ii

GREAT BASIN NATIVE PLANT SELECTION 

AND INCREASE PROJECT

FY2010 PROGRESS REPORT

APRIL 2011

 

COOPERATORS

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Great Basin Restoration Initiative, Boise, ID

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Plant Conservation Program, Washington, DC

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program, Boise, ID and Provo, UT

Boise State University, Boise, ID

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT

Colorado State University Cooperative Extension, Tri-River Area, Grand Junction, CO

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, OR

Montana State University, Bozeman, MT

Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR 

Private Seed Industry 

Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX

The Noble Foundation, Ardmore, OK

Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, MN

University of California - Davis, Davis, CA

University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

University of Idaho Parma Research and Extension Center, Parma, ID

University of Nevada, Reno, NV

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, Elko and Reno, NV

University of Wyoming, Laramie, W Y

Utah State University, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Pollinating Insect Research Center, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Exotic and Invasive Weeds Research Unit, Reno, NV

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, ID

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID

USDA Forest Service, National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA 

USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, UT

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Logan, UT
iii

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project

2010 Annual Report

The Interagency native Plant Materials Development Program outlined in the 2002 Report to 

Congress (USDI and USDA 2002), USDI Bureau of Land Management programs and policies, 

and the Great Basin Restoration Initiative encourage the use of native species for rangeland 

rehabilitation and restoration where feasible. This project was initiated to foster the development 

of native plant materials for use in the Great Basin and to provide information that will be useful 

to managers when making decisions about selecting appropriate plant materials for seedings. A

second major objective is to provide the equipment and techniques required for reestablishing 

diverse native communities. 

Research priorities include: 1) increased understanding of genetic variability in native plant 

species under consideration for use in revegetation; 2) development of seed transfer zones to 

provide native plant materials adapted to major bio-geographic areas of the Great Basin; 3) 

improved availability of native plant seed; 4) development of seed technology and cultural 

practices required for agricultural seed increase of native forbs and grasses; 5) native pollinator 

management of native seed production and investigation of post-wildfire pollinator recovery; 6) 

provision for in situ and ex situ conservation of important populations; 7) management or reestablishment of wildland shrub stands to improve seed availability and conserve native 

populations; 8) evaluation of the potential for increasing native plant diversity in established 

crested wheatgrass stands in the Great Basin while minimizing weed invasion; 9) investigation of 

the biology of native forbs, emphasizing seed germination and seedling establishment; 10) 

assessment of interactions among restoration species and between restoration species and 

invasive exotics; 11) evaluation of rangeland drills and strategies for establishing diverse native 

communities; and 12) science delivery. 

We thank our collaborators for their expertise and the in-kind contributions of their agencies that 

have made it possible to address many of the issues involved in native plant materials 

development and use. We especially thank Erin Denney and Matt Fisk for their assistance with 

the GBNPSIP annual meeting and Erin Denney for assisting with editing, formatting and 

assembling this report. 

Nancy Shaw Mike Pellant

USDA Forest Service USDI Bureau of Land Management

Rocky Mountain Research Station Great Basin Restoration Initiative

Boise, ID Boise, ID

nshaw@fs.fed.us Michael_Pellant@blm.gov

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project:

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml

Great Basin Restoration Initiative:

http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/prog/gbri.html

NOTE: The results in this report should be considered preliminary in nature and should not be quoted or 

cited without the written consent of the Principal Investigator for the study.
iv

Highlights from FY2010

GENETICS, COMMON GARDENS AND SEED ZONES 

Genetic diversity and genecology of bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata)

Brad St. Clair, Richard Johnson and Nancy Shaw

▪ Bluebunch wheatgrass populations differ substantially for traits of growth, reproduction, leaf 

morphology, and floral phenology. 

▪ Moderate correlations of population means with the climates of bluebunch wheatgrass seed 

sources suggest that presence of adaptively significant genetic variation should be considered 

when moving populations in restoration projects. 

▪ Geographic genetic variation in bluebunch wheatgrass is mapped based on the relationships 

between traits and climate, and seed zones are delineated that guide the choice of adapted 

populations for revegetation and restoration of grasslands in the interior Pacific Northwest 

and Great Basin. 

Adapted Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides) for the Great Basin

Richard Johnson, Mike Cashman and Ken Vance-Borland

▪ Indian ricegrass accessions representing the southern and eastern Central Basin and Range 

and Southwestern Tablelands ecoregions were planted in two common gardens in 2007. 

▪ Seed zone maps for restoration of Indian ricegrass in the Great Basin have been developed 

based on links between genetic variation and climate. These maps allow informed decisions 

regarding the suitability of genetic resources for restoration in varying Great Basin and 

Southwestern environments. 

▪ The recommended seed zone boundaries may be modified based on management resources 

and land manager experience without changing their basic form or links between genetic 

variation and climate.

▪ The maps should be considered as tools to guide restoration and management rather than rigid 

units. The aim is to strike a balance between generating so many seed zones that they would 

be unwieldy, but enough to promote sound restoration. With rangeland degradation and 

climate change, the scope for future selective adaption depends on the availability of genet ic 

variation. We recommend utilization of multiple populations of Indian ricegrass within each 

seed zone to promote biodiveristy needed for sustainable restoration and genetic conservation.

Genetic diversity patterns of tapertip onion (Allium acuminatum) in the Great Basin

Richard Johnson, Barbara Hellier and Ken Vance-Borland

▪ Tapertip onion bulbs were collected from 55 populations throughout eastern Oregon, southern 

Idaho and northeastern Nevada (20 of the Level IV Omernik Ecoregions across the Great 

Basin) and planted in common gardens in 2006. 

▪ Seed zones for restoration of tapertip onion in the Great Basin have been developed based on 

links between genetic variation and climate. The results suggest other herbaceous species to 

be amenable with similar seed zone mapping.

▪ Seed zone maps allow informed decisions regarding the suitability of genetic resources for 

restoration in varying Great Basin environments. The recommended seed zone boundaries 

may be modified based on management resources and land manager experience without 

changing their basic form and links between genetic variation and climate.
v

▪ We recommend collection of multiple populations of tapertip onion within each seed zone to 

promote the biodiveristy needed for sustainable restoration and genetic conservation.

Ecological genetics of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata): Genetic structure and climate based seed 

zone mapping

Bryce Richardson, Nancy Shaw and Joshua Udall 

▪ Ninety-three seed sources of big sagebrush were collected in 11 western states in fall and 

winter 2009-2010. Up to 10 families from each of 56 seed sources were outplanted at three 

common gardens in spring 2010. First-year measurements included height, basal diameter and 

crown area. Preliminary growth patterns have met expectations. Subspecies tridentata yielded 

the greatest heights and diameters and also exhibited lower allocations of wood development 

to height compared to ssp. vaseyana.

▪ Transcriptomes were sequenced for all three subspecies. The DNA sequence data has been 

compiled and annotated with over 21,000 sequences identified with putative function. Out of 

approximately 1,000 SNPs (single-nucleotide polymorpisms) between ssp. tridentata and 

vaseyana, ssp. wyomingensis was heterozygous for over one-third. For the remaining SNPs 

the most, approximately 60%, match ssp. vaseyana compared to ssp. tridentata at 

approximately 40%. 

Morphological and genetic variation among common Utah globemallows (Sphaeralcea spp.)

Heidi Kratsch and Chalita Sriladda

▪ To clarify taxonomic relationships among the species of globemallow we investigated 

morphological and genetic variation. Results indicate: 

▫ S. coccinea is a distinct species. The presence of a single flower per node is characteristic.

▫ S. munroana may be an ecotype of S. parvifolia. These taxa can be differentiated from S. 

coccinea by having an almost entire rather than a dissected leaf shape.

▫ S. grossulariifolia does not appear to be distinct, and may represent inter-specific 

hybridization among the other three species.

▪ A Great Basin native plant demonstration garden is planned in collaboration with Washoe 

County, Nevada pending approval of an MOU between University of Nevada Cooperative 

Extension and Washoe County Parks and Recreation. 

SEED BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

Characterization of seed germination requirements and post germination seedling development for 

improved restoration success

Anthony Davis and Olga Kildisheva 

▪ Submergence of Sphaeralcea munroana seed in boiling water can be a logistically feasible 

and effective method for breaking dormancy in large quantities of seed prior to use in 

restoration. 

Development of germination protocols, seed weight, purity and seed conditioning/cleaning protocols 

for Great Basin grasses and forbs

Robert Karrfalt and Victor Vankus 

▪ Storing Wyoming big sagebrush in sealed, moisture-proof containers gives land managers the 

potential to bank seed supplies for restoration for at least 4 years. 

▪ Using the principles of equilibrium relative humidity, and measuring it using inexpensive 
vi

electronic hygrometers, seed moisture can be managed for maintaining the highest seed 

viabilities at all stages of seed handling, from harvest to long term storage. 

Development of procedures to break dormancy in Lomatium dissectum seeds

Marcelo Serpe and Stephen Novak

▪ To investigate differences in stratification requirements among populations of two varieties of 

L. dissectum, L. dissectum var. dissectum and L. dissectum var. multifidum, the degree of 

genetic diversity and genetic differentiation among eight populations were characterized 

using enzyme electrophoresis. 

▪ The populations of L. dissectum analyzed in this study contained relatively high amounts of 

genetic diversity. Management efforts should be designed to maintain this level of diversity. 

A relatively large number of individuals should be sampled from each population to avoid 

population bottlenecks. 

▪ Genetic diversity in these populations is consistent with what has previously been reported for 

plants with a mixed mating system. Because high levels of heterozygosity are usually 

associated with higher fitness levels, management efforts should be designed to protect insect 

pollinator populations that contribute to outcrossing in this species. 

SEED AND SEEDLING ECOLOGY

Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species

Bruce Roundy and Kert Young 

▪ An important application of thermal accumulation modeling is to predict which seeded 

species are most likely to establish given site-specific soil temperature and moisture patterns 

and interspecies interference. Thermal accumulation models for seedling root growth were 

developed for forbs, grasses, and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum).

▪ Cheatgrass roots grew fastest at cool temperatures. Crested wheatgrasses (Agropyron 

cristatum) and Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass grew well enough to compete with cheatgrass. 

▪ Blue flax (Linum perenne) requires 700-800 degree days to reach 15 cm root depth, while 

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass requires 250-350.

Diversity of mycorrhizal fungi associated with Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis 

Marcelo Serpe 

▪ Five arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) species have been found to colonize Wyoming big 

sagebrush in southern Idaho based on DNA sequences and phylogenetic analyses. AM fungi 

help plants to capture nutrients such as phosphorus and micronutrients from the soil. The 

general goal of the project is to identify species that colonize Wyoming big sagebrush in 

sagebrush communities of southwestern Idaho. 

▪ The two species Glomus intraradices and G. microaggregatum are cosmopolitan species 

found in many commercial inoculums. However, the strains present in sagebrush roots may 

be different from those in commercial inoculums. Thus, the use of commercial inoculum 

cannot be recommended without further research. 
vii

PLANT MATERIALS AND CULTURAL PRACTICES

Developing protocols for maximizing establishment of two Great Basin legume species

Douglas Johnson and Shaun Bushman

▪ Scarification is essential for Western prairie clover (Dalea ornata) seed germination, but it is 

not as critical for basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes).

▪ Deeper depth of seeding may be beneficial for Western prairie clover seeding.

Native plant materials development and cultivation trials for native Great Basin forbs and grasses

Covy Jones and Alison Whittaker

▪ New common gardens of globemallow species (Sphaeralcea spp.) were established in 2009 in 

Nephi and at the Desert Experimental Range (DER), west of Milford, Utah, for further 

examination of plant characteristics and seed production.

▪ Arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata) and Hooker‘s balsamroot (Balsamorhiza 

hookeri) have posed problems primarily because it requires 3-4 years of growth before 

flowering. To reduce the amount of space required during the first years of growth and the 

land investment for a grower, we seeded each species in plots with 6-inch row spacings. 

Dense stand of plants established in spring 2010. In 3 to 4 years, mature plants will be 

transplanted to a production field setting. 

▪ Seed scarification requirements for lupine (Lupinus spp.) and globemallow species to 

facilitate stand establishment and reduce seed requirements: L. arbustus does not require 

scarification and is easily damaged if scarified. L. argenteus and L. prunophilus seed 

germination increase with both chemical and mechanical scarification, while L. sericeus seed 

germination increases with mechanical scarification. Globemallow seed germination is 

increased by scarifying the seed with a hot water bath. 

▪ The use of N-Sulate fabric appears to be a potential option to help establish native forbs in a 

wildland setting. This could be used to establish forbs in selected areas or ―islands‖ within a 

planting site. Additional study will examine whether other row covers may be more cost 

effective. 

Selecting and growing Great Basin natives

Scott Jensen

▪ Equipment development (collaborative with the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources): 

▫ Design and fabrication of a hooded row cover for herbicide spraying on high-density 

nursery beds. 

▫ Design and fabrication of wheel extenders to permit a compact Kubota tractor to straddle 

nursery beds. 

▫ Modification of a fabric roller to roll both 6‘ and 12‘ materials.

▪ Herbarium searches (30 species): Vouchers with precise source location information are 

logged into a database. This data has proven useful in viewing distributions across provisional 

seed zones. We anticipate extracting data from various GIS layers to aid in understanding 

species distribution limitations and making recommendations for revegetation plantings. 

▪ Annual agoseris (Agoseris heterophylla): This annual species responds well to cultivation by 

producing a robust canopy of flowering stems in response to irrigation and fertilizer. The 

dramatic increase in seed production places this species among the best candidates from the 

genus for commercial production. 

▪ Transplanting slow-to-mature forbs: Several often requested species, hawksbeards (Crepis
viii

spp.), arrowleaf balsamroot and some biscuitroots (Lomatium spp.), require 3 to 5 years to 

produce the first seed crop. Rootsocks of Gray‘s biscuitroot (L. grayi) and nineleaf biscuitroot 

(L. triternatum) were planted with a tree transplanter to determine if rootstocks could be 

grown in high-density plots, and then transplanted into seed production fields to reduce the 

space required during the non-productive years. Survival and seed yield will be tracked in 

2011. 

▪ Seeds of Success Interns: Four employees of the Chicago Botanic Garden funded through the 

2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act made over 400 seed collections from 81 

species. This provided a tremendous boost of stock seed for research, inclusion into long-term 

germplasm storage through the ARS GRIN system, distribution to cooperators, seed increase 

plantings, and distribution to growers.

▪ Stock seed production: Stock seed was harvested from plots of seven forb species. In 

addition, 93 sources of 21 species were planted into seed increase beds. 

▪ The USDA FS Missoula Technology and Development Center selected two project pr oposals 

for development in 2011: 

▫ Development of a specialized seed harvester for species with indeterminate ripening and 

seed shatter characteristics. 

▫ Development of a propane fired weed control service pack for thermal weed control in 

nursery beds and seed production fields. 

Cooperative work between the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project and the 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

Loren St. John and Dan Ogle

▪ Seeding trials were planted near Bruneau, ID in cooperation with the USDA FS RMRS and 

Southfork, NV in cooperation with the University of Nevada Cooperative Extension. 

Modifications were made to a Truax RoughRider minimum-till drill and a Kemmerer 

rangeland drill to broadcast and drill seed in alternate rows during the same pass. The Truax 

RoughRider drill performs well in seeding studies and should be used for large-scale 

seedings. 

▪ Certified seed stock of Anatone germplasm bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), 

produced by the PMC is available though the University of Idaho Foundation Seed Program 

and Utah Crop Improvement Association. 

▪ Sulphur-flower buckwheat, hotrock penstemon, sagebrush penstemon and sharpleaf 

penstemon can be commercially grown, at least with the use of weed barrier fabric. 

Lomatium species appear to require a number of years (3-4) to mature to reproductive stage 

under the climatic conditions at Aberdeen, Idaho. 

Pollinators and seed predators 

Jim Cane

 In burns of even degraded sage-steppe plant communities across the northern Basin and 

Range province, samples show that bee communities are clearly emerging well within the fire 

perimeter the spring after the fire. In the weeks following a massive fire, they continued to 

forage and nest wherever their host plants continue to flower, even miles into the burn where 

they are clearly resident. Blooms will be needed by resident bee faunas in the year following 

wildfire, either those belonging to recovering resident species or newly seeded populations.

 Wild Diadasia bees, which are specialists and effective pollinators of Sphaeralcea, proved to 

be indiscriminate foragers among mixed arrays of four host species in our common garden. 
ix

Seed growers must expect that even specialist bees will hybridize plants along edges of 

neighboring fields. However, I expect that standard spatial isolation distances will prove 

satisfactory. Since I have seen these bees colonizing cultivated plantings, they will be useful 

for pollinating any of the globemallows that growers plant.

 We are able to increase species of cavity-nesting Osmia bees that pollinate wild members of 

the Asteraceae and Fabaceae where they are grown, even on farm. 

Tapertip onion (Allium acuminatum) seed production: Cultural parameters

Barbara Hellier and Richard Johnson 

▪ As a component of Greater Sage-Grouse and Southern Idaho Ground Squirrel habitat, tapertip onion has been targeted for use in restoration projects. Mechanically planting mature bulbs 

in an agricultural setting is an efficient planting method for seed and bulb production. Bulbs 

can be spaced 1 inch apart for maximum seed production but a wider between bulb spacing is 

needed for maximum diameter (7-15 mm) bulb production. Harvesting as the lower capsules 

opened resulted in greater seed yields than a later harvesting when the upper capsules opened. 

Cultural thinning of native sagebrush stands to increase seed yields

Brad Geary

▪ There is a crucial need for large volumes of sagebrush seed of higher quality for the use in 

rehabilitation projects. This study is designed to expand previous research by determining if 

thinning stands can improve seed yields in established native populations of Wyoming big 

sagebrush. Two sites in Utah were chosen for this study based on area (50 acres or larger), 

sagebrush stand uniformity, and sagebrush density. All thinning treatments, mechanical and 

chemical, were established during the summer of 2010. 

▪ Seed production in 2010 within treatment areas was minimal due to the chemical and 

mechanical disturbances that occurred from the treatments, therefore data for 2010 is not 

usable. The first seed collection to determine treatment difference will occur in 2011.

Evaluation of imazapic rates and grass and forb planting times on native forb establishment

Corey Ransom

▪ Spring and fall herbicide treatments included imazapic at various rates compared to 

propozycarbazone (Olympus), sulfosulfuron (Outrider), rimsulfuron (Matrix), and 

sulfometuron (Oust). 

▪ Utah sweetvetch (Hedysarum boreale) densities were highest when 0.0625 lb ai/A imazapic 

was applied in the spring or 0.0313 lb ai/A applied in the fall. 

▪ Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) established best with spring applied 

imazapic at 0.0625 lb ai/A.

▪ A list of grass and forb species and their reported sensitivity to imazapic was prepared. Most

information was from the Plateau label. Very little information is available on forbs. 

Identification of herbicides for use in native forb seed production

Corey Ransom and Kim Edvarchuk

▪ Weed control is essential for the commercial production of native forb seed. Herbicide trials 

were established at two locations, Washington and Utah, to evaluate effective applications for 

controlling weeds in basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), Western prairie clover (Dalea 

ornata), and Searls‘ prairie clover (Dalea searlsiae). Most of the herbicide applications will 

be made in spring of 2011 and evaluated through the summer of 2011.
x

Seed production of Great Basin native forbs—subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) for stable, efficient 

native forb seed production using small amounts of supplemental irrigation water; weed control; and 

seeding practices

Clint Shock, Erik Feibert, Lamont Saunders, Cheryl Parris, Nancy Shaw and Ram Sampangi

Irrigation 

▪ Results of a multi-year study provide optimal irrigation amounts for maximum seed yield, 

years to first seed set and life span for 12 forbs. 

Weed Control

▪ Prowl and Outlook herbicides were found to not harm growth and seed production of some 

forb species when applied post emergence. These results can support a potential future 

registration process for these herbicides. In addition, activated charcoal was found to have the 

potential of allowing the use of soil active herbicides applied pre-emergence. These results 

can support a potential future registration process for the use of activated charcoal in forb 

seed production.

Stand Establishment 

▪ Row cover improved emergence for all species except Penstemon acuminatus. 

▪ Sawdust did not improve emergence with the probable exception of Balsamorhiza sagittata. 

▪ Seed treatment with fungicides reduced emergence of six species. Seed treatment might be 

beneficial for Dalea ornata.

▪ Sand improved the early emergence of Penstemon acuminatus and Crepis intermedia.

Etiology, epidemiology and management of diseases of native wildflower seed production 

Ram Sampangi, Krishna Mohan, and Clint Shock

▪ Diseases of economic crops are well known and studied but not the diseases affecting native 

plants. Plant materials should be prescreened for natural resistance to pests and diseases. 

▪ Several diseases (leaf spots, blights, rusts, and powdery mildews) and several new plant 

pathogens/diseases were recorded on native forbs. 

SEED INCREASE

Stock seed production of native plants for the Great Basin

Stanford Young and Michael Bouck

▪ Accessions consisting of limited quantities of seed obtained from defined wildland stands, or 

pooled from defined geographic areas, must be increased in commercial fields or nurseries in 

order to be available in the marketplace in sufficient quantities to supply reclamation projects 

of the scope called for in the Great Basin. 

▪ The UCIA Buy-Back project provides a bridge between small-quantity initial accessions and 

commercial marketplace production. By working with specialized growers who are willing to 

provide land, time, and expertise to produce increased amounts of stock seed from the former, 

and with UCIA facilitation, makes it available for the latter. 

▪ This program encourages and allows seed growers to benefit economically in a timely manner 

as an incentive to participate in the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program. The program helps 

accelerate the increase in stock seed supplies and ultimately increases seed supplies on the 

open market for commercial revegetation use. 
xi

Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials development, seed increase and use

Berta Youtie

▪ Native seed farms growing forbs for the GBNPSIP in the Columbia Basin and Treasure 

Valley were visited and fields were monitored. Six native seed growers from Oregon, 

Washington and Idaho were contracted to grow twelve forb species.

▪ Nevada locations for research collections of Thurber's needlegrass (Achnatherum 

thurberianum) and bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) were identified. 

▪ Seed was collected in southern Oregon and northern Nevada for the GBNBSIP, ARS, OSU 

Malheur Experiment Station, USDA-FS, native seed growers, and the USDI BLM Seeds of 

Success programs.

▪ EOSS co-sponsored and helped organize a workshop: Seed production of native grasses and 

forbs in Ontario, OR. Over 120 participants, mostly from private industry, heard from 14 

GBNPSIP collaborators about new restoration species entering the market, genetics and seed 

zones, seeding rates, stand establishment, irrigation requirements, weed control, pollinators 

and seed predators, and native seed certification and contracting. 

SPECIES INTERACTIONS

The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of invaded rangelands 

Tara Forbis, Beth Leger, and Erin Goergen

▪ In Western rangelands, invasion by the exotic annual grass Bromus tectorum is altering fire 

regimes, community composition, and ecosystem function. Greater restoration success may 

be achieved with seed mixes that mimic natural succession in Great Basin systems, which 

includes native annuals as a key component of the post-disturbance community.

 Some native forbs such as Amsinckia tessellata and A. intermedia, show promise as good 

competitors against Bromus tectorum. 

 The presence of certain native annual forbs, such as Mentzelia veatchiana, can enhance the 

establishment and restoration of native perennial grasses, such as Elymus multisetus, in B. 

tectorum invaded rangelands. 

Evolution of native plants in cheatgrass invaded systems

Beth Leger, Erin Goergen, and Erin Espeland

▪ Native species and populations differ in their ability to tolerate and compete with Bromus 

tectorum. 

 Poa secunda (Sandberg bluegrass) was consistently the best suppressor of B. tectorum

biomass, and one population of Elymus multisetus (big squirreltail) was very good at both 

tolerating and competing with B. tectorum. 

 Remnant native populations growing in invaded areas may be an important source of 

genotypes for restoration of invaded communities, but not all remnant populations will harbor 

more competitive individuals than neighboring uninvaded areas.

▪ Native populations should be screened for their ability to both tolerate and compete with B. 

tectorum, and restoration material selected based on these two measures of field performance. 
xii

CRESTED WHEATGRASS DIVERSIFICATION

Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested wheatgrass seedings

Kent McAdoo 

▪ The following strategies are being tested at a site 15 miles southeast of Elko, NV: (1) 

untreated crested wheatgrass; (2) partially controlled crested wheatgrass; and (3) completely 

controlled crested wheatgrass. Sub-plots of each crested wheatgrass control treatment were 

seeded. Seeded native grasses germinated on plots both with and without crested wheatgrass 

control, but were much taller and more robust in plots where crested wheatgrass was 

suppressed. 

Effect of herbicide application timing on crested wheatgrass control and subsequent native plant 

reestablishment success

Corey Moffet

▪ Crested wheatgrass stands in much of the western United States are stable in near 

monocultures that are resistant to native plant reestablishment. Experiments were initiated in 

spring 2008 to determine whether herbicide efficacy differs among timing of application and 

disturbance and establishment of seeded native plants is improved when crested wheatgrass is 

controlled.

▪ Irrespective of control treatment, year effects explained most of the variability in crested 

wheatgrass control and reseeding success. 

▪ Spring disking and herbicide application may be more efficacious in controlling crested 

wheatgrass when followed by a dry summer. 

▪ With the exception of grasses in 2009, reseeding success was poor. 

▪ Herbicide application had no effect on seeded species density and disking reduced seeded 

grass density, primarily due to reductions in Sandberg bluegrass and needlegrass density. 

Recruitment of native vegetation into crested wheatgrass seedings and the influence of crested 

wheatgrass on native vegetation

Kirk Davies and Aleta Nafus 

▪ Monitoring of experimental plots with known, even densities of crested wheat grass and seven 

native perennial bunchgrasses over a 12-yr period indicated that crested wheatgrass density 

increased 40-fold while native bunchgrass density remained the same or decreased. The 

ability of crested wheatgrass to increase, while native bunchgrass densities remained the same 

or decreased should be considered before co-planting crested wheatgrass and native 

bunchgrasses. 

RESTORATION STRATEGIES AND EQUIPMENT

Revegetation Equipment Catalog

Robert Cox

▪ The Revegetation Equipment Catalog is an online repository of descriptions, photos, and 

company information for equipment that is used for revegetation efforts in the United States. 

▪ During 2010, the Texas Tech University-hosted site was fully updated, and revised. All links 

were checked and corrected, if necessary, and the site was converted to a more ―modern‖ 

format utilizing frames.
xiii

GPS datalogger for rangeland drills

Damian Hoffman 

▪ A durable GPS datalogger to provide quality control for monitoring rangeland drill operation 

and contracts is undergoing testing. The device provides a record of operating time, drill 

speed, distance traveled, site coverage, elevation changes and avoidance of archaeological 

sites and other leave areas 

Rangeland drill calibration videos

Lisa Outka-Perkins

▪ The DVD ―Calibrating Your Rangeland Drill‖ describes the history of rangeland drill 

development, the essential features of rangeland drills, the basic seed and seed testing 

terminology, the calculation of seeding rates and three methods of drill calibration. It also 

demonstrates how the output of seed boxes can be adjusted. Proper calibration can improve 

efficiency of seed use. 

Modifications to the minimum-till drill

Jim Truax

▪ Changes have been made to the telescoping seed delivery tubes and boot casing of the 

RoughRider minimum-till drill to reduce plugging experienced when the drill is used in snow. 

Testing will occur in 2011. 

Establishment of native forbs following mechanical soil disturbance in Wyoming big sagebrush 

communities in the Great Basin

Alison Whittaker and Danny Summers

▪ Establishment of native forbs in Wyoming big sagebrush communities using four different 

mechanical planting methods at two locations (north and south) in Toole Co., Utah is being 

evaluated. The treatments include a control, broadcast seeding followed by a Lawson aerator, 

broadcast seeding followed by a Dixie harrow, broadcast seeding followed by an Ely chain, 

and a rangeland drill seeding using a Truax Rough Rider minimum-till drill. The seed mix 

consisted of native forbs.

▪ The greatest germination success was seen on the north site on the plots treated with the Ely 

chain, followed by the Dixie harrow and Lawson aerator.

▪ Differences between treatments were smaller on plots treated in 2009 when precipitation was

greater, particularly during the growing period. 

▪ Blue flax (Linum perenne), Utah sweetvetch (Hedysarum boreale), Utah milkvetch 

(Astragalus utahensis), and silvery lupine (Lupinus argenteus) had the highest germination 

success in the first growing season. Palmer penstemon (Penstemon palmeri) and firecracker 

penstemon (P. eatonii) germinated better the second growing season.

Post-fire seeding strategies and native plant materials for the Northern Great Basin

Nancy Shaw, Robert Cox, Matthew Fisk, Erin Denney and Jan Gurr

▪ Seed collections and distribution: Eighty-one collections were made with the assistance of a 

Seeds of Success intern employed by the Chicago Botanic Garden. Samples of all 81 

collections are being provided to the Western Regional Plant Introduction Station for 

germplasm conservation. Seed of 11 species was provided to seven growers through the Buyback program or for seed increase. Stock seed of fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum) 

and Gray‘s biscuitroot (Lomatium grayi) from the Snake River Plain seed zone was provided 
xiv

to the Utah Crop Improvement Association for distribution to growers. Seventy-nine 

collections were distributed to cooperators and other users. 

▪ Reestablishing diverse native Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp. 

wyomingensis) communities, a comparison of seeding equipment (rangeland drill and 

minimum-till drill) and seeding rates: Plots were installed post-fire at two locations near 

Elko, NV. Results indicated the two drills were similarly effective at establishing grasses 

through the drill drops. Initial establishment of small-seeded species broadcast by each drill 

was greater with the minimum-till drill. However, this advantage was lost by the second year, 

perhaps due to unusually dry conditions. 

▪ Equipment and strategies to enhance the post-wildfire establishment and persistence of Great 

Basin native plants: The ability of the standard rangeland drill and the minimum-till drill to 

plant grass, forb, and shrub seeds at different rates and depths are compared. Methods and 

dates for planting small seeded species are compared and seeding rates for Wyoming big 

sagebrush examined. A fourth replication of the study was installed near the Mountain Home 

Air Force Base Training Range. Second year data collected at the Utah site indicated that drill 

seeded species biomass was similar among all seeded treatments and reduced invasive species 

(primarily cheatgrass, Russian thistle (Salsloa kali) and halogeton (Halogeton glomeratus) by 

more than 80%. 

EX SITU GERMPLASM CONSERVATION

Richard Johnson and Mike Cashman 

▪ Cooperation between the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), the Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA, and the BLM involving native seed collection and 

conservation through the ―Seeds of Success‖ program: Through 2010, a total 1,648 SOS 

accessions were distributed for research and utilization. The native plant collection in the 

NPGS also provides a security back-up for native populations that may be lost as a result of 

climate change and disturbances such as fire and invasive weeds.
xv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

GENETICS, COMMON GARDENS AND SEED ZONES

BRAD ST. CLAIR

RICHARD JOHNSON

NANCY SHAW

Genetic diversity and genecology of bluebunch wheatgrass 

(Pseudoroegneria spicata)

1

RICHARD JOHNSON

MIKE CASHMAN

KEN VANCE-BORLAND

Adapted Indian ricegrass for the Great Basin 4

RICHARD JOHNSON

BARBARA HELLIER

KEN VANCE-BORLAND

Genetic diversity patterns of Allium acuminatum in the Great Basin 12

BRYCE RICHARDSON

NANCY SHAW

JOSHUA UDALL

Ecological genetics of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata): 

Genetic structure and climate-based seed zone mapping

23

HEIDI KRATSCH

CHALITA SRILADDA

Morphological and genetic variation among common Utah 

globemallows

28

SEED BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

ANTHONY DAVIS

OLGA KILDESHIVA

Characterization of seed germination requirements and post 

germination seedling development for improved restoration success

32

ROBERT KARRFALT

VICTOR VANKUS

Development of germination protocols, seed weight, purity and seed 

conditioning/cleaning protocols for Great Basin grasses and forbs

34

MARCELO SERPE

STEPHEN NOVAK

Development of procedures to break dormancy in Lomatium 

dissectum seeds

37

SEED AND SEEDLING ECOLOGY

BRUCE ROUNDY 

KERT YOUNG

Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species 44

MARCELO SERPE Diversity of mycorrhizal fungi associated with Artemisia tridentata 

ssp. wyomingensis

52

PLANT MATERIALS AND CULTURAL PRACTICES

DOUGLAS JOHNSON

SHAUN BUSHMAN

Developing protocols for maximizing establishment of two Great 

Basin legume species

55

COVY JONES

ALISON WHITTAKER

Native plant materials development and cultivation trials for native 

Great Basin forbs and grasses

57
xvi

SCOTT JENSEN

SEAN STANTON

MILES NIELSON

JASON STETTLER

DERRICK MATHEWS

TJ ERSFELD

COREY SAMPLE

Selecting and growing Great Basin natives 64

LOREN ST.JOHN

DAN OGLE

Cooperative work between the Great Basin Native Plant Selection 

and Increase Project and the Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

69

JIM CANE Pollinator and seed predator studies 77

BARBARA HELLIER

RICHARD JOHNSON

Allium acuminatum seed production: First look at cultural 

parameters

81

BRAD GEARY Cultural thinning of native sagebrush stands to increase

seed yields

85

COREY RANSOM Evaluation of imazapic rates and forb planting times on native 

forb establishment

87

COREY RANSOM

KIM EDVARCHUK

Identification of herbicides for use in native forb seed production 91

CLINT SHOCK

ERIK FEIBERT

LAMONT SAUNDERS

CHERYL PARRIS

NANCY SHAW

RAM SAMPANGI

Seed production of Great Basin native forbs—subsurface drip 

irrigation (SDI) for stable, efficient native forb seed production 

using small amounts of supplemental irrigation water; weed 

control; and seeding practices.

93

RAM SAMPANGI

KRISHNA MOHAN

CLINT SHOCK

Etiology, epidemiology and management of diseases of native 

wildflower seed production

129

SEED INCREASE

STANFORD YOUNG

MICHAEL BOUCK

Stock seed production of native plants for the Great Basin 131

BERTA YOUTIE Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials development, seed 

increase and use

136

SPECIES INTERACTIONS

TARA FORBIS

BETH LEGER

ERIN GOERGEN

The role of native annual forbs in the restoration of invaded 

rangelands

141
xvii

BETH LEGER

ERIN GOERGEN

ERIN ESPELAND

Evolution of native plants in cheatgrass invaded systems 144

CRESTED WHEATGRASS DIVERSIFICATION

KENT MCADOO Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested 

wheatgrass seedings

147

COREY MOFFET Effect of herbicide application timing on crested wheatgrass 

control and subsequent native plant reestablishment success

153

KIRK DAVIES

ALETA NAFUS

Recruitment of native vegetation into crested wheatgrass seedings 

and the influence of crested wheatgrass on native vegetation

159

RESTORATION STRATEGIES AND EQUIPMENT

ROBERT COX Revegetation Equipment Catalog 161

DAMIEN HOFFMAN GPS Datalogger for rangeland drills 162

LISA-OUTKA PERKINS Calibration of drills for rehabilitation and restoration seedings 

on Western wildlands

164

JAMES TRUAX Development of seeding equipment for establishing diverse 

native communities

165

ALISON WHITTAKER

DANNY SUMMERS

Establishment of native forbs following mechanical soil 

disturbance in Wyoming big sagebrush communities in 

the Great Basin

167

NANCY SHAW

ROBERT COX

MATT FISK

ERIN DENNEY

JAN GURR

Native plant selection, seed biology and seeding equipment 

and technology

173

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I UCIA Stock Seed Contract 184

APPENDIX II Germplasm conservation samples contributed to the Seeds of 

Success Program/ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction 

Station in 2010

187

APPENDIX III Seed lots distributed to cooperators in 2010 190
1

Project Title: Genetic Diversity and Genecology of Bluebunch 

Wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata)

Project Location: USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, 

Corvallis, Oregon; USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, Washington; USDA 

Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Brad St. Clair, Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station

3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331-4401

(541)750-7294, Fax (541)750-7329

bstclair@fs.fed.us

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164 

(509)335-3771, Fax (509)335-6654

rcjohnson@wsu.edu

Nancy L. Shaw, Research Botanist

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702

(208)373-4360, Fax (208)373-4391

nshaw@fs.fed.us

Project Description:

Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata [Pursh] Á. Löve) is a cool-season, long-lived, 

self-incompatible, perennial bunchgrass of semi-arid regions of western North America. It is 

found in a wide variety of habitats, and is a dominant species of many grasslands of the inland 

Northwest. The wide distribution across a diverse range of climates suggests that bluebunch 

wheatgrass is genetically variable, and much of that variation may be adaptive. Nevertheless, 

many restoration projects using bluebunch wheatgrass rely upon a few cultivars that have proven 

to be useful over a wide area (although with less experience in the Great Basin). Few studies 

have been done, however, to evaluate genetic variation in relation to climatic factors across the 

Great Basin or the greater range of the species in a large set of diverse populations, and to 

compare the mean and variation of cultivars with that of the species as a whole. Determining the 

extent to which adaptive genetic variation is related to climatic variation is needed to ensure that 

the proper germplasm is chosen for revegetation and restoration. Furthermore, comparisons of 

cultivars with the natural range of variation will address questions of the suitability of cultivars 

over larger areas.
2

Objectives

1. Using common gardens, determine the magnitude and patterns of genetic variation among 

bluebunch wheatgrass populations from a wide range of source environments in the Great 

Basin, Columbia Plateau, and adjacent areas.

2. Relate genetic variation to environmental variation at collection locations.

3. Compare common cultivars of bluebunch wheatgrass to native sources.

4. Develop seed transfer guidelines.

Progress

In 2005, seed was collected from eight western states including many locations in the Great 

Basin. In fall 2006, 125 diverse populations, each represented by two families, along with five 

cultivars, were established in common gardens at Pullman and Central Ferry, WA, and at the 

USFS Lucky Peak Nursery near Boise, ID. Data was collected for 20 traits of growth, 

phenology and morphology at each of the three contrasting test sites during years 2007 and 2008. 

Seed was collected from the common gardens in 2008 and germination tests conducted in 2009 

to evaluate population variation in germination. Analyses have been done to evaluate differences 

among test sites, years, populations, and families within populations, as well as their interactions, 

and to look at the relationship between population variation and climatic variation at source 

locations. Maps of genetic variation across the landscape have been produced, and preliminary 

seed zones have been delineated based on the results.

Preliminary Results

Differences among test sites and between years for traits of growth and phenology were 

generally large. Plants grown at the warmest and driest site, Central Ferry, were largest, whereas 

plants grown at the coolest, wettest site, Pullman, were smallest. Reproductive phenology was 

delayed at the coolest site, Pullman, as indicated by later dates of heading, anthesis, and seed 

maturation. Plants were larger in 2007 compared to 2008, indicating that plants were better 

established during the second year. Reproductive phenology was later in 2008. Despite large 

differences among test sites and between years, correlations of population means between test 

sites were generally large for the same traits measured at different sites. Correlations of 

population means between years were also generally large for many traits. Thus, population 

performance was generally consistent between sites and between years.

Considerable variation was found between populations evaluated at each test site. Many traits 

showed greater than 30% of the variation of individual plants could be attributed to differences 

among populations. Variation among families within populations was small. 

Principal component analysis was done to simplify the analysis by reducing the considerable 

number of traits measured at different sites in different years down to a few uncorrelated linear 

combinations that may be considered as independent traits. The first three principal components 

(PC) explained 53% of the variation in all traits. The first PC explained 30% of the variation and 

was related to larger size and more inflorescences. The second PC was related to later 

phenology. The third PC was related to narrower leaves. 

Correlations of populations means with climates at the seed sources were moderate to relatively 

strong with many correlations greater than 0.30. Larger plants were generally from areas with 
3

greater precipitation and warmer temperatures. Plants with later phenology were from cooler, 

less arid climates. Plants with narrow leaves were from hotter and drier climates. These 

relationships make sense from an adaptation perspective. Large population differences 

consistently correlated with environmental variables in ways that make sense suggests adaptively 

significant genetic variation that should be considered when moving populations in restoration 

projects. 

Regressions between traits, including PCs, and climatic and geographic variables were done and 

the resulting models were used in GIS to produce maps of genetic variation in adaptive traits. 

Seed zones were delineated by dividing the first PC into three homogeneous areas, and the 

second and third PCs into two areas, then overlapping them to indicate areas that were of similar 

values for the three independent multivariate traits that account for the most of the variation in all 

traits that were evaluated. The trait maps and seed zones largely reflect differences among Level 

III ecoregions, but with variation within ecoregions corresponding to temperature, precipitation 

and aridity.

Future Plans

The project is close to being completed. In the next few months, we will make some final 

decisions as to the best way to present and classify the suggested seed zones, and complete the 

manuscript for publication in a peer-reviewed journal. 

Publications: 

St.Clair, J.B.; Johnson, R.C.; Shaw, N. 2010. Genetic diversity and genecology of Bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Pseudoroegnaria spicata). Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

FY2009 Progress Report. p. 55-59. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations: 

St.Clair, J.B., R.C. Johnson, and N.L. Shaw. 2010. Seed transfer guidelines for Bluebunch 

wheatgrass. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2010 

January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Management Applications: 

This study will help ensure that adapted and appropriate sources of bluebunch wheatgrass will be 

used for revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin and adjacent areas. Results indicate that 

sources may be consolidated over fairly broad areas of similar climate, and thus may be shared 

between districts, forests, and different ownerships. Managers inclined to take less risk may 

want to restrict long-distance transfers between similar climates in widely-separated ecoregions. 

Products: 

This study will provide seed zones and seed transfer guidelines for developing adapted plant 

materials for revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin and adjacent areas, and provide 

guidelines for conservation of germplasm within the National Plant Germplasm System. Results 

will be reported in appropriate peer-reviewed journals and disseminated through symposia, field 

tours, training sessions, or workshops. 
4

Project Title: Adapted Indian Ricegrass for the Great Basin

Project Location: Plant Germplasm Introduction and Research, Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, Washington

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

(509)335-3771, Fax (509)335-6654

rcjohnson@wsu.edu

Mike Cashman, Biologist

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

(509)335-6219 Fax (509)335-6654

mjcashman@wsu.edu

Ken Vance-Borland, GIS Coordinator

Conservation Planning Institute

NW Wynoochee Drive, Corvallis, OR 97330

(541)231-7949

kenvb@consplan.net

Project Description: 

Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides [Roem. & Schult.] Barkworth) is a key species for

wildlife habitat, livestock grazing, and soil stabilization in the Great Basin and most of the 

Western U.S. Current releases of Indian ricegrass are useful but we know of no germplasm

derived specifically from and for the Great Basin extending east across the Southwest. 

Information on how Indian ricegrass germplasm varies across the landscape and which 

populations may be best adapted is lacking. Considering the importance of Indian ricegrass in 

the Great Basin, germplasm specifically adapted to Great Basin climatic and environmental 

factors is critically needed. 

Our objectives are:

1. Based on the current collections representing the southern and eastern Great Basin, establish 

common garden studies and measure numerous plant factors associated with growth and 

development. 

2. Analyze plant traits among Indian ricegrass populations, select traits for multivariate analysis 

to develop composite plants traits, and link plant traits to climatic variables at source 

locations.

3. Develop regression models and map seed transfer zones. 
5

Germplasm and Common Gardens

In spring 2007, a diverse set of Indian ricegrass accessions from the USDA germplasm collection 

was planted in two common gardens at Central Ferry, WA, one under dryland and the other with 

irrigation at panicle emergence and blooming, forming two growing environments. Each garden 

was randomized into 5 complete blocks with 600 plants each. This germplasm represented the 

southern and eastern Central Basin and Range across to the Southwestern Tablelands ecoregions 

(figs. 1 and 3). Evaluation of key growth and developmental traits was completed in 2007 and 

2008 on numerous growth and development traits on each plant (table 1). 

The analyses of variance showed that source locations within years differed significantly, 

indicating genetic variation in all plant traits (P<0.01) (table 1). In most cases the environment; 

that is, the irrigation treatment, did not strongly affect plant morphology or production, but in 

2007 it did affect panicle emergence and maturity, and to a lesser extent, blooming (table 1). 

The irrigated garden had earlier phenology in 2007 ranging from 13 days for panicle emergence, 

11 days for blooming, and 12 days for maturity (table 1). In general the irrigation environment x 

location source interactions were not significant. The exceptions were leaf roll and leaf 

abundance in 2007, and maturity in 2008 (P<0.01). In those cases the interaction was found to 

be more of magnitude than direction. As a result, the data for irrigated and non-irrigated gardens 

was averaged for multivariate analysis. 

There were substantive differences between years in phenology and production traits. Panicle 

emergence, seed numbers, dry weight and regrowth were much larger in 2008 than in 2007, the 

establishment year (table 1). For phenology attributes, plants in 2008 were more than a month 

more advanced than in 2007. 

Canonical Correlation and Composite Plant Traits 

The purpose of the multivariate analysis was to obtain a smaller set of composite plants traits that 

represented a large fraction of the overall variation to facilitate regression modeling and mapping 

of seed zones (Johnson et al. 2010). Plant traits for the phenology, production, and morphology 

categories were used with climatic variables (temperature and precipitation) at source locations 

to obtain sets of phenology, production, and morphology composite traits that correlated with the 

set of climatic variables (St Clair et al. 2005). For phenology, out of five possible canonical 

variables, only the first, phenology 1, was significant; for production, only variables 1 and 2 

were significant, and for morphology variables 1, 2, and 3 were significant (table 2). 

Phenology 1 explained almost half the variation, production 1 and 2 a total of 55% of the 

variation, and significant morphology traits a total of 54% of the variation (table 2). Correlation 

of composite plant traits with precipitation were always significant, and temperate correlations 

were significant for all but production 2 and morphology 2. 

As a way to represent all significant plant categories, canonical correlation was completed on the 

five significant composite plant traits in table 2, defined as extracted traits. For cancorr extracted 

1, 44% of the variation was explained, and 22% for cancorr extracted 2. 
6

Table 1. Summary of analyses of variance of plant traits for Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum 

hymenoides) grown in common gardens at Central Ferry WA, 2007 and 2008 (n=106).

2007 2008

Plant trait† Mean Env 

(E)‡

Source 

(S)

E x S Mean Env 

(E)

Source (S) E x S

Phenology -------------P-values------------ ---------------P-values------------

 Panicle emergence, doy 191.3 0.0087 <.0001 0.8217 148.1 0.7141 <.0001 0.2093

 Blooming, doy 179.7 0.0115 <.0001 0.0566 138.8 0.5014 <.0001 0.8715

 Maturity, doy 205.1 0.0008 <.0001 0.1285 166.4 0.0014 <.0001 <.0001

 Blooming to maturity 25.44 0.6285 0.0073 0.7612 27.60 0.0222 <.0001 0.1886

Production 

 Leaf abundance, 1(low) to 9(high) 4.810 0.0370 0.0001 0.0076 3.752 0.0242 <.0001 0.6676

 Panicle number per plant 13.19 0.019 <.0001 0.3323 105.8 0.2830 <.0001 0.7563

 Seeds per panicle 48.02 0.0963 <.0001 0.4535 43.59 0.2698 <.0001 0.7041

 Dry weight, g 22.17 0.0265 <.0001 0.1797 45.96 0.7055 <.0001 0.5229

 Crown diameter area, 

(length x width)/2

25.73 0.0071 <.0001 0.1540 34.33 0.9130 <.0001 0.6350

 Regrowth weight, g 3.578 0.5322 <.0001 0.4160 11.054 0.0371 <.0001 0.1501

Morphology

 Habit, 1(prostrate) to 9(upright) 5.541 0.1807 <.0001 0.4093 6.018 0.1771 <.0001 0.7828

 Leaf roll, 1(flat) to 9(cylindrical) 4.544 0.0975 <.0001 0.0105 6.854 0.6338 <.0001 0.8734

 Leaf texture, 1(coarse) to 9(fine) 5.237 0.0407 <.0001 0.3761 5.635 0.9885 <.0001 0.5725

 Leaf width, cm 0.184 0.0557 <.0001 0.5135 0.1551 0.8942 <.0001 0.3380

 Leaf length, cm 14.57 0.9388 <.0001 0.8779 13.11 0.4156 <.0001 0.2985

 Lf length x Lf width, cm

2

2.832 0.3468 <.0001 0.9163 2.128 0.7312 <.0001 0.5189

 Culm length, cm 25.12 0.3058 <.0001 0.1262 27.01 0.8575 <.0001 0.0963

Panicle length, cm 14.90 0.3145 <.0001 0.6343 12.86 0.1564 <.0001 0.2347

† See Table 1 for description of each trait

‡Environments were irrigated and dryland common gardens at Central Ferry, WA

Those extracted traits were also correlated with temperature and precipitation (fig. 1), but the 

significance and strength depended on the month. For example, for cancorr extract 1, average 

monthly temperature was always significantly correlated but tended to be less strongly correlated 

in the winter than other seasons. Cancorr extract 2 showed a similar pattern with temperature, 

but correlations were weaker, and not significant (P<0.01) for late fall and winter (fig. 1). 

Table 2. Significant (P<0.01) composite plant traits derived from canonical correlation analysis 

of phenology, production and morphological traits in common gardens.

Phenology1 Production1 Production2 Morphology1 Morphology2 Morphology3

Explained variance % 49 35 20 25 18 11

Canonical correlation 0.75 0.78 0.69 0.83 0.79 0.71

F-value 1.51 1.62 1.33 1.66 1.46 1.29

P-value 0.002 <0.001 0.010 <0.001 <0.001 0.004

Correlation, ave. temp. 0.48** -0.48** 0.21* 0.31** 0.25** 0.22*

Correlation, ave. precip. -0.33** 0.33** -0.21* -0.24* -0.26** -0.38**

*,**Correlation with source location climate significant at P<0.05 and 0.01, respectively (n=106).
7

Precipitation correlations were even more dependent on month with strong, negative correlations 

for extract 1 during the spring.

Scores for each source location of cancorr extract 1 and 2 were regressed on monthly and annual 

average precipitation to produce models for mapping seed zones. The resulting regression 

models were strong; the model for extract 1 explained 72% of the variation and the extract 2 

model explained 59%. When mapped over the landscape cancorr extract 1 showed a pattern very 

similar to temperature and precipitation patterns (fig 2). For example, areas mapped in blue were 

generally the hot and dry areas corresponding to the Mojave Basin and Range and parts of the 

Arizona and New Mexico Plateau and the Southwestern Tablelands. The cooler deserts to the 

north mapped more to the light green to orange hues (fig. 2). The pattern for cancorr extract 2 

was not as easy to interpret as cancorr extract 1 as the north-south distinction between the cold 

and warm deserts was not evident. There was a trend toward the western areas to map more to 

yellow and orange hues and the central areas to more green to blue hues. 

Figure 1. Correlation coefficients between extracted plant traits and monthly temperature 

and precipitation at seed source locations. The P=0.01 value at ±0.25 is represented by the 

black bar (n=106). 
8

Cancorr extract 1 and 2 contour interva ls were divided into high, mid, and low sections and the 

two maps overlain to produce nine seed zones (Fig. 3). The separation of seed zones was 

generally representative of regional temperature and precipitation gradients that distinguished the 

cooler from warmer deserts. Within the Central Basin and Range four zones represented almost 

the entire ecoregion (fig 3). The seed zone represented as tan on the map (zone 22, fig. 3) 

represented 40% of the mapped area.

We recommend that the seed zones in fig. 3 be used to guide seed sources and transfer for Indian 

ricegrass restoration in the Southwest. However, the maps should be considered as tools to guide 

restoration and management rather than rigid units. The aim was to strike a balance between 

generating so many seed zones that they would be unwieldy, but enough to promote sound 

restoration. Restoration practitioners may consider modifications to our zones based on 

management considerations and experience. Problems with seed dormancy and seed retention in 

Indian ricegrass, for example, may limit seed production on a commercial basis of wildland 

collections (Ogle, 2006). However, within these large seed zones the prospect for variation in 

seed dormancy or seed retention of populations should be explored. 

Figure 2. Maps showing the 

relationship between cancorr extract 

plant traits and temperature and 

precipitation variables over level III 

Omernik ecoregions. The circles show 

collection locations. Mapping was 

confined to the range of observed 

values for plant traits with unmapped 

areas shown in white. The contours 

were the ± 2 x P=0.05 confidence 

interval based on the regression model 

error.
9

Although selected germplasm or cultivars have been widely used (Jones and Young 2005), and 

may display wide adaptation, potential drawbacks include genetic swamping (Hufford and Mazer 

2003, Johnson et al. 2010), outbreeding depression (Kramer and Havens 2009), and 

hybridization that lead to the loss of co-adapted gene complexes (Montalvo and Ellstrand 2001).

With rangeland degradation and climate change, the scope for future selective adaption depends 

on the availability of genetic variation. To promote the conservation of biodiversity across the 

landscape, multiple populations should be combined and utilized within seed zones whenever 

possible. 

Publications:

Johnson, R.C.; Cashman, M. 2010. Adapted Indian ricegrass for the Great Basin. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 39-46. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Johnson, R.C.; Hellier, B. 2010. Genetic diversity patterns of Allium accuminatum in the Great 

Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 47-

54. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Figure 3. Proposed seed zones for Indian ricegrass over level III Omernik ecoregions based 

on overlays of cancorr extract 1 and 2 regression models. The circles show collection 

locations. The range of cancorr scores were divided by thirds into high, middle and low 

categories and overlain to give nine seed zones. Mapping was confined to the range of 

observed cancorr scores with unmapped areas shown in white. The contours were the ± 2 x 

P=0.05 confidence interval based on the regression model error. 
10

Johnson, R. C.; Hellier, Barbara; Vance-Borland, Ken. Mapping genetic variability with climate 

for ecological restoration: the case of Allium acuminatum in the U.S. Great Basin. Restoration 

Ecology (submitted).

Presentations:

Johnson, R. C. Creating seed zones for native plants: examples for mountain brome and tapertip

onion. Society for Ecological Restoration Pacific Northwest Chapter, 2010 February 18, Tulalip 

WA. (invited) 

Johnson, R. C. Developing seed zones for native forbs and grasses. Workshop on Seed 

Production of Native Grasses and Forbs, 2010 February 23, Ontario OR. (invited)

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html

Johnson, R. C. Workshop: genecology and seed zones for native grasses and forbs. Workshop:

genecology and seed zones for native grasses and forbs, National Native Seed Conference, 2010 

May 18, Snowbird, UT.

Johnson, R.C.; Hellier, B. Cashman, M. 2010. Seed zones for tapertip onion and indian ricegrass. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; 

Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines:

Maps visualizing the interaction of genetic variability and climate for Indian ricegrass allow 

informed decisions regarding the suitability of genetic resources for restoration in varying 

Great Basin and Southwestern environments. 

The recommended seed zone boundaries may be modified based on management resources 

and land manager experience without changing their basic form or links between genetic 

variation and climate.

We recommend utilization of multiple populations of Indian ricegrass within each seed zone 

to promote biodiveristy needed for sustainable restoration and genetic conservation.

Products: 

Seed zones for restoration of Indian ricegrass in the Great Basin have been developed based 

on links between genetic variation and climate. 

Cooperation between the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), the Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA, and the BLM involving native seed collection and 

conservation through the ―Seeds of Success‖ program: Through 2010, a total 1,648 SOS 

accessions were distributed for research and utilization (table 3). The native plant collection 

in the NPGS also provides a security back-up for native populations that may be lost as a 

result of climate change and disturbances such as fire and invasive weeds.
11

Literature Cited:

Hufford, K.M., and S.J. Mazer. 2003. Plant ecotypes: genetic differentiation in the age of 

ecological restoration. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18:147-155.

Johnson R.C., V.J. Erickson, N.L. Mandel, J. Bradley St Clair, and K.W. Vance-Borland. 2010. 

Mapping genetic variation and seed zones for Bromus carinatus in the Blue Mountains of 

Eastern Oregon, U.S.A. Botany 88:725-736.

Jones, T.A., and S.A. Young. 2005. Native seed commerce: more frequently asked questions. 

Native Plants Journal 6:286-293. 

Kramer, A. T., and K. Havens. 2009. Plant conservation genetics in a changing world. Trends in 

Plant Science 14: 599-607.

Montalvo, A.E., and N.C. Ellstrand. 2000. Transplantation of the subshrub Lotus scoparius: 

Testing the home-site advantage hypothesis. Conservation Biology 14:1034-1045. 

Montalvo, A. M., and N.C. Ellstrand. 2001. Nonlocal transplantation and outbreeding 

depression in the subshrub Lotus scoparius (Fabaceae). American Journal of Botany 88:258–

269.

Ogle, D. 2006. Plant Guide to Indian ricegrass (plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_achy.pdf)

St. Clair, J.B.; Mandel, N.L.; Vance-Borland, K.W. 2005. Genecology of Douglas-fir in western 

Oregon and Washington. Annals of Botany. 96: 1199-1214.

Table 3. Seeds of Success (SOS) native germplasm sample distributions from National Plant 

Germplasm System (NPGS) repositories between 2005-2010.

Year and Repository*

2005 

W6

2006

W6

2007

W6

2008

W6

2009

W6

2009 

COR

2009

NC7

2010 

W6

2010

NC7 Total†

Taxon Distributed 1 21 135 315 321 12 5 339 20 736

Accessions Distributed 1 23 161 438 448 14 5 530 28 1648

Non-U.S. Orders 0 0 7 25 21 1 0 20 7 270

Countries Receiving 1 1 6 18 12 1 1 14 6 26

Cooperator Orders 1 3 51 104 91 1 3 81 21 303

State Affiliated Orders 1 0 17 38 34 0 1 5 34 106

USDA-ARS Orders 0 1 2 5 5 0 0 1 7 16

Other Federal Orders 0 2 3 3 3 0 1 4 3 15

U.S. Non-profit 0 0 1 3 3 0 1 1 2 8

U.S. Individuals 0 0 13 12 10 0 0 7 1 43

Foreign Commercial Orders 0 0 0 6 3 0 0 3 2 12

Foreign Gene Bank Orders 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 1 6

Foreign Non-Commercial 

Orders

0 0 7 16 15 0 0 16 4 55

Foreign Individual Orders 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 3

Total Orders† 1 3 54 129 114 1 3 95 21 421

*NPGS repositories, W6 (Western Regional Station, Pullman, WA), COR (Clonal Germplasm Repository, 

Corvallis, OR), NC7 (North Central Regional Station, Ames, IA)

†Some rows do not tally as a single cooperator may have placed multiple orders
12

Project Title: Genetic Diversity Patterns of Allium acuminatum

in the Great Basin

Project Location: Plant Germplasm Introduction and Research, USDA-ARS Western 

Regional Plant Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, 

Washington

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

(509)335-3771, Fax (509)335-6654

rcjohnson@wsu.edu

Barbara Hellier, Horticulture Crops Curator

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164

(509)335-3763, Fax (509)335-6654

bhellier@ wsu.edu

Ken Vance-Borland, GIS Coordinator

Conservation Planning Institute

NW Wynoochee Drive, Corvallis, OR 97330

(541)231-7949

kenvb@consplan.net

Project Description: 

Genetic information to identify locally adapted seed sources for restoration and reclamation is 

generally lacking. An understanding of the geographic and ecological distance that plant 

material should be transferred from original source populations is critically needed. Allium 

acuminatum Hook. (Tapertip onion) is an important Great Basin forb associated with healthy

rangeland and good sage-grouse habitat yet seed transfer zones to enhance restoration in-situ

have not been determined. In addition, ex-situ gene bank conservation is being carried out at the 

Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA, to provide readily available, sourceidentified genetic resources for utilization and security back-up for in-situ source locations. 

Objectives

1. Collect and maintain native Allium acuminatum (Tapertip onion) for use in restoration and 

reclamation in the Great Basin.

2. Establish common gardens to determine variability in plant traits from the Great Basin

3. Link genetic variation in plant traits of Tapertip onion with environmental variables and 

develop regression models for seed zones. 

4. Map seed zones for use in revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin. 
13

Project Status 

Collections. In 2005, Tapertip onion bulbs were collected from 55 populations throughout 

eastern Oregon, southern Idaho and northeastern Nevada (figs. 1 and 2) as described by Adair et 

al. (2006). Each team followed the same collection protocol. Forty to 50 bulbs per population 

were collected from across the given source location. Only populations with 250 or more 

individuals were collected so in situ population integrity was not compromised. Collections 

were made from June 17 to July 2, 2005 and covered approximately 620 km (385 mi.) east-west 

and 445 km (277 mi.) north-south, between N 39 to 44 latitude and W 114o to 119o longitude. 

Tapertip onion was collected in 20 of the Level IV Omernik Ecoregions across the Great Basin.

Common Gardens. Bulbs were planted in the greenhouse and vernalized at 4oC. Plants were 

transplanted to the field in the spring of 2006. Common gardens were established at Pullman, 

WA (780 m elevation; 46° 43‘ 28.05‖ N and 117 08‘ 07.94‖W) and Central Ferry, WA (206 m 

elevation; 46° 41‘ 52.78‖ N and 117° 39‘ 52.55‖ W). Four plants from each of the 55 collection 

sites were randomized in five complete blocks at both locations. Thus there were 1,100 plants 

established at each site. The plant traits measured were categorized into morphology, phenology, 

and production traits, and a ll had significant source location effects (table 1). Most plant traits 

responded consistently over garden sites as shown by the absence of a significant site x location 

interaction in most cases (P<0.01). As a result, trait means were averaged over the common 

garden sites in most cases. 

Table 1. Summary of source location (Loc) effects from analyses of variance of plant traits 

from 53 Tapertip onion collections measured in common garden sites in 2007 at Central Ferry 

(CF) and Pullman (PU) WA, USA.

Trait Mean Mean square F-value (P-value)† 

Loc Loc x site Loc Loc x site

Morphology

 Leaf length (mm) 127 1365 386 3.54(<0.001) 1.19(0.188)

 Leaf width (mm) 2.65 0.696 0.163 4.27(<0.001) 0.75(0.901)

 Leaf length to leaf width 49.6 132 59.5 2.23(0.002) 0.95(0.582)

 Scape length (mm) 150 2783 555 5.01(<0.001) 0.98(0.525)

 Scape diameter (mm) 2.58 0.533 0.184 2.90(<0.001) 0.83(0.788)

 Scape length to diameter 60.7 492 154 3.20(<0.001) 0.91(0.652)

 Umbel diameter (mm) 52.2 108 35.9 3.01(<0.001) 1.08(0.339)

 Flower color 7.07 16.3 1.03 15.92(<0.001) 2.45(<0.001)

Phenology

 Bolting date 108 98.4 10.3 9.59(<0.001) 1.25(0.123)

 Flowering date 147 24.7 5.08 4.86(<0.001) 1.11(0.293)

 Days to seed maturity 175 42.5 12.3 3.45(<0.001) 1.34(0.067)

 Days bolting to flowering 39 40.4 11.1 3.65(<0.001) 1.68(0.004)

 Days flowering to seed 

maturity

28 33.5 19.5 1.72(0.027) 1.48(0.022)

 Days bolting to maturity 57 1909 1333 1.43 (0.099) 1.32 (0.073)

Production

 Emergence 0.60 0.281 0.104 2.69(<0.001) 1.46(0.024)

 Leaf number 2.56 0.693 0.321 2.16(0.003) 1.14(0.252)

 Flowers per umbel 28.3 82.4 20.0 4.13(<0.001) 0.60(0.986)

 Seeds per plant 65.6 1906 589 3.24(<0.001) 0.99(0.494)

†For testing source location the location x site term was used as the error term; for testing site x location the 

residual error term was used.
14

Correlations between phenological and production traits and precipitation and temperature 

variables were frequent (table 2). For phenology, days to bolting and days from bolting to 

flowering were most frequently correlated with precipitation and temperature. For production 

traits, emergence and seeds per plant were correlated with annual precipitation and all 

temperature variables (table 2). For PC 1 phenology and PC 1 production, there were generally 

strong correlations with climatic variables and elevation. 

Table 2. Summary of environmental variables at source locations and their 

correlations with plant traits measured in common gardens for Tapertip onion 

collected in the Great Basin (n=53). 

Variable or Plant Trait Elev.

Annual

precip.

 Annual

 max. T

Annual 

min. T

Annual

ave. T

Frost free 

days

(m) (mm) --------------------------°C-----------------------

Mean 1697 385 14.6 -0.5 7.1 95

Minimum 814 252 11.2 -6.3 2.5 41

Maximum 2244 792 17.1 2.7 9.4 131

Morphology

Leaf width 0.27* 0.11 -0.07 0.16 0.06 0.06

Leaf length -0.03 -0.02 0.06 0.17 0.13 0.07

Leaf length to width -0.37** -0.14 0.14 -0.03 0.05 0.01

Scape length -0.05 -0.22 0.10 -0.06 0.01 -0.04

Scape diameter 0.33* 0.17 -0.21 0.05 -0.07 -0.17

Scape length to dia. -0.35** -0.28* 0.23 -0.08 0.07 0.13

Umbel dia. 0.25 -0.01 -0.08 0.04 -0.02 -0.03

Flower color CF 0.32* -0.01 -0.08 -0.04 -0.07 -0.14

PC 1 morphology 0.27* 0.05 -0.09 0.09 0.01 -0.04

PC 2 morphology 0.37** -0.21 0.20 -0.02 0.09 0.10

Phenology

Bolting date 0.33* 0.31* -0.44** -0.43** -0.48** -0.48**

Flowering date -0.02 0.03 -0.12 -0.28* -0.23 -0.28*

Days bolt to flower PU -0.46** -0.37** 0.43** 0.20 0.33* 0.32*

Days bolt to flower CF -0.42** -0.41** 0.49** 0.39** 0.48** 0.48**

Days to seed maturity 0.05 -0.12 0.00 -0.16 -0.10 -0.20

PC 1 phenology 0.33* 0.28* -0.40** -0.40** -0.44** -0.47**

PC 2 phenology -0.34* -0.36** 0.33* 0.04 0.19 0.11

Production

Emergence 0.31* 0.33* -0.46** -0.36** -0.45** -0.40**

Leaf number 0.12 0.56** -0.36** -0.30* -0.36** -0.19

Flowers per umbel 0.34* 0.09 -0.25 -0.17 -0.22 -0.37**

Seeds per plant 0.12 0.42** -0.30* -0.27* -0.31* -0.38**

PC 1 production 0.27* 0.43** -0.42** -0.34* -0.41** -0.42**

PC 2 production -0.12 0.38** -0.15 -0.15 -0.17 0.12

*,**Pearson correlation coefficients significant at P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively
15

The source locations represented a wide range of environments (table 2). For example, there was 

a 1430 m range in elevation, a 540 mm range in annual average precipitation, and a 90 day range 

in the average frost free period. For certain morphological traits there were correlations between 

latitude and elevation but no significant correlation between temperature variables, and only one 

significant correlation between annual precipitation and morphological traits (table 2). 

Correlation of environmental variables and PC 1 and PC 2 morphology followed the same 

general pattern as seen with individual morphological plant traits; significant correlation was 

only observed for latitude and elevation but there was no correlation with temperature and 

precipitation (table 2). 

Since there were strong links observed among climatic variables, phenology, and production, but 

weak or absent links between morphology and climate, the regression modeling and mapping of 

traits with environmental variables was confined to phenology and production traits. Given that

correlations of climatic variables with PC 2 phenology and PC 2 production were less frequent 

than for PC 1 phenology and production (table 2), and explained much less of the total variation, 

regression models for composite phenology and production traits were completed only on PC 1 

phenology and PC 1 production. 

Regression Models and Mapping Plant Traits to Landscape Environments. Regression of 

environmental variables with bolting, a key phenology trait, and seeds per plant, a key 

production trait, produced models that explained 60% and 46% of the variation, respectively. 

These models produced landscape maps showing the relationship between genetic diversity 

observed in common gardens and environmental variation from source collection locations 

(fig.1). 

The range for bolting in common gardens was about 14 days (fig. 1) with later bolting observed 

on plants originating from locations with generally lower temperatures, usually associated with 

higher elevation (blue to green hues). Bolting was more advanced in areas with generally 

warmer climates, and these were usually in areas of lower precipitation shown in yellow to 

orange hues (fig. 1). 

Seed production ranged from 32 to 110 seeds per plant and was generally higher for collections 

from lower temperature, higher precipitation areas (green to blue hues) (fig. 1). The correlation 

between bolting and seeds per plant was significant and positive (r=0.31, P=0.025, n=53) 

showing that later bolting and more seed production were associated. Even so, much of the 

variation remained unexplained. There were some areas where seeds per plants trended lower 

(yellow to orange hues) even as bolting was later than average (lighter to darker green hues). For 

example, in the eastern Snake River Plain, the central area of the Northern Basin and Range 

(centered near 42° north and -116.5° west), and in the Central Basin and Range (centered near 

39.5° north and -116° west), relatively low temperatures and low precipitation were combined, 

suggesting that seed production capacity was limited by low precipitation in those collection 

locations even with the trend toward later bolting. The implication was that high seed production 

potential in those areas, with the associated resource investment, did not appear to provide a 

selective advantage.
16

Figure 1. Allium acuminatum maps of bolting, seeds per plant, principal component (PC) 1 

for phenology, and PC 1 for production in relation to environmental variables over level III 

Omernik ecoregions. The circles show collection locations. Mapping was confined to the 

range of observed values for plant traits with unmapped areas shown in white. The contours 

were the ± P=0.05 confidence interval based on the regression model error. 
17

For PC1 phenology, the regression model with environment explained 59% of the variation. 

Regression models for PC 1 phenology mapped to largely green hues in the center of the Central 

Basin and Range extending to the south-central Northern Basin and Range (fig. 1). The eastern 

Northern Basin and Range also mapped to green hues that represented relatively cooler, wetter 

climates than in the eastern, southern and western Basin and Range (fig. 1). The PC 1 phenology 

map was similar in form to the bolting map (fig. 1), although compared to bolting more area was

mapped as more area was within the PC scores data range (fig. 1). 

For PC 1 production, then regression model with environment explained 62% of the variation. 

As might be expected, the PC 1 production map (fig. 1) had many similarities to the seeds per 

plant map (fig. 1). It did allow for additional mapped area, especially in areas in eastern Utah. 

High production occurred in the higher precipitation, lower temperature areas (blue to green 

hues). Except for the northern and eastern portions, the Snake River Plain was dominated by 

yellow to orange hues associated with limited precipitation and relatively warm temperatures 

(fig. 1). Lower production for much of the Northern Basin and Range and the Central Basin and 

Range also corresponded to areas with historically higher temperature and lower precipitation 

(fig. 1).

The overlay of PC 1 for phenology and PC 1 for production based on high, middle and low PC 

categories, resulted in nine proposed seed zones (fig. 2). The light to darker blue areas 

represented a relatively small fraction of the mapped area and corresponded to generally lower 

temperature areas. The great majority of the mapped area was represented by green and brown 

hues representing six seed zones (fig. 2). In general the green hues represented areas with lower 

temperature and precipitation than brown hues. For example, most of the brown hues in the 

northwest part of the Central Basin and Range had average maximum summer temperatures 

between 24 and 30°C and precipitation less than 250 mm per year. Most green hues represented 

areas with summer maximum temperatures averaging between 18 and 24°C and average annual 

precipitation between 250 and 600 mm. Although ecoregions have been suggested for use as

provisional seed zones when genecology studies are not available (Erickson et al. 2004; Johnson 

et al. 2004), our results showed that Omernik level III ecoregions did not correspond with seed 

zones for tapertip onion based on genetic variability and source location climate. Nevertheless, a 

conservative approach to seed transfer would be to confine seed movement to adjacent level III 

ecoregions within a given seed zone.

 

 
18

Discussion

In the presence of genetic variation, differences in climate often drive natural selection (Endler 

1986). With the common garden approach to genecology we assume that "locally" derived 

genetic resources are best adapted, which is generally the case (Montalvo and Ellstrad 2000, 

Hufford and Mazer 2003, Rice and Knapp 2008, Leimu and Fisher 2008). With the strong links 

between temperature and precipitation and phenology and production, differences in those plant 

traits appeared to have adaptive value. The genetic variation in morphological traits, however, 

was not linked to climate, even though there were numerous correlations between elevation and 

morphological traits. This could result from non-climatic factors, perhaps edaphic. Yet most 

collections were made on similar, typically rocky or gravelly substrates, so the importance of 

Figure 2. Proposed seed zones for Allium acuminatum over level III Omernik 

ecoregions based on overlays of PC1 phenology and PC1 production regression 

models. The circles show collection locations. The range of PC scores were 

divided by thirds into high, middle and low categories and overlain to give nine 

seed zones. Mapping was confined to the range of observed PCs scores with 

unmapped areas shown in white. The contours were the ± P=0.05 confidence

interval based on the regression model error. 
19

edaphic factors to differences in morphological traits was uncertain. Given the expectation that 

temperature and precipitation would be important forces in natural selection, much of the 

variation in morphological traits appeared more the result of genetic drift than adaptation. 

Plants from cooler source locations with shorter frost free periods were genetically predisposed 

to bolt later than those from warmer locations. Delayed bolting at cooler, higher elevation 

locations would likely improve the chances for avoidance of late spring frosts. Yet development 

from bolting to flowering tended to be more rapid at cooler source locations. Thus, the delayed 

bolting was coupled with more rapid post bolting development, accommodating the overall 

shorter frost free period expected at cooler, higher elevation locations. In addition, plants from 

cooler, higher precipitation locations produced more seeds per plant in common gardens than 

those from warmer, dryer locations. Thus, plants from higher precipitation, lower temperature 

areas had, overall, the highest potential for sexual reproduction. Thus, much of the genetic 

variation had a logical basis for adaptation to source locations climates.

The ±P=0.05 confidence interval, a frequently used statistical benchmark, was employed as the 

contour for delineating maps of plant traits with source location environments. The results were 

maps showing major areas of apparent plant adaptation. Since areas that fell outside the range of 

data were not mapped there was some fragmentation in certain areas. This was most prominent 

in the Snake River Plain and the western and southern fringe of the Central Basin and Range. Yet 

most of the Great Basin was mapped providing guidance for selecting seed sources for 

restoration. 

The maps should be considered as tools to guide restoration and management rather than rigid 

units. The aim was to strike a balance between generating so many seed zones that they would be 

unwieldy but enough to promote sound restoration. Restoration practitioners may consider 

modifications to our zones based on management considerations and experience. In such cases 

the regression models developed herein could still be applied with either larger (smaller P 

values) or narrower (larger P values) contours; the basic form of the relationship between genetic 

variability and climate would remain intact. 

Selected germplasm or cultivars have been widely used on western rangelands including the 

Great Basin (Jones and Young 2005). Although wide adaptation may be possible, potential 

drawbacks include genetic swamping (Hufford and Mazer 2003, Johnson et al. 2010), 

outbreeding depression (Kramer and Havens 2009), and hybridization that could lead to the loss 

of co-adapted gene complexes (Montalvo and Ellstrand 2001). We recommend wild populations 

be collected and used for restoration within seed zones to obviate those concerns. With 

rangeland degradation and climate change, the scope for future selective adaption depends on the 

availability of genetic variation. To promote the conservation of biodiversity across the 

landscape, multiple populations should be collected and combined within seed zones. We expect 

other species to show patterns of genetic variation linked to climatic variables, and similar 

genecology studies on other key species are needed to help conserve and utilize genetic variation 

now and into the future.
20

Publications:

Hellier, B.; Johnson, R.C. 2010. Allium acuminatum seed production: First look at cultural 

parameters. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. 

p.88-90. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Johnson, R.C.; Cashman, M. 2010. Adapted Indian ricegrass for the Great Basin. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 39-46. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Johnson, R.C.; Hellier, B. 2010. Genetic diversity patterns of Allium acuminatum in the Great 

Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. 

p. 47-54. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Johnson, R. C. 2010. Creating seed ones for native plants: examples for mountain brome and 

tapertip onion. Society for Ecological Restoration Pacific Northwest Chapter Workshop, 2010 

February 18, Tulalip,WA. (Invited)

Johnson, R. C. Developing seed zones for native forbs and grasses. Workshop on Seed 

Production of Native Grasses and Forbs, 2010 February 23, Ontario, OR. (Invited)

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html

Johnson, R. C. 2010. Genecology and seed zones for native grasses and forbs, National Native 

Seed Conference, 2010 May 18, Snowbird, UT. (Invited) 

Johnson, R.C.; Hellier, B.; Cashman, M. 2010. Seed zones for Tapertip onion and Indian 

ricegrass. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 

January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Hellier, B.; Johnson, R.C. 2010. Seed and bulb production from mechanically planted Allium 

acuminatum bulbs. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 

2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines:

Maps visualizing the interaction of genetic variability and climate for Tapertip onion allow 

informed decisions regarding the suitability of genetic resources for restoration in varying 

Great Basin environments. 

The recommended seed zone boundaries may be modified based on management resources 

and land manager experience without changing their basic form and links between genetic 

variation and climate.
21

We recommend collection of multiple populations of Tapertip onion within each seed zone to 

promote biodiversity needed for sustainable restoration and genetic conservation.

Products: 

Seed zones for restoration of Tapertip onion in the Great Basin have been developed based 

on links between genetic variation and climate. The results suggest other herbaceous species 

to be amenable to similar seed zone mapping.

Cooperation between the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), the Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA, and the BLM involving native seed collection and 

conservation through the ―Seeds of Success‖ program: Through 2010, a total 1,648 SOS 

accessions were distributed for research and utilization (Table 3). The native plant collection 

in the NPGS also provides a security back-up for native populations that may be lost as a 

result of climate change and disturbances such as fire and invasive weeds.

Literature Cited:

Adair, R.; Johnson, R. C.; Hellier, B.; Kasier, W. 2006. Collecting taper tip onion (Allium

acuminatum Hook.) in the Great Basin using traditional and GIS methods. Native Plants 

Journal. 7: 141-148, 2006. 

Endler, J.A. 1986. Natural selection in the wild. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 336 p.

Erickson, V. J.; Mandel, N. L.; Sorenson, F. C. 2004. Landscape patterns of phenotypic 

variation and population structuring in a selfing grass, Elymus glaucus (blue wildrye). Canadian 

Journal of Botany. 82: 1776-1789. 

Table 3. Seeds of success (SOS) native germplasm sample distributions from National Plant 

Germplasm System (NPGS) repositories between 2005-2010.

Year and Repository*

2005 

W6

2006 

W6

2007 

W6

2008 

W6

2009 

W6

2009 

COR

2009 

NC7

2010 

W6

2010 

NC7 Total†

Taxon Distributed 1 21 135 315 321 12 5 339 20 736

Accessions Distributed 1 23 161 438 448 14 5 530 28 1648

Non-U.S. Orders 0 0 7 25 21 1 0 20 7 270

Countries Receiving 1 1 6 18 12 1 1 14 6 26

Cooperator Orders 1 3 51 104 91 1 3 81 21 303

State Affiliated Orders 1 0 17 38 34 0 1 5 34 106

USDA-ARS Orders 0 1 2 5 5 0 0 1 7 16

Other Federal Orders 0 2 3 3 3 0 1 4 3 15

U.S. Non-profit 0 0 1 3 3 0 1 1 2 8

U.S. Individuals 0 0 13 12 10 0 0 7 1 43

Foreign Commercial Orders 0 0 0 6 3 0 0 3 2 12

Foreign Gene Bank Orders 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 1 6

Foreign Non-Commercial Orders 0 0 7 16 15 0 0 16 4 55

Foreign Individual Orders 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 3

Total Orders† 1 3 54 129 114 1 3 95 21 421

*NPGS repositories, W6 (Western Regional Station, Pullman, WA), COR (Clonal Germplasm Repository, 

Corvallis, OR), NC7 (North Central Regional Station, Ames, IA)

†Some rows do not tally as a single cooperator may have placed multiple orders
22

Hufford, K. M.; Mazer, S. J. 2003. Plant ecotypes: genetic differentiation in the age of 

ecological restoration. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 18: 147-155.

Johnson G. R.; Sorensen, F. C.; St Clair, J. B.; Cronn, R. C. 2004. Pacific Northwest forest tree 

seed zones: a template for native plants? Native Plants Journal. 5: 131-140.

Johnson R. C., Erickson, V. J.; Mandel, N. L.; St Clair, J. B.; Vance-Borland, K. W. 2010.

Mapping genetic variation and seed zones for Bromus carinatus in the Blue Mountains of 

Eastern Oregon, U.S.A. Botany. 88: 725-736.

Jones, T.A.; Young, S. A. 2005. Native seed commerce: more frequently asked questions. 

Native Plants Journal. 6: 286-293. 

Kramer, A. T.; Havens, K. 2009. Plant conservation genetics in a changing world. Trends in 

Plant Science. 14: 599-607.

Leimu, R.; Fischer, M. 2008. A meta-analysis of local adaptation in plants. PLoS ONE 

3 (12): e4010. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004010

Montalvo, A. E.; Ellstrand, N. C. 2000. Transplantation of the subshrub Lotus scoparius: testing 

the home-site advantage hypothesis. Conservation Biology. 14: 1034-1045. 

Montalvo, A. M.; Ellstrand, N. C. 2001. Nonlocal transplantation and outbreeding depression in 

the subshrub Lotus scoparius (Fabaceae). American Journal of Botany. 88: 258–269.

Rice, K.J.; Knapp, E. E. 2008. Effects of competition and life history stage on the expression of 

local adaptation in two native bunchgrasses. Restoration Ecology 16: 12-23. 
23

Project Title: Ecological Genetics of Big Sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata): Genetic structure and climate-based seed 

zone mapping

Project Location: RMRS, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Bryce Richardson, Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service, RMRS, Shrub Sciences Laboratory

735 N 500 E, Provo, UT 84606

(801)356-5112

brichardson02@fs.fed.us

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702 

(208)373-4360

nshaw@fs.fed.us

Joshua Udall, Assistant Professor

Brigham Young University, Plant & Wildlife Sciences

295 WIDB

Provo, UT 84602

(801)422-9307 

Project Description:

Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is one of the most ecologically important and landscape 

dominant plant species in western North America. This species is a major focus for ecosystem 

restoration after disturbances because of its importance in wildlife forage, invasive weed 

exclusion (e.g., cheatgrass), snow catchment and nutrient cycling. Big sagebrush is divided into 

three major subspecies; tridentata, vaseyana and wyomingenesis, that typically occupy distinct 

ecological niches. However, subspecies are known to form hybrid zones in some areas (Freeman 

et al. 1991, McArthur et al. 1998). Maladaptation is a serious problem in restoration and 

becomes more complex with climate change. Planting big sagebrush seed sources outside its 

adaptive breadth will lead to continued ecosystem degradation and encroachment of invasive 

species. Successful restoration of big sage brush requires understanding the climatic factors 

involved in defining subspecies and populations. 

Objectives

1. Establish common gardens from collected seed sources across the range of big sagebrush.

2. Develop molecular markers from transcriptome data of subspecies vaseyana and tridentata.

3. Elucidate genetic structure using molecular markers and adaptive traits.

4. Determine climatic factors important to adaptation within and among big sagebrush 

ecological races.

5. Develop climate-based seed zone maps across the range of big sagebrush.
24

Common garden study

Collection of seed and plant tissue began in autumn of 2009. A total of 93 seed sources were 

collected, largely by collaborators, in 11 western states (fig. 1). In January 2010, seeds were 

planted in greenhouse containers. Up to 10 families from each of 56 seed sources were 

outplanted at each of the common gardens (table 1). Outplanting of seedlings occurred in May 

and June of 2010. First-year measurements were conducted in October and November of 2010. 

Measurements included height, diameter at the ground and overhead photos to calculate crown 

area. Plants were supplemented with water until August and mortality was minimal for the first 

year at < 2%. No supplemental water will be added in the future. Overall, the subspecies 

preliminary growth patterns have met expectations. Subspecies tridentata yielded the greatest 

heights and diameters and the Ephraim plot produced the highest yields among all subspecies

(fig. 2). The preliminary data also indicated different allocations of wood development to height. 

Subspecies tridentata had lower ratios (i.e., greater height to wood development) compared to 

ssp. vaseyana (data not shown).

Table 1. Location information of three sagebrush common garden sites

Site Name Latitude Longitude Elevation (m)

Orchard, Idaho 43.328 -116.003 976

Ephraim, Utah 39.369 -111.580 1,686

Majors Flat, Utah 39.337 -111.521 2,088

Figure 1. The location of 56 seed collection sites for Artemisia tridentata. 

The symbols identify subspecies wyomingenesis, tridentata and vaseyana.

wyomingensis

tridentata

vaseyana

U.S. States (G ener alized)

Legend
25

Figure 2. Average heights (cm) of 56 seed sources during first (2010) season growth. Colored 

lines within the graph represent heights in the three common gardens: Ephraim, 

Majors and Orchard. Putative subspecies designations based upon ploidy and coumarin 

fluorescence of ssp. tridentata, vaseyana and wyomingensis are provided below.

Molecular genetics

In September of 2009, leaf tissue was collected from two big sagebrush specimens (subspecies 

tridentata and vaseyana) growing in Provo, Utah. Total RNA was extracted and the 

transcriptomes were sequenced for both subspecies using a Roche 454 FLX Genome Sequencer. 

The DNA sequence data has been compiled and annotated with over 21,000 sequences identified 

with putative function. This data includes over 20,000 SNPs (single-nucleotide polymorphisms) 

and 119 polymorphic microsatellite markers that will be a resource for downstream projects such 

as the development of molecular markers for population genetic and phylogenetics studies. In 

September of 2010 further RNA sequencing was completed on two ssp. wyomingensis, from 

Utah (UTW-1) and Montana (MTW-1). After aligning DNA sequence reads from the 

wyomingensis samples with the previous reference sequence developed from the ssp. tridentata

and vaseyana samples, it was found that some interesting SNP patterns emerged. Out of 

approximately 1,000 SNPs between ssp. tridentata and vaseyana, ssp. wyomingensis was 

heterozygous for over one-third. For the remaining SNPs the most, approximately 60%, match 

ssp. vaseyana compared to ssp. tridentata at approximately 40% (Bajgain et al. in review). 

Ephr aim

Majors

Orchard
26

Future plans

Common gardens. Continued measurements of common garden plants will occur on a monthly 

basis during the growing season of 2011. Weather data will be collected at each common garden 

site. Such data can be used in the development of genecological models for delineation of seed 

zones. Progress is being made to take physiological measurements (e.g., carbon isotopes) at these 

gardens during the 2011 season. 

Molecular genetics. Molecular marker development from transcriptome sequencing will lead to 

a range-wide population genetic and phylogenetic assessment of big sagebrush. An approach has 

been developed where selected RNA probes, designed from previously assembled sequences, 

will capture fragmented genomic DNA. Several hundred of these fragments will be sequenced 

and the data can be used to compare phylogenetic relationships and gene frequencies for 

population genetic analyses. 

Literature cited:

Freeman, D. C., et al. 1991. Characterization of a narrow hybrid zone between two subspecies of 

big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata: Asteraceae). Amererican Journal of Botany. 78: 805-815. 

McArthur, E. Durant, et al. 1998. Narrow hybrid zone between two subspecies of big sagebrush 

(Artemisia tridentata: Asteraceae). Canadian Journal of Botany. 76: 567-574.

Publications:

Bajgain, P., Richardson, B. A., Price, J. C., Cronn, R.C., Udall, J.A. [In review]. Transcriptome 

characterization and polymorphism detection between Artemisia tridentata subspecies.

Richardson, B. A.; Shaw, N. L. 2010. Ecological genetics of big sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata): Genetic structure and climate based seed zone mapping. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 68-70.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Richardson, B. A.; Klopfenstein, N. B; Kim, M. S.; Shaw, N. L; Warwell, M. V. 2010. 

Combined molecular and quantitative genetic approaches to assess climatic adaptation at 

multiple biological and spatial scales. All Scientists Meeting. USDA Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. 

Richardson, B. A., Shaw, N. L., Udall, J. A. Bajgain, P. 2010. Studies to assess ecological 

genetics and evolutionary relationships in Artemisia tridentata. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Shaw, N. L.; Jensen, S; Richardson, B. 2010. A collaborative science-based program to provide 

native plant materials and restoration technology for the Great Basin. All Sc ientists Meeting. 

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO.
27

Products:

Development of molecular markers and annotated genes in big sagebrush for use in future 

studies. Data deposited into Genbank (completed).

Elucidate evolutionary relationships between and within big sagebrush subspecies (ongoing).

Evaluate quantitative traits for adaptive responses to climate, develop seed zones for big 

sagebrush subspecies (ongoing).

Leveraged funding:

National Fire Plan

Western Transcriptome Survey
28

Project Title: Morphological and Genetic Variation among Common 

Utah Globemallows

Project: Utah State University, Logan, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Heidi A. Kratsch, Area Horticulture Specialist

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension

4955 Energy Way, Reno, NV 89502

(775)784-4848, Fax (775)784-4881

kratschh@unce.unr.edu

Chalita Sriladda, Graduate Assistant

Dept. of Plants, Soils and Climate

Utah State University

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, UT 84322-4820

Project Description:

We study variation and diversity among Intermountain West native plant species to 1) assure 

their stability and performance in home and commercial landscapes and 2) assess their useful 

range for growers to establish a market for their stock. Sphaeralcea (globemallow) species are a 

diverse group of forbs in the family Malvaceae. Their drought tolerance and bright orange 

flowers make them attractive for xeriscape gardening. They are early seral species and palatable 

to livestock, making them useful in rangeland restoration. They are also obligate outcrossers, and 

inter-specific hybridization among Sphaeralcea is common. The fact that they readily hybridize 

makes field identification difficult and brings into question the identity of species distributed or 

sold for rangeland restoration and home garden use. Four species are common to Utah: S. 

coccinea, S. grossulariifolia, S. munroana and S. parvifolia. Gooseberryleaf globemallow (S. 

grossulariifolia) is promoted as an attractive, drought-tolerant native species for northern 

intermountain western markets. 

Objective

To clarify taxonomic relationships among the four species by investigating morphological and 

genetic variation.

Taxonomy

The main taxonomic characters used to distinguish among Sphaeralcea include leaf shape, 

pubescence and degree of dissection; length and plane of starlike leaf hairs, number of flowers 

per node; and shape of the fruit (schizocarp). For practical field identification, leaf shape and 

degree of dissection are the most commonly used characters. However, our work has shown 

these characters to be quite variable within species and not reliable as the sole indentifying 

characters. We noticed that Sphaeralcea obtained from a variety of sources labeled as a 

particular species are not consistent in their appearance. We also observed that Sphaeralcea 

grown from seed obtained from different sources produce plants with highly variable characters. 
29

Further, we found that plants transplanted from the wild into a common garden respond to a 

common soil environment and irrigation regime by modifying their leaf lobe size and degree of 

dissection.

Approach

We studied differences in a variety of morphological characters using a statistical approach 

called principal components analysis (PCA). PCA is a multivariate analysis which reveals the 

internal structure of large quantities of data in a way that best explains the variation. This 

stepwise mathematical procedure transforms a number of possibly correlated variables into a 

smaller number of uncorrelated variables called principal components. Second, we used a 

molecular marker technique, Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP), to see if we 

could detect variation at the DNA level among the four species.

Morphological Variation

A type specimen is the original plant specimen from which the description of a new species is 

made. We obtained type specimens for the four Sphaeralcea from herbaria across the U.S. and 

Great Britain. We compared ten morphometric characters of herbarium samples (table 1) and our 

own field-collected specimens with those of the type specimens. Using PCA to create a

predictive model, we were able to check the identity of local herbarium specimens, and to assign 

field-collected specimens to one of the four species by their similarity to type specimens. 

Table 1. Means of ten morphometric characters obtained from type specimens of the four 

Sphaeralcea species. No one character accounts for differences among species.

Character (mm) S. coccinea

(n = 8)

S. grossulariifolia

(n = 5)

S. munroana

(n = 3)

S. parvifolia

(n = 17)

Petiole length 10.6 14.7 8.7 14.0

Mid-lobe length 20.0 25.5 22.4 20.6

Mid-lobe width 3.3 4.7 3.7 10.6

Secondary lobe 

length 13.1 17.5 14.3 14.1

Secondary lobe 

width 2.6 3.6 2.8 8.3

Lobe depth 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.2

Pedicel length 3.1 2.9 2.9 3.0

Calyx length 6.7 5.7 5.9 6.5

Petal length 12.3 11.7 11.0 11.6

Flowers/node 

(no.) 1 5 4 6

Based on our model, we found that while 94% and 100% of S. coccinea and S. parvifolia

herbarium samples, respectively, correlated with their respective type specimens, only 12% of S. 

grossulariifolia samples grouped with S. grossulariifolia type specimens (table 2). None of the S. 

munroana herbarium samples were true to type; all S. munroana herbarium specimens grouped

with S. parvifolia type specimens (table 2).
30

Table 2. Proportion of herbarium samples assigned to the corresponding type specimen using a 

multivariate analysis model of ten morphometric characters.

Type specimen

S. coccinea S. grossulariifolia S. munroana S. parvifolia

Herbarium specimen

S. coccinea 93.75% 6.25% - -

S. grossulariifolia 75.00% 12.50% 12.50% -

S. munroana - - - 100.00%

S. parvifolia - - - 100.00%

Genetic Variation

We used Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) to resolve differences among the 

four species. Genomic DNA from leaf samples from 20 populations (10-12 plants per 

population) was extracted and subjected to the AFLP technique. The resulting amplified DNA 

fragments were separated on a gel matrix to compare the band patterns. These were scored and 

subjected to cluster analysis. The resulting groups were consistent with those resolved using 

morphometric characters. These data support the existence of two main groups rather than four 

within the Sphaeralcea species included in the study.

Correlation of geographic with genetic and morphological distances

We used Mantel‘s test of morphological, genetic and geographic distances among Sphaeralcea

to investigate the possibility of relationships with geographic occurrences of the species. Both 

morphological and genetic distances correlated with geographic distances among populations of 

S. parvifolia and S. munroana. The groups could be separated on the basis of ecoregions, S. 

munroana (and related S. parvifolia) associated with the Great Basin region, and a distinct subset 

of S. parvifolia associated with the Colorado Plateau region. These differences were supported 

by morphological and genetic data. Sphaeralcea parvifolia associated with the Colorado Plateau 

had leaves that were more densely pubescent and only shallowly lobed, as compared with the 

Great Basin S. parvifolia.

Conclusions

▫ Sphaeralcea coccinea is a distinct species. The presence of a single flower per node is 

characteristic.

▫ Sphaeralcea munroana may be an ecotype of S. parvifolia. These taxa can be differentiated 

from S. coccinea by having an almost entire rather than a dissected leaf shape.

▫ Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia does not appear to be distinct, and may represent inter-specific 

hybridization among the other three species. 

Publications:

Kratsch, H.A.; Johnson, D.; Connors, K. 2010. Demonstration, education and outreach activities 

related to GBNPSIP plant materials. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

FY2009 Progress Report. p. 24-32. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf
31

Presentations:

Kratsch, H.A.; Johnson, D. 2010. Adaptability of selected Great Basin native plants to Utah 

markets. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 

26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines:

These results will enable seed collectors, growers and land managers to make informed decisions 

about which Sphaeralcea is most appropriate for a given land restoration application. If S. 

munroana or S. parvifolia is specified or desired, seed source location will be of great 

importance to successful planting establishment. These two taxa appear to have adapted 

morphological characters that have allowed them to survive within unique climatic parameters. 

Products:

▫ The importance Great Basin native plants in xeriscape plantings and rangeland restoration 

has been incorporated into master gardener and other consumer training programs.

▫ A list of intermountain regional native plant growers has been assembled and added to the 

WERA 1013 website (http://www.uwyo.edu/wera1013/).

▫ A report of native plant trial garden data was presented at the Idaho Nursery and Landscape 

Association meeting in Boise on January 21, 2011.

▫ A Great Basin native plant demonstration garden is planned in collaboration with Washoe 

County, Nevada pending approval of a Memorandum of Understanding between University 

of Nevada Cooperative Extension and Washoe County Parks and Recreation.
32

Project Title: Characterization of Seed Germination Requirements and 

Post Germination Seedling Development for Improved 

Restoration Success

Project: University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Anthony S. Davis

University of Idaho 

PO Box 441133, University of Idaho

Moscow, ID 83844

(208)885-7211, Fax (208)885-6226

asdavis@uidaho.edu

Project Description:

The objectives of this study are to increase our understanding of the germination requirements of 

Munro‘s globemallow and to monitor post-germination response to environmental stress for 

Munro‘s globemallow and Wyoming big sagebrush. 

Project status

Emily Overton, an M.S. student, started in August 2009 and conducted a literature review to 

determine specific current needs. Seedlings were grown from five seed sources in the current 

range of Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) in order to evaluate 

phenotypic variation within a subspecies. Physiological and morphological data will be gathered; 

and this information could be used to gain an understanding of trait variation and subspecies 

distribution. Information on the physiological variation of seed sources could help to establish 

seed transfer guidelines for Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis, which may improve 

restoration plantings. Olga Kildisheva (M.S. Student), working with the Sphaeralcea munroana

component of this project, has completed two studies: a first investigating seed dormancy and 

germination success across a suite of different treatment regimes, the second being a controlled 

environment study investigating early seedling development.

Publications:

Davis, A. S. 2010. Characterization of seed germination requirements for improved directseeding success in a changing climate. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

FY2009 Progress Report. p. 112. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Pavek, P. L. S.; Kildisheva, O. A.; Davis, A. S. [In press]. Plant guide for Munro‘s globemallow 

(Sphaeralcea munroana). Pullman, WA: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

Pullman Plant Materials Center. 
33

Presentations: 

Davis, A. S.; Overton, E. C.; Kildisheva, O. A. 2010. Germination trials of, and evaluation of 

post-germination stress in, Wyoming big sagebrush and Munro‘s Globemallow. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake 

City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Kildisheva, O. A.; Davis, A.S.; Keefe, R. F. 2010. Mimicking nature: understanding seed 

ecology as a means of native plant restoration. Ecological Society of America , 2010 August 1-6, 

Pittsburgh, PA. (poster) 

Kildisheva, O. A.; Davis, A. S.; Keefe, R. F. Sphaeralcea munroana: strategies for improving 

seed germination. International Seed Science Meeting on Seeds and the Environment, 2010 June 

20-24, Salt Lake City, UT. (poster)

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

Improved germination success will result in higher yields for seed increase programs. 

Products:

Funding from the Idaho Transportation Department is covering a graduate student stipend to 

conduct half of the research described in the scope of this project; the University of Idaho also 

awarded an additional $12,000 towards the research focused on Munro‘s globemallow.
34

Project Title: Development of Germination Protocols, Seed Weight,

 Purity and Seed Conditioning/Cleaning Protocols for

 Great Basin Grasses and Forbs

Project location: USDA Forest Service National Tree Seed Laboratory,

Dry Branch, Georgia

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Robert Karrfalt, Director

USDA FS National Tree Seed Laboratory

5675 Riggins Mill Road

Dry Branch, GA 31020

(478)751-3551, Fax (478)751-4135

rkarrfalt@fs.fed.us

Victor Vankus, Botanist

USDA FS National Tree Seed Laboratory

5675 Riggins Mill Road

Dry Branch, GA 31020

(478)751-3551, Fax (478)751-4135

vvankus@fs.fed.us

Project Description:

The National Tree Seed Laboratory is developing seed cleaning, testing and storage protocols for

the species selected for the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. The NSL

has a complete range of seed cleaning equipment so that manipulations of raw seed of almost any

species can be performed in order to produce clean seed of high viability. Germination is tested

over a range of temperatures and the data analyzed by response surface analysis to find the

optimum combination of light and temperatures for optimum germination. Seed storage studies

are done using the new technology of equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) to assess seed

moisture conditions. Training and information is also offered in workshops and conference

presentations.

Publications:

Karrfalt, B.; Vankus, V. 2010. Development of germination protocols, seed weight, purity and 

seed conditioning/cleaning protocols for Great Basin grasses and forbs. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 113-115. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations: 

Karrfalt, R. P. 2010. Twenty-nine month seed storage data for Artemisia tridentata var. 

wyomingensis. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2010 

January 26-27, Salt Lake City, Utah.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml
35

50

40

30

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

-20 foil

-20

-8

2

ERH

G

e

r

m

i

n

a

t

i

o

n

%

Storage Temperature

Germination at 41 months, High Purity Seeds, Average of 5 seed lots

N/T

Products:

Seed germination protocols

Work continued on Achnatherum hymenoides, Penstemon acuminatus, P. deustus and P. speciosus. 

Seeds of the three penstemons were found to give little or no germination with up to 90 days of 

chilling at 3oC. Longer chilling periods will be tested. Achnatherum hymenoides chilled for 100 

days germinated well in the chilling room at 3oC in the dark. Therefore, extended chilling will be 

done with this species also. Seed moisture levels will be reduced in prechill slightly from full 

imbibitions to prevent germination at prechill and hopefully obtain a controlled germination in the 

germination chambers.

Wyoming big sagebrush seed storage

Storage of Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis in sealed moisture 

proof containers has proven to maintain high germination for 41 months if the seed is cleaned to 

high purity and dried to an equilibrium relative humidity between 30% and 40%. The methods 

and materials of this study have been reported in the 2009 report of the GBNPSIP. The bar 

graph below summarizes the 41 month data. The second graph shows how equilibrium relative 

humidity relates to seed moisture content. 

Figure 1. The effect of equilibrium relative humidity and storage temperature on 

the germination of Wyoming big sagebrush seeds sealed in moisture-proof bags.
36 y = 7E-05x3

- 0.0071x2 + 0.2975x + 2.409

R2 = 0.9899

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

16.0

18.0

20.0

22.0

24.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

Series1

Poly. (Series1)

Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis

Storage ERH of this study

Figure 2. The relationship of seed moisture for Wyoming big sagebrush to 

equilibrium relative humidity (ERH). 

Management Applications: 

Land managers need not always make current year seed collections of Wyoming big sagebrush 

to meet current regeneration needs.

Seed collectors and users can easily, quickly, inexpensively, and effectively monitor seed 

moisture in order to manage seed lots to maintain highest quality seed germination. 
37

Project Title: Development of Procedures to Break Dormancy in 

Lomatium dissectum Seeds

Project: Boise State University, Boise, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Marcelo Serpe, Ph.D.

Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University

1910 University Drive, Boise, ID, 83725-1515

(208)426-3687

mserpe@boisestate.edu

Stephen Novak, Ph.D.

Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University

1910 University Drive, Boise, ID, 83725-1515

(208)426-3687

snovak@boisestate.edu

Project Description:

The aims of the project were to identify environmental conditions that break dormancy of 

Lomatium dissectum seeds and to characterize differences in stratification requirements among 

various populations. 

Specific Objectives

Working under this project, in previous years we determined differences in cold stratification 

requirements among various populations of L. dissectum. These differences can be attributed to 

dissimilarities in environmental conditions during seed development or genetic differences 

among the populations (Bauer et al. 1998; Bentsink and Koornneef 2002). To begin to 

investigate this issue, during the past year, we have analyzed the degree of genetic diversity and 

genetic differentiation among eight populations of L. dissectum using enzyme electrophoresis. 

Methods

Population sampling. In this study, we analyzed samples from two varieties of L. dissectum, L. 

dissectum var. dissectum and L. dissectum var. multifidum (Nutt.) Mathias & Constance (USDA 

NRCS 2011). Lomatium dissectum var. dissectum is more common west of the Cascade 

Mountains in areas with a mesic climate and average annual precipitation of more than 1000 

mm. In contrast, L. dissectum var. multifidum is more frequent east of the Cascade Mountains in 

semiarid habitats, where it is found at elevations ranging from 800 to 2200 m. Seeds were 

collected from three populations of var. dissectum and five populations of var. multifidum. Seeds 

of var. dissectum were harvested within the Willamette Valley, Oregon at:

Adair 1 (44 48‘N, 123 14‘W; 81 m elevation)

Buell 1 (45 2‘N, 123 28‘W; 117 m)

Buell 2 (45 1‘N, 123 24‘W; 178 m)
38

Seeds of var. multifidum were collected at: 

Prairie, Oregon (43 31‘N, 115 58‘W; 1287 m elevation)

Harper, Oregon (43 33‘N, 117 47‘W; 1347 m)

Bitner, Idaho (43° 37‘N, 116° 49‘W, 785 m)

Fairfield, Idaho (43 10‘N, 114 40‘W, 1700 m)

Moore‘s Mountain, Idaho (43 47‘N, 116 5‘W; 2200 m)

At each site, we collected seeds from 8 to 22 plants of var. dissectum and from at least 30 plants 

of var. multifidum. Seeds from each plant were stratified separately and after germination 

seedlings were transplanted to jiffy pots, keeping records of the site and plant origin of each 

seed. The first true leaves of the seedlings were used for extraction of proteins and subsequent 

allozyme analysis.

 

Enzyme electrophoresis. After the expansion of the first true leaves, leaf tissue from each L. 

dissectum plant was harvested and macerated in a tris-HCl grinding buffer-PVP solution. Starch 

concentration in the gels was 12% (w/v). Enzyme electrophoresis procedures generally followed 

Soltis et al. (1983), with modifications described by Novak et al. (1991). The 16 enzymes 

employed here were visualized using the following buffer systems: isocitrate dehydrogenase 

(IDH), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3PDH) and 6-phosphogluconate 

dehydrogenase (6PGD) using system 1 of Soltis et al. (1983); colorimetric esterase (CE), 

glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), glutamate oxalacetate transaminase (GOT) and malic enzyme 

(ME) using system 6; aldolase (ALD), leucine aminopeptidase (LAP), phosphoglucoisomerase 

(PGI), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) using system 8; and 

malate dehydrogenase (MDH), phosphoglucomutase (PGM) and shikimate dehydrogenase 

(SKDH) using system 9. 

Because L. dissectum is a diploid, the genetic basis of all allozyme variation observed was easily 

inferred based on the known subunit structure and compartmentalization of these enzymes 

(Weeden and Weendel 1989). When more than one locus was observed for an enzyme, the loci 

were numbered sequentially, with the most anodally migrating isozyme designated 1. Different 

alleles at a locus were identified using letters, with the most anodal allele designated a, the next 

b, and so on.

Data Analysis

Allozyme data were analyzed using BIOSYS-1 (Swofford and Selander 1981) in order to 

determine the level and structure of genetic diversity within and among populations of L. 

dissectum. Allozyme data were entered into BIOSYS-1 as genotype frequencies with populations 

arranged hierarchically based on the two varietal designations. Genetic diversity was expressed 

as the mean number of alleles per locus (A), the percentage polymorphic loci per population 

(%P), expected mean heterozygosity (Hexp) and the mean observed heterozygosity (Hobs). 

Expected mean heterozygosity was computed using the unbiased estimate method of Nei (1978). 

Mean observed heterozygosity was determined by the direct count method. Means of these 

genetic diversity parameters were used to describe the overall diversity within populations from 

the Central U.S.
39

Wright's F-statistics (Wright 1965) are used to analyze subdivisions in a group of populations. 

The quantity FIT is the overall fixation index and measures the reduction in heterozygosity of 

individuals relative to the total sample (across all populations). The value of FIT can be 

partitioned into two components: reduction in heterozygosity within populations FIS, and FST the 

measure of genetic differentiation among populations. FST is also described as the proportion of 

the genetic diversity that is partitioned among populations. Nei's (1978) unbiased genetic identity 

coefficients (I) were calculated for all possible pair-wise comparisons among all L. dissectum

populations using BIOSYS-1. Based on all pair-wise comparisons, we calculated the mean 

values of I for each variety and among the two varieties. The unweighted pair-group method with 

arithmetic averaging (UPGMA) algorithm in BIOSYS-1 was used to generate a phenogram for 

these populations of L. dissectum, based on genetic identity (I) values.

Results

Genetic diversity across populations and varieties. The results in this report are preliminary 

because herein we present data from the analysis of only 81 individuals. Data collection and 

analysis are continuing. The 16 enzymes we used were encoded by 32 putative loci. Across all 

populations, 21 loci (65.6%) were found to be polymorphic, and the other 11 loci (34.4%) were 

monomorphic. Additionally, a total of 86 alleles was observed at the 32 loci (2.69 alleles per 

locus). At the 21 polymorpic loci, a total of 71 alleles was observed (3.38 alleles per 

polymorphic locus). This level of allozyme diversity is relatively high compared with other 

diploid seed plants, and is consistent with what has been reported for plants with a mixed mating 

system (equal amounts of outcrossing and self-pollination, Hamrick and Godt 1989).

Across populations, we detected higher allozyme diversity in var. multifidum, compared with 

var. dissectum. For instance, the five populations of var. multifidum possessed 20 polymorphic 

loci and 82 alleles; whereas the three populations of var. dissectum had 14 polymorhic loci and 

62 alleles. These results should however be viewed cautiously because they are undoubtedly 

confounded by differences in sample size of both populations and individuals. 

Genetic diversity within populations. Allozyme diversity was generally higher, on average, 

within populations of var. multifidum (mean values for A = 1.76, %P = 41.26, Hobs = 0.097, Hexp

= 0.153), compared within populations of var. dissectum (A = 1.53, %P = 33.33, Hobs = 0.106, 

Hexp = 0.140). The one exception to this pattern was the value for Hobs, which was higher for var. 

dissectum populations (data not shown). Among populations of var. multifidum, the highest 

values for these allozyme diversity parameters were observed in the population from Fairfield, 

ID; whereas all three populations of var. dissectum had fairly similar values, with the values for 

the population from Adair, OR being only marginally larger (table 1). For the parameters A and 

%P, the level of diversity detected across all eight populations appears to be related to the 

number of individuals analyzed (N). Therefore, these values should also be viewed cautiously.

The values of Hobs reported for these populations are relatively high, but except for the Buell-1 

population, do not equal the values for Hexp (table 1). Values for these two heterozygosity 

parameters suggest that these populations of L. dissectum possess a mixed (or random) mating 

system; that is, these plants engage in equal amounts of outcrossing and self-pollination. The 

value of FIS (0.218) calculated across all polymorphic loci (table 2), is also consistent with a 

mixed mating system (Wright 1965). 
40

Table 1. Allozyme diversity at 32 loci in all populations (SE in parentheses). A is mean number 

of alleles per locus, %P is the percentage polymorphic loci per population, Hexp is the expected 

mean heterozygosity and Hobs is the mean observed heterozygosity.

Mean heterozygosity

Population N A %P* Hobs Hexp**

Fairfield, ID 15 2.1 (0.2) 56.3 0.140 (0.033) 0.211 (0.044)

Moore‘s, ID 7 1.6 (0.1) 37.5 0.103 (0.030) 0.152 (0.039)

Marsing, ID 13 1.8 (0.2) 37.5 0.084 (0.024) 0.140 (0.038)

Harper, ID 5 1.3 (0.1) 21.9 0.050 (0.020) 0.082 (0.030)

Prairie, ID 18 2.0 (0.2) 53.1 0.108 (0.026) 0.179 (0.039)

Adar, OR 7 1.6 (0.1) 37.5 0.094 (0.029) 0.137 (0.037)

Buell-1, OR 5 1.5 (0.2) 34.4 0.163 (0.043) 0.163 (0.044)

Buell-2, OR 11 1.5 (0.2) 28.1 0.063 (0.028) 0.119 (0.042)

*A locus is considered polymorphic if more than one allele is detected

**Unbiased estimate (Nei, 1978)

Table 2. Summary of F-statistics at all loci

Locus F(IS) F(IT) F(ST)

CE1 .313 .413 .145

CE2 .207 .273 .084

CE3 .247 .298 .067

CE4 .211 .364 .194

GDH 1.000 1.000 .179

IDH -.088 -.020 .062

LAP1 .376 .528 .245

LAP2 .547 .688 .311

MDH1 -.022 .152 .170

MDH2 .820 .909 .492

MDH3 .066 .216 .160

ME .617 .727 .287

PGI1 1.000 1.000 .127

PGI2 -.145 -.002 .125

PGM1 .067 .347 .300

PGM2 -.024 .098 .119

PGM3 .313 .399 .126

6PGD1 .689 .702 .044

SKDH1 .242 .278 .048

SKDH2 .427 .453 .045

TPI1 -.015 .126 .138

Mean .281 .429 .206
41

Genetic differentiation among populations and varieties. Values of FST vary among the 21 

polymorphic loci; these values range from 0.044 for 6PGD1 to 0.492 for MDH2 (table 2). The 

mean value of FST for all polymorphic loci was 0.206. This value indicated that 20.6% of the 

total allelic diversity of L. dissectum is partitioned among populations, and 79.4% of the total 

allelic diversity is partitioned within populations. These parameters suggest moderate to low 

genetic structure among these populations.

The unbiased genetic identity (I) coefficient of Nei (1978) ranges from 0.0 to 1.0, where a 

genetic identity value of 1.0 indicates that a population pair is genetically identical. The highest 

mean genetic identity values occur for the inter-variety comparison for var. dissectum (0.985), 

and the lowest value occurs for var. multifidum (0.954) (table 3). The mean genetic identity 

comparison for the two varieties was intermediate (0.962) to the values reported for each of the 

two varieties alone. These data suggest little genetic differentiation among populations of the 

two varieties. 

Table 3. Matrix of Nei‘s (1978) unbiased genetic identity coefficients 

averaged within and among varieties.

Variety No. of populations 1 2

1 multifidum 5

.954

(.926-.972)

2 dissectum 3

.962

(.941-.992)

.985

(.981-.990)

Figure 1. Cluster Diagram of genetic identity of different Lomatium dissectum populations

 Similarity

 .90 .92 .93 .95 .97 .98 1.00

 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+

 ****************************** Fairfield, ID 

 *** 

* ****************************** Moore's Mtn, ID

* 

* ******************* Marsing, ID 

* * 

* *** ****** Prairie, ID 

* * * ********** 

 * * * * ****** Adair-1, OR 

 * * ***** 

************ * ******* Buell 1, OR 

 * ********* 

 * ******* Buell 2, OR 

* 

********************* Harper, OR 

 +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+

 .90 .92 .93 .95 .97 .98 1.00 

The UPGMA cluster diagram provides graphic representation of the overall genetic similarity 

among these eight populations of L. dissectum (Fig. 1). The populations from Fairfield, ID, and 

Moore‘s Mtn, ID are differentiated from the other six populations. The cluster with these other 

six populations contains three populations of var. multifidum and three populations of var. 
42

dissectum, with the Prairie, ID populations of var. multifidum being most similar to populations 

of var. dissectum. 

Publications:

Serpe, M. 2010. Development of procedures to break dormancy in Lomatium dissectum seeds. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report: 116-118. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations: 

Scholten, M.; Shaw, N.; Serpe, M. 2010. Environmental regulation of dormancy loss in 

Lomatium dissectum seeds. National Native Seed Conference; 2010 May 17-21, Snowbird, UT.

Management Applications: 

The populations of L. dissectum analyzed in this study contained relatively high amounts of 

genetic diversity (see Hamrick and Godt 1989), and based on these results we would anticipate 

that native plant restoration projects that utilize this species would be successful. However, 

management efforts should be designed to maintain this level of diversity. For example, when 

germplasm is sampled from each population, we recommend that a relatively large number of 

individuals be sampled to avoid population bottlenecks. Additionally, genetic diversity in these 

populations is consistent with what has previously been reported for plants with a mixed mating 

system. Because high levels of heterozygosity are usually associated with higher fitness levels, 

management efforts should be designed to protect insect pollinator populations that contribute to 

outcrossing in this species. Finally, populations of the two subspecies appear to be genetically 

similar; thus they may be used interchangeably in restoration projects. However, we recommend 

caution in doing this until additional studies, such as determining whether populations exhibit 

ecotypic differentiation, are carried out. 

Literature Cited:

Bauer M. C.; Meyer S. E., Allen P. S. 1998. A simulation model to predict seed dormancy loss in 

the field for Bromus tectorum L. Journal of Experimental Botany. 49: 1233-1244. 

Bentsink L.; Koornneef, M. 2002. Seed dormancy and germination. The Arabidopsis Book: 1-18.

Hamrick, J. L.; Godt, M. J. 1989. Allozyme diversity in plant species. In: A. H. D. Brown; 

M. T. Clegg; A. L. Kahler; Weir, B. S. [EDS.]. Plant population genetics, breeding, and 

germplasm resources. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. p. 43-63. 

Nei, M, 1978, Estimation of average heterozygosity and genetic distance from a small number of 

individuals. Genetics. 89: 583-590.

Novak, S. J.; Mack, R. N.; Soltis, D. E. 1991. Genetic variation in Bromus tectorum (Poaceae) -

population differentiation in its North American range. American Journal of Botany. 78: 1150-

1161.

Soltis, D. E.; Haufler, C. H.; Darrow, D. C.; Gastony, G. J. 1983. Starch-gel electrophoresis of 

ferns - a compilation of grinding buffers, gel and electrode buffers, and staining schedules. 

American Fern Journal. 73: 9-27.
43

Swofford, D. L.; Selander, R. B.; 1981. Biosys-1 - a FORTRAN program for the comprehensive 

analysis of electrophoretic data in population-genetics and systematics. Journal of Heredity. 72: 

281-283.

[USDA NRCS] U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation SErvice. 2011. 

The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 15 March 2011). Baton Rouge, LA: National Plant 

Data Center.

Weeden, N. F.; Wendel, J. F. 1989. Genetics of plant isozymes. In: D.E. Soltis; P. S. Soltis. 

[EDS]. Isozymes in plant biology. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press. p. 46-72.

Wright, S. 1965. The interpretation of population structure by F-statistics with special regard to

systems of mating. Evolution. 19: 395-420. 
44

Project Title: Modeling Seedling Root Growth of Great Basin Species

Location: Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Bruce A. Roundy

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept., 275 WIDB

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 

(801)422-8137, Fax (801)422-0008

bruce_roundy@byu.edu

Kert Young

Plant and Wildlife Science Dept., 275 WIDB 

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602

(801)422-4133

youngke1@msn.com

Project Description:

This work is designed to model seedling root growth of revegetation species using thermal 

accumulation. Plant scientists have sought to select plant materials for revegetation of rangelands 

based on physiological and morphological characteristics which allow establishment under 

conditions of limiting temperatures and available water for plant growth. Thermal and 

hydrothermal models have been used to predict germination under the environmental conditions 

of rangelands (Rawlins 2009, Meyer and Allen 2009, Hardegree et al. 2010). However, low 

seedling survival limits revegetation success on rangelands, even if seeds germinate. Using a 

thermal accumulation model to predict seedling root growth would allow us to assess the 

potential for seedlings to survive under a range of field conditions and possibly suggest 

opportunities for plant improvement.

Objectives

1. Develop thermal accumulation models for seedling root penetration for forbs, grasses, and 

cheatgrass.

2. Test the ability of thermal models to predict root depth under diurnal temperatures in the 

growth chamber and in the field.

3. Use thermal models and soil water and temperature data from stations in the Great Basin to 

predict seedling root growth and survival for dry to wet years.

Growth Chamber Study 

We are measuring seedling root depths over time for six forbs, five perennial grasses, and three 

cheatgrass collections (table 1) in relation to constant temperatures in a walk-in growth chamber. 

The experiment is organized in a randomized block design of four blocks and two soils. Black 

plexiglass holders have been constructed to hold 70 (5 replicates x 14 collections) clear plastic 

root tubes 2.5-cm diameter by 20-cm long. Each block contains two plexiglass holders, one with 

tubes filled with sand and the other with tubes filled with Borvant gravelly loam soil passed 

through a 0.6 cm screen. The holders keep the tubes slanted at a 45° angle and minimize root 
45

exposure to light. For each of six constant temperature runs (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30° C), three 

seeds of a collection are sown 0.5 cm below the soil surface against the lower side of a planting 

tube.

Table 1. Plant materials tested in root study.

Scientific name Common name Cultivar Source Collection 

date

Forbs Achillea millefolium Eagle yarrow Eagle Eastern WA 2003

Achillea millefolium White yarrow White-VNS Granite Seed 2003

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris USFS Shrub lab 2007

Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch USFS Shrub lab 2002

Linum perenne Blue flax Appar UDWR 2003

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine Wells, NV; 

UDWR 2004

Perennial 

grasses

Agropyron cristatum 

x A. desertorum

Crested 

wheatgrass Hycrest UDWR 2003

Agropyron 

desertorum

Crested 

wheatgrass Nordan Granite Seed 2003

Elymus elymoides Squirreltail Sanpete UDWR 2003

Elymus wawaiensis Snake River 

wheatgrass Secar WA; Granite Seed 2003

Pseudoroegneria 

spicata ssp. spicata

Bluebunch 

wheatgrass Anatone Granite Seed 2003

Weedy 

grasses

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Rush Valley, UT 2005

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT 2007

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Skull Valley, UT 2008

Prior to sowing, Utah milkvetch seeds were scarified in sulfuric acid for 15 minutes followed by 

stratification at 1.5° C for two weeks with squirreltail seeds. Tubes are checked six days per 

week and the depth of the deepest root is recorded. Time to germination is recorded in petri 

dishes filled with 25 seeds of each collection and placed on racks below the root experiment in 

the incubation chamber. Soil temperatures are measured with six thermocouples per block that 

are placed into the ends of root tubes and attached to a Campbell Scientific, Inc. CR10X 

micrologger. Temperatures are read each minute and average hourly temperatures recorded. At 

the end of each temperature run, one tube of each collection per block is harvested and dry 

weight of root biomass recorded. The entire experiment will also be conducted at three diurnal 

temperatures based on cold, cool, and warm soil temperatures recorded in the field. We will 

compare actual with root depths predicted from thermal accumulation models.

Field Experiment

The same experiment as described above was conducted at two locations in Utah for two years 1) 

on the Brigham Young University campus, and 2) on the east side of the Onaqui Mountains in a 

Utah juniper/Wyoming big sagebrush plant community where the juniper trees have been 

shredded. In the first year of the field experiment, natural precipitation watered root tubes. In the 

second year, root tubes were watered weekly as needed during the growing season. Emergence 

and root depth were recorded five times per week at the BYU campus and at least monthly at the 
46

Onaqui site. Thermocouples and gypsum blocks were placed in each block in the field outside 

root tubes, but inside soil or sand surrounding tubes. These sensors are read every minute and 

hourly averages recorded with Campbell Scientific, Inc. CR10X microloggers.

Modeling

The first step to model or predict days to 15-cm root depth is to model daily root depth as a 

function of constant temperature. A root depth of 15-cm was selected because we were interested 

in seedling establishment, most roots are in the top portion of the soil profile, and we already 

have many thermocouples buried in the field at 15-cm. Second, solve the modeled daily root 

depth equation at 15-cm root depth to derive the number of days to 15-cm root depth. Third, 

invert the number of days to 15-cm root depth. The sum of daily inverses serves as an indicator 

of progress toward the goal of 15-cm root depth. The goal of 15-cm root depth has been achieved 

on average when the sum of the inverses equals 1. The inverse of the mean number of days to 

15-cm root depth for each constant temperature is used as input into TableCurve2D software,

which fits a non-linear equation to the data. This non-linear equation is the temperature response 

curve used to predict days to 15-cm root depth in diurnal temperature or field root trials. Most 

species temperature response curves had an r2greater than 0.9 and all species temperature 

response curves had an r

2

greater than 0.7 except for Utah milkvetch with an r2of 0.47. Days to 

15-cm root depth are converted to degree days to 15-cm root depth by summing the daily 

average temperatures for each day of a root trial until the 15-cm root depth has been achieved. 

For example, if it took a species 80 days to achieve 15-cm root depth at a constant 7°C, then 

adding the mean daily temperatures of 7°C for 80 days would equal 560 degree days.

Project Status

Growth Chamber Experiment. We have conducted all of the six constant temperature runs and 

two of the three diurnal temperature runs in the growth chamber. The statistical results of the 

experiments so far are as follows:

Actual vs. Predicted for Diurnal Root Trial 4-12°C. In comparing actual versus predicted degree 

days to 15-cm root depth in diurnal root trial 4-12°C, predicted degree days showed a slightly 

greater trend than actual degree days (figs. 1 and 2). In soil, Secar, squirreltail, and longspur 

lupine predicted degree days were significantly greater than their actual degree days. In sand, 

squirreltail and Nordan predicted degree days were greater than actual. These differences among 

predicted and actual degree days can be used to adjust future model predictions.

Actual vs. Predicted for Diurnal Root Trial 9-17°C. In sand for diurnal trial 9-17°C, there were 

no significant differences except predicted squirreltail required more degree days than actual 

(fig. 3). In soil for diurnal trial 9-17°C, all of the species predicted values were greater than their 

actual values except for cheatgrass 2005, cheatgrass 2007, annual agoseris, and flax (fig. 4).

Sand vs. Soil Actual for Diurnal Root Trial 4-12°C. For comparing actual sand versus soil 

degree days in diurnal trial 4-12°C, the grasses required more degree days to reach 15-cm root 

depth in sand than in soil except for Secar, which grew equally well in sand and soil perhaps 

because of inherent slower root penetration (fig. 5). Most of the forbs did not achieve 15-cm root 

depths in sand. The reduced rate of root depth in sand was likely due to lower nutrient 

availability although other variables probably had an influence. Sand versus soil texture and 
47

nutrient availability will be analyzed at a later date.

Sand vs. Soil Actual for Diurnal Root Trial 9-17°C. In diurnal root trial 9-17°C, all grass species 

required more thermal time in sand than in soil except for squirreltail (fig. 6). Most of the forb 

roots did not achieve 15-cm root depth in sand.

Inter-species Comparisons for Diurnal Root Trial 4-12°C. For inter-species comparisons in sand

for root trial 4-12°C, squirreltail required more degree days than Nordan and cheatgrass 2005. 

Otherwise, there were no inter-species differences in sand. Comparing across species in soil, flax 

required more degree days than any other species. The invasive annuals required fewer degree 

days than all of the forbs and the perennial grasses Secar and Hycrest. Annual agoseris required 

more degree days than all of the grasses except Secar and Hycrest. The general trend across 

species in soil was that annual grasses required the least amount of thermal time, forbs required 

the most thermal time, and perennial grasses were intermediate although, Secar was quite slow 

for a grass.

Inter-species Comparisons for Diurnal Root Trial 9-17°C. For inter-species comparisons in sand 

for the 9-17°C root trial, there were few significant differences, but cheatgrass 2005 did require 

fewer degree days than Anatone. For inter-species comparisons in soil, flax required the most 

degree days of any species. Cheatgrass 2005 and 2008 required fewer degree days than annual 

agoseris, Utah milkvetch, longspur lupine, and squirreltail. 

As expected, cheatgrass roots grew the fastest at cool temperatures. However, the crested 

wheatgrasses and Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass definitely grew well enough to compete with 

cheatgrass. The importance of faster root growth to establishment is suggested by comparing the 

heat accumulation requirement of the forbs and that of the grasses. Forbs are known to not 

establish as well as grasses in rangeland revegetation projects. Blue flax, one of the most 

successfully-seeded forbs requires about 700-800 degree days to reach 15 cm root depth, while 

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass requires 250-350 (fig. 2). SageSTEP data from four Great Basin 

pinyon-juniper locations for two years were used to calculate wet degree days in spring 2008 and 

2009. Degree day accumulations when the soil is wet ranged from around 300 in early spring 

(March and April) to around 700 in late spring (May and June). As long as soil moisture is 

available from March into June, robust plants of both forbs and grasses should establish because 

they will have around 42 wet degree days for root growth. However, if soil moisture becomes 

unavailable by May in a dry year, even robust forbs might not establish because they may have 

insufficient wet degree days to grow their roots and keep them below the soil drying front. The 

details of just how many wet degree days are available under different field conditions in relation 

to how many are needed for successful establishment will become better understood with 

specific modeling exercises and field validation tests. 

What appears to be a major concern for successful establishment of forbs is the lack of robust 

plants. Occurrence of some vigorous forb plants indicates potential for plant improvement. Such 

plant improvement work could potentially increase forb establishment success.
48

Field Experiments

We have conducted the field root trials at both BYU campus and the east side of Onaqui 

Mountain for two years. This data will be analyzed in the future.

Future Work

We will finish the last diurnal temperature experiment in the growth chamber. We will begin 

comparing predicted and actual root depths based on measured soil temperatures and water 

potentials at the field sites.

Publications:

Roundy, B. A.; Young, K. 2010. Modeling seedling root growth of Great Basin species. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p.119-126.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Roundy, B. A.; Young, K. 2010. Using wet thermal accumulation to predict germination and 

seedling root growth of revegetation species and cheatgrass across the Great Basin. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake 

City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Management Applications:

An important application of thermal accumulation modeling is to predict which seeded species 

are most likely to establish given site-specific soil temperature and moisture patterns and 

interspecies interference. As plants have to establish in communities, rates of root depth by 

invasive weeds influence the duration of resource availability to other species through resource 

preemption as the soil dries down from spring into summer. Knowing which species are most 

likely to establish on a site should save money by avoiding the planting of species that are not 

likely to establish on certain sites. Thermal accumulation modeling can also serve as a cultivar 

development tool selecting for more consistent and vigorously establishing native plants.

Literature cited:

Hardegree, S. P., et al. 2010. A comparison of cumulative-germination response of cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum L.) and five perennial bunchgrass species to simulated field-temperature 

regimes. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 69: 320-327.

Meyer, S. E.; Allen, P. S. 2009. Predicting seed dormancy loss and germination timing for 

Bromus tectorum in a semi-arid environment using hydrothermal time models. Seed Science 

Research. 19: 225-239.

Rawlins, J. K. 2009. Wet thermal accumulation modeling of germination of western U.S. 

rangeland species. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 48 p. Thesis. 

Roundy, B. A., et al. 2007. Prediction of cheatgrass field germination using wet thermal 

accumulation. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 60: 613-623.
49

Figure 1. Actual vs. predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in sand for the 

growth chamber diurnal root trial 4-12°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference 

at 95% confidence level.

Figure 2. Actual vs. predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in soil for the 

growth chamber diurnal root trial 4-12°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference 

at 95% confidence level.
50

Figure 3. Actual vs. predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in sand for the 

growth chamber diurnal root trial 9-17°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference 

at 95% confidence level.

Figure 4. Actual vs. predicted degree days to 15-cm root depth in soil for the growth 

chamber diurnal root trial 9-17°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference at 95% 

confidence level.
51

Figure 5. Actual sand vs. soil degree days to 15-cm root depth for the growth 

chamber diurnal root trial 4-12°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference at 

95% confidence level.

Figure 6. Actual sand vs. soil degree days to 15-cm root depth for the growth 

chamber diurnal root trial 9-17°C. Asterisk indicates significant difference at 

95% confidence level.
52

Project Title: Diversity of Mycorrhizal Fungi Associated with 

Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis

Project: Boise State University, Department of Biological Sciences,

Boise, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Marcelo Serpe, Ph.D.

Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University

1910 University Drive, Boise, ID 83725-1515

(208)426-3687

mserpe@boisestate.edu

Project Description:

The general goal of the project is to identify species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) that 

colonize Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis in sagebrush communities of southwestern 

Idaho. 

Objectives

1. Collection of Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings from sagebrush communities in southern 

Idaho and identification of the AMF species that colonize their roots.

2. Multiplication and identification of AMF species present in soil samples collected from 

various sites.

Methods

The approaches used to identify mycorrhizal species in sagebrush roots and soil samples are 

summarized in figure 1. Roots and soil samples were collected from seven sites: 

Kuna Butte Ada County, ID N 43° 26.161' W 116° 25.848'

Birds of Prey Ada County, ID N 43° 19.272' W 116° 23.643'

Simco Road Elmore County, ID N 43° 11.047' W 115° 58.181'

Old Oregon Trail Road Elmore County, ID N 43° 05.353' W 115° 38.702'

Bennett Mountain Road Elmore County, ID N 43° 03.755' W 115° 19.088'

Sommer Camp Road Owyhee County, ID N 43° 27.566' W 116° 50.712'

Cinder Cone Butte Ada County, ID N 43° 13.160' W 115° 59.598'

DNA was extracted from the roots using the Qiagen DNAeasy Plant kit and the Fast-DNA 

Spinkit for soil. The presence of mycorrhizal DNA in the extracts was determined via nested 

PCR. General fungal primers LR1 and FLR2 were used in the first amplification and their 

products were amplified in a second PCR reaction with the Glomeromycota specific primers 

FLR3 and FLR4 (Gollotte et al. 2004). These primers amplify regions of the large subunit 

ribosomal RNA gene (LSU rDNA). Some of the products amplified by PCR were cloned using 

the pGEM-T Easy Vector System (Promega). Inserts were amplified, cleaned, and sent for 

sequencing to a commercial facility. The resulting nucleotide sequences were used for 
53

identification of AMF species based on comparison with published sequences via phylogenic 

analysis.

Figure 1. Summary of approaches used to identify mycorrhizal species in sagebrush roots 

and soil. Left, sagebrush seedlings are collected from the field sites, soil is cleaned from the 

roots, and fine roots (<2 mm) are used for DNA extraction. Center, DNA is extracted from 

the soil. Right, the mycorrhizae present in the soil and roots are first multiplied in pot cultures 

using Sudan grass as a host and DNA is extracted from both roots and soil from the pot cultures.

Results

From the DNA extracted from the roots and soil at the different sites, we obtained PCR products 

of the expected length, which ranges from 300 to 380 bp. The products appeared to be specific 

for mycorrhizae. No amplification was observed with DNA extracted from Arabidopsis roots, a 

non-mycorrhizal species, or DNA extracted from sagebrush leaves, which should not have 

mycorrhizae.

For some of the samples, the PCR products have been cloned and sequenced. Thus far, the only 

site from where we have sequenced samples from roots, soil, and pot cultures is Kuna Butte. 

From three other sites we have sequenced samples from sagebrush roots and soil, or soil only. 

Ten to fifteen clones were sent for sequencing from each site and source. Based on the sequences 

obtained to date and phylogenetic analyses, we have identified five mycorrhizal species in 

southwestern Idaho (table 1). The most common species appear to be Glomus intraradices and 

G. microaggregatum; these species were found in sagebrush roots and soil. In addition, other 

species were detected in the soil or after multiplication of mycorrhizae in pot cultures. Future 

work is aimed at completing the cloning and sequencing of DNA extracted from samples 

collected at other sites and from pot cultures.

Collection of Samples

Seedlings (3-6 months old)

Soil

edli

ngs 

( 3-

6 

mo

nth

s 

old)

Multiplication of AMF in pot cultures

DNA extraction

PCR and cloning of a portion of the LSU rRNA gene using primers specific to Glomeromycota

Cloning and DNA sequencing

Comparison of the sequences to sequences in databases for determination of 

species

DNA extraction DNA extraction from roots and soil
54

Table 1. Mycorrhizal species identified in southwestern Idaho using DNA sequence data

Site Source Species

Kuna Butte

Roots Glomus intraradices

Soil G. intraradices

G. microaggregatum

Pot Cultures

G. intraradices

G. microaggregatum

G. claroideum

Simco Road

Roots G. microaggregatum

Soil

G. intraradices

G. microaggregatum

G. claroideum

Entrophospora infrequens

Cinder Cone Butte

Roots G. intraradices

Soil G. intraradices

G. microaggregatum

Bennett Mountain Road Soil G. intraradices

G. microaggregatum

Publications:

Serpe, M. 2010. Development of procedures to break dormancy in Lomatium dissectum seeds. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p.116-118.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations: 

Carter K, Davidson B, White M, Shaw N, Serpe M. Identification of mycorrhizae associated 

with Artermisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis in southwestern Idaho. National Native Seed 

Conference. (abstract 28).

Carter K, Serpe M. Identification and multiplication of native mycorrhizal species that colonize 

Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis seedlings. Annual Meeting Intermountain Seedling 

Growers‘ Association.

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

The two species identified in sagebrush roots, G. intraradices and G. microaggregatum are 

cosmopolitan species found in many commercial inoculums. However, G. intraradices and G. 

microaggregatum have different strains. The strains present in sagebrush roots may be different 

from those in commercial inoculums. Thus, we do not recommend the use of commercial 

inoculum at this point until more is known about the ability of different strains to aid in the 

establishment of sagebrush seedlings and to cope with the conditions of sagebrush habitats. 

Products:

GBNPSIP research and collaboration with Dr. Nancy Shaw have been very important to obtain a 

grant from the USDA-NIFA (grant No 2010-85101-20480). This grant has provided funds to 

study in more detail the mycorrhizal species and strains that colonize sagebrush and to analyze 

the effect of mycorrhizal colonization on seedling establishment. 

Literature Cited:

Gollotte, A., et al. 2004. Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonizing roots of the grass 

species Agrostis capillaries and Lolium perenne in a field experiment. Mycorrhiza. 14:111-117.
55

Project Title: Developing Protocols for Maximizing Establishment of 

Two Great Basin Legume Species

Project: USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Lab, Logan, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Douglas A. Johnson

USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Lab 

695 North 1100 East

Logan, UT 84322-6300

(435)797-2901, Fax (435)797-3075

doug.johnson@ars.usda.gov

B. Shaun Bushman

USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Lab 

695 North 1100 East

Logan, UT 84322-6300

(435)797-2901, Fax (435)797-3075

shaun.bushman@ars.usda.gov

Project Description:

This project occurs in two phases. The first phase is to determine how the age of seed, the depth 

of planting, and the scarification treatment affects germination and emergence of Dalea ornata

(western prairie clover) and Astragalus filipes (basalt milkvetch). The second phase is to plant 

seed in several sites across genetic and environmental gradients and test if the more local sources 

germinate or establish better than distal sources. These objective approaches are summarized 

below.

Determine the best seed treatments to maximize germination

Hard seededness is a common feature in legume species, which limits initial, uniform 

germination and subsequent establishment. The effects of various seed treatments (mechanical 

scarification, acid scarification, boiling water treatment, and control) and age of seed (newly 

harvested up to one-year-old seed) will be investigated for each of the major seed sources of the 

three legume species. All combinations of these treatments will be tested in a greenhouse to 

determine which combination of treatments yields the best germination and seedling 

establishment. 

Identify planting depths and seasons that will give the best success

Given the data obtained from Objective 1, the best treatment combination will be used in actual 

field evaluations. Seeds from each species and source will be planted with either a walk-behind 

drill seeder or a RoughRider range drill. Replicated fall dormant plantings will be tested twice at 

each of several locations. First and second year establishment/survival will be recorded at each 

of the test sites.
56

Assess how seed sources will establish across genetic structures and envir onmental gradients

Up to three locations will be planted for each species. Locations for western prairie clover and 

basalt milkvetch will be at sites in Oregon, Idaho, and Nevada. Exact test locations will be 

coordinated with the BLM and USFS, or the USDA-ARS Area-Wide Project, and plots will be 

protected from grazing. The exact locations will be situated to span genetic structures as well as 

the environmental gradients shown to be most highly correlated with collection sites. 

Establishment data will be collected for two years post-planting, but sites will be kept to allow 

for long-term observation.

Publications:

Bhattarai, K. 2010. Phenotypic and genetic characterization of wildland collections of western 

and Searls prairie clovers for rangeland revegetation in the western USA. PhD Dissertation, 

Utah State University, Logan, UT.

Bhattarai K, *Bushman B.S., Johnson D.A., Carman JG. 2010. Phenotypic and genetic 

characterization of western prairie clover collections from the western USA. Rangeland Ecology 

and Management 63(6):696-706.

Bhattarai K, *Bushman B.S., Johnson D.A., Carman JG. 2011. Searls‘ Prairie Clover (Dalea 

Searlsiae) for Rangeland Revegetation: Phenotypic and Genetic Evaluations. Crop Science

51(2):716-727.

Bushman, B. S.; Johnson, D. A.; Bhattarai, K. 2010. Phylogeographic characterization of genetic 

diversity in basalt milkvetch. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 

Progress Report. p. 60-67.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations: 

Bushman, B. S.; Johnson, D. A. Legume seed source decisions from common garden traits and 

genetically differentiated groups. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual 

Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Johnson, D. A.; Bushman, B. S. Seed increase needs for three North American rangeland 

legumes: basalt milkvetch, western prairie clover and Searl‘s prairie clover. Workshop: seed 

production of native grasses and forbs, 2010 February 23, Ontario, OR.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: Seed producers will benefit by 

knowing how to obtain stands of these two species for seed production. Land managers will be 

provided with data to show expected germination and establishment in different regions, seasons, 

and planting practices.

Products: Germplasm releases for the species, seed production guidelines, planting guides, peer 

reviewed publications, and other reports. 
57

Project Title: Native Plant Material Development and

Cultivation Trials for Native Great Basin Forbs

and Grasses 

Project Location: Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Covy Jones, Wildlife Biologist II 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 84627 

(435)283-4441, Fax (435)283-2034 

cdjones@utah.gov

Alison Whittaker, GBRC Project Leader

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center 

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 84627 

(435)283-4441, Fax (435)283-2034 

alisonwhittaker@utah.gov

Project Description:

We are working on developing cultural practices for several forb species in the Great Basin. 

Currently we are focusing on improving germination techniques through mechanical, chemical, 

and thermal scarification methods. 

We continue maintaining research properties in Fountain Green and Ephraim. In addition to 

various research projects these properties are used to establish foundation seed fields and 

increase seed for distribution to growers.

Forging relationships with new growers also continues to be a priority, thereby allowing us to 

increase seed availability from small collections to larger quantities and providing seed for larger 

production fields and landscape scale restoration projects. 

We are continuing to find new methods to deal with disease and pest issues that have become 

apparent in agricultural settings. We are also striving to purchase or develop necessary 

cultivation machinery to enable the success of the project.

 

Project Status

Wildland Seed Collections. This year after some discussion with the Forest Service and BLM 

we decided that pooled source accessions would be a more practical approach to increase most 

forb species in the Great Basin. A pooled source collection allows opportunity for smaller 

collections and diverse sites to be genetically represented when they would otherwise not be 

included. Another advantage of pooled source material is the potential it has to be more adapted 

to a broader variety of sites. Seed was collected primarily by the SOS crews this year and then 
58

planted at Fountain Green and Ephraim locations for increase. We will continue maintaining 

increase plots for distribution to growers in 2011. 

Species Status.

Sphaeralcea spp. New common gardens of globemallow species were established in 2009 in 

Nephi and at the Desert Experimental Range (DER), west of Milford. This was done in an effort 

to confirm seed production data that was collected in 2008 from the Fountain Green common 

garden. Grasshoppers ate all the foliage at the Nephi site, but not before the plants had time to 

establish. However very few plants re-sprouted in 2010. Survival data from the common 

garden at the DER was collected in June of 2010. The DER site is an extremely dry site so the 

survival and production data that will be collected from this site will provide good drought 

tolerance data for the accessions planted there. Climate data is also being collected at the site. 

Due to the loss of the Fountain Green common garden to rust, we also plan on evaluating the 

resistance of each accession to rust at the new DER common garden. A pooled source release 

might not be the best idea for this genus due to the possibility of losing a significant number of 

plants from a particular accession to disease. Further investigation is needed to determine if 

some accessions are more resistant and would therefore be better suited for cultivation. 

Eriogonum ovalifolium. In 2009 we collected data on the cushion buckwheat common garden 

using flower height as an indicator of mechanical harvestability. Because of the poor seed set we 

used flower number as a surrogate for possible seed production. After analyzing the data we 

discovered that there are significant differences between accessions for both of these categories. 

We designed a scoring system to incorporate both the flower height and flower number data. In 

order to obtain better baseline data on seed production we harvested seed from each individual 

plant in 2010. We are currently cleaning these collections in order to confirm that flower 

number is a good surrogate for seed set. To try to increase seed set, we are building pollination 

boxes to induce forced pollination. We will compare quantities between the 2010 collection and 

the 2011 collection to determine the effect of forced pollination. Once seed is acquired, a pooled 

source accession increase plot will be established. Evaluation of mechanical harvesting methods

will be conducted in order to provide mechanical seed harvesting information for growers.

Balsamorhiza spp. Arrowleaf balsamroot (B. sagittata) has posed problems primarily because 

of the time it takes to establish. In the fall of 2009 we experimented with a new planting method. 

We used nursery bedding equipment to create a perfectly flat planting surface and then seeded on 

the beds with a 6-inch row spacing. We were able to establish a dense stand of plants from seed 

in spring of 2010. In 3 to 4 four years, when the plants are mature, we will use a root lifter to 

remove the plants from the bed and then transplant them into a production field setting. The use 

of dense beds until establishment would lower the initial land investment for a grower. We 

continue to work with Hooker‘s balsamroot (B. hookeri) and have included it in the above 

mentioned study. More wildland collections are needed for this species to bulk up stock seed for 

direct seeding.

Seed Scarification Studies.

Sphaeralcea spp. We had success in 2007 using acid scarification to reduce dormancy in 

globemallow. However, concentrated sulfuric acid is not the easiest chemical to acquire and 

handling the acid poses some risk. Consequently, treating large quantities of seed using this 
59

method is not our first choice. Additionally, thermal scarification is more practical than using 

sulfuric acid. Pouring boiling water over the globemallow seed melts away the waxy cuticle and 

allows the seed to imbibe and germinate. Preliminary studies using this method were conducted

during fall 2008 and showed promise. In 2009 and 2010, we continued using this method of 

scarification on globemallow seed prior to direct seeding and were able to establish dense 

production stands. More research will be done to quantify optimal water temperature and 

exposure time so that maximum germination is obtained with minimum embryo death.

Lupinus arbustus. We did not show an increase in germination with scarification. All 

scarification treatments on L. arbustus damaged the embryo, negatively impacting germination. 

The seed coat on L. arbustus is noticeably thinner than that of the other species in this study and 

could explain the embryo damage. 

Lupinus argenteus. Acid and mechanical scarification yielded the best results for this species. 

Germination peaked at 87% with acid scarification after 5.5 minutes of treatment exposure (fig. 

1). Germination after mechanical scarification of L. argenteus also peaked at 87% with a 

treatment time between 5.5 and 6.5 seconds. Unlike acid scarification on L. argenteus,

mechanical scarification did not show the sharp decline in germination after the optimal 

scarification point was reached. However germination did become less predictable when 

exposure time was >7 seconds. 

Lupinus prunophilus. Chemical scarification worked well for this species. Acid scarification of 

L. prunophilus did not have a definite peak in germination but increased with exposure time to 

the treatment (fig. 2). The Clorox bath produced the highest germination (79%) when treated for 

110 to 115 minutes. Mechanical scarification of L. prunophilus resulted in only 59% 

germination after two seconds and declined by 30% when it reached the final exposure time of 

10 seconds (fig. 3). The seed was visibly damaged by the mechanical scarifier.

Lupinus sericeus. This species is typically not a dormant species. However, it did show 

improvement in germination when scarified. With only 2 seconds of exposure in the mechanical 

scarifier, germination increased from 22% to 80% (Fig. 4). We demonstrated that some 

scarification on L. sericeus may help with increased uniformity of germination. Scarified seed 

may be able to take advantage of soil moisture by putting down a root sooner than unscarified 

seed. 

From this study we were able to determine scarification methods that yield the highest 

germination for these four lupine species. Continued research could focus on using this data as a 

baseline to test multiple accessions of these same species from The Great Basin. That would 

help us to better predict how each scarification method and duration would act on a given species 

and thereby improve germination for cultivation.
60

Forb Island Study

After experiencing much greater germination and establishment success on our field plantings 

using N-Sulate fabric row cover, we wanted to investigate the use of this fabric to increase 

establishment of native forbs in a wildland setting. Due to the high cost of native forbs, we 

wanted to look at targeted establishment of ―forb islands‖ that may have much greater 

establishment with the help of this row cover. N-Sulate fabric has made as much as a 1,000 fold 

increase of germination for some species in our field plantings. The fabric is light permeable,

increases heat and improves moisture retention during the germination period. In fall 2009 we 

established four study locations, three in the Great Basin and one on the Colorado Plateau. Each 

site is set up so that it will statistically stand alone but can also be combined with the other sites. 

Using two seed mixes we will compare germination and establishment of plots that were e ither 

covered with N-Sulate fabric or not covered. In June 2010, we collected germination data on the 

plots. From this first year of data we found that the N-Sulate fabric increased germination on 

most of the seeded species (Fig 5a and b). The greatest increase was for germination of 

Balsamorhiza sagittata, Hedysarum boreale, Linum lewisii, and Agoseris species. 

Figure 1. Chemical scarification of 

Lupinus argenteus with sulfuric acid.

R

2

= 0.67

p = 0.01

R

2

= 0.67

p = 0.01

R

2

= 0.67

p = 0.01

Figure 3. Mechanical scarification of 

Lupinus prunophilus.

Figure 4. Mechanical scarification 

of Lupinus sericeus.

Figure 2. Chemical scarification of 

Lupinus prunophilus with sulfuric acid.

R

2

= 0.67

p = 0.01

R

2

= 0.73

p = 0.02

R

2 = 0.73

p = 0.02
61

Figure 5a and b. Percent germination in June 2010 for the two seed mixes on all four sites. 

We also found that the N-Sulate fabric had a larger effect on germination on the drier sites (Fig 

6). The Lookout Pass and Hatch Ranch sites only receive 8-10 inches of precipitation each year, 

while the other two sites receive 12-14 inches. Another effect of N-Sulate fabric was increased 

cover of cheatgrass (Fig 7). We saw a large increase in cheatgrass cover on the sites that already 

had cheatgrass present. In October 2010 we replicated the study at each of the four sites. In 

2011, we will collect germination data on the plots established in 2010 and we will collect 

establishment data on the plots treated in 2009. In the future we will continue to collect survival 

data as well as recruitment data outside of the plots. 

 

 Figure 6. Total density of all of the seeded Figure 7. Cheatgrass cover by site in 2010. 

 June species by site in June 2010. 

Publications:

Jones, C.; Whittaker, A. 2010. Native plant material development and cultivation trials for native 

Great Basin forbs and grasses. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 

Progress Report. p. 18-23. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Jones, C. Progress on multiple fronts. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Mix 1

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

BASA CLSE HEBO LILE LUAR PEPA POFE SPGR

Percent Germination

Uncovered Covered

Mix 2

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

Agoseris sp. ARMU HEMU LONU NIAT THMI

Percent Germination

Uncovered Covered

Seeded Species

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Fountain Green Gordon Creek Hatch Ranch Lookout Pass

Site

Density/sq.m

Uncovered

Covered

Cheatgrass Cover by Site

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Fountain Green Gordon Creek Hatch Ranch Lookout Pass

Site

Cover (%)

Uncovered

Covered
62

Jones, C. Native forbs- cultural practices. Seed Production of Native Grasses and Forbs 

Workshop; 2010 February 23; Ontario, OR.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html

Jones, C.; Jensen, S.; Stevens, M. R.. 2010. An evaluation of seed scarification methods for four 

native Lupinus species. Seed Ecology III Conference; 2010 June 20-24, Salt Lake City, UT. 

(poster presentation)

Jones, C.; Whittaker, A.; Summers, D.; Jensen, S. 2010. Establishing forb islands in wildland 

restoration using N-sulate fabric. National Native Seed Conference; 2010 May 17-21, Snowbird, 

UT. (poster presentation)

Jones, C.; Whittaker, A.; Summers, D.; Jensen, S. 2010. Establishing forb islands in wildland 

restoration using N-sulate fabric. 16th Wildland Shrub Symposium; 2010, May 18-20, Logan, 

UT. (poster presentation) 

Field Tours 

Vernon, J.; Summers, D.; Whittaker, A.; Jones, C.; Memmott, K. 2010. Common gardens and 

seed facilities tour. National Native Seed Conference; 2010 May 17, Fountain Green Farm and 

Great Basin Research Center Headquarters, Ephraim, UT. 

Vernon, J.; Summers, D.; Whittaker, A.; Jones, C.; Memmott, K. 2010. Common gardens and 

seed facilities tour. Seed Ecology III Conference; 2010 June 23, Fountain Green Farm and Great 

Basin Research Center Headquarters, Ephraim, UT. 

Management Applications: 

Land Managers

Several of the seed increase fields of globemallow that were established in 2008 did well. We 

scaled up in 2009 and added three new growers growing different accessions of the same species. 

With more seed being produced by these growers we encourage seed purchasers to keep these 

growers in mind when buying seed in the coming years.

After just one year of data collection, the use of N-Sulate fabric appears to be a potential option 

to help establish native forbs in a wildland setting. This is not a treatment that a land manager 

could cost effectively apply to an entire landscape-scale project but could be used to establish 

forbs in specific small areas of the site. More research needs to be done to test cost/benefit and to 

test other row covers that may be more cost effective. 

Seed Producers

We are now able to provide seed producers and restoration facilitators with information on 

scarification of globemallow and lupine species to fac ilitate stand establishment using less seed. 

Depending on the species of lupine it may or may not need scarification. L. arbustus doesn‘t 

require any scarification and can actually be significantly damaged by it. L. argenteus and L. 

prunophilus seed germination increase with both chemical and mechanical scarification. L. 

sericeus seed germination increases with mechanical scarification. Globemallow seed 

germination is increased by scarifying the seed with a hot water bath. 
63

Products:

Growers

The Canady Farm in Elko, Nevada has 47 acres in a very sandy soil type. They recently 

acquired the property and about 10 acres were in good planting condition. They have plenty of 

water to establish and grow native plants. They also have experience with wildland seed 

collecting. In 2008, we planted 5 acres and 24 different species on the Canady farm. We have 

the lead on three of the species, but only one of the three species established at increase field 

density. In 2009, we scaled up, adding 1.5 acres to what they had originally planted using seed 

from the original source (table 1). 

The Bell farm comprises over 700 acres just north of Vernon, Utah, and is a clay loam soil type. 

Mr. Bell, the managing partner of Biograss Sod Farms, is currently harvesting several species of 

grass as sod on most of the land. In the past he has grown several penstemon species so growing 

natives is not completely new to him. We were able to plant 22 species at the Bell farm on 10 

acres of land. We have the lead on five of those species. Of those five species planted in 2008, 

it was determined in 2009 that two did well and established at densities that warrant a seed 

production field. We scaled up with those two species adding 0.25 acres of scarlet globemallow 

and one acre of gooseberryleaf globemallow. 

The Tripp farm is a small residential orchard in Spring City, Utah. The Tripp farm has limited 

space on their land so we have worked together with them to establish transplants in weed barrier 

for some of the more difficult species to cultivate and harvest. We used a pooled source

accession approach to increase genetic diversity. 

The Jones farm is located 45 minutes north of Kemmerer, Wyoming at just over 7,000 feet in 

elevation. We planted five species on the Jones farm of which we have the lead on one. 

Table 1. Seed production fields established in 2010. 

Grower Species Common name Acreage 

Seeded

Tripp Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker‘s balsamroot 0.01

Tripp Balsamorhiza sagittata Arrowleaf balsamroot 0.01

Tripp Crepis acuminata Tapertip hawksbeard 0.01

Tripp Crepis intermedia Limestone hawksbeard 0.01

Jones Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow 1.50

Bell Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow 0.75

Hanks Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow 0.75

Young Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow 0.75

Canaday Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow 2.13

Bell Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow 2.00

Hanks Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow 2.00

Young Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow 2.00

For a full list of species planted at each location contact Covy Jones or Scott Jensen. 
64

Project Title: Selecting and Growing Great Basin Natives

Project: USDA FS, RMRS, GSD Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Scott Jensen, Botanist

USDA FS, RMRS, GSD Shrub Sciences Laboratory

735 N 500 E, Provo, UT 84606-1865

(801)356-5124, Fax (801)375-6968

sljensen@fs.fed.us

Sean Stanton1, Miles Nielson1, Jason Stettler 1, 2, 

Derrick Mathews

2

, TJ Ersfeld2, Corey Sample 2.

1Biological Science Technicians

USDA FS RMRS Shrub Sciences Laboratory

735 N 500 E, Provo, UT 84606-1865

(801)356-5128, Fax (801)375-6968

2

Seeds of Success, Chicago Botanic Gardens Interns

Project Description:

As part of the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project we work in a variety of 

areas. In 2010 we were involved in wildland seed collection, seed increase at several farm 

locations, screening of plant materials, evaluating density dependent seed yields of Agoseris 

heterophylla, evaluating clipping effects on Ipomopsis aggregata seed production, soil 

solarization with plastic mulches, transplanting rootstock of two Lomatium species into 

production fields, and equipment modification and development. 

We benefited from four Seeds of Success interns, employees of the Chicago Botanic Garden 

funded through the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. The interns made over 400 

seed collections from 81 species. This provided a tremendous boost of stock seed for our 

research, inclusion into long-term germplasm storage through the ARS GRIN system, 

distribution to cooperators, increase plantings and distribution to growers.

Cultural Practices

Among Agoseris species present in the Great Basin, Agoseris heterophylla, an annual species, 

responds well to cultivation by producing a robust canopy of flowering stems in response to 

irrigation and fertilizer. The dramatic increase in seed production places this species among the 

best candidates from the genus for commercial production. Agoseris heterophylla disperses seed 

readily when ripe and as such is viewed as a high risk for outdoor production. If grown indoors, 

maximizing yield is of value. We evaluated density dependent (4 – 400 plants / 2.9 ft2) seed 

yields on two soil types over two years. Data are being analyzed.

Clipping effects on flower production of Ipomopsis aggregata. Field observations suggest 

browsing Ipomopsis plants resulted in bushier canopies with increased flower numbers. Canopies 

of two Ipomopsis sources were clipped on June 21, 2010 and July 15, 2010 to simulate browsing. 
65

Both treatments resulted in approximate fourfold reduction in the number of flowers as 

compared to the control plants. If browsing does result in bushier canopies and increased flower 

set, the late June and mid-July treatment times miss a critical phenological interval. In a natural 

setting Ipomopsis plants would have been nearing the end of bloom by the June treatment date. 

With periodic irrigation at our farm site, phenology was delayed and plants were in early to mid 

bloom. Future evaluation should focus on browsing at the rosette stage or during initial bolting.

Seed yields of three Lupinus species. Several Lupinus species are often among the most 

requested herbaceous forbs. Some lupines are available from wildland collections but in limited 

quantities with prices typically in excess of $60 a pound. Great Basin genera exhibit variation in 

flowering, ripening and seed shatter. Lupinus arbustus flowers more determinately than other 

Great Basin lupine species. This characteristic facilitates a single mechanical harvest when 

grown under cultivation. The less determinate species, Lupinus argenteus and Lupinus sericeus

yield best with multiple hand harvests, but timing a single mechanical harvest to peak seed 

maturity is the best way to minimize harvest cost. Yield data derived from a single mechanical 

harvest at peak seed ripeness and extrapolated to a per acre basis for Lupinus argenteus, Lupinus 

sericeus, and Lupinus arbustus, show yields of 35, 24 and 50 pounds per acre respectively. 

Based on these yields the market price of lupine is not likely to be reduced under cultivation. As 

lupines are not particularly difficult to grow, the volume of seed available in the marketplace 

could be substantially increased through agronomic production.

Soil solarization. Popularity of soil solarization is increasing among organic farmers as a 

method to control diseases, nematodes and some weeds while increasing nutrient solubility and 

beneficial soil bacteria. The practice is most common in hot sunny areas such as central 

California and Florida. The process involves covering moist soil beds with thin (1–4 mil) clear 

plastic for 4 to 6 weeks to achieve an accumulation of time at temperatures above 120° F. Soil 

temperatures in excess of 120° F cause mortality to nematodes while temperatures in excess of 

140° F cause mortality to fungi and bacteria. To impact other soil insects, bacteria, viruses and 

weed seeds temperatures must reach 150° F to 180°F. At Fountain Green, Utah 1 mil plastic 

sheeting was tightly rolled and tucked onto moist nursery beds with a plastic mulch layer on July 

28, 2010 and removed August 21, 2010. Under the plastic, temperature sensors were placed both 

at the soil surface and buried 3 inches below the soil surface. Data loggers recorded temperatures 

at 10 min. intervals. At the soil surface, 140°F was exceeded for 310 minutes and temperatures 

between 120 – 140°F were achieved for 1535 min. At the three-inch depth temperatures between 

120 – 140°F were achieved for 615 min. while temperatures in excess of 140°F were achieved 

for only 10 minutes. The full complement of beneficial results may have been attained at the soil 

surface but did not penetrate to the 3 inch depth. Future work should evaluate whether applying 

the plastic film by the third week of June and leaving it in place through the end of August would 

achieve beneficial results.

Transplanting Lomatium rootstock into production fields. Several often requested species, 

hawksbeards, arrowleaf balsamroot and some biscuitroots, require 3 to 5 years to produce the 

first seed crop. If rootstock of these species could be grown in high-density production beds to 

flowering size then transplanted into production fields and produce seed the subsequent year, the 

expense of having non-producing land could be minimized. Rootstock of two biscuitroot 

species, L. grayi and L. triternatum were available spring 2010 from Oregon State University's 
66

Malheur Experiment Station. While neither species require an extended timeframe to produce the 

first seed crop they do serve as a good surrogate for evaluating challenges encountered in the 

lifting and transplanting process. Using a crop lifter, rootstock was cut 10 inches long then 

transplanted into private production fields in Nevada using a tree transplanter. Other rootstock 

was separated into size classes based on crown diameter and transplanted into shovel-dug holes 

at three locations in Utah. These materials will be evaluated in 2011, assessing survival and seed 

yields.

Future plans

Database development. Create a Microsoft Access database to house our growing collection of 

plant materials related information.

Herbarium searches. As part of an effort to understand species distribution across the landscape, 

herbarium searches are being conducted for approximately 30 species. Vouchers with precise 

source location information are logged into a database. This data has proven useful in viewing 

distribution across provisional seed zones. We anticipate extracting data from various GIS layers 

to aid in understanding species distribution limitations and making recommendations for 

revegetation plantings.

Screening plant materials using an electronic database. Interactive Plant Keys for the Great 

Basin, an electronic database, created by Bruce Barnes of Flora ID Northwest is being evaluated 

for its utility in initial screening of plant materials. A variety of morphological characteristics are 

common to species currently produced in agronomic settings. The interactive plant key permits 

exclusion or inclusion of species based on presence or absence of a large number of plant 

characteristics.

Equipment development. Design and fabrication of a hooded row cover for herbicide spraying 

on high-density nursery beds. Design and fabrication of wheel extenders to permit a compact 

Kubota tractor to straddle nursery beds. Modification of a fabric roller to roll both 6‘ and 12‘ 

materials. All projects are in cooperation with Utah Division of Wildlife Resources Great Basin 

Research Center.

Publications: 

Jensen, S.; Anderson, M.; Nielson, M.; Sorenson, K. 2010. The qwest for natives: cultural 

practices, species screening and private growers. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase

Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 11-17.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations: 

Jensen, S. Equipment and cultural practices for native seed production. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Jensen, S. Equipment and cultural practices for native seed production. Workshop: seed 

production of native grasses and forbs, 2010 February 23, Ontario, OR.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html
67

Jensen, S. Selecting and growing Great Basin natives. National Native Seed Conference, 2010 

May 17 - 21, Snowbird, UT.

Jensen, S. Selecting and growing Great Basin natives for fire restoration. All scientists meeting, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2010 March 

23 – 25, Fort Collins, CO.

Jensen, S., Jones, C., Field tour. Cultural practices and equipment for native forb production. 

National Native Seed Conference, 2010 May 17-21, Snowbird, UT.

Products:

Equipment development/modification

▫ Fabrication of a toolbar and plow feet to convert a 6‘ mulch la yer to a 12‘ model suitable for 

 laying N-Sulate fabric.

▫ Fabrication of a plow foot and bracket to modify an ECO Weeder II for mid row weeding.

Wildland seed collection 2010

▫ 21 collections from 2 grass species

▫ 237 collections from 63 forb species

▫ 144 collections from 16 shrub species

Tours and Demonstrations

▫ A hot water bath for scarifying globemallow seed. Workshop: seed production of native 

grasses and forbs, 2010 February 23, Ontario, OR.

▫ Cultural Practices and Equipment for Native Forb Production. National Native Seed 

Conference, 2010 May 17 - 21, Snowbird, UT.

Stock seed production – seed increase

▫ Enceliopsis nudicaulis – 189 g

▫ Nicotiana attenuata – Shipped to USFS Bend for cleaning

▫ Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis – 5 sources: 13 g, 74 g, 82 g, 151 g, 174 g

▫ Phacelia crenulata corrugate – 4.8 lbs

▫ Mentzelia laevicaulis – 180 g

▫ Lupinus arbustus – 2.51 lbs

▫ Agoseris heterophylla – 124 g

Stock seed production – Increase plot installation

▫ Between two Utah farm sites, 93 sources of 21 species were planted into 192 increase beds or 

rows grouped by provisional seed zone.

Seed distribution to growers

▫ Increase beds of Agoseris heterophylla and Agoseris grandiflora were spring planted in 

Fountain Green, Utah at the Hansen farm.

▫ Lomatium triternatum rootstock from Malheur Experiment Station was transplanted in Spring 

Creek, Nevada at the Canaday farm.
68

▫ Lomatium grayi rootstock from Malheur Experiment Station was transplanted in Orovada, 

Nevada, at McClintick Farms.

Seed distribution to cooperators.

▫ 17 collections of Elymus elymoides were sent to Brad St. Clair, Research Geneticist, USDA 

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, for inclusion in a genecological study.

▫ Seed of Heliomeris multiflora, Crepis intermedia, Balsamorhiza sagittata was provided to 

Clint Shock, Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, for emergence trials.

The National Technology and Development program selected two project proposals for 

development beginning in 2011. 

▫ Development of a specialized seed harvester for species with indeterminate ripening and seed 

shatter characteristics. 

▫ Development of a propane fired weed control service pack for thermal weed control in nursery 

beds and seed production fields. 

Awards

Partners in Conservation award for the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project‘s 

partnership with the national BLM Seeds of Success program.
69

Project Title: Cooperative Work between the Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project and the Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center

Project: USDA-NRCS Plant Materials Center Aberdeen, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Loren St. John, Team Leader

USDA-NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

P.O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210

(208)397-4133, Fax (208)397-3104

Loren.Stjohn@id.usda.gov

Dan Ogle, Plant Materials Specialist 

USDA-NRCS

9173 West Barnes Drive, Suite C, Boise, ID 83709

(208)685-6987, Fax (208)378-5735

Dan.Ogle@id.usda.gov

Project Description:

1. Production of Certified Generation 1 (G1) seed of Anatone Germplasm bluebunch 

wheatgrass to facilitate commercial seed production.

2. Assist in re-establishment of native plant diversity in crested wheatgrass monocultures of the 

Great Basin and equipment and strategies to enhance the post-wildfire establishment and 

persistence of Great Basin native plants.

3. Propagation of native forbs for evaluation and seed increase. 

Seed Production

Due to the high demand for Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass Certified stock seed, the Aberdeen 

Plant Materials Center (PMC) increased acreage of seed production from 1.0 acre to 5.2 acres in 

2007. The following table shows acres of seed production, production yields and Certified seed 

shipped to commercial growers from 2007 to 2010.

Year Acres in seed 

production

Seed Yield

(pounds)

Seed Shipped 

(pounds)

2007 5.2 1,384 400

2008 4.2 478 775

2009 7.4 280 450

2010 5.0 896 155

Crested Wheatgrass Diversification and Post-fire Seedings

In 2008, seeding trials were planted near Elko, Nevada in cooperation with the University of 

Nevada Extension Service and near Aberdeen, Idaho in cooperation with the USDA-ARS Sheep 

Experiment Station. Modifications were made to a Truax Rough Rider range drill and a 

Kemmerer range drill to broadcast and drill seed in the same pass with alternate rows of 
70

broadcast and drill seeding. The PMC prepared the seed mixes and planted the sites in late 

October and early November, 2008. The following tables list the mixes for each site:

South Fork, NV 2008

Broadcast Mix (12.5 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.75 0.92

Appar blue flax 0.75 0.83

Eagle western yarrow 0.20 0.45

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.20 1.31

Spiny hopsage 0.50 1.37

Rice Hulls n./.a 8.88__

Drill Mix (12.5 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

 ̳Nezpar‘ Indian ricegrass 2.00 2.03

Toe Jam squirreltail 2.00 2.26

Needle and thread grass 2.00 3.21

 ̳Magnar‘ basin wildrye 2.00 2.10

 ̳Secar‘ Snake River wheatgrass 1.00 1.08

Munro‘s globemallow 0.50 0.76

Rice Hulls n./.a 2.32__

Grandview, ID 2008

Broadcast Mix (12.90 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Maple Grove Lewis flax 0.40 0.43

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.20 0.24

Royal Penstemon 0.40 0.56

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.05 0.29

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.15 1.01

Rice Hulls n./.a 7.29__

Drill Mix (12.90 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 3.20 3.60

 ̳Magnar‘ basin wildrye 0.80 1.04

 ̳Bannock‘ thickspike wheatgrass 0.60 0.74

Thurber‘s needlegrass 0.60 0.99

Rice Hulls n./.a 7.29__
71

The second year of seeding trials was completed at the Grandview site in cooperation with the 

USDA ARS Sheep Experiment Station in 2009. The following seed mixes were prepared and 

the plots were planted November 2-3, 2009.

Grandview, ID 2009

Broadcast Mix (12.90 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Maple Grove Lewis flax 0.40 0.44

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.20 0.22

Royal Penstemon 0.40 0.50

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.05 0.25

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.15 1.20

Rice Hulls n./.a 7.11__

Drill Mix (12.90 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 3.20 3.60

 ̳Magnar‘ basin wildrye 0.80 0.85

 ̳Bannock‘ thickspike wheatgrass 0.60 0.67

Thurber‘s needlegrass 0.60 0.94

Rice Hulls n./.a 6.40__

Seed was mixed and seedings were completed October 25-29, 2010 at Black Butte, Idaho and at 

Southfork, Nevada.

Black Butte, ID 2010

Cover Crop Mix (20.00 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

 ̳Rimrock‘ Indian ricegrass 3.69 4.03

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 4.01 5.17

Rice Hulls n./.a 6.06__

Drill Mix (44.2 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 1.97 2.46

Bottlebrush squirreltail 0.99 1.02

 ̳Rimrock‘ Indian ricegrass 1.82 1.88

Needle and thread grass 1.01 1.30

Thurber‘s needlegrass 0.82 1.48

Basalt milkvetch 0.45 0.50

Munro‘s globemallow 0.61 1.00

Rice Hulls n./.a 0.26__
72

10X Broadcast Mix (5.20 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.94 3.30

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.40 0.98

Sandberg bluegrass 0.39 0.47

Eagle yarrow 0.15 0.16

Royal penstemon 0.12 0.21

Rice Hulls n./.a 6.44__

5X Broadcast Mix (33.8 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.46 1.62

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.40 0.98

Sandberg bluegrass 0.39 0.47

Eagle yarrow 0.15 0.16

Royal penstemon 0.12 0.21

Rice Hulls n./.a 8.67__

Standard Broadcast Mix (5 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.09 0.33

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.39 0.96

Sandberg bluegrass 0.38 0.46

Eagle yarrow 0.14 0.15

Royal penstemon 0.12 0.21

Rice Hulls n./.a 5.60__

South Fork, NV 2010

Broadcast Mix (12.5 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.75 0.85

 ̳Appar‘ blue flax 0.75 0.93

Eagle yarrow 0.20 0.22

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.20 1.20

Spiny hopsage 0.50 1.30

Rice Hulls n./.a 9.26__
73

Drill Mix (12.5 acres)

Pounds Pounds

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

 ̳Nezpar‘ Indian ricegrass 2.00 2.15

Toe Jam squirreltail 2.00 2.17

Needle and thread grass 2.00 2.53

 ̳Magnar‘ basin wildrye 2.00 2.07

 ̳Secar‘ Snake River wheatgrass 1.00 1.32

Munro‘s globemallow 0.50 0.69

Rice Hulls n./.a 2.83__

Maintenance of forb seed increase plots

The original project plan in 2005 was to propagate 8,000 plants total of Lomatium dissectum

(LODI) fernleaf biscuitroot, Lomatium grayi (LOGR) Gray‘s biscuitroot, Lomatium triternatum 

(LOTR) nineleaf biscuitroot, Eriogonum umbellatum (ERUM) sulphur-flower buckwheat, 

Penstemon deustus (PEDE) hotrock penstemon, Penstemon acuminatus (PEAC) sharpleaf 

penstemon, and Penstemon speciousus (PESP) sagebrush penstemon, in the greenhouse. 

Approximately 1000 plants each of ERUM and LOTR were to be transplanted at the PMC and 

remaining plants were to be made available to cooperators for transplanting at field locations.

Due to no plant establishment of Lomatium species and minimal success with greenhouse 

propagation of Penstemon species, no plants were made available to cooperators. All plants that 

were successfully propagated in the PMC greenhouse were transplanted at the PMC during the 

2005 growing season and direct dormant seeding of Eriogonum, Lomatium and Penstemon

accessions were completed at the PMC in November 2005. Weed barrier fabric was installed to 

control weeds.

2007 Activities. On May 8, 2007 the biscuitroot and sulphur-flower buckwheat plots were 

treated with a wick application of 100 percent Roundup to control weeds and on June 18 the

plots were hand weeded. On June 20, 2007 survival counts were made and seed was harvested at 

seed ripeness and the results are shown in the following table:

Species Survival 

(percent)

Clean seed 

(pounds)

ERUM 40 4.0

LODI 25 NA

LOGR 70 NA

LOTR 71 NA

PEAC 68 8.0

PEDE 58 19.0

PESP 60 0.7

By early July, the Lomatium species were completely dormant. None of the Lomatium plants 

had yet developed flowers. It is thought that most of their energy was going into the 

development of the taproot. In early November 2007 the dormant Lomatium plots were treated 

with a spray application of Roundup to control weeds that were still green. PEAC (a short-lived 

species) was beginning to die out.
74

2008 Activities. On May 15, 2008 the sulphur-flower buckwheat plots were treated with a wick 

application of 100 percent Roundup to control weeds and on June 10-11 all plots were hand 

weeded. The following table shows harvest date and seed yield for the accessions that were 

harvested:

Species Harvest 

Date

Clean seed 

(pounds)

ERUM 8/13 12.6

LODI NA NA

LOGR NA NA

LOTR 7/3 2.6

PEAC NA NA

PEDE NA NA

PESP 8/8 1.5

By early July, the Lomatium species were completely dormant. The only Lomatium to flower 

and set seed was LOTR. LODI and LOGR have yet to flower after 3 years of establishment. It 

was thought that most of their energy was still going into the development of the tap root. In 

early November 2008 the dormant Lomatium plots were treated with a spray application of 

Roundup to control weeds that were still green. PEAC and PEDE (short-lived species) had died 

out to the point that no seed was harvested in 2008.

The USDA-FS Rocky Mountain Research Station in Boise, Idaho cleaned the seed that was 

harvested from the plots. Some of the seed was utilized for the seeding trial conducted at 

Snowville, Utah for the Equipment and Strategies to Enhance the Post-wildfire Establishment 

and Persistence of Great Basin Native Plants study.

2009 Activities. Weeds were controlled by hand during 2009. ERUM was harvested mostly by 

combine but was followed by hand harvesting. The plots of the other species were harvested by

hand. LODI and LOGR finally produced seed in 2009, the fourth year of establishment. PESP 

was the only penstemon accession still surviving, the others being short-lived. The following 

table shows harvest date and seed yield for the accessions that were harvested in 2009:

Species Harvest 

Date

Clean seed 

(pounds)

ERUM 8/4 11.3

LODI 7/1 1.3

LOGR 7/1 0.9

LOTR 7/1 4.5

PEAC NA NA

PEDE NA NA

PESP 8/8 0.4

By early July, the Lomatium species were completely dormant. In early October 2009 the 

dormant Lomatium plots were treated with a spray application of Roundup to control weeds that 

were still green.
75

The USDA-FS Rocky Mountain Research Station in Boise, Idaho cleaned the ERUM seed that 

was harvested from the plots. Some of the seed was utilized for the seeding trial planted near 

Aberdeen, Idaho in November, 2009 for the study to improve the diversity of introduced grass 

stands.

2010 Activities. Weeds were controlled by hand during 2010. The Penstemon plots had all died 

out by 2010. The remaining plots were harvested with the PMC jet harvester. The following 

table shows harvest date and seed yield for the accessions that were harvested in 2010:

Species Harvest 

Date

Clean seed 

(pounds)

ERUM 8/5 5.0 (estimated)

LODI 7/13 2.0 (estimated)

LOGR 7/13 1.5 (estimated)

LOTR 7/13 1.5 (estimated)

Harvested seed was sent to the USDA-FS Rocky Mountain Research Station in Boise, Idaho in 

September, 2010. The plots were removed after the end of the 2010 growing season.

Publications: 

St. John, L.; Ogle, D. 2010. Establishment and maintenance of certified generation 1 (G1) 

seed, propagation of native forbs, develop technology to improve the diversity of introduced 

grass stands, equipment and strategies to enhance the post-wildfire establishment and persistence 

of Great Basin native plants. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 

Progress Report. p. 33-38. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

 

Tilley, D.; D. Ogle; and L. St. John. 2010. Plant guide for Douglas‘ dusty maiden (Chaenactis 

douglasii). Aberdeen, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. 4p.

http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/idpmc/publications.html

Tilley, D.; D. Ogle; and L. St. John. 2010. Plant guide for hoary tansyaster (Machaeranthera 

canescens). Aberdeen, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. November 2010. 4p. 

http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/idpmc/publications.html

Presentations:

St. John, L.; Ogle, D. 2010. Aberdeen PMC report of activities 2009. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Management Applications:

1. Certified seed stock of Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass, produced by the PMC is available 

though the University of Idaho Foundation Seed Program and Utah Crop Improvement 

Association.
76

2. Based on propagation studies at the PMC, sulphur-flower buckwheat, hotrock penstemon, 

sagebrush penstemon and sharpleaf penstemon can be commercially grown, at least with the use 

of weed barrier fabric. Lomatium species appear to require a number of years (3 - 4) to mature 

to reproductive stage under the climatic conditions at Aberdeen, Idaho and may not be conducive 

to commercial production because of the long period to reach reproductive capability.

3. The Truax Rough Rider drill performs well in seeding studies and should be used for large 

scale seedings.

Products:

1. Certified seed stock of Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass produced by the PMC is available 

though the University of Idaho Foundation Seed Program and Utah Crop Improvement 

Association

2. Seed of sulphur-flower buckwheat that were produced from the propagation studies were used 

in the seed mixtures for the study to improve the diversity of introduced grass stands. Seed of 

the Lomatium species and Penstemon speciosus was made available to cooperators for seeding 

trials.

3. Plant Guides are available for royal penstemon, hotrock penstemon and sharpleaf penstemon; 

fernleaf biscuitroot, nineleaf biscuitroot and Gray‘s biscuitroot; Douglas‘ dusty maiden and 

hoary tansyaster. 
77

Project Title: Pollinator and Seed Predator Studies

Project: USDA-ARS Pollinating Insect Research Center, Logan, Utah

 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

 James H. Cane

USDA-ARS Pollinating Insect Research Center

 Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5310 

(435)797-3879, Fax (435)797-0461

Jim.Cane@ars.usda.gov 

Project Description:

Native bees and/or honey bees are needed to pollinate most all of the wildflower species thus far 

studied for Great Basin plant community rehabilitation. The pollinator faunas of many of these 

candidate plant genera include one or more bee genera with potentially manageable species, 

especially species of Osmia. A minority of the later-blooming species attracts and can be 

pollinated by honey bees or managed alfalfa leaf-cutting bees.

Pollinator needs are being evaluated by comparing fruit and seed sets at caged flowers, openly 

visited flowers, and manually pollinated flowers. If plant reproduction proves to be pollinator 

limited, then native bee faunas are surveyed and evaluated at managed and wild flowering 

populations. If bees are sufficiently abundant, then single-visit pollination efficiencies at 

previously caged flowers can directly evidence each bee species‘ contribution to seed 

production. 

Captive populations of several species of cavity-nesting Osmia bees with pollination promise are 

being multiplied either with a private grower or at our lab, for eventua l distribution to growers 

needing them for pollination. Currently managed bee species (alfalfa leaf-cutting bees, blue 

orchard bees, honey bees) are being evaluated for their pollination prowess with each of the 

target plant species as well using our lab‘s common garden. Practical management protocols and 

materials are being developed to sustainably manage pollinators on-farm. Pollination information 

is being disseminated to collaborators and growers.

Anticipating that seed from some of these perennial forb species will be used for post-fire 

restoration, we have been evaluating susceptibilities and fates of wild bee communities to 

wildfire in the sage-steppe and juniper woodlands. Inasmuch as bees are necessary for 

pollination of most of these forbs, bee communities must persist in or recolonize burns if seeded 

forbs are to reproduce. Nesting habits will likely predict a bee species‘ risk with fire, which will 

be evaluated through lab experiments and sampling of faunas in natural burns throughout the 

Intermountain West.

Status Report 

Many ground-nesting wild bees are present and populous in the years after wildfires where the 

pre-existing flora was in good shape. The wet winters of 2009-10, plus a capable student, 

allowed me to redouble sampling for bee communities (actually floral guilds) in pairs of burned 
78

and neighboring unburned plots across a 15-year chronosequence of wildfires in sagebrush 

steppe and juniper woodlands in 5 states of the northern Great Basin and Columbia Plateau. We 

have curated and identified most specimens. Once complete, we will: 1) compare sites on a 

bees/plant basis for taxonomic diversity, nesting habits and abundance; 2) compare with paired 

samples from standardized passive trapping of bees; 3) relate these similarity measures with our 

measures of the plant communities, being densities of shrubs and prevalent wildflowers (done 

using Morisita‘s ordered distance method) and 4) simple binomial diversity measures for genera 

in flower at each site. To date, we have now sampled bees and flora in 27 site pairs in a 

chronosequence representing a span from 1-15 years since the last large fire (>1000 acres). We 

focused on three species of Balsamorhiza, but also some Lomatium, globemallows, A. filipes, 

and Penstemon. Most all are ground-nesters and non-social. Our impression is that forb 

communities are more plentiful and slightly more diverse in most of the fires than the control 

sites, but this awaits analytical confirmation.

Further evidence that bee faunas are surviving fires in the sage-steppe comes from several 

samples taken this year from very recent fires; the Skatepark fire near Boise and the Big Pole fire 

west of Salt Lake. Both were sampled in the first growing season after the burn. Since there was 

no bloom, we sampled emerging bees using long-term vane traps deployed in the charred 

landscape and around the perimeter. Only eight or so sampling units were deployed per fire, 

sitting out for a month at a time. What we thought would be a test of the method has proven 

productive. We are still processing and identifying bees, but here are our preliminary numbers:

Skatepark Fire: May & Jun, 258 and 325 burn bees; in Aug, 563 burn bees vs. 861 control

Big Pole Fire: controls 880 and 600 bees versus burns 438 and 500 bees

Clearly, many bees are emerging and in need of floral bloom if they are to reproduce on-site.

Lastly, we also netted bees at surviving sunflowers along gravel roadways traversing the 450 sq 

mile Long Butte fire west of Twin Falls, ID. Just 4 weeks after the fire, we found the same bee 

fauna at the same densities 3-7 miles into the burn as we found around the perimeter, all of them 

collecting pollen, indicative of active nesting even within the fire.

Some of these bee species, especially at Lomatium and Sphaeralcea, are near impossible to 

identify to species, even with our lab‘s expertise and reference collection of 1⁄2 million bees. We 

therefore submitted samples to the ―The Barcode of Life Data Systems‖ (BOLD), an online 

workbench that aids collection, management, analysis, and use of DNA barcodes, processed 

through the Canadian Centre for DNA Barcoding at the University of Guelph. DNA sequences 

of the COI gene have been successfully amplified, sequenced and taxonomically associated for 

nearly all of the 155 bees sent. The prevalent tiny Micrandrena bees that pollinate wild L. 

dissectum and L. bicolor are a single species, not two indistinguishable sibling species as 

suggested by the monograph of the subgenus. Our identifications of difficult but important 

species of bees at globemallows have been confirmed as well. Together the bees that we have 

submitted lay a foundation for cheap molecular ID of some of the prevalent pollinators of 

dominant Great Basin forbs from this project.
79

Pollinators and breeding biologies of target forbs. From a growing list of samples, we have 

become convinced that long-leaf phlox, Phlox longifolia, is pollinated by bees, not bee-flies as 

thought. The prevalent bees at this flower are female ground-nesting Eucera, which also visit 

Astragalus and Balsamorhiza. We also made unexpected progress in studying the breeding 

biology of Douglas‘dusty maiden, Chaenactis douglasii. We had intended to establish plants 

with a March seeding under the snow, but these plants grew and bloomed the first season. We 

manually pollinated some 4000 flowers, collected the achenes, and are now in the process of xraying them to score endosperm fill as a measure of fertility. This plant grows well in cultivation. 

Its ability to flower in the first growing season bodes well for adding it to seed mixes where it 

can feed resident bee communities in the year after a fire (as can Helianthus, Eriophyllum and 

even Sphaeralcea).

Nematode controls for seed weevils. We have also been studying the tiny weevils and their 

relatives that infest forb seeds, especially the legumes. With a nematologist, Dr. Edwin Lewis at 

UC Davis, we hoped to test some of the predatory nematodes as controls for these seed predators 

during their resting pupal stages in the soil. Practical logistics proved difficult, in that we needed 

to be able to introduce adult weevils to hosts within developing pods so as to get a generation of 

mature larvae in the seeds to test. Because neither the hosts (e.g. Astragalus filipes) nor their 

beetles are native to our part of Utah, rearing in confinement proved impossible in Logan.

Publications:

Cane, J. H. 2010. Pollinator and seed predator studies. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 80-83.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Cane, J. H. [In press]. Specialist Osmia bees forage indiscriminately among hybridizing 

Balsamorhiza floral hosts. Oecologia.

Watrous, K. and J. H. Cane. [In press]. Breeding biology of the threadstalk milkvetch, 

Astragalus filipes (Fabaceae), with a review of the genus. Amer. Midl. Natur.

Presentations:

Cane, James H. Bees are key for producing native forb seed. Consortium of western NRCS Plant 

Materials Centers;2010 April 26-28; Logan, UT.

Cane, James H. Bees are key for producing native forb seed. Seed Production of Native Grasses

and Forbs Workshop; 2010 February 23; Ontario, OR.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html

Cane, James H. From Buds to Seeds: Bees are key. 7

th SER European Conference on Ecological 

Restoration; 2010 August 23-27; Avignon, France.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/2010SEREurope.HTML

Cane, James H. On-farm pollinator surprises ease some pollination challenges for native forb 

production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010

January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml
80

Cane, James H. Peculiar factors enable sustained mass-production of native alkali bees for alfalfa 

pollination. Entomological Society of America, Pacific Branch, Symposium; 2010 April 11-14; 

Boise, ID.

Cane, James H. Pollination and pollinators for wildflower seed farming and post-fire wildland 

rehabilitation. International Conference on Pollinator Biology, Health and Policy, Penn State 

Univ.; 2010 July 24-28; University Park, PA.

Watrous, Kristal M.; Cane, James H. Evaluation of pollinator manageability for agricultural use 

on a native Great Basin legume. International Conference on Pollinator Biology, Health and 

Policy, Penn State Univ.; 2010 July 24-28; University Park, PA. Poster.

Management Applications:

Growers of native forbs for seed who do not plan for pollination will have poor seed production 

for most of the species chosen for the Intermountain West. A subset of species (e.g. Dalea 

ornata) can be handily pollinated with any one of several currently managed pollinators (e.g. 

honey bees, alfalfa leafcutting bees). A commercial grower that finally adopted my advice with a 

related prairie species, D. purpurea, increased his seed yield 40% by using alfalfa leaf-cutting 

bees. More than half of the forb species can be pollinated with cavity-nesting native Osmia bee 

species. We are successfully multiplying several native Osmia species. For the sweetvetch 

pollinator, O. sanrafaelae, we tripled this year‘s nesting population to 17,000 progeny, enough to 

share with a second grower. We continue to multiply O. bruneri as a pollinator for Astragalus 

filipes. At the NRCS facility in Corvallis, we provided cocoons and nest blocks for Osmia 

montana that managers were able to set up to nest as well as forage on and pollinate a large plot 

of Eriophyllum. 

Growers that do not scout for seed beetles risk losing a well-pollinated crop (or risk losing their 

pollinators if sprayed during bloom). I continue to follow the literature and speak with research 

presenters about risks or safety for bees of neonicotinoid systemic insecticides, as these should 

control weevils without aerial spraying. Unfortunately, I have heard convincing data, both pro 

and con, all involving nanogram doses, so I remain tempted but hesitant to recommend 

neonicotinoids.

Products:

Two Osmia bee species that effectively pollinate Hedysarum and Astragalus are increasing well 

for us. Once numerous enough, we will distribute them to seed growers. For one of these, O. 

sanrafaelae, we have an estimated 17,000 individuals (nest x-rays are being scored now). We are 

increasing it at Wind River Farm in Wyoming for pollination of Hedysarum. This may be 

enough bees, rearing experience, etc. to offer this bee to another grower of Hedysarum in 

southwest Colorado (where this bee is also native). The other bee, O. bruneri, we are increasing 

on raspberry and sweetclover bloom in our screenhouse. We expect several thousand progeny, 

but have only pulled the nesting straws for x-ray and tally. Another pair of species, O. montana 

and O. californica, pollinate balsamroots and Eriophyllum. We manage them easily now, and 

they are available in the thousands as by-catch from businesses that are trap-nesting blue orchard 

bees from the wild.
81

Project Title: Allium acuminatum Seed Production: First look at 

cultural parameters

Project Location: Plant Germplasm Introduction and Research, USDA ARS Western 

Regional Plant Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, 

Washington

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

 Barbara Hellier, Horticulture Crops Curator

 USDA ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

 Box 646402, Washington State University

 Pullman, WA 99164

 (509)335-3763, Fax (509)335-6654

 barbara.hellier@ars.usda.gov

 R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

(509)335-3771, Fax (509)335-6654

rcjohnson@wsu.edu

Project Description:

As a component of Greater Sage-Grouse and Southern Idaho Ground Squirrel habitat, Allium 

acuminatum Hook. (Tapertip onion) has been targeted for use in restoration projects. In the 

related project titled ―Genetic diversity patterns of Allium acuminatum in the Great Basin‖ 

locally adapted seed sources and seed transfer zones were identified for this species. A next step 

needed before A. acuminatum can be used for restoration projects is to understand how to make 

quantities of propagules available. Either dormant bulbs or true seed may be viable options for 

taper-tip onion stand establishment. For use of either type of propagule, quantities of true seed 

will be needed. Minimal information is available on the cultural needs of this species for seed 

production in an agricultural setting. The objectives of this project are to look at production 

parameters needed to grow A. acuminatum for a seed crop. 

Methods

It takes 3-4 years for A. acuminatum plants grown from seed to flower. The average bulb 

diameter of plants that age is 4-5 mm (Dave Skinner, personal communication). For this trial, 

dormant mature bulbs with a diameter of 7-15 mm were used. This was a 2-year trial. Bulbs 

were planted in October 2008 and 2009 in Pullman, WA in randomized complete blocks with 4 

replications. The treatments were 1) mechanical planting with bulbs spaced 1 inch apart, 2) 

mechanical planting with bulbs spaced 2 inches apart, 3) hand planting with 1 inch bulb spacing, 

and 4) hand planting with 2 inch bulb spacing. Each plot had 60 bulbs planted at a depth of 1 

inch. The plots were rototilled prior to planting but no pre-plant herbicide or fertilizer was 

applied. A single row Hege belt cone planter was used for the mechanically planted plots. No 

irrigation was applied to the trial during the growing season. Emergence was taken April 16, 
82

2009 and April 21, 2010. Flowers per umbel counts were taken for 25 randomly selected plants 

per plot on June 11, 2009 and from June 22 to July 2, 2010. When half or more seed capsules 

were open on individual umbels and all plants in a plot had mature seed, whole umbels from 25 

individual plants were harvested by hand from each plot. Harvest dates were July 14 and 15, 

2009 and July 22, 2010. In August 2009 the bulbs from all plots were dug and stored in the 

Western Regional Plant Introduction drying shed until September 2009 when they were moved 

to a temperature and humidity controlled chamber. Bulbs were stored at 14°C and 40% RH until 

early October 2009 when they were cleaned, counted, sized and repackaged for planting. During 

repackaging, bulbs were discarded if they showed signs of disease, herbivory, were soft and 

rubbery, or hard and desiccated. Seed was cleaned, counted, and weighed on a per plant basis. 

Only fully filled seed was included in the counts. Light or partially filled seeds were discarded.

Results and Discussion

Table 1 summarizes emergence, flower production, seed harvested per plant, and seed weights 

for the 2009 and 2010 trials. There were no statistically significant differences found among any 

of the treatments for the production of flowers per umbel, seeds per plant, total seed harvested or 

seed weights in 2010 or between years. In 2009 for all parameters there were no statistically 

significant differences except for flowers/umbel. At the P<0.05 level the differences seen in 

flower production per umbel were statistically different with interaction between method and 

spacing but this did not result in differences in seed production. 

Based on these results we can say that mechanical planting was successful as an efficient 

planting technique. Also, when using mature bulbs for seed production, bulbs can be spaced as 

close as 1 inch without compromising yield. 

Seed production per plant was lower than expected in both years. Based on the number of 

flowers per umbel produced and the potential number of seed per flower (3-locular with 2 ovules 

per locule per capsule), average seed per plant should be approximately 180. During harvest, 

shattered seed was observed on the ground. Since A. acuminatum seed ripens in lower capsules 

before the upper capsules it is easily dislodged from open fruit. In many harvested umbels there 

were some green capsules. Even though the seed in these capsules looked fully filled, they didn‘t 

dry down to produce high quality seed. In 2010 umbels were harvested on two dates, July 22 and 

July 30. For the July 30 harvest, more upper capsules were open with ripe seed than with the July 

22 harvest, which had more lower capsules open. Seed yield per plant was lower for the later 

harvest suggesting that the seed in the upper capsules does not fully fill and produce as high a 

quality seed as seed from lower capsules, even if left on the plant. Because of these factors, 

timing seed collection to maximize harvest will be critical for A. acuminatum production.

Table 2 summarizes bulb production from the 2009 trial. In 2010 bulb yield was not recorded 

due to disease in the plots. There were no statistical differences found among treatments for total 

bulb production, bulbs < 7mm in diameter and the number of discarded bulbs. There were 

statistical differences between spacing treatments for the number of 7-15mm diameter bulbs 

produced. The number of 7-15mm diameter bulbs was highest for the mechanically planted, the 

1-inch spacing treatment, and lowest for the hand planted, 1-inch spacing treatment. The 

mechanical 1-inch spacing and hand planted 2-inch spacing treatments were intermediate (Table 

2). We had difficulty getting a consistent 1 inch spacing using the Hege belt cone planter. The 
83

bulbs tended to bunch in the cone making bulb spacing greater than 1-inch in some cases. This 

potentially wider average spacing could have caused the increased number of bulbs produced in 

the mechanically planted 1-inch bulb spacing treatment.

 

The results show that mechanically planting mature bulbs of taper-tip onion is an efficient 

planting method for seed and bulb production. Bulbs can be spaced 1 inch apart for maximum 

seed production, but a wider between bulb spacing is needed for maximum larger (7-15mm) 

diameter bulb production. Bulb survival and propagule production was achieved in an 

agricultural setting for this wild species. To maximize seed production, seed shattering will need 

to be addressed. 

Table 1. Summary of emergence, flowers per umbel, seed harvest per plant, total seed weight

(for the 25 plants harvested), total number of seed harvested, and 100 seed weight data collected 

from Allium acuminatum seed production trial planted in Pullman, WA in 2009 and 2010. 

Year

Planting 

method Spacing Emergence

Avg. 

flowers/

umbel

Avg.

seed/

plant

Avg. total 

seed 

weight(g)

Avg. total 

no. seeds

Avg. 100 seed 

weight(g)

2009 hand 1 inch 55.5 30.8 31.1 1.5 778.0 0.19

2009 hand 2 inch 57.0 28.9 37.2 2.0 929.0 0.22

2009 mechanical 1 inch 56.0 29.5 39.0 1.9 975.5 0.20

2009 mechanical 2 inch 56.5 30.9 34.5 1.8 860.8 0.20

2010 hand 1 inch 51.8 36.8 33.1 1.7 828.0 0.20

2010 hand 2 inch 50.3 34.6 30.2 1.6 756.5 0.21

2010 mechanical 1 inch 47.8 39.4 41.8 2.2 1043.5 0.21

2010 mechanical 2 inch 52.0 37.0 34.7 1.8 866.3 0.21

Table 2. Summary of bulb production from the Allium acuminatum seed production trial 2009.

Planting 

method

Between bulb 

spacing

Total no. 

bulbs 

produced

No. bulbs 

7 to 15 mm 

diameter

No. bulbs 

<7 mm 

diameter

No. discarded bulbs

Hand 1 inch 94.0a* 64b 4.2a 25.8a

Hand 2 inch 103.5a 79ab 1.2a 23.8a

Mechanical 1 inch 104.2a 81a 1.2a 21.8a

Mechanical 2 inch 104.2a 72ab 1.0a 31.0a

*Means sharing letters are not different using the LSD at P<0.05.

Future Plans

Submit production information to the Native Plants database.

Prepare plant production guide in collaboration with the NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center.

Publications:

Hellier, B; Johnson, R. C. 2010. Allium acuminatum seed production: first look at cultural 

parameters. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 

88-90. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf
84

Presentations:

Hellier, B.; Johnson, R.C. 2010. Seed and bulb production from mechanically planted Allium 

acuminatum bulbs. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 

2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml
85

Project Title: Cultural Thinning of Native Sagebrush Stands to Increase 

Seed Yields

Project: USDA Forest Service, Shrub Science Laboratory, Provo, Utah

Principle Investigators and Contact Information: 

Brad Geary

Brigham Young University 

263 WIDB

Provo, Utah 84602

(801)422-2369

brad_geary@byu.edu

Project Description:

Seed harvesting has become an important part for restoration of public lands and increasing seed 

production of native shrubs would be beneficial. There is a crucial need for large volumes of 

sagebrush seed of higher qua lity for the use in rehabilitation projects (Beetle and Young 1965). 

By removing neighboring plants, there is less competition for water for the remaining stand 

(Armstrong 2007). This study is designed to expand previous research by determining if thinning

stands can improve seed yields in established native populations of Wyoming big sagebrush. The 

specific objective of this research is to determine if treated areas can increase seed yield over 

natural stands of sagebrush. Removal of competition between stands has been the best 

application for increasing seed yield. 

Objectives

1. Determine if chemical elimination of competing shrubs increases seed yield over natural 

stands.

2. Determine if mechanical elimination of competing shrubs increases seed yield over natural 

stands.

3. Determine if treatments are viable options for seed production.

Methods

Two sites were chosen for this study based on area (50 acres or larger), sagebrush stand 

uniformity, and sagebrush density. Both sites are in Utah, the first site is approximately 10 miles 

south of Scipio along the I-15 corridor. The second site is found approximately 10 miles 

southeast at the main entrance to the Little Sahara Recreation Area. Treatments involved in this 

research have the potential for reduc ing overall seeding costs to revegetate large areas of 

disturbed grounds with Wyoming big sagebrush seed. Treatments in this study are: 1) general 

mechanical thinning; 2) mechanical kill in 10-ft strips; 3) general chemical thinning; 4) chemical 

kill in 10-ft strips; and 5) control (natural stand, undisturbed). All treatments were established 

during the summer of 2010. Mechanical thinning and killing was accomplished with a Dixie 

harrow. Plot areas (150 ft x 700 ft) had the Dixie harrow pulled across the terrain once to thin the 

sagebrush. Ten kill strips had the Dixie harrow pulled across the 10-ft strips three times, each 

time the Dixie harrow was going in the opposite direction of the previous pass. Chemical 

thinning and kill treatments used 2,4-D applied foliarly. Thinning treatments were treated with a 
86

lower rate and no oil adjuvants to increase chemical uptake. Ten foot killing strips were treated 

with a higher rate of 2,4-D and an adjuvant oil was added. Control areas were left untouched. 

Project Status

Seed production in 2010 in treatment areas was minimal due to the chemical and mechanical 

disturbances that occurred from the treatments, therefore data for 2010 is not usable. The first 

seed collection to determine treatment difference will occur in 2011.

Literature Cited:

Beetle, A.A.; Young, A. 1965. A third species of the Artemisia tridentata complex. Rhodora 67: 

405-406.

Armstrong, Jeremiah C. 2007. Improving sustainable seed yield in Wyoming big sagebrush. 

Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 29 p. Thesis.
87

Project Title: Evaluation of Imazapic Rates and Forb Planting Times 

on Native Forb Establishment 

Project: Utah State University, Logan, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Corey Ransom

Utah State University

Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, Utah 84322-4820

(435)797-2242, Fax (435)797-3376

corey.ransom@usu.edu

Project Description: 

Successful establishment of native forb species is critical in order to re-establish structure and 

function to disturbed range sites. A large portion of the degraded rangeland in the Intermountain 

Region of the Western U.S. is invaded by downy brome (Bromus tectorum). The most common 

herbicide currently available for downy brome control is imazapic (Plateau). Since restoration 

sites will likely be treated with imazapic for downy brome control prior to establishment of 

desirable species, a greater understanding of the tolerance of different forb species to imazapic is 

needed. This project aims to describe native forb and grass species tolerance to imazapic and 

other herbicides applied to suppress downy brome. This project will also examine the effect of 

herbicide application timing and planting dates on successful species germination and growth.

Materials and Methods

Trials were established at Cache Junction and Nephi, Utah. Herbicide treatments were applied to 

plots measuring 6 ft wide and 60 ft in length. Herbicides were applied with a CO2- pressurized 

backpack sprayer calibrated to deliver 20 gpa at 30 psi. Herbicide treatments included imazapic 

at various rates compared to propozycarbazone (Olympus), sulfosulfuron (Outrider), rimsulfuron 

(Matrix), and sulfometuron (Oust). Herbicide rates are shown in Table 2. Spring applications 

were made April 29 and May 1 and fall application November 30 and 23 at Nephi and Cache 

Junction, respectively. Two applications of Roundup were used to suppress weed growth at 

Cache Junction, while one handweeding was used to remove weeds at the Nephi site. Species 

were seeded perpendicular to the herbicide plots on November 23 at Cache Junction and 

November 25 at Nephi. At Nephi a modified cone seeder was used to plant two rows of each 

species spaced 2.5 ft apart. At Cache Junction, species were seeded in strips 7 feet wide with 

plants rows 8 inches apart with a Tye no-till drill. A list of species seeded at each location is 

included in Table 1. Because field bindweed was prevalent at the Cache Junction location, only 

grass species were seeded at that location. Species densities were determined in the summer of 

2010 by counting the number of plants present in each plot. Plots were hand weeded three times 

during the season, but significant weed growth still occurred between weeding times. 
88

For an additional project, a graduate student compiled a list of grass and forb species and their 

reported sensitivity to imazapic. The majority of the information was found on the Plateau label, 

but few forb species are listed. Very little other information exists.

Table 1. Species seeded in herbicide tolerance trials at Nephi and Cache Junction, Utah in 2009.

Nephi

Utah sweetvetch Astragalus filipies

Prairie clover Dalea ornata

Searle‘s prairie clover Dalea searlsiae

Sulphur-flower buckwheat Eriogonum umbellatum

Nevada goldeneye Heliomeris multiflorum var. nevadensis

Silky lupine Lupinus sericeus

Big blue penstemon Penstemon cyaneus

Globemallow Spharalcea

Big bluegrass ( ̳Sherman‖) Poa secunda

Bluebunch wheatgrass (Anatone) Pseudoroegneria spicata

Cache Junction

Slender wheatgrass ( ̳First Strike‘) Elymus trachycaulus

Basin wildrye ( ̳Magnar‘) Leymus cinereus

Big bluegrass ( ̳Sherman‘) Poa secunda

Bluebunch wheatgrass (Anatone) Pseudoroegneria spicata

Results

Grass plantings failed to establish at the Cache Junction location and no data was colleted.

Only three plant species established at the Nephi location, and densities were highly variable 

among the replicate plots (Table 2). Numbers were recorded for Utah sweetvetch, silky lupine 

and bluebunch wheatgrass. Because of variable establishment only general trends are apparent. 

Utah sweetvetch densities were among the highest at 0.0625 lb ai/A imazapic applied in the 

spring and 0.0313 lb ai/A applied in the fall. Densities were generally lower at rates of 0.125 lb 

ai/A and above depending on the application timing. Sulfosulfuron and sulfometuron treatments 

had among the lowest sweetvetch densities and densities were similar between the application 

timings, while densities were significantly higher when rimsulfuron was applied in the spring as 

opposed to in the fall at planting. Propoxycarbazone appeared to have minimal impact on 

sweetvetch establishment. Few conclusions can be made based on silky lupine data as numbers 

were highly variable. Bluebunch wheatgrass established at much higher numbers than the 

broadleaf species with fall applied imazapic at 0.0625 lb ai/A recording among the highest 

density. Lower imazapic rates in the spring or fall as well as the 0.094 lb ai/A rate in the fall had 

similar densities as did fall applied sulfosulfuron and spring or fall applied propoxycarbazone. 

The sulfometuron treatments had among the lowest bluebunch wheatgrass stands but were 

similar to some of the higher imazapic rates. Rimsulfuron had reduced stands compared to the 

best treatment, but was similar to many of the other treatments in the trial. Grass densities in 

general were not improved with the spring application timings as compared to the fall application 

just prior to planting, possibly because dry conditions did not allow significant herbicide 

degradation to take place during the summer. Apparent increases in density for treatments 

compared to the untreated plots are likely due to competition with weeds that grew between 

times of hand weeding. 
89

Table 2. Plant densities evaluated June 10, 2011 in response to spring or fall herbicide 

applications at Nephi, UT.

Utah 

sweetvetch

Silky 

lupine

Bluebunch 

wheatgrass

Herbicide1 Rate Spring Fall Spring Fall Spring Fall

lb ai/A ____________________________Density (plants/25ft2)

__________________________

Untreated - 3.75 4.25 3.13 1.88 12.13 14.75

Plateau 0.0156 4.38 5.50 2.25 1.50 19.50 14.50

Plateau 0.0313 4.00 6.25 4.00 1.63 15.00 14.25

Plateau 0.0625 6.88 2.38 1.88 1.63 21.25 12.63

Plateau 0.094 4.38 4.13 4.63 1.63 10.63 16.38

Plateau 0.125 3.38 3.25 1.13 2.38 8.00 10.25

Plateau 0.156 2.38 2.38 2.38 3.50 9.25 6.00

Plateau 0.188 2.25 1.50 2.63 2.75 8.75 6.38

Olympus 0.0534 4.50 4.50 2.88 2.13 15.25 15.38

Outrider 0.047 2.88 1.63 2.00 1.75 15.25 9.63

Matrix 0.039 6.75 2.00 2.50 1.25 12.25 8.75

Oust 0.0703 2.13 0.00 1.00 0.00 7.13 1.00

LSD (0.05) - 3.37 2.15 7.34

1All treatments included a non-ionic surfactant at 0.25% v/v.

Direction for 2011

In 2011, additional evaluations of the Nephi site will be made if possible. A location in closer 

vicinity to Logan will be selected, and treatments reestablished in preparation for plantings in the 

fall. Plot size will be reduced and seeding rates increased to try to reduce variability and to 

facilitate potential use of row covers or other techniques to improve planting establishment. 

Laboratory approaches to evaluating seedling tolerance to imazapic and other herbicides will 

proceed. Soil sampling will be delayed until it can be done at the new site. 

Publications:

Ransom, C. 2010. Evaluation of imazapic rates and forb planting times on native forb 

establishment. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. 

p. 148-149. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Ransom, C; Edvarchuk, K. 2010. Identification of herbicides for use in native forb seed 

production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 

97-101. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Ransom, C. 2010. Weed Management Concepts: Developing forb seed production strategies. 

Seed Production of Native Grasses and Forbs Workshop; 2010 February 23; Ontario, OR

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html
90

Ransom, C; Edvarchuk, K. 2010. Forb response to herbicides for seed production and rangeland 

restoration. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 

January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Products:

List of species including information published on tolerance to imazapic.
91

Project Title: Identification of Herbicides for Use in Native Forb Seed 

Production

Project: Utah State University, Logan, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Corey Ransom

Utah State University

Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, Utah 84322-4820

(435)797-2242, Fax (435)797-3376

corey.ransom@usu.edu

Kim Edvarchuk

Utah State University

Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, Utah 84322-4820

(435)797-2256, Fax (435)797-3376

Kim.edvarchuk@aggiemail.usu.edu

Project Description:

Native forb seed is needed to restore the rangelands of the Intermountain West. Weed control is 

essential for the commercial production of native forb seed. Weeds compete with crop plants 

reducing establishment, vigor, and seed production. In addition, some weed seeds can 

contaminate the seed crop reducing its value or introducing weeds to reclamation areas. 

Removal of weeds by hand or with cultivation is economically restrictive.

The overall objective of this research project is to identify herbicides that can be used to control 

weeds in forb seed production with limited injury to the forbs. The forbs evaluated in this 

project include: basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), Western prairie clover (Dalea ornata), and 

Searls‘ prairie clover (Dalea searlsiae).

Results for 2010

Few results were obtained in 2010 due to lack of a field site and limited seed availability. One 

accomplishment was the establishment of field plots at Herrman Northwest Farms in Washington 

on new and established seedings of Astragalus filipies (Dry River, germplasm) and Dalea ornata

(Aridlands, germplasm). Most of the applications will be made in spring of 2011 and evaluated

through the summer of 2011. Another accomplishment was procurement of enough seed from 

Herrman Northwest to allow the planting of 0.125 acre research sites each of Astragalus filipies

and Dalea ornata at the Utah State University, Greenville Research Farm. Seed had been 

scarified and treated with fungicide by Herrman Northwest. Enough seed remains to allow 

another 0.125 acre planting of both species in spring 2011. Preemergence and postemergence 

herbicide applications will be made in spring 2011 and evaluated throughout the summer 2011.
92

Direction for 2011

Field trials will be established as mentioned above and evaluated during the summer of 2011. 

Treatments will include herbicides that were identified as having minimal injury to Astragalus 

filipies and Dalea ornata in earlier trials. 

Publications:

Ransom, C.V. 2010. Evaluation of imazapic rates and forb planting times on native forb 

establishment. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. 

p. 148-149. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Roerig, K. C.; Ransom, C. V. 2010. Searls‘ prairie clover (Dalea searlsie) tolerance to 

postemergence herbicide applications. West Society of Weed Science Research Progress Report. 

p. 74.

Presentations: 

Edvarchuk, K.; Ransom, C. V. 2010. Herbicide tolerance in grasses and native forb species. 

Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science. 63: 9-10.

Ransom, C. V. Weed management concepts: developing native forb seed production strategies. 

Native Forb Seed Production Workshop, 2010 February 23, Ontario, OR.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html

Ransom, C.V.; Edvarchuk, K. 2010. Forb response to herbicides for seed production and 

rangeland restoration. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 

2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml
93

Project Title: Seed Production of Great Basin Native Forbs ---

Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) for stable, efficient 

native forb seed production using small amounts of 

supplemental irrigation water; Weed Control; and 

Seeding Practices 

Project Location: Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, 

Ontario, Oregon

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Clinton C. Shock 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

(541)889-2174, Fax (541)889-7831

clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu

Erik B. Feibert 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

(541)889-2174, Fax (541)889-7831

Lamont D. Saunders 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

(541)889-2174, Fax (541)889-7831

Cheryl Parris

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

(541)889-2174, Fax (541)889-7831

Nancy Shaw

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E Front St, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702

(208)373-4360, Fax (208)373-4391

Ram Sampangi

UI Parma Research and Extension Center 

29603 University of Idaho Lane

Parma, ID 83660

(208)722-6701 ext. 217, Fax (208)722-6708

Project Description: Plant Irrigation Needs (supplied by subsurface drip irrigation)

Native wildflower seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial 

seed production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A 

major limitation to economically viable commercial production of native wildflower (forb) seed 
94

is stable and consistent seed productivity over years. In natural rangelands, the natural variations 

in spring rainfall and soil moisture result in highly unpredictable water stress at flowering, seed 

set, and seed development, which for other seed crops is known to compromise seed yield and 

quality. 

Native wildflower plants are not adapted to croplands. Native plants are often not competitive 

with crop weeds in cultivated fields. Poor competition with weeds could also limit wildflower 

seed production. Both sprinkler and furrow irrigation could provide supplemental water for seed 

production, but these irrigation systems risk further encouraging weeds. Also, sprinkler and 

furrow irrigation can lead to the loss of plant stand and seed production due to fungal pathogens. 

By burying drip tapes at 12-inch depth and avoiding wetting of the soil surface, we hoped to 

assure flowering and seed set without undue encouragement of weeds or opportunistic diseases. 

The trials reported here tested the effects of three low rates of irrigation on the seed yield of 13 

native forb species. 

Materials and Methods

Plant Establishment. Seed of the seven Intermountain West forb species (the first seven species 

in Table 1) was received in late November in 2004 from the Rocky Mountain Research Station 

(Boise, ID). The plan was to plant the seed in the fall of 2004, but due to excessive rainfall in 

October, the ground preparation was not completed and planting was postponed to early 2005. 

To try to ensure germination the seed was submitted to cold stratification. The seed was soaked 

overnight in distilled water on January 26, 2004, after which the water was drained and the seed 

soaked for 20 minutes in a 10 percent by volume solution of 13 percent bleach in distilled water. 

The water was drained and the seed was placed in thin layers in plastic containers. The plastic 

containers had lids with holes drilled in them to allow air movement. These containers were 

placed in a cooler set at approximately 34°F. Every few days the seed was mixed and, if 

necessary, distilled water added to maintain seed moisture. In late February, seed of Lomatium 

grayi and L. triternatum had started to sprout. 

In late February, 2005 drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch depth between 

two rows (30-inch rows) of a Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic matter. 

The drip tape was buried in alternating inter-row spaces (5 ft apart). The flow rate for the drip 

tape was 0.34 gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches apart, resulting in a water 

application rate of 0.066 inch/hour.

On March 3, seed of all species was planted in 30-inch rows using a custom-made plot grain drill 

with disk openers. All seed was planted at 20-30 seeds/ft of row. The Eriogonum umbellatum

and the Penstemon spp. were planted at 0.25-inch depth and the Lomatium spp. at 0.5-inch depth. 

The trial was irrigated with a minisprinkler system (R10 Turbo Rotator, Nelson Irrigation Corp., 

Walla Walla, WA) for even stand establishment from March 4 to April 29. Risers were spaced 

25 ft apart along the flexible polyethylene hose laterals that were spaced 30 ft apart and the water 

application rate was 0.10 inch/hour. A total of 1.72 inches of water was applied with the 

minisprinkler system. Eriogonum umbellatum, Lomatium triternatum, and L. grayi started 

emerging on March 29. All other species except L. dissectum emerged by late April. Starting 

June 24, the field was irrigated with the drip system. A total of 3.73 inches of water was applied 

with the drip system from June 24 to July 7. The field was not irrigated further in 2005. 
95

Plant stands for Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp., Lomatium triternatum, and L. grayi

were uneven. Lomatium dissectum did not emerge. None of the species flowered in 2005. In 

early October 2005, more seed was received from the Rocky Mountain Research Station for 

replanting. The blank lengths of row were replanted by hand in the Eriogonum umbellatum and 

Penstemon spp. plots. The Lomatium spp. plots had the entire row lengths replanted using the 

planter. The seed was replanted on October 26, 2005. In the spring of 2006, the plant stands of 

the replanted species were excellent, except for P. deustus. 

On April 11, 2006 seed of three globemallow species (Sphaeralcea parvifolia, 

S. grossulariifolia, S. coccinea), two prairie clover species (Dalea searlsiae, D. ornata), and 

basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) was planted at 30 seeds/ft of row (Table 1). The field was 

sprinkler irrigated until emergence. Emergence was poor. In late August of 2006 seed of the 

three globemallow species was harvested by hand. On November 9, 2006 the six forbs that were 

planted in 2006 were mechanically flailed. On November 10, 2006 the six forbs were replanted. 

On November 11, the Penstemon deustus plots were also replanted at 30 seeds/ft of row. 

Table 1. Forb species planted in the drip irrigation trials at the Malheur Experiment 

Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Species Common names

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon, sand-dune penstemon

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon, hot-rock penstemon

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon, sagebrush penstemon

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot, nineleaf desert parsley

Lomatium grayi Gray‘s biscuitroot, Gray‘s lomatium

Sphaeralcea parvifolia Smallflower globemallow

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow

Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow, red globemallow

Dalea searlsiae Searls‘ prairie clover

Dalea ornata Western prairie clover

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch

Irrigation for Seed Production. In April, 2006, each strip of each forb species was divided into 

plots 30 ft long. Each plot contained 4 rows of each species. The experimental designs were 

randomized complete blocks with four replicates. The three irrigation treatments were a nonirrigated check, 1 inch per irrigation, and 2 inches per irrigation. Each treatment received four 

irrigations that were applied approximately every 2 weeks starting with flowering of the forbs. 

The amount of water applied to each treatment was calculated by the duration necessary to 

deliver 1 or 2 inches through the drip system; the amount was measured by a water meter and 

recorded after each irrigation to ensure correct water applications. Irrigations were controlled 

with a controller and solenoid valves.

In March of 2007, the drip-irrigation system was modified to allow separate irrigation of the 

species due to different timings of flowering. The three Lomatium spp. were irrigated together 

and Penstemon deustus and P. speciosus were irrigated together, but separately from the others. 

Penstemon acuminatus and Eriogonum umbellatum were irrigated individually. In early April, 
96

2007 the three globemallow species, two prairie clover species, and basalt milkvetch were 

divided into plots with a drip-irrigation system to allow the same irrigation treatments that were 

received by the other forbs. 

Irrigation dates can be found in Table 2. In 2007, irrigation treatments were inadvertently 

continued after the fourth irrigation. In 2007, irrigation treatments for all species were continued 

until the last irrigation on June 24. 

Soil volumetric water content was measured by neutron probe. The neutron probe was calibrated 

by taking soil samples and probe readings at 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths during installation of the 

access tubes. The soil water content was determined volumetrically from the soil samples and 

regressed against the neutron probe readings, separately for each soil depth. The regression 

equations were then used to transform the neutron probe readings during the season into 

volumetric soil water content. 

Flowering, Harvesting, and Seed Cleaning. Flowering dates for each species were recorded 

(Table 2). The Eriogonum umbellatum and Penstemon spp. plots produced seed in 2006, in part 

because they had emerged in the spring of 2005. Each year, the middle two rows of each plot 

were harvested when seed of each species was mature (Table 2) using the methods listed on 

Table 3. The plant stand for P. deustus was too poor to result in reliable seed yield estimates. 

Replanting of P. deustus in the fall of 2006 did not result in adequate plant stand in the spring of 

2007.

Eriogonum umbellatum seeds did not separate from the flowering structures in the combine; the 

unthreshed seed was taken to the U.S. Forest Service Lucky Peak Nursery (Boise, ID) and run 

through a dewinger to separate seed. The seed was further cleaned in a small clipper seed 

cleaner. 

Penstemon deustus seed pods were too hard to be opened in the combine; the unthreshed seed 

was precleaned in a small clipper seed cleaner and then seed pods were broken manually by 

rubbing the pods on a ribbed rubber mat. The seed was then cleaned again in the small clipper 

seed cleaner. 

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus were threshed in the combine and the seed was further 

cleaned using a small clipper seed cleaner. 

Cultural Practices in 2006. On October 27, 2006, 50 lb phosphorus (P)/acre and 2 lb zinc 

(Zn)/acre were injected through the drip tape to all plots of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon 

spp., and Lomatium spp. On November 11, 100 lb N/acre as urea was broadcast to all Lomatium 

spp. plots. On November 17, all plots of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp. (except P. 

deustus), and Lomatium spp. had Prowl®at 1 lb ai/acre broadcast on the soil surface. Irrigations 

for all species were initiated on May 19 and terminated on June 30. Harvesting and seed 

cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 3.

Cultural Practices in 2007. Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus were sprayed with AzaDirect®

at 0.0062 lb ai/acre on May 14 and May 29 for lygus bug control. Irrigations for each 

species were initiated and terminated on different dates (Table 2a). Harvesting and seed cleaning 
97

methods for each species are listed in Table 3. All plots of the three Sphaeralcea species were 

flailed on November 8, 2007. 

Cultural Practices in 2008. On November 9, 2007 and on April 15, 2008, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre 

was broadcast on all plots for weed control. 

Capture®2EC at 0.1lb ai/acre was sprayed on all plots of Penstemon acuminatus and P. 

speciosus on May 20 for lygus bug control. Irrigations for each species were initiated and 

terminated on different dates (Table 2a). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species 

are listed in Table 3.

Cultural Practices in 2009. On March 18, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre and Volunteer at 8 oz/acre were 

broadcast on all plots for weed control. On April 9, 50 lb N/acre and 10 lb P/acre were applied 

through the drip irrigation system to the three Lomatium species. 

The flowering, irrigation timing, and harvest timing were recorded for each species (Table 2b). 

Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 3.

Cultural Practices in 2010. On December 4, 2009, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all 

plots for weed control. Flowering, irrigation timing, and harvest timing were recorded for each

species (Table 2b). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 3.
98

Table 2a. Native forb flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species in 2006, 2007, and 

2008, Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Flowering Irrigation

Species start peak end start end Harvest

2006

Eriogonum umbellatum 19-May 20-Jul 19-May 30-Jun 3-Aug

Penstemon acuminatus 2-May 10-May 19-May 19-May 30-Jun 7-Jul

Penstemon deustus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 4-Aug

Penstemon speciosus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 13-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium grayi 19-May 30-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia

S. grossulariifolia

Sphaeralcea coccinea

Dalea searlsiae

Dalea ornata

2007

Eriogonum umbellatum 25-May 25-Jul 2-May 24-Jun 31-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 19-Apr 25-May 19-Apr 24-Jun 9-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun 23-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 5-Apr 24-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 1-Jun 5-Apr 24-Jun 29-Jun, 16-Jul

Lomatium grayi 5-Apr 10-May 5-Apr 24-Jun 30-May, 29-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 

13-Aug

S. grossulariifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 

13-Aug

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 

13-Aug

Dalea searlsiae 20-Jun, 10-Jul

Dalea ornata 20-Jun, 10-Jul

2008

Eriogonum umbellatum 5-Jun 19-Jun 20-Jul 15-May 24-Jun 24-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 29-Apr 5-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 11-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 17-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 29-May

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 5-Jun 10-Apr 29-May 3-Jul

Lomatium grayi 25-Mar 15-May 10-Apr 29-May 30-May, 19-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

S. grossulariifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Dalea searlsiae 19-Jun

Dalea ornata 19-Jun
99

Table 2b. Native forb flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species in 2009 and 2010, 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Flowering Irrigation

Species start peak end start end Harvest

2009

Eriogonum umbellatum 31-May 15-Jul 19-May 24-Jun 28-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 2-May 10-Jun 8-May 12-Jun 10-Jul

Penstemon deustus 19-May 24-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 14-May 20-Jun 19-May 24-Jun 10-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 7-May 20-Apr 28-May 16-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 10-Apr 7-May 1-Jun 20-Apr 28-May 26-Jun

Lomatium grayi 10-Mar 7-May 20-Apr 28-May 16-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

S. grossulariifolia 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

2010

Eriogonum umbellatum 4-Jun 12-19 Jun 15-Jul 28-May 8-Jul 27-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus

Penstemon deustus

Penstemon speciosus 14-May 20 June 12-May 22-Jun 22-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 25-Apr 20 May 15-Apr 28-May 21-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 15 Jun 15-Apr 28-May 22-Jul

Lomatium grayi 15-Mar 15 May 15-Apr 28-May 22-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

S. grossulariifolia 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul
100

Table 3. Native forb seed harvest and cleaning by species, Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon 

State University, Ontario, OR.

Species Number of 

harvests/year

Harvest method PrecleaningThreshing 

method

Cleaning 

method

Eriogonum umbellatum 1 combineanone dewingerb mechanicald

Penstemon acuminatus 1 combinecnone combine mechanicald

Penstemon deustus 1 combinea mechanicald

hande mechanicald

Penstemon speciosusf

1 combinecnone combine mechanicald

Lomatium dissectum 1 hand hand none mechanicald

Lomatium triternatum 1 – 2 hand hand none mechanicald

Lomatium grayi 1 – 2 hand hand none mechanicald

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 1 – 3 hand or combinecnone combine none

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 1 – 3 hand or combinecnone combine none

Sphaeralcea coccinea 1 – 3 hand or combinecnone combine none

Dalea searlsiae 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanicald

Dalea ornate 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanicald

a Wintersteiger Nurserymaster small-plot combine with dry bean concave.

b

Specialized seed threshing machine at USDA Lucky Peak Nursery used in 2006. Thereafter an adjustable hand -

driven corn grinder was used to thresh seed.

cWintersteiger Nurserymaster small-plot combine with alfalfa seed concave. For the Sphaeralcea species, flailing in 

the fall of 2007 resulted in more compact growth and one combine harvest in 2008, 2009, and 2010.

d

Clipper seed cleaner.

eHard seed pods were broken by rubbing against a ribbed rubber mat.

f Harvested by hand in 2007 and 2009 due to poor seed set.

Results and Discussion

The soil volumetric water content in the various species in 2010 responded to the irrigation 

treatments (Figs. 3 - 7) and remained fairly moist due to the late distribution of precipitation in 

2010 (Figure 2).

Emergence for the two prairie clover (Dalea spp.) species in the spring of 2007 was again poor. 

Emergence for Penstemon deustus and for basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) was extremely 

poor; A. filipes produced negligible amounts of seed in 2007.

Flowering and Seed Set. Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus had poor seed set in 2007, 

partly due to a heavy lygus bug infestation that was not adequately controlled by the applied 

insecticides. In the Treasure Valley, the first hatch of lygus bugs occurs when 250 degree days 

(52oF base) are accumulated. Data collected by an AgriMet weather station adjacent to the field 

indicate that the first lygus bug hatch occurred on May 14, 2006, May 1, 2007, May 18, 2008, 

May 19, 2009, and May 29, 2010. The average (1995 - 2010) lygus bug hatch date was May 18. 

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus start flowering in early May. The earlier lygus bug 

hatch in 2007 probably resulted in harmful levels of lygus bugs present during a larger part of the 

Penstemon spp. flowering period than normal. Poor seed set for P. acuminatus and P. speciosus

in 2007 also was related to poor vegetative growth compared to 2006 and 2008. In 2009, all 

plots of P. acuminatus and P. speciosus again showed poor vegetative growth and seed set. Root 
101

rot affected all plots of P. acuminatus in 2009, killing all plants in two of the four plots of the 

wettest treatment (2 inches per irrigation). 

The three Sphaeralcea species (globemallow) showed a long flowering period (early May 

through September) in 2007. Multiple manual harvests were necessary because the seed falls out 

of the capsules once they are mature. The flailing of the three Sphaeralcea species starting in the 

fall of 2007 was done annua lly to induce a more concentrated flowering allowing one 

mechanical harvest. Precipitation in June of 2009 (2.27 inches) and 2010 (1.95 inches) was 

substantially higher than average (0.76 inches). Rust (Puccinia sherardiana) infected all three 

Sphaeralcea species in June of 2009 and 2010, causing substantial leaf loss and reduced 

vegetative growth.

Seed Yields.

Eriogonum umbellatum. In 2006, seed yield increased with increasing water application, up to 8 

inches, the highest amount tested (Table 5, Fig. 3). In 2007, 2008, and 2009 seed yield showed a 

quadratic response to irrigation rate (Tables 5 and 6). Seed yields were maximized by 8.1 inches, 

7.2 inches, and 6.9 inches of water applied in 2007, 2008, and 2009, respectively. In 2010, there 

was no significant difference in yield between treatments. The 2010 season had unusually cool 

(Table 3, Figure 1) and wet weather (Figure 2). The precipitation accumulated in April through 

June of 2010 was the highest since 2006 (Table 3). The relatively high seed yield (252 lb/acre) 

of E. umbellatum in the non-irrigated treatment in 2010 seemed to be related to the high AprilJune precipitation in 2010. Averaged over 5 years, seed yield of Eriogonum umbellatum

increased with increasing water applied up to 8 inches, the highest amount tested (Fig. 3). The 

quadratic seed yield responses most years suggests that additional irrigation above 8 inches 

would not be beneficial.

Penstemon acuminatus. There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation 

treatments in 2006 (Table 5). Precipitation from March through June was 6.4 inches in 2006. 

The 64-year average precipitation from March through June is 3.6 inches. The wet weather in 

2006 could have attenuated the effects of the irrigation treatments. In 2007 and 2008, seed yield 

showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Figure 4). Seed yields were maximized by 4.0 and 

8.5 inches of water applied in 2007 and 2008, respectively. In 2009, there was no significant 

difference in seed yield between treatments (Table 6). However, due to root rot affecting all 

plots in 2009, the seed yield results were compromised. By 2010, substantial lengths of row only 

contained dead plants. Measurements in each plot showed that plant death increased with 

increasing irrigation rate. The percent of stand loss was 51.3, 63.9, and 88.5 for the 0, 4, and 8-

inch irrigation treatments, respectively. The trial area was disked out in 2010. Following the 

2005 planting, seed yields were substantial in 2006 and moderate in 2008. P. acuminatus is a 

short-lived perennial.

Penstemon speciosus. In 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009 seed yield showed a quadratic response to 

irrigation rate (Fig. 5). Seed yields were maximized by 4.3, 4.2, 5.0, and 4.3 inches of water 

applied in 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, respectively. In 2010, there was no difference in seed 

yield between treatments. Seed yield was low in 2007 due to lygus bug damage, as discussed 

previously. Seed yield in 2009 was low due to stand loss from root rot. The plant stand 

recovered somewhat in 2010, due in part to natural reseeding, especially in the non-irrigated 

plots. The average of the seed yield for 2006 and 2008 was estimated to be maximized by 4.7 

inches of water applied (Fig. 5).
102

Penstemon deustus. There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation 

treatments in 2006 or 2007. Both the replanting of the low stand areas in October 2005 and the 

replanting of the whole area in October 2006 resulted in very poor emergence and in plots with 

very low and uneven stands. The production of P. deustus seed will depend on learning how to 

establish plant stands.

Lomatium triternatum. A trend emerged for increasing seed yield with increasing irrigation rate 

in 2007 (Table 5). The highest irrigation rate resulted in significantly higher seed yield than the 

non-irrigated check treatments. Seed yields of L. triternatum were substantially higher in 2008, 

2009, and 2010 (Tables 5 and 6). In 2008, 2009, and 2010 seed yields of L. triternatum showed 

a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Fig. 6). Seed yields were estimated to be maximized by 

8.4, 5.4, and 7.8 inches of water applied in 2008, 2009, and 2010, respectively. Averaged over 4 

years, seed yield of L. triternatum was estimated to be maximized by 7.2 inches of water applied.

Lomatium grayi. A trend emerged for increasing seed yield with increasing irrigation rate in 

2007 (Table 5). The highest irrigation rate resulted in significantly higher seed yield than the 

non-irrigated check. Seed yields of L. grayi were substantially higher in 2008 and 2009. In 

2008, seed yields of L. grayi showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Fig. 7). Seed yields 

were estimated to be maximized by 6.9 inches of water applied in 2008. In 2009, seed yie ld 

showed a linear response to irrigation rate. Seed yield with the 4 inch irrigation rate was 

significantly higher than with the non-irrigated check, but the 8 inch irrigation rate did not result 

in a significant increase above the 4 inch rate. In 2010, seed yield was not responsive to 

irrigation. The unusually wet spring of 2010 could have caused the lack of response to irrigation. 

A further complicating factor in 2010 that compromised seed yields was rodent damage. 

Extensive rodent (vole) damage occurred over the 2009/2010 winter. The affected areas were 

transplanted with 3-year old L. dissectum plants from an adjacent area in the spring of 2010. To 

reduce the attractiveness to voles, the plants were mowed after becoming dormant in early fall of 

2010. Averaged over 4 years, seed yield of L. grayi was estimated to be maximized by 5.6 

inches of water applied.

Lomatium dissectum. Exhibited very poor vegetative growth in 2006, 2007, and 2008, and 

produced only very small amounts of flowers in 2008. In 2009, vegetative growth and flowering 

for L. dissectum were higher. Seed yield of L. dissectum showed a linear response to irrigation 

rate in 2009 (Fig. 8). Seed yield with the 4-inch irrigation rate was significantly higher than with 

the non-irrigated check, but the 8-inch irrigation rate did not result in a significant increase above 

the 4-inch rate. In 2010, seed yield of L. dissectum showed a quadratic response to irrigation 

rate. Seed yield was estimated to be maximized by 5.4 inches of applied water in 2010. 

Averaged over the two years, seed yield showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate and was 

estimated to be maximized by 5.8 inches of water applied.

All the Lomatium species tested were affected by Alternaria fungus, but the infection was 

greatest on the L. dissectum selection planted in this trial. This infection might have delayed L. 

dissectum plant development.

Sphaeralcea sp. In 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010 there were no significant differences in seed 

yield among irrigation treatments for the three Sphaeralcea species (Tables 5 and 6). 
103

Dalea ornata and Dalea searlsiae. Emergence for the two Dalea species was poor, and plots 

had poor and uneven stands. In 2007, there was no significant difference in seed yield among 

irrigation treatments for the two Dalea species, with D. ornata having the highest seed yield. 

The stand of the three Dalea species declined and was too poor for seed harvest in 2008. The 

three Dalea species were replanted in the fall of 2008, but emergence was again poor and stands 

were not adequate for seed harvest in 2009. D. ornata and D. searlsiae were replanted in new 

areas in the fall of 2009. Irrigation treatments will be applied starting in 2011.

Conclusions

Subsurface drip irrigation systems were tested for native seed production because they have two 

potential strategic advantages, a) low water use, and b) the buried drip tape provides water to the 

plants at depth, precluding stimulation of weed seed germination on the soil surface and keeping 

water away from native plant tissues that are not adapted to a wet environment. 

Due to the arid environment, supplemental irrigation may be often required for successful 

flowering and seed set because soil water reserves may be exhausted before seed formation. The 

total irrigation requirements for these arid-land species were low and varied by species. The 

Sphaeralcea spp. and Penstemon acuminatus did not respond to irrigation in these trials. 

Penstemon speciosus and Lomatium dissectum required approximately 4 inches of irrigation. 

Lomatium grayi, Lomatium triternatum, and Eriogonum umbellatum responded quadratically to 

irrigation with optimum near 8 inches. The other species tested had insufficient plant stands to 

reliably evaluate response to irrigation. 

Literature Cited:

USDA, NRCS. 2009. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 13 March 2009). National 

Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Table 4. Precipitation and growing degree days at the Malheur Experiment Station.

Precipitation (inches) Growing degree days (50 - 86 oF)

Year January - June April - June Jan - June

2006 9.0 3.1 1120

2007 3.1 1.9 1208

2008 2.9 1.2 936

2009 5.8 3.9 1028

2010 8.3 4.3 779

66-year average 5.8 2.7 1053a

a

24-year average
104

Figure 1. Cumulative annual and 20-year average growing degree days at the Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

Figure 2. Cumulative annual and 66-year average precipitation from January through July at the 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

91 122 153 184 215

Day of year

0

300

600

900

1200

1500

Cumul ati ve degree days (50 - 86 oF )

Aver age

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

0

2

4

6

8

10

Monthl y preci pi tati on, i nches

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Avg

Day of year

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

Cumulative degree days (50-88F) Monthly precipitation, inches
Ta ble 5. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) in 2006, 2007, and 2008. Malheur Experiment Station, Orego n State 

University, Ontario, OR.

2006 2007 2008

Species

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

---------------------------------------------------------- lb/acre --------------------------------------------------------

Eriogonum umbellatuma155.3 214.4 371.6 92.9 79.6 164.8 193.8 79.8 121.3 221.5 245.2 51.7

Penstemon acuminatusa538.4 611.1 544.0 NS 19.3 50.1 19.1 25.5b56.2 150.7 187.1 79.0

Penstemon deustusc1246.4 1200.8 1068.6 NS 120.3 187.7 148.3 NS --- very poor stand ---

Penstemon speciosusa163.5 346.2 213.6 134.3 2.5 9.3 5.3 4.7b94.0 367.0 276.5 179.6

Lomatium dissectumd---- no flowering ---- --- no flowering --- -- very little flowering --

Lomatium triternatumd---- no flowering ---- 2.3 17.5 26.7 16.9b195.3 1060.9 1386.9 410.0

Lomatium grayid---- no flowering ---- 36.1 88.3 131.9 77.7b393.3 1287.0 1444.9 141.0

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae1062.6 850.7 957.9 NS 436.2 569.1 544.7 NS

Sphaeralcea grossularifoliae442.6 324.8 351.9 NS 275.3 183.3 178.7 NS

Sphaeralcea coccineae279.8 262.1 310.3 NS 298.7 304.1 205.2 NS

Dalea searlsiaee11.5 10.2 16.4 NS ----- very poor stand ----

Dalea ornatae47.4 27.3 55.6 NS ----- very poor stand ----

a

planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005.

b LSD (0.10).

c planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005 and whole area replanted in October 2006. Yields i n 2006 are based on small area 

with adequate stand. Yields in 2007 are based on whole area of very poor and uneven stand.

d planted March, 2005, whole area replanted in October 2005.

e planted spring 2006, whole area replanted in November 2006.

f Based on small areas with good plant stands in 2006.

105
Ta ble 6. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) in 2009, 2010, and 2 to 5 -year averages. Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR.

2009 2010 2 to 5-year averages

Species

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

--------------------------------------------------- lb/acre ----------------------------------------------

Eriogonum umbellatuma

132.3 223.0 240.1 67.4 252.9 260.3 208.8 NS 153.9 215.2 250.1 25.6

Penstemon acuminatusa

20.7 12.5 11.6 NS -- Stand disked out --

Penstemon deustusc

--- very poor stand ---

Penstemon speciosusa

6.8 16.1 9.0 6.0b 147.2 74.3 69.7 NS 81.3 148.5 114.5 NS

Lomatium dissectumd

50.6 320.5 327.8 196.4b 265.8 543.8 499.6 199.6 158.2 432.2 413.7 158.6

Lomatium triternatumd

181.6 780.1 676.1 177.0 1637.2 2829.6 3194.6 309.4 504.1 1172.0 1321.1 149.7

Lomatium grayid

359.9 579.8 686.5 208.4 1035.7 1143.5 704.8 NS 456.2 774.7 742.0 196.9

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae

285.9 406.1 433.3 NS 245.3 327.3 257.3 NS 507.5 538.3 548.3 NS

Sphaeralcea grossularifoliae

270.7 298.9 327.0 NS 310.5 351.0 346.6 NS 324.8 289.5 301.1 NS

Sphaeralcea coccinea

e

332.2 172.1 263.3 NS 385.7 282.6 372.5 NS 324.1 255.2 287.8 NS

Dalea searlsiaee

-- very poor stand -- --- very poor stand ---

Dalea ornatae

--- very poor stand ---- --- very poor stand ---

a

planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005.

b LSD (0.10).

c planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005 and whole area replanted in October 2006. Yields in 2006 were based on small areas 

with adequate stand. Yields in 2007 were bas ed on whole area of very poor and uneven stand.

d planted March, 2005, whole area replanted in October 2005.

e planted spring 2006, whole area replanted in November 2006.

f

Based on small areas with good plant stands in 2006.

106
107

Figure 3. Soil volumetric water content for Eriogonum umbellatum over 

time in 2010. Soil volumetric water content is the combined average at 

the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on May 28 and ended

on July 8. Arrows denote irrigations. E. umbellatum was harvested on 

July 27 (day 208). 

Figure 4. Soil volumetric water content for Penstemon speciosus over 

time in 2010. Soil volumetric water content is the combined average at 

the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on May 12 and ended

on June 22. Arrows denote irrigations. P. speciosus was harvested on 

July 22 (day 203). 

130 140 150 160 170 180 190

Day of 2010

10

15

20

25

30

Vol umetri c water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

130 140 150 160 170 180

Day of 2010

10

15

20

25

30

Vol umetri c water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

Day of 2010

Volumetric water content, %

Day of 2010

Volumetric water content, %
108

Figure 5. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium triternatum over 

time in 2010. Soil volumetric water content is the combined average at 

the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on April 15 and ended 

on May 28. Arrows denote irrigations. L. triternatum was harvested on 

July 22 (day 203). 

Figure 6. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium grayi over time 

in 2010. Soil volumetric water content is the combined average at the 

8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on April 15 and ended on 

May 28. Arrows denote irrigations. L. grayi was harvested on June 22 (day 173). 

100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170

Day of 2010

10

15

20

25

30

Vol umetri c water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170

Day of 2010

10

15

20

25

30

Vol umetri c water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

Volumetric water content, % Volumetric water content, %

Day of 2010

Day of 2010
109

Figure 7. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium dissectum

over time in 2010. Soil volumetric water content is the combined 

average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

April 15 and ended on May 28. Arrows denote irrigations.

L. dissectum was harvested on June 21(day 172).

Figure 8. Average annual Eriogonum umbellatum seed yield response 

to irrigation water applied in 5 years and averaged over 5 years. 

Regression equations:

2006, Y = 137.9 + 27.8X, R2= 0.68, P = 0.01; 2007, Y = 79.6 + 28.3X – 1.75X2, R2= 0.69, P = 0.05; 

2008, Y = 121.3 + 34.6X – 2.4X2, R2= 0.73, P = 0.01; 2009, Y = 132.3 + 31.9X – 2.3X2, R2= 0.60, P = .05; 

2010, Y = 252.9 + 9.21X – 1.8X2, R2= 0.08, P = NS; 5-year average, Y = 158.3 + 12X, R2= 0.77, P = 0.001

100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170

Day of 2010

10

15

20

25

30

Vol umetri c water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

0 4 8

Total water applied, inches

0

1 0 0

2 0 0

3 0 0

4 0 0

Seed yield, lb/acre

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

5- year avg

Day of 2010

Volumetric water content, % Seed yield, lb/acre

Total water applied, inches

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

5-year average
110

Figure 9. Annual and 2-year average Penstemon speciosus seed yield response to 

irrigation water.

Figure 10. Annual and 4-year average Lomatium triternatum seed yield 

response to irrigation water applied.

0 4 8

Total water applied, inc hes

0

200

400

600

Seed yield, lb/acre

2006, 2008 aver age

2009

Y = 1 3 1 . 8 + 9 0 . 7 X - 9 . 6 X 2

R2 = 0 . 6 6 , P = 0 . 0 1

1 6 3 . 5 + 8 5 . 1 X - 9 . 9 X 2

R2 = 0 . 6 6 , P = 0 . 0 5

2 . 5 + 3 . 2 X - 0 . 3 8 X 2

R2 = 0 . 4 8 , P = 0 . 1 0

94. 1 + 113. 7X - 11. 4X 2

R2 = 0. 56, P = 0. 05

6. 8 + 4. 4X - 0. 52X 2

R2 = 0. 54, P = 0. 05

2008

2007

2006

2010

Y = 1 4 7 . 2 + 2 9 . 8 X - 2 . 1 X 2

R2 = 0 . 3 5 , P = NS

0 4 8

Total water applied, inc hes

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 1 6 3 7 . 2 + 4 0 1 . 5 X - 2 5 . 9 X 2

R2 = 0 . 8 3 , P = 0 . 0 0 1

Y = 3 . 2 6 + 3 . 0 6 X

R2 = 0 . 5 2 , P = 0 . 0 1

Y = 1 9 5 . 3 + 2 8 3 . 9 X - 1 6 . 9 X 2

R2 = 0 . 7 7 , P = 0 . 0 1

2007

2008

Aver age

2010

Y = 1 8 1 . 6 + 2 3 7 . 4 X - 2 2 . 0 X 2

R2 = 0 . 8 3 , P = 0 . 0 0 1

2009

Y = 5 0 4 . 1 + 2 3 1 . 8 X - 1 6 . 2 X 2

R2 = 0 . 8 6 , P = 0 . 0 0 1

Total water applied, inches

Seed yield, lb/acre

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2006, 2008 average

Seed yield, lb/acre

Total water applied, inches

2007

2008

2009

2010

Average
111

Figure 11. Annual and 4-year average Lomatium grayi seed yield response to

irrigation water applied.

Figure 12. Annual and 2-year average Lomatium dissectum seed yield response to

irrigation water.

0 4 8

Total water applied, inc hes

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Seed yield, lb/acre

2007

2008

2009

2010

4- year avg

Y = 1035. 7 + 95. 3X - 17. 1X 2

R2 = 0. 22, P = NS

Y = 3 7 . 5 + 1 2 . 0 X

R2 = 0 . 2 6 , P = 0 . 1 0

Y = 393. 3 + 315. 4X - 23. 0X 2

R2 = 0. 93, P = 0. 001

Y = 3 7 8 . 7 + 4 0 . 8 X

R2 = 0 . 3 8 , P = 0 . 0 5

Y = 456. 2 + 123. 5X - 11. 0X 2

R2 = 0. 59, P = 0. 05

0 4 8

Total water applied, inc hes

0

200

400

600

800

Seed yield, lb/acre

2009

2010

2- year aver age

Y = 86. 4 + 34. 6 X

R2 = 0. 31 , P = 0. 10

Y = 265. 8 + 109. 8X - 10. 1X 2

R2 = 0. 68, P = 0. 01

Y = 158 . 2 + 105 X - 9. 14X 2

R2 = 0. 62 , P = 0. 05

Total water applied, inches

Total water applied, inches

Seed yield, lb/acre

Seed yield, lb/acre

2007

2008

2009

2010

4-year avg

2009

2010

2-year average
112

Management Applications:

The report above describes practices that can be immediately implemented by seed growers. 

A multi-year summary of research findings is below in Table 7.

Table 7. Amount of irrigation water for maximum seed yield, years to seed set, and life span. 

A summary of multi-year research findings.

Species Optimum amount of 

irrigation Years to first seed set Life span

inches/season from fall planting years

Eriogonum umbellatum 8 1 6+

Penstemon acuminatus 4-8 1 3

Penstemon deustus insufficient stand 2 6+

Penstemon speciosus 4-6 1 3

Lomatium dissectum 6-8 4 6+

Lomatium triternatum 6 2 6+

Lomatium grayi 6-8 2 6+

Sphaeralcea parvifolia no response 1 5+

Sphaeralcea grossularifolia no response 1 5+

Sphaeralcea coccinea no response 1 5+

Dalea searlsiae insufficient stand 1 ?

Dalea ornata insufficient stand 1 ?

Project Description: Weed Control

Native forb seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial seed 

production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A major 

limitation to economically viable commercial production of native forb seed is weed 

competition. Weeds are adapted to growing in disturbed soil, and native forbs are not 

competitive with these weeds. The use of preemergence and postemergence herbicides for forb 

weed control is important, because forbs are fall planted. Fall planting results in nearly 

simultaneous forb and weed emergence early in the spring, complicating weed control. There is 

a considerable body of knowledge about the relative efficacy of different herbicides to control 

target weeds, but few trials have tested the tolerance of native forbs to commercial herbicides. 

This work sought to discover products that could eventually be registered for use for native forb 

seed production. The information in this report is for the purpose of informing cooperators and 

colleagues in other agencies, universities, and industry of the research results. Reference to 

products and companies in this publication is for the specific information only and does not 

endorse or recommend that product or company to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. 

Nor should any information and interpretation thereof be considered as recommendations for the 

application of any of these herbicides. Pesticide labels should always be consulted before any 

pesticide use. Considerable efforts may be required to register these herbicides for use for native 

forb seed production.

The four trials reported here had certain procedures in common. The trials were conducted on a 

field of Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic matter. Before planting, drip 
113

tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch depth midway between two rows (30-inch 

rows). The drip tape was buried in alternating inter-row spaces (5 ft apart). The flow rate for the 

drip tape was 0.34 gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches apart, resulting in a 

water application rate of 0.066 inch/hour.

Trial 1: Tolerance of Native Forbs to Preemergence Herbicides, 2009-2010

This trial tested the tolerance of native forb species to conventional preemergence and 

postemergence herbicides in the field. 

Procedures for Trial 1

The trial was conducted on a part of the field where soybean was the previous crop. After the 

soybean harvest in the fall of 2009, the stubble was fla iled and the field was plowed, disked, and 

groundhogged. 

The experimental design was a randomized complete block with 8 herbicide treatments (Table 1) 

replicated 4 times. Each plot consisted of 8 single rows 5 feet long with one forb species planted 

per row. The herbicides were applied on November 30, 2009 using a CO2 sprayer with 8002 

nozzles at 30 PSI applying 20 gallons per acre. The results of a tetrazolium test were used to 

adjust the seeding rate to 30 viable seeds/foot of row. Seed of the 8 forb species (Table 2) was 

planted on the soil surface on December 1, 2009. After planting, a thin layer of sawdust was 

applied over the seed row. The sawdust was applied at approximately 0.18 oz per foot of row 

(198 lb per acre). Row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO 63801) that covered 4 

rows was applied with a mechanical plastic mulch layer after the sawdust application. The field 

was irrigated to apply 2 inches of water on December 7. On April 7, 2010, the row cover was 

removed from the three Lomatium species and Astragalus filipes and stand counts were made in 

each plot. On April 20, 2010, the row cover was removed from E. umbellatum, P. acuminatus, 

P. deustus, and P. speciosus, and stand counts were made in each plot. 

Results and Discussion for Trial 1

Emergence was poor and uneven for all species (Table 3). Both Penstemon acuminatus and 

Penstemon deustus had zero emergence for all treatments. There were statistically significant 

differences in stand between treatments only for Eriogonum umbellatum and Penstemon 

speciosus. For these two species only Kerb and Treflan resulted in lower stand than the 

untreated check. The uneven emergence casts doubt on the validity of the results.

Table 1. Forb preemergence herbicide treatments.

Herbicide treatment Formulation Application rate

lb ai/acre

Untreated

Prefar 4 EC 5

Kerb 50 WP 1

Treflan 4 EC 0.375

Prowl H2O 3.8 SC 0.75

Balan 1.5 lb ai/gal 1.2

Outlook 6 EC 0.656

Lorox 50 DF 0.5
114

Table 2. Forb species submitted to preemergence herbicides.

Species Common name

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat

Penstemon acuminatus Sand penstemon

Penstemon deustus Hotrock penstemon

Penstemon speciosus Royal or sagebrush penstemon

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf desert parsley

Lomatium grayi Gray's lomatium

Trial 2: A Preliminary Evaluation of Activated Charcoal to Protect Forbs from a Preemergence 

Herbicide

A preliminary trial at the Malheur Experiment Station showed that some forb species are tolerant 

to some pre-emergence applied herbicides (Shock et al., 2007). The use of a pre-emergence 

herbicide for forb weed control is important, because forbs are fall planted. Fall planting results 

in simultaneous forb and weed emergence early in the spring, complicating weed control. 

Research at the Malheur Experiment Station in 2009, showed that activated charcoal could 

protect direct seeded onions from two pre-emergence applied herbicides (Felix and Ishida, 2010). 

This preliminary trial evaluated activated charcoal to protect seed of eight forb species from 

Prowl herbicide.

Procedures for Trial 2

The trial was conducted on a part of the field where soybean was the previous crop. After the 

Table 3. Emergence of eight forb species in the spring of 2010 in response to preemergence 

herbicide treatments applied in the fall of 2009.

Eriogonum 

umbellatum

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Penstemon 

deustus

Penstemon 

speciosus

Lomatium 

dissectum

Lomatium 

triternatum

Lomatium 

grayi

Astragalus 

Herbicide filipes

------------------------------------------------------ % emergence -------------------------------------------------------

Untreated 37.3 0.0 0.0 7.3 6.8 26.0 4.0 66.0

Prefar 38.7 0.0 0.0 2.5 10.3 26.5 3.7 32.3

Kerb 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.7 17.2 3.3 19.8

Treflan 12.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.3 24.2 5.3 33.8

Prowl 

H2O 19.1 0.0 0.0 1.0 8.5 24.3 4.2 30.3

Balan 12.4 0.0 0.0 0.7 10.8 26.3 2.8 32.5

Outlook 14.2 0.0 0.0 5.7 12.0 21.2 2.2 21.0

Lorox 13.8 0.0 0.0 11.2 6.3 24.0 2.8 26.5

Average 18.5 0.0 0.0 3.5 8.0 23.7 3.5 32.8

LSD 

(0.05) 25.30 NS NS 7.2 NS NS NS NS
115

soybean harvest in the fall of 2009, the stubble was flailed and the field was plowed, disked, and 

groundhogged.

The experimental design was a randomized complete block with 2 treatments: a charcoal treated 

and untreated check. The treatments were replicated 4 times. Each plot consisted of 8 single 

rows 5 feet long with one forb species planted per row. The results of a tetrazolium test were 

used to adjust the seeding rate to 30 viable seeds/foot of row. Seed of the 8 forb species (Table 

4) was planted manually on the soil surface on December 1, 2009. After planting, a thin layer of 

sawdust alone (untreated check) or sawdust mixed with activated charcoal (Gro Safe, Norit 

Americas, Atlanta, GA) was applied over the seed row. The sawdust for both treatments was 

applied at approximately 198 lb per acre. For the charcoal treatment, the charcoal was mixed 

with the sawdust at 25% of charcoal by weight. The charcoal applied in the sawdust was 

equivalent to 48 lb charcoal per acre.

After planting and the sawdust application, both treatments had Prowl H2O (3.8 SC) broadcast at 

0.75 lb ai/acre on December 1, 2009. The Prowl was applied using a CO2 sprayer with 8002 

nozzles at 30 PSI and applying 20 gallons per acre. Row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt Co., Inc., 

Sikeston, MO 63801) that covered 4 rows was applied with a mechanical plastic mulch layer 

after the herbicide application. The field was drip-irrigated to apply 2 inches of water on 

December 7. On April 7, 2010, the row cover was removed from the three Lomatium species 

and Astragalus filipes and stand counts were made in each plot. On April 20, 2010, the row 

cover was removed from E. umbellatum, P. acuminatus, P. deustus, and P. speciosus, and stand 

counts were made in each plot. 

Results and Discussion for Trial 2

Activated charcoal applied with the sawdust over the seed row resulted in higher emergence than 

sawdust alone (untreated check) for E. umbellatum, P. acuminatus, P. deustus, P. speciosus, and 

A. filipes (Table 4). For L. triternatum, the charcoal had a detrimental effect on emergence. 

These results suggest that activated charcoal might allow the use of a preemergence herbicide in 

forb weed control for selected species. Further research is needed to refine these procedures.

Trial 3: Native Perennial Forb Tolerance to Repeated Annual Applications of Postemergence 

Herbicides, 2007-2010

Procedures for Trial 3

Plant Establishment. Seed of seven Great Basin forb species (Table 5) received in October 2005

was planted November 1, 2005. The field had been disked, groundhogged, and marked in rows

Table 4. Emergence of eight forb species in the spring of 2010 in response to Prowl herbicide

applied with and without activated charcoal in the fall of 2009.

Eriogonum 

umbellatum

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Penstemon 

deustus

Penstemon 

speciosus

Lomatium 

dissectum

Lomatium 

triternatum

Lomatium 

grayi

Astragalus 

Charcoal filipes

--------------------------------------------------------- % emergence ----------------------------------------------------

yes 34.8 5.5 3.0 34.8 24.3 27.2 9.2 45.0

no 16.3 0.0 0.7 3.3 27.3 45.5 5.8 1.5

LSD(0.05) 0.8 4.9 1.9 13.6 NS 13.5 NS 22.1
116

30 inches apart. The seven forb species were planted in individual rows 435 ft long and 30 

inches apart. Planting depths were similar to those used in the irrigation trial (Shock et al. 2007) 

and varied by species. The crop preceding forbs was wheat. Prior to planting, one drip tape was 

inserted 12 inches deep equidistant between pairs of rows to be planted. The drip tape was 

supplied with irrigation water using filtration and other common drip-irrigation practices (Shock 

2006).

2006 Postemergence Treatments. The lower 200 ft of the field was staked out to make 5-ft-wide 

plots perpendicular to the forb rows, crossing all seven species. Eight treatments including the 

untreated check were replicated four times in a randomized complete block design (Table 6). 

Treatments were applied May 24, 2006 at 30 psi, 2.63 mph, in 20 gal/acre using 8002 nozzles 

with 3 nozzles spaced 20 inches apart. Plant injury in 2006 was rated visually on May 31, June 

15, and June 30.

In 2006 the trial was irrigated very little because of ample rainfall. Very few plants flowered and 

seed was not harvested in 2006.

Spring of 2007. By March 30, 2007, it was difficult if not impossible to distinguish any effects 

of the 2006 postemergence herbicide applications on any of the seven forb species. These

observations suggest that some degree of phytotoxic damage may be acceptable in establishing 

native forb seed fields if effective weed control is achieved.

2007 Postemergence Treatments. The same treatments as in 2006 were applied again to the 

same plots on April 24, 2007. The same application specifications as in 2006 were used in 2007. 

Plant injury was rated visually on May 1, May 11, May 25, and June 12. 

Drip irrigations were applied every 2 weeks starting on April 10 and ending on May 29 (total of 

4 irrigations). Each irrigation applied 1 inch of water. 

Seed of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, P. deustus, and P. speciosus was 

harvested by hand as the seed reached maturity. The seed was cleaned and weighed. Lomatium 

dissectum, L. triternatum, and L. grayi did not flower in 2007.

2008 Postemergence Treatments. The same treatments as in 2006 were applied again to the 

same plots on March 13, 2008. The same application specifications as in 2006 were used in 

2008. 

Drip irrigations were applied every 2 weeks starting on April 5 and ending on June 24 (total of 4 

irrigations). Each irrigation applied 1 inch of water. 

Seed of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, P. deustus, P. speciosus, and Lomatium 

triternatum was harvested by hand as the seed reached maturity from the 5 ft of row across the 

plot width. The seed was cleaned and weighed. Lomatium dissectum and L. grayi had only a 

few flowers in 2008.
117

2009 Postemergence Treatments. The same treatments as in 2006 were applied again to the 

same plots on March 20, 2009. The same application specifications as in 2006 were used in 

2009. 

Drip irrigations were applied every 2 weeks starting on May 22 and ending on June 24 (total of 4 

irrigations). Each irrigation applied 1 inch of water. 

Seed of Lomatium dissectum, and Lomatium grayi was harvested by hand as the seed reached 

maturity from the 5 ft of row across the plot width. The seed was cleaned and weighed. 

2010 Postemergence Treatments. The same treatments as in 2006 were applied again to the 

same plots on April 7, 2010. The same application specifications as in 2006 were used in 2010. 

The trial was not irrigated in 2010.

Seed of Eriogonum umbellatum, Lomatium dissectum, and Lomatium triternatum was harvested

by hand as the seed reached maturity from the 5 ft of row across the plot width. The seed was 

cleaned and weighed. 

General Considerations:

The focus of the evaluations was forb tolerance to the herbicides, not weed control. Therefore, 

weeds were removed as needed in each year. In 2008, 2009, and 2010 the weeds of each species 

were counted in each plot (data not shown).

For each species the effects of herbicides on plant stand and injury were evaluated independently 

from the effects on other species. Treatment differences were compared using ANOVA and 

protected least significant differences at the 95 percent confidence LSD (0.05) using NCSS 

Number Cruncher software (NCSS, Kaysville, UT).

Results and Discussion Procedures for Trial 3

All observations made on the herbicides tested are strictly preliminary observations. Herbicides 

that were observed to be damaging to the forbs as reported here might be helpful if used at a 

lower rate or in a different environment. The herbicides were relatively safe for the forbs in 

these trials but they might be harmful if used at higher rates or in a different environment. 

Nothing in this report should be construed as a recommendation.

2007 Postemergence Treatments. For Eriogonum umbellatum, applications of Buctril, Caparol, 

and Lorox resulted in lower seed yields than the untreated check (Table 6). For Penstemon 

acuminatus, applications of Buctril, Select, Caparol, and Lorox resulted in lower seed yields than 

the untreated check. For P. deustus and P. speciosus applications of Buctril, Goal, Caparol, and 

Lorox resulted in lower seed yields than the untreated check. 

2008 Postemergence Treatments. There was no significant difference in seed yield between the 

reapplied herbicide treatments and the check for Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, 

P. deustus, and P. speciosus in 2008 (Table 7). For Lomatium triternatum, seed yield was 

reduced for the Buctril®treatment, despite the early application. The Lomatium spp. break 
118

dormancy early in the growing season, and L. triternatum could have been susceptible at the 

early application date. Buctril, applied later in 2007 also reduced seed yield of L. triternatum. 

2009 Postemergence Treatments. Root rot caused severe damage to plant stands of Penstemon 

acuminatus and Penstemon speciosus. Penstemon deustus, Lomatium triternatum, and 

Eriogonum umbellatum produced very little seed in 2009. Lomatium dissectum and Lomatium 

grayi produced seed in 2009. There was no significant difference in seed yield between any of 

the applied herbicides and the check in 2009 for Lomatium dissectum and Lomatium grayi (Table 

8). 

2010 Postemergence Treatments. The Penstemon species had compromised stand in 2010 due 

to root rot. Herbicide effects were not evaluated on these species and seed was not collected. 

Lomatium grayi did not produce seed in 2010. There was no significant difference in seed yield 

between any of the applied herbicides and the check in 2010 for Lomatium dissectum and 

Lomatium triternatum (Table 9). For Eriogonum umbellatum, applications of Buctril and Goal 

in 2010 resulted in lower seed yields than the untreated check. 

Summary for Trial 3

All seven species tested were tolerant to Prowl®and Outlook®applied as postemergence 

treatments at the rate, timing, and soils used in these trials. All species were also tolerant to 

postemergence applications of Select®at the rate, timing, and soils used in these trials. Prowl 

and Outlook are broad-spectrum, soil-active herbicides that can prevent weed emergence during 

the season. Select is a foliar-contact, grass herbicide. The use of these three herbicides may 

provide the basis for an effective weed control program for seed production of these five native 

forb species if they become registered options. Further tests are warranted to describe the range 

of safety for these herbicides and whether or not they have any undesirable interactions.

Table 5. Forb species planted at the Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

Ontario, OR and their origins.

Species Common name Origin Year

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat Shoofly Road, Owyhee Co., ID 2004

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf or sand-dune penstemon Bliss Dam, Elmore Co., ID 2004

Penstemon deustus Scabland or hot-rock penstemon Blacks Cr. Rd., Elmore Co., ID 2003

Penstemon speciosus Royal or sagebrush penstemon Leslie Gulch, Malheur Co., OR 2003

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Mann Creek, Washington Co., 

ID

2003

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot or nineleaf desert 

parsley

Hwy 395, Lake Co., OR 2004

Lomatium grayi Gray‘s biscuitroot or Gray‘s lomatium Weiser R. Rd., Washington Co, 

ID

2004
119

Table 6. Seed yield of native forbs in response to annually repeated postemergence herbicides 

last applied on April 24, 2007. Seed yields may not be representative since they are from small, 

one row plots without borders. 

Treatment Rate

Mode of 

action

Eriogonum 

umbellatum

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Penstemon 

deustus

Penstemon 

speciosus

lb ai/acre ----------------------------- lb/acre -----------------------------

Untreated -- 91.7 520.4 903.1 55.3

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 foliar 38.1 305.7 348.5 24.6

Goal 2XC 0.125 foliar 42.6 417.8 333.0 20.9

Select 2.0 EC 0.094 foliar 57.6 304.6 927.3 51.2

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1

soil 115.0 509.4 747.6 52.9

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 foliar 27.3 162.9 86.8 15.7

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 soil 75.1 502.6 835.1 56.6

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 soil/foliar 35.6 264.9 108.5 20.0

LSD (0.05) 51.8 183.4 334.8 29.7*

*LSD (0.10)

Table 7. Seed yield of native forbs in response to annually applied postemergence herbicides 

last applied on March 12, 2008. Seed yields may not be representative since they are from small, 

one row plots without borders. 

Treatment Rate

Mode of 

action

Eriogonum 

umbellatum

Penstemon 

deustus

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Penstemon 

speciosus

Lomatium 

triternatum

lb ai/acre ------------------------------- lb/acre ------------------------------

Untreated -- 365.1 330.2 93.9 487.5 981.5

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 foliar 285.5 309.1 195.6 781.7 187.9

Goal 2XC 0.125 foliar 279.7 427.0 173.3 728.1 820.8

Select 2.0 EC 0.094 foliar 263.0 421.3 107.8 814.7 1062.1

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 soil 385.0 345.4 112.6 608.4 922.7

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 foliar 298.5 267.2 184.6 785.3 1069.8

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 soil 354.8 420.1 110.3 569.0 987.0

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 soil/foliar 368.4 360.4 140.0 672.2 888.1

LSD (0.05) NS NS NS NS 388.7

Table 8. Seed yield of two native forbs in response to annually repeated postemergence 

herbicides last applied on March 20, 2009. Seed yields may not be representative since 

they are from small, one row plots without borders. This was the third consecutive year 

these forbs received the same herbicide treatments.

Treatment Rate Mode of action Lomatium dissectum Lomatium grayi

lb ai/acre ------------ lb/acre -------------

Untreated -- 83.4 32.6

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 foliar 83.3 20.8

Goal 2XC 0.125 foliar 88.0 28.2

Select 2.0 ECa0.094 foliar 78.1 38.2

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 soil 85.6 28.6

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 foliar 66.1 27.8

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 soil 80.9 26.6

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 soil/foliar 104.5 31.2

LSD (0.05) NS NS
120

Table 9. Seed yield of three native forbs in response to annually repeated postemergence 

herbicides last applied on April 7, 2010. Seed yields may not be representative since they are 

from small, one row plots without borders. 

Mode of 

action

Eriogonum 

umbellatum

Lomatium 

triternatum

Lomatium 

Treatment Rate dissectum

lb ai/acre ------------------------------ lb/acre --------------------------

Untreated -- 831.1 485.6 475.3

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 foliar 354.5 317.1 462.8

Goal 2XC 0.125 foliar 271.5 534.7 421.6

Select 2.0 EC 0.094 foliar 625.6 384.8 449.1

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1 soil 773.7 403.9 488.7

Caparol FL 4.0 0.8 foliar 470.5 296.3 449.1

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 soil 853.5 322.0 413.4

Lorox 50 DF 0.5 soil/foliar 460.7 487.5 533.3

LSD (0.05) 373.4 NS NS

Trial 4: Native Perennial Forb Tolerance to Rates and Mixtures of Postemergence Herbicides, 

2008-2010

Procedures for Trial 4

In the fall of 2006 Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, P. deustus, and P. speciosus 

were each planted in areas 10 ft wide and 220 ft long (Table 10). The seeds were planted in 4 

rows 30 inches apart. The field previously had been disked, ground hogged, and marked in rows 

30 inches apart. Planting depths were similar to those used in the irrigation trial (Shock et al. 

2007) and appropriate to each species. Prior to planting, one drip tape was inserted 12 inches 

deep equidistant between pairs of rows to be plante d. A total of 4 drip irrigations applying 1 

inch of water each were applied every 2 weeks in 2009 and 2010. Drip irrigations were applied 

from April 10 to May 29 in 2008 and from May 22 to June 24 in 2009. Each irrigation applied 1 

inch of water. The trial was not irrigated in 2010.

On March 12, 2008, March 20, 2009, and on April 7, 2010, 13 herbicide treatments (Table 2) 

were applied to plots 4 rows wide and 5 ft long. The treatments consisted of different rates and 

combinations of the soil-active herbicides Prowl®and Outlook®. The treatments were arranged 

within each species in randomized complete block designs with four replicates. Treatments were 

applied at 30 psi, 2.63 mph, in 20 gal/acre using 8002 nozzles with 6 nozzles spaced 20 inches 

apart. 

Seed of each species was harvested at maturity. Seed was harvested from the middle two rows in 

each plot of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, and P. speciosus in 2008. Plant 

populations of P. deustus prior to herbicide applications were not adequate for data on seed yield 

to be meaningful. For P. deustus, only observations on herbicide damage were made. In 2009 

and 2010, only seed of E. umbellatum was harvested. Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus 

stands were severely reduced in 2009 due to root rot. 

General Considerations:

The focus of the evaluations was forb tolerance to the herbicides, not weed control. Therefore, 

weeds were removed as needed.
121

The effects of herbicides for each species on plant stand and injury were evaluated independently 

from the effects on other species. Treatment differences were compared using ANOVA and 

protected least significant differences at the 95 percent confidence LSD (0.05) using NCSS 

Number Cruncher software (NCSS, Kaysville, UT).

Table 10. Forb species planted at the Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

Ontario, OR and their origins.

Species Common name Origin Year

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulfur-flower buckwheat Shoofly Road, Owyhee Co., ID 2004

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf or sand-dune penstemon Bliss Dam, Elmore Co., ID 2004

Penstemon deustus Scabland or hot-rock penstemon Blacks Cr. Rd., Elmore Co., ID 2003

Penstemon speciosus Royal or sagebrush penstemon Leslie Gulch, Malheur Co., OR 2003

Results and Discussion of Trial 4

All observations made on the herbicides tested are strictly preliminary observations. Herbicides 

that damaged forbs as reported here might be helpful if used at a lower rate or in a different 

environment. The herbicides were relatively safe for the forbs in these trials but they might be 

harmful if used at higher rates or in a different environment. Nothing in this report should be 

construed as a recommendation.

Symptoms of herbicide injury were not observed in any of the plants in 2008, 2009, or 2010. 

Foliar injury would not be expected since all herbicides tested (except Select®) were soil active 

and were applied early. There were no significant differences in seed yield between the 

herbicide treatments and the untreated check for Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, 

and P. speciosus (Tables 11 and 12). 

Summary of Trial 4

All four species tested were tolerant to Prowl and Outlook applied as postemergence treatments 

at the rate, timing, and soils used in these trials. Prowl and Outlook are broad-spectrum, soilactive herbicides that will prevent weed emergence during the season. Select is a foliar-contact, 

grass herbicide. The use of these three herbicides may provide the basis for an effective weed 

control program for seed production of these five species. Further tests are warranted to describe 

the range of safety for these herbicides and whether or not they have any undesirable 

interactions.
122

Table 11. Seed yield of two forbs in response to post emergence herbicides 

applied on March 12, 2008. All herbicides except Select are soil active.

Treatment Rate Penstemon speciosus Penstemon acuminatus

(lbs ai / ac) ------------- lb/acre -------------

Weed Free, untreated control 820.9 557.9

Select 2.0 ECa0.094 876.7 491.0

Prowl 0.95 644.2 403.7

Prowl 1.19 1242.0 506.1

Prowl 1.43 941.0 573.0

Outlook 0.84 992.5 463.1

Outlook 0.98 860.4 348.1

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.66 653.7 472.3

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.84 965.4 483.6

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.98 827.3 466.4

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.66 917.0 627.8

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.84 835.0 434.4

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.98 707.4 460.0

LSD (0.05) NS NS

a

applied with Herbimax adjuvant at 1% v/v.

Table 12. Seed yield of Eriogonum umbellatum in response to repeated 

postemergence herbicides applied on March 12, 2008, March 20, 2009, and 

April 7, 2010. All herbicides, except Select, are soil active.

Treatment Rate 2008 2009 2010

(lbs ai/acre) --------------- lb/acre ----------------

Weed free, untreated control 276.5 430.0 622.6

Select 2.0 ECa0.094 149.1 475.2 618.1

Prowl 0.95 387.2 440.8 549.7

Prowl 1.19 533.1 596.6 736.5

Prowl 1.43 250.6 596.4 988.8

Outlook 0.84 319.8 474.5 725.2

Outlook 0.98 143.5 501.4 627.4

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.66 300.9 555.5 795.5

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.84 440.0 763.8 861.3

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.98 330.9 569.1 614.8

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.66 244.0 699.8 618.5

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.84 336.7 556.0 592.2

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.98 285.6 506.2 684.3

LSD (0.05) NS NS NS

a

applied with Herbimax adjuvant at 1 percent v/v.

Literature Cited:

Shock, C.C. 2006. Drip irrigation: an introduction. Sustainable Agriculture Techniques, Oregon 

State University Extension Service. EM8782-E, revised October 2006.

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, N. Shaw, and A. DeBolt. 2007. Seed production of 

native forbs shows little response to irrigation in a wet year. Oregon State University 

Agricultural Experiment Station Special Report 1075:21-32.
123

Shock, C.C., J. Ishida, and C.V. Ransom. 2007. Tolerance of seven forbs to preemergence and 

postemergence herbicides. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station Special 

Report 1075: 21-32.

Felix, J. and J. Ishida. 2010. Use of activated charcoal to detoxify Dual Magnum and Outlook

applied pre-emergence on direct-seeded onions. Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 

2009: 115-118.

Management Applications:

Prowl and Outlook herbicides were found to not harm growth and seed production of some forb 

species when applied post emergence. These results can support a potential future registration 

process for these herbicides. In addition, activated charcoal was found to have the potential of 

allowing the use of soil active herbicides applied pre emergence. These results can support a 

potential future registration process for the use of activated charcoal in forb seed production.

Project Description: Plant Establishment Practices

Seed of native plants is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Reliable 

commercial seed production is desirable to make seed readily available. Direct seeding of native 

range plants has been generally problematic, but especially for certain species. Fall planting is 

important for many species, because seed of many species requires a period of cold to break 

dormancy (vernalization). Fall planting of native seed has resulted in poor stands in some years 

at the Malheur Experiment Station. Loss of soil moisture, soil crusting, and bird damage are 

some detrimental factors hindering emergence of fall planted seed. Previous trials at the 

Malheur Experiment Station have examined seed pelleting, planting depth, and soil anti-crustants 

(Shock et al., 2010). Planting at depth with soil anti-crustant improved emergence compared to 

surface planting. Seed pelleting did not improve emergence. Despite these positive results, 

emergence was extremely poor for all treatments, due to soil crusting and bird damage. 

In established native perennial fields at the Malheur Experiment Station and in rangelands we 

have observed prolific natural emergence from seed that falls on the soil surface and is covered 

by thin layers of organic debris. This trial tested the effect of four factors on surface planted 

seed (Table 1). Row cover can be a protective barrier aga inst soil desiccation and bird damage. 

Sawdust can mimic the protective effect of organic debris. Sand can help hold the seed in place. 

Seed treatment can protect the emerging seed from fungal pathogens that might cause seed 

decomposition or seedling damping off. The treatments did not test all possible combinations of 

factors, but tested the combinations that would theoretically be most likely to result in the best 

stand establishment.

This trial tested seed cover, row cover, and seed treatment for emergence of seven important 

species that are native to Malheur County and surrounding rangelands. 
124

Table 1. Treatments evaluated for emergence of seven native plant 

species. Mouse bait packs were scattered over the trial area.

Row 

cover Sawdust

Seed 

Treatment treatment* Sand

 1 yes yes yes yes

 2 yes yes yes no

 3 yes yes no no

 4 yes no yes no

 5 no yes yes no

*mixture of Captan and Ridomil fungicides for prevention of seed decomposition 

and seedling damping off.

Materials and Methods

Six species for which stand establishment has been problematic were chosen. A seventh species 

(Penstemon acuminatus) was chosen as a check, because it has reliably produced good stands at 

Ontario. Seed of Dalea ornata was scarified by immersion for 5 minutes in 98% sulfuric acid. 

Seed weights for all species were determined. A portion of the seed was treated with a liquid 

mix of the fungicides Ridomil MZ58 and Captan (100g Ridomil, 100g Captan in 1 liter of 

water). Seed weights of the treated seeds were determined after treatment. The seed weights of 

untreated and treated seed were used to make seed packets containing approximately 300 seeds 

each. The seed packets were assigned to one of five treatments (Table 2). The trial was planted 

manually on November 12, 2009. The experimental design was a randomized complete block 

with 6 replicates. Plots were one 30-inch bed by 5 feet long. Two seed rows were planted on 

each bed. 

Table 2. Seed weights and tetrazolium test (seed viability) for native plants submitted to 

emergence treatments.

Untreated seed 

weight

Tetrazolium 

Species Common name test

seeds/g %

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber's needlegrass 326.6 81

Dalea ornata blue mountain prairie clover 328.0 89

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf penstemon 922.1 84

Penstemon deustus hotrock or scabland penstemon 5555.6 52

Heliomeris multiflora showy goldeneye 1393.2 88

Crepis intermedia limestone hawksbeard 186.3 39

Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot 135.8 77

Tetrazolium tests were conducted to determine seed viability of each species (Table 2). The 

tetrazolium results were used to correct the emergence data to emergence of viable seed. 

After planting, the sawdust was applied in a narrow band over the seed row at 0.26 oz per foot of 

row (558 lb/acre). For the treatments receiving both sawdust and sand, the sand was applied at 

0.65 oz per foot of row (1404 lb/acre) as a narrow band over the sawdust. Following planting 

and sawdust and sand applications, some of the beds were covered with row cover. The row 
125

cover (N-sulate, DeWitt Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO 63801) covered 4 rows (2 beds) and was 

applied with a mechanical plastic mulch layer. The field was drip-irrigated for 24 hours on 

November 20 to ensure adequate moisture for germination. 

On March 10, 2010, the row cover was removed and emergence counts were made in each plot. 

Emergence counts were again taken on April 9. Seed of Dalea ornata, Penstemon acuminatus, 

and Heliomeris multiflora was harvested by hand in August. Heliomeris multiflora continued to 

flower and seed was again harvested in November. 

Data was analyzed using analysis of variance (General Linear Models Procedure, NCSS, 

Kaysville, UT). Means separation was determined using Fisher‘s least significant difference test 

at the 5 percent probability level, LSD (0.05). 

Results and Discussion

By the first emergence count on March10, 2010, all species had started emerging. By March 10, 

2010, row cover with sawdust and seed treatment resulted in higher emergence than bare ground 

with sawdust and seed treatment for Achnatherum thurberianum, Penstemon deustus, Heliomeris 

multiflora, Crepis intermedia, and Balsamorhiza sagittata (Table 3). By April 9, row cover with 

sawdust and seed treatment had resulted in higher emergence than bare ground with sawdust and 

seed treatment for Penstemon deustus, Heliomeris multiflora, Crepis intermedia, and 

Balsamorhiza sagittata (Table 4). On both dates, adding sawdust to row cover and seed 

treatment did not improve emergence of any species, but reduced emergence of Penstemon 

deustus. 

On either date, adding seed treatment to sawdust and row cover did not improve emergence of 

any species. Adding seed treatment to sawdust and row cover reduced emergence of Penstemon 

acuminatus, Penstemon deustus, Heliomeris multiflora, Crepis intermedia, and Balsamorhiza 

sagittata on March 10 and reduced emergence of Penstemon deustus, Heliomeris multiflora, and 

Crepis intermedia on April 9. Adding sand to sawdust, seed treatment, and row cover increased 

emergence only for Crepis intermedia on March 10. There was no difference in emergence 

between treatments for Dalea ornata on either date. Averaged over species, row cover with 

sawdust resulted in the highest emergence. In conclusion, row cover was the important factor in 

improving emergence.

Plant establishment and growth were excellent in 2010. Dalea ornata, Penstemon acuminatus, 

and Heliomeris multiflora produced seed in 2010 (Table 5). Seed yields of Penstemon 

acuminatus, and Heliomeris multiflora were substantial (based on two hand harvests in 2010). 

Seed yields of Heliomeris multiflora were not realistic on a commercial scale, because there 

were no border rows and the plants grew beyond the plot boundaries. For D. ornata, row cover 

with sawdust and seed treatment resulted in higher emergence than bare ground with sawdust 

and seed treatment. For D. ornata, adding sand to row cover, sawdust, and seed treatment 

significantly reduced yields. Adding seed treatment to row cover and sawdust increased yields 

of D. ornata.
Ta ble 3. Emergence of seven species on March 10, 2010 in response to 5 treatments applied at planting in the fall of 2009. 

Emergence for each species was corrected to the percent emergence of viable seed. Mean s within columns followed by the same letter 

are not significantly different at P = 0.05 according to Fisher‘s protected LSD. 

Row 

cover Sawdust

Seed 

treatment Sand

Achnatherum 

thurberianum

Dalea 

ornata

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Penstemon 

deustus

Heliomeris 

multiflora

Crepis 

intermedia

Balsamorhiza 

Treat ment sagittata Average

------------------------------------------ % emergence -----------------------------------

1 yes yes yes yes 48.6ab 6.74a 26.8a 23.2b 21.4b 76.6a 53.0ab 36.6b

2 yes yes yes no 47.7ab 8.7a 15.3ab 23.5b 21.6b 64.5b 47.3b 32.7b

3 yes yes no no 55.8a 3.6a 24.6a 39.1a 37.1a 86.2a 62.9a 44.2a

4 yes no yes no 44.5b 11.9a 19.7ab 42.8a 24.2b 57.6b 40.1b 34.4b

5 no yes yes no 33.3c 4.1a 10.5b 9.8c 8.3c 38.6c 19.5c 17.7c

Average 46.0 6.2 19.4 27.7 19.8 64.7 34.3 25.5

LSD (0.05) Treat ment 6.9

LSD (0.05) Species 5.2

LSD (0.05) Treat. X Spec. 11.6

Ta ble 4. Plant stands of seven species on April 9, 2010 in response to 5 treatments applied at planting in the fall of 2009. 

Plant stands for each species was corrected to the percent of viable seed. Means within columns followed by the same letter are not 

significantly different at P = 0.05 according to Fisher‘s protected LSD. 

Row 

cover Sawdust

Seed 

treatment Sand

Achnatherum 

thurberianum

Dalea 

ornata

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Penstemon 

deustus

Heliomeris 

multiflora

Crepis 

intermedia

Balsamorhiza 

Treat ment sagittata Average

------------------------------------------ % emergence -----------------------------------

1 yes yes yes yes 47.2ab 13.9a 22.5a 29.8b 22.4b 66.5ab 59.3ab 37.4b

2 yes yes yes no 44.3ab 9.6a 19.6a 32.3b 26.0b 57.0b 60.0ab 35.6b

3 yes yes no no 54.3a 3.2a 26.4a 43.8a 39.2a 77.2a 66.7a 44.4a

4 yes no yes no 41.9b 9.8a 18.9a 49.1a 23.4b 50.7b 49.6b 34.8b

5 no yes yes no 41.2b 5.0a 18.1a 17.1c 10.9c 27.1c 25.5c 20.7c

Average 45.8 7.4 21.1 34.4 21.4 55.7 40.2 27.4

LSD (0.05) Treat ment 6.0

LSD (0.05) Species 5.0

LSD (0.05) Treat. X Spec. 11.2

126
127

Table 5. Seed yield in 2010 of three species planted on November 12, 2009. Yields are based 

on very small plots without border rows. The seed yields of H. multiflora are not realistic in 

terms of commercial production, because the plants grew beyond the plot boundaries. 

Row 

cover Sawdust

Seed 

treatment Sand

Dalea 

ornata

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Heliomeris 

Treatment multiflora Average

-------------------- lb/acre --------------------

 1 yes yes yes yes 40.5b 848.7 891.0 593.4

 2 yes yes yes no 77.0a 632.4 966.2 558.6

 3 yes yes no no 35.9b 783.6 885.5 568.3

 4 yes no yes no 41.2ab 524.4 863.0 476.2

 5 no yes yes no 11.2b 861.0 768.7 547.0

Average 41.2 730.0 874.9 548.7

LSD (0.10) Treatment 35.9 NS NS

Management Applications:

The report above describes practices that can be immediately implemented by seed growers. 

General Conclusions:

- Row cover improved emergence for all species except Penstemon acuminatus. 

- Sawdust did not improve emergence with the probable exception of Balsamorhiza sagittata. 

- Seed treatment reduced emergence of six species. Seed treatment might be beneficial for Dalea 

ornata.

- Sand improved the early emergence of Penstemon acuminatus and Crepis intermedia.

Publications:

C. Parris, C.C. Shock, E. Feibert, and N. Shaw. 2010. Sulphur-flower Buckwheat - Eriogonum 

umbellatum (ERUM), Sustainable Agricultural Techniques: Native Plant Seed Production.

Oregon State University Extension Service, Corvallis. EM 9017.

Shock, C.C.; Feibert, E.B.G.; Saunders, L.D.; Shaw, N. 2010. Emergence of native plant seeds in 

response to seed pelleting, planting depth, scarification and soil anti-crusting treatment. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 91-96.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Shock, C.C., Feibert, E.B.G., Saunders, L.D., and Shaw, N. 2010. Emergence of Native Plant 

Seeds in Response to Seed Pelleting, Planting Depth, Scarification, and Soil Anti-crusting 

Treatment. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station, 2009 Annual Report: 218-

222.

Shock, C.C., Feibert, E.B.G., Saunders, L.D., and Shaw, N. 2010. Native Wildflower Seed 

Production with Limited Subsurface Drip Irrigation. Oregon State University Agricultural 

Experiment Station, 2009 Annual Report: 193-209.

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and N. Shaw. 2010. Oregon report to the annual 

meeting of W-2128, Microirrigation for Sustainable Water Use. November 17-18, 2010. Des 

Moines, Iowa.
128

Shock, C.C., Feibert, E.B.G., and Shaw, N. 2010. Native Perennial Forb Tolerance to Rates and 

Mixtures of Postemergence Herbicides. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment 

Station, 2009 Annual Report: 210-212.

Shock, C.C., Ishida, J., Feibert, E.B.G., and Shaw, N. 2010. Native Perennial Forb Tolerance to 

Repeated Annual Applications of Postemergence Herbicides. Oregon State University 

Agricultural Experiment Station, 2009 Annual Report: 213-217.

Shock. C.C., C.A. Shock, S. Plummer, T. Wells, and S. Sullivan. 2010. Mid-Snake River 

Watershed Vegetation Database. This database had its initial development in 2004. 

http://www.malag.aes.oregonstate.edu/wildflowers/

Presentations:

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and N. Shaw. 2010. Do these plants need irrigation? 

The 2010 update. Great Basin Native Plant Selection & Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010

January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and N. Shaw. 2010. Identification of herbicides for 

use in native forb seed production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection & Increase Project Annual 

Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and N. Shaw. 2010. Identification of herbicides for 

use in native forb seed production. Native Plant Seed Growers Workshop: Cultural Practices for

Native Plants; 2010 February 23; Ontario, OR.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and N. Shaw. 2010. Native Forb Seed Production in 

Response to Irrigation. Native Plant Seed Growers Workshop: Cultural Practices for Native 

Plants; 2010 February 23; Ontario, OR.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html

Field days

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and N. Shaw. 2010. SDI practices for native 

wildflower seed production. Summer Farm Festival and Annual Field Day, OSU Malheur 

Experiment Station. 13 July 2010. Ontario, OR.

Products:

- Seed produced from these planting was used to establish commercial seed production fields.

- A field tour for growers was conducted in May 2010.

- A tour of the seed production trials was incorporated into the annual Summer Farm Festival 

and Malheur Experiment Station Field Day activities in July of 2010.
129

Project Title: Etiology, Epidemiology and Management of 

Diseases of Native Wildflower Seed Production

Project: University of Idaho, Parma R&E Center, Parma, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

R. K. Sampangi 

University of Idaho, Parma R&E Center

29603 University of Idaho Lane

Parma, ID 83660

(208)722-6701, Fax (208)722-6708

sampangi@uidaho.edu

S. K. Mohan

University of Idaho, Parma R&E Center

29603 University of Idaho Lane

Parma, ID 83660

(208)722-6701, Fax (208)722-6708

Clinton C. Shock 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

(541)889-2174, Fax (541)889-7831

clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu

Project Description:

General objectives are (1) to identify and evaluate potentially important diseases to include 

pathogen identification (etiology) and disease biology regarding occurrence, development and 

spread, and (2) to develop disease management practices.

Significance:

 Diseases of economic crops are well known and studied but not the diseases affecting native 

plants.

 Prescreen plant materials for natural resistance to pests and diseases.

Project status

Several diseases (leaf spots, blights, rusts, wilts and powdery mildews) were recorded on forbs.

Arid conditions prevailing in the Pacific Northwest is favorable for powdery mildew disease 

cycle.

Publications:

Sampangi, R. K.; Aime, M. C.; Mohan, S. K.; Shock, C. C. 2010. New and re-emerging rust 

diseases from Idaho and Oregon. Phytopathology 100: S113.
130

Sampangi, R.K, M.C. Aime and S. K. Mohan. 2010. First Report of Rust Caused by Puccinia 

similis on Artemisia tridentata in Idaho and Oregon. Plant disease 94,380, 2010

http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-94-3-0380B

Sampangi, R. K.; Almeyda, C.; Druffel, K. L.; Mohan, S. K.; Shock, C. C.; Pappu, H. R. 2009. 

First report of natural infection of Penstemon acuminatus with Cucumber mosaic virus in the 

Treasure Valley region of Idaho and Oregon. Plant Disease 93: 762.

Sampangi, R. K.; Glawe, D. A.; Mohan, S. K. 2007. First North American record of powdery 

mildew of Cleome hassleriana caused by Leveillula taurica. Online. Plant Health Progress 

doi:10.1094/PHP-2007-02XX-01-BR.

Presentations:

Sampangi, R.; Mohan, K.; Shock, C. 2010. Diseases of native plants. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Field Tours

Attended and gave a talk at the Annual Native Plant Seed Production Field Day, Oregon State 

University, Malheur Experiment Station, 2010 July, Ontario, OR.

 
131

Project Title: Stock Seed Production of Native Plants for the Great 

Basin

Project Location: Utah Crop Improvement Association, Utah State University, 

Logan, Utah

Principle Investigators and Contact Information: 

Stanford Young

Utah Crop Improvement Association

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855

(435)797-2082, Fax (435)797-0642 

 stanford.young@usu.edu

 Michael Bouck

Utah Crop Improvement Association

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855

(435)797-2101, Fax (435)797-0642 

 michael.bouck@usu.edu

Project Description:

This project was initially titled ―Establishment and Maintenance of the Buy-Back Program for 

Certified Seed‖. It was funded through a Memorandum of Understanding between the USFSRMRS in Boise and the Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA), initiated in the fall of 

2003 and renewed with additional funds in the fall of 2004 and fall of 2007. A new joint venture 

agreement titled ―Stock Seed Production of Native Plants for the Great Basin‖ was completed on 

August 17, 2009. Seed has been distributed during this time period using the Buy-back option, a 

mechanism for returning a portion of the seed increased by private growers back to the UCIA for 

redistribution to the original and additional seed growers for further seed increase.

Project Status 

A synopsis of the Stock Seed Buy-Back Program follows, applicable to the period Jan. 1, 2010-

Dec. 31, 2010. Table 1 lists new (2010) seed distributions and their field status. Table 1 also lists 

forb and grass seed acquisitions, distributions, inventory, field status, and whether seed has been 

harvested, for specific germplasms included in the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program from 

2002-2009. This list includes the previous AOSCA program which is now being administered by

the UCIA. It is expected that in 2011 several additional forbs and grasses will be included in the 

program. Table 2 lists the Standardized Market Price for contract negotiations for each species 

included in the program, updated at the beginning of 2010. However, some of the species planted 

in the fall of 2008 and during 2009 and 2010 do not have a market record, and more 

investigation and negotiation is underway to complete monetary details of buy-back contracts.
132

Table 1. 2010 Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Stock Seed Buyback Program. Forb and grass 

seed acquisition, distribution and field planting status for species germplasms planted in 2009 and 2010. Also listed are 200 2-2008 plantings with activity in 2010.

Kind & Variety / Germplasm Source Lot / Origin

Seed 

acquisition 

&

production 

status

Generation

lb Added to 

Inventory date lb distributed from Inventory date State distributed to Field Status

bulk bulk

2010

Poa secunda 

Mountain Home Germ.

PoaSec01-BSE-06 NBS-RR8-MTH-1

NBS-RR9-MTH-1

SOS-RMRS-1173

G1

G1

G0

466.00

534.00

175

5/21/10

5/21/10

-

100.00

0.00

25

5/25/10

-

9/29/10

WA

-

WA

Anticipate planting Aug 2011

-

Anticipate planting Aug 2011

Lomatium dissectum NBRwild collected USFS LD TD-10 G1 2.00 10/5/10 - - - -

Penstemon cyaneus PECY B6-02 2009-0570 G2 6.14 7/28/10 6.14 8/3/10 WA -

Astragalus filipes NBR-1 Plugs 2010 Planted Fall 2010

Astragalus filipes BC population Plugs 2010 Planted Fall 2010

Astragalus filipes NBR1 Plugs 2010 Transplanted needs to thicken

Dalea ornata Socur Summit 

(Spectrum Germplasm)

Plugs 2010 - - - - 5/19/10 WA Small amount of seed harvested

Dalea searlsiae EK population Plugs 2010 - - - - 5/24/10 WA Transplanted needs to thicken

Eriogonum heracleiodes NGB-EH G1 52.5 5/5/09 52.5 5/5/09 WA Seed harvested 2010; good stand

Eriogonum heracleiodes NGB-EU G1 10.4 Fall 2010 10.4 Fall 2010 WA Planted Fall 2010

2009

Eriogonum umbellatum Pooled ID, OR ERUM2009 *1*2 G1 10.4 Fall 09 10.4 Fall 09 WA Tublings in greenhouse

Eriogonum umbellatum Pooled ID, OR ERUM2009 *1*2 G1 10.4 Fall 09 10.4 Fall 09 OR Planted Fall 2010

Penstemon acuminatus Pooled ID, OR, NV PEAC NBR *1*2 G0 4.13 Fall 09 4.13 Fall 09 NV Seeded Fall 08, added 0.75 acres Fall 09

Poa secunda 

Mountain Home Germ.

PoaSec01-BSE-06 NBS-RR8MTH-1 - G1 300 Summer 09 300 Fall 09 WA Established

Elymus elymoides Little Sahara site CU-907, GBRI 29 - G0 200 Summer 09 200 8/28/09 WA Seed harvested 2010; good stand

Linum lewisii Maple Grove Germplasm F-757, MGLF-1-08 - G3 33.0 Spring 09 33.0 4/6/09 OR Good stand; anticipate harvest 2011

2008

Eriogonum heracleoides Pooled* ERHE2 *1*2 G0 52.5 12/5/08 52.5 12/5/08 WA Seed harvested 2010; good stand

Leymus cinereus Pooled* LECI *1*2 G1 10.00 9/9/08 10.00 9/9/08 WA Seed harvested 2010; good stand

Astragalus filipes Brothers ASFI *1*2 G1 8.00 9/28/08 8.00 9/28/08 WA Seed harvested 2010; good stand

Lomatium triternatum Pooled* LOTR *1*2 G0/G1 9.05 9/24/08 9.05 9/24/08 ID Plowed out Fall 2010

Balsamorhiza hookeri Elko BAHO *1*2 G0 0.33 11/12/08 0.33 11/12/08 UT Fair stand

Sphaeralcea coccinea Pooled* SPCO *1*2 G0 4.4 11/12/08 4.4 11/12/08 UT Fair stand

Achnatherum thurberianum Jordan Valley ACTH7 *1*2 G0 1.133 11/12/08 1.133 11/12/08 UT Fair stand

Achillea millefolium Eagle, ID ACMI 01 *1*2 G0 0.125 11/12/08 0.125 11/12/08 UT Fair stand

Lomatium nudicaule Pequop Summit LONU2 *1*2 G0 0.68 11/6/08 0.68 11/6/08 NV Unknown

Heliomeris multiflora var. 

nevadensis

Pioche HEMUN *1*2 G1 0.22 11/6/08 0.22 11/6/08 NV Unknown

2002-2007

Achillea millefolium Eagle, ID Wild collected USFS - - - - - - OR,WA,WY Wide use in seed industry

Balsamorhiza hookeri Wild Collected USFS BAHO B1-02 *1*2 G0 - Fall 02 0.31 Fall 02 CO Plowed out 2010

Balsamorhiza sagittata Wild Collected USFS BASA U32-02 *1*2 G0 1.62 4/15/04 1.19 4/16/04 UT 6

th year immature stand

Lomatium dissectum NBR Wild Collected USFS Pooled *1*2 G0 2.00 10/31/06 2.00 11/22/06 UT 2lbs. seed harvested 2010

Penstemon acuminatus Wild Collected USFS PEAC2 B4-02 *1*2 G0 0.22 Fall 02 0.22 Fall 02 ID Plowed out 2010

Penstemon cyaneus PECY2 B6-02-CO 2006.0413 *1*3 G1 5.00 12/5/06 5.00 3/1/07 WY, ID Small scale use in seed industry

Penstemon pachyphyllus PEPA2 U6-99-OR A5-4-P1 *3 G1 38.03 6/7/05 7.3 Fall 05 ID 3

rd year immature stand

Penstemon palmerii ‘Cedar’ Wild Collected UCIA CPP KL-05-1, 

GBRI 16

- F 133 10/24/05 46.54 2006-09 CO,ID,WY Small scale use in seed industry

Poa secunda 

MountainHome Germ.

Rainier Seed WA 557-215-31A *3 G2 0.7 11/4/03 50.0 9/15/03 ID,UT,WA,WY Wide use in seed industry

Poa secunda 

Mountain Home Germ.

Wild Collected USFS Poa Sec01-BSE-06 *1 G0 6.5 9/10/06 6.5 9/11/06 WA Plowed out Fall 2010

Total 2077.4 957.5
133

Project Synopsis

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project (GBNPSIP) and Utah Crop 

Improvement Association (UCIA) Stock Seed Buy-back Program. This program encourages and 

allows seed growers to benefit economically in a timely manner as an incentive to participate in 

Table 2. Standardized Market Price for Contract Negotiation, Great Basin Native Plant Selection 

and Increase Project-Utah Crop Improvement Association Buy-back Program. Based on end user 

marketprice and suggested PMC stock seed prices for applicable growers

Scientific Name Common Name 5 Year average

Forbs

Achillea millefolium Western yarrow $10.00

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker‘s balsamroot $26.00

Balsamorhiza sagittata Arrowleaf balsamroot $25.00

Chrysothamnus spp. Rabbitbrush $40.00

Cleome serrulata Beeplant $12.00

Crepis acuminata Tapertip hawksbeard $140.00

Crepis intermedia Hawksbeard

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie clover

Eriogonum heracleoides Parsnipflower buckwheat

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulfur-flower buckwheat $37.00

Heliomeris mutliflora var. nevadensis Nevada goldeneye

Linum lewisii Lewis flax $12.00

Lomatium dissectum Giant lomatium (parsley or biscuitroot) $65.00

Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf lomatium $80.00

Lupinus spp. Lupine $55.00

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon $60.00

Penstemon cyananthus Wasatch penstemon $52.00

Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon $60.00

Penstemon deustus Hot-rock penstemon $40.00

Penstemon eatonii Firecracker penstemon $50.00

Penstemon pachyphyllus Thickleaf penstemon $62.00

Penstemon palmeri Palmer penstemon $20.00

Sphaeraclea coccinea Scarlet globemallow $65.00

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberry-leaved globemallow $57.00

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro‘s globemallow $57.00

Grasses

Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass $11.00

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber‘s needlegrass $56.00

Elymus elymoides Bottlebrush squirreltail $20.00

Elymus wawawaiensis Snake River Wheatgrass $10.50

Festuca idahoensis Idaho Fescue $8.50

Leymus cinereus Basin Wildrye $9.00

Poa fendleriana Muttongrass $75.00

Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass $12.00

Pseudoroegneria spicata Bluebunch wheatgrass $10.50
134

the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program. The program helps accelerate the increase in stock 

seed supplies and ultimately increase seed supplies on the open market for commercial 

revegetation use.

The objectives of the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program, funded through the GBNPSIP, is to: 

a) facilitate development of a seed market for specific germplasm accessions, pooled accessions, 

and/or formal germplasm releases developed through GBNPSIP; b) reward initial seed growers 

financially for the risks they have assumed to participate in the program; c) document germplasm 

identity through the seed increase process by utilizing seed certification protocols; and d) 

increase stock seed available for potential secondary seed growers. This program is administered 

through the Utah Crop Improvement Association.

The mechanisms for purchasing stock seed from growers and redistributing it for further increase 

are as follows:

1. UCIA offers for free or for sale (depending on seed generation and availability) stock seed to 

seed growers. A UCIA Stock Seed Contract (Appendix I) is completed at this time that 

formalizes the seed production agreement (number of pounds, price per pound, any special 

arrangements for reimbursement for establishment costs, etc.).

2. After harvest of the first seed production year, the grower is required to return to the UCIA 

(for inventory reserve) the amount of stock seed specified in the contract. More may be 

returned if mutually negotiated. The grower will be compensated 125% of the standardized 

market price (SMP, see Table 2) for all seed returned to UCIA. SMP will be updated yearly 

and/or adjusted as needed.

3. UCIA may negotiate to buy all or part of the seed from any subsequent years of seed 

production back from seed grower at 125% SMP. 

4. UCIA offers the grower the option to immediately buy back the seed sold to the UCIA 

(except for the inventory reserve) at 100% SMP. The grower thus realizes an immediate 25% 

premium incentive to expand plantings and remain in the program. This seed must be planted 

for seed production and entered into the local seed certification program either by original 

seed grower or another seed grower recruited by the original seed grower. If this seed is 

instead sold commercially, the UCIA reserves the right to recover the 25% premium paid for 

the seed, and the grower may be ineligible for further GBNPSIP seed distribution.

5. All seed offered to the UCIA, bought, or sold shall be certified or certified eligible. 

6. UCIA agrees to pay for shipping and seed analysis costs. Seed purchasing, shipping, and 

seed analysis costs are to be reimbursed to the UCIA through GBNPSIP program funds. 

7. If seed is unconditioned when purchased by the UCIA, the seed grower may be charged for 

conditioning costs, or in certain circumstances these costs may be paid by the UCIA and 

reimbursed by GBNPSIP. 

Notes:

1. Seed quantity and quality (lbs PLS) of original stock seed provided to the seed grower will be 

determined on a case by case basis in order to determine the amount of seed that must be 

returned to the UCIA from the first harvestable crop by the seed grower.

2. When the original seed grower sells to the UCIA and/or buys back seed (as in points 3 and 4 

above) the amount of seed (lbs PLS) will typically be verified through the applicable state 

seed certification agency. Some instances may require special negotiation.
135

Publications:

Young, S. A. 2010. Plant germplasm handling protocols: provenance, collection, development 

release, distribution and production. Procedural white paper for Great Basin Native Plant Seed 

Increase Project.

Young, S. A. 2010. Seed certification tracks the natives from wildlands to restoration. 

Ecological Restoration and Sustainable Development: Establishing Links Across Frontiers; 7th

SER European Conference on Ecological Restoration, 2010 August 23-27, Avignon, France. 

Abstract. 

Young, S.A.; Bouck, M. 2010. Stock seed production of native eplants for the Great Basin. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 71-75.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Young, S. A. Plant germplasm handling protocols as proposed by the GBNPSIP PDQ 

Committee. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010

January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Young, S. A. Using buy-backs to jumpstart native seed inventories. Workshop: seed production 

of native grasses and forbs; 2010 February 23; Ontario, OR.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/Ontario2010.html

Young, S. A. How to be a seed connoisseur. National Native Seed Conference; 2010 May 7-21; 

Snowbird, UT.

Young, S. A. Seed Certification Tracks the Natives From Wildlands to Restoration. 7th SER 

European Conference on Ecological Restoration; 2010 August 23-27; Avignon, France.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/2010SEREurope.HTML

Management Applications:

For most of the species being studied by GBNPSIP cooperators, wildland seed collection is 

insufficient to provide for reclamation planting needs. Thus, accessions consisting of limited 

quantities of seed obtained from defined wildland stands, or pooled from defined geographic 

areas, must be increased in commercial fields or nurseries in order to be available in the 

marketplace in sufficient quantities to supply reclamation projects of the scope called for in the 

Great Basin. The UCIA Buy-Back project provides a bridge between a) small-quantity initial

accessions and b) commercial marketplace production, by working with specialized growers who 

are willing to provide land, time, and expertise to produce increased amounts of stock seed from 

the former, and with UCIA facilitation, makes it available for the latter. This process has been 

more successful for some species than others, but in general, great progress has been made in 

defining seed accession groupings, knowledge of agronomic seed production techniques, and 

understanding the reality of the commercial seed marketplace. 
136

Project Title: Coordination of GBNPSIP Plant Materials 

Development, Seed Increase and Use

Project: Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, Oregon

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Berta Youtie

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services (EOSS)

P.O. Box 606, Prineville, OR 97754

(541)447-8166 or (541)447-6228

byoutie@crestviewcable.com, berta.youtie@oregonstate.edu 

Project Description:

Objectives

1. Collaborate with the GBNPSIP, BLM field offices and native seed growers to increase

native plant materials from the Great Basin for research and commercial production. 

2. Facilitate private seed grower capacity to produce seed of native Great Basin forbs and 

grasses.

3. Augment seed collections of needed GBNPSIP research materials and new plant

 materials for BLM field offices within the Great Basin.

Methods

Native seed farms growing forbs for the GBNPSIP in the Columbia Basin and Treasure Valley

were visited and fields were monitored. Where seed stocks from the Great Basin were not 

immediately available, we spent the 2010 field season collecting relatively large quantities of 

seed to transfer to growers. A trip to Nevada was taken to locate new sites for research 

collections of Thurber's needlegrass (Achnatherum thurberianum) and bottlebrush squirreltail 

(Elymus elymoides). We also collected seed for the GBNBSIP, USDA-ARS, OSU Malheur 

Experiment Station, USDA-FS and USDI BLM Seeds of Success programs. 

Results

Six native seed growers from Oregon, Washington and Idaho were contracted to grow twelve

forb species (table 1). New growers were recruited. This year the number of growers 

involved in ―Buy-Back‖ increased as well as the number of forb species they are propa gating. 

Thirty-three seed lots from twelve species were collected by EOSS for GBNPSIP growers 

(table 2). Forty-three research collections from eight species were made for USDA-ARS, USDAFS and OSU Experiment Station scientists. Seed lot weights varied between less than a pound to 

over 20 pounds. A new Buy-back spreadsheet was created with information concerning origin of 

genetic material, growers, testing results and outcome of production. EOSS sponsored and 

helped organize the ―Seed Production of Native Grasses and Forbs Workshop‖ February 23, 

2010, in Ontario, OR. Over 120 participants, mostly from private industry, heard from fourteen 

GBNPSIP collaborators about new restoration species entering the market, genetics and seed 

zones, seeding rates, stand establishment, irrigation requirements, weed control, pollinators and 

seed predators, native seed certification and BLM contracting. EOSS also organized a special 

session at the European Society for Ecological Restoration Conference. Our session was entitled 
137

―Farming for Restoration: Building Bridges for Native Seed‖, five GBNPSIP cooperators gave 

presentations and collaborated with European colleagues. 

Publications:

Shaw, N.L.; Youtie, B.; Olwell, P. 2010. Building bridges between agencies, researchers, 

farmers and non-governmental organizations to create collaborative native seed programs. 

Proceedings 7th European Conference on Ecological Restoration. 2010 August 23-27; Avignon, 

France. 

Youtie, B. 2010. Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials and development, seed increase and 

use. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 76-79. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Shaw, N.; Youtie, B. Building bridges between NGO‘s, Researchers and Farmers to develop a 

collaborative native seed program. 7

th SER European Conference on Ecological Restoration; 

2010 August 23-27; Avignon, France.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/2010SEREurope.HTML

Youtie, B. 2010. Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials and development, seed increase and 

use. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-

27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Management Applications: 

Increased communication and collaboration has led to better seed distribution to growers for seed 

development of new forb species that may be used in BLM seed buys and restoration projects in 

the future. The Seed Production Workshop transferred technical information to farmers growing 

native forbs and grass species and also assisted in recruiting new farmers to grow native seed for 

the Great Basin. 

Products:

Table 1. Forb species for seed production buy-back in Oregon, Washington and Idaho

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name

Achillea millefolium Western yarrow Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf desert parsley

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber's needlegrass Machaeranthera 

canescens

Hoary tansyaster

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas‘ dusty maiden Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon

Eriogonum heracleiodes Wyeth buckwheat Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower 

buckwheat Sphaeralcea munroana Munro‘s globemallow
138

Table 2. Research Collections (R) and Bulk Seed Lots collected in the 2010 field season by 

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services.

Species and

Site No. Site Details Collection Date

mm/dd/yy

No. Plants

ACHY1BY10-R Crowley Road, Malheur Co., OR 7/2/10 100

ACTH1BY10-R Diamond Craters, Harney Co., OR 6/27/10 50

ACTH1NBY10-R Ruby Valley, Elko Co., NV 7/6/10 35

ACTH7NBY10-R Battle Mt, Izzenhoodgap, Lander Co., NV 6/25/10 50

ACTH9NBY10-R Bog Hot & Hwy 140, Humbolt Co., NV 6/25/10 35

ACTH8NBY10-R Hwy140, Denio Summit, Humbolt Co., NV 7/6/10 75

ACTH2BY10-R Sutton Mt, Wheeler Co., OR 7/3/10 60

CHDO1BY10-R Leslie Gulch, Malheur Co., OR 7/25/10 200

CHDO3BY08 Twin Springs, Malheur Co., OR 7/11/10 100

CHDO2BY10-R Diamond Craters, Harney Co., OR 7/14/10 50

CHDO3BY10 Malheur Field Station View, Harney Co., OR 7/19 & 7/23/10 130

CHDO8BY10-R Riddle Mt, Harney Co., OR 7/14/10 45

CHDO6BY10-R Sunset Valley, Harney Co., OR 7/18/10 50

CHDO7BY10-R

Hwy 26 between Redmond and Sisters,

Deschutes Co., OR 8/5/10 50

CLLU1BY10 South of Adrian, Malheur Co., OR 7/12 & 7/24/10 300

CLLU2BY10 Mikey Hot Springs, Harney Co., OR 7/7–7/8/10 200+

CLLU3BY10 Twin Springs, Malheur Co., OR 7/11/10 50

DAOR3BY08-R Twin Springs, Malheur Co., OR 7/11/10 300

ELEL1BY10-R Hoodoo Ridge, Malheur Co., OR 6/22/10 50

ELEL2BY10-R Bruneau, Owyhee Co., ID 6/23/10 40

ELEL1NBY10-R Austin, Lander Co., NV 6/25/10 25

ELEL2NBY10-R Battle MT, Lander Co., NV 6/25/10 45

ELEL3NBY10-R Winnemucca, Humboldt Co., NV 6/25/10 30

ELEL21BY10-R Leslie Gulch, Malheur Co., OR 7/25/10 35

ELEL8BY10-R Rome, Malheur Co., OR 7/4/10 35

ELEL9BY10-R Owyhee Overlook, Malheur Co., OR 7/4/10 35

ELEL5BY10-R Burns Junction, Malheur Co., OR 7/8/10 35

ELEL13BY10-R Catlow Valley, Harney Co., OR 7/17/10 50

ELEL4NBY10-R

Hwy140, Wilder Creek Rd, 

Humboldt Co., NV 7/6/10 35

ELEL4BY10-R Drewsey, OtisValley, Harney Co., OR 7/4/10 35
139

Species and

Site No. Site Details Collection Date

mm/dd/yy

No. Plants

ELEL15BY10-R Hwy 395 Silvies Valley, Harney Co., OR 7/18/10 25

ELEL16BY10-R Hwy 26 Rock Creek, Grant Co., OR 7/20/10 25

ELEL7BY10-R Riddle Mt., Harney Co., OR 7/14/10 35

ELEL14BY10-R Harney Lake, Harney Co., OR 7/18/10 35

ELEL10BY10-R Diamond Craters, Harney Co., OR 7/14/10 35

ELEL11BY10-R Ridge E. Castle Rock, Malheur Co., OR 7/16/10 35

ELEL12BY10-R Ridge above Westfall, Malheur Co., OR 7/16/10 35

ELEL3BY10-R Overstreet-Adrian, Malheur Co., OR 6/24/10 35

ELEL6BY10-R Owyhee Reservoir, Malheur Co., OR 7/9/10 35

ELEL17BY10-R Steens Mt., Harney Co., OR 7/26/10 35

ELEL18BY10-R Steens Mt. High, Harney Co., OR 8/10/10 35

ELEL19BY10-R

Pass between Antelope & Clarno, 

Jefferson Co., OR 8/2/10 35

ELEL20BY10-R Succor Creek near Hwy 95, Malheur Co., OR 7/25/10 35

ERLA1BY10 Leslie Gulch, Malheur Co., OR 7/3/10 100

ERLA2BY10 Crowley Road, Malheur Co., OR 7/5/10 200

ERLA4BY10 Owyhee Reservoir, Malheur Co, OR. 6/26/10 25

ERUM2BY08 Brothers, Deschutes Co., Or 8/5–8/10/10 5000+

ERUM 13-R Hwy 20 mile 203-204, Malheur Co., OR 8/16/10 50

HECO1BY10-R Crowley Road, Malheur Co., OR 6/22/10 100

HECO2BY10-R Owyhee Reservoir Road, Malheur Co., OR 6/24/10 100

LONU 05 Stinking Water, mile 163-4, Harney Co., OR 7/5/10 300+

LONU1BY10 Drewsey, Otis Valley, Harney Co., OR 6/24/10 100+

LONU2BY10 Castle Rock Road, Malheur Co., OR 7/4/10 200

LONU3BY10 Road to Westfall, Malheur Co., OR 7/16/10 75

LOTR1BY08 Leslie Gulch, Malheur Co., OR 7/2/10 75

LOTR1BY10 Riddle Mt, Harney Co., OR 7/14 & 7/17/10 700

LOTR2BY10 Road to Westfall, Malheur Co., OR 7/16/10 30

MACA1BY10 Walgren's Ontario, Malheur Co., OR 10/1/10 150

MACA2BY10-R Drewsey, Otis Valley, Harney Co., OR 10/4/10 50

MACA1ABY09-R Wrights Point, Harney Co., OR 9/26/10 50

PEAC11 Keeney Pass, Malheur Co., OR 7/15/10 500

PEAC38 Owyhee Reservoir Road, Malheur Co., OR 7/22/10 500

PEAC1BY10 Alvord Well Road, Harney Co., OR 7/28/10 200
140

Species and

Site No. Site Details Collection Date

mm/dd/yy

No. Plants

PESP1BY08 Sunset Valley, Harney Co., OR 8/4/10 200

PESP5BY10 Hwy 205, Harney Co., OR 8/3/10 90

PHHA1BY10 Owyhee Reservoir, Malheur Co., OR 7/23/10 200

PHHA2BY10 Upper Leslie Gulch, Malheur Co., OR 7/24/10 150

PHHA4BY10 Hwy 20 - mile 156, Harney Co., OR 7/25/10 45

PHHA5BY10 Drewsey, Otis Valley, Harney Co., OR 7/20/10 95

PHLI4BY10 Powerline Exclosure, Harney Co., OR 7/19 & 7/22/10 400

SPMU1BY10 Overstreet, Malheur Co., OR 7/3/10 154

SPMU2BY10 Owyhee Reservoir, Malheur Co., OR 6/27 & 7/9/10 375

SPMU4BY10 Crowley Ranger District, Malheur Co., OR 7/5/10 500

SPMU5BY10 Harney Lake, Harney Co., OR 7/18/10 100+

SPMU6BY10 Burns Junction, Malheur Co., OR 7/8/10 100+

SPMU8BY10 Twin Springs, Malheur Co., OR 7/11/10 100
141

Project Title: The Role of Native Annual Forbs in the Restoration of 

Invaded Rangelands

Project Location: University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada

USDA ARS, Reno, Nevada

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Tara Forbis, Research Ecologist 

USDA ARS, Exotic and Invasive Weeds Research Unit 

920 Valley Road, Reno, NV 89512 

(775)784-6057 x 245, Fax (775)784-1712 

tforbis@unr.edu

Elizabeth Leger, Assistant Professor of Plant Ecology

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

MS 370 

University of Nevada Reno, NV 89557-0013 

(775)784-7582, Fax (775)784-4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Erin Goergen, Research Ecologist 

Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

MS 370 

University of Nevada Reno, NV 89557-0013 

(775)784-4111, Fax (775)784-4789

egoergen@unr.edu

Project Description:

Background

In Western rangelands, invasion by the exotic annual grass Bromus tectorum is altering fire 

regimes, community composition, and ecosystem function. Communities with well-established 

perennial grasses may be more resistant to invasion by B. tectorum, making post-disturbance 

restoration with native perennial grasses desirable. However, restoration with these latersuccesional species is often unsuccessful. Greater restoration success may be achieved with seed 

mixes that mimic natural succession in Great Basin systems, which includes native annuals as a 

key component of the post-disturbance community.

Objectives

The objectives of this study were to 1) determine the effect of select native annual forbs on the 

performance of Bromus tectorum and Elymus multisetus and 2) determine if the presence of 

native annual forbs increases the performance of E. multisetus when grown in competition with 

B. tectorum.
142

Methods

In greenhouse and field competition experiments, seedlings of the native perennial grass, Elymus

multisetus, were grown with native annual forbs both in the presence and absence of B. tectorum. 

We recorded the number of green leaves on E. multisetus plants at three separate times after 

planting to assess treatment effects on growth rate, and collected aboveground tissue at harvest to 

determine treatment effects on biomass. Seedlings of B. tectorum were also grown with each of 

the native forbs to determine competitive effects of native annual forbs on B. tectorum

performance (biomass and seed production). 

Results

In the greenhouse, E. multisetus growth and seasonal biomass production were lower when 

grown with B. tectorum than with any of the native annuals. Additionally when in competition 

with B. tectorum, E. multisetus performed best when M. veatcheana was also present and growth 

rates were significantly greater when any annual forbs were also present. Amsinckia tesselata

and A. intermedia were the most competitive native annuals against B. tectorum, and although A. 

tesselata was beneficial in the greenhouse, under field conditions, Amsinckia species had a 

negative effect on E. multisetus performance. However, over time, these negative effects 

decreased and could potentially lead to facilitation of E. multisetus later in the season. 

Conclusions 

The results of our greenhouse and field experiments support the idea that the presence of certain 

native annual forbs can enhance the establishment of E. multisetus in B. tectorum invaded 

rangelands. Future studies are needed to examine the longer-term consequences of early season 

interactions between native annual forbs and exotic annuals. Additionally, more work is needed 

to further understand germination strategies and competitive abilities of native annual forbs so 

that recommendations can be made to seed growers and land managers regarding which species 

to invest in. 

Publications:

Forbis, T.; Leger, E.A.; Goergen, E.; Meyer, S.E. 2010. Investigations of seed and seedling 

ecology and competitive ability of native annual forbs of the Western Great Basin. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 127-135. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations: 

Forbis, T. 2010. Germination phenology of some Great Basin native annual forb species. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt 

Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Goergen, E., Leger, E. A., and Forbis, T. 2010. Can indirect competition with annual forbs 

increase establishment of native perennial grasses in Bromus tectorum invaded systems? 

Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting; 2010 August 1-6; Pittsburgh, PA.
143

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

This research examines an ecologically and economically rational strategy for management of B. 

tectorum invaded rangelands. By utilizing principles of natural succession of Great Basin 

rangelands, two goals are met: 1) restoring rangelands to their proper functioning using native 

plant materials and 2) an ecological and economic benefit to land managers through increased 

restoration success. Understanding if native annual forbs can increase establishment of E. 

multisetus in degraded rangelands will allow managers and seed producers to take the f ollowing 

steps to maintain healthy systems: 1) include highly competitive annual forbs in restoration seed 

mixes to promote establishment of early successional perennial grasses such as E. multisetus, 2) 

target annual forbs that have the greatest positive effect on E. multisetus and negative effect on 

B. tectorum biomass and reproduction for seed increase programs, and 3) manage and maintain 

sites with high annual forb diversity, as these populations may be a vital component for 

successful restoration of disturbed rangelands.

Products:

Outreach presentation to the public on the use of native annual forbs in restoration of invaded 

rangelands, sponsored through the Galena Creek Visitor Center‘s discussion series

"Chin-wagging and Wine‖.
144

Project Title: Evolution of Native Plants in Cheatgrass Invaded 

Systems

Project Location: University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Elizabeth Leger, Assistant Professor of Plant Ecology

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

MS 370 

University of Nevada Reno, NV 89557-0013 

(775)784-7582, Fax (775)784-4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Erin Goergen, Post-doctoral associate

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

MS 370 

University of Nevada Reno, NV 89557-0013 

(775)784-4111, Fax (775)784-4789

egoergen@unr.edu

Erin Espeland, Research Ecologist

USDA ARS Northern Plains Agricultural Research Laboratory

1500 N. Central Ave, Sidney, MT 59270

(406)433-9416, Fax (406)433-5038

erin.espeland@ars.usda.gov

Project Description:

Objectives

In this experiment, we examined populations of five common native perennial grass species (Poa

secunda, Elymus multisetus, Hesperostipa comata, Achanatherum hymenoides and A.

thurberianum) from four locations where paired invaded/uninvaded sites were found in close 

proximity, addressing the following questions: 

1. Which species are the most tolerant of B. tectorum competition? 

2. Which species exert the strongest competitive effect on B. tectorum? 

3. Does native plant phenology differ between invaded and uninvaded populations? 

4. Are tolerant and/or competitive plants present in higher frequencies in invaded communities?

Methods

Three hundred and twenty adult plants were collected from invaded and uninvaded communities 

from four locations near Reno, Nevada, USA. Each plant was divided in two and transplanted 

into the greenhouse. One clone was grown with B. tectorum while the other was grown alone , 

and we measured tolerance (ability to maintain size) and the ability to reduce size of B. tectorum

for each plant.
145

Table 1. Site and species characteristics of the four sampled locations

Results

Plants from invaded populations consistently had earlier phenology than those from uninvaded 

populations, and in two out of four sites, invaded populations were more tolerant of B. tectorum

competition than uninvaded populations. Poa secunda and one population of E. multisetus had 

the strongest suppressive effect on B. tectorum, and these two species were the only ones that 

flowered in competition with B. tectorum.

Conclusions

Our study indicates that response to B. tectorum is a function of both location and species 

identity, with some, but not all, populations of native grasses showing trait shifts consistent with 

evolution in response to B. tectorum invasion within the Great Basin. 

Publications:

Forbis, T.; Leger, E.A.; Goergen, E.; Meyer, S.E. 2010. Investigations of seed and seedling 

ecology and competitive ability of native annual forbs or the Western Great Basin. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 127-135. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Leger, E. A. 2010. Native species evolution in response to cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) 

invasion. Seminar, USDA ARS Northern Plains Agricultural Research Laboratory, 2010 January 

15, Sydney, MT. 
146

Leger, E. A. 2010. Native species evolution in response to cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) 

invasion. Departmental Seminar, Chico State University, 2010 April 8, Chico, CA. 

Leger, E. A. 2010. The role of genetics in seedling establishment in invaded systems. National 

Native Seed Conference, 2010 May 18, Snowbird, UT. 

Leger, E. A., Espeland, E. K., Goergen, E. M. 2010. Can we improve restoration success in 

highly invaded communities? Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual 

Meeting; 2010 January 26, Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Leger, E. A.; Goergen, E. M.; Espeland, E. K.; Kulpa, S. M.; Rowe, C. J. 2010. Persistence and 

evolution of native plants in cheatgrass invaded systems: implications for the health and 

management of Great Basin rangelands, Society for Range Management Annual Meeting, 2010 

February 9, Denver, CO. 

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines: 

This study and others indicate that native species may be responding to selection from the 

presence of invasive plants, and further, that there are both species- and population-level 

differences in the way native species perform with an invasive competitor. In addition to 

examining the evolutionary effects of species invasion, these studies provide valuable 

information on potential restoration of invaded rangelands. In order to find the most tolerant 

and/or competitive genotypes in the Great Basin, we recommend wide-scale collections be 

undertaken from heavily invaded areas, as this and other studies have shown that these 

populations may be evolving in response to B. tectorum. Additionally, field performance in 

highly invaded areas should be a criterion for deciding which populations will be used for 

restoration.

Products:

▫ Continued our lab‘s contribution to understanding the mechanisms of native plant persistence 

in invaded systems.

▫ Data will be used for USDA grant application in 2011.

▫ Research highlighted in the media : 

http://scienceline.org/2011/02/native-plants-evolve-to-fight-off-invading-species/
147

Project Title: Evaluating Strategies for Increasing Plant Diversity in 

Crested Wheatgrass Seedings

Project: University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, Elko, Nevada

Principle Investigator and Contact Information:

` Kent McAdoo

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension

701 Walnut Street

Elko, NV 89801

(775)738-1251, Fax (775)753-7843

mcadook@unce.unr.edu

Project Description:

Objectives of this research include:

1. Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass (Aropyron desertorum) control methods on 

wheatgrass density and cover.

2. Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass control methods and revegetation on 

establishment of seeded species.

Methods

The study site, approximately 15 miles southeast of Elko, NV, is located within the 8 – 10‖ p.z. 

in sandy loam soil (Orovada Puett association) and formerly dominated by Wyoming big 

sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis). The area was seeded to crested wheatgrass 

during the 1970s. Located within the boundaries area of South Fork State Park, the site has had 

the necessary cultural resources clearance from the Nevada State Historic Protection Office 

(SHPO) and is fenced to eliminate livestock grazing. 

Crested Wheatgrass Control and Revegetation Treatments. The following strategies are being 

tested in a randomized block, split-split plot design: (1) untreated crested wheatgrass; (2) 

partially controlled crested wheatgrass; and (3) completely controlled crested wheatgrass. The 

study site is comprised of five 5-acre blocks. 

Within the main (1-acre) plots in each block, the following methods of control (mechanical and 

chemical) and revegetated vs. non-revegetated strategies are being compared:

1. Untreated crested wheatgrass plots receiving no chemical or mechanical treatment, but 

divided into unseeded and seeded sub-plots.

2. Partially controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into 3-way disked or herbicide-treated 

plots, divided into unseeded and seeded sub-plots. 

3. Completely controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into combined 3-way disked and 

herbicide-treated plots or combined spring and fall herbicide-treated plots, divided into 

unseeded and seeded sub-plots. 

Treatment Implementation. During November 2007, ―disked only plots‖ were 3-way disked. In 

May, 2008 ―spring-applied herbicide plots‖ and ―combined disk + herbicide plots‖ were sprayed 
148

with 66 oz. glyphosate (Roundup ®)/ac. In early October 2008, ―combined spring + fall-applied 

herbicide plots‖ were sprayed with 66 oz. glyphosate/ac. Sub-plots targeted for seeding were 

seeded at NRCS-recommended rates in late October 2008 by personnel from the NRCS 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center with a Truax Rough Rider rangeland drill. For small-seed 

species, seed tubes were pulled so that seed fell on the soil surface; drill disks were raised, no 

furrows made, and a brillion-type cultipacker was attached to the rear of the drill to press 

broadcasted seeds into the soil surface. The seed mixture used is identified in table 1. 

Preliminary Results

During the summers of 2009 and 2010, we measured cover and density of crested wheatgrass, as 

well as nested frequency of crested wheatgrass seedlings. We also measured density of seeded 

species. All parameters were measured for each sub-plot within ten 0.5 m2quadrats placed 

randomly on each of five transects and perpendicula r to each transect. 

Table 1. Final seeding mix for South Fork study plots, Elko County, NV, in sandy 

loam soil (Orovada Puett association), approximately 8‖ precipitation zone.

Species Kind/Variety Seeding Rate 

(PLS lb/acre)

Total No. lb

(for 12.5 acres)

Indian ricegrass1

(Achnatherum hymenoides)

 ̳Nezpar‘ 2.0 25

Bottlebrush squirreltail1

(Elymus elymoides)

 ̳Toe Jam Creek‘ 2.0 25

Needle-and-thread grass2

(Stipa comata)

2.0 25

Basin wildrye3

(Elymus cinereus)

 ̳Magnar‘ 2.0 25

Bluebunch wheatgrass3

(Psuedoroegneria spicata)

 ̳Secar‘ 1.0 12.5

Sandberg bluegrass4

(Poa secunda)

0.75 9.4

Munro globemallow4

(Sphaeralcea munroana)

0.50 6.25

Lewis flax3

(Linum lewisii)

 ̳Appar‘ 0.75 9.4

Western yarrow4

(Achillea millefolium)

0.20 2.5

Wyoming big sagebrush3

(Artemisia tridentata 

wyomingensis)

0.20 2.5

Spiny hopsage5

(Grayia spinosa)

0.50 6.25

Totals 11.9 148.8

1

 From Granite Seed Co.

2

 From BFI Native Seeds

3

 From Comstock Seed Co.

4

 From FS Collection

5

 From Native Seed Co.
149

2009. Complete (100%) control/mortality of crested wheatgrass was not obtained with any of 

the control treatments. However, as shown in figure 1, spring-applied glyphosate, combined 

spring + fall-applied glyphosate, and combined disk + glyphosate treatments all significantly 

reduced crested wheatgrass cover (p<0.05) as compared to untreated plots, with no significant 

differences among these treatments (p>0.05). Similarly, these same three treatments all 

significantly reduced crested density (p<0.05), again with no significant differences among 

treatments (fig. 2). However, crested wheatgrass density was significantly greater on disked plots 

(p<0.05) than on the untreated plots and plots receiving the other treatments (fig. 2), whereas 

cover was not significantly different (p>0.05) between disked and untreated plots (fig. 1).

Preliminary observations showed the following: (1) four of the six seeded native grass species 

established, including basin wildrye, bluebunch wheatgrass, bottlebrush squirreltail, and Indian 

ricegrass; (2) each of the seeded forb species, i.e., western yarrow, Lewis flax, and Munro 

globemallow also established; and (3) of the two seeded shrub species, establishment of 

Wyoming big sagebrush was very spotty and spiny hopsage establishment was not documented.

Seeded native grasses germinated on plots both with and without crested wheatgrass control, but 

were much taller and more robust in plots where crested wheatgrass was suppressed. Spring 

growing conditions were nearly ideal, with an extremely wet June. Some grass and forb plants 

produced seed in this first growing season.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall Glyphosate Disk & Glyphosate

a

a

24.0 20.5

3.0 2.2 2.2

b bb

Fig. 1. Effects of Treatments on Crested Wheatgrass Cover, 2009.*

% Cover

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

Figure 1. Effects of Treatments on Crested Wheatgrass Cover, 2009*

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

% Cover
150 Fig. 3. Effects of Treatments on Crested Wheatgrass Density, 2010.*

2

4

6

8

10

12

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall 

Glyphosate

Disk & Glyphosate

a

b

b b

10.6 10.5

5.7 4.9

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

a

4.7

2010

During 2010, density of crested wheatgrass seedlings continued to be significantly higher 

(p<0.05) in the untreated plots and disked plots (fig. 3). Density of seeded native grasses was 

highest in plots that received the combination of disking + spring glyphosate treatment, 

significantly greater than that of disk-treated plots (p<0.05), but not significantly different than 

either the spring-treated glyphosate plots or the spring + fall-applied glyphosate plots (fig. 4). 

Forb densities were highest in the spring + fall-applied glyphosate plots and the disk + 

glyphosate plots, but because of large standard errors, only the latter treatment was significantly 

greater (p<0.05) than the untreated plots and the disked only plots (fig. 5). For all seeded species 

combined, the spring + fall-applied glyphosate treatment and disk + glyphosate treatment 

produced significantly higher seeded species densities than the disked only treatment (p<0.05).

Figure 2. Effects of Treatments on Crested Wheatgrass Density, 2009*

Plants/m

2

Figure 3. Effects of Treatments on Crested Wheatgrass Density, 2010*

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

Plants/m

2
151 Fig. 4. Effects of Treatments on Density of Seeded Native Grasses, 2010.*

2

4

6

8

10

12

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall 

Glyphosate

Disk & Glyphosate

a

0.6

ab

b c

b c

c

4.8

9.6

11.5

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

8.3

Fig. 5. Effects of Treatments on Seeded Forb Densities, 2010.*

1

2

3

4

5

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall 

Glyphosate

Disk & Glyphosate

a a

0.3

ab

2.4

ab

4.6

bc

4.8

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

Fig. 6. Effects of Treatments on Density of All Seeded Species, 2010.*

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Untreated Disk Spring Glyphosate Spring & Fall 

Glyphosate

Disk & Glyphosate

b

5.1

bc

13.4

c

13.6

c

16.5

*Means with differing letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

a

1.4

*Means with differing letters are signif icantly different (p<0.05)

*Means with differing letters are signif icantly different (p<0.05)

*Means with differing letters are signif icantly different (p<0.05)

Figure 4. Effects of Treatments on Density of Seeded Native Grasses, 2010*

Figure 5. Effects of Treatments on Seeded Forb Densities, 2010*

Figure 6. Effects of Treatments on Density of All Seeded Species, 2010*

*Means with differing letters are significa ntly different (p<0.05)

*Means with differing letters are significa ntly different (p<0.05)

*Means with differing letters are significa ntly different (p<0.05)

Plants/10m

2 Plants/10m

2

Plants/10m

2
152

New Treatments

During May 2010, another treatment trial was implemented within the same general study area 

and using the same randomized block, split-split plot design. Crested wheatgrass suppression 

treatments consisted of (1) ima zapic (Panoramic 2SL®); (2) chlorsulfuron + sulfometuron 

methyl (Landmark XP ®); glyphosate (Roundup ®) full rate; glyphosate half-rate; and (4) 

untreated. The study site was comprised of five 5-acre blocks, with each 1-acre treatment plot 

divided into 0.5-acre seeded and unseeded sub-plots. All treatments were seeded during late 

October 2010, using the same seed mixture (table 1), rates, and methodology described above.

Sampling and Analysis

During summer 2011, we will continue to collect vegetation data, as described above, for both 

treatment trails (third-year data for first trial, first-year data for second trial). Data will be 

analyzed using mixed model analysis, with blocks and years considered random and other 

treatments considered fixed.

Publications:

McAdoo, K. 2010. Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in crested wheatgrass 

seedings. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 

136-140. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations: 

McAdoo, K. 2010. Increasing plant diversity in crested wheatgrass seedings. Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

McAdoo, K.; Swanson, J.; Poulsen, C.; Schultz, B.; Shaw, N. Evaluating strategies for increasing 

plant diversity in crested wheatgrass seedings. Joint Meeting, Society for Range Management 

and Weed Science Society of America. Denver, CO. (Abstract)

Management Applications: 

The relative success and/or failure of revegetation strategies and methodologies used in this 

research will be communicated in appropriate venues for the benefit of both public and private 

land managers and resource users. This research will add to the body of knowledge regarding 

the rehabilitation, functionality, and restoration of Great Basin rangelands. 

Products:

We will conduct a field tour on July 7, 2011 to look at results of applying crested wheatgrass 

reduction methodologies and seeding native species.
153

Project Title: Effect of Herbicide Application Timing on Crested 

Wheatgrass Control and Subsequent Native Plant 

Reestablishment Success

Project: USDA-ARS, Dubois, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Corey Moffet

The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation

2510 Sam Noble Parkway

Ardmore, Oklahoma 73401

(580)224-6521, Fax (580)224-6419

camoffet@noble.org

Project Description:

Crested wheatgrass stands in much of the western United States are stable in near monocultures 

that are resistant to native plant reestablishment. Attempts to modify these stands, to increase 

diversity, will require a reduction in crested wheatgrass so other seeded species can become 

established. Experiments were initiated in the spring 2008 to determine whether: (1) glyphosate 

efficacy differs among combinations of crested wheatgrass physiological state (timing of 

application) and disturbance, and (2) establishment of seeded native plants is improved when 

crested wheatgrass control treatments are more effective.

Methods

Effect of crested wheatgrass phenological stage on herbicide efficacy. Two experiments are 

being conducted at the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station (USSES) headquarters property near 

Dubois, Idaho to determine the relationships among total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) 

trend, phenological stage, and efficacy of glyphosate to control crested wheatgrass. The first 

experiment will characterize the TNC trend in relation to plant phenology. The experiment is a 

completely randomized design. A factorial combination of year (2 levels), and date (~10 levels) 

were assigned completely at random to each plant (10 replications). Plants were collected and

dried in the laboratory. Growth stages were classified for each plant, and root crowns and stem 

bases were excised for TNC analysis.

The second experiment is a completely randomized design in a split-plot arrangement with 

repeated measures. A factorial combination of year (2 levels; 2008 or 2009) and date (8 levels) 

was assigned to main plots (1 x 2 m) completely at random. Within each main plot a random 

half (1 x 1 m) was assigned to a clipping treatment. The clipped half was generally clipped 2 

weeks prior to the main plot spray date. In mid June (2009) it was clear that a 2-week delay 

between clipping and spraying didn‘t give the crested wheatgrass time for significant regrowth, 

so subsequent spray dates were delayed to 28 or 56 days after clipping. At the time these plots 

were selected, corners of the main plot were permanently marked with fiberglass rods. At 

clipping, herbicide application, 2 weeks after application, and in mid June the year after 

herbicide application, digital photographs will be taken from 2 m above ground. In mid June, the 

year after herbicide application, crested wheatgrass biomass will be clipped and weighed. The 
154

photographs will be analyzed for crested wheatgrass cover. Analysis of variance will be used to 

determine whether year, timing of herbicide application, or clipping prior to application had an 

effect on crested wheatgrass cover and biomass.

Large scale seeded plot experiment. The large scale plot experiment is being conducted within a 

50-ha, well established crested wheatgrass seeding near Aberdeen, Idaho. The site is mapped to 

two soil map units, the Portino silt loam, 4 to 8 percent slopes (Coarse-silty, mixed, superactive, 

mesic Xeric Haplocalcids) and the Portneuf silt loam, 2 to 4 percent slopes (Coarse-silty, mixed, 

superactive, mesic Durinodic Xeric Haplocalcids). Both soil units are correlated with the Loamy 

8-12 ARTRW8/PSSP ecological site. The historical plant composition for this site included 

bluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber‘s needlegrass, western wheatgrass, arrowleaf balsamroot, 

Wyoming big sagebrush, Sandberg bluegrass, green rabbitbrush, and bottlebrush squirreltail.

The large scale plot experiment is a split-plot arrangement of a completely randomized design 

with repeated measures. A factorial combination of treatment year (2 levels; 2008 or 2009), 

spring disking (2 levels; yes or no), and glyphosate treatments (4 levels; none, vegetative stage, 

reproductive stage, or autumn regrowth application) was assigned completely at random to 80 

main plots (61 x 43 m). A random half of each main plot (30.5 x 21.5 m, subplots) was seeded 

with a native mix (Table 1). Between adjacent main plots there is a minimum 12-m buffer in all 

directions. Sampling, within each subplot, is conducted on a central 24 x 37 m core sampling 

area.

For all herbicide treatments, the recommended rate (3.2 l/ha) of glyphosate was applied with a 

tractor pulled sprayer. For the disking treatments a tractor pulled disk was used in the spring 

before the soils had dried.

The seeded subplots were seeded with a mix of native grasses, forbs, and shrubs common to the 

sites historical plant community. Seeding each year occurred in early November. A Truax 

Rough Rider rangeland drill was used for the seeding.

Table 1. Seed mix

Species kg-PLS/ha

Broadcast

 Maple Grove Lewis flax 0.45

 Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.22

 Blue Penstemon 0.45

 Wyoming big sagebrush 0.06

 Rubber rabbitbrush 0.17

Drilled

 Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 3.59

 Magnar basin wildrye 0.90

 Bannock thickspike wheatgrass 0.67

 Thurber‘s needlegrass 0.67
155

Figure 1. Mean stage count and greenness for crested wheatgrass plants collected over two

years. Mean stage count classes are for green tillers and follow the classification system 

described by Moore et al. (1991). Greenness is plotted as the mean of the greenness class 

midpoint for ten sampled plants. Greenness classes for the plants were classified into 1 of 6 

categories based on the percentage of green tillers (0, 1 to 20, 21 to 40, 41 to 60, 61 to 80, or 81 

to 100 percent). Calendar days when herbicide was applied to adjacent small plots are also 

indicated for 2008 and 2009.

Reseeding success is evaluated for two growing seasons after each treatment and seeding year. 

Data collection includes cover and density of seeded species, crested wheatgrass, and invasive 

plants. Cover will be determined by line point intercept. Density will be determined by counting 

plants in sample quadrats or appropriately sized belt transects.

Results from 2009 and 2010

Effect of crested wheatgrass phenological stage on herbicide efficacy. Crested wheatgrass 

plants were collected in 2008 and 2009 and greenness and phenological stages were classified for 

each sample date (Figure 1). When sampling began, in late May 2008 (d 151), most of the 

crested wheatgrass tillers were green and in a vegetative stage. By mid July 2008 (d 193), some 

tillers were beginning to senesce and the green tillers were mostly in a reproductive stage. By 

Small plot 

herbicide application days =

2008

2009

6

5

4

5

3

2

1

100

80

60

40

20

50 100 150 200 250

Calendar day

300 350

0

0
156

mid September 2008 (d 257), almost all tillers were senesced and the few remaining green tillers 

were in seed development and seed ripening stages. With little or no autumn green-up, no 

herbicide applications were made in the late summer and autumn of 2008. Growth was initiated 

earlier in 2009 than in 2008, likely due to an earlier April 4 (d 94) thaw, whereas in 2008 snow 

remained on the site until April 25 (d 116). By late May 2009 (d 149), tillers were 

predominately in an elongation stage, whereas in late May 2008 (d 151) tillers were 

predominately in a vegetative stage. In 2009, 98 mm of June precipitation (218% of normal)

helped to extend the time when most tillers were green beyond mid July (d 198). In 2008, plants 

were beginning to exhibit senescence by late May (d 148).

Shoots were predominately vegetative or nonexistent in plants subjected to clipping 2 weeks

prior to sampling (data not shown). In 2008, the only sample period with abundant regrowth on 

clipped plants was mid June (d 165). By the late June sampling (d 179), few new tillers had 

emerged and all were in the early vegetative stage. By mid July (d 193) and throughout mid 

August (d 226), no tillers were emerging from clipped plants and no phenological stage ratings 

could be made. By late October (d 296), some tillers were emerging from clipped plants and the 

emerged tillers were in early vegetative stages. In 2009, tillers had emerged from the clipped 

plants at the sampling times beginning with the first clipped plant sampling May 1 (d 121) 

through the late June (d 177) sampling. In mid July (d 198), the clipped plants had few emerged 

tillers and all were in the early vegetative stage. The clipped plants that were sampled in early 

November (d 310) were clipped in mid July (d 198) and many tillers had finally emerged, but 

development was slow and they were all in the early vegetative stage.

Timing of herbicide application in 2008 had a significant effect on glyphosate efficacy. Crested 

wheatgrass biomass was 231 g m-2in unsprayed plots. Crested wheatgrass biomass was <1 g m

-2

in plots sprayed June 6 (d 158) at 2X the recommended herbicide application rate. Crested 

wheatgrass biomass was less, compared with the unsprayed control plots, when plots were 

sprayed at the recommended herbicide application rate on June 20 (d 172, 46 g m-2), but not for 

plots sprayed on July 7 (d 189, 217 g m-2).

For plots treated in 2009, the effect herbicide application timing had on crested wheatgrass 

biomass in 2010 was large, but varied depending on clipping. Plots not sprayed in 2009 

produced 382 g m-2of crested wheatgrass by late June 2010. For unclipped plots, glyphosate 

application, at the recommended rate on all 2009 spray dates except September 25, significantly 

reduced crested wheatgrass production. Spraying the herbicide on July 31 and October 23 

reduced crested wheatgrass biomass (119 and 299 g m-2, respectively), but to a much lesser 

extent than the 4 spray dates between May 8 and July 3 (range 9 to 41 g m-2). The effect of 

spraying was, in most cases, not affected by clipping 2 weeks prior to spraying. Crested 

wheatgrass biomass in 2010 on plots clipped May 22 and sprayed June 5 (128 g m-2) was, 

however, intermediate to the unsprayed control and the June 5 sprayed, but unclipped, plots. 

Likewise, plots clipped July 3 and sprayed July 31 had crested wheatgrass biomass (281 g m-2) 

that was intermediate to the unsprayed control and the July 31 sprayed, but unclipped, plots. The 

efficacy of glyphosate application was increased by clipping before spraying in only one case. 

Plots that were clipped September 25 and sprayed October 23 had less crested wheatgrass 

biomass the following June (180 g m-2) than the unclipped plots sprayed October 23.
157

Large scale seeded plot experiment. Precipitation was less than normal in 2008, above normal 

in 2009, owing to above normal June precipitation, and near normal in 2010. Crested wheatgrass 

control treatments in 2009 were begun earlier than in 2008, with the exception of the 2nd

herbicide application and seeding which were completed on about the same date as in 2008.

Mature crested wheatgrass density in 2009 was reduced by disking in late May 2008. In 2010, 

however, there seem to be no effect of disking in mid May 2009. Mature crested wheatgrass 

density in 2009 was less in plots sprayed with the recommended rate of glyphosate on June 9, 

2008 or June 19, 2008 compared with unsprayed plots or plots sprayed on October 24, 2008. 

The effect of spring disking did not interact with spraying and seeding had no effect on mature 

crested wheatgrass density. The effect of disking and spraying on crested wheatgrass cover 

depended on year. Disking and early season spraying in 2008 effectively reduced crested 

wheatgrass cover measured in 2009. Late May herbicide application in 2009, without mid May 

disking, was the only treatment effective for reducing crested wheatgrass cover in 2010. 

Regardless of year, seeding caused a modest, but statistically significant increase in crested 

wheatgrass cover.

Cheatgrass cover, regardless of treatment or year, was less than 1%. Cheatgrass density was 

generally low in 2009 (3.5 plants m-2). In 2010, cheatgrass density increased significantly to 5 

plants m-2.

Emergence and first growing season survival of seeded forbs and shrubs was poor regardless of 

the crested wheatgrass control treatments or year. Total seeded forb seedling density was less 

than 1 plant m-2and total seeded shrub seedling density was less than 0.01 plant m-2. Emergence 

and first growing season survival of seeded grasses was greater in 2009 than in 2010. In 2009, 

seeded grass density was 27.2 plant m-2, but in 2010 density was 9.7 plant m-2. Across both 

years, the disking treatment tended to reduce emergence and first growing season survival of 

seeded grasses. Total seeded grass density was 19.7 plants m-2in undisked plots compared with 

16.4 plant m-2in disked. The reduction in seedling density due to disking was significant for 

needlegrass (1.4 vs. 0.7 m-2), significant for Sandberg bluegrass (1.2 vs. 0.4 m-2), but nonsignificant for the wheatgrass/wildrye group.

Plans for 2011

Large plot cover and density will be measure d for the second year on the 2009 treatment plots.

Publications:

Moffet, C. 2010. Effect of herbicide application timing on crested wheatgrass control and 

subsequent native plant reestablishment success. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase 

Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 141-145. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Moffet, C. 2010. Eastern Idaho crested wheatgrass diversification study update. Great Basin 

Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake 

City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml
158

Management Applications: When this study is complete, land managers can use this 

information to choose efficacious crested wheatgrass control practices and increase the 

likelihood that subsequent native seeding efforts are successful.

Literature Cited:

Moore, K. J.; Moser, L. E.; Vogel, K. P.; Waller, S. S.; Johnson, B. E.; Pededsen, J. F. 1991. 

Describing and quantifying growth stages of perennial forage grasses. Agronomy Journal 83: 

1073–1077.
159

Project Title: Recruitment of Native Vegetation into Crested 

Wheatgrass Seedings and the Influence of Crested 

Wheatgrass on Native Vegetation

Project: USDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural 

Research Center, Burns, Oregon

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

Kirk Davies

USDA Agricultural Research Service

67826-A Hwy 205, Burns, OR 97720

(541)573-4074

kirk.davies@ars.usda.gov

Aleta Nafus

USDA Agricultural Research Service

67826 A Hwy 205, Burns, OR 97720

(541)573-3042

aleta.nafus@ars.usda.gov 

Project Description: 

Preliminary results suggest that over a 12 year period, crested wheatgrass density increased 40-

fold while native bunchgrass density remained the same or decreased. This suggests that when 

seeded together, crested wheatgrass recruits new individuals into the plant community, while 

native perennial bunchgrasses do not and that crested wheatgrass may be displacing some of the 

native perennial bunchgrasses. 

The objectives of our study were to 1) determine what factors (management, site/environmental 

characteristic, etc) promote native plant recruitment in crested wheatgrass plant communities and 

2) determine if crested wheatgrass displaces native vegetation from plant communities.

Methods

In 1998, experimental plots were set up with known, even densities of crested wheatgrass and 

seven native perennial bunchgrasses. Since 1998, no management activities have occurred on 

these experimental plots. In 2010, we counted total density of perennial bunchgrasses by species 

in ten 37.2 m2plots. 

Results

Over a period of 12 years, crested wheatgrass density increased 40-fold and native grass 

densities either remained the same or decreased (fig. 1). The preliminary results of this study 

suggest that, when seeded together, crested wheatgrass recruits new individuals into the plant 

community, while native perennial bunchgrasses do not. Thus, crested wheatgrass may be 

displacing some of the native perennial bunchgrasses or is better adapted to recruit new 

individuals into the population. This study did not address changes in forb and shrub 
160

composition over time and it is possible that reestablishment of shrubs and forbs may be more 

successful. 

Figure 1. Density per 10 m2of crested wheatgrass (AGDE = crested wheatgrass) 

and each of 7 native perennial bunchgrass species: PSSP = bluebunch wheatgrass; 

LECI = basin wildrye; FEID = Idaho fescue; ELEL = bottlebrush squirreltail; 

HECO =needle and thread grass; POSE = Sandberg bluegrass; 

ACTH = Thurber‘s needlegrass. *Indicates statistical difference at P < 0.01.

Future Plans

In 2011, we will extensively sample the 1998 co-planting plots and located crested wheatgrass 

plant communities across the northern Great Basin. Private and public land managers will be 

contacted to locate crested wheatgrass plant communities. In 2012, we plan to begin sampling

crested wheatgrass plant communities to determine what factors promote native plant 

recruitment in crested wheatgrass plant communities. Site, environmental, and management 

characteristics will be collected to determine their relationships with native plant recruitment into 

crested wheatgrass communities. 

Management Applications: 

Results are still preliminary, but they do suggest that crested wheatgrass is better able to recruit 

new individuals into the plant community than native bunchgrasses. The ability of crested 

wheatgrass to increase, while native bunchgrass densities remained the same or decreased,

should be considered before co-planting crested wheatgrass and native bunchgrasses. 
161

Project Title: Revegetation Equipment Catalog

Project Location: Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Robert Cox

Department of Natural Resources Management

Texas Tech University

Box 42125, Lubbock, Texas 79409

(806)742-2841, Fax (806)742-2280

robert.cox@ttu.edu

Project Description:

The Revegetation Equipment Catalog is an online repository of descriptions, photos, and 

company information for equipment that is used for revegetation efforts in the US. With pages 

on topics ranging from ―All-terrain Vehicles‖ through ―Fertilizing and Mulching‖ to ―Transport 

Trailers‖, the catalog is an important reference for information about revegetation equipment. 

2010 Activities and Results

Prior to 2009, the catalog was hosted on websites at the Texas A&M University. During 2009, 

the catalog was shifted to being mirrored at Texas Tech University. During 2010, the TTUhosted site was fully updated, and revised. All links were checked and corrected, if necessary, 

and the site was converted to a more ―modern‖ format utilizing frames.

Future Plans

During 2011, the catalog will again be updated and maintained, but will also be redesigned in a 

more complete way, to modernize the approach.
162

Project Title: GPS Datalogger for Rangeland Drills

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development 

Center (MTDC), Missoula, Montana 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Damien Hoffman

USDA Forest Service

Missoula Technology and Development Center

Missoula, MT 59804

(406)829-6751, Fax (406)329-4811

damienhoffman@fs.fed.us

Project Description: 

Objectives

A durable GPS datalogger is needed to provide a quality control tool for monitoring rangeland 

drill operation and contracts. The aim is to create a device that is capable of: 1) operating for 

over a month at a time; 2) temporarily attaching to a drill (drills are often owned by cooperators); 

3) operating at low temperatures; 4) utilizing user-friendly software that can be used to track drill 

speed, area covered, effectiveness in avoiding leave areas (archaeological sites, rare plant habitat, 

rock piles, etc.), and operating time. Software should be capable of superimposing the data on 

satellite maps and providing a record of operating time, drill speed, distance traveled, site 

coverage, elevation changes and avoidance of archaeological sites and other leave areas. 

Progress

Several GPS dataloggers and associated software were tested until one device that seemed to 

have the required capabilities was identified. The device has enough memory to log a data point 

every five seconds, 24 hours a day, for more than 23 days. With the aid of a modified battery 

pack (eight 1.5V D-cell batteries), the device can run for up to 40 days of continuous operation. 

The device is housed inside a waterproof, lockable case that is secured temporarily to the drill by 

rare Earth magnets. 

The software provides the ability to program the device to Power On and begin logging data at 

pre-programmed intervals set by the device owner or representative of the owner. This ability to 

program the device extends the number of days the device will remain operable. For instance, 

pre-programming 10-12 hour workdays will improve the longevity of the device by allowing for 

more data collection before the memory or battery maxes out. 

The software can also be programmed to set the frequency with which GPS points are taken. A 

vibration detector ensures that the datalogger will stop taking points when the drill is not in 

motion. An alarm sounds if the drill exceeds a specified speed which would reduce planting 

efficiency. 

Management Applications: 

The low cost GPS unit is suitable for use on rugged terrain in remote areas during low 
163

temperature periods. Its features allow owners to monitor whether specifications outlined in a 

contract were followed. 

Product: 

The unit is still in the testing phase. The current version costs about $200 and includes a GPS 

datalogger and software, a waterproof/lockable case with five rare Earth magnets, 2 battery 

cases, 8 D-cell batteries, and a modified mini USB power cable. 

(http://rtec.rangelands.org/GPSdatalogger.htm)

Collaborators on the project:

Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, Minnesota

USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID

Glade Jones, Hindsite Co., La Barge, WY. 
164

Project Title: Calibration of Drills for Rehabilitation and Restoration 

Seedings on Western Wildlands

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development 

Center (MTDC), Missoula, Montana

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

Lisa Outka-Perkins

USDA Forest Service

Missoula Technology and Development Center

Missoula, MT 59808

(406)329-3849, Fax (406)329-3719

loutka-perkins@fs.fed.us

Project Description: 

Native and diverse plant communities are essential for the health and vitality of our nation‘s 

rangelands. Reestablishing plants after wildland fires, increasing an area‘s resistance to weed 

invasion, and enhancing roadways, as well as other rangeland restoration projects, require the use 

of rangeland drills. This equipment is designed to distribute seeds of different sizes and shapes 

at appropriate rates and depths in compatible combinations. 

The standard rangeland drill and some newer drills are currently in use. Operators must be 

familiar with this equipment and know how to calibrate it to improve seeding success and reduce 

waste, thus decreasing costs. Project 2400 9E92E89: ―Calibrating Your Rangeland Drill‖ was 

completed in 2010. The DVD describes: the history of rangeland drill development, the essential 

features of rangeland drills, the basic seed and seed testing terminology, the calculation of 

seeding rates for multispecies seeding mixes using one or more seed boxes, and the three 

methods of drill calibration (the wheel circumference, the seed per row-foot, and the small bag 

per land area methods). It also demonstrates how the output of seed boxes can be adjusted. 

Included on the DVD are a glossary of standard terms and a ―Drill Calibration Summary‖ to 

print for field use. 

Collaborators on the project include: USDI Bureau of Land Management Vale Equipment Shop, 

Vale, OR; USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID; Truax Company, Inc., 

New Hope, MN; USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID; and the 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR. 

Single copies of the DVD may be ordered from: 

U.S. Forest Service

Missoula Technology and Development Center

5785 Highway 10 West

Missoula, MT 59808-9361

Phone (406)329-3978, Fax (406)329-3719

email: wo_mtdc_pubs@fs.fed.us
165

Project Title: Development of Seeding Equipment for Establishing 

Diverse Native Communities

Project: Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, Minnesota

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

James Truax, Owner

Truax Company, Inc.

5300 Quebec Avenue North

New Hope, MN 55428

(763)537-6639, Fax (763)537-8353

truax@pclink.com

Project Description:

Changes were made in the telescoping seed delivery tubes and boot casing of the Roughrider in 

the summer of 2010; in attempts to overcome the plugging that has been experienced when the 

Roughrider has been used in the snow. 

The seed-way passage was modeled using Solidworks software and 1⁄4 inch cross-sections of the 

boot and tube were printed from the ground up. It became apparent that a restriction of 37% in 

the boot casing was the probable cause of the plugging. An oblong area of the boot casing was 

removed with a CNC plasma cutter, allowing the tumbling seed to fall against the rotating disc 

blade and then be carried to the ground (fig. 1). Another change was made to the telescoping 

seed tube to provide an escape for the seed if plugging does occur in the boot casing. Oblong 

holes were cut into the seed tubes to allow seed to escape if plugging occurs lower down in the 

boot. Heavy bristle brushes (fig. 2) provide a door to allow the seed to escape if plugging occurs 

and keep it flowing under normal use. 

 

The only way to confirm whether this modification solves the plugging of the Roughrider‘s seed 

tubes is to use the equipment under weather conditions that provide us with the variable snow 

Figure 1. Boot casing. Oblong opening, left, 

permits seed to fall against disc blade

Figure 2. Bristle brushes reduce plugging
166

conditions. To date the jury is still out because we have not had snow at the location where a 

modified Roughrider is located. 

Publications:

Truax, J. 2010. Development of seeding equipment for establishing diverse native communities. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 167-169. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentation:

Shaw, N.; Cox, R.; Truax, J. et al. 2010. Post-fire Seeding Strategies and Native Plant Materials 

for the Northern Great Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual 

Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Consultations: 

Provided recommendations for USDA FS Missoula Technology and Development Center 

efforts to produce a GPS unit for monitoring rangeland seedings. 

Assisted with University of Nevada Extension, Elko, Nevada/NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center to install a crested wheatgrass diversification study near Elko, NV. 

Assisted the USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station and their cooperators to install a 

seeding study near Mountain Home, ID. 
167

Project Title: Establishment of Native Forbs Following Mechanical 

Soil Disturbance in Wyoming Big Sagebrush 

Communities in the Great Basin

Project: Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, 

Ephraim, Utah

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Alison Whittaker, GBRC Project Leader

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 84627

(435)283-4441, Fax (435)283-2034

alisonwhittaker@utah.gov

Danny Summers, Restoration Implementation Coordinator

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

494 West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 84627

(435)283-4441, Fax (435)283-2034

dannysummers@utah.gov

Project Description:

Currently, seed mixes used for restoration generally do not include native forbs, mainly due to 

their high cost. Because these species have not been included in past restoration efforts there is a 

lack of information about planting and establishing native forbs in wildland settings. As these 

native forbs become more available on the market, the lower costs will facilitate land manager‘s 

ability to include these species in seed mixes used for restoration. This creates a need to 

determine the best methods of establishing native forbs in wildland settings. The main objective 

of this study is to evaluate native forb establishment in Wyoming big sagebrush communities 

using four different mechanical planting methods.

Methods

This study was established on two sites (referred to as North and South) in Tooele County, Utah. 

Each site has four complete treatment blocks. Two blocks were treated in the fall of 2008 and 

two were treated in the fall of 2009. Each block includes five randomly placed treatments. The 

five treatments included an untreated control, broadcast seeding followed by a Lawson aerator, 

broadcast seeding followed by a Dixie harrow, broadcast seeding followed by an Ely chain, and 

a rangeland drill seeding using a Truax Rough Rider no-till drill. The seed mix used for the study 

consisted of only native forbs (table 1). 
168

Table 1. Seed mix used on the project.

Species Bulk 

lbs/acre) PLS lbs/acre Seeds/ft2

Munro‘s globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana) 0.5 0.38 4.32

Blue flax (Linum lewisii) 1.0 0.90 6.04

Northern sweetvetch (Hedysarum boreale) 1.0 0.77 0.60

Silvery lupine (Lupinus argenteus) 1.5 0.55 0.27

Palmer penstemon (Penstemon palmeri) 0.5 0.39 4.86

Utah milkvetch (Astragalus utahensis) 0.6 0.39 2.03

Arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata) 2.0 1.81 2.28

Firecracker penstemon (Penstemon eatonii) 0.29 0.23 3.18

Tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata) 0.16 0.10 0.48

Total 7.55 6.02 24.04

Data Collection

Data from the blocks treated in 2008 was collected in June 2009 and data from all of the blocks 

was collected in June 2010. Five permanently established 100 ft. belts were placed in a stratified 

random design along a 100 ft transect in each treatment plot. A total of 100 subsamples were 

collected from along these lines in each plot. Percent cover of all shrubs, grasses, and f orbs was 

collected using a modified Daubenmire cover class method. Density data of all perennial species 

was also collected. Line intercept cover data was also collected for the shrub species. Data will 

be collected each year for 3-5 years following treatment. We are in the process of doing the 

statistical analysis on the 2010 data so only a summary of the results are available at this time. 

Results

Density data was converted to germination using the seeding rates. By presenting the data this 

way we needed to omit Munro‘s globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana) from the first two charts 

because it was already abundant on the south site and present on the north site. We were unable 

to tell if plants came from our seeding or not so this made it difficult to convert the Munro‘s

globemallow density into germination. Germination of the seeded species varied by site and by 

treatment. On the first set of plots that were treated in 2008, there was a big difference between 

the two sites (fig. 1). The south site had very few seeds germinate when compared to the north 

site, as well as very little difference between treatments. On the north site, however, there were 

some big differences between treatments; the chaining resulted in the best germination and 

establishment, followed by the harrow and then the aerator. The trend was similar for the second 

year of growth but with more plants germinating than the year before. 

There was not a big difference between the two sites on the plots treated in 2009, however there 

was a big difference in germination when comparing them to the first growing season of the plots 

treated in 2008 (fig. 2). After seeing the large difference between years we looked at 

precipitation for that area and found that during May 2009 precipitation was only 42% of normal 

whereas during May 2010 precipitation was 177% of normal. We also looked at the Palmer 

Drought Severity Index and found that the 2009 growing season was considered to be severe to 

moderate drought where as the 2010 growing season was considered to be normal to slightly wet. 
169

Figure 1. Germination during the first growing season and germination and establishment 

during the second growing season for all of the seeded species, except Munro‘s globemallow, 

separated out by site and treatment.

Figure 2. Germination results from the first growing season for all seeded species, except 

Munro globemallow, separated out by the year it was treated, site, and treatment.

Germination and Establishment on 2008 Plots

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7% Aerator Chain Control Drill Harrow Aerator Chain Control Drill Harrow Aerator Chain Control Drill Harrow Aerator Chain Control Drill Harrow

North South North South 

1st Growing Season 2nd Growing Season

Germination and Establishment (%)

PEPA8

PEEA

LUAR

LILE

HEBO

CRAC

BASA

ASUT

Germination for 1st Growing Season

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16% Aerator Chain Control Drill Harrow Aerator Chain Control Drill Harrow Aerator Chain Control Drill Harrow Aerator Chain Control Drill Harrow

North South North South 

2008 2009

Germination (%)

PEPA8

PEEA

LUAR

LILE

HEBO

CRAC

BASA

ASUT
170

While establishing native forbs into a Wyoming sagebrush community was t he main objective of 

this project it is also important to look at how the mechanical treatments affected other 

components in the community. Average sagebrush cover on the control plot was 12.6%. After 

treating with the mechanical treatment, aerator, chain, drill, or harrow, the average cover of 

sagebrush decreased to 3.8%, 6.8%, 10.1%, and 3.9% respectively. Conversely, the average 

percent cover of bare ground went from 44.9% on the control plots to 54.9% on the aerator plots, 

52.5% on the chained plots, 41.1% on the drill plots, and 58.1% on the harrow plots. The 

difference in the cover of annual species also varied by site (fig. 3a). The cover of annual species 

on the control and drill plots on the south site was quite high compared to the north site. This was 

due to a control plot and a drill plot being almost completely dominated by cheatgrass (Bromus 

tectorum) even before the treatment. By excluding the data from the block that was the outlier 

we can get a better idea of how the annual species will respond on similar sagebrush sites 

(fig. 3b). The harrow treatment resulted in the biggest increase in cover for annual species. Plots 

treated with the chain had the second highest annual species cover. The aerator treatment appears 

to result in a slight increase and the drill had essentially no effect on annual cover. 

Figure 3a. Cover of all annual species from all plots, separated by site in 2010. 

Annual Species Cover

0

5

10

15

20

25

North South

Site

Cover (%)

Aerator

Chain

Control

Drill

Harrow
171

Figure 3b. Cover of all annual species from all plots, excluding the plots from 

block 1 on the south site, separated by site in 2010.

Management Applications: 

It is still early in the study to make many management recommendations. However, by looking 

at the trend of the density data for the seeded species, the broadcast treatment followed by the 

Ely chain appears to be the most successful at establishing native forbs. When selecting a 

mechanical implement to reseed native forbs into a Wyoming sagebrush community you also 

have to consider how much of the sagebrush you want to remove. The other management 

implication that can be drawn from the data at this point is that more disturbance can result in 

high annual species cover. The mechanical treatment that caused the most disturbance was the 

Dixie harrow treatment so this may not be the most ideal treatme nt method if there are a lot of 

annuals present on the site. From the second year of data collection it is apparent how important 

precipitation is in establishing native forbs. With above normal precipitation no specific planting 

method stood out as being better than another. This data can also assist in deciding which species 

you can expect to be more successful when seeding similar sites. In the first growing season the 

species that performed the best was blue flax (Linum lewisii); however it didn‘t seem to persist 

into the second growing season. The other species that were the most successful were Utah 

sweetvetch (Hedysarum boreale), Utah milkvetch (Astragalus utahensis), which did even better 

the second growing season, and silvery lupine (Lupinus argenteus). We didn‘t see either 

Penstemon species until the second growing season but by then they were as abundant as the 

other top four species. As we continue to collect more data over the next several years the results 

will provide us with better guidelines for seeding native forbs in Wyoming sagebrush 

communities.

Annual Species Cover

Excluding Outlier Data

0

5

10

15

20

25

North South

Site

Cover (%)

Annual Species Cover

0

5

10

15

20

25

North South

Site

Cover (%)

Aerator

Chain

Control

Drill

Harrow
172

Publications:

Whittaker, A.; Summer, D. 2010. Establishment of native forbs following mechanical soil 

disturbance in Wyoming big sagebrush communities in the Great Basin. Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project FY2009 Progress Report. p. 170-172. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Presentations:

Whittaker, A.; Summers, D.; Vernon, J.; Davis, B. 2010. Will it grow? A comparison of wildland 

planting methods for native forbs. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Whittaker, A.; Summers, D.; Vernon, J.; Davis, B. 2010. Will it grow? A comparison of wildland 

planting methods for native forbs. 16th Wildland Shrub Symposium, 2010. Logan, UT May 18-

20, 2010. (poster)

Products:

This study will provide guidelines for planting native forbs in Wyoming big sagebrush 

communities. Results will be reported through symposia, workshops and through appropriate 

publications. 
173

Project Title: Native Plant Selection, Seed Biology, and Seeding 

Equipment and Technology

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 

Boise, Idaho

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Nancy Shaw

USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

(208)373-4360, Fax (208)373-4391

nshaw@fs.fed.us

Robert Cox

Department of Natural Resources Management

Texas Tech University

Box 42125

Lubbock, TX 79409

(806)742-2841, Fax (806)742-2280

Robert.cox@ttu.edu

Erin Denney, Matthew Fisk, and Jan Gurr 

USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

(208)373-4358, Fax (208)373-4391

edenney@fs.fed.us; mfisk@fs.fed.us; jgurr@fs.fed.us

Project Description: 

1. Plant Materials

Seed Collection

81 collections were made in 2010, this included seed of 23 species. Collection was completed 

with the assistance of one Seeds of Success intern. 

Distribution of Seed to Growers 

Seeds of 11 species were distributed to 7 private sector seed growers, either through the BuyBack program or for seed increase for commercial sales (table 1). 

Seed Distribution

81 collections were distributed to the USDA Agricultural Research Service Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station/Seeds of Success Program for addition to the GRIN system (appendix 

II).
174

Stock seed of pooled Lomatium grayi (0.41kg; Snake River Plain) and Lomatium dissectum

(3.45kg; Snake River Plain) were provided to the Utah Crop Improvement Association for 

distribution to interested growers. 

79 collections were distributed to cooperators and other users (appendix III). 

Table 1. Seed lots distributed to private growers in 2010.

Species Common name Ecoregion* Source 

type

Kg. No. of 

growers

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas‘ dustymaiden NBR Pooled 1.05 2

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat NBR Pooled 2.42 2

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat SRP/ IB Pooled 1.48 1

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulphur-flower buckwheat NGB Pooled 2.27 2

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot SRP Pooled 0.81 1

Lomatium grayi Gray‘s biscuitroot SRP Pooled 0.98 1

Lomatium nudicaule Barestem biscuitroot NBR Pooled 1.06 1

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot NBR Pooled 1.00 1

Machaeranthera 

canescens

Hoary tansyaster NGB Pooled 0.32 2

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon SRP Pooled 2.91 4

Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon SRP Single 7.46 3

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon NBR Pooled 1.21 1

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon SRP Pooled 0.54 1

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro‘s globemallow NBR Pooled 0.60 2

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro‘s globemallow SRP Single 0.08 1

* IB = Idaho Batholith, NBR = Northern Basin & Range, NGB = Northern Great Basin, SRP = Snake River Plain

2. Reestablishing Diverse Native Wyoming Big Sagebrush Communities: A comparison of 

seeding equipment and techniques. 

Collaborators: Robet Cox, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX; Nancy Shaw, USDA FS 

Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID; Loren St. John, USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID: Dan Ogle, USDA NRCS Idaho State Office, Boise, ID; Mike 

Pellant, USDI BLM, Boise, ID; Tom Warren, USDI BLM, Elko, NV. 

Objectives and Methods 

The study was conducted to evaluate the capabilities of the Kemmerer Rangeland drill and the 

Truax RoughRider Minimum-till drill to plant seeds of diverse sizes and shapes at appropriate 

depths to reestablish grasses, forbs and shrubs on Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata

ssp. wyomingensis) sites following wildfire. Seedings were conducted in 2006 on recent burns 

(E. Humboldt and Gopher) near Elko, NV and evaluated in 2007 and 2008. Methods, study 

sites, and seeding mixes were described in the 2009 report (Shaw et al. 2010). 

Results and Conclusions

Results differed at the two study sites. Drill seedings at both locations were successful in 2007, 

with seeded plots supporting higher densities of drill seeded species than unseeded plots at both 
175

b)

a)

locations (fig. 1). Density of drill seeded species was greater at E. Humboldt than at Gopher 

where greater quantities of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) seed remained on the soil surface 

following the wildfire, and generally did not vary among seeded treatments at either site. By 

2008 density of drill seeded species was greater on seeded compared to unseeded plots at E. 

Humboldt, but not at Gopher where cheatgrass and recovering squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) 

density were greater than at E. Humboldt (data not shown). 

Density of broadcast (small seeded) species was greater for minimum-till than rangeland drill 

treatments in 2007 and did not differ between the two sites (fig. 2). By 2008 this difference was 

lost, and density of broadcast-seeded species across all treatments was greater at Gopher than at 

E. Humboldt. Seedling loss between the first and second growing seasons are common, but may 

have been exacerbated by lower than normal precipitation in 2007 and 2008 (fig. 3). 

Figure 1. Total density of drill seeded species at E. Humboldt and Gopher 

in 2007 and 2008.
176

Figure 2. Broadcast (small seeded) species density in 2007 and 2008 at 

E. Humboldt and Gopher. 

b)

a)
177

 Figure 3. December 2006-May 2008 precipitation at E. Humboldt and Gopher and 30-year 

 average. 

Management Applications: 

Establishment of seedings on semi-arid rangelands is dependent upon favorable precipitation and 

temperature conditions during germination and establishment, and failures are common. 

Weather conditions cannot be predicted in the Interior West. Factors that can be controlled 

include season of planting, selection or creation of seedbeds with minimal weed competition, and 

use of genetically appropriate seed sources. Seeding strategies that provide appropriate seedbed 

conditions for small-seeded species are lacking. This study indicates that use of the minimumtill drill fitted with impacter units to cover small-seeded species may improve their initial 

emergence. 

3. Equipment and strategies to enhance the post-wildfire establishment and persistence of 

Great Basin native plants (Funding provided by the Joint Fire Science Program and 

GBNPSIP) 

Collaborators: Nancy Shaw, USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID; Robert 

Cox, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX; Loren St. John, USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID: Dan Ogle, USDA NRCS Idaho State Office, Boise, ID; Mike 

Pellant, USDI BLM, Boise, ID; Beth Newingham, University of Idaho, Moscow , ID; Amy 

Ganguli, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND.

This study examines approaches for reestablishing Wyoming big sagebrush communities 

following wildfire. It compares the ability of the standard rangeland drill and the minimum-till 

drill to plant grass, forb, and shrub seeds at different rates and depths. Methods for planting 

small seeded species are compared and seeding rates for Wyoming big sagebrush examined. 

The study was previously established on recently burned Wyoming big sagebrush sites at three 

locations: Mt. Home, Idaho (2006), Glass Butte, Oregon (2006), and Scooby, Utah (2008). A 

fourth and final replication was planted near the Mountain Home Air Force Base, Saylor Creek 
178

Training Range in fall 2010. There are 13 treatments (table 1) with 5 replications. Experimental 

plots are approximately 0.2 ha in size (70 m x 30 m) and fenced to exclude grazing for a 

minimum of 5 years. 

Unfenced plots are established at each site to evaluate long-term impacts of grazing on native 

seedings. These include 3 treatments (Control, minimum-till 5X, and rangeland drill 5X) with 5 

replications. Plot size for the grazed plots is about 0.6 ha (70 m x 90 m). 

Table 1. Seeding treatments for fenced plots. All plots seeded in 

November, except winter broadcast, which was made over 

snow in January. 

Drill Seeding Rate 

No drill (control) No seed

Minimum till No seed

Minimum till Standard

Minimum till 5X ARTRW

Minimum till 10X ARTRW

Minimum till Fall broadcast (5X)

Minimum till Winter broadcast (5X)

Rangeland drill No seed

Rangeland drill Standard

Rangeland drill 5X ARTRW

Rangeland drill 10X ARTRW

Rangeland drill Fall broadcast (5X)

Rangeland drill Winter broadcast (5X)

The second season of monitoring was completed at the Scooby site in 2010. This seeding is 

located in Box Elder Co., Utah (4700 ft elevation; 41° 51‘23.28‖N, 113° 03‘00.66‖W; 226mm 

annual precipitation; soil: Hiko Peak – gravelly loam; ecological site: semidesert gravelly loam, 

Wyoming big sagebrush). Seeding mixes for this site are provided in table 2. Monitoring 

included density of seeded species and cheatgrass plus presence of nonseeded species, gap 

measurements (>20 cm), and cover estimates (line-point intercepts) in 2009 and 2010. 

Table 2. Broadcast and drill seed mixes applied at the Scooby site in November 2008.

* Standard, 5X and 10X broadcast seeding mixes vary only in the application rate of Wyoming 

 big sagebrush seed. 

Standard broadcast mix Pounds PLS Seeds Seeds 

PLS/acre seeds/lb ft-2 m

-2

Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata ssp.

wyomingensis 

0.10 2,109,032 4.84 52.10

Rubber rabbitbrush Ericameria nauseosa 0.50 695,000 7.98 85.84

Western yarrow (Eagle) Achillea millefolium 0.15 2,700,000 9.30 100.04

Sandberg bluegrass (Mt. Home) Poa secunda 0.40 926,000 8.50 91.49

Blue penstemon Penstemon cyaneus 0.09 3,429,810 7.09 76.25

Total broadcast 37.71 405.72
179

5X broadcast mix Pounds PLS Seeds Seeds 

PLS/acre seeds/lb ft-2 m

-2

Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata ssp.

wyomingensis 

0.45 2,109,032 21.79 234.43

Rubber rabbitbrush Ericameria nauseosa 0.50 695,000 7.98 85.84

Western yarrow (Eagle) Achillea millefolium 0.15 2,700,000 9.30 100.04

Sandberg bluegrass Poa secunda 0.40 926,000 8.50 91.49

Blue penstemon Penstemon cyaneus 0.09 3,429,810 7.09 76.25

Total 5X broadcast 54.65 588.06

10x broadcast mix Pounds PLS Seeds Seeds 

PLS/acre seeds/lb ft-2 m

-2

Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata ssp.

wyomingensis 

0.95 2,109,032 46.00 494.92

Rubber rabbitbrush Ericameria nauseosa 0.50 695,000 7.98 85.84

Eagle yarrow Achillea millefolium 0.15 2,700,000 9.30 100.04

Sandberg bluegrass Poa secunda 0.40 926,000 8.50 91.49

Blue penstemon Penstemon cyaneus 0.09 3,429,810 7.09 76.25

Total 10X broadcast 78.86 848.54

Drill seeding mix Pounds PLS Seeds Seeds 

PLS/acre seeds/lb ft-2 m

-2

 ̳Rimrock' Indian ricegrass Achnatherum hymenoides 1.00 205,000 4.71 50.64

Munro globemallow Sphaeralcea munroana 0.50 750,000 8.61 92.63

 ̳Anatone‘ germplasm bluebunch 

wheatgrass

Pseudoroegneria spicata 2.00 135,153 6.21 66.77

 ̳Toe Jam‘ germplasm 

bottlebrush squirreltail

Elymus elymoides 1.00 190,000 4.36 46.93

Sulphur-flower buckwheat Eriogonum umbellatum 0.24 184,153 1.01 10.92

Total drilled 24.90 267.89

Results and Discussion 

Emergence and growth of seeded species were favored by good rainfall in spring 2009 and 2010. 

Density of seeded forbs and Wyoming big sagebrush following the second growth season are 

reviewed here. 

Drill seeded forbs. Combined density of drill seeded Munro‘s globemallow and sulphur-flower 

buckwheat were similar among all treatments where seeded. However, density of these two 

species exceeded the controls (no drill/no seed and drill/no seed) only in plots seeded with the 

minimum till drill (fig. 1). 
180

Figure 1. Density of drill seeded forbs (Munro‘s globemallow and sulphur-flower 

buckwheat) in 2010, Scooby seeding, northern Utah (p<0.05).

Broadcast seeded forbs. When seeded through the minimum till drill in November, combined 

density of western yarrow and blue penstemon exceeded the density of these species in the 

control and minimum till drill/no seed treatments, but was similar to the density in the rangeland 

drill/no seed treatment (fig. 2). Seeding these species through the rangeland drill in November 

did not increase their density relative to the controls. Hand broadcasting western yarrow and blue 

penstemon in fall over plots seeded with the minimum-till drill or in winter over plots seeded 

with the rangeland drill resulted in increased density relative to the three nonseeded treatments. 

Hand broadcasting in fall over plots seeded with the minimum-till drill was more effective than 

broadcast seeding over plots seeded with the rangeland drill. Densities of these two forbs in 

plots hand broadcast in winter over plots seeded with either drill were similar.

Figure 2. Density of broadcast seeded forbs (western yarrow and blue penstemon) 

in 2010 by treatment, Scooby seeding, northern Utah (p<0.05).

Control Drill No 

Seed

Drill 5X Fall 

Broadcast

Winter

Broadcast

Control Drill No 

Seed

Drill 5X Fall 

Broadcast

Winter

Broadcast
181

It is possible that the sloughing of the rough surface created during the drilling process with the 

rangeland drill caused the small seeds to be buried too deeply when broadcast in fall. 

Wyoming big sagebrush. Density of Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings was improved only 

when seeded through the drills at the 10X rate and did not differ between drills at any seeding 

rate (fig. 3). Densities obtained when seeding through the minimum till drill at the 10X rate 

exceeded those obtained by all other treatments except the 10X rangeland drill treatment. 

Figure 3. Density of Wyoming big sagebrush in 2010 by treatment, Scooby 

seeding, northern Utah, (p<0.05). 

Future direction

Results of the first three seedings (Mt. Home, Glass Butte, and Scooby) are being summarized 

for a report. Data will be collected at Saylor Creek for two years before publications are written. 

Publications:

Cox, R. D.; Shaw, N. L.; Pellant, M. Diverse seed mixes for post-wildfire reseeding: conditional 

importance of seeding method. Rangeland Ecology and Management. Submitted. 

Hardegree, S. P.; Jones, T. A.; Roundy, B. A.; Shaw, N. L.; Monaco, T. A. 2011. Assessment of 

range planting as a conservation practice. In: D. D. Briske, ed. Conservation benefits of 

rangeland practices: assessment, recommendations, and knowledge gaps. Lawrence, KS: Allen 

Press. In press. 

Kosberg, L.; Cox, R. D.; Shaw, N.; Hardegree, S. Effect of fungicides on Wyoming Big 

Sagebrush seed germination. Native Plant Journal. Submitted. 

Parkinson, H.; Zabinski, C; Shaw, N. Impact of native and exotic grasses on Great Basin forb 

seedling growth. Rangeland Ecology and Management. Submitted. 

Shaw, N.L; Cox, R.D.; Truax, J. 2010. Native plant selection, seed biology and seeding 

equipment and technology. Great Basin Native Plant Se lection and Increase Project FY2009 

Progress Report. p. 150-166. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/2009_Progress_Report.pdf

Winter

Broadcast 

(5X)

Fall

Broadcast 

(5X)

Drill 

(10X)

Drill 

(5X)

Drill 

(Std)

Drill 

(0)

Control
182

Shaw, N. L.; Youtie, B.; Olwell, P. 2010. Building bridges between agencies, researchers, 

farmers and non-governmental organizations to create collaborative native seed programs. 

Proceedings 7th European Conference on Ecological Restoration, Avignon, France, 23-27 

August 2010. SER Europe Knowledge Base on Ecological Restoration. 

Tishew, S.; Youtie, B.; Kirmer, A.; Shaw, N. In press. Farming for restoration: building bridges 

for native seeds. Ecological Restoration. 

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDI Bureau of Land Management, 

Idaho State Office, Utah State University Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, UT, 

University of Idaho, Agricultural Experiment Station, Moscow, ID. Notice of release for source 

identified Eagle Germplasm Western Yarrow (natural population). Submitted. 

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDI Bureau of Land Management, 

Idaho State Office, Utah State University Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, UT, 

University of Idaho, Agricultural Experiment Station, Moscow, ID, United States Air Force, 

Mountain Home Air Force Base. Notice of release for source identified Mountain Home 

Germplasm Sandberg Bluegrass (natural population). Submitted. 

Presentations: 

Shaw, N. 2010. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. National native need 

conference, 2010 May 17-21, Park City, UT. 

Shaw, N; Cox, R; Truax, J; Denney, E; Fisk, M; Williams, N. 2010. Post-fire seeding strategies 

and native plant materials for the northern Great Basin. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting; 2010 January 26-27; Salt Lake City, UT. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/GBNPSIP/GBNPSIPpresentations2010.shtml

Shaw, N. L.; Jensen, S.; Richardson, B. 2010. A collaborative science-based program to provide 

native plant materials and restoration technology for the Great Basin. All scientists meeting, 

2010 March 23-25, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research 

Station, Fort Collins, CO. 

Shaw, N.; Youtie, B. 2010. Building bridges between NGO‘s, researchers and farmers, SER2010 

7

th European Conference on Ecological Restoration, 2010 August 23-2, Avignon, FR. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/2010SEREurope.HTML

Exhibit

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project:

 Society for Range Management Annual Meeting, 2010 February 7-11, Denver, CO. 

 National Native Seed Conference, 2010 May 17-21, Park City, UT. 

 Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station Field Day, July 2010, Ontario, OR. 

Meetings and Workshops 

Organizer, Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2010 

January 26-27, Salt Lake City, UT. 
183

Co-organizer, Workshop: Native Grass and Forb Seed Production, 2010 February 23, Ontario, 

OR. Other organizers were the Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services and Oregon State 

University Malheur Experiment Station. Attendees included more than 100 representatives of the 

native seed industry: seed growers, wildland seed collectors, employees of seed regulatory 

agencies (seed certification, seed testing laboratories and foundation seed organizations), and 

university and agency researchers from seven western states. The program focused on plant 

materials being developed for native seedings in the Great Basin, genecology and seed zone 

development, and cultural practices for producing native grasses and forbs in seed fields. 

Co-organizer, Special session: Seed zones, climate, and propagation of native plants for 

ecological restoration. Fourth World Conference on Ecological Restoration, 2011 August 21-25, 

Merida, Yucatan. 

Equipment 

Calibrating your rangeland drill (DVD). Prepared by Missoula Technology and Development 

Center (MTDC) in response to a proposal (2400 9E92E89 Drill calibration video training)

submitted by N. Shaw, Mike Pellant, and Vicky Erickson. (see report by Lisa Outka-Perkins, 

Project Leader, MTDC, this document). 

GPS Datalogger for Rangeland Drills. Prepared by Missoula Technology and Development 

Center in response to a proposal submitted by N. Shaw, Mike Pellant, and Vicky Erickson. (see 

report by Damien Hoffman, Project Leader, MTDC, this document). 

References:

Shaw, N.; Fisk, M.; Williams, N.; Denney, E. 2010. Native plant selection, seed biology and 

seeding equipment and technology. In: N. Shaw; M. Pellant, eds. Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project: FY2009 Progress Report. p. 150-166. 
184

Utah Crop Improvement Association

4855 Old Main Hill

Logan, Utah 84322-

4855

Email ucia@mendel.usu.edu

Website www.utahcrop.org

Phone (435) 797-2082

Fax (435) 797-0642

Stock Seed Production Contract

This agreement is entered into by and between the Utah Crop Improvement Association located in Logan, Utah hereinafter 

referred to as UCIA and (fill in name) hereinafter referred to as Seed Grower. This agreement entered into on (date). This 

contract shall be in force for period of (00) years. Commencing (date), and ending (date).

SEED GROWER: EMAIL

ADDRESS CONTRACT NUMBER: UCIA 0001

CITY/STATE PHONE

STOCK SEED DETAILS:

Species

Common Name

Variety Name/Germplasm ID

Certification Class or 

PVG Category and Generation

Stock Seed Lot # and Quantity (lb)

Note: As a prerequisite for accepting the stock seed listed above the seed grower acknowledges the following terms, 

conditions, and agreements for seed production and buy-back by UCIA for distribution as stock seed for the purpose of 

additional seed field production. Specific alterations or options as noted in the following Terms and Agreements may 

be listed in the Addendum section and duly initialed by both parties.

TERMS AND AGREEMENTS:

UCIA agrees to:

1. Provide stock seed or other propagative materials for planting of seed field. Sale price of stock 

seed will be determined by UCIA with input from the entity providing the seed, and may in some 

cases be provided free of charge.

2. Purchase ___________lb PLS of seed produced by the Seed Grower at $________ /lb PLS. If 

the total amount of seed produced in the first harvest is less than that specified in this contract,

the seed grower shall provide at least 50% of the seed produced from each year’s production 

until the amount specified is met. To account for price differences from year to year the price 

may be renegotiated. The renegotiated price must be within 25% of the UCIA Standardized 

Market Price (SMP*).

3. Allow the Seed Grower the first option to purchase up to ___% of the seed sold to UCIA so long 

as it shall be used to expand the Seed Grower’s seed fields or for seed production elsewhere. 

Such seed may not be downgraded and/or sold commercially.

4. Pay for shipping and seed analysis costs. If the seed is not conditioned when purchased by the 

Appendix Ι.
185

UCIA the Seed Grower may be charged for conditioning costs.

5. Negotiate on a case by case basis the payment of establishment costs for species that require 

more than one year after seedling establishment for plants to produce seed, or require special 

processes for establishment (e.g., greenhouse seedling production and/or transplanting). The 

establishment advance shall be deducted from the purchase price when seed is sold to the 

UCIA unless other arrangements are specifically negotiated. 

The SEED GROWER agrees to 

1. Plant the seed provided within one year of delivery, or return it to UCIA. Late summer planting 

is preferred but seed may be dormant seeded or spring planted (or other specified planting 

method) if mutually agreed by UCIA and Seed Grower.

2. Plant the seed at the recommended, appropriate rate for seed production, unless it is mutually 

agreed that the suggested seeding rate is not reasonable, needed or possible.

3. Ensure that the field is entered into certification through the applicable official Seed Certification 

Agency and pay all associated fees (e.g., seedling inspections, crop inspection, seed sampling, 

testing, and tagging). 

4. Make a reasonable effort to ensure that the seed crop meets certification standards and 

requirements, such as (but not limited to) planting in rows, controlling weeds and volunteer 

crops, roguing off types, maintaining proper isolation distances, avoiding contamination during 

harvest and conditioning, etc. 

5. Provide the UCIA, upon request, any and all applicable seedling or other field inspection 

reports, conditioning reports, seed sample analysis reports, etc. completed during the 

certification and conditioning process.

6. Be timely in irrigation, weed control, harvesting, and all other agronomic practices required for 

seed production within the Seed Growers control.

7. Accept the risk associated with seed production, including the additional risk associated with 

growing forb, shrub or grass species for which agronomic practices may not be fully defined.

8. Contact UCIA regarding seed availability for UCIA purchase under this contract before seed is 

otherwise offered for sale or otherwise utilized. 

9. Make all reasonable efforts to preserve the lowest numeric generation possible while producing 

the seed. If the generation of seed produced cannot be maintained at the next sequential level 

of the original stock seed due to volunteers, loss of stand, or isolation requirements, the seed 

grower shall inform the UCIA. If one or more generations are lost due to these conditions the 

above purchase price may be renegotiated.

10. Notify UCIA of any intentions to remove field from production before such action is taken, in 

order to allow for reasonable renegotiation of contract; it is anticipated that the stand life of any 

perennial species seed field will be for at least the number of years specified in the contract.
186

It is MUTUALLY AGREED that:

1. UCIA may purchase additional seed as needed and available. Amount and purchase price of 

additional seed may be renegotiated, but must be within 25% of the UCIA SMP.

2. Seed produced in excess of the contracted purchase amount may be sold commercially as the 

eligible or downgraded class or generation of certified seed.

3. Seed quality standards for individual species including purity, viability, weed seed, and diseased 

seed may be mutually defined by the two parties before signing of this contract. Seed not 

meeting such standards may be purchased at the discretion of the UCIA.

4. Failure to abide by the terms of this contract can disqualify the grower from receiving 

consideration for additional seed lots.

Performance:

The Seed Grower, without consent of the UCIA, may not assign performance of this contract. This 

contract is binding upon heirs, successors, and administrators or assignees as the original parties are 

now bound.

Crop Failure:

In the event there is a crop failure the Seed Grower waives compensation for his services and use of 

the land. Neither Seed Grower nor UCIA will be liable for failure to perform the contract if crop failure is 

due to acts of God, inclement weather, fires, or other causes beyond reasonable control. 

Payment:

Payment for seed grown by the Seed Grower shall be made upon completion of final seed conditioning, 

testing, and delivery. Payment shall be made within 30 days after delivery of seed to UCIA. Negotiated 

establishment costs (item UCIA 5. above) will be paid within 30 days of the determination of stand 

establishment.

*SMP is updated yearly (5 year average) by UCIA with a survey of estimated prices obtained from seed 

growers, conditioners, dealers, and buyers that provide a representative estimate of current end use 

seed prices, as well as consideration of NRCS-PMC stock seed prices.

Signatures:

______________________________ (Seed Grower) __________ Date 

______________________________ (UCIA) __________ Date

ADDENDUMS:______________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________

Initialed by Seed Grower _______ Date ________ UCIA ______Date ________
Appendix ΙΙ. Germplasm conservation samples contributed to the Seeds of Success Program/ARS Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station in 2010 by USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID.

Symbol Scientific Name Common N ame Ecoregion Ecoregion N ame County State

ACHY 14 Achnatherum hymenoid es Indian ricegrass 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

ACHY 40 Achnatherum hymenoid es Indian ricegrass 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

ACHY 41 Achnatherum hymenoid es Indian ricegrass 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Owyh ee ID

ACHY 42 Achnatherum hymenoid es Indian ricegrass 13b Shadscale-Domin ated Salin e Basins Box Eld er UT

ACMI 01 Achillea millefolium common yarrow 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Ada ID

ACMI 04 Achillea millefolium common yarrow 13m Upper Hu mbolt Plains Elko NV

ACMI 05 Achillea millefolium common yarrow 13n Mid Elevation Ruby Mountains Elko NV

ACMI 07 Achillea millefolium common yarrow 16f Foothill Sh rublands-Grasslands Boise ID

ACTH 01 Achnatherum thurb erianum Thurb er's needlegrass 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

ACTH 29 Achnatherum thurb erianum Thurb er's needlegrass 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Gem ID

AGGL 28 Agoseris glauca pale agos eris 80g High Lava Plains Harney OR

AGHE 01 Agoseris heterophylla annual agos eris 16f Foothill Sh rublands-Grasslands Boise ID

ARPU 01 Aristida purpurea purple th reeawn 16f Foothill Sh rublands-Grasslands Boise ID

ARPU 02 Aristida purpurea purple th reeawn 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

ARPU 03 Aristida purpurea purple th reeawn 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Ada ID

ARTR V 01 Artemisia trid entata ssp.

vaseyana

mountain b ig sagebrush 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

ARTR V 02

Artemisia trid entata ssp.

vaseyana

mountain b ig sagebrush 16f Foothill Sh rublands-Grasslands Ada ID

ARTR W 01

Artemisia trid entata ssp.

wyoming ensis

Wyomin g big sagebrush 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

ASER 03 Astragalus eremiticus hermit milkvetch 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

ASER 01 Astragalus eremiticus hermit milkvetch 16f Foothill Sh rublands-Grasslands Ada ID

BAHO 04 Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker's b alsamroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

BAHO 08 Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker's b alsamroot 12h Mountain Home Uplands Ada ID

BAHO 19 Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker's b alsamroot 12c Camas Prairie Camas ID

187
Symbol Scientific Name Common N ame Ecoregion Ecoregion N ame County State

CHDO 12 Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dustymaid en 11i Continental Zon es Foothills Malheu r OR

CRAC 104 Crepis acuminata tapertip h awksbeard 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau Malheu r OR

CROC 07 Crepis occidentalis largeflo wer h awksbeard 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Gem ID

DAOR 03 Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie c lover 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Malheu r OR

DAOR 05 Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie c lover 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

DEAN 01 Delphinium andersonii Anderson's larkspur 13b Shadscale- Domin ated Salin e B asins Box Eld er UT

ERHE 06 Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

ERHE 10 Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

ERHE 14 Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat 19f Semiarid Foothills Cache UT

ERHE 16 Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Owyh ee ID

ERHE 17 Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Harney OR

ERHE 19 Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat 12f Semiarid Foothills Adams ID

ERHE 20-09 Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat 12f Semiarid Foothills Elmo re ID

ERHE 20-10 Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat 12f Semiarid Foothills Elmo re ID

ERLA 01 Eriophyllu m lanatum common woolly sunflower 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

ERLA 02 Eriophyllu m lanatum common woolly sunflower 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

ERLA 03 Eriophyllu m lanatum common woolly sunflower 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

EROV 70 Eriogonum ovalifoliu m cushion buckwh eat 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Owyh ee ID

ERPU 03 Erigeron pumilus shaggy fleaban e 13r Central N evada High Valleys Eureka NV

ERUM 62 Eriogonum umb ellatum sulphur-flower buckwh eat 12f Semiarid Foothills Adams ID

ERUM 65 Eriogonum umb ellatum sulphur-flower buckwh eat 80d Pluvial L ake B asins Deschutes OR

HECO 01 Hesperostipa comata need le and thread grass 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

HECO 02 Hesperostipa comata need le and thread grass 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

MACA 08 Machaeranthera canescens hoary tansyaster 12a Treasure Valley Malheu r OR

OECA 01 Oenothera caespitosa tufted evening p rimrose 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Malheu r OR

PEAC 11 Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Malheu r OR

PEAC 13 Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon 80l Salt Shrub Valley Harney OR

PEAC 14 Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon 12h Mountain Home Uplands Elmo re ID

PEAC 35 Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon 16k Southern Forested Mountains Owyh ee ID

188
Symbol Scientific Name Common N ame Ecoregion Ecoregion N ame County State

PEAC 36 Pestemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon 12a Treasure Valley Malheu r OR

PEAC 38 Pestemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

PEAC 45 Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Owyh ee ID

PEAC 56 Pestemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Owyh ee ID

PEAC 08 Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon 12h Mountain Home Uplands Elmo re ID

PECY 01 Penstemon cyaneus blue p enstemon 12b Lava Fields Lincoln ID

PEDE 02 Penstemon deustus hotrock p enstemon 16f Foothill Sh rublands-Grasslands Boise ID

PEDE 05-09 Penstemon deustus hotrock p enstemon 12f Semiarid Foothills Adams ID

PEDE 05-10 Penstemon deustus hotrock p enstemon 12f Semiarid Foothills Adams ID

PEDE 09-09 Penstemon deustus hotrock p enstemon 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

PEDE 09-10 Penstemon deustus hotrock p enstemon 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

PEDE 29 Penstemon deustus hotrock p enstemon 16f Foothill Sh rublands-Grasslands Boise ID

PEDE 35-09 Penstemon deustus hotrock p enstemon 11i Continental Zon e Foothills Baker OR

PEDE 35-10 Penstemon deustus hotrock p enstemon 11i Continental Zon e Foothills Baker OR

PEDE 48 Penstemon deustus hotrock p enstemon 80j Semiarid Foothills Harney OR

PHHA 01 Phacelia hastata silverleaf phac elia 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

PHHA 02 Phacelia hastata silverleaf phac elia 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

PHHA 05 Phacelia hastata silverleaf phac elia 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

PHLI 01 Phacelia linearis threadleaf ph acelia 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

POSE 01 Poa secunda Sandberg blu egrass 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau Owyh ee ID

SPMU 11 Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Payette ID

SPMU 13 Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

SPMU 14 Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

SPMU 15 Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Malheu r OR

SPMU 17 Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w 80g High Lava Plains Harney OR

SPMU 18 Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w 80a Dissected High Lava Plateau Malheu r OR

SPMU 9b Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w 12j Unwooded Alkalin e foothills Payette ID

TOFL 02 Townsendia florif er showy To wns end daisy 80f Owyh ee Uplands and Can yons Owyh ee ID

WYAM 01 Wyethia a mplexicaulis Mule- ears 16k Southern Forested Mountains Boise ID

189
Appendix ΙΙΙ. Seed lots distributed to cooperators in 2010 by USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID.

Species Common N ame

Seed Origin 

(county, s tate) Affiliation kg

Achnatherum hymenoid es Rimrock Indian ric egrass Yellowston e, M T Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.45

Achnatherum thurb erianum Thurb er's needlegrass Ada, Idaho OSU Malheu r Exp eriment Station 0.07

Agoseris spp. agoseris Owyh ee, ID Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.05

Allium spp. onion Elko, NV Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.05

Artemisia trid entata ssp.

wyoming ensis

Wyomin g big sagebrush Idaho, Oregon, Utah , 

Nevada Idaho Dep artment of Fish and Game

271.5

Astragalus lentiginosus freckled milkvetch Northern Great Basin USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.4

Astragalus spp. milkvetch Northern Great Basin USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 1.25

Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch Eureka, NV USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.33

Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch Lander, NV USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.07

Camassia spp. camas Ada, ID College of Western Idaho 0.11

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dustymaid en Owyh ee, ID USDA AR S B ee Biolo gy and Systematics Labo rato ry 0.22

Crepis spp. hawksbeard Malheu r, O R Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.12

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie c lover Malheu r, O R Utah State University 1.53

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie c lover Malheu r, O R Utah State University 1.26

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie c lover Malheu r, O R Utah State University 0.71

Dalea ornata Blue Mount ain prairie c lover Malheu r, O R Utah State University 0.39

Elymus elymoides Emigrant bottlebrush squirreltail Harney, O R Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.45

Ericameria nauseosa rubber rabbitb rush Utah Idaho Dep artment of Fish and Game 154.2

Erigeron glabellus streamside fleaban e Northern Great Basin College of Western Idaho 0.05

Eriogonum heracleoides Parsnipflower buc kwh eat Cache, UT OSU Malheu r Exp eriment Station 0.1

Eriogonum spp. buckwh eat Box Eld er, UT College of Western Idaho 1.18

Eriogonum spp. buckwh eat Northern Great Basin Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.3

Eriogonum spp. buckwh eat Cache, UT College of Western Idaho 0.23

Eriogonum spp. buckwh eat Eureka, NV College of Western Idaho 0.14

Eriogonum vimineu m wickerstem buc kwh eat Owyh ee, ID College of Western Idaho 0.03

190
Species Common N ame

Seed Origin 

(county, s tate) Affiliation kg

Hesperostipa comata need le and thread Millard , U T Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.45

JFSP seed mix es N/A N/A Idaho Dep artment of Fish and Game 200

JFSP seed mix es N/A N/A Truax Comp any, Inc. 27.22

Lomatium dissectum fernleaf biscuitroot Snake River Plain Utah Crop Impro vement Association 6.1

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Ada, ID OSU Malheu r Exp eriment Station 1.8

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Malheu r, O R OSU Malheu r Exp eriment Station 1.6

Lomatium dissectum fernleaf biscuitroot Payette, ID USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.06

Lomatium grayi Gray's biscuitroo t Gooding, ID USDA FS National Seed L ab 1.5

Lomatium grayi Gray's biscuitroo t Snake River Plain Utah Crop Impro vement Association 0.88

Lomatium spp. biscuitroot Utah, U T Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.4

Lomatium spp. biscuitroot Rich, UT Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.36

Lomatium spp. biscuitroot Millard , U T College of Western Idaho 0.32

Lomatium spp. biscuitroot Millard , U T College of Western Idaho 0.2

Lupine spp. lupine Elko, NV Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.02

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon Elmo re, ID OSU Malheu r Exp eriment Station 0.03

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon Harney, O R USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.03

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon Malheu r, O R USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.03

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon Elmo re, ID USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.03

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon Owyh ee, ID USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.03

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf p enstemon Owyh ee, ID USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.03

Penstemon cyaneus blue p enstemon Lincoln, ID OSU Malheu r Exp eriment Station 0.2

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon Boise, ID USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.15

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon Boise, ID USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.15

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon Elmo re, ID USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.15

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon Elmo re, ID USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.15

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon Baker, OR USDA FS National Seed L ab 0.15

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon Baker, OR OSU Malheu r Exp eriment Station 0.01

Penstemon spp. penstemon Owyh ee, ID College of Western Idaho 1.9

191
Species Common N ame

Seed Origin 

(county, s tate) Affiliation kg

Penstemon spp. penstemon Owyh ee, ID Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.83

Penstemon spp. penstemon Owyh ee, ID Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.68

Poa secunda Mountain Home Sandb erg bluegrass Owyh ee, ID Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.45

Poa secunda Mountain Home Sandb erg bluegrass Owyh ee, ID USDA AR S Western R egion al Plant In troduction 

Station 0.23

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anaton e blu ebunch wh eatgrass Asotin, WA Agricu lture R esearch Service 0.45

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf glob emallo w Owyh ee, ID USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.11

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf glob emallo w Owyh ee, ID USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.05

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf glob emallo w Box Eld er, UT USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.03

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Malheu r, O R USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.52

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Malheu r, O R USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.39

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Payette, ID USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.2

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Harney, O R USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.19

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Payette, ID USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.19

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Malheu r, O R USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.15

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Malheu r, O R USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.11

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Payette, ID USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.11

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Malheu r, O R USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.1

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Malheu r, O R USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.07

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Payette, ID USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.07

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Payette, ID University of Id aho 0.02

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Malheu r, O R University of Id aho 0.02

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Malheu r, O R University of Id aho 0.02

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Malheu r, O R University of Id aho 0.02

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Harney, O R University of Id aho 0.02

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Payette, ID USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.02

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallo w Payette, ID USDA FS Rocky Mountain Res earch Station 0.01

Total Seed Distrib uted (kg) 684.2

192