

Onagraceae Evening Primrose Family

Epilobium brachycarpum Tall annual willowherb √ √ √ √

Oenothera caespitosa Tufted evening primrose √ √ √ √
241

Family 

Idaho Nevada Oregon Utah

Species

Papaveraceae Poppy Family

Argemone munita Flatbud pricklypoppy √ √ √ √

Poaceae Grass Family

Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass √ √ √ √

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber’s needlegrass √ √ √ √

Elymus elymoides Squirreltail √ √ √ √

Elymus multisetus Big squirreltail √ √ √ √

Hesperostipa comata Needle and thread √ √ √ √

Leymus cinereus Great Basin wildrye √ √ √ √

Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass √ √ √ √

Vulpia octoflora Six weeks fescue √ √ √ √

Pseudoroegneria spicata Bluebunch wheatgrass √ √ √ √

Polemoniaceae Phlox Family

Eriastrum sparsiflorum Great Basin woollystar √ √ √ √

Ipomopsis aggregata Scarlet gilia √ √ √ √

Phlox longifolia Longleaf phlox √ √ √ √

Polygonaceae Buckwheat Family

Eriogonum heracleoides Parsnipflower buckwheat, 

Wyeth buckwheat √ √ √ √

Eriogonum microthecum Slender buckwheat √ √ √ √

Eriogonum ovalifolium Cushion buckwheat √ √ √ √

Eriogonum sphaerocephalum Rock buckwheat √ √ √

Eriogonum sphaerocephalum 

sphaerocephalum Rock buckwheat √ √ √

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulfur-flower buckwheat √ √ √ √

Scrophulariaceae Snapdragon Family

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon √ √ √

Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon √

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon √ √ √ √
242

Family 

Idaho Nevada Oregon Utah

Species

Penstemon eatonii Firecracker penstemon √ √

Penstemon pachyphyllus Thickleaf penstemon √ √

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon √ √ √ √

Solanaceae Nightshade Family

Nicotiana attenuata Coyote tobacco √ √ √ √
243

Appendix II. UCIA STOCK MATERIALS TAGGING INFORMATION FORM (1/23/2012)

Utah Crop Improvement Assn. 4855 Old Main Hill Logan, UT 84322-4855 Ph (435) 797-2082 Fax (435) 797-0642

Please complete this form in detail when requesting certification tags for plant materials sent to growers for stock increase.

Propagative type (seeds, plants, cuttings, etc.) ______________ Amount sent ______________ Date sent ____________

Tag Request Date ___________

Breeder/Developer

Agency/Company

Address

Phone/Cell Email

Stock Material Recipient

Address

Phone/Cell Email

Species Common Name

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE DETAILS:

A. Pre-Variety Germplasm Source Identified (SI) Selected (S)1 Tested (T)1

1. PVG Official Release: Completed Intended Not Intended

2. Germplasm Identification Term (Germplasm ID): ____________________________________________________________

2

 3. Material Transfer Agreement required?3 Yes No

4. Stock material lot #:_______________________________

4

 Seed certification #:________________________ (if assigned)

5. Generation of this lot #, and Generation limitation (if specified): G__ / G__

6. (a) G0 Source location if stock material is Natural-Track:

County:

5

___________________________________ State:

5 __________ Elevation: __________

 (b) G0 indigenous? Yes No Unknown

 (c) G1 origin location if Manipulated-Track:6

County: ___________________________________ State: ___________ Elevation: __________

7. If applicable, field production location where this lot # was produced:

County: ___________________________________ State: ___________ Elevation: __________

B. Experimental Variety

1. Experimental number of designation: __________________________________________________________

2. Material Transfer Agreement required? Yes No

3. Certification status equivalent of this stock material:

Breeder Experimental-F Experimental-R Other: _____________________

4. Stock material lot #: ______________________________

4

 Seed Certification #: _______________________ (if assigned)

C. Released Variety

1. Variety name: _____________________________________________________________________________

2. PVP applied for? Yes No

3. Certification status of this stock material:

Breeder Foundation Registered

4. Stock material lot #: ______________________________

4

 Seed Certification #: _______________________ (if assigned)

DEVELOPMENT STAGE:

A. Pre-Variety Germplasm (SI, S, or T germplasm not intended for variety release)

B. Experimental Variety (germplasm being developed for variety release)

C. Released Variety
Appendix III. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project (GBNPSIP) seed increase, stock seed, and commercial 

availability. Funding provided by: USDI Bureau of Land Management, GBNPSIP, USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research 

Station, and Utah Division of Wildlife Resources.

Plant 

Code Scientific Name Common Name Lab1Source2# of populations

Stock Seed 

Availability for 

Growers3

ACTH7 Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber needlegrass BOI SRP 1 Limited 

ELEL5 Elymus elymoides Squirreltail Little Sahara germplasm UCIA

CBR (Little Sahara, near 

Jericho, UT) 1 Available 

ELELC2

Elymus elymoides ssp. 

californicus Squirreltail Toe Jam Creek Selected Germplasm FRRL

NBR (northern Nevada 

source) 1 Available 

ELELE

Elymus elymoides ssp. 

elymoides Squirreltail Fish Creek Selected Germplasm FRRL

NBR (southern Idaho 

source) 1 Available 

HECO26 Hesperostipa comata Needle-and-thread

SSL/ 

DWR < 10 in precip/< 80o7 Limited 

LECI4Y Leymus cinereus Basin wildrye UCIA

CBR/NBR (Intermountain 

Tetra - multiple Great 

Basin sources) 31 Available 

POSE Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass Mountain Home Selected GermplasmBOI SRP 1 Available 

PSSP6 Pseudoroegneria spicata Bluebunch wheatgrass Anatone Selected Germplasm

BOI/S

SL/AB

D CP 1 Available 

ACMIO

Achillea millefolium ssp. 

occidentalis Western yarrow Eagle Selected Germplasm BOI SRP 1

Multiple 

growers

AGHE2 Agoseris heterophylla Annual goat chicory

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o 1 Limited 

ARMU Argemone munita Flat-bud prickley-poppy

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o1 Limited 

ASFI Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch NBR1 Selected Germplasm FRRL NBR 12

Multiple 

growers

BAHO Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker's balsamroot BOI CBR 1 Available 

GRASSES

FORBS

244
Plant 

Code Scientific Name Common Name Lab1Source2# of populations

Stock Seed 

Availability for 

Growers3

CHDO Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dustymaiden BOI NBR 4 Available

CLLU2 Cleome lutea Yellow spider flower

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 80-90o 1

Crop expected 

2013

CLSE Cleome serrulata Rocky Mountain beeplant

SSL/ 

DWR <10 in. precip. / >80o1 Available 

CRIN4 Crepis intermedia Limestone hawk's-beard

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o1 Limited 

DAOR2 Dalea ornata Western prairie clover DBSC BM 1 Available 

DAOR2 Dalea ornata Western prairie clover Spectrum Selected Germplasm FRRL NBR 16 Available 

DAOR2 Dalea ornata Western prairie clover Majestic Selected Germplasm FRRL ECSF 5 Available 

DASE2 Dalea searlsiae Searl's prairie clover FRRL CBR 1 Available 

ENNU Enceliopsis nudicaulis Naked stem sunray

SSL/ 

DWR

1) < 10 in precip/< 80o 

2) 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o

1) 4 

2) 3

1) Limited 

2) None

ERIGE2 Erigeron speciosus Aspen fleabane

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / <70o1 Limited 

ERHE2 Eriogonum heracleiodes Wyeth's buckwheat (pooled source) BOI NBR/SRP 9 Available 

ERUM Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat BOI NBR 5 Limited 

ERUM Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat (pooled source) BOI SRP/IB 4

Crop expected 

2013

HEBO Hedysarum boreale Utah sweetvetch SSL 

CBR/WUM boundary: 

Orem bench ( TIMP ) 1 Available 

HEMUN

Heliomeris multiflora var. 

nevadensis Nevada showy false goldeneye

SSL/ 

DWR

1) 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o 

2)10-14 in. precip. / 80-90o

1) 3 

2) 3

1) Available 

2) Limited 

IPAG Ipomopsis aggregata Scarlet skyrocket

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o1 Limited 

LILE3 Linum lewisii Lewis flax Maple Grove Selected Germplasm SSL CBR/WUM boundary 1 Available

LILE3 Linum lewisii Lewis flax DBSC BM (Pendleton area) 1 Available

LILE3 Linum lewisii Prairie flax

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o6

Crop expected 

2013

LODI Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot (pooled source) BOI NBR 6 Available

LODI Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot (pooled source) BOI SRP 10 Available 245
Plant 

Code Scientific Name Common Name Lab1Source2# of populations

Stock Seed 

Availability for 

Growers3

LOGR Lomatium grayi Gray's biscuitroot (pooled source)

BOI/ 

SSL SRP 2

Expected in 

2013

LONU2 Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o1 Limited 

LONU2 Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot BOI NBR 2

Crop expected 

2013

LOTR2 Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot BOI NBR 5

Crop expected 

2013

LOTR2 Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot (pooled source) BOI ECSF 1

Crop expected 

2013

LUAR6 Lupinus arbustus Long-spur lupine

SSL/ 

DWR

1) 14-24 in. precip. / <70o 

2) 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o 

3) >24 in. precip. 

1) 1 

2) 1 

3) 1

1) Limited 

2) Limited 

3) Available

LUAR3 Lupinus argenteus Silver-stem lupine

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o1 Limited 

LUPR2 Lupinus prunophilus Hairy big leaf lupine

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o1 Available 

LUSE4 Lupinus sericeus Pursh's silky lupine

SSL/ 

DWR CBR 1 Available 

MACA2 Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster BOI NBR/SRP 6 Limited

MEAL6 Mentzelia albicaulis White-stem blazing star

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o3 Limited 

MELA2 Mentzelia laevicaulis Giant blazing star

SSL/ 

DWR

1)10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o 

2)14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o 

1) 3 

2) 2

1)Limted 

2) Limited 

NIAT Nicotiana attenuata Coyote tobacco

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / <70o 1 Available 

PHCRC

Phacelia crenulata var. 

corrugata Cleftleaf wildheliotrope

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o1 Limited 

PEAC Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon (pooled source) BOI SRP 14

Crop expected 

2013

PECY3 Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon BOI SRP (Richfield, ID) 1 Available 24

6
Plant 

Code Scientific Name Common Name Lab1Source2# of populations

Stock Seed 

Availability for 

Growers3

PEDE4 Penstemon deustus Hotrock penstemon BOI SRP (foothills N of Boise) 1 Available 

PEPA6 Penstemon pachyphyllus Thickleaf beardtongue

SSL/ 

DWR

1) 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o 

2) 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o

1) 3 

2) 5

1) None 

2) Limited

PESP Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon BOI NBR 5 Available 

SPCO Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globe-mallow

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o 4

Expected in 

2013

SPGR2 Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Currant-leaf globe-mallow

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 80-90o 1 Available 

SPMU2 Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallow BOI NBR 1 Available

THMI5 Thelypodium milleflorum Many-flowered thelypody

SSL/ 

DWR < 10 in precip/< 80o 1 Limited

MUAS Muhlenbergia asperifolia Scratchgrass

SSL/ 

DWR <10 in. precip. / >80o

SPCR Sporobolus cryptandrus sand dropseed BOI NGB

ARMAF

Arenaria macradenia ssp. 

ferrisiae Ferris' sandwort

SSL/ 

DWR Eco Region 13W

BAHO Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker's balsamroot

SSL/D

WR

10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o 

14-24 in. precip./ 70-80o

BASA3 Balsamorhiza sagittata Arrow-leaf balsamroot

SSL/ 

DWR

1) 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o 

2) 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o

CHDO Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dustymaiden BOI SRP

CLLU2 Cleome lutea yellow spiderflower BOI NGB

CRAC2 Crepis acuminata Long-leaf hawk's-beard

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o

DENU2 Delphinium nuttallianum Two-lobe larkspur

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / <70o

ERLA6 Eriophyllum lanatum common woolly sunflower BOI NGB

Additional plant materials under evaluation and/or early seed increase.

GRASSES

FORBS

247
Plant 

Code Scientific Name Common Name Lab1Source2# of populations

Stock Seed 

Availability for 

Growers3

FRAL5 Frasera ablomarginata Desert frasera

SSL/ 

DWR

1) 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o 

2) 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80oLimited 

IPMA4 Ipomopsis macrosiphon Mountain skyrocket

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / 70-80o

LIKI2 Linum kingii King's flax

SSL/ 

DWR <10 in. precip. / >80o

LISU5 Linum subteres Sprucemont flax

SSL/ 

DWR <10 in. precip. / >80o

MELA2 Mentzelia laevicaulis smoothstem blazingstar BOI NGB

PEBO2 Perideridia bolanderi Bolander's yampa

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o

PEEA Penstemon eatonii Eaton's firecracker

SSL/ 

DWR

1) 14-24 in. precip. /70-80o; 

2) 10-14 in. precip./70-80o

PEPR2 Penstemon procerus Little flower pentemon

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o

PERY Penstemon rydbergii Rydberg's beardtongue

SSL/ 

DWR 14-24 in. precip. / <70o

PESP Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon BOI SRP 3

PEST2 Penstemon strictus Rocky Mountain penstemon

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o

PHHA Phacelia hastata silverleaf phacelia BOI NGB

PHHE2 Phacelia heterophylla varileaf phacelia BOI NGB

PHLI Phacelia linearis threadleaf phacelia BOI NGB

SPPA2 Sphaeralcea parvifolia Small leaf globemallow

SSL/ 

DWR 10-14 in. precip. / 70-80o7

STPI Stanleya pinnata Golden prince's-plume

SSL/ 

DWR <10 in. precip. / >80o 248
UCIA = Utah Crop Improvement Association, Logan, UT (435) 797-2082

Level III Ecoregion

ɜStock Seed Availability for Growers

Limited = < 10lbs

Available = > 10lbs

CP=Columbia Plateau

Materials are source identified unless otherwise indicated. Stock seed can be requested through State Foundation Seed Organizations. 

BM = Blue Mountains

CBR = Central Basin and Range

NBR = Northern Basin and Range 

SRP = Snake River Plain 

WUM = Wasatch and Uinta Mountains

ECSF = Eastern Cascade Slopes and Foothills 

DWR = Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Ephraim, UT (435) 283 4441

FRRL = ARS, Logan, UT (435) 797-2249

SSL = USFS RMRS Shrub Sciences Lab, Provo, UT (801) 356 5100

2 Provisional Seed Zone Map: Omernik Level III ecoregions (http://www.nps.gov/plants/sos/pdf/SOS%20Omernik%20Level%20III.pdfEcoregion )

1

Lab 

ABD = NRCS Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID (208) 397-4133

BOI = USFS RMRS, Boise, ID (208) 373 4360

DBSC = Deschutes Basin Seed Cooperative, OR (541) 447-8166

24

9
On July 18, twenty-five restoration practitioners’

from six different federal and state resource 

agencies participated in a drill calibration workshop

at the BLM Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey 

National Conservation Area (BLM-NCA). The 

workshop was sponsored by the BLM Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project

(GBNPSIP), US Forest Service Rocky Mountain 

Research Station, Natural Resource Conservation 

Service, Aberdeen Plants Material Center, USDA, 

Agricultural Research Service, Northwest Watershed 

Research Center, and the SER Great Basin Chapter. 

Participants were given an opportunity to become 

familiar with different drill types, seed boxes and 

drill calibration methods. Four drills were used in 

the workshop; a standard rangeland drill with a 

single seed box, 3 seed box rangeland drill with 

depth bands, a Truax Rough Rider minimum till drill 

and a Truax On-the-Go minimum till drill.

Topics discussed included; seed boxes and 

metering, seed delivery and placement, calibration, 

seed type, seed test interpretation, seeding rate 

determination, seeding mix calculations, and use of 

diluents. Three options were highlighted for participants to consider in the selection of appropriate 

seed boxes: cool season/grain seed box; small 

seed/legume seed box, and; fluffy seed box. 

The advantages and disadvantages of the drills 

were discussed to increase participant’s awareness 

and familiarity with different restoration tools like 

minimum drill technology. These drills can 

minimize soil disturbance and increase the capacity 

to plant more diverse seed mixes, especially 

broadcast species, such as sagebrush and smaller 

seeded native forbs that are important for 

sagebrush obligate species including sage grouse.

The workshop was timely given this year’s 

numerous fires in the Great Basin and BLM’s focus 

on improving and restoring sage grouse habitat.

Appendix IV. The workshop entitled: Preparing and seeding multi-species mixtures, and drill 

calibration and operation was held at Initial Point, Boise, ID, 2012 July 18.

Workshop participants view demonstration of the Truax RoughRider minimum-till drill.

Dwayne Beyer shows a range of seed 

types and how different drill boxes 

accommodate them.

Workshop organizers: Jim Truax, Truax Co., New Hope, MN; Anne Halford, Snake River Birds of 

Prey National Conservation Area, Boise, ID; Nancy Shaw and Matt Fisk, USFS RMRS, Boise, ID.

250
With its partner’s, the BLM-NCA is expanding the 

use of these tools and on-the-ground techniques 

developed by GBNPSIP, to restore native shrub 

structure necessary for raptor prey base habitat and 

increase forb diversity for pollinator habitat 

important for the federally threatened slickspot 

peppergrass (Lepidium papilliferum). Additional 

information about annual GBNPSIP reports and 

products, as well as Joint Fire Science Projects, can 

be found at the following websites:

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml

http://www.firescience.gov/projects/07-1-3-12/project/07-1-3-

12_final_report.pdf

Truax On-The-Go minimum-till demo

Another demonstration provided a comparison of soil disturbance/displacement between drill types and 

configurations; such as a standard rangeland drill versus a rangeland drill with depth bands (right).

Workshop participants inspect

seed boxes and drops

A minimum-till drill was used at this Joint Fire Science post-fire seeding research site near 

Mountain Home AFB - Saylor Creek Training Range in southwestern Idaho. 

The native seed drill mix included bluebunch wheatgrass, squirreltail, needle and thread grass, 

Thurber’s needlegrass, basalt milkvetch and Munro’s globemallow. The broadcast native seed mix 

included rubber rabbitbrush, Sandberg’s bluegrass, Eagle western yarrow and royal penstemon. 

251

2
Appendix V. Germplasm conservation samples contributed by USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station (Boise, ID)

to the USDI Bureau of Land Management Seeds of Success Program and USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station in 2012 for addition to the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) system.

Symbol Scientific Name Common Name Ecoregion Ecoregion Name County State

ACMI 01 Achillea millefolium Common yarrow 12j Unwooded Alkaline foothills Ada ID

ACTH 01 Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber’s needlegrass 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

UKAM 01 Amsinckia sp. Fiddleneck 12j Unwooded Alkaline foothills Payette ID

ASER 07 Astragalus eremiticus Hermit milkvetch 12a Treasure Valley Ada ID

BAHO 19 Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot 12c Camas Prairie Camas ID

BAHO 04 Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

BAHO 08 Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

BAHO 19 Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot 12c Camas Prairie Camas ID

CHDO 16 Chaenactis douglasii Doulglas’ dustymaiden 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau Owyhee ID

CHDO 12 Chaenactis douglasii Doulglas’ dustymaiden 11i Continental Zones Foothills Malheur OR

CRAC 101 Crepis acuminata Tapertip hawksbeard 12h Mountain Home Uplands Elmore ID

DAOR 09 Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie clover 12a Treasure Valley Malheur OR

ERHE 20 Eriogonum heracleoides Parsnipflower buckwheat 12f Semiarid Foothills Elmore ID

ERUM 01 Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

ERUM 15 Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat 16f Foothill ShrublandsGrasslands Elmore ID

252
Symbol Scientific Name Common Name Ecoregion Ecoregion Name County State

ERUM 67 Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat 12f Semiarid Foothills Elmore ID

ERUM 62 Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat 12f Semiarid Foothills Adams ID

ERUM 33 Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat 16f Foothill ShrublandsGrasslands Boise ID

ERUM 66 Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

ERUM 68 Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat 16k Southern Forested Mountains Elmore ID

MACA 09 Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster 12a Treasure Valley Malheur OR

MACA 01 Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster 12h Mountain Home Uplands Elmore

MACA 12 Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster 11i Continental Zone Foothills Malheur OR

MACA 11 Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster 80f Owyhee Uplands and 

Canyons Malheur OR

MELA 02 Mentzelia laevicaulis Smoothstem blazingstar 11i Continental Zone Foothills Malheur OR

MELA 03 Mentzelia laevicaulis Smoothstem blazingstar 80f Owyhee Uplands and 

Canyons Malheur OR

PEAC 35 Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 16k Southern Forested Mountains Owyhee ID

PEAC 57 Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 12j Unwooded Alkaline Foothills Owyhee ID

PEDE 35 Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon 11i Continental Zone Foothills Baker OR

PEDE 05 Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon 12f Semiarid Foothills Adams ID

PEDE 29 Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon 16f Foothill ShrublandsGrasslands Boise ID

PEDE 50 Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

253
Symbol Scientific Name Common Name Ecoregion Ecoregion Name County State

PESP 55 Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon 80f Owyhee Uplands and 

Canyons Malheur OR

PESP 35 Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon 12j Unwooded Alkaline foothills Payette ID

PHHA 06 Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia 12j Unwooded Alkaline foothills Owyhee ID

PHHA 02 Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia 80f Owyhee Uplands and 

Canyons Malheur OR

PHHA 07 Phacelia hastata Silverleaf phacelia 16f Foothill ShrublandsGrasslands Boise ID

PHHE 01 Phacelia heterophylla Varileaf phacelia 80f Owyhee Uplands and 

Canyons Malheur OR

PHHE 03 Phacelia heterophylla Varileaf phacelia 11i Continental Zone Foothills Malheur OR

PHHE 02 Phacelia heterophylla Varileaf phacelia 16f Foothill ShrublandsGrasslands Elmore ID

PHLI 01 Phacelia linearis Threadleaf phacelia 80f Owyhee Uplands and 

Canyons Malheur OR

SPMU 09 Sphaeralcea munroana Munro’s globemallow 12j Unwooded Alkaline foothills Payette ID

254
Appendix VI. Seed lots distributed to cooperators in 2012 by USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID.

Species Common Name Seed Origin 

(county, state) Affiliation kg

Achillea millefolium Western yarrow Ada, ID Texas Tech University 0.002

Achillea millefolium Western yarrow Ada, ID Healthy Hills Initiative 0.337

Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass Yellowstone, MT Texas Tech University 0.041

Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass Yellowstone, MT University of Idaho 0.023

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber’s needlegrass Elmore, ID Healthy Hills Initiative 0.929

Agoseris glauca Pale agoseris Harney, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.002

Agoseris grandiflora Bigflower agoseris Lake, OR Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.005

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch Deschutes, OR Healthy Hills Initiative 0.472

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot Ada, ID OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.005

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot Ada, ID OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.006

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot Malheur, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.006

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot Ada, ID USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hookers' balsamroot Ada, ID Healthy Hills Initiative 0.061

Balsamorhiza sagittata Arrowleaf balsamroot Camas, ID Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.004

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden Malheur, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.125

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden Owyhee, ID OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.002

255
Species Common Name Seed Origin 

(county, state) Affiliation kg

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden Malheur, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.002

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden Elmore, ID OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.003

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden Gooding, ID USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden Owyhee, ID Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.005

Cleome serrulata Rocky Mountain beeplant Ada, ID Healthy Hills Initiative 0.037

Crepis acuminate Tapertip hawksbeard Elmore, Idaho USDI BLM/USDI USGS 0.010

Crepis occidentalis Largeflower hawksbeard Mono, CA Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.005

Dalea ornate

Blue Mountain prairie 

clover Malheur, OR Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.009

Elymus elymoides Bottlebrush squirreltail Elko, NV University of Idaho 0.013

Elymus elymoides Bottlebrush squirreltail Harney, OR University of Idaho 0.025

Eriogonum heracleoides Parsnipflower buckwheat Boise, ID HEALTHY HILLS INITIATIVE 

nursery stock seed 0.011

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buchwheat Elmore, ID Texas Tech University 0.008

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Adams, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Boise, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Boise, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Owyhee, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Elmore, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

256
Species Common Name Seed Origin 

(county, state) Affiliation kg

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Boise, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Elmore, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Boise, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Elmore, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Elmore, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Elmore, ID USDA ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station N/A unclean

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphurflower buckwheat JFSP mix Healthy Hills Initiative 0.536

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphurflower buckwheat Baker, OR Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.005

Eriophyllum lanatum Common woolly sunflower Malheur, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.054

Eriophyllum lanatum Common woolly sunflower Malheur, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.001

Eriophyllum lanatum Common woolly sunflower Malheur, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.001

Eriophyllum lanatum Common woolly sunflower Malheur, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.001

Hesperostipa comata Needle and thread grass Millard, UT University of Idaho 0.025

Hesperostipa comata Needle and thread grass Millard, UT Healthy Hills Initiative 0.152

JFSP seed mix Cover crop N/A Healthy Hills Initiative 20.203

JFSP seed mix Broadcast mix N/A Utah Transit Authority 0.814

JFSP seed mix Drill mix N/A Utah Transit Authority 1.639

257
Species Common Name Seed Origin 

(county, state) Affiliation kg

Leymus cinereus Basin wildrye Owyhee, ID NRCS Bridger Plant Materials Center 0.004

Linum lewisii Lewis flax Millard, UT USDI BLM Healthy Hills Initiative 1.466

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Malheur, OR Texas Tech University 0.038

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Harney, OR Truax Co., Inc. 0.008

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Elmore, ID USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Ada, ID USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Ada, ID Healthy Hills Initiative 0.250

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot Ada, ID Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.007

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot Ada, ID Texas Tech University 0.011

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot Ada, ID Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.003

Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster Elmore, ID OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.120

Machaeranthera canescens Hoary tansyaster Elmore, ID Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.007

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon Snake River Plain 

pool USDI BLM Birds of Prey 3.629

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon Baker, OR Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.006

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon Malheur, OR Texas Tech University 0.006

Penstemon speciosus Sagebrush penstemon JFSP Saylor Creek 

mix Healthy Hills Initiative 0.107

Penstemon speciosus Sagebrush penstemon Payette, ID Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.006

258
Species Common Name Seed Origin 

(county, state) Affiliation kg

Phacelia hastate Silverleaf phacelia Malheur, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.090

Phacelia hastate Silverleaf phacelia Malheur, OR Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.009

Phacelia linearis Threadleaf phacelia Harney, OR OSU Malheur Experiment Station 0.060

Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass San Pete, UT NRCS Bridger Plant Materials Center 0.002

Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass Owyhee, ID University of Idaho 0.023

Pseudoroegneria spicata Bluebunch wheatgrass Asotin, WA University of Idaho 0.045

Pseudoroegneria spicata Bluebunch wheatgrass Asotin, WA Healthy Hills Initiative 0.491

Pseudoroegneria spicata Bluebunch wheatgrass Asotin, WA USDI National Biological Service 0.454

Sphaeralcea grossularifolia Gooseberryleaf 

globemallow Owyhee, ID Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.006

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro’s globemallow Uintah, UT Healthy Hills Initiative 1.271

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro’s globemallow Payette, ID Healthy Hills Initiative nursery seed 0.004

TOTAL SEED DISTRIBUTED (kg) 33.700

259