# Patent

## Title
Composite substrate of gallium nitride and metal oxide

## Abstract

The present invention discloses a novel composite substrate which solves the problem associated with the quality of substrate surface. The composite substrate has at least two layers comprising the first layer composed of GaxAlyIn1-x-yN (0≦x≦1, 0≦x+y≦1) and the second layer composed of metal oxide wherein the second layer can be removed with in-situ etching at elevated temperature. The metal oxide layer is designed to act as a protective layer of the first layer until the fabrication of devices. The metal oxide layer is designed so that it can be removed in a fabrication reactor of the devices through gas-phase etching by reactive gas such as ammonia.

## Background
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application claims benefit of priority to U.S. application No. 61/692,411 filed Aug. 23, 2012, entitled COMPOSITE SUBSTRATE OF GALLIUM NITRIDE AND METAL OXIDE, inventor Tadao Hashimoto, which application is incorporated by reference in its entirety as if put forth in full below.
This application is related to the following U.S. patent applications:
PCT Utility Patent Application Serial No. US2005/024239, filed on Jul. 8, 2005, by Kenji Fujito, Tadao Hashimoto and Shuji Nakamura, entitled “METHOD FOR GROWING GROUP III-NITRIDE CRYSTALS IN SUPERCRITICAL AMMONIA USING AN AUTOCLAVE;”
U.S. Utility patent application Ser. No. 11/784,339, filed on Apr. 6, 2007, by Tadao Hashimoto, Makoto Saito, and Shuji Nakamura, entitled “METHOD FOR GROWING LARGE SURFACE AREA GALLIUM NITRIDE CRYSTALS IN SUPERCRITICAL AMMONIA AND LARGE SURFACE AREA GALLIUM NITRIDE CRYSTALS,”which application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. Section 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/790,310, filed on Apr. 7, 2006, by Tadao Hashimoto, Makoto Saito, and Shuji Nakamura, entitled “METHOD FOR GROWING LARGE SURFACE AREA GALLIUM NITRIDE CRYSTALS IN SUPERCRITICAL AMMONIA AND LARGE SURFACE AREA GALLIUM NITRIDE CRYSTALS;”
U.S. Utility Patent Application Ser. No. 60/973,662, filed on Sep. 19, 2007, by Tadao Hashimoto and Shuji Nakamura, entitled “GALLIUM NITRIDE BULK CRYSTALS AND THEIR GROWTH METHOD;”
U.S. Utility patent application Ser. No. 11/977,661, filed on Oct. 25, 2007, by Tadao Hashimoto, entitled “METHOD FOR GROWING GROUP III-NITRIDE CRYSTALS IN A MIXTURE OF SUPERCRITICAL AMMONIA AND NITROGEN, AND GROUP III-NITRIDE CRYSTALS GROWN THEREBY;”
U.S. Utility Patent Application Ser. No. 61/067,117, filed on Feb. 25, 2008, by Tadao Hashimoto, Edward Letts, Masanori Ikari, entitled “METHOD FOR PRODUCING GROUP III-NITRIDE WAFERS AND GROUP III-NITRIDE WAFERS;”
U.S. Utility Patent Application Ser. No. 61/058,900, filed on Jun. 4, 2008, by Edward Letts, Tadao Hashimoto, Masanori Ikari, entitled “METHODS FOR PRODUCING IMPROVED CRYSTALLINITY GROUP III-NITRIDE CRYSTALS FROM INITIAL GROUP III-NITRIDE SEED BY AMMONOTHERMAL GROWTH;”
U.S. Utility Patent Application Ser. No. 61/058,910, filed on Jun. 4, 2008, by Tadao Hashimoto, Edward Letts, Masanori Ikari, entitled “HIGH-PRESSURE VESSEL FOR GROWING GROUP III NITRIDE CRYSTALS AND METHOD OF GROWING GROUP III NITRIDE CRYSTALS USING HIGH-PRESSURE VESSEL AND GROUP III NITRIDE CRYSTAL;”
U.S. Utility Patent Application Ser. No. 61/131,917, filed on Jun. 12, 2008, by Tadao Hashimoto, Masanori Ikari, Edward Letts, entitled “METHOD FOR TESTING III-NITRIDE WAFERS AND III-NITRIDE WAFERS WITH TEST DATA;”
which applications are all incorporated by reference herein in their entirety as if put forth in full below.


BACKGROUND
1. Field of the Invention
The invention is related to a semiconductor substrate used for various devices including optoelectronic devices such as light emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes (LDs), and electronic devices such as transistors. More specifically, the invention is on a compound semiconductor substrate composed of group III nitride which includes gallium.
2. Description of the Existing Technology
(Note: This patent application refers several publications and patents as indicated with numbers within brackets, e.g., [x]. A list of these publications and patents can be found in the section entitled “References.”)
Gallium nitride (GaN) and its related group III nitride alloys are the key material for various optoelectronic and electronic devices such as LEDs, LDs, microwave power transistors, and solar-blind photo detectors. Currently LEDs are widely used in displays, indicators, general illuminations, and LDs are used in data storage disk drives. However, the majority of these devices are grown epitaxially on heterogeneous substrates, such as sapphire and silicon carbide since GaN substrates are extremely expensive compared to these heteroepitaxial substrates. The heteroepitaxial growth of group III nitride causes highly defected or even cracked films, which hinder the realization of high-end optical and electronic devices, such as high-brightness LEDs for general lighting or high-power microwave transistors.
To solve all fundamental problems caused by heteroepitaxy, it is indispensable to utilize crystalline group III nitride wafers sliced from bulk group III nitride crystal ingots. For the majority of devices, crystalline GaN wafers are favorable because it is relatively easy to control the conductivity of the wafer and GaN wafer will provide the smallest lattice/thermal mismatch with device layers. However, due to the high melting point and high nitrogen vapor pressure at elevated temperature, it has been difficult to grow GaN crystal ingots. Currently, majority of commercially available GaN substrates are produced by a method called hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE). HVPE is a vapor phase method, which has a difficulty in reducing dislocation density less than 105 cm−2.
To obtain high-quality GaN substrates of which dislocation density is less than 105 cm−2, a new method called ammonothermal growth has been developed [1-6]. Recently, high-quality GaN substrates having dislocation density less than 105 cm−2 can be obtained by the ammonothermal growth. However, when the dislocation density of GaN substrate is reduced to a certain level, quality of the top surface on which devices are fabricated becomes more important to achieve high-performance of such devices.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention discloses a novel composite substrate which solves problems associated with the quality of substrate surface. The composite substrates has at least two layers comprising the first layer composed of GaxAlyIn1-x-yN (0≦x≦1, 0≦x+y≦1) and the second layer composed of metal oxide wherein the second layer can be removed with in-situ etching in a deposition reactor of devices at elevated temperature. The metal oxide layer is designed to act as a protective layer of the first layer until the device layer or structure is deposited. The metal oxide layer is designed so that it can be removed in a deposition reactor of the devices through in-situ etching with a reactive gas such as ammonia.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
Referring now to the drawings in which like reference numbers represent corresponding parts throughout:
FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of the composite substrate.
In the figure each number represents the followings:
1. The first layer composed of GaxAlyIn1-x-yN (0≦x≦1, 0≦x+y≦1)
2. The second layer composed of metal oxide
FIG. 2 is an example of process flow for preparing and using the composite substrate.
FIG. 3 is a schematic drawing of one example of the composite substrate. 1A in may be a gallium face, in which case 1B is an N face. Alternatively, 1A may be an N face, in which case 1B is a gallium face.
FIG. 4 is a schematic drawing of a second example of the composite substrate. 1C may be an m-face, in which case 1B is an a-face. Alternatively, 1A may be an a-face, in which case 1B is an m-face.
FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing of a third example of the composite substrate. 1E may be a gallium side of a semipolar face, in which case 1F is a nitrogen side of a semipolar face. Alternative, 1E may be a nitrogen side of a semipolar face, in which case 1F is a gallium side of the semipolar face.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
Overview
The composite substrate of the present invention provides a suitable surface for fabricating various optoelectronic and electronic devices such as LEDs, LD, transistors, and photodetectors. Many optoelectronic and electronic devices are fabricated with thin films of group III nitride alloys (i.e. alloys of GaN, AlN and InN). Due to lack of single crystalline substrates of group III nitride, these devices have been fabricated on so-called heteroepitaxial substrates such as sapphire and silicon carbide. Since the heteroepitaxial substrates are chemically and physically different from the group III nitride, the device contains a high density of dislocations (108 ̃1010 cm−2) generated at the interface between the heteroepitaxial substrate and the device layer. Such dislocations deteriorate performance and reliability of devices, thus substrates composed of crystalline group III nitride such as GaN and AlN have been developed. Currently, the majority of commercially available GaN substrates is produced with HVPE, which has a difficulty in reducing the dislocation density less than 105 cm−2. Although the dislocation density of HVPE-GaN substrates is a few orders of magnitude lower than GaN film on heteroepitaxial substrates, the dislocation density is still a few orders of magnitude higher than typical silicon devices in electronics. To achieve higher device performance, lower dislocation density is required. To attain dislocation density less than 105 cm−2, ammonothermal growth, which utilizes supercritical ammonia, has been developed so far. Currently, the ammonothermal method can produce GaN substrates with dislocation density less than 105 cm−2. However, when the dislocation density becomes lower, quality of the interface between the substrate and the device layer becomes more important to achieve high performance because new dislocations are generated if the quality of interface is poor. The composite substrate of the present invention can provide a suitable surface for fabricating various optoelectronic and electronic devices such as LEDs, LD, transistors, and photodetectors by providing a metal oxide layer attached to the first layer of group III nitride, which can be removed by in-situ etching at elevated temperature.
Additionally, it may be possible to control the removal step of the metal oxide so that nano-scale or micron-scale metal oxide stays at the termination point of threading dislocations or stacking fault (in the case the substrate is c-plane with large miscut, nonpolar or semipolar) at the surface, which would act as a local mask to prevent defect propagation into the device layer. This selection of removal could be attained by the slight difference of surface energy of the substrate with and without the defect, i.e. the termination point of the threading dislocation or termination line of the stacking fault has different surface energy from the surface without it.
Technical Description of the Invention
The current invention of the composite substrate is expected to maximize the benefit of low-dislocation group III substrates [FIG. 1-1] (e.g. GaN) by attaching a metal oxide layer [FIG. 1-2] on the surface on which devices are fabricated. The metal oxide layer on a surface of the group III nitride substrate protects the surface of the group III nitride substrate from mechanical, physical and/or chemical damage until the device layer is deposited on.
A process flow of preparing the composite substrate and usage of it is presented in FIG. 2. By using ammonothermal method or other bulk growth method (such as flux method, high-pressure solution growth), a group III nitride substrate (such as a GaN substrate) with dislocation density less than 105 cm−2 is prepared. For commercial use, substrate larger than 1′′ in diameter and thicker than 200 microns is favorable. The surface on which a device layer or structure is formed is polished to the atomic level. The polishing process typically consists of grinding with diamond tool, lapping with diamond slurry and chemical mechanical polishing typically with colloidal silica. Then, a composite substrate is fabricated by depositing/forming a metal oxide layer on the polished surface of group III nitride substrate. If the polishing process forms a metal oxide layer, we can use the layer as the second layer or we can form an additional layer of metal oxide on top of it. Also, we can intentionally leave the colloidal silica used in the chemical mechanical polishing on the surface as the protective metal oxide layer. The composite substrate is loaded into a reactor to form device layers or structures. Right before device formation, the metal oxide layer is removed by in-situ etching so that high-quality surface of group III nitride is exposed.
The metal oxide layer can be formed by any film deposition methods including physical vapor deposition (PVD), sputtering, CVD, MOCVD, MBE, hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE), hydrothermal deposition, spin-coating, and acid oxidation. The important point is to select a suitable deposition method to form the metal oxide film which can be removed with in-situ etching to expose an “epi-ready” surface of the group III nitride material (a surface suitable for epitaxial deposition of subsequent materials used to construct a device). If the surface of the first layer forms an oxide layer unintentionally (such as group III nitride containing high fraction of Al), the unintentional layer can also be used as is for the second layer, or an additional metal oxide layer can be added on the unintentional layer. The formation of metal oxide layer can be confirmed with surface analysis such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). XPS is very sensitive to the surface chemical composition. If the shape of signal peak from oxygen is analyzed, one can tell the oxygen peak is from the ambient or oxygen bonded to the surface of the substrate. This way, one can easily confirm that sufficient amount of second layer is formed on the first layer. The oxide layer should be thick enough to protect the surface of the group III nitride from further oxidation, and preferably the layer is thick enough to protect the group III nitride from abrasion or other damage that can occur during wafer handling and storage. At the same time, the oxide layer should be thin enough to be removed with in-situ etching. Also, we can choose the metal oxide which would selectively stays at the termination point of threading dislocation on the substrate surface and act as a local mask to prevent dislocation propagation into the device layer.
The metal oxide is selected from oxide of gallium, aluminum, indium, zinc, magnesium, calcium, sodium, silicon, tin, titanium or other metal so that the metal oxide layer can be removed with an in-situ etching (i.e. etched inside a reactor of device fabrication such as metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), sputtering, and evaporation). The physical and chemical property of the metal oxide layer is optimized so that the metal oxide layer can be removed by in-situ etching in the ambient containing at least one kind of etching agent such as ammonia, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen iodide, chlorine, fluorine, and boron trichloride. Since group III nitride is thermally stable under ammonia, using ammonia is the most favorable. The temperature for the thermal etching can be any temperature less than 1200° C., but it is favorable to use temperature less than 1050° C. This is because the typical deposition temperature of group III nitride films for devices is 1050° C.
The second layer of the composite substrate protects the surface of the first layer, which will become the interface between the first layer and the device layer. Atomic-scale flatness can be expected because the metal oxide layer protect the first layer physically and/or chemically.
Example 1
Zinc oxide layer can be deposited on the Ga-polar surface of c-plane GaN substrate having dislocation density less than 105 cm−2 with hydrothermal deposition at 300° C. The thickness of the first layer can be about 300 microns and the thickness of the second layer can be 1 micron. The zinc oxide layer can be etched under ammonia flow in the MOCVD reactor while ramping the substrate temperature. If the ramp time is not long enough to remove all zinc oxide layer, the substrate is maintained at about 1050° C. under ammonia ambient until the GaN layer is exposed. This way, the interface between the GaN substrate and the device layer can be smooth and generation of new dislocations can be avoided.
Example 2
Silicon oxide layer can be deposited on the Ga-polar surface of c-plane GaN substrate having dislocation density less than 105 cm−2 with a spin-coat technique. The spin-coated composite substrate is baked at about 150° C. The thickness of the first layer can be about 300 microns and the thickness of the second layer can be 10 microns. If the silicon oxide layer is formed at low temperature, the layer can be etched under ammonia flow in the MOCVD reactor while ramping the substrate temperature. If the ramp time is not long enough to remove all silicon oxide layer, the substrate is maintained at about 1050° C. under ammonia ambient until the GaN layer is exposed. This way, the interface between the GaN substrate and the device layer can be smooth and generation of new dislocations can be avoided.
Example 3
Gallium oxide layer can be formed on the Ga-polar surface of c-plane GaN substrate having dislocation density less than 105 cm−2 with acid etching. The thickness of the first layer can be about 300 microns and the thickness of the second layer can be a few monolayers. The gallium oxide layer can be etched under ammonia flow in the MOCVD reactor while ramping the substrate temperature. If the ramp time is not long enough to remove all gallium oxide layer, the substrate is maintained at about 1050° C. under ammonia ambient until the GaN layer is exposed. This way, the interface between the GaN substrate and the device layer can be smooth and generation of new dislocations can be avoided.
Example 4
Mixture of gallium oxide and silicon oxide layer can be formed during polishing process of Ga-polar surface of c-plane GaN substrate having dislocation density less than 105 cm−2. In the polishing process, colloidal silica is used to form silicon oxide thin layer. The thickness of the first layer can be about 300 microns and the thickness of the second layer can be a few monolayers. The mixture of gallium oxide and silicon oxide layer can be etched under ammonia flow in the MOCVD reactor while ramping the substrate temperature. If the ramp time is not long enough to remove all oxide layer, the substrate is maintained at about 1050° C. under ammonia ambient until the GaN layer is exposed. This way, the interface between the GaN substrate and the device layer can be smooth and generation of new dislocations can be avoided.
Advantages and Improvements
Even with fine polishing of group III nitride substrates, the surface of the substrate can become dirty from chemical contaminants, scratched from physical damage or deteriorated from various reasons. The current invention of composite substrate can provide smooth interface between group III nitride substrate and device layers by placing a second layer on the group III nitride substrate, which protect the surface of the group III nitride chemically and/or physically until the deposition of device layers begins.
Possible Modifications
Although the preferred embodiment describes GaN substrates, the substrate can be group III nitride alloys of various composition, such as AlN, AlGaN, InN, InGaN, or GaAlInN.
Although the preferred embodiment describes oxide of zinc, silicon and gallium, oxide of other metals such as aluminum, indium, magnesium, calcium, sodium, tin or titanium can also be used. In addition, mixture of metal oxide (such as indium tin oxide) can also be used.
Although the preferred embodiment describes GaN substrate having thickness of 300 microns. other thickness can be used as long as the first layer sustains free-standing.
Although the preferred embodiment describes Ga face of c-plane GaN substrates, other faces such as N face, a-face, m-face, and various semipolar surface can also be used. In addition in the case of group III nitride alloys the surface can be group III polar surface. Also, the surface can be slightly miscut (off-sliced) from these orientations.
Although the preferred embodiment describes in-situ etching in MOCVD reactor, other reactor such as MBE, CVD, sputtering, evaporation, HVPE can be used.
Although the preferred embodiment describes a few methods of oxide formation, other deposition method such as CVD, MOCVD, MBE, sputtering, evaporation, HVPE can be used as long as the metal oxide layer can be removed with in-situ etching.
REFERENCES
The following references are incorporated by reference herein:

    [1] R. Dwiliński, R. Doradzi nski, J. Garczyńiski, L. Sierzputowski, Y. Kanbara, U.S. Pat. No. 6,656,615.
    [2] R. Dwiliński, R. Doradzi nski, J. Garczyńiski, L. Sierzputowski, Y. Kanbara, U.S. Pat. No. 7,132,730.
    [3] R. Dwiliński, R. Doradzi nski, J. Garczyńiski, L. Sierzputowski, Y. Kanbara, U.S. Pat. No. 7,160,388.
    [4] K. Fujito, T. Hashimoto, S. Nakamura, International Patent Application No. PCT/US2005/024239, WO07008198.
    [5] T. Hashimoto, M. Saito, S. Nakamura, International Patent Application No. PCT/US2007/008743, WO07117689. See also US20070234946, U.S. application Ser. No. 11/784,339 filed Apr. 6, 2007.
    [6] D'Eyelyn, U.S. Pat. No. 7,078,731.


Each of the references above is incorporated by reference in its entirety as if put forth in full herein, and particularly with respect to description of methods of making, using ammonothermal methods, and using these gallium nitride substrates.
What is disclosed by way of example and not by way of limitation is therefore:

    
    
        1. A composite substrate for device fabrication comprising a first layer composed of GaxAlyIn1-x-yN (0≦x≦1, 0≦x+y≦1) and a second layer attached to a surface of the first layer, wherein the second layer is composed of a metal oxide which partially or fully covers the first layer and which can be removed by in-situ etching in a device fabrication reactor.
        2. A composite substrate for device fabrication comprising a first layer composed of GaxAlyIn1-x-yN (0≦x≦1, 0≦x+y≦1) and a metal oxide which partially or fully covers a surface of the first layer, wherein the metal oxide is removable by in-situ etching in a device fabrication reactor, and wherein a portion or portions of the metal oxide are positioned at termination points of threading dislocations or a termination line of stacking faults to provide a local mask to prevent propagation of the threading dislocations or stacking fault.
        3. A composite substrate of paragraph 1 or paragraph 2 wherein the second layer can be removed by etching at 1050° C. or lower with ammonia.
        4. A composite substrate of any of paragraphs 1-3 and wherein the metal oxide contains at least one oxide of gallium, aluminum, indium, zinc, magnesium, calcium, sodium, silicon, tin and titanium.
        5. A composite substrate of any of paragraphs 1-4 wherein the metal oxide is more than one atomic layer thick.
        6. A composite substrate of paragraph 5 wherein the thickness of the metal oxide is large enough to be detected with x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
        7. A composite substrate of any of paragraphs 1 through 6 wherein the first layer comprises highly-oriented poly crystalline or single crystalline GaN.
        8. A composite substrate of paragraph 7 wherein the density of dislocations and grain boundaries of the crystalline GaN is less than 105 cm−2.
        9. A composite substrate of paragraph 7 wherein the metal oxide is on the gallium face of the first layer.
        10. A composite substrate of paragraph 7 wherein the metal oxide is on the nitrogen face of the first layer.
        11. A composite substrate of paragraph 7 wherein the metal oxide is on the non-polar m-face or a-face of the first layer.
        12. A composite substrate of paragraph 7 wherein the metal oxide is on the gallium side semipolar face of the first layer.
        13. A composite substrate of paragraph 7 wherein the metal oxide is on the nitrogen side semipolar face of the first layer.
        14. A composite substrate of any of paragraphs 1 through 13 wherein the metal oxide is deposited onto and therefore intentionally formed on the first layer.
        15. A method of protecting a surface of a group III-nitride wafer comprising forming a protective layer upon a face of the wafer, the protective layer having sufficient thickness to protect the face from atmospheric oxidation during storage of the wafer.
        16. A method of making an optical, electronic, or opto-electronic device comprising removing a protective layer from a face of a group III-nitride wafer in a deposition reactor, and subsequently depositing a first electronic, optical, or opto-electronic material from which an electronic, optical, or opto-electronic device is formed.

## Claims

1. A composite substrate for device fabrication comprising a first layer composed of GaxAlyIn1-x-yN (0<x<1, 0<x+y1) and a second layer attached to a surface of the first layer, wherein the second layer is composed of a metal oxide which can be removed by in-situ etching in a device fabrication reactor, and wherein the metal oxide contains a mixture of silicon dioxide and at least one oxide of gallium, aluminum, indium, zinc, magnesium, calcium, sodium, tin and titanium, and wherein the second layer is sufficiently thick to prevent further oxidation of the first layer and sufficiently thin to be removed by said in-situ etching at 1050° C. or less with ammonia.

2. The composite substrate of claim 1, wherein the metal oxide comprises gallium oxide.

3. The composite substrate of claim 1, wherein the metal oxide is more than one atomic layer thick.

4. The composite substrate of claim 3, wherein the thickness of the metal oxide is large enough to be detected with x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

5. The composite substrate of claim 1, wherein the first layer comprises highly-oriented poly crystalline or single crystalline GaN.

6. The composite substrate of claim 5, wherein the a density of dislocations and grain boundaries of the single crystalline GaN is less than 105 cm−2.

7. The composite substrate of claim 5, wherein the metal oxide is on a gallium face of the first layer.

8. The composite substrate of claim 5, wherein the metal oxide is on a nitrogen face of the first layer.

9. The composite substrate of claim 5, wherein the metal oxide is on a non-polar m-face or a-face of the first layer.

10. The composite substrate of claim 5, wherein the metal oxide is on a gallium side semipolar face of the first layer.

11. The composite substrate of claim 5, wherein the metal oxide is on a nitrogen side semipolar face of the first layer.

12. The composite substrate of claim 1, wherein the metal oxide is deposited onto the first layer.

13. The composite substrate of claim 1, wherein the first layer was formed using ammonothermal growth.

14. The composite substrate of claim 1, wherein the metal oxide comprises gallium oxide.

15. The composite substrate of claim 14, wherein the first layer a c-plane GaN substrate, and the silicon oxide and the gallium oxide are on a Ga-polar surface of the c-plane GaN.

16. The composite substrate of claim 15, wherein the second layer has a thickness of a few monolayers.

17. The composite substrate of claim 4, wherein the thickness of the metal oxide is at least 1 micron.

18. The composite substrate of claim 1, wherein the metal oxide is in a form that can be etched during temperature ramp up from ambient temperature to 1050° C.