USDI Bureau of Land Management, Great Basin Restoration Initiative

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Grassland, Shrubland

and Desert Ecosystem Research Program, Provo, UT and Boise, ID

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bee Biology and Systematics Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR 

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID 

USDA Forest Service, National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR

USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Pendleton, OR

USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, UT

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Logan, UT 

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, OR

Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, MN

Harold Wiedemann, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX

Colorado State University Cooperative Extension, Tri-River Area, Grand Junction, CO 

Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR

Boise State University, Boise, ID

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

Montana State University, Bozeman, MT

Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX

University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

University of Nevada, Reno, NV 

Utah State University, Logan, UT

Private seed industry 

Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project 

FY08 Progress Report
COOPERATORS

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Great Basin Restoration Initiative

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Grassland, Shrubland

and Desert Ecosystem Research Program, Provo, UT and Boise, ID

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bee Biology and Systematics Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR 

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, Pullman, WA

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID 

USDA Forest Service, National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR

USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Pendleton, OR

USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, UT

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Logan, UT 

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, OR

Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, MN

Harold Wiedemann, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX

Colorado State University Cooperative Extension, Tri-River Area, Grand Junction, CO 

Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR

Boise State University, Boise, ID

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

Montana State University, Bozeman, MT

Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX

University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

University of Nevada, Reno, NV 

Utah State University, Logan, UT

Private seed industry 

Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project 

FY08 Progress Report 

May 2009
Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

2008 Annual Report 

The Interagency Native Plant Materials Development Program (USDI and USDA 2002), USDI 

Bureau of Land Management programs and policies, and the Great Basin Restoration Initiative 

encourage the use of native species for rangeland rehabilitation and restoration where feasible. This 

project was initiated to foster the development of native plant materials for use in the Great Basin 

and to provide information that will be useful to managers when making decisions about selecting 

appropriate plant materials for seedings. A second major objective is to provide the equipment and 

techniques required for reestablishing diverse native communities. 

Research priorities include: 1) increased understanding of genetic variability in native plant species 

under consideration for use in revegetation; 2) development of seed transfer zones to provide native 

plant materials adapted to major bio-geographic areas of the Great Basin; 3) improved availability 

of native plant seed; 4) development of seed technology and cultural practices required for 

agricultural seed increase of native forbs and grasses; 5) provision for in situ and ex situ 

conservation of important populations; 6) management or re-establishment of wildland shrub stands 

to improve seed availability and conserve native populations; 7) evaluation of the potential for 

increasing native plant diversity in established crested wheatgrass stands in the Great Basin while 

minimizing weed invasion; 8) investigation of the biology of native forbs, emphasizing seed 

germination and seedling establishment; 9) examination of interactions among restoration species 

and between restoration species and invasive exotics; 10) evaluation of rangeland drills and 

strategies for establishing diverse native communities; and 11) science delivery. 

We thank our collaborators for their expertise and the in-kind contributions of their agencies that 

have made it possible to address many of the issues involved in native plant materials development 

and use. We especially thank Kelsey Sherich, Jan Gurr and Erin Denney for their assistance in 

assembling this report. 

Nancy Shaw Mike Pellant 

USDA Forest Service USDI Bureau of Land Management 

Rocky Mountain Research Station Great Basin Restoration Initiative 

Boise, ID Boise, ID 

nshaw@fs.fed.us Michael_Pellant@blm.gov 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml 

Great Basin Restoration Initiative: 

http://www.blm.gov/nifc/st/en/prog/fire/more/gbri.html 

NOTE: The results in this report should be considered preliminary in nature and should not be 

quoted or cited without the written consent of the Principal Investigator for the study. 

i
Table of Contents 

R.C. Johnson Genetic diversity patterns of Allium acuminatum in the

Barbara Hellier Great Basin.....................................................................1

R.C. Johnson Adapted Indian ricegrass for the Great Basin..............................9 

Mike Cashman 

Loren St. John Establishment and maintenance of certified Generation 1 

Dan Ogle (G1) seed, propagation of native forbs, plant display nursery 

evaluation and development of technology to improve the 

 diversity of introduced grass stands.......................................15

 

Shaun Bushman Phylogeographic characterization of genetic diversity in 

Douglas Johnson basalt milkvetch..............................................................29 

Kishor Bhattarai 

Brad St. Clair Genetic diversity and genecology of Bluebunch wheatgrass 

Richard C. Johnson (Pseudoroegneria spicata)..................................................34 

Nancy Shaw 

Scott Jensen The quest for natives; cultural practices, species screening, 

Mark Anderson harvesting equipment and private growers................................39 

Covy Jones 

Covy Jones Native plant material development and seed and seeding 

Alison Whittaker technology for native Great Basin forbs and grasses....................45 

Berta Youtie Coordination of GBNPSIP plant materials development, 

 seed increase and use........................................................49 

Stanford Young Establishment and maintenance of the buy-back program 

Michael Bouck for certified seed.............................................................52 

Heidi Kratsch Demonstration, education and outreach activities related to 

Douglas Johnson GBNPSIP plant materials...................................................59 

Jack Staub 

James H. Cane Pollinator and seed predator studies.......................................62 

Bob Hammon Insect pests of grass and forb seed production...........................66 

Val Jo Anderson Impact of Great Basin habitat alterations on pollinator 

 diversity.......................................................................68

ii
Val Jo Anderson Impacts of predispersal seed predation on seed production 

 of Wyethia amplexicaulis, Agoseris glauca and Crepis 

 acuminata......................................................................71

Clinton C. Shock Native forb seed production in response to irrigation in 

Erik B. Feibert 2008...........................................................................76 

Lamont D. Saunders 

Nancy Shaw 

Hilary Parkinson Growth characteristics of five Great Basin forbs and 

Catherine Zabinski interactions between forbs and grasses....................................96 

Jeremy James Linking species and functional group diversity to resource 

capture and invasion resistance in Great Basin plant 

 communities.................................................................106 

Val Jo Anderson Forb and shrub establishment in perennial grass stands...............113 

Robert Karrfalt Development of germination protocols, seed weight, purity 

Victor Vankus and seed conditioning/cleaning protocols for great basin 

 grasses and forbs............................................................117 

 

Corey Ransom Developing strategies for selective herbicide use in native 

Kim Edvarchuk forb seed production........................................................122

 

Clinton C. Shock Identification of herbicides for use in native forb seed 

Erik Feibert production, 2008............................................................126 

Joey Ishida 

Nancy Shaw 

 

Anthony S. Davis Container production of Artemisia tridentata..........................134

Kent McAdoo Evaluating strategies for increasing plant diversity in 

 crested wheatgrass seedings..............................................136 

Corey Moffet Effect of herbicide application timing on crested wheatgrass 

control and subsequent native plant 

 re-establishment success...................................................140 

Jane Mangold Re-establishing native plant diversity in crested wheatgrass 

 stands in the Great Basin..................................................143

Nancy Shaw Native plant selection, seed biology and seeding equipment 

Robert Cox and technology..............................................................150 

Amy Ganguli 

Beth Newingham 

Loren St.John 

Dan Ogle 

iii
iv

Marcelo Serpe Development of procedures to break dormancy in 

 Lomatium dissectum seeds................................................164 

Robert Cox Revegetation Equipment Catalog........................................169 

Lisa Outka-Perkins Calibration of drills for rehabilitation and restoration 

 seedings on western wildlands............................................170
1

Project Title: Genetic Diversity Patterns of Allium acuminatum 

in the Great Basin

Project Location: Plant Germplasm Introduction and Research, USDA-ARS Western 

Regional Plant Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, WA 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information:

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist 

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station 

Box 646402, Washington State University 

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.3771, fax: 509.335.6654 

rcjohnson@wsu.edu 

Barbara Hellier, Horticulture Crops Curator 

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station 

Box 646402, Washington State University 

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.3763, fax: 509.335.6654 

bhellier@ wsu.edu 

Project Description: 

Genetic information to identify locally adapted seed sources for restoration and reclamation is 

generally lacking. An understanding of the geographic and ecological distance that plant material 

should be transferred from original source populations is critically needed. Allium acuminatum

Hook. (Taper-tip onion) is an important Great Basin forb associated with healthy rangeland and good 

habitat for sage-grouse. Studies using molecular markers and phenotypic traits have been conducted 

to determine genetic variation and seed transfer zones of A. acuminatum across the Great Basin. 

Genetic resource management strategies based on biological conservation principals are being 

developed and made available to land managers for field application. In addition, ex-situ

conservation will be carried out at the USDA-ARS gene bank at Pullman, WA. Gene bank 

conservation will provide 1) readily available, source-identified genetic resources for research and 

increase and 2) security back-up of in-situ sites. Overall, this project will provide seed zones and 

seeds for restoration, providing long-term benefits to degraded Great Basin landscapes though 

improved genetic resources.

Objectives

1. Collect and maintain native A. acuminatum (Taper-tip onion) for use in restoration and 

reclamation on western public lands. 

2. Link ecological-geographic variation with genetic variation of A. acuminatum to identify key 

populations for conservation and to delineate seed transfer zones. 

3. Identify candidate in-situ sites for the conservation of A. acuminatum genetic variation 

representing eco-geographic areas in the Great Basin. 
Project Status: 

Collections

In 2005, A. acuminatum bulbs were collected from 55 populations throughout eastern Oregon, 

southern Idaho and northeastern Nevada (Fig. 1) as described by Adair et al. (2006). Each of the two 

collecting teams followed the same collection protocol. First the population size and area were 

estimated. Then 40 to 50 bulbs per population were collected from across the given population. 

Only populations with 250 or more individuals were collected so in situ population integrity was not 

compromised. Collections were made from June 17 to July 2, 2005; these spanned 1430 m (4692 ft) 

of elevation and covered approximately 620 km (385 mi.) east-west and 445 km (277 mi.) northsouth, between N 39 to 44 latitude and W 114o to 119o longitude. A. acuminatum was collected in 

20 of the Level IV Omernick Ecoregions across the Great Basin. 

Figure 1. Collection locations for Allium acuminatum in 

2005 representing 20 level IV Omernick ecoregions. 

Molecular Markers 

Using nine primer pairs and Sequence Related Amplified Polymorphisms (SRAP) (Li and Quiros, 

2001), 167 unambiguous polymorphic markers were scored for each of 

the 55 A. acuminatum collections. The STRUCTURE program as described by Evanno et al. (2005) 

was used with the marker data to find five main A. acuminatum groups for Great Basin germplasm. 

Although there was overlap, the groups tended to cluster in different geographic areas across the 

collection area. Thus, molecular markers showed differences among A. acuminatum populations 

from different collection locations and are further evidence of genetic variation across the landscape. 

2
3

Common Gardens 

 Bulbs were planted in the greenhouse and vernalized at 4oC. After plant emergence, leaf tissue was 

collected for DNA marker analysis. Plants were transplanted to the field in the spring of 2006. 

Common gardens were established at Pullman, WA (780 m elevation; 46° 43’ 28.05” N and 117 08’ 

07.94”W) and Central Ferry, WA (206 m elevation; 46° 41’ 52.78” N and 117° 39’ 52.55” W). Four 

plants from each of the 55 collection sites were randomized in five complete blocks at both locations. 

Thus there were 1,100 plants established at each site. 

All of the variables had significant location effects, so genetic differences in growth and development 

factors were present among different collection locations. Originally a set of 20 variables was 

measured. Table 1 shows a reduced set of variables or traits to use in principal component analysis. 

These traits met the criteria of being highly significant for seed source location and were not 

redundant; that is, strongly correlated with each other (r<0.80). Except for flower color and days 

from flowering to seed maturity, the garden site by collection location interactions were not 

significant (Table 1). 

Table 1. Summary of variables, analyses of variance, and variance components for (Allium 

acuminatum) (Taper-tip onion) collected in the Great Basin and measured in Central Ferry (CF) 

and Pullman (PU), WA common gardens, 2007. 

ANOVA location effects Variance for locations 

A. acuminatum 

variables 

Both 

sites CF PU 

Site by 

Loc 

Both 

sites CF PU 

------------------P-values†----------------- ---------------%--------------- 

Bolting date 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.109 52.8 57.9 57.9 

Flower color 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.001 75.8 86.3 86.3 

Flowers/umbel 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.986 17.5 9.4 9.4 

Leaf length 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.190 23.2 22.0 22.0 

Leaf length/width 0.003 0.000 0.221 0.357 87.6 77.2 96.5 

Leaf width 0.001 0.009 0.001 0.901 20.2 12.6 12.6 

Seeds/plant 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.494 20.1 18.9 18.9 

Scape diameter 0.001 0.005 0.009 0.788 15.0 14.2 14.2 

Scape 

length/diameter 

0.001 0.001 0.001 0.688 22.2 21.7 21.7 

Scape length 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.525 30.0 29.0 29.0 

Days flower-maturity 0.011 0.001 0.001 0.009 12.8 20.2 20.9 

Survival 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.041 31.2 34.0 34.0 

Umbel diameter 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.312 20.3 21.7 21.7 

†Values were significant at the P<0.05 

In most cases the variation associated with seed source location was substantial (Table 1). For flower 

color and for leaf length/width more than 75% of the variation was associated with locations for both 

garden sites combined and for the individual sites. More than 50% of the variation was associated 
4

with location for bolting date. Flowers/umbel at Central Ferry and Pullman was the variable that had 

the lowest amount of location variation (Table 2), but the amount of location variation was relatively 

high and consistent with the low P-values for each variable (Table 1). These results, showing strong 

location effects, indicate a strong potential for differences in adaptation associated with different 

Great Basin environments. 

Correlation between plant traits and climatic/environmental factors was significant for numerous 

factors (Table 2). Bolting date showed relatively strong correlations with elevation, maximum 

temperature, minimum temperature, and precipitation. Elevation had four significant correlations 

with plant variables, maximum and minimum annual temperatures had three each, and latitude and 

precipitation had two each (Table 2). These data linking plant traits with climatic/environmental 

factors at their collection locations indicate that developing seed transfer zones for A. acuminatum

should be possible. 

Table 2. Linear correlation between selected variables measured in 2007 and collection location 

environmental factors averaged over sites (n=55). 

A. acuminatum 

variable Lat. Long. Elev. Slope Aspect 

Max. 

temp. 

Min. 

temp. Precip. 

Bolting date ns ns 0.46** ns ns -0.50** -0.56** 0.31* 

Flower color -0.36** ns 0.32* ns ns ns ns ns 

Flowers/umbel ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Leaf length ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Leaf width -0.31* ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Leaf habit ns ns ns -0.37** -0.30* ns ns ns 

Seeds/plant ns ns ns ns ns -0.28* -0.30* 0.42** 

Flowering date ns ns ns ns ns -0.28* -0.34** ns 

Scape diameter ns ns 0.29* ns ns ns ns ns 

Scape length ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Umbel diameter ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Survival ns ns 0.46** ns ns ns ns ns 

P<0.05(*), P<0.01(**), and ns (not significant). 

Principal components and regression models

Principal component analysis was used to simplify key plant traits into sets of linear functions, the 

principal components, to be used in modeling seed zones. The first two principal components 

explained 64% of the variation, 41% for the first and 23% for the second. Additional components 

explained less than 10% of the variation. Thus the first two principal components explained almost 

two-thirds of the variation and had the most potential for regression modeling for seed zones. 

Principal components 1 loaded positively for all traits, and most were relatively equal in strength. 

The exceptions were bolting date, flower color, length/width, and scape length/diameter, which had 

relatively low loading (Table 3). Thus more flowers per umbel, longer and wider leaves, more 

seeds/plant, thicker and longer scapes, and wider umbels all were important for high principal 

component 1 scores. Principal component 2 interpretation was less obvious (Table 3). It had high 
5

negative loadings for bolting date and flower color, but positive loadings for scape length/diameter, 

scape length, and days from flowering to maturity. Correlations with principal components were 

significant for all traits except those with very small loading factors (Table 3). 

Table 3. Eigenvectors (loading factors) and correlations for principal components 1 and 2 

for Allium acuminatum collected in the Great Basin. 

Loading factors Correlation coefficient 

Trait (n=53) Prin1 Prin2 Prin1 Prin2 

Bolting date 0.1377 -0.3761 0.32* -0.65** 

Flower color 0.0083 -0.3760 0.02 -0.65** 

Flowers/umbel 0.3677 -0.0771 0.85** -0.13 

Leaf length 0.3665 0.1954 0.84** 0.34* 

Leaf length/width 0.0594 0.3130 0.14 0.54** 

Leaf width 0.3541 -0.1104 0.82** -0.19 

Seeds/plant 0.3227 -0.1120 0.74** -0.19 

Scape diameter 0.3639 -0.2218 0.84** -0.39** 

Scape length/diameter 0.0299 0.5020 0.07 0.87** 

Scape length 0.3203 0.3063 0.74** 0.53** 

Days flower-maturity 0.2234 0.3255 0.52** 0.57** 

Survival 0.2798 -0.2122 0.65** -0.37** 

Umbel diameter 0.3380 0.0666 0.78** 0.12 

*,**Correlations significant at P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively 

Correlations between principal component 1 and environmental variables showed that spring 

precipitation was significant (r = -0.28, P<0.05) and the coefficients associated with precipitation 

were generally stronger than those for temperature. No temperature or precipitation factors were 

significantly correlated with principal component 2. However, principal component 2 was correlated 

with latitude (r= -0.34, P<0.05) and elevation (r= -0.42, P<0.01). 

The regression model for principal component 1 includes coefficients for elevation, precipitation, and 

temperature, and for principal component 2, elevation and temperature (Table 4). Correlations 

between environmental factors and plant growth and development variables also indicated that 

elevation, precipitation, and temperature were important factors for adaptation zones of A. 

acuminatum (Table 2). 
Table 4. Regression equations for principal 

component 1 and 2 linking plant traits and 

environmental factors. 

Principal component 1 

Variable df 

Regression 

coefficient 

Regression 

 P-value 

Intercept 1 11.345 0.002 

Elevation 1 0.0023 0.013 

Precip May 1 -0.1241 0.001 

MinTemp May 1 2.358 0.002 

MinTemp June 1 -2.576 0.001 

Principal component 2 

Variable df 

Regression 

coefficient 

Regression 

P-value 

Intercept 1 4.0406 0.006 

Elevation 1 -0.0021 0.004 

Precip May 1 -0.0626 0.015 

Precip Oct 1 0.0737 0.024 

Principal component 1 R2=0.37 and principal component 

2 R2

=0.29 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

800 

r=0.46** 

Survival 

1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

Elevation, m 

Figure 2. Relationship between elevation at bulb source location and 

frequency of survival for Allium acuminatum bulbs in common gardens. 

6
7

As shown in Table 2 and Fig 2, the frequency of bulb survival in common gardens generally 

increased as bulb source location elevation increased. The reason for this may be that lower elevation 

populations are naturally less likely to survive. But if we assume that populations are well adapted to 

their native lower elevation locations, their fitness for survival was lower when moved to our 

common garden sites. In any case, for successful restoration, the importance of understanding the 

interaction of environment with plant adaptation is indicated. 

These results have shown strong variation in A. acuminatum populations across the Great Basin and 

that specific plant traits are related to key environmental factors. Adaptation of A. acuminatum was 

associated with elevation, temperature and precipitation factors as shown in correlations (Table 2) 

and regression coefficients (Table 4). 

Future plans 

The regression models in Table 4 are being used to map potential seed transfer zones for A. 

acuminatum. A manuscript for peer reviewed publication is being prepared that will summarize 

results and recommendations. The seed transfer zones will be used to select adapted material for 

restoration in the Great Basin. 

Work on seed production and stand establishment will be pursued. For Allium there are two options 

for establishing field stands; sowing of true seed or dormant bulbs. Both methods are used in 

production of A. cepa, onion and A. sativum, garlic. The small size of A. acuminatum bulbs lends 

themselves to planting with conventional mechanical seeders. In 2009 and 2010 direct sowing of 

dormant bulbs will be tested at different planting density rates in relation to seed yield. In addition, 

the planting of true seed at different seeding rates and densities, weed control, methods for lifting 

bulbs from soil, and mechanical harvest will be examined in future trials. This will give the needed 

information on stand establishment and agronomic factors for seed production. 

Publication: 

Johnson, R.C. 2008. Genebanks pay big dividends to agriculture, the environment, and human 

welfare. Public library of science (PLoS) http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=getdocument&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060148 

Management Applications: 

This work is providing the needed tools to develop adapted A. acuminatum germplasm for restoration 

in the Great Basin. In addition, long-term conservation and management of germplasm is being 

conducted within the National Plant Germplasm System. This provides security back-up for native 

populations that may be lost as a result of climate change and disturbances such as fire and invasive 

weeds. The work on seed production and stand establishment above will provide guidance for 

procedures to grow key populations of A. acuminatum and provide them for restoration efforts. 

Products: 

Adapted germplasm for the Great Basin and conservation within the National Plant germplasm 

System.
8

Literature Cited: 

Adair, R., R.C. Johnson, B. Hellier, and W. Kasier. 2006. Collecting taper-tip Onion (Allium

acuminatum Hook.) in the Great Basin using traditional and GIS methods. Native Plants Journal 

7:141-148. 

Evanno, G., S. Regnaut, and J. Goudet. 2005. Detecting the number of clusters of individuals using 

the software STRUCTURE: a simulation study. Molecular Ecology. 14:2611-2620. 

Li, G. and C.F. Quiros. 2001. Sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP), a new marker 

system based on a simple PCR reaction: its application to mapping and gene tagging in Brassica. 

Theor. Appl. Genet. 103:455-461. 

 
9

Project Title: Adapted Indian Ricegrass for the Great Basin

Project: Plant Germplasm Introduction and Research, Western Regional Plant 

Introduction Station (WRPIS), Pullman, WA 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist 

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station 

Box 646402, Washington State University 

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.3771, fax: 509.335.6654 

rcjohnson@wsu.edu 

 

Mike Cashman, Biologist 

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station 

Box 646402, Washington State University 

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.6219, fax: 509.335.6654 

mjcashman@wsu.edu 

 

Project Description: 

Indian ricegrass [Achnatherum hymenoides (Roem. & Schult.) Barkworth] is a key species for 

wildlife habitat and grazing in the Great Basin. Current releases of Indian ricegrass are useful but we 

know of no germplasm derived specifically from and for the Great Basin. Information on how Indian 

ricegrass germplasm varies across the landscape and which populations may be best adapted is 

lacking. Considering the importance of Indian ricegrass in the Great Basin plant community, 

germplasm specifically adapted to Great Basin climatic and environmental factors is critically 

needed. 

The available USDA-ARS collections of Indian ricegrass collections are primarily from the eastern 

and southern regions of the Great Basin, extending into Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. This 

material was established in common gardens in 2007 and data on plant variables taken in 2007 and 

2008. This work shows that seed source location was strongly associated with variation in plant 

variables. In addition, plant variables were linked to numerous climatic and environmental factors. 

In the next phase, this information will be used to identify seed zones for Indian ricegrass in the Great 

Basin. 

Collections of more than 100 sources of new germplasm in the Northern and Central Great Basin 

were completed in 2008. This germplasm will be the basis of additional genecology studies and will 

be used to develop seed zones for the central and northern Great Basin, 

Objectives

1. Collect Indian Ricegrass from diverse ecological sites in the Great Basin in areas previously 

uncollected, especially in the central and northern Great Basin. 

2. Based on the current collections representing the southern and eastern Great Basin, establish 

common garden studies and measure numerous plant factors associated with growth and 
10

development. Continue this research on new material collected from the central and northern 

Great Basin. 

3. Compare the patterns of variation in plant traits among Indian ricegrass populations collected 

in the Great Basin. 

4. Identify seed transfer zones along with complementary in situ conservation sites. 

5. Make source identified plant material available for utilization through the Western Regional 

Plant Introduction Station seed repository and the National Plant Germplasm System. 

In spring 2007, a diverse set of 120 Indian ricegrass accessions from the USDA germplasm collection 

was planted in a two common gardens at Central Ferry, WA, one under dryland and the other under 

light irrigation conditions forming two growing environments. Each garden was randomized into 5 

complete blocks with 600 plants each. This germplasm represented the southern and eastern Great 

Basin together with locations across the Colorado Plateau and into the Great Plains. Evaluation of 

key growth and developmental traits was completed in 2007 and 2008 on numerous growth and 

development variables on each plant. 

Table 1. Summary of plant variables and analyses of variance for Indian ricegrass in 

common gardens representing 120 seed source locations grown at Central Ferry, WA, in 

irrigated and dryland environments (2007). 

Variable Mean CV Environ Location Env x Loc 

-----------------P-values---------------- 

Full heading† 191 6.9 <0.01 <0.01 0.66 

Initial blooming† 179 6.7 <0.01 <0.01 0.06 

Maturity† 205 6.2 <0.01 <0.01 0.59 

Leaf width (mm) 2 36.9 <0.01 <0.01 0.43 

Leaf length (cm) 15 29.6 0.93 <0.01 0.93 

Leaf length/Leaf width 8.9 45.2 <0.01 <0.01 0.64 

Leaf length x Leaf width 29.6 56.2 0.12 <0.01 0.73 

Inflorescences/plant 13 73.9 <0.01 <0.01 0.36 

Seeds/inflorescence 50 41.9 0.60 <0.01 0.42 

Culm length (cm) 25 21.5 0.35 <0.01 0.51 

Inflorescence length (cm) 15 26.6 0.13 <0.01 0.67 

Culm to inflorescence 

length (cm) 1.8 28.7 0.96 <0.01 0.26 

Habit (1-9) 5 21.3 0.31 <0.01 0.47 

Leaf texture (1-9) 5 24.6 <0.01 <0.01 0.18 

Leaf abundance (1-9) 5 23.2 0.15 <0.01 0.22 

Leaf roll (1-9) 4 37.1 0.03 <0.01 0.36 

Crown diameter (cm2

) 26.5 57.0 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 

Dry weight (g) 23.4 36.1 <0.01 <0.01 0.33 

Regrowth (g) 3.66 67.67 0.53 <0.01 0.39 

Dry weight–regrowth (g) 20.7 78.83 <0.01 <0.01 0.40 

†Day of year. 

‡Differences declared significant at P<0.05.
11

Table 2. Summary of plant variables and analyses of variance for Indian ricegrass in 

common gardens representing 120 seed source locations grown at Central Ferry, WA, in 

irrigated and dryland environments (2008). 

Variable Mean CV Environ Location Env x Loc 

----------------P-values--------------- 

Full heading 148 1.60 0.98 <0.01 0.08 

Initial blooming 139 2.1 0.10 <0.01 0.63 

Maturity date 166 0.90 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 

Leaf width (mm) 2 35.4 0.93 <0.01 0.43 

Leaf length (cm) 13.29 29.1 0.55 <0.01 0.22 

Leaf length/Leaf width 9.571 40.2 0.85 <0.01 0.30 

Leaf length*Leaf width 22.01 55.0 0.67 <0.01 0.51 

Inflorescences/plant 105.6 59.3 0.20 <0.01 0.63 

Seeds/inflorescence 44.92 42.4 0.31 <0.01 0.44 

Culm length (cm) 27.30 22.5 0.95 <0.01 0.05 

Inflorescence length (cm) 13.02 24.9 0.18 <0.01 0.72 

Culm to inflorescence length 2.212 27.0 0.27 <0.01 0.78 

Habit (1-9) 6 21.1 0.17 <0.01 0.48 

Leaf texture (1-9) 6 21.0 0.97 <0.01 0.78 

Leaf abundance (1-9) 4 32.3 0.04 <0.01 0.78 

Leaf roll (1-9 ) 7 20.5 0.53 <0.01 0.59 

Crown diameter (cm2

) 35.0 50.3 0.86 <0.01 0.39 

Dry weight (g) 46.92 76.2 0.72 <0.01 0.54 

Regrowth (g) 11.54 92.1 0.01 <0.01 0.01 

Dry weight-regrowth (g) 36.30 80.9 0.18 <0.01 0.29 

†Day of year. 

‡Differences declared significant at P<0.05.

For the 2007 analysis, collection location effects were all highly significant (Table1). Thus, Indian 

ricegrass populations varied strongly depending on the seed source in the southern Basin, and 

extending into Colorado and the Great Plains. Although the environments (irrigated and nonirrigated) differed for many traits, the environment by location interaction was only significant for 

crown diameter (Table 1). This showed that irrigation caused differences in plant growth and 

development but the relative ranking of germplasm remained similar in both irrigation environments. 

For 2008 the overall results were similar to 2007 in that seed source location was strongly significant 

for all plant variables measured (Table 2). There were far fewer significant effects associated with 

the irrigation treatment in 2008 than in 2007. As in 2007, interactions between garden environment 

and seed source location were usually not significant (Table 2). The data show that Indian ricegrass 

populations differ as a function of seed source locations, suggests that plant adaptation will vary 

depending climatic/environmental factors. 
12

Table 3. Linear correlation between traits and environmental factors for Indian ricegrass (Central 

Ferry WA, 2007) 

Variable Elev. Lat. Long. 

 Max 

Temp.† 

Min. 

Temp.† Precip. 

Frost 

free 

Full heading ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Initial blooming 0.24* ns ns -0.34** -0.35** 0.19* 0.31** 

Maturity date ns 0.23* ns ns ns ns ns 

Leaf width -0.30** ns ns ns 0.19* ns 0.26** 

Leaf length -0.22* ns ns ns 0.21* ns 0.22* 

Leaf length/Leaf 

width ns ns 0.28** ns ns ns ns 

Leaf length*Leaf 

width -0.34** 0.21* ns ns 0.23* ns 0.27** 

Inflorescences/plant ns -0.22* ns 0.33** 0.32** -0.20* 0.24* 

Seeds/inflorescence -0.25** 0.40** ns ns ns ns ns 

Culm length ns 0.19* 0.21* ns ns 0.28** ns 

Infloresence length ns 0.20* ns ns ns ns ns 

Culm to Inflorescence 

length ns ns 0.22* ns ns 0.22* -0.25** 

Habit ns -0.38** ns 0.26** ns ns 0.20* 

Leaf texture 0.31** ns ns ns -0.24* ns -0.27** 

Leaf abundance ns 0.23* ns ns ns ns -0.28** 

Leaf roll 0.28** ns 0.26** ns -0.24* ns -0.29** 

Dry weight -0.27** ns ns 0.19* 0.29** ns 0.26***

Regrowth weight -0.28** ns ns 0.20* 0.28** ns 0.35** 

Dry wt–regrowth -0.26** ns ns 0.19* 0.27** ns 0.24* 

*,**, P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively. 

†Average annual values.

Correlations of selected plant variables showed that a number of climatic and environmental factors 

were linked to plant variables (Tables 3 and 4). In 2007, the frost-free period correlated with plant 

variables in 13 of 20 cases (Table 3). Frequent correlations were also observed for elevation, latitude 

and average temperature. For 2008, the frost-free period was less often correlated with plant 

variables than in 2007, but most climatic/environmental factors had numerous significant correlations 

with plant variables (Table 4). In many cases a plant factor was consistently correlated with an 

environmental factor both years, as, for example, with seeds per inflorescence (Table 4). But for 

maturity date, correlations with temperature factors, precipitation and frost-free period were observed 

in 2008 but not in 2007. 

 
13

Table 4. Linear correlation between traits and environmental factors for Indian ricegrass (Central 

Ferry, WA, 2008). 

Variable Elev. Lat. Long. 

Max. 

Temp.† 

Min. 

Temp.† Precip. 

Frost 

Free 

Full heading -0.22* ns ns 0.28** 0.24* -0.28** 0.24* 

Initial blooming -0.21* ns ns 0.24* 0.25** -0.26** ns 

Maturity date -0.32** ns -0.23* 0.43** 0.43** -0.35** 0.44** 

Leaf width -0.26** 0.28** -0.22* ns ns ns ns 

Leaf length -0.22* ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Leaf length/ Leaf 

width ns ns 

 0.24* 

ns ns ns ns 

Leaf length* Leaf 

width -0.32** 0.30** 

ns ns ns ns 0.23* 

Inflorescences/plant ns ns ns ns ns 0.23* ns 

Seeds/inflorescence -0.25** 0.41** ns -0.26** -0.19* 0.30** ns 

Culm length ns 0.30** ns -0.23* ns 0.27** ns 

Infloresence length ns 0.23* ns -0.23* ns 0.29** ns 

Culm to Inflorescence 

length ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Habit ns -0.22* -0.34** 0.30** 0.22* -0.38** 0.24* 

Leaf texture 0.24* -0.36** 0.22* ns ns ns ns 

Leaf abundance -0.23* ns ns 0.20* 0.20* ns 0.20* 

Leaf roll ns -0.29** 0.21* ns ns ns ns 

Crown diameter ns 0.19* ns ns ns ns ns 

Dry weight ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

Regrowth weight -0.24** ns ns ns ns ns 0.24* 

Dry wt–regrowth ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 

*,**, P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively. 

†Average annual values.

Future plans 

The results so far show that variation across the landscape in Indian ricegrass was related to the 

location where the seeds were collected, and that many plant variables were linked to basic climatic 

and environmental data. This is strong evidence that adaptation of Indian ricegrass varies across the 

Great Basin and differences in adaptation should be considered in revegetation planning. What is 

needed now is to examine the plant variables for redundancy within and between years, reduce the 

plant variables to a smaller set of adaptive traits, complete a principal component analysis, and use 

regression modeling with the principal component scores to develop and map seed zones. For this 

initial Indian ricegrass study, objectives 1, 2, and 3 have been completed. Our goal is to finish this 

initial study to develop seed zones and provide germplasm for Indian ricegrass revegetation in the 

Great Basin. 
For the northern and central Great Basin, objective 1 relating to germplasm collection has been 

completed and work is now underway to establish common gardens at Central Ferry, WA and Reno, 

NV (Fig. 1). 

Figure 1. Seed collections of Indian ricegrass made in 

2007 and 2008 for common studies of adaptation to 

Great Basin environments.

Publications and Technology Transfer: 

Johnson, R.C. 2008. Genebanks pay big dividends to agriculture, the environment, and human 

welfare. Public Library of Science (PLoS) http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=getdocument&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060148

Cashman M. J. 2008. Phenotypic variation of Achnatherum hymenoides (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) 

Barkworth in relation to environmental factors. Master of Science Special Project, Washington 

State University, Pullman WA. 

Management Applications: 

Results from this study will be used to develop seed zones for plant materials needed for revegetation 

and restoration in the Great Basin and adjacent areas. 

Products: 

Seed zones and germplasm for revegetation in the Great Basin and peer reviewed journal articles 

outlining the Indian ricegrass adaption. 

Key collections will be conserved within the National Plant Germplasm System. 

14
15

Project Title: Establishment and maintenance of certified Generation 1 

 (G1) seed, propagation of native forbs, plant display nursery 

evaluation and development of technology to improve the 

 diversity of introduced grass stands 

Project Location: NRCS Aberdeen, ID Plant Materials Center 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Loren St. John, Center Manager

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, 

P.O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210 

208.397.4133, fax 208.397.3104 

 Loren.Stjohn@id.usda.gov 

Dan Ogle, Plant Materials Specialist, Boise, ID 

USDA-NRCS, 9173 West Barnes Drive, Suite C, Boise, ID 83709 

208.685.6987, fax 208.378.5735 

 Dan.Ogle@id.usda.gov 

 

Project Description: 

Production of Certified Generation 1 (G1) seed of Anatone Germplasm bluebunch wheatgrass, Maple 

Grove Germplasm Lewis flax, Snake River Plains Germplasm fourwing saltbush and Northern Cold 

Desert Germplasm winterfat to facilitate commercial seed production. Propagation of native forbs 

for evaluation and seed increase. Evaluation of display nursery near Boise, ID. Assist in 

development of technology to improve the diversity of introduced grass stands by evaluating methods 

to introduce native species into established plant communities. Equipment and strategies to enhance 

the post-wildfire establishment and persistence of Great Basin native plants. 

Project Status: 

I. Seed Production 

Anatone Germplasm Bluebunch Wheatgrass 

Currently 4.2 acres are in production. Estimated seed yield from 2008 seed crop is 478 pounds. 

Shipped 775 pounds of Generation 2 Certified seed to commercial growers in 2008. 

Maple Grove Germplasm Lewis Flax 

A 0.6 acre seed field was established in May 2008 with stock seed provided by the FS Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. Seed will be harvested from this field beginning in 2009. 

Snake River Plains Germplasm Fourwing Saltbush 

Estimated seed yield from 2008 crop is 15 pounds. No seed was requested by commercial growers in 

2008. 
16

Northern Cold Desert Germplasm Winterfat 

Estimated seed yield from 2008 crop is 8 pounds. No seed was requested by commercial growers in 

2008. 

II. Propagation of Native Forbs 

The original project plan in 2005 was to propagate 8,000 plants total of Lomatium dissectum (LODI) 

fernleaf biscuitroot, Lomatium grayii (LOGR) Grays biscuitroot, Lomatium triternatum (LOTR) 

nineleaf biscuitroot, Eriogonum umbellatum (ERUM) sulphurflower buckwheat, Penstemon deustus 

(PEDE) hotrock penstemon, Penstemon acuminatus (PEAC) sharpleaf penstemon, and Penstemon 

speciousus (PESP) sagebrush penstemon in the greenhouse. Approximately 1000 plants each of 

ERUM and LOTR were to be transplanted into seed production plots at the PMC and remaining 

plants were to be made available to cooperators for transplanting at field sites. Due to no plant 

establishment of Lomatium species and minimal success with greenhouse propagation of Penstemon

species, no plants were made available to cooperators. All plants that were successfully propagated 

in the PMC greenhouse were transplanted into seed production plots at the PMC during the 2005 

growing season and direct dormant seeding of Eriogonum, Lomatium and Penstemon accessions were 

completed at the PMC in November 2005. Weed barrier fabric was installed to control weeds. 

On May 15, 2008 the sulphur-flowered buckwheat plots were treated with a wick application of 100 

percent Roundup to control weeds and on June 10-11 all plots were hand weeded. The following 

table shows harvest date and seed yield for the accessions that were harvested: 

 

 Harvest Clean seed 

Species Date (pounds)

ERUM 8/13 12.6 

LODI NA NA 

LOGR NA NA 

LOTR 7/3 2.6 

PEAC NA NA 

PEDE NA NA 

PESP 8/8 1.5

By early July, the Lomatium species were completely dormant. The only Lomatium to flower and set 

seed was LOTR. LODI and LOGR have yet to flower after 3 years of establishment. It is thought 

that most of their energy is still going to development of the taproot. In early November 2008 the 

dormant Lomatium plots were treated with a spray application of Roundup to control weeds that were 

still green. PEAC and PEDE (short-lived species) had died out to the point that no seed was 

harvested in 2008. 

The Rocky Mountain Research Station in Boise, ID cleaned the seed that was harvested from the 

plots. Some of the seed was utilized for the seeding trial conducted at Snowville, UT for the 

Equipment and Strategies to Enhance the Post-wildfire Establishment and Persistence of Great Basin 

Native Plants study. 
III. Orchard Display Nursery Evaluation Summary (2005-2008) Final Report 

Introduction

The Orchard Display Nursery was planted on November 16, 2004 in cooperation with the Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. The nursery includes 82 accessions of 27 native 

and introduced grass, forb and shrub species. Each accession was planted in 7 x 60 foot plots. The 

remaining area was planted to a cover crop mix of 50% Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass, 20% 

Bannock thickspike wheatgrass, 20% Magnar basin wildrye and 10% Snake River Plain fourwing 

saltbush. 

The test site is located on a loamy 10-12 inch precipitation ecological site that historically supported 

a Wyoming big sagebrush – bluebunch wheatgrass – Thurber’s needlegrass plant community. Total 

precipitation at the Orchard Test Site for water year 2005 was 9.6 inches, 2006 was 14.4 inches and 

for 2007 was 9.2 inches. At the time of the 2008 evaluation on May 5, the Orchard range site had 

received 7.70 inches of precipitation for water year 2008 (USDA 2008). 

0

5

10

15

2005 2006 2007 2008 (to May)

Yearly cumulative precipitation, Orchard Range Site

The Orchard display nursery was evaluated from 2005 to 2008. This report summarizes the 

evaluations conducted at the site. 

Materials and Methods

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) burned the site in the fall of 2002. The site was later 

sprayed by PMC staff in May 2003 and May 2004 with a Roundup/2,4-D herbicide mix to create a 

weed-free seedbed. Due to limited breakdown of dead grass clumps that would inhibit proper seed 

placement with a drill and to ensure a clean seedbed, the decision was made to cultivate the site with 

a roller harrow culti-packer just prior to seeding. During the first evaluation, most plots contained 

high numbers of Russian thistle (Salsola sp.) and moderate amounts of bur buttercup (Ranunculus

testiculatus Crantz) plants. Russian thistle plants were approximately 2 to 3 inches tall and the 

buttercup plants had already flowered. At the time of the second evaluation, there was a heavy 

infestation of tumble mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum L.). Plots were consequently sprayed again on 

June 9, 2005 with 16 oz. 2,4-D and 8 oz. Clarity per acre to control the mustard. 

The first evaluation of the plots for initial establishment was conducted on April 27, 2005 using a 

frequency grid. The grid measured approximately 40 x 41 inches, having four 10-inch columns (to 

incorporate one drill row per column) and five rows, totaling 20 cells. The first grid was laid on the 

rows approximately two grid lengths (80 inches) into the plot. Counts were made of the cells that 

contained at least one plant. Grids were subsequently flipped and evaluated three more times giving a 

total of eighty evaluated cells. Total area for one grid is approximately 1 m2; total area evaluated is 

17
18

therefore approximately 4 m2. A conservative estimate of plant density (plants/m2) is the total number 

of cells containing at least one plant divided by four. 

The second evaluation occurred on May 25, 2005. The 2006 evaluation was conducted on May 31, 

the 2007 evaluation took place on May 16 and the 2008 evaluation was completed on May 1. The 

methods followed in 2006 and 2007 were the same as described above; however, the frame was 

evaluated five times for a total of 100 cells or 5 m2

. Total counts were then divided by five for 

approximate plants/m2. Numbers for approximate plants/m2 were then divided by 10.8 to calculate 

approximate plants/ft2

. It is important to note that because cells with plants were counted and not 

number of plants per cell, the best possible score is 100 hits per five frames which converts to 20 

plants/m2

 or 1.85 plants/ft2. Actual plant density may be higher than the numbers indicated below. All 

tables have been arranged with accessions ranked from highest plant density to the lowest at the time 

of the final evaluation in 2008. Data were not analyzed for significance. 

Native Grasses

There were forty-seven accessions of native grasses planted. Overall the native grasses established 

well considering the limited amount of precipitation received over the winter and early spring of 

2005. Especially good stands were observed in the bluebunch wheatgrass and Snake River 

wheatgrass plots during 2005. There was a marked decrease in plant density between the first and 

second evaluations with some notable exceptions. Seven of nine bluebunch wheatgrass accessions 

and three of four Snake River wheatgrass accessions increased in density from the first evaluation to 

the second. This is possibly due to receiving 2.5 inches of precipitation during that period and/or 

from a lack of pressure by black grass bugs (Labops sp.). Most of the native grasses decreased 

steadily in density from 2005 to 2007 (Table 1). 

In 2005 the best performing Indian ricegrass accession was White River, having a plant density of 

0.56 plants/ft2

 during the first evaluation and 0.17 plants/ft2 during the second evaluation. In 2006 

through 2008 there were no plants of any Indian ricegrass accessions observed in the evaluation grids 

and very few seen within their respective plots. 

In 2005 the squirreltail plots had as high as 0.54 plants/ft2

 for Fish Creek. In 2006 all squirreltail 

accessions had decreased. Fish Creek maintained the best plant density with 0.26 plants/ft2. Densities 

remained essentially the same in 2007. In 2008 Fish Creek increased in density from 0.22 to 0.67 

plants/ft2

. 

Bannock thickspike wheatgrass had a density of 1.04 plants/ft2 and stayed essentially the same at the 

second evaluation of 2005. In 2006 Bannock had dropped to nearly half of the original density to 0.58 

plants/ft2

. The 2007 evaluations showed small declines from established plots. In 2008 Bannock 

decreased to 0.28 plants/ft2 and Schwendimar fell in density to 0.17 plants/ft2. 

Revenue and San Luis slender wheatgrass both showed 0.00 plants/ft2 in 2006. Pryor slender 

wheatgrass similarly dropped in density but had 0.02 plants/ft2

. In 2007 and 2008 no slender 

wheatgrass plants could be found in any of the evaluated grids. 

The western wheatgrass accessions had less dramatic declines in density from 2005 to 2006, but still 

showed poor stands with Rodan having the highest density of 0.13 plants/ft2

. In 2007 and 2008 all 

accessions had zero plants surviving. 
19

The bluebunch wheatgrass accessions had the highest average densities of all the native grasses. All 

decreased slightly in density from 2005 to 2006, but still maintained good stands. P-12, Wahluke and 

Jim Creek all had densities over 1.00 plants/ft2. Columbia, Anatone, P-7 and P-15 had densities 

between 0.50 and 1.00 plants/ft2

 while P-5 and Goldar both shared low densities. In 2007 densities 

were generally slightly lower, but still higher than all other species as a whole. The highest density 

recorded in 2007 was Jim Creek at 1.07 plants/ft2

. In 2008 Jim Creek, Wahluke, P-12 and P-7 had the 

best plant densities with 1.10, 1.10, 0.82 and 0.75 plants/ft2 respectively. 

Snake River wheatgrass accessions had good densities the establishment year with three accessions 

having densities greater than 1.00 plants/ft2. Numbers declined slightly yet steadily over the next two 

years. In 2007 the best density was from SERDP with 0.70 plants/ft2. In 2008 SERDP had risen in 

density to 0.80 plants/ft2 making it the top performer of the group. Densities of other accessions 

remained essentially the same as 2007. 

The basin wildrye accessions had fair to good stands in 2005, but decreased steadily from 2005 to 

2008. U108-02 and Trailhead retained the highest densities in 2006 at 0.24 and 0.26 plants/ft2

respectively. By 2007 the best density was achieved by Trailhead with 0.17 plants/ft2. U108-02 and 

U100-01 had similar densities with 0.11 and 0.13 plants/ft2

 respectively. In 2008 basin wildrye had 

poor stands from all accessions, the best being 0.09 plants/ft2 from U108-02. 

Sheep fescue stands remained poor from 2005 to 2006 with Covar slightly increasing from 0.00 to 

0.07 plants/ft2

. In 2007 Covar still had 0.07 plants/ft2, and Initial Point had decreased to 0.00 

plants/ft2. In 2008 the fescues persisted with minimal stands. 

Thurber’s needlegrass had no plants in the evaluated grids for any year. 

All five of the Sandberg bluegrass accessions increased in density from 2005 to 2006. The best stands 

were observed in the High Plains and Mountain Home plots with respective stands of 0.54 and 0.35 

plants/ft2

. In 2007 all stands had been reduced to 0.00 plants/ft2. In 2008 however, Hanford Source 

increased to 0.56 plants/ft2 showing a stand that had been hidden under the dense weed canopy. 
20

Table 1. Density of native grasses seeded at the Orchard Research Site in fall 2004. 

Native Grasses 4/27/05 5/25/05 5/30/06 5/16/07 5/1/08 

Species Name or accession -------------------------------Plants/ft2-------------------------- 

Indian ricegrass Rimrock 0.37 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 

White River 0.56 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Nezpar 0.42 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Ribstone 0.14 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Paloma 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Squirreltail Fish Creek 0.97 0.54 0.26 0.22 0.67 

Sand Hollow 0.37 0.20 0.19 0.20 0.24 

Toe Jam Creek 0.58 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.02 

Shaniko Plateau 0.81 0.52 0.06 0.09 0.00 

9019219 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Thickspike 

wheatgrass 

Bannock 1.04 1.07 0.58 0.43 0.28 

Schwendimar 0.69 0.52 0.39 0.24 0.17 

Critana 0.90 0.56 0.24 0.17 0.00 

Sodar 0.37 0.30 0.15 0.07 0.00 

Slender wheatgrass Revenue 1.00 0.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 

San Luis 0.60 0.69 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Pryor 0.30 0.30 0.02 0.00 0.00 

Western 

wheatgrass 

Rodan 0.28 0.35 0.13 0.00 0.00 

Rosana 0.05 0.20 0.04 0.00 0.00 

Arriba 0.16 0.15 0.06 0.00 0.00 

Bluebunch 

wheatgrass 

Jim Creek 0.83 1.02 1.02 1.07 1.10 

Wahluke 0.97 1.26 1.02 0.98 1.10 

P-12 1.34 1.59 1.04 0.89 0.82 

P-7 0.93 1.15 0.67 0.57 0.75 

Columbia 1.30 1.23 0.84 0.83 0.65 

Anatone 0.81 1.15 0.80 0.69 0.47 

P-15 0.60 0.93 0.54 0.50 0.41 

Goldar 0.51 0.37 0.33 0.19 0.24 

P-5 0.42 0.61 0.22 0.13 0.17 

Snake River 

wheatgrass 

SERDP 1.02 0.94 0.67 0.70 0.80 

Secar 1.00 1.11 0.76 0.56 0.54 

Expedition 1.27 1.44 0.54 0.41 0.34 

E-26 0.21 0.23 0.22 0.13 0.11 

Basin wildrye U108-02 0.56 0.57 0.24 0.11 0.09 

U100-01 0.53 0.41 0.11 0.13 0.06 

Trailhead 0.60 0.52 0.26 0.17 0.04 

Magnar 0.28 0.22 0.04 0.04 0.02 

U70-01 0.30 0.22 0.02 0.02 0.02 

Washoe 0.21 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.00 

Sheep fescue Covar 0.16 0.00 0.07 0.07 0.06 

Initial Point 0.21 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.02 

Thurber’s 

needlegrass 

Thurber’s 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Sandberg bluegrass Hanford Source 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.56 

Mountain Home 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.00 0.03 

High Plains 0.25 0.00 0.54 0.00 0.00 

Sherman 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 

Toole County, MT 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 
21

Introduced Grasses

Although many of the introduced grass accessions had fair emergence, an outbreak of black grass 

bugs at the time of the first evaluation in 2005 was noted. The infestation appeared limited to the 

introduced grass section of the nursery. Plants were covered with yellow spots making the plants 

appear yellow-green overall. Although most of the stands of the introduced grasses decreased from 

the first to the second evaluation, many stands had recovered and increased by 2006 indicating that 

many plants thought to be dead during the second evaluation in 2005 were still alive. However, the 

plants of crested wheatgrass were very small when compared to the other wheatgrasses in the nursery 

and still appeared to be recovering from black grass bug pressure. The 2007 and 2008 evaluations 

showed most established plots with reduced densities, many accessions dropping out completely 

(Table 2). 

In 2006 all of the crested wheatgrass accessions increased in density or remained approximately 

where they were in 2005. Ephraim rose from 0.28 to 1.23 plants/ft2

; however, many of the plants 

were small in size due to the black grass bug infestation during the spring of 2005. In 2007 the best 

density was obtained from Nordan with 0.67 plants/ft2

. Ephraim had dropped from 1.23 to 0.02 

plants/ft2. In 2008 Nordan and Roadcrest had both increased in density to 0.88 and 0.71 plants/ft2

respectively. The remaining crested wheatgrass plots had few remaining plants. 

Both Siberian wheatgrass accessions similarly increased from 2005 to 2006, but decreased in 2007. 

In 2007 Vavilov was down to 0.26 plants/ft2

 and P-27 had 0.00 plants/ft2. In 2008 Vavilov had 

rebounded to 0.54 plants/ft2. 

The three pubescent wheatgrass accessions decreased from 2005 to 2006 with the highest density in 

2006 coming from Manska at 0.28 plants/ft2

. Manska continued to have the best density in 2007 with 

0.13 plants/ft2

. Plant densities in 2008 remained low with Luna having the best stand with 0.22 

plants/ft2. 

Rush intermediate wheatgrass, had 0.60 plants/ft2 in 2005. Plant density decreased to 0.00 plants/ft2

in 2006 and did not recover through 2008. 

Prairieland and Eejay Altai wildrye had zero plants in 2006. Pearl Altai wildrye had 0.02 plants/ft2. In 

2007 Prairieland and Eejay again had 0.00 plants/ft2

 and Pearl increased slightly to 0.04 plants/ft2. 

There were no live plants detected in 2008. 

The Russian wildrye accessions all increased in density with the exception of Tetracan which 

decreased slightly. The best stand was recorded in the Bozoisky Select plot with 0.58 plants/ft2

. 

Bozoisky Select had the best stand in 2007 with 0.35 plants/ft2. Bozoisky II had the next best rating 

with 0.26 plants/ft2

. In 2008 the Russian wildrye plots had poor stands. The top performer was 

Bozoisky Select with 0.11 plants/ft2. 
22

Table 2. Density of exotic grasses seeded at the Orchard Research Site in fall 2004. 

Introduced Grasses 4/27/05 5/25/05 5/30/06 5/16/07 5/8/08 

Species Name or accession ---------------------------------Plants/ft2---------------------- 

Crested wheatgrass Nordan 1.30 1.19 1.10 0.67 0.88 

Roadcrest 1.30 0.07 0.52 0.19 0.71 

Hycrest 0.39 0.24 0.15 0.07 0.04 

Ephraim 0.65 0.28 1.23 0.02 0.00 

CD-II 0.56 0.24 0.20 0.00 0.00 

Douglas 0.28 0.04 0.09 0.00 0.04 

Siberian wheatgrass Vavilov 0.65 0.20 0.61 0.26 0.54 

P-27 0.09 0.02 0.33 0.00 0.00 

Pubescent 

wheatgrass 

Luna 0.79 0.54 0.13 0.00 0.22 

Manska 0.69 0.65 0.28 0.13 0.09 

Greenleaf 0.60 0.59 0.15 0.09 0.02 

Intermediate 

wheatgrass Rush 0.60 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Pearl 0.35 0.15 0.02 0.04 0.00 

Altai wildrye Prairieland 0.56 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Eejay 0.16 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Russian wildrye Bozoisky Select 0.72 0.54 0.58 0.35 0.11 

Syn-A (Bozoisky 

II) 0.21 0.13 0.24 0.26 0.09 

Mankota 0.46 0.28 0.32 0.19 0.02 

Tetracan 0.42 0.20 0.17 0.07 0.04 

Forbs and Shrubs

Despite some good stands in 2005, all of the forb and shrub accessions except for Eagle western 

yarrow had zero plants during the 2006 evaluation. Eagle had 0.07 plants/ft2

 in the frequency grids 

along with a small stand of plants at one end of the seeded plot. In 2007 more plants of Eagle had 

either germinated from the original seeding, or seed had spread from established plants. Plant density 

for Eagle in 2007 was 0.24 plants/ft2

. Snake River Plains fourwing saltbush also had a single plant 

found in the plots, increasing its density from 0.00 to 0.02 plants/ft2. In 2008 Eagle was the only forb 

or shrub accession with plants detected in the evaluation, with a density of 0.21 plants/ft2 (Table 3). 
23

Table 3. Density of forbs and shrubs seeded at the Orchard Research Site in fall 2004. 

4/27/05 5/25/05 5/30/06 5/16/07 5/8/08 

Species Name or accession -------------------------Plants/ft2----------------------- 

Western yarrow Eagle 0.51 0.50 0.07 0.24 0.21 

Great Northern 0.19 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Utah sweetvetch Timp 0.14 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Firecracker 

penstemon Richfield Selection 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Scarlet globemallow 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Lewis flax Maple Grove 0.42 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Blue flax Appar 0.90 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Wyoming big 

sagebrush 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Fourwing saltbush Snake River Plains 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 

Wytana 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Rincon 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Gardner’s saltbush 9016134 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Winterfat Hatch 0.28 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Northern Cold 

Desert 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Open Range 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Forage kochia Immigrant 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Cover Crop

The cover crop consisted of a four species mix which contained: 50% Anatone bluebunch 

wheatgrass, 20% Bannock thickspike wheatgrass, 20% Magnar basin wildrye and 10% Snake River 

Plains fourwing saltbush. Four grids were examined during the first evaluation in 2005, one on each 

side of the nursery, and five grids were evaluated at the time of the second evaluation in 2005 and the 

2006 evaluation. Total plant density was estimated at 0.37 plants/ft2 at the first evaluation and 

0.57plants/ft2 at the second evaluation. In 2006 the cover crop density was 0.13 plants/ft2. Cover crop 

densities increased in 2007 up to 0.20 plants/ft2

. In 2008 the cover crop density was 0.04 plants/ft2. 

Discussion

Despite significant populations of Russian thistle, native and introduced grasses had fair to good 

emergence and plant density during the establishment year. Germination and emergence might have 

been better with more precipitation during March and April of 2005 but emergence was good with 

the rain that was received. The majority of the plots showed decreased stands from 2005 to 2006 and 

again into 2007. By 2008 densities had for the most part stabilized, those species not well adapted to 

the site had died out, while adapted accessions persisted. The low precipitation at the site, especially 

the lack of moisture in July and August every year seems to have eliminated many of the less drought 

tolerant accessions. 

One concern is the effect of black grass bugs on the introduced grasses. Plants subjected to black 

grass bug are normally affected by decreased seed yield and a reduction in palatability. Infestations 

rarely result in the death of established plants, but in poor water years establishing seedlings may be 

under enough stress for bug damage to kill the plants. The second evaluation in 2005 indicated a loss 

in plant densities; however it appears that many of the plants survived, although stunted (low vigor), 

through 2006. In 2007 many more plants had died, resulting in poor or no stands in many plots. In 

2008 most accessions continued to decrease in plant density; however, a few accessions that had 

earlier proven adapted to the site conditions had small gains. 
24

Snake River and bluebunch wheatgrasses had consistently good stands from essentially all 

accessions. Nordan and Roadcrest crested wheatgrass also performed well after recovering from 

black grass bug damage. 

IV. Develop Technology to Improve the Diversity of Introduced Grass Stands 

The PMC assisted Brigham Young University (BYU) Provo, UT and the Agricultural Research 

Service (ARS) Burns, OR in developing technology to improve the diversity of introduced grass 

stands by evaluating methods to introduce native species into established introduced plant 

communities. In 2005, the PMC modified a Truax Rough Rider range drill, mixed the seed and rice 

hull mixtures and completed the first year of seedings at sites in Utah and Oregon. In 2006, modified 

seed drop boots by the manufacturer were installed on the Truax drill and the second year of seeding 

was completed. In addition to these seedings, the PMC also seeded drill comparison trials near Elko, 

NV on recently burned rangeland to compare the Truax drill to the Kemmerer drill, the standard 

range drill used by BLM. The Truax drill is designed to both broadcast and drill seed in the same 

pass so species that require broadcasting or very shallow planting depth were broadcast and the 

deeper seeded species were drill seeded in alternating rows. No trials were established in 2007. 

In 2008, seeding trials were planted near Elko, NV in cooperation with the University of Nevada 

Extension Service and near Aberdeen, Idaho in cooperation with the ARS Sheep Experiment Station. 

The following seed mixes were prepared and the sites planted in late October and early November. 

South Fork, NV broadcast mix (12.5 acres)_______________________

Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.75 0.92 

Appar blue flax 0.75 0.83 

Eagle yarrow 0.20 0.45 

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.20 1.31 

Spiny hopsage 0.50 1.37 

Rice Hulls 8.88__ 
25

South Fork, NV Drill Mix (12.5 acres)____________________________

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Nezpar Indian ricegrass 2.00 2.03 

Toe Jam Cr. squirreltail 2.00 2.26 

Needle and thread 2.00 3.21 

Magnar basin wildrye 2.00 2.10 

Secar Snake River wheatgrass 1.00 1.08 

Munro globemallow 0.50 0.76 

Rice Hulls 2.32

Grandview, ID Broadcast Mix (12.90 acres)_______________________

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Maple Grove Lewis flax 0.40 0.43 

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.20 0.24 

Royal Penstemon 0.40 0.56 

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.05 0.29 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.15 1.01 

Rice Hulls 7.29 

Grandview, ID Drill Mix (12.90 acres)___________________________

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 3.20 3.60 

Magnar basin wildrye 0.80 1.04 

Bannock thickspike wheatgrass 0.60 0.74 

Thurber’s needlegrass 0.60 0.99 

Rice Hulls 7.29

V. Equipment and Strategies to Enhance the Post-wildfire Establishment and Persistence of 

Great Basin Native Plants 

The objectives of this project are to: examine seeding techniques for Wyoming big sagebrush; test 

seeding technology for native species, particularly native forbs; compare the ability of a modified 

rangeland drill and an experimental minimum-till drill to plant native seeds of diverse size and to 

reduce surface disturbance; apply and examine the use of USGS proposed monitoring protocols for 

gauging seeding success for both the short and long term; and provide plantings for long-term 

examination of livestock on diversity in native seedings. 

The minimum-till drill (Truax Rough Rider range drill) which has been modified by PMC personnel 

was provided by the FS Rocky Mountain Research Station. The PMC provided a trailer and tractor 

and the Utah Division of Wildlife provided an additional tractor. The modified rangeland drill 

(Kemmerer range drill) was provided by the BLM. In 2007, the PMC had made modifications to the 

Kemmerer drill by replacing the existing drop tubes with aluminum 3-inch diameter irrigation pipe to 
26

facilitate seed flow to the drill openers. The aluminum pipe provided a more slippery surface for the 

seed to flow. The drills were set up to both broadcast and drill seed in the same pass so species that 

require broadcasting or very shallow planting were broadcast and the deeper seeded species were drill 

seeded in alternating rows. 

The PMC mixed the seed and rice hull mixtures and calibrated the drills prior to seeding. 

A wildfire site near Snowville, UT was seeded during the week of November 10, 2008. A total of 

approximately 52.13 acres were seeded in plots to the following mixes: 

Snowville, UT (Fall 2008) Cover Crop Mix (12.13 acres)____________

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Rimrock Indian ricegrass 4.50 4.61 

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 4.00 4.50 

Rice Hulls 6.32

Drill Mix 40.0 acres__________________________________________

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Rimrock Indian ricegrass 1.00 1.02 

Munro globemallow 0.50 0.76 

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 2.00 2.25 

Toe Jam Cr. bottlebrush 

 squirreltail 1.00 1.06 

Sulphur-flower buckwheat 0.24 0.48 

Rice Hulls 1.59

10X Broadcast Mix (5 acres)___________________________________

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.95 5.42 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.50 3.38 

Eagle yarrow 0.15 0.17 

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.40 0.49 

Royal penstemon 0.09 0.13 

Rice Hulls 4.17
27

5X Broadcast Mix (30 acres)___________________________________

 Pounds Pounds 

Species PLS/ac Bulk Seed/ac

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.45 2.57 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.50 3.38 

Eagle yarrow 0.15 0.17 

Mtn. Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.40 0.49 

Royal penstemon 0.09 0.13 

Rice Hulls 7.03

This study will be repeated in the fall of 2009. Location of the study to be determined based on areas 

that burn during the 2009 fire season. PMC personnel also assisted in collection of monitoring data 

from the Mountain Home site, which was planted in 2007. 

Publications: 

(Available online at http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/idpmc/publications.html) 

St. John, L.; Cornforth, B.; Simonson, B.; Ogle, D.; and D. Tilley. 2008. Technical Note 20: 

Calibrating the Truax Rough Rider Drill for restoration plantings. Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center, Aberdeen, ID. Revised April, 2008. 14 p. 

St. John, L.; Ogle, D.; and N. Shaw. 2009. Hotrock Penstemon Plant Guide. Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. January 8, 2009. 3 p. 

St. John, L.; D. Ogle; and N. Shaw. 2009. Sharpleaf Penstemon Plant Guide. Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. January 20, 2009. 3 p. 

St. John, L. Equipment Strategies to Enhance the Post-Wildfire Establishment and Persistence of 

Great Basin Native Plants. Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. October 2, 2008. 4 p. 

St. John, L.; D. Tilley and D. Ogle. 2008. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project - 

2007 Annual Report. Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. January 23, 2008. 14 p. 

Tilley, D.J. and L. St. John 2006. Orchard Display Nursery Evaluation Summary (2005-2008). 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. October 15, 2008. 9 p. 

Tilley, D.J.; Ogle, D.; St. John, L. and N. Shaw. 2008. Royal Penstemon Plant Guide. Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. October 6, 2008. 3 p. 

Tilley, D.J. 2008 Orchard Display Nursery Evaluation Summary (2005-2007). Aberdeen Plant 

Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID. January 15, 2008. 14 p. 

Presentations: 

Loren St. John. 2008. Aberdeen PMC report of Activities 2007. Great Basin Native Plant Selection 

and Increase project. 13 Feb. 2008. Salt Lake City, UT. 
28

Management Applications:

1. Certified seed stock of Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass, Snake River Plains fourwing saltbush, and 

Northern Cold Desert winterfat produced by the PMC is available though the University of Idaho 

Foundation Seed Program and Utah Crop Improvement Association. 

2. Based on propagation studies at the PMC, sulphur-flower buckwheat, hotrock, sagebrush and 

sharpleaf penstemon appear to be able to be commercially grown, at least with the use of weed 

barrier fabric. Lomatium species are taking a long time to mature to reproductive stage and may not 

be conducive to commercial production because of the long period to reach reproductive capability. 

3. The Orchard Display Nursery has been established for 4 years. The best performing native 

accessions identified in 2008 are: Fish Creek germplasm bottlebrush squirreltail, ‘Bannock’ 

thickspike wheatgrass, Jim Creek germplasm bluebunch wheatgrass, SERDP Snake River 

wheatgrass, Hanford source Sandberg bluegrass and Eagle germplasm western yarrow. 

Products: 

1. Certified seed stock of Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass, Snake River Plains fourwing saltbush, and 

Northern Cold Desert winterfat produced by the PMC is available though the University of Idaho 

Foundation Seed Program and Utah Crop Improvement Association. 

2. Seed of sulphur-flower buckwheat and hotrock penstemon that were produced from the 

propagation studies were planted in the seed mixtures for the post-wildfire establishment study. 

3. Technical Note 20: Calibrating the Truax Rough Rider Drill for Restoration Plantings was revised 

and should be a useful guide to calibrating the drill. Plant Guides were developed for Royal 

penstemon, Hotrock penstemon and Sharpleaf penstemon. 
29

Project Title: Phylogeographic Characterization of Genetic Diversity in 

Basalt Milkvetch

Project Location: USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Lab, Logan, UT

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Shaun Bushman, Geneticist (Plants) 

USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Lab 

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-6300 

435.797.2901, fax: 435.797.3075 

shaun.bushman@ars.usda.gov 

Doug Johnson, Plant Physiologist 

USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Lab 

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-6300 

435.797.3067, fax: 435.797.3075 

doug.johnson@ars.usda.gov 

Kishor Bhattarai, Ph.D. Student 

Department of Plants, Soils, and Climatology 

Utah State University 

Logan, UT 84322-4820 

435.764.0649 

kishorbhattarai9@yahoo.com 

Project Description: 

This project is being conducted to ensure that the best selection and release strategies will be used to 

most effectively represent existing genetic variation within the widespread North American legume, 

Astragalus filipes (basalt milkvetch). Common garden experiments, rhizobial inoculation 

experiments, and toxic plant metabolite evaluations were done previously and presented in previous 

reports to GBSNIP. Exploratory molecular marker-based diversity and population structure was also 

reported previously from 81 collected accessions of basalt milkvetch. Seeds from these accessions 

were germinated in a greenhouse in Logan, UT. DNA was extracted from 10 plants of each 

accession, and the AFLP procedure was used for molecular marker development. 

The exploratory analysis of the molecular data from these 81 accessions was conducted using 

Analysis of MOlecular VAriance (AMOVA), which indicated significant population structure (P < 

0.001). Two groups of populations were prominent in their distinction, one group from Canada and 

another group from central Nevada (Figure 1). No other groups of accessions were apparent. In 

support of this, Bayesian analysis conducted with the program STRUCTURE v2.1 was also used to 

explore population structure in the accessions. Between two and 16 population structures were 

tested. A general increase in fit was found as the numbers of structures increased up to six (Figure 2), 

and significant admixture among some populations was detected as the number of structures 

increased. Thus the data analysis suggests two distinct populations (central Nevada and British 

Columbia), and one meta-population that encompasses the remaining accessions. The large meta-
30

population comprises collections from Oregon, Idaho, northern Nevada, California, and Washington 

states. 

Within-population genetic diversity estimates found that the highest genetic diversity among the A. 

filipes collections was found within the state of Oregon. Conversely, yet in line with population 

structure estimates, the lowest genetic diversity was found in British Columbia and central Nevada 

collections (Figure 3). Genetic diversity values were tested for significance by state boundary and by 

level III ecoregion. Both tests were significant, but significance was greater for state boundaries 

(F=30.04 and P<0.0001) than for ecoregions (F=15.75 and P<0.0001). This indicates that level-III 

ecoregions are not the most accurate means to explain molecular variation in A. filipes. Rather, the 

most parsimonious explanation of variation would be a central meta-population in Oregon, with 

newer colonies spread out from there. A manuscript describing the population structure and genetic 

diversity is under preparation and intended for submission to a conservation genetics journal. 

Kishor Bhattarai (a Ph.D. student at Utah State University supported from funds on this project) 

conducted a series of greenhouse and field experiments with basalt milkvetch. These data were 

reported previously, and Kishor used these data for his thesis, which he successfully defended in 

spring 2007. Manuscripts summarizing the study results were published in Rangeland Ecology and 

Management (Bhattarai et al., 2008), and a manuscript describing his rhizobial research was also 

submitted to Rangeland Ecology and Management. 

In consultation with those administering the Great Basin Native Seed Increase Project, it was 

determined that a pooling of basalt milkvetch accessions from across the Northern Basin and Range 

Ecoregion (Number 80) would be most useful for restoration, reclamation, and rehabilitation efforts 

in the northern Great Basin. Basalt milkvetch accessions from the Northern Basin and Range 

Ecoregion with the highest seed yields were identified. In addition, two accessions from these 

collections were excluded from NBR-1 Germplasm because they had detectable levels of selenium, 

nitrotoxin, or swainsonine. The remaining 12 selected accessions were not statistically different from 

each other for seed yield and were used to constitute NBR-1 Germplasm. The 12 constituent 

accessions of NBR-1 come from sites in Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and California that ranged in 

elevation from about 1,315 to 1,874 m (4,300 to 6,200 feet). The NBR-1 germplasm did not contain 

seed from accessions in central Nevada that were distinct in exploratory molecular analysis. Seed 

collected from the respective wildland collection sites for these 12 selected accessions was bulked in 

equal amounts to form the G0 generation of NBR-1 Germplasm. 

NBR-1 Germplasm was placed in the manipulated track for release because not all original 

collections from the Northern Basin and Range Ecoregion were included as constituent accessions of 

NBR-1 Germplasm. No further selection or manipulation was conducted for any traits besides the 

above-mentioned selection for seed yield, and selection against selenium, nitrotoxin, and swainsonine 

content. NBR-1 Germplasm was approved for release by the Utah Crop Improvement Association 

and USDA-ARS. An article describing the release of NBR-1 Germplasm was published in Native 

Plants Journal. Efforts are underway to increase seed quantities of NBR-1 for commercial seed 

production. 

Publications: 

Bhattarai, K. 2007. Potential of basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes Torr. Ex A. Gray) populations 

and rhizobial strains for revegetation and restoration of Intermountain West rangelands. M.S. 

Thesis, Utah State Univ., Logan, Utah. 116 pp. 
31

Bhattarai, K., D.A. Johnson, J. Kosanke. 2009. Rhizobial strains for basalt milkvetch. Rangeland 

Ecology and Management (submitted 1/6/09). 

Bhattarai, K., D.A. Johnson, T.A. Jones, K.J. Connors, D.R. Gardner. 2008. Physiological and 

morphological characterization of ecotypes of basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes): Basis for 

plant improvement. Rangeland Ecology and Management 61:444-455. 

Bushman B.S., K. Bhattarai, D.A. Johnson. 2009. Population structure of Astragalus filipes

collections from the western U.S.A. and Canada. Conservation Genetics (in preparation). 

Johnson, D.A. T.A. Jones, K.J. Connors, K. Bhattarai, B.S. Bushman, K.B. Jensen. 2008. Notice of 

release of NBR-1 Germplasm Basalt Milkvetch. Native Plants Journal 9:127-132. 

Presentations: 

Johnson, D.A. 2009. Collection and utilization of plant genetic resources for use on rangelands, 

pastures, and urban interfaces in the western U.S. Utah State University Department of Wildland 

Resources, Logan, Utah. 

Management Applications: 

The molecular information generated from this project is being used to genetically characterize 

collections of basalt milkvetch across six states of the western U.S. and British Columbia, Canada. 

These molecular data will allow identification of optimal germplasm releases to most effectively 

represent existing genetic variation in basalt milkvetch. These data are critical in determining if 

collections of basalt milkvetch can be treated as one unstructured population, or if significant 

differences in genetic diversity and population structure exist so that populations need to be grouped 

into several distinct populations for release. 

Products: 

NBR-1 Germplasm of basalt milkvetch was released for use in the northern Great Basin. When used 

in seed mixtures with adapted grasses and shrubs, basalt milkvetch will be of value in stabilizing 

degraded rangelands, revegetation of disturbed areas, and beautifying roadsides. This native legume 

will be of use where introduced species are not desired. The attractive foliage and flowers of basalt 

milkvetch make it an excellent choice for use in wildflower seed mixtures. 
 Figure 1. Neighbor-joining dendrogram of 81 basalt milkvetch accessions 

 using analysis of molecular variance estimates of differences. 

32
 

 Figure 2. The difference in log likelihood estimates of testing 2 to 9 population 

 structures using Bayesian clustering in the program STRUCTURE 2.2. The lower 

 plateau of differences between structure tests suggest that no appreciable fit to the 

 model is obtained by increasing the structures tested past six. 

 Figure 3. Average within-collection similarity values sorted (A) by 

 decreasing value within level-III ecoregions or (B) by decreasing 

 value within state/province boundary. 

33
34

Project Title: Genetic Diversity and Genecology of Bluebunch 

 Wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata)

Project Location: USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station (WRPIS), 

Pullman, Washington; USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain 

Research Station, Boise, Idaho; USDA Forest Service Pacific 

Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, Oregon. 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Brad St.Clair, Research Geneticist 

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station 

3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331-4401 

541.750.7294, fax: 541.750.7329 

bstclair@fs.fed.us 

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist 

USDA-ARS, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station 

Box 646402, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.3771, fax: 509.335.6654 

rcjohnson@wsu.edu 

Nancy L. Shaw, Research Botanist 

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702 

208.373.4360, fax: 208.373.4391 

nshaw@fs.fed.us 

Project Description: 

Bluebunch wheatgrass [Pseudoroegneria spicata (Pursh) Á. Löve] is a cool-season, long-lived, selfincompatible, perennial bunchgrass of semi-arid regions of western North America. It is found in a 

wide variety of habitats, and is a dominant species of many grasslands of the inland Northwest. The 

wide distribution across a diverse range of climates suggests that bluebunch wheatgrass is genetically 

variable, and much of that variation may be adaptive. Nevertheless, many restoration projects using 

bluebunch wheatgrass rely upon a few cultivars that have proven to be useful over a wide area 

(although with less experience in the Great Basin). Few studies have been done, however, to evaluate 

genetic variation in relation to climatic factors across the Great Basin or the greater range of the 

species in a large set of diverse populations, and to compare the mean and variation of cultivars with 

that of the species as a whole. Determining the extent to which adaptive genetic variation is related 

to climatic variation is needed to ensure that the proper germplasm is chosen for revegetation and 

restoration. Furthermore, comparisons of cultivars with the natural range of variation will address 

questions of the suitability of cultivars over larger areas. 

Objectives

1. Using common gardens, determine the magnitude and patterns of genetic variation among 

bluebunch wheatgrass populations from a wide range of source environments in the Great 

Basin, Columbia Basin, and adjacent areas. 
35

2. Relate genetic variation to environmental variation at collection locations. 

3. Compare common cultivars of bluebunch wheatgrass to native sources. 

4. Develop seed transfer guidelines. 

Progress

In 2005, seed was collected from eight western states including many locations in the Great Basin. In 

fall 2006, 127 diverse populations, each represented by two families, along with five cultivars, were 

established in common gardens at Pullman and Central Ferry, WA, and at the USFS Lucky Peak 

Nursery near Boise, ID. Data was collected on each of 16 traits of growth, phenology and 

morphology at each of the three contrasting test sites during years 2007 and 2008. Seed was 

collected from the common gardens in 2008 and is currently being used in germination tests to 

evaluate population variation in germination rates. Preliminary analyses have been done to evaluate 

differences among test sites, populations, and families within populations, and to look at the 

relationship between population variation and climatic variation at source locations. 

Preliminary Results

Differences among test sites for traits of growth and phenology were generally large (Table 1). 

Plants grown at the warmest and driest site, Central Ferry, were largest, whereas plants grown at the 

coolest, wettest site, Pullman, were smallest. Height growth and seed production (as measured by 

inflorescence number) was greatest at Lucky Peak. Reproductive phenology was delayed at the 

coolest site, Pullman, as indicated by later dates of heading, anthesis, and seed maturation. Despite 

large differences among test sites, correlations of population means between test sites were generally 

large (r>0.70) for the same traits measured at different sites; thus, population x test site interactions, 

although significant, were not large. 

Considerable variation was found between populations evaluated at each test site (Table 2). For most 

traits, more than 30% of the variation among individual plants was attributed to differences among 

populations. Variation among families within populations was small. Population differences were 

generally larger at the Lucky Peak and Central Ferry test sites. 

Correlations of population means with climates at the seed sources were weak (Table 3; mostly 

r<0.30). Although the correlations were weak, larger plants were generally from areas with greater 

precipitation, plants with later heading dates were from areas with later spring frosts and earlier fall 

frosts, plants with an upright form were from areas with less precipitation, plants with narrow leaves 

were from hotter and drier areas, and plants with longer awns were from areas with later spring frost, 

earlier fall frosts, cooler summers, and greater precipitation. These relationships make sense from an 

adaptation perspective. 

Future Plans

In the next year we will complete the germination tests of seed collected from different populations in 

the common gardens and undertake a more thorough analysis of the data including multivariate 

analyses to reduce the number of traits to a few uncorrelated traits, development of regression models 

of traits using climate data, evaluation of alternative seed zones for delineating populations, and 

comparisons of cultivars with range-wide populations. Recommendations for seed transfer, seed 

zones, and genetic conservation will be made. Results will be reported at meetings and in a peerreviewed journal. 
36

Table 1. Trait means for bluebunch wheatgrass measured at three test sites. 

Test Site 

Trait Central Ferry Lucky Peak Pullman 

Dry weight (g) 65 38 23 

Crown width (cm) 6.0 5.7 4.8 

Height (cm) 28 55 26 

Inflorescence no. 21 52 26 

Heading date (Julian days) 128 132 139 

Anthesis date (Julian days) 141 144 158 

Maturity date (Julian days) 182 189 198 

Plant form (1-9 prostrate to upright) 6.1 5.9 6.9 

Leaf form (height:width ratio) 43 36 33 

Leaf color (1-9 yellow to dark green) 3.4 3.3 3.1 

Leaf pubescence (1-9 none to much) 4.4 5.4 4.7 

Awn length (1-9 none to long) 4.5 4.6 4.5 

Table 2. Percent of total variation (populations, families within population, and residual) attributed to 

variation among populations for traits measured at each test site. 

Trait % Population Variation 

(2008 data) Central Ferry Lucky Peak Pullman 

Dry wt 49 40 28 

Crown width 42 37 26 

Height 11 32 15 

Inflorescence no. 36 20 25 

Heading date 14 35 12 

Anthesis date 6 11 11 

Maturity date 33 55 45 

Plant form 27 30 24 

Leaf form 30 36 26 

Leaf color 18 31 10 

Leaf pubescence 35 13 37 

Awn length 27 55 46 
37

Table 3. Correlations between population means for individual plant traits measured at Lucky Peak 

test site and 30-yr climate normals of the seed sources. 

Climate 

Dry 

Wt 

Inflor 

No. 

Heading 

Date 

Anthesis 

Date 

Mature 

Date 

Plant 

Form 

Leaf 

Form Awns 

Jan Temp 0.12 0.11 0.02 0.17 0.15 -0.07 0.15 0.04 

Aug Temp -0.09 -0.01 -0.19 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.28 -0.33 

Spring Frost Date -0.03 -0.07 0.25 0.09 -0.07 0.04 -0.17 0.29 

Fall Frost Date -0.03 0.04 -0.21 -0.02 0.06 0.00 0.16 -0.26 

Annual 

Precipitation 

0.22 0.01 0.10 -0.03 0.02 -0.23 -0.28 0.27 

Aug Precipitation 0.22 0.05 0.08 -0.17 -0.13 -0.21 -0.23 0.27 

Publications: 

St.Clair, J.B., G.R. Johnson, R.C. Johnson, N.L. Shaw, and V.J. Erickson. 2007. Seed zones for 

maintaining adapted plant populations. In Norcini, J. (ed.). Proceedings, Native Wildflower Seed 

Production Research Symposium, Orlando, FL. 

(http://nfrec.ifas.ufl.edu/Norcini/WFSympWeb/2007/Sympindex.htm) 

Presentations: 

St.Clair, J.B., V.J. Erickson, and G.R. Johnson. 2006. Developing regionally adapted seed for native 

plant restoration. Oregon/Washington USDI Bureau of Land Management Botany Meeting, 

Corvallis, OR. 

St.Clair, J.B., V.J. Erickson, G.R. Johnson, and R.C. Cronn. 2006. Seed zone development for native 

plant restoration. USDA Forest Service, Region 6, Regional Botany Meeting, North Bonneville, 

WA. 

St.Clair, J.B., G.R. Johnson, R.C. Cronn, and V.J. Erickson. 2006. Managing genetic resources: seed 

zones for native plant restoration. Plant Conservation Alliance Bi-Monthly Meeting, Washington, 

DC. 

Johnson, R.C., B. Hellier, R. Adair, M. Cashman, J.B. St.Clair, N.L. Shaw, and V.J. Erickson. 2007. 

Uncovering adapted germplasm for the Great Basin: tapertip onion, bluebunch wheatgrass, and 

others. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 2007 Symposium, Society for 

Range Management 60th Annual Meeting, Reno, NV. 

Johnson, R.C., V.J. Erickson, B. Hellier, J.B. St.Clair, and M. Cashman. 2007. Uncovering adapted 

native germplasm for successful restoration. Society for Ecological Restoration Northwest 

Chapter and Society of Wetland Scientists Northwest Chapter, Joint Meeting, Yakima, WA. 

St.Clair, J.B. 2007. Seed transfer zones for native plants. Conservation Seed Workshop: Partnerships 

for Native Plant Materials Development/Local Ecotypes, American Seed Trade Association 

Annual Meeting, Washington, DC. 

St.Clair, J.B., G.R. Johnson, R.C. Johnson, N.L. Shaw, and V.J. Erickson. 2007. Seed zones for 

maintaining adapted plant populations. Native Wildflower Seed Production Research 

Symposium, Orlando, FL. (Published abstract and executive summary.)
38

St.Clair, J.B., N.L. Shaw, R.C. Johnson, V.J. Erickson, G.R. Johnson, M. Horning, R.C. Cronn, and 

P. Olwell. 2007. Adapted germplasm for restoration: collaborative seed zones studies. 

Oregon/Washington USDI Bureau of Land Management Botany Meeting, Corvallis, OR. 

St.Clair, J.B., R.C. Johnson, and N.L. Shaw. 2009. Genetic diversity and genecology of bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata). Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

2008 Annual Meeting, Boise, ID. 

Management Applications: 

Results from this study will be used to develop seed transfer guidelines and appropriate source 

material for revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin and adjacent areas. Results will also 

provide information on responses of bluebunch wheatgrass to climate change and appropriate 

management responses.

Products: 

This study will provide seed zones and seed transfer guidelines for developing adapted plant 

materials for revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin and adjacent areas, and provide 

guidelines for conservation of germplasm within the National Plant Germplasm System. Results will 

be reported in appropriate peer-reviewed journals and disseminated through symposia, field tours, 

training sessions, and workshops. 
39

Project Title: The Quest for Natives; Cultural Practices, Species 

 Screening, Harvesting Equipment, Private Growers

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Scott Jensen, Botanist 

USDA FS RMRS Shrub Sciences Laboratory 

735 N. 500 E., Provo, UT 84606-1865 

801.356.5128, fax 801.375.6968 

sljensen@fs.fed.us 

 

Mark Anderson, Biological Science Technician 

USDA FS RMRS Shrub Sciences Laboratory 

735 N. 500 E., Provo, UT 84606-1865 

801.356.5128, fax 801.375.6968 

msanderson@fs.fed.us 

Covy Jones, Biologist 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 

735 N. 500 E., Provo, UT 84606-1865 

801.356.5108, fax 801.375.6968 

cdjones@utah.gov 

Species status: 

Astragalus utahensis

Common garden data is being compiled. 

 

Agoseris heterophylla

Two growers installed plantings of a G2 Humboldt County NV source of Agoseris heterophylla in the 

fall of 2008. Approximately 2 lbs of seed remain from our increase efforts. Lacking further grower 

demand this material will plant a series of harvest plots at our production facilities. We are again 

increasing this source as G3 with an expected 2009 production of 8 lbs. 

Hesperostipa comata

Common garden data is being compiled. 

 

Lupinus spp.

Common garden data is being compiled. Scott Jensen and graduate student Covy Jones initiated an 

extensive study assessing establishment techniques and cultural practices. Covy recently accepted a 

position as a plant materials biologist for the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. For more 

information see Covy’s Utah Division of Wildlife Resources report. 

 
40

Products: 

Equipment Evaluation

Hand Held Mechanical Harvester 

Partnering with Mary Ann Davies at the Missoula Technology and Development Center we tested a 

hedge trimmer and a hand-held vacuum to see whether they might do a better job than common 

methods of collecting seed by hand. Neither the Garden Groom Pro hedge trimmer nor the Euro-Pro 

Shark hand-held vacuum is an improvement over common hand methods for collecting native seeds. 

For certain tasks in remote areas, simplicity just cannot be beat. See reference to article under 

Publications section. 

Walk Behind Harvester 

We purchased a push type seed harvester (Duncan Foss, Missouri Wildflower Nursery, 9814 Pleasant 

Hill Road, Jefferson City, Missouri 65109) to test in both wildland and production settings. The 

design incorporates an adjustable height, wheeled bin with a chain driven, adjustable speed reel and a 

hedge trimmer serving as the cutter bar. The unit’s niche is monotypic wildland stands or small 

acreage agronomic stands where swathing and/or direct combining are not practical. For species 

where post-harvest drying is necessary prior to threshing, this is a less expensive alternative to a 

forage harvester. The unit retails for about $2,000. We tested the harvester on a wildland lupine stand 

in 2008. With some modifications to fortify a few week points the harvester will be a useful tool. 

Stock Seed Production

A single Humboldt County, NV source of annual agoseris (Agoseris heterophylla) was increased in 

2007 (G1- 2 lbs) and 2008 (G2 - 9 lbs) in our Provo greenhouse. 

A single Lincoln County, NV source of Nevada goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora Nutt. var. 

nevadensis) was increased in 2006, 2007, and 2008 (G1 – 2.0 lbs) at Fountain Green and Ephraim. 

Wildland Seed Collections

In 2008 we made 85 collections. These were targeted toward several lupine species, scarlet gilia, 

Nevada goldeneye, and Lewis flax. 

Bulk Collections for Research and Distribution to Growers

Sixty-five pounds of hairy bigleaf lupine (Lupinus prunophilus) were collected from a wildland stand 

in Juab County, UT. 

Twenty-two pounds of longspur lupine (Lupinus arbustus) were collected from a wildland stand in 

Elko County, NV. 

Species Screening

Several of the species initially selected in our program proved to have characteristics limiting their 

production in a commercial setting. Consequently, we have adopted a more selective approach to 

choosing species for further plant material work (Table 1). Potential species are initially screened 

based on potential market demand and germination and growth characteristics that are adaptable for 

current agronomic practices. Since 2006 we have made both opportunistic and targeted collections of 

plausible species and begun trials. Broader collection and more discrete selecting will occur for 

promising species. 
41

Table 1. Genera in the screening process.________________________________________

Genus Common Name Genus Common Name

Amsinckia fiddleneck Argemone flatbud pricklypoppy 

Aster aster Astragalus milkvetch 

Castilleja paintbrush Calochortus mariposa lily

Chaenactis dustymaiden Cryptantha cryptantha 

Enceliopsis sunray Erigeron fleabane 

Frasera frasera Gaillardia blanketflower 

Helianthus sunflower Helianthella oneflower helianthella 

Hymenopappus hymenopappus Hymenoxys rubberweed 

Iris iris Nicotiana coyote tobacco 

Lithospermum stoneseed Lomatium biscuitroot

Oenothera evening primrose Penstemon beardtongue 

Packera groundsel Phacelia phacelia 

Potentilla slender cinquefoil Thelypodium thelypod 

New Candidate Species

Scarlet gilia (Ipomopsis aggregata). One source planted at Ephraim, UT showed good establishment 

from seed, an upright growth habit and adequate seed retention. Generally the species flowers 

indeterminately and shatters seed upon maturation. Under minimal irrigation it functions as a short 

lived perennial with no seed production the first year, approximately 20% production year 2 and full 

production followed by mortality year 3. Based on 30” rows, a single machine harvest yielded the 

equivalent of 78 lbs of seed per acre while multiple hand harvests yielded 93 lbs per acre. Viability 

was low at 21% pls. The species is broadly distributed across nearly all counties of the Great Basin. 

Currently 11 sources have been collected and seeded for further evaluation. 

Nevada goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis). A Lincoln Count, NV source planted 

from seed established poorly at Ephraim, UT and moderately at Fountain Green, UT. Inappropriate 

seeding depth may be responsible for observed establishment at both sites. Yield data was not taken. 

With supplemental water, plants produce a robust canopy the first year and continue to produce well 

at the current year 3. With supplemental water the species flowers indeterminately and shatters seed 

upon maturation. Its upright habit lends itself to a single combine harvest. The species has broad 

distribution across the southern Great Basin. 

 

Soil Replacement Pilot Study

Soil samples taken at a large number of forb collection sites show a predominance of loam to sandy 

loam soils. Over the years we have seeded many species into clay loam to loam soils at our test 

facilities with mixed success. We hypothesize incompatibility between species and soil texture may 

be partially responsible in cases of poor establishment. In a pilot study with 5 replicated blocks at 

Fountain Green, UT we seeded 4 species into the native loam soil and a sandy replacement soil. A 

furrow opener was used to displace soil in a broad V shaped pattern to a width and depth of 

approximately 4”. Sandy soil was shoveled into the V. One row in each block/species combination 

was covered with N-sulate plant protection fabric while the other row was left open. N-sulate helps 

retain moisture as seedlings are germinating and limits frost damage. These same species were 

planted in sandy loam and loam soils at Spring Creek, NV and Vernon, UT, respectively. 
42

Seed Distribution to Growers

We partnered with two growers, one in Spring Creek NV (Table 2), and a second in Vernon, UT 

(Table 3) to evaluate compatibility between the species planted, soil types, and cultural practices, 

while increasing stock seed of 18 seed sources. 

The following sources were planted at these locations: 

Table 2. 2008 Planting information Elko, NV. 

Species Common name Lot no County State Acreage 

seeded 

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine LUARB6-P4-2008 Elko NV 0.06 

Lupinus prunophilus Hairy bigleaf lupine LUPR2-B8-2007 Juab UT 0.07 

Lupinus argenteus Silvery lupine LUAR3-U5-2007 Elko NV 0.04 

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris AGHE2-U1-2007-

Greenhouse-G2 Humboldt NV 0.04 

Lomatium nudicaule Barestem 

biscuitroot LONU2-P1-2008 Elko NV 0.06 

Cleome lutea Yellow 

spiderflower CLLU2-U2-2004 Nye NV 0.58 

Heliomeris 

nevadensis Nevada goldeneye HEMUN-B4-2006-Snow 

Field-G1 Lincoln NV 0.09 

Lithospermum 

ruderale Western stoneseed LIRU4-P1-2008 Elko NV 0.06 

Ipomopsis aggregata Scarlet gilia VNS - Dedicated Hunter 0.06 

Argemone munita Flatbud 

pricklypoppy ARMU-P1-2008 Juab UT 0.07 

Mentzelia Blazingstar MENTZ-P1-2008 Juab UT 0.02 

Amsinckia menziesii Menzies' fiddleneck Amsin-P6-2008 Eureka NV 0.06 

Amsinckia menziesii Menzies' fiddleneck AMSIN-P4-2008 Elko NV 0.03 

Frasera 

albomarginata Desert frasera FRAL5-P1-2008 Iron UT 0.06 

Thelypodium 

milleflorum 

Manyflower 

thelypody THMI5-P2-2008 Eureka NV 0.06 

Lupinus sericeus Silky lupine LUSE4-B28-2006 Juab UT 0.03 

Potentilla gracilis Slender cinquefoil POGR9-P1-2008 Elko NV 0.06 
43

Table 3. 2008 Planting information, Vernon, UT. 

Species Common name Lot # County State Acreage 

Seeded 

Agoseris 

heterophylla Annual agoseris U1-07, 

Snow Field Station Humboldt NV 0.72 

Amsinckia 

menziesii Menzies' fiddleneck AMSIN-P4-2008 Elko NV 0.07 

Cleome lutea Yellow 

spiderflower CLLU2-U2-2004 Nye NV 0.28 

Heliomeris 

nevadensis Nevada goldeneye HEMUN-B4-2006-

Snow Field-G1 Lincoln NV 0.08 

Lomatium 

nudicaule 

Barestem 

biscuitroot LONU2-P1-2008 Elko NV 0.21 

Lupinus 

argenteus Silvery lupine LUAR3-U5-2007 Elko NV 0.04 

Lupinus 

prunophilus Hairy bigleaf lupine LUPR2-B8-2007 Juab UT 0.04 

Penstemon 

pachyphyllus 

Tthickleaf 

beardtongue B5-03 White pine NV 0.16 

Potentilla 

gracillis Slender cinquefoil POGR9-P1-2008 Elko NV 0.08 

Thelypodium 

milleflorum 

Manyflower 

thelypody THMI5-P2-2008 Elko NV 0.15 

Seed Distribution to Cooperators

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station. Clinton C. Shock. Seed and cultural practice 

studies - Lupinus arbustus, Lupinus prunophilus, Agoseris heterophylla. 

Brigham Young University. Bruce Roundy, Kurt Young. Seed studies - Agoseris heterophylla, 

Lupinus arbustus, Astragalus utahensis. 

USDA-ARS, Forage & Range Research Laboratory. Ivan Mott, Tom Jones. 53 sources of 

Hesperostipa comata. Phylogeographical analysis of Needle and Thread accessions collected 

throughout the Great Basin. 

Presentations: 

Jensen, Scott L, S.B. Monsen, P. Fosse. Spatial and Temporal Seed Dispersal of Squarrose Knapweed 

(Centaurea virgata Lam. spp squarrosa (Willd.) Gugler) in West Central Utah. 

Jensen, Scott L; Jones, Covy. Plant Materials Development, Cultural Practices for 

Agoseris and Lupinus. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 

Salt Lake City, UT. February 14-15, 2009. 
44

Publications: 

Jensen, Scott L.; Monsen, Stephen B.; Fosse, Pat. 2008. Spatial and temporal seed dispersal of 

squarrose knapweed (Centaurea virgata Lam. ssp. squarrosa (Willd.) Gugler) in west central 

Utah, a case study. In: Kitchen, Stanley G.; Pendleton, Rosemary L.; Monaco, Thomas A.; 

Vernon, Jason, comps. 2008. Proceedings-Shrublands under fire: disturbance and recovery in a 

changing world; 2006 June 6-8; Cedar City, UT. Proc. RMRS-P-52. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. p. 69-72. 

Whitaker, Alison; Jensen, Scott L. 2008. Effects of Fire and Restoration Seeding on Establishment of 

Squarrose Knapweed (Centaurea virgata Lam. spp. squarrosa). In: Kitchen, Stanley G.; 

Pendleton, Rosemary L.; Monaco, Thomas A.; Vernon, Jason, comps. 2008. ProceedingsShrublands under fire: disturbance and recovery in a changing world; 2006 June 6-8; Cedar City, 

UT. Proc. RMRS-P-52. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. p. 77-79 

Davies, Mary Ann; Jensen, Scott. Hands beat machines for collecting native seed. USDA Forest 

Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT. http://www.fs.fed.us/td/pubs/htmlpubs/htm08242353/index.htm 
45

Project Title: Native Plant Material Development and Seed and Seeding 

Technology and for Native Great Basin Forbs and Grasses 

Project Location: Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, Utah.

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Covy Jones, Wildlife Biologist II 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center 494 

West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 84627 

435.283.4441, fax: 435.283.2034 

Alison Whittaker, Wildlife Biologist III 

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center 494 

West 100 South, Ephraim, UT 84627 

435.283.4441, fax: 435.283.2034 

Project Description:

We are working on developing cultural practices for several forb and grass species for the Great 

Basin. We are also working on improvement of germination techniques through mechanical, 

chemical, and thermal scarification methods. Forging relationships with new growers continues to be 

a priority allowing us to increase seed availability from small collections to larger quantities and 

provide seed for larger production fields and landscape scale restoration projects. We continue to find 

new methods to deal with disease and pestilence issues that have become apparent in agricultural 

settings. 

Project Status: 

Wildland Seed Collections 

We have bulked up our collections of gray hawksbeard (Crepis intermedia) and tapertip hawksbeard 

(Crepis acuminata). We were also able to start new collections of Hooker's balsamroot 

(Balsamorhiza hookeri). Native Seed Co. provided us with 20 pounds of gooseberryleaf 

globemallow (Sphaeralcea grossularifolia) seed from the Panaca, Nevada area and they donated 8 

pounds tapertip hawksbeard that was collected on the west slope of the Pequop summit. 

Common Gardens 

We maintained common garden sites in Ephraim and Fountain Green. The direct seeded hawksbeard 

(C. acuminata and C. intermedia) trials planted fall 2007 came up well in spring 2008. However, the 

crop was decimated by what appeared to be flea beetles and all plants were lost. There was an 

interim between when Therese Meyer left and Covy Jones started which made it too late to take data 

on the globemallow (Sphaeralcea spp.), and cushion buckwheat (Eriogonum ovalifolium). We did 

however transplant a new common garden of arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata). Work 

was also initiated with several desired grass species. Multiple accessions of muttongrass (Poa 

fendleriana), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), and Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides) 

were transplanted at Fountain Green in June 2008. 
46

Species Status: 

Sphaeralcea spp. 

We noticed that several of the globemallow plants were infected by a fungus that was later identified 

as a rust. The rust disease issue will be evaluated this coming year to determine which accessions are 

more resistant. Two new globemallow common gardens will be transplanted, one at Snow Field 

station and the other at the Desert Experimental Range (50 miles west of Milford, UT). The data 

from these common garden sites combined with the data collected from the Fountain Green common 

gardens will allow for further progression toward selected class releases for Sphaeralcea spp. in the 

Great Basin. 

Hedysarum boreale

Preliminary testing was done on Utah Sweetvetch (Hedysarum boreale) this year to evaluate the 

effect of native rhizobia vs. the commercially available rhizobia. The commercial inoculum seemed 

to infect a higher percentage of plants. A follow up study is now in progress to see which inoculum 

is better suited to increase leafy growth, root development, and seed production.

Eriogonum ovalifolium 

We determined that eight of the accessions from five geographic areas are superior. Mapping the 

selections onto Omernik ecoregion maps showed the ecological distribution. The accessions came 

from Nevada and Utah, between elevations 4400 and 6400 feet elevation. Only two of the accessions, 

Drum Mt. and Newcastle, were in the same Level 4 ecoregion. A more practical approach would be 

to group to Level 3 ecoregions, then all 8 sites are grouped into 4 ecoregions. A focus in 2009 will be 

to collect more wildland seed from these sites, and to produce seed in increase fields with adequate 

isolation distance from other E. ovalifolium. Once established we will evaluate mechanical harvesting 

methods in order to provide seed for growers along with seed harvesting information. 

Balsamorhiza spp 

Arrowleaf balsamroot has posed problems primarily because of the time it takes to establish. In 

addition, seed predation on this species can damage up to 30% of total seed harvest. In 2008 we 

began work with Hooker’s balsamroot. This species is reported to establish quicker and would be 

more enticing for growers. We will continue working with this species in 2009 by establishing 

cultivated plots in Fountain Green and harvesting seed from multiple wildland sources through out 

the Great Basin. 

Perideridia bolanderi 

One Nevada accession has outshined the other collections in plant vigor and seed production. We 

will harvest more seed from this more vigorous accession from Nevada and an increase field will be 

planted. There were 12 P. bolanderi accessions started in 2007, which were grown in plugs in the 

greenhouse for a trial in Fountain Green. The P. bolanderi were dormant before we could transplant 

them this year. They overwintered in plugs beneath straw and will be planted out spring 2009. 

Seed Scarification Studies: 

Sphaeralcea spp. 

We had success in 2007 using acid scarification to reduce dormancy in globemallows. However, 

concentrated sulfuric acid is not easy to acquire and handling the acid poses some risk. This is why 

treating large quantities of seed with this method is not our first choice. A more practical method of 

scarification is pouring boiling water over the globemallow seed. This melts away the waxy cuticle 

and allows the seed to imbibe and germinate. Preliminary studies using this method were conducted 
47

fall 2008 and showed promise. We will continue research studies in 2009 to optimize water 

temperature and exposure time so that maximum germination is obtained with minimum embryo 

death. 

Lupinus spp. 

Mechanical, thermal, and chemical scarification methods continue to be explored for hard-seeded 

lupine species. L. prunophilus has shown good response to chemical scarification while L. argeneus

has done best with mechanical scarification. Scarification methods are currently being re-tested, 

then, a linear regression model will be built to find optimal treatments. In 2009 we will use the 

results of the previous studies to find the optimal scarification technique for hard-seeded lupine 

species across several accessions. This will allow us to use a more complex statistical model to 

define the best scarification methods that are applicable for each species over a broad geographic 

area. 

Cultivation Trials: 

Lupinus spp. 

We collected and analyzed data comparing two direct seeding methods for four lupine species in 

order to evaluate stand establishment. Increased germination was noted in the plots covered with 

insulate fabric. We suspect that the insulate fabric plays an important role in moisture retention and 

increased soil temperature and that these two factors are responsible for increased germination. 

Weed control methods were also evaluated between planting methods in man hours spent controlling 

weeds inside the plots. In 2009 we expect to collect yield data and continue to collect data on weed 

control. 

N-sulate fabric 

In fall 2009 we will conduct randomized, replicated studies to determine the effectiveness of the 

insulated fabric for several species and various accessions within those species. 

Growers 

Contacts were made with two new growers, one in Elko, Nevada, and one near Provo, Utah. The 

Nevada grower has recently acquired about 47 acres in a sandy soil type just outside of Elko Nevada. 

About 10 acres were in good planting condition. She has plenty of water to establish and grow native 

plants. The grower has planted 5 acres and 24 different species. Three of the species that we are 

currently working with were planted at the farm and are listed below (Table 1). 

Table 1. Species planted at Elko, NV. 

Species Common name Acreage seeded 

Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow 0.14 

Sphaeralcea grossularifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow 0.58 

Crepis intermedia Limestone hawksbeard 0.37 

The Utah farm comprises over 700 acres just north of Vernon on a clay loam soil type. The grower 

has had experience growing grass sod and several penstemon species. Twenty-two species were 

planted on 10 acres of land in fall 2008. The grower would like to expand as he determines which 

species do well on the farm. Five of the species that we are currently working with were planted at 

the Bell farm and are listed below (Table 2). 
 Table 2. Species planted at Vernon, UT. 

 

48

Species Common name 

Acreage 

Seeded 

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker's balsamroot 0.10 

Crepis acuminata Tapertip hawksbeard 0.57 

Crepis intermedia Limestone hawksbeard 0.32 

Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow 0.45 

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow 0.96 

Presentations: 

Jones, Covy and Scott Jensen. Methods for cultivation of Great Basin native Lupinus spp. Wildland 

Shrub Symposium. Bozeman, MT. June 17-19, 2008. 

Vernon, Jason. Development of project plans, seed procurement, seed storage, seed mixing, planning 

and on-site restoration measures. Colorado Division of Wildlife Utah Field Tour: Habitat 

Management and Restoration. Ephraim, UT. June 30, 2008. 

Meyer, Therese. Progress report for Great Basin Research Center Native Forb Project. Presented at 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting. Salt Lake City, UT. 

February 13-14, 2008. 

Management Applications: 

Land Managers 

The plantings we did last year will increase the availability and seed quantity of several forb species. 

This will be coming online within the next 1-3 years. Land managers and seed purchasers need to 

keep this in mind when planning future seeding projects and putting out seed bid sheets. 

Seed Producers 

We are now able to provide seed producers with new information on scarification of globemallow 

and lupine species to facilitate stand establishment from seed. 

Products: 

Green House 

We automated the greenhouse watering system to provide a more even 

water distribution and a more consistent watering cycle. This will provide a more 

efficient way to establish plants from seed. 

Q-Plug 

We changed to a synthetic potting media known as a Q-plug. The media 

consists of peat moss and a tackifier and allows us to transplant species with a taproot 

that would not adhere to a typical soil mix. 

 
49

Project Title: Coordination of GBNPSIP Plant Materials Development, 

Seed Increase and Use

Project Location: Prineville, OR

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

 Berta Youtie 

 Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services (EOSS) 

 P.O. Box 606, Prineville, OR 97754 

 541.447.8166 or 541.447.6228 

 byoutie@crestviewcable.com, berta.youtie@oregonstate.edu 

Project Description: 

Objectives

Collaborate with the GBNPSIP, BLM field offices and native seed growers to increase 

native plant materials from the Great Basin for research and commercial production. 

Facilitate private seed grower capacity to produce seed of native forbs and grasses of the 

Great Basin. 

Augment seed collections of needed GBNPSIP research materials and new plant 

materials for BLM field offices within the Great Basin. 

Methods

 Native seed farms in the Columbia Basin were visited and accessed for their capacity to grow 

 forbs. We discussed possible forb species to grow and what guarantee companies might need in 

 order to grow seed where protocols are still unknown. After reporting back to Nancy Shaw and 

Stan Young, contract agreements are being developed with growers, in some cases pending stand 

establishment. Where seed stocks from the Great Basin were not immediately available, we spent the 

2008 field season collecting large quantities of seed to transfer to contracted growers. We also 

collected seed for the GBNBSIP and USDI BLM Seeds of Success programs. 

 Results

 Six native seed growers were contracted to grow 7 forb species (Table 1). Thirty-five seed 

 lots from 15 species were collected by EOSS (Table 2). Seed lot weights varied between less 

 than a pound to over 20 pounds. A workshop, “Developing a Successful Native Plant Program” 

 initially scheduled for September 2008 was held April 1 and 2, 2009. The workshop 

 highlighted partnership and collaboration, available native plant materials, and success stories 

 from UT, NV, ID, OR &WA. It will included a field demonstration on selecting and calibrating 

 drills for seeding native seed mixes and a field tour of the forb seed production research at the 

 Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station. 

 
50

Management Applications: 

Increased communication and collaboration has led to better seed distribution to growers for seed 

development of new forb species that may be used in BLM seed buys and restoration projects in the 

future. BLM and USFS Districts may increase efficiency in developing native seed selection and 

increase programs. 

Products: 

Table 1. Forb species under contract for seed production in Oregon and Washington. 

Species under Contract Code 

Eriogonum heracleiodes ERHE2 

Eriogonum umbellatum ERUM 

Dalea ornatum DAOR 

Astragalus filipes ASFI 

Penstemon cyaneus PECY 

Penstemon deustus PEDE 

Lomatium triternatum LOTR 

Table 2. Seed lots collected in the 2008 field season by Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services. 

SOS Number Site/Species Site Details Collection Date No. of Plants 

RMRS-1053 ERHE 17 Stinking Water Pass 7/24-31/2008 1500 

RMRS-1054 ERHE 18 Castle Rock 7/26/2008 1000's 

RMRS-1056 PEDE 18 Jordon Craters 7/17/2008 100 

RMRS-1057 BASA 13 Leslie Gulch 6/13/2008 60 

RMRS-1058 CHDO 01 Silver City RD 7/18/2008 50 

RMRS-1059 LODI 29 Silver City RD 7/18/2008 200 

RMRS-1060 LODI 96 NAMORF 6/16/2008 30 

RMRS-1061 LODI 77 Hwy 20 Foley Rd 7/10/2008 --- 

RMRS-1062 ERUM 05 Stinking Water Pass 7/31/2008 500 

RMRS-1063 LOTR 05 Leslie Gulch 6/13/2008 50 

RMRS-1064 PEDE 41 Frenchglen 7/7/2008 50 

RMRS-1065 PEDE 46 Hwy 20 mp 163/164 8/8/2008 50 

RMRS-1066 LOTR 39 Castle Rock 7/19/2008 250 

RMRS-1067 LOTR 59 Frenchglen 7/7/2008 50 

RMRS-1068 DAOR 07 Chalk Basin 6/27/2008 0 
51

Table 2 continued. 

SOS Number Site/Species Site Details Collection Date No. of Plants 

RMRS-1069 PESP 70 N of Twin Springs 7/19/2008 50 

RMRS-1070 PESP 69 Sunset Valley Ln 7/25/2008 100 

RMRS-1071 MACA 03 Hwy 27 N of Hwy 20 8/8/2008 250 

RMRS-1072 PEDE 48 Stinking Water Pass 8/5/2008 150 

RMRS-1073 LOTR 70 Steens Mountain 7/14/2008 140 

RMRS-1074 LONU 04 Hwy 20 mp 163/164 7/12/2008 50 

RMRS-1075 LONU 05 Stinking Water Pass 7/12/2008 40 

RMRC-1076 LONU 06 Castle Rock 7/20/2008 100 

RMRS-1077 LOGR 36 S of Twin Springs 6/14/2008 30 

RMRS-1078 CHDO 10 N of Twin Springs 7/19/2008 50 

RMRS-1079 EROV 69 Stinking Water Pass 8/5/2008 70 

RMRS-1080 CHDO 10 Rock Creek 7/17/2008 100 

RMRS-1081 DAOR 04 Round Mt Succor CK 6/13/2008 100 

RMRS-1082 DAOR 05 Twin Springs RD 6/20/2008 350 

RMRS-1083 DAOR 06 Rock Creek RD 7/18/2008 100 

RMRS-1084 ASFI 02 Sunset Valley Ln 7/25/2008 100 

RMRS-1085 ACTH 09 Oxbow Reservoir 6/22/2008 300 

RMRS-1086 LOTR 69 Jordon Craters 6/28/2009 70 

RMRS-1087 ACTH 08 Hwy 95 ODOT 6/27/2008 1000's 

RMRS-1088 DAOR 3 Jeans Harper Site 6/14/2008 400 

RMRS-1089 ERUM ? Brothers 8/7/08 1000 

 
52

Project Title: Establishment and Maintenance of the Buy-Back 

Program for Certified Seed

Project Location: Utah Crop Improvement Association, Utah State University 

Principle Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

Stanford Young, Utah Crop Improvement Association 

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855 

 435.797.2082, fax: 435.797.0642 

 sayoung@mendel.usu.edu 

 Michael Bouck, Utah Crop Improvement Association 

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855 

 435.797.2101, fax: 435.797.0642 

 michaelb@mendel.usu.edu 

Project Description: 

This project is funded through a Research Joint Venture Agreement of Understanding between the 

USFS-RMRS in Boise and the Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA), initiated in the fall of 

2003 and renewed with additional funds in the fall of 2004 and fall of 2007. Seed was distributed 

using the Buy-back option, a mechanism for obtaining a portion of the seed increased by private 

growers back to the UCIA for redistribution to the original and additional seed growers for further 

seed increase. 

Project Status: 

A synopsis of the Buy-back Program follows (Jan. 1, 2008-Dec. 31, 2008). Table 1 lists new (2008) 

seed distributions and their field status. Table 2 lists forb and grass seed acquisitions, distributions, 

inventory, field status, and whether seed has been harvested, for specific germplasms included in the 

UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program from 2002-2007. This list includes the previous AOSCA 

program, which is now being administered by the UCIA. It is expected that in 2009 several 

additional forbs and grasses will be included in the program. Table 3 lists the standardized market 

price for contract negotiations for each species included in the program, updated at the beginning of 

2009. However, some of the species planted in the fall of 2008 do not have a market record, and 

more investigation and negotiation is underway to complete monetary details of buy-back contracts. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project (GBNPSIP) and Utah Crop 

Improvement Association (UCIA) Stock Seed Buy-back Program 

Project Synopsis 

This program encourages and allows seed growers to benefit economically in a timely manner as an 

incentive to participate in the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program. The program helps accelerate 

the increase in stock seed supplies and ultimately increase seed supplies on the open market for 

commercial revegetation use. 
53

The purpose of the UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program, funded through the GBNPSIP, is: 

a) to facilitate development of a seed market for specific germplasm accessions and formal 

germplasm releases developed through GBNPSIP; these include all germplasms prior to 2003 and 

certain others assigned through 2008 (see Tables 1 and 2); b) to reward initial seed growers 

financially for the risks they have assumed to participate in the program; c) to document germplasm 

identity through the seed increase process by utilizing seed certification protocols; and d) to increase 

stock seed available for potential secondary seed growers. This program is administered through the 

Utah Crop Improvement Association. 

The mechanisms for purchasing stock seed from growers and redistributing it for further increase are 

as follows: 

1. UCIA offers for free or for sale (depending on seed generation and availability) stock seed to 

seed growers. 

2. After harvest of the first seed production year, the grower will be required to return to the 

UCIA (for inventory reserve) up to twice the original amount of stock seed he/she received. 

More may be returned if mutually negotiated. The grower will be compensated 125% of the 

standardized market price (SMP, see Table 3) for all seed returned to UCIA. SMP will be 

updated as needed. 

3. UCIA may negotiate to buy all or part of the seed from any subsequent years of seed 

production back from seed grower at 125% SMP. 

4. UCIA offers the grower the option to immediately buy back the seed sold to the UCIA 

(except for the inventory reserve) at 100% SMP. The grower thus realizes an immediate 25% 

premium incentive to expand plantings and remain in the program. This seed must be planted 

for seed production and entered into the local seed certification program either by the original 

seed grower or another seed grower recruited by the original seed grower. If this seed is 

instead sold commercially, the UCIA reserves the right to recover the 25% premium paid for 

the seed. 

5. All seed offered to the UCIA, bought, or sold shall be certified or certified eligible. 

6. UCIA agrees to pay for shipping and seed analysis costs. Seed purchasing, shipping, and seed 

analysis costs are to be reimbursed to the UCIA through GBNPSIP program funds. 

7. If seed is unconditioned when purchased by the UCIA, the seed grower may be charged for 

conditioning costs, or in certain circumstances these costs may be paid by the UCIA and 

reimbursed by GBNPSIP. 

Notes: 

1. Seed quantity and quality (lbs PLS) of original stock seed provided to the seed grower will be 

determined on a case by case basis in order to determine the amount of seed that must be 

returned to the UCIA from the first harvestable crop by the seed grower. 

2. When the original seed grower sells to the UCIA and/or buys back seed (as in points 3 and 4 

above) the amount of seed (lbs PLS) will typically be verified through the applicable state 

seed certification agency. Some instances may require special negotiation. 

3. In one instance (basin wildrye tetraploid pool from the geographic Great Basin, planted in 

2007 and replanted in 2008), the UCIA has negotiated a forward contract with establishment 

cost payment. This pre-payment will be credited towards eventual seed purchase at an agreed 

upon price. 
54

Table 1. 2008 Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) forb and grass seed acquisition, distribution and field planting status for 

species germplasms included in the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project, UCIA Stock Seed Buy-back Program 

Kind & Variety / Germplasm Lot / Source Origin 

Seed 

acquisition

and 

production 

Generation 

Added

to 

Inventory

Date 

Distributed

from 

Inventory

Date 

State 

distributed 

to 

Field 

Status 

FORBS & SHRUBS bulk (lb) bulk (lb) Seeded:

Elymus elymoides Lot 81, 

GBR118 

Little Sahara 

Site *1*2 G0 2.5 10/10/08 2.5 10/10/08 ID Fall 2008 

Eriogonum heracleoides ERHE2 Pooled *1*2 G0 52.5 12/5/08 52.5 12/5/08 WA Fall 2008 

Leymus cinereus LECI Pooled *1*2*3 G1 10.00 9/9/08 10.00 9/9/08 WA Fall 2008 

Eriogonum umbellatum ERUM Pooled *1*2 G0 34.09 9/17/08 34.09 9/17/08 OR Fall 2008 

Penstemon deustus PEDE Pooled *1*2 G0/G1? 14.8 9/8/08 14.8 9/8/08 OR Fall 2008 

Dalea ornata DAOR Pooled *1*2 G0 1.14 9/10/08 1.14 9/10/08 WA Fall 2008 

Astragalus filipes ASFI Brothers *1*2 G1 8 9/28/08 8 9/28/08 WA Fall 2008 

Lomatium triternatum LOTR Pooled *1*2 G0/G1 9.05 9/24/08 9.05 9/24/08 ID Fall 2008 

Agoseris heterophylla AGHE2 Pioche *1*2 G1 1.5 11/12/08 1.5 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Balsamorhiza hookerl BAHO Elko *1*2 G0 0.33 11/12/08 0.33 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Crepis acuminata CRAC Warm Springs *1*2 G0 1.38 11/12/08 1.38 11/12/08 UT Fail 2008 

Crepis intermedia CRIN4 Pequop Summit *1*2 G0 5.74 11/12/08 5.74 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Heliomeris multiflora var. 

nevadensis HEMUN Pioche *1*2 G1 0.11 11/12/08 0.11 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Lupinus prunophilus LUPR2 Eurerka *1*2 G0 0.94 11/12/08 0.94 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Penstemon pachyphyllus PEPA6 Warm Springs *1*2 G0 1.17 11/12/08 1.17 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Sphaeralcea coccinea SPCO Pooled *1*2 G0 4.4 11/12/08 4.4 11/12/08 UT Fail 2008 

Lomatium nudicaule LONU2 Pequop Summit *1*2 G0 0.96 11/12/08 0.96 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Achnatherum 

thurberianum ACTH7 Jordan Valley *1*2 G0 1.133 11/12/08 1.133 11/12/06 UT Fall 2008 

Penstemon cyaneus PECY3 Richfield *1*2 G0 0.51 11/12/08 0.51 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Penstemon deustus PEDE35 Huntington. OR *1*2 G1 0.504 11/12/08 0.504 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Eriogonum heracleoides ERHE11 Adams Idaho *1*2 G0 0.299 11/12/08 0.299 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Achillea millifolium ACHMI 01 Eagle Idaho *1*2 G0 0.125 11/12/08 0.125 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Lomatium dissectum LODI 70 

2005 Gooding Idaho *1*2 G0 7.51 11/12/08 7.51 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Penstemon acuminatus PEAC Pooled SR Plain *1*2 G0 2.55 11/12/08 2.55 11/12/08 UT Fall 2008 

Lupinus prunophilus LUPR2 Eurerka *1*2 G0 0.94 11/6/08 0.94 11/6/08 NV Fall 2008 

Agoseris heterophylla AGHE2 Orovada *1*2 G2 6.61 11/6/08 6.61 11/6/08 NV Fall 2008 

Lomatium nudicaule LONU2 Pequop Summit *1*2 G0 0.68 11/6/08 0.68 11/6/08 NV Fall 2008 

Heliomeris multiflora var. 

nevadensis HEMUN Pioche *1*2 G1 0.22 11/6/08 0.22 11/6/08 NV Fall 2008 

Frasera albomarginata FRAL5 Newcastle *1*2 G0 0.124 11/6/08 0.124 11/6708 NV Fall 2008 

Sphaeralcea coccinea SPCO Pooled *1*2 G0 1.57 11/6/08 1.57 11/6/08 NV Fall 2008 

Crepis intermedia CRIN4 Pequop Summit *1*2 G0 1.79 11/6/08 1.79 11/6/08 NV Fall 2008 

Eriogonum umbellatum ERUM Pooled *1*2 G0 0.61 11/6/08 0.61 11/6/08 NV Fall 2008 

Lomatium dissectum LODI 70 

2005 Gooding Idaho *1*2 G0 6.04 11/6/08 6.04 11/6/08 NV Fall 2008 

Penstemon acuminatus PEAC Pooled SR Plain *1*2 G0 4.62 11/6/08 4.62 11/6/08 NV Fall 2008 

Total (lb) 184.4 184.4 

*1 Currently under Stock Seed Increase contract with grower/cooperators. 

*2 Seed acquired at no charge from GBRI Cooperators. 

*3 Forward contract with establishment cost payment.
55

Table 2.2008 Update. Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) forb and grass seed acquisition, distribution, inventory, and field 

planting status for species germplasms included in the Great Basin Native Rant Selection and Increase Project, UCIA Stock Seed 

Buyback Program. Previous AOSCA program is now being administered by UCIA. 

Kind & 

Variety/ 

Germplasm 

Lot/ Source Origin 

Seed 

acquisition 

and production 

status

Generation Added to 

Inventory Date Distributed 

from Inventory Date Inventory 12/31/2007 

State 

Distributed 

to 

Field Status Seed 

Harvested 

FORBS & SHRUBS bulk bulk bulk

Achillea

millefolium

Western Yarrow 

Eagle Site 

NSW4-1-EMY1-1 

NSW4-1-EMY1-1 

NWS-1-YAR-FDN

Landmark 

Seed WA 

Landmark 

Seed WA 

Landmark 

Seed WA 

*3 

*3 

*3 

G2 

G2 

G2 

6.5lb 

13lb

9/15/04 

9/20/05 

0.6lb 

5.8lb 

13lb

4/25/05 

9/14/05 

5/30/07 

0 

0 

0 

WY 

WA 

OR 

Seeded Fall 07

Established 

Seedling 

no 

2006-2008 

Established

Balsamoriza

hookeri 

Hooker 

Balsamroot

BAHO B1-02 

BAHO B1-02 

BAHO JS-1

Wild collected 

USFS 

Wild collected 

USFS 

BAHO B1-02-

ID 

*1*2

*1*2 

*1*2 

G0 

G0 

G1 

271g 

n/a 

181g

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

9/13/06

126g 

145g 

0 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

0.0 

181g 

ID 

CO 

Taken out 

2006 

Yes 

2007-2008 

Balsamorhiza

sagittata 

Arrowleaf 

Balsamroot 

BASA U32-02 Wild collected 

USFS *1*2 G0 735g 4/15/04 541g 4/16/04 194g UT Seeded 2004 No 

Crepis acuminata

Tapertip 

hawksbeard 

CRAC U11-02 

CRAC U10-02

Wild collected 

USFS 

Wild collected 

USFS 

*2 

*1*2

G0 

G0 

50g 

160g 

FaIl 02 

4/15/04 

50g 

148g 

FaIl 02 

Fall 02 

0.0 

12g 

ID 

UT 

Est.2002, out 

2005 

Unsuccessful

2005

No 

Eriogonum 

heracleoides 

Wyeth Buckwheat 

ERIHER1-BSE-03 Wild collected 

USFS *1*2 G0 43g 4/15/04 22.5g 4/16/04 20.5g UT Unsuccessful No 

Eriogonum 

umbelatum

Sulfurflower 

Buckwheat 

Unknown Wild collected 

USFS G0 2004 2004 ID Seeded 2004 No 

Lomatium 

dissectium 

Giant Lomatium 

Northern Basin and 

Range 

LODI B7-02 

LODI B14-02 

LODI PS-04 

LODI11-B7-03 

LOMDIS18-BSE-03 

LOMDIS18-BSE-03 

pooled LODI 

11,77,41,78,76 

Wild collected 

USFS 

WC 

LODI B14-02-OR 

Wild collected USFS 

Wild collected USFS 

Wild collected USFS 

Wild collected USFS 

*2 

*2 

*3 

*1*2 

*1*2 

*1*2 

*1*2 

G0 

G0 

G1 

G0 

G0 

G0 

G0 

39g 

96g 

60g 

91g 

488g 

907g 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

11/30/04 

4/15/04 

4/15/04 

10/31/06 

39g 

96g 

0 

72.1g 

188g 

453g 

907g 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

4/16/04 

4/16/04 

10/3/05 

11/22/06

0.0 

0.0 

60g *4 

18.9 

300g 

0.0 

0.0 

NV 

OR 

UT 

UT 

WA 

UT 

Unsuccessful 

Taken out 

2004 

Unsuccessful 

Unsuccessful 

Seeding 2007 

No 

2004 

No 

No 

No 

Lomatium

triternatum

Ternate lomatium 

LOTRT B2-02 

LOTRT B2-02 

Wild collected 

USFS 

Wild collected 

USFS 

*2 

*2 

G0 

G0 

446g 

446g 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

171g 

275g 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

0.0 

0.0 

ID 

OR 

Est2002, 

out 2004 

Unsuccessful 

Yes 

No 

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Sharpleaf 

Penstemon 

PEAC2 B4-02 

PEAC2 B1-01 

Wild collected 

USFS 

Wild collected 

USFS 

*1*

2 

G0 

G0 

102g 

37g 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

102g 

37g 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

0.0 

0.0 

ID 

NV 

Established 

Unsuccessful 

No 

No 

Penstemon 

cyaneus 

Blue Penstemon 

PECY2 B6-02 

PECY2 B6-02 

PPI-04-1 

2004.0448 

2006.0413 

Unknown 

Wild collected 

USFS 

Wild collected USFS 

PECY2 B6-O2-ID 

PECY2 B6-02-CO 

PECY2 B6-02-CO 

PECY1 B6-02 

*2 

*2 

*1*

3 

*1*

3 

G0 

G0 

G1 

G1 

G1 

G1 

968g 

3lb 

16lb 

5lb 

Fall 02 

1/6/05 

2/2/05 

12/5/06 

83g 

685g 

3lb 

16lb 

5lb 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

9/16/05 

2/2/05 

3/1/07 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

ID 

CO 

ID 

CO 

WY, ID 

ID 

Est 2002 

out 2006 

Established 

Seeded 2005 

Seeded 2004 

Seeded 2007 

Established 

2004-2006 

 2004-2008 

No 

2006-2008 

No 

2006-2008

Penstemon 

deustus 

Hotrock 

Penstemon 

PEDE B11-02 

PEDE B10-02 

Wild collected 

USFS 

Wild collected 

USFS 

*1*

2 

G0 

G0 

150g 

123g 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

150g 

123g 

Fall 02 

Fall 02 

0.0 

0.0 

ID 

OR 

Established 

Est. 2002, 

out 2004 

2005-2008

2004
56

Table 2. cont. 2008 Update. Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) forb and grass seed acquisition, distribution, inventory and 

field planting status for species germplasms included in the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project, UCIA Stock Seed 

Buyback Program. Previous AOSCA program is now being administered by UCIA. 

Kind&Variety/ Seed acquisition Added Distributed Inventory State Seed 

Germplasm Lot/ Source Origin and production

status

Generation to 

Inventory

Date from 

Inventory

Date 12/31/2007 distributed 

to 

Field Status Harvested 

FORBS&SHRUBS bulk bulk bulk

Penstemon

pachyphyilus PEPA2 U6-99 Wild collected USFS *1*2 G0 1020g F all 02 340g Fall 02 0.0 OR Est.2002, out 

2005 2004-2005 

Thickleaf 

Est.2002, out 

2004 

Penstemon PEPA2 U6-99 Wild collected USFS *1*2 G0 340g Fall 02 OR 2004 

PEPA2 U6-99 Wild collected USFS *1*2 G0 340g Fall 02 NV unsuccessful no 

PEPA2 U6-99 Wild collected USFS *1*2 G0 340g Fall 02 NV unsuccessful no 

PEPA PS-04 PEPA2 U6-99- OR *3 G1 345g 11/30/04 0 345g*4 

A5-4-P1 PEPA2 U6-99-OR *3 G1 50lb 6/7/05 4.6lb Fall 05 38lb UT unsuccessful no 

A5-4-P1 PEPA2 U6-99-OR *3 G1 7.3lb Fall 05 ID established no 

Pentemon 

palmerii CPP KL-05-1, GBRI 16 Wild collected UCIA F 133lb 3/2/06 2.14lb 3/14/06 88.46lb WY established no

Palmer 

Penstemon 

CPP KL-05-1, 

GBRI 16 Wild collected UCIA F 9.7lb 3/14/06 ID established no

Cedar 

CPP KL-05-1, 

GBRI 16 

CPP KL-05-2, GBRI 

26 

CPP KL-05-3. G8RI 

36 

Wild collected UCIA 

Wild collected UCIA 

Wild collected UCIA 

F 

F 

F 

4lb 

10lb 

3/24/06 

3/24/06 

32.2lb 11/2/06 CO established no 

Penstemon PENSPE1-BSE-03 Wild collected USFS *1*2 G0 92g 4/15/04 82g 4/16/04 0.0 UT unsuccessful no 

speciosus 

Sagebrush PENSPE1-BSE-03 Wild collected USFS *1*2 G0 N/A 4/15/04 10g 4/16/04 UT Established 

2005 2006-2008 

Penstemon PEN SPE KV-06 PENSPE1-BSE-03 *1*3 G1 1360 12/6/06 1360g 

PEN SPE KV-07 PENSPE1-BSE-03 *1*3 G1 *5 12/6/06 

Northern Basin PEN SPE NBR Pooled NBR *1*3 G0 3052g 11/8/07 3052g 11/8/07 0.0 UT not seeded no 

and Range USFS-07 

Sphlaeralcea SPGR U19-02 Wild collected USFS *2 G0 150g Fall 02 150g Fall 02 0.0 OR Est. 2002, out 

2004 yes 

parvifolia

SPGR U13-01 Wild collected USFS *2 G0 150g Fall 02 150g Fall 02 0.0 OR 

Small Flower unsuccessful no

Globemallow SPPA U14-02 Wild collected USFS *1*2 G0 150g Fall 02 150g Fall 02 0.0 CO established 2004-2008 

S04-2-4 SPPA UI4-02-CO *3 G1 1.44lb 8/19/04 0 1.44lb 

SPGR PS-04 SPGR U19-O2-OR *3 G1 130g 11/30/04 0 130g*4 

subtotal (lb) 262.3 119.99 132.3 

Kind & Variety/ Seed acquisition Added Distributed Inventory State Seed 

Germplasm Lot/ Source Origin and production 

status

Generation to 

Inventory

Date from 

inventory

Date 12/31/2007 distributed to Field Status Harvested 

GRASS bulk lbs bulk lbs bulk lbs 

Sandberg

Bluegrass 

557-215-31A Rainier Seed WA *3 G2 304.0 11/4/03 50.0 9/15/03 0.0 UT not seeded no 

Mountain Home 557-215-31A Rainier Seed WA *3 G2 135.0 2003-2005 ID taken out 

2006 2005-2006 

Site 557-215-31A Rainier Seed WA *3 G2 121.0 2003-2005 WA Est. 2003. 

out 2006 2003-2006 

557-215-31A Rainier Seed WA *3 G2 1.5 4/25/05 WY Seeded 2007 no 

016-215-611A Rainier Seed WA *3 G2 112.0 8/9/06 28.0 10/3/06 84.0 WA Seeded 2007 2008 

Poa Sec 

01-BSE-O6 

Wild collected 

USFS *1 G0 6.5 9/10/06 6.5 9/11/06 0.0 WA seeded 4 

acres 2006 2008 

Thurber’s 

Needlegrass 

SSF-TH-05 Seedyco ID *1*2 G1 1.0 1/5/06 1.0 

Orchard Idaho 2005.0394-1 SW Seed CO *3 G1 13.0 1/5/06 13.0 4/17/06 0.0 WA seeded 2006 2007 

AchThuBSE1-06 Wild collected 

USFS *1 G0 2.5 9/10/06 2.5 9/11/06 0.0 WA seed sent 

back no 

Unknown Wild collected 

USFS G0 ID taken out no 

Basin Wildrye 

NBR-Utah sites UDWR Wild collected 

USFS *2*6 G1 17.0 8/15/07 17.0 8/15/07 0.0 WA taken out no 

subtotal (lb) 456.0 374.5 85.0 

Total (lb) 718.3 494.5 217.3 

* 1 Currently under Stock Seed Increase contract with grower/cooperators *4 Seed not certified, can be used for demonstration plots 

*2 Seed acquired at no charge from GBRI Cooperators *5 Seed harvested and added to Inventory but not conditioned 

*3 Cost of seed reimbursed to UCIA through USFS joint venture buy-back program agreement 
Table 3. Standardized Market Price for Contract Negotiation, Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project – Utah Crop Improvement Association 

Buyback Program 

Scientific Name Common Name 

January 2009 

Suggested 

Market Price 

($) 

Forbs 

Achillea millefolium Western yarrow 12.00 

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot 28.00 

Balsamorhiza sagittata Arrowleaf balsamroot 28.00 

Crepis acuminata Taper-tip hawksbeard 140.00

Lomatium dissectum Giant lomatium 

(parsley or biscuitroot) 80.00

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf lomatium 80.00

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 75.00

Penstemon cyaneus Blue penstemon 70.00

Penstemon deustus Hot-rock penstemon 40.00

Penstemon pachyphyllus Thickleaf penstemon 75.00

Penstemon palmeri Palmer penstemon 18.00

Sphaeralcea parviflora Small-flower globemallow 60.00

Linum perenne Blue Flax 12.00

Grasses 

Achnatherum 

thurberianum Thurber needlegrass 45.00

Elymus elymoides Bottlebrush squirreltail 25.00

Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass 9.00

Leymus cinereus Basin Wildrye 10.00

Publication: 

Young, S.A., 2008. Verification of germplasm source and status by seed certifying agencies as 

native plants are collected and cultivated. Multifunctional Grasslands in a Changing World, 2008 

IGC/IRC Conference, Vol. II, p. 470 Abstract and Poster Presentation 

Presentations: 

Young, S. A. and D. Ogle, 2008*. “Reclamation Seed Availability Issues.” Tri-State Interagency 

Plant Materials Plant Materials Committee Meeting, May 20, 2008, Utah Botanical Center, 

Kaysville, UT. PowerPoint Presentation and Discussion. *NRCS Plant Materials Specialist, 

Boise, ID 

Young, S. A., 2008. “Native Species Seed Availability (Or Not).” Great Basin Native Plant 

Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, Feb. 13-14, 2008, SLC, UT. PowerPoint 

Presentation. 

57
Young, S.A., 2008. “UCIA/Uncompahgre Plateau Native Seed Increase and Commercial Production 

Proposal.” Upper Colorado Plateau Native Plant Program Stakeholders Meeting, Feb. 6-7, 2008, 

Green River, UT. Flow Chart Presentation and Discussion. 

Management Applications: 

For most of the species being studied by GBNPSIP cooperators, wildland seed collection is 

insufficient to provide for reclamation planting needs. Thus, accessions consisting of limited 

quantities of seed obtained from defined wildland stands, or pooled from defined geographic areas, 

must be increased in commercial fields or nurseries in order to be available in the marketplace in 

sufficient quantities to supply reclamation projects of the scope called for in the Great Basin. The 

UCIA Buy-Back project provides a bridge between small-quantity initial accessions and commercial 

marketplace productions by working with specialized growers who are willing to provide land, time 

and expertise to produce increased amounts of stock seed from the former, and with UCIA 

facilitation, make it available for the latter. This process has been more successful for some species 

than others, but in general, great progress has been made in defining seed accession groupings, 

knowledge of agronomic seed production techniques and understanding the reality of the commercial 

seed marketplace. 

58
Project Title: Demonstration, Education and Outreach Activities 

 Related to GBNPSIP Plant Materials 

Project Location: Utah State University, Logan, Utah 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

 Heidi A. Kratsch 

 Utah State University 

 4820 Old Main Hill 

 Logan, UT 84322-4820 

 435.797.8124, 435.797.3376 

 heidi.kratsch@usu.edu 

 Douglas Johnson 

 USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Lab 

 Utah State University 

 Logan, UT 84322-6300 

 435.797.3067 

 Doug.Johnson@ars.usda.gov 

 Jack Staub 

 USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Lab 

 Utah State University 

 Logan, UT 84322-6300 

 435.797.2249 

 Jack.Staub@ars.usda.gov 

Project Description: 

Use of regionally adapted native plants in home and commercial ornamental landscapes can lower 

water use and decrease demand for limited water supplies. Most of the forbs being developed 

through GBNPSIP for rangeland restoration applications also have high potential for use as waterconserving ornamentals. Our project is devoted to education and outreach activities related to use of 

GBNPSIP and other native plant materials in urban low-water landscaping and in rangeland 

restoration and revegetation. 

Objectives 

 Incorporate plants developed in the GBNPSIP into evaluation and demonstration gardens in a 

multi-state area. 

 Develop partnerships with state and local agencies and the private sector to educate the general 

public about GBNPSIP plant materials and their use in expanding biodiversity in the revegetation 

and restoration of degraded rangelands. 

 Generate interest among growers for large-scale seed production of GBNPSIP plant materials, 

reduction in seed costs, and increased availability. 

59
 Facilitate development of a secondary, non-Federal market that would enhance market stability of 

GBNPSIP plant materials. 

Methods: 

Common garden trials are in progress at four sites across Utah: North Logan, Kaysville, Kanab, and 

St. George. Three or more accessions of each species from geographically diverse habitats are 

included at each site in replicated trials. Data generated will provide information about the range of 

adaptability for each species. 

Species currently in common garden trials: 

Cercocarpus ledifolius (Curl-leaf Mountain Mahogany) 

Purshia mexicana (Cliffrose) 

Fallugia paradoxa (Apache Plume) 

Agastache urticifolia (Horsemint) 

Monardella odoratissima (Mountain Beebalm) 

Stanleya pinnata (Prince’s Plume) 

Penstemon eatonii (Firecracker Penstemon) 

Geranium viscosissimum (Sticky Geranium) 

Arenaria macradenia (Showy Sandwort) 

Astragalus filipes (Basalt Milkvetch) 

Dalea searlsiae (Searl’s Prairie Clover) 

Dalea ornata (Western Prairie Clover) 

Results: 

 Preliminary results indicate that Stanleya pinnata survival is linked to seed source; plants from 

seed collected at southern locations did not overwinter at the two northern sites. 

 Penstemon eatonii survival appears to be unrelated to seed source; most plants survived at all four 

sites. 

 Purshia mexicana survival shows some sensitivity to seed source, but data are too preliminary to 

draw definitive conclusions. 

Future Plans: 

Festuca spp. (Fine Fescue) will be added to current trials to evaluate performance as an ornamental 

grass in various markets across the region. Shepherdia rotundifolia and Sphaeralcea spp. will also be 

included once production issues have been resolved. Appropriate plant materials will be shared with 

other established trial programs across the intermountain region. 

Presentations: 

Oral

Kratsch, H.A., D. Johnson, and J. Staub. 2009. Evaluating intraspecies diversity of Intermountain 

West native plants. Intermountain Native Plant Summit V. March 26, 2009; Boise, ID. 

Poster 

Hunter, G., R. Kjelgren, H. Kratsch, D. Hole, and L. Schultz. 2009. Water use of Eriogonum 

corymbosum in an irrigated field study. Intermountain Native Plant Summit V. March 24-26, 

2009; Boise, ID. 

60
Sriladda, C., H. Kratsch, and R. Kjelgren. 2009. Potential for domestication of Shepherdia 

rotundifolia (roundleaf buffaloberry) for urban landscapes. Intermountain Native Plant Summit 

V. March 24-26, 2009; Boise, ID. 

Management Applications: 

Growers who produce plants for both reclamation seed and ornamental markets will find information 

on plant species adaptability useful in determination of seed collection sites and potential markets for 

plant materials. 

Products: 

Common garden trials are in progress at four sites across Utah: Greenville Farm on the campus of 

Utah State University, the Utah Botanical Center in Kaysville, behind the Kane County Extension 

office in Kanab and at Tonaquint Gardens in St. George. 

“Water-Wise Starts with You.” Interpretive sign for USU ornamental research and demonstration 

gardens. Designed in collaboration with Barbara Middleton (Environment & Society Dept.) and the 

Natural Resources Interpretation class at Utah State University. 

 

61
Project Title: Pollinator and Seed Predator Studies

Project Location: USDA-ARS Bee Biology and Systematics Lab, Logan, Utah 

 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

 James H. Cane 

 USDA-ARS Bee Biology and Systematics Lab 

 Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5310, USA 

435.797.3879, fax: 435.797.0461 

Jim.Cane@ars.usda.gov 

Project Description: 

Native bees and/or honey bees are needed to pollinate most of the wildflower species thus far studied 

for Great Basin plant community rehabilitation. The pollinator faunas of many of these candidate 

plant genera include one or more bee genera with potentially manageable species, especially species 

of Osmia. A minority of the later-blooming species attracts and is pollinated by honeybees or 

managed alfalfa leaf-cutting bees. 

Pollinator needs are being evaluated by comparing fruit and seed sets at caged flowers, openly visited 

flowers, and manually pollinated flowers. If plant reproduction proves to be pollinator limited, then 

native bee faunas are surveyed and evaluated at managed and wild flowering populations. If bees are 

sufficiently abundant, then single-visit pollination efficiencies at previously caged flowers can 

directly evidence each bee species’ contribution to seed production. 

 

Captive populations of several species of cavity-nesting Osmia bees with pollination promise are 

being multiplied either with a private grower or at our laboratory, for eventual distribution to growers 

needing them for pollination. Currently managed bee species (alfalfa leaf-cutting bees, blue orchard 

bees, honey bees) are being evaluated for their pollination prowess with each of the target plant 

species as well using our laboratory’s common garden. Practical management protocols and materials 

are being developed to sustainably manage pollinators on-farm. Pollination information is being 

disseminated to collaborators and growers. 

 

Anticipating that seed from some of these perennial forb species will be used for post-fire restoration, 

we are evaluating susceptibilities and fates of wild bee communities to wildfire in the sage-steppe and 

juniper woodlands. Inasmuch as bees are necessary for pollination of most of these forbs, bee 

communities must persist in or recolonize burns if seeded forbs are to reproduce. Nesting habits will 

likely predict a bee species’ risk with fire, which will be evaluated through lab experiments and 

sampling of faunas in natural burns throughout the Intermountain West. 

Status Report: 

Most ground-nesting wild bees will survive the direct heat of wildfire to pollinate persisting 

wildflowers. In the laboratory, I developed and ran controlled experiments that mimicked soil 

heating by wildfire so as to evaluate the thermal tolerances of each life stage of non-social bees. 

Eggs, larvae, pupae and adults all survived temperatures up to 42o

C. Some died at 27-min durations 

62
at 44o

C, and all died at any duration hotter than 48oC. In duff-free soils (where ground-dwelling bees 

nest), published research reports these burn temperatures extend down only 5-10 cm. My 

collaborator’s exhaustive survey of published nesting biologies of 430 species of ground-nesting bees 

found that less than 5% nested this shallowly. Thus, the prevalent ground-nesting bee communities 

of the basins of the Intermountain West are predicted to survive the direct heating of wildfire. 

The wet winter of 2008 allowed me to begin evaluating consequences of wildfire in sagebrush steppe 

and juniper woodlands for wild bee communities. Fates of native bee communities after fire are 

largely unknown, although logical predictions are possible (e.g. species nesting above-ground in 

flammable deadwood may fare poorly). I developed efficient and seemingly effective protocols to 

sample bee and wildflower communities paired in and out of large burns in the eastern Great Basin, 

sampling bees at Sphaeralcea, Astragalus filipes, Balsamorhiza and Penstemon. 

At all ten burns, native ground-nesting bee communities were largely unscathed and actively 

pollinating their recovering floral hosts. Where bee and plant communities were impoverished before 

the burn (e.g. Salt Creek Fire, Utah), they remained so afterward. In one fire (Dairy Creek outside of 

Etna UT), surviving A. filipes were stunted and vegetative the year after fire; around the perimeter, A. 

filipes bloomed and was avidly visited by the expected native bees. Where fire killed off the forb 

community at one fire site, wild bees were nonetheless emerging as predicted. In this last case, 

reseeding with the right flowering annual would enable at least some of the native bee community to 

persist to pollinate perennial forbs that first flower several years after seeding. 

Pollinators, particularly bees, will be needed for seed production for most of the native forbs chosen 

for this project from the Great Basin flora. In 2008, we repeated our studies of breeding biologies on 

established plants of Lomatium dissectum and Sphaeralcea growing in our 20' x 20' common garden 

plots, as 2007 studies yielded ambiguous or unsatisfactory results (or misidentified seed in the case of 

Sphaeralcea). Pollinators proved to be essential for the selected wildflower species. For L. 

dissectum, no seed results on racemes bagged to exclude pollinators. Manual self-pollination yielded 

as much seed as manual outcrossing, so the species is self-fertile. Manual pollinations of common 

garden plants were not as productive as wild populations accessible to the small-bodied specialist 

bees of the genus Andrena that we have found associated with this species across five states. 

Because the flowers are strongly protogynous, bees are strongly beneficial for seed set. At our 

common garden, we did notice small sweat bees avidly visiting flowers of Lomatium dissectum for 

pollen, so we are hopeful that these ubiquitous, often common floral generalists may serve to 

pollinate these flowers on some farms. 

The three globemallows, Sphaeralcea grossularifolia, S. cocinnea and S. munroana responded 

similarly to our manual pollination treatments in our greenhouse, using potted plants. Few capsules 

and little seed resulted from either autogamy or self-pollen. When outcrossed, however, we obtained 

8-10 times more capsules and 5-9 times more seed per capsule that formed. These globemallows are 

at best weakly self-fertile. 

These rates of outcross capsule and seed production were equivalent to our samples for openlyvisited flowers in Tom Monaco’s plots in Logan. Those plants were avidly visited by diverse wild 

bees, including the two specialists in the genus Diadasia that must have colonized the site since 

planting. In 2006, we found these specialists to be present in every sampled wild patch of 

63
globemallow across Nevada and into eastern Oregon, southern Idaho and northwestern Utah. This 

year I found that these specialist Diadasia bees even had colonized, and were nesting amid, rows of 

globemallow growing at the Malheur Experiment Station in eastern Oregon, despite the Station’s 

agricultural setting. 

Publications 

Cane, J.H. 2008. Pollinating bees crucial to farming wildflower seed for U.S. habitat restoration. pp. 

48-64 in Bees in Agricultural Ecosystems (eds. R.R. James and T. Pitts-Singer). Oxford Univ. 

Press, U.K. 

Cane, J.H. 2008. Breeding biologies, pollinating bees and seed production of Cleome lutea and C. 

serrulata (Cleomaceae). Plant Species Biology. 23 (3):152-158. 

Presentations 

Cane, J.H. 2008. Pollinating Great Basin forbs for seed to rehabilitate western rangelands Department 

of Entomology, Univ. Calif. Davis. CA. Invited. 

Management Applications: 

Growers of native forbs for seed who do not plan for pollination will have little seed production for 

most of the species chosen for the Intermountain West. A subset of species (e.g. Dalea ornata) can 

be handily pollinated with any one of several currently managed pollinators (honey bees, alfalfa 

leafcutting bees). More than half can be pollinated with cavity-nesting native Osmia bee species 

whose numbers are being increased at this lab for distribution to growers in the near future. We are 

also finding that some of the ground-nesting bee species (e.g. Diadasia at globemallows, sweat bees 

at Lomatium) as well as bumblebees (for Hedysarum or Penstemon speciosus) that effectively 

pollinate these forbs are increasing on some native seed farms, and may eventually be responsible for 

much of the pollination of a given forb field.

Products: 

Species of three Osmia bee species and one Hoplitis that effectively pollinate Hedysarum and 

Astragalus continue to be increased at the Logan labs for eventual distribution to seed growers. With 

our guidance, one of these, O. sanrafaelae, continues to be successfully increased at Wind River 

Farm for pollination of sweetvetch (now 2000 overwintering individuals). With one more successful 

field season, we expect to have enough bees, rearing experience etc. to offer this bee to several 

growers of Hedysarum in Utah and western Colorado (where this bee is native). 

2008 Summary 

 Fernleaf biscuitroot was confirmed through a second year of more rigorous experiment to be 

fully self-fertile but requires pollinators to move pollen between flowers. Across a five-state 

region, it is pollinated by small ground-nesting floral specialists and sometimes floral 

generalists, the latter likely to be available on-farm. 

 Globemallows (three species) were found to be self-incompatible, requiring native bees to 

transfer pollen between individual plants. Mallow-specialists of the bee genus Diadasia are 

ubiquitous at field populations, effective in pollen deposition on stigmas, and apparently 

quick to colonize seedings, even in some agricultural settings. 

64
 Any and all life stages of most ground-nesting wild bees will escape injury from wildfire. In 

relatively mild burns of intact sage-steppe plant communities, preliminary standardized 

samples of bloom and bees indicate excellent prospects for survival. Where forbs do not 

bloom in the year following fire (previously depauperate communities or hotter fires), 

surviving bee communities will need supplemental forage such as alfalfa, perhaps, something 

that blooms reliably the year after seeding. 

 Species of three Osmia bee species and one Hoplitis bee that effectively pollinate northern 

sweetvetch and threadstem milkvetch have been acquired from the wild and are being 

propagated at the USDA-ARS Logan labs for evaluation and later distribution to seed 

growers. 

65
Project Title: Insect Pests of Grass and Forb Seed Production 

Project: Colorado State University Extension, Grand Junction CO 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

 Bob Hammon 

 Tri River Area Extension 

 P.O. Box 20,000-5028, Grand Junction CO 81502-5028 

 970.244.1838 (office), fax: 970.244.1700 

 bob.hammon@mesacounty.us 

Project Description: 

The goal of this project is to document insects affecting field collections and production fields of 

native plant seed. Insect collections from seed increase fields in UT and ID are forwarded to the 

laboratory in Grand Junction, CO for identification. In addition seed production fields near 

Hotchkiss, CO that are associated with the Uncompahgre Plateau Project are being monitored for 

insect pests. 

 

Several new insects were found attacking seed production plots and collection sites in 2008. 

An unidentified leaf miner was discovered attacking Hedysarum 

boreale production near Hotchkiss CO in 2008. The damage occurred 

early in the season, between initial growth and flowering. Damage 

was widespread in the field, with severe damage to some plants. By 

the time damage was reported, the mines had been evacuated and the 

pest could not be identified. This is the only reported incidence of this 

insect, but it is probably widespread. 

A second leafminer, Coptodisca cercocarpella Braun was discovered attacking 

curlleaf mountain mahogany, Cercocarpus ledifolius, near Grand Junction CO. 

This discovery represented the first report of the moth since its original 

description in 1925, from a collection in Logan Canyon, UT. Growers who plant 

seed increase orchards or collect seed of this species should be aware of the 

moth’s damage potential. 

An ebony bug, tentatively identified as Corimelaena (Parapora) extensa Uhler 

(Hemiptera: Cormimelaenidae) was collected from mature seed pods of 

Penstemon deustus near Idaho City ID. It had previously been recorded 

feeding on mullein, tobacco and mints. The damage potential of this native 

insect is unknown. The mature bug is about 3.5 mm in length. It can be 

abundant on plants. 

66
Presentations: 

Hammond, B. 2008. Managing Pests Affecting Native Plant Seed Production. Western Forest Insects 

Working Conference, April 8/9, 2008 Boulder CO. 

Management Applications: 

Pest identification, scouting procedures, and management options for native insect pests recorded 

from Hedysarum boreale, Spheralcea spp., Lupinus spp. and Penstemon spp. are presented on the 

Western Colorado Insects Seed Production web site. The site is updated as new pests are identified.

Products: 

The Western Colorado Insects Seed Production web site, http://wci.colostate.edu, contains up to date 

information on insects affecting native plant seed production. The site also contains a listing of 

pesticides registered for use in grass, forb and woody plant seed production. 

67
Project Title: Impact of Great Basin Habitat Alterations on Pollinator 

Diversity

Project: Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

 Val Jo Anderson 

 Department of Plant and Animal Science 

 275A WIDB 

 Brigham Young University 

 801.422.3527 

 Provo, UT 84602 

 Val_Anderson@byu.edu 

 

Project Description: 

This project compares the traditional post-fire outcome (namely cheatgrass, or crested wheatgrass) in 

Great Basin habitat on native bee diversity compared to intact and contiguous stands of sagebrush 

and pinyon/juniper. 

In 2006 and 2007, pollinator sampling was conducted using flight-intercept Malaise traps. A total of 

three traps were randomly located in each habitat type of cheatgrass, crested wheatgrass, sagebrush, 

and pinyon/juniper. All habitat types were contiguous with each other at near the same elevation on 

near level sites. This was replicated at three different sites in the eastern Great Basin. A total of 36 

traps were employed and operated continually from the first of April to the first of October for two 

years. Samples were collected biweekly and the sample contents sorted in the lab. 

Bees were sorted and diversity compared between habitat types and compared against the 

composition of blooming plants sampled biweekly concurrent with sample retrieval. Other pollinator 

guilds such as butterflies, bee flies, and flower flies were sorted and prepped for analysis in 2008. 

This report provides some results of the bee diversity analysis conducted in 2008. 

Both bee abundance and species richness were evaluated. As expected, both metrics were 

significantly different based on habitat type (p<0.01). Significant differences in richness were also 

found between site (p<0.01) and years (p=0.05), and a significant interaction between site and year 

for bee abundance (p=0.04). 

The most remarkable finding was the superior abundance (Fig. 1) and richness (Fig. 2) found in 

pinyon/juniper habitat. Crested wheatgrass had the lowest scores and sagebrush was comparable to 

cheatgrass even though both were far below pinyon/juniper. Results can be explained in part due to a 

similar trend in blooming plants. Pinyon/juniper habitat supported a greater abundance of nectar and 

pollen producing plants and, in most cases, greater species richness as well. Total abundance of bees 

and blooming plants over time are strikingly similar (Fig. 3). Future plans include evaluating data for 

other pollinator groups. 

68
0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

cheatgrass crested wheatgrass juniper sagebrush

habitat

average bee richness/trap

a

a

c

b

 

 

Figure 1. Bee richness per trap by habitat.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

cheatgrass crested wheatgrass juniper sagebrush

habitat

average bee abundance/trap

 

b

a

a

c

Figure 2. Bee abundance per trap by habitat.

 

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

24 Apr

8 May

22 May

5 Jun

19 Jun

3 Jul

17 Jul

31 Jul

14 Aug

28 Aug

11 Sep

25 Sep

9 Oct

23 Oct

log10(x+1)

total bee abundance mean flowering plants/hectare2

Figure 3. Bee abundance in relation to 

flowering plants.

69
Publication: 

Johnson, R. L. 2008. Impacts of Habitat Alterations and Predispersal Seed Predation on the 

Reproductive Success of Great Basin Forbs. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. Dissertation. 

Management Applications: 

These results demonstrate the importance that native forbs play in supporting a diverse and abundant 

bee population. A stable pollinator population in turn supports a stable plant population. Revegetation 

plans which focus on site recovery with aggressive wheatgrasses neglect to recognize impacts to 

native bee populations. As rangelands become more fragmented, the ability of bees to recolonize 

reseeded areas may be diminished especially if a suite of native forbs is not re-established. A degree 

of habitat value should be assessed for pinyon/juniper stands for the benefit of native bees. In the case 

of this study, the pinyon/juniper habitat had the lowest overall plant cover, but at the same time had 

the highest abundance and diversity of blooming plants. This dichotomy is due to the abundance of 

diminutive forbs, which contribute little to overall cover but much in the way of food sources for 

pollinators. Evaluations of sagebrush communities may consider native forb density as a metric for 

assessing habitat value, especially relative to pollinators. 

70
Project Title: Impacts of Predispersal Seed Predation on Seed Production 

of Wyethia amplexicaulis, Agoseris glauca, and Crepis 

acuminata

Project: Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

 Val Jo Anderson 

 Department of Plant and Animal Science 

 275A WIDB 

 Brigham Young University 

 801.422.3527 

 Provo, UT 84602 

 Val_Anderson@byu.edu 

 

Project Description: 

Seed damage caused by insects can significantly impact total seed production in plant populations. 

Predispersal seed damage was investigated in wild populations of Wyethia amplexicaulis, Agoseris 

glauca, and Crepis acuminata from multiple locations in central Utah during 2006-2007. This report 

provides a summary of the final analysis from rearing trials conducted to determine percent seed 

damage and associated seed predator/host relationships. Though rearing trials were conducted in the 

laboratory, results are considered in situ because capitula were recovered during the pupation phase 

of identified pests. The exception to this may be the moth Phycitodes albatella that was, in most 

instances, reared as larvae. In this case seed damage results are considered underestimated since the 

majority of moth larvae died pre-pupation. In all other cases, the seed predators are flies, which were 

present as pupa or pupating larvae. Total seed predators and seed damage found in wild populations 

of A. glauca and C. acuminata are provided in Table 1 and in Table 2 for W. amplexicaulis. 

Capitula of A. glauca averaged 38.3 seeds of which an average of 8.1% was damaged by seed 

predators. The distribution of total seed damage per capitulum is displayed in Figure 1. A presumably 

undescribed species of fruit fly in the genus Campiglossa was the primary seed predator in A. glauca.

A secondary, unknown dipteran was also discovered during rearing trials. Percent seed damage was 

highly dependent upon site (p<0.01) with an overall low of 0.8% seed damage during one year at one 

location and a high of 38.6% at another. 

C. acuminata produced an average of 9 seeds per capitulum with an average percent seed damage of 

12.4. The distribution of total seed damage per capitulum is displayed in Figure 2. The same 

Campiglossa spp. that infected A. glauca also predated seeds of C. acuminata. The moth Phycitodes 

albatella (Pyralidae) was the more common and damaging seed predator in C. acuminata. Percent 

seed damage was influenced by a site x year interaction (p<0.01) with an average range of damage 

between 0.7% and 22.2%. 

71
Table 1. Total seed predators and seed damage in wild populations of A. glauca 

and C. acuminata. 

 site plants

n

reared

capitula

n

total

seed

n

seed/

capitula

mean, 

min, max

%

seed

damaged

%

flower

head

infestation

%

plant

infestation

reared

seed

predators #

Agoseris glauca Manti Ridge 80 80 2823 35, 19, 62 4.6% 5.0% 5.0% Campiglossa sp. 11

Teat Mountain 80 88 3371 38, 12, 64 20.9% 38.6% 39.8% Campiglossa sp. 

Diptera unkown

25

14

Willow Creek 80 80 3372 42, 30, 66 5.2% 10.0% 10.0% Campiglossa sp. 12

Crepis acuminata Sheep Creek 20 345 2669 8, 5, 10 10.7% 50.0% 78.9% Campiglossa sp.

Phycitodes albatella 

4

13

Rock Canyon Overlook 19 357 3441 10, 5, 13 8.5% 37.3% 68.4% Campiglossa sp.

Phycitodes albatella

2

4

West Mountain 20 380 3395 9, 6, 12 22.2% 80.3% 100.0% Campiglossa sp.

Phycitodes albatella

14

30

Agoseris glauca Manti Ridge 76 94 3035 32,14,53 6.1% 6.4% 7.9% Campiglossa sp. 20

Teat Mountain 84 108 4291 40,22,70 11.3% 20.4% 23.8% Campiglossa sp.

Diptera unkown

43

4

Willow Creek 80 125 5170 41,18,73 0.5% 0.8% 1.3% Campiglossa sp. 4

Crepis acuminata Sheep Creek 20 594 4339 8,4,13 12.0% 11.3% 85.0% Campiglossa sp.

Phycitodes albatella

5

48

Rock Canyon Overlook 20 519 5365 10,7,14 20.4% 20.2% 95.0% Campiglossa sp. 25

West Mountain 20 664 6112 9,3,11 0.7% 0.9% 25.0% Campiglossa sp.

Phycitodes albatella

1

3

2006

2007

Table 2. Total seed predators and seed damage found in wild populations of W. amplexicaulis. 

72
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

0% 1-20% 21-40% 41-60% 61-80% More

% seed damage

# samples 

Figure 1. Distribution of damage by Figure 2. Distribution of damage by 

capitulum for Agoseris glauca. capitulum for Crepis acuminata. 

An evaluation of foliar application verses soil drench using the systemic pesticide imidacloprid 

for enhancing seed production in wild populations of A. glauca and C. acuminata was examined over 

years 2006 and 2007. A significant interaction was found between treatment, site and year for C. 

acuminata (p<0.01) (Fig. 3) and between site and treatment for A. glauca (p<0.01) (Fig. 4). In most 

instances, a soil drench was superior in performance to foliar spray. Application of imidacloprid as a 

foliar spray decreased seed damage in most cases compared to the control. 

Figure 3. Effects of foliar application verses Figure 4. Effects of foliar application and soil 

soil drench with imidacloprid on Agoseris soil drench with imidacloprid on Crepis 

glauca. acuminata. 

The number of seeds per W. amplexicaulis capitulum is highly variable (Fig. 5) with an average of 

76.6. That variability represents the diversity of seed production in primary terminal buds verses 

lateral secondary buds. Percent seed damage was also highly variable (Fig. 6) with an overall average 

of 39.0. Differences in seed damage was a function of year and site (p<0.01). Seed damage across site 

and year ranged from a low of 32.7% to a high of 46.9%. The primary seed predator was the fruit fly 

Neotephritis finalis, the secondary pest was also a fruit fly (Trupanea nigricornis). 

73
Figure 6. Distribution of seed samples with seed 

damage from Wyethia amplexicaulis capitula. Figure 5. Distribution of seed number per 

Wyethia amplexicaulis capitula. 

A significant amount of parasitoidism was observed in the seed predator N. finalis. An unidentified 

wasp in the genus Pteromlaus (Pteromalidae) was responsible for parasitoidism rates as high as 

23.0%, but significance was highly dependent upon site and year (p<0.01) (Table 3). The parasitoid 

Zaglyptonotus mississippiensis (Torymidae) was also reared and extends the known range of this 

species substantially. Though parasitoidism can provide some pest control, consideration of these two 

wasps as biological control agents is problematic since they emerge from fly pupa after the seed 

damage has already occurred. They would not provide any improvement in seed production during 

the immediate season, but rather the following year. 

Table 3. Occurrence and parasitoidism of Pteromalus sp. and Zaglyptonotus mississippiensis

(Torymidae) on seed predator was the fruit fly, Neotephritis finalis, a seed predator of Wyethia

amplexicaulis. 

74
Publications: 

Johnson, R. L. 2008. Impacts of Habitat Alterations and Predispersal Seed Predation on the 

Reproductive Success of Great Basin Forbs. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. Dissertation. 

Management Applications: 

Even though overall seed damage for both A. glauca and C. acuminata was relatively low, the 

potential for severe seed loss is evident in some wild populations where seed damage reached 22.3 to 

38.6%. The potential for certain years or sites having significant seed yield losses warrants evaluation 

of pest management practices. Pest management could apply to managing wild populations as 

sources for wild seed collections or in cultivated fields where pest problems could greatly exceed 

levels found in wild populations. Observed seed damage as high as 46.9% in W. amplexicaulis

reveals an immediate benefit that could be gained with pest control in some stands targeted for seed 

collection. Because its primary seed predator is a common pest of many large seeded plants in the 

Asteraceae (i.e. Balsamorhiza, Helianthella), the same pest problems and losses in seed yields should 

be cautiously expected. 

 

75
Project Title: Native Forb Seed Production in Response to Irrigation in 

2008 

Project Location: Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Clinton C. Shock 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

 595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, fax: 541.889.7831 

 clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu 

Erik B. Feibert 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, fax: 541.889.7831 

Lamont D. Saunders 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, fax: 541.889.7831 

Nancy Shaw 

U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702 

208.373.4360, fax: 208.373.4391 

Project Description:

Native wildflower seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial seed 

production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A major 

limitation to economically viable commercial production of native wildflower (forb) seed is stable 

and consistent seed productivity over years. Variations in spring rainfall and soil moisture result in 

highly unpredictable water stress at flowering, seed set, and seed development, which for other seed 

crops is known to compromise seed yield and quality. 

Another limitation for seed production is that native wildflower plants are often not competitive with 

crop weeds in cultivated fields. Both sprinkler and furrow irrigation could promote seed production, 

but risk further encouraging weeds. Also sprinkler and furrow irrigation can lead to the loss of plant 

stand and seed production due to fungal pathogens. By burying drip tapes at 12-inch depth, and 

avoiding wetting of the soil surface, we hope to assure flowering and seed set without encouraging 

weeds or opportunistic diseases. This trial tested the effect of three irrigation intensities on the seed 

yield of thirteen native forb species. 

76
Materials and Methods

Plant Establishment 

Seed of the seven Intermountain West forb species (Table 1) was received in late November in 2004 

from the Rocky Mountain Research Station (Boise, ID). The plan was to plant the seed in the fall of 

2004, but due to excessive rainfall in October, the ground preparation was not completed and planting 

was postponed to early 2005. To ensure germination the seed was submitted to a cold stratification 

treatment. The seed was soaked overnight in distilled water on January 26, 2004. After seeds were 

soaked, the water was drained and the seed soaked for 20 minutes in a 10 percent by volume solution 

of 13 percent bleach in distilled water. The water was drained and the seed placed in a thin layer in 

plastic containers. The plastic containers had lids with holes drilled to allow air movement. The seed 

containers were placed in a cooler set at approximately 34°F. Every few days the seed was mixed 

and, if necessary, distilled water added to maintain moist seed. In late February, seed of Lomatium 

grayi and L. triternatum had started sprouting. 

In late February, 2005, drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch depth between two 

rows (30-inch rows) of a Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic matter. The drip 

tape was buried on alternating inter-row spaces (5 ft apart). The flow rate for the drip tape was 0.34 

gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches apart, resulting in a water application rate of 

0.066 inch/hour. 

On March 3, seed of all species was planted in 30-inch rows using a custom-made plot grain drill 

with disk openers. All seed was planted at 20-30 seeds/ft of row. The Eriogonum umbellatum and 

the Penstemon spp. were planted at 0.25-inch depth and the Lomatium spp. at 0.5-inch depth. The 

trial was irrigated with a minisprinkler system (R10 Turbo Rotator, Nelson Irrigation Corp., Walla 

Walla, WA) for even stand establishment from March 4 to April 29. Risers were spaced 25 ft apart 

along the flexible polyethylene hose laterals that were spaced 30 ft apart and the water application 

rate was 0.10 inch/hour. A total of 1.72 inches of water was applied with the minisprinkler system. 

Eriogonum umbellatum, Lomatium triternatum, and L. grayi started emerging on March 29. All 

other species, except L. dissectum, emerged by late April. Starting June 24, the field was irrigated 

with the drip system. A total of 3.73 inches of water was applied with the drip system from June 24 

to July 7. Thereafter the field was not irrigated. 

Plant stands for Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp., Lomatium triternatum, and L. grayi were 

uneven. Lomatium dissectum did not emerge. None of the species flowered in 2005. In early 

October, 2005, more seed was received from the Rocky Mountain Research Station for replanting. 

The blank lengths of row were replanted by hand in the Eriogonum umbellatum and Penstemon spp. 

plots. The Lomatium spp. plots had the entire row lengths replanted using the planter. The seed was 

replanted on October 26, 2005. In the spring of 2006, plant stand of the replanted species was 

excellent, except for Penstemon deustus. 

On April 11, 2006 seed of three globemallow species (Sphaeralcea parvifolia, S. grossularifolia, S. 

coccinea), two prairie clover species (Dalea searlsiae, D. ornata), and basalt milkvetch (Astragalus 

filipes) was planted at 30 seeds/ft of row (Table 1). The field was sprinkler irrigated until emergence. 

Emergence was poor. In late August of 2006 seed of the three globemallow species was harvested by 

77
hand. On November 9, 2006 the six forbs were flailed. On November 10, 2006 the six forbs were 

replanted. On November 11, the Penstemon deustus plots were replanted at 30 seeds/ft of row. 

Table 1. Forb species planted at the Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR 

(USDA, NRCS. 2009). 

Species Common names 

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulfur-flower buckwheat 

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon, Sand penstemon 

Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon, Hotrock penstemon 

Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon, Sagebrush penstemon 

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot 

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot Nineleaf desert parsley 

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot, Gray’s lomatium 

Sphaeralcea parvifolia Smallflower globemallow 

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow 

Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow, Red globemallow 

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover 

Dalea ornata Western prairie clover 

Astragalus filipes Basalt milkvetch 

Irrigation for Seed Production 

In April, 2006, the field was divided into plots 30 ft long. Each plot contained 4 rows each of E. 

umbellatum, P. acuminatus, P. speciosus, P. deustus, L. dissectum, L. triternatum, and L. grayi. The 

experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replicates. The 3 irrigation 

treatments were: a non irrigated check, 1 inch per irrigation, and 2 inches per irrigation. Each 

treatment received four irrigations that were applied approximately every 2 weeks starting with 

flowering of the forbs. The amount of water applied to each treatment was measured by a water 

meter and recorded after each irrigation to ensure correct water applications (Table 4). 

In March of 2007, the drip-irrigation system was modified to allow separate irrigation of the species 

due to differing growth habits. The three Lomatium spp. were irrigated together and P. deustus and

P. speciosus were irrigated together, but separately from the others. P. acuminatus and E. umbellatum

were irrigated individually. In early April, 2007 the three globemallow species, two prairie clover 

species, and basalt milkvetch were divided into plots with a drip-irrigation system to allow the same 

irrigation treatments as received by the other forbs. 

Irrigation dates can be found in Table 3 and irrigation amounts in Table 4. In 2007, irrigation 

treatments were inadvertently continued after the four irrigations were applied, as in 2006. Irrigation 

treatments for all species were continued until the last irrigation on June 24 in 2007. 

Soil volumetric water content was measured by neutron probe. The neutron probe was calibrated by 

taking soil samples and probe readings at 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths during installation of the access 

tubes. The soil water content was determined volumetrically from the soil samples and regressed 

against the neutron probe readings, separately for each soil depth. The regression equations were 

then used to transform the neutron probe readings during the season into volumetric soil water 

content. 

78
Flowering, Harvesting, and Seed Cleaning 

Flowering dates for each species are found in Table 2. The Eriogonum umbellatum and Penstemon

spp. plots produced seed in 2006, probably because they had emerged in the spring of 2005. The 

plant stand for P. deustus was too poor to result in reliable seed yield estimates. Replanting of P. 

deustus in the fall of 2006 did not result in adequate plant stand in the spring of 2007. Each year, the 

middle two rows of each plot were harvested when seed of each species was mature (Table 2) using 

the methods listed on Table 3. 

Eriogonum umbellatum seeds did not separate from the flowering structures in the combine; the 

unthreshed seed was taken to the U.S. Forest Service Lucky Peak Nursery (Boise, ID) and run 

through a dewinger to separate seed. The seed was further cleaned in a small clipper seed cleaner. 

Penstemon deustus seedpods were too hard to be opened in the combine; the unthreshed seed was 

precleaned in a small clipper seed cleaner and then seed pods were broken manually by rubbing the 

pods on a ribbed rubber mat. The seed was then cleaned again in the small clipper seed cleaner. 

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus were threshed in the combine and the seed was further 

cleaned using a small clipper seed cleaner. 

Cultural Practices in 2006 

On October 27, 2006, 50 lb P/acre and 2 lb Zn/acre were injected through the drip tape to all plots of 

Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon spp., and Lomatium spp. On November 11, 100 lb N/acre as 

urea was broadcast to all Lomatium spp. plots. On November 17, all plots of Eriogonum umbellatum, 

Penstemon spp. (except P. deustus), and Lomatium spp. had Prowl® at 1 lb ai/acre broadcast on the 

soil surface. 

Cultural Practices in 2007 

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus were sprayed with Aza-Direct® at 0.0062 lb ai/acre on May 

14 and May 29 for lygus bug (Lygus sp.) control. All plots of the three Sphaeralcea species were 

flailed on November 8, 2007. 

Cultural Practices in 2008 

On November 9, 2007 and on April 15, 2008, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots for 

weed control. 

Capture 2EC at 0.1lb ai/acre was sprayed on all plots of Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus on 

May 20 for lygus bug control. 

79
Table 2. Native forb seed harvest and cleaning by species, Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR. 

Species Number of 

harvests/year

Harvest method PrecleaningThreshing 

method

Cleaning 

method

Eriogonum umbellatum 1 combinea none dewingerd mechanical

Penstemon acuminatus 1 combineb none combine mechanical

Penstemon deustus 1 combinea mechanicalc hande mechanical

Penstemon speciosusf 1 combineb none combine mechanical

Lomatium dissectum 0 na na na na

Lomatium triternatum 2 hand hand none mechanical

Lomatium grayi 2 hand hand none mechanical

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 1 - 3 hand or combineb none combine none

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 1 - 3 hand or combineb none combine none

Sphaeralcea coccinea 1 - 3 hand or combineb none combine none

Dalea searlsiae 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanical

Dalea ornata 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanical

a

 Wintersteiger Nurserymaster small plot combine with dry bean concave. 

b Wintersteiger Nurserymaster small plot combine with alfalfa seed concave. For the Sphaeralcea species, 

flailing in the fall of 2007 resulted in more compact growth and one combine harvest in 2008. 

c

Clipper seed cleaner. 

d

Specialized seed threshing machine at USDA Lucky Peak Nursery. In 2007 and 2008, an adjustable handdriven corn grinder was used to thresh seed. 

e

Hard seed pods were broken by rubbing against a ribbed rubber mat. 

f

Harvested by hand in 2007 due to poor seed set. 

80
Table 3. Native forb flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species in 2006, 2007, and 2008, 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR. 

flowering irrigation

Species start peak end start end harvest

2006

Eriogonum umbellatum 19-May 20-Jul 19-May 30-Jun 3-Aug

Penstemon acuminatus 2-May 10-May 19-May 19-May 30-Jun 7-Jul

Penstemon deustus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 4-Aug

Penstemon speciosus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 13-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium grayi 19-May 30-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia

Sphaeralcea coccinea

Dalea searlsiae

Dalea ornata

2007

Eriogonum umbellatum 25-May 25-Jul 2-May 24-Jun 31-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 19-Apr 25-May 19-Apr 24-Jun 9-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun 23-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 5-Apr 24-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 1-Jun 5-Apr 24-Jun 29-Jun, 16-Jul

Lomatium grayi 5-Apr 10-May 5-Apr 24-Jun 30-May, 29-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 

13-Aug

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 

13-Aug

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 

13-Aug

Dalea searlsiae 20-Jun, 10-Jul

Dalea ornata 20-Jun, 10-Jul

2008

Eriogonum umbellatum 5-Jun 19-Jun 20-Jul 15-May 24-Jun 24-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 29-Apr 5-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 11-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 17-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 29-May

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 5-Jun 10-Apr 29-May 3-Jul

Lomatium grayi 25-Mar 15-May 10-Apr 29-May 30-May, 19-Jun

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Dalea searlsiae 19-Jun

Dalea ornata 19-Jun

81
Results and Discussion

The soil volumetric water content responded to the irrigation treatments (Figures 1 to 5). 

– Flowering and Seed Set 

Emergence for the two prairie clover (Dalea spp.) species in the spring of 2007 was again poor. 

Emergence for Penstemon deustus and for basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) was extremely poor; 

A. filipes produced negligible amounts of seed in 2007. 

Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus had poor seed set in 2007 partly due to a heavy lygus bug 

infestation that was not adequately controlled by the applied insecticides. In the Treasure Valley, the 

first hatch of lygus bugs occurs when 250 degree days (52 oF base) are accumulated. Data collected 

by an AgriMet weather station adjacent to the field indicate that the first lygus bug hatch occurred on 

May 14 in 2006, on May 1 in 2007, and on May 18 in 2008. Penstemon acuminatus and P. speciosus 

start flowering in early May. The earlier lygus bug hatch in 2007 probably resulted in harmful levels 

of lygus bugs being present during a larger part of the Penstemon spp. flowering period than in 2006 

or 2008. Poor seed set for P. acuminatus and P. speciosus was also related to poor vegetative growth 

in 2007 compared to 2006 and 2008. 

The three Sphaeralcea species (globemallow) showed a long flowering period (early May through 

September) in 2007. Multiple harvests were necessary because the seed falls out of the capsules once 

they are mature. The flailing of the three Sphaeralcea species in the fall of 2007 resulted in a more 

concentrated flowering in 2008, which allowed one mechanical harvest. 

– Seed Yields 

In 2006, seed yield of Eriogonum umbellatum increased with increasing water applied up to 8 inches, 

the highest amount tested (Table 5, Figure 6). In 2007 and 2008, seed yield showed a quadratic 

response to irrigation rate (Table 5, Figures 7 and 8). Seed yields were maximized by 8.1 inches and 

7.2 inches of water applied in 2007 and 2008, respectively. Averaged over the three years, seed yield 

of Eriogonum umbellatum increased with increasing water applied up to 8 inches, the highest amount 

tested (Figure 9). 

There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments for Penstemon 

acuminatus in 2006 (Table 5). Precipitation from March through June was 6.4 inches in 2006. The 

64-year average precipitation from March through June is 3.6 inches. The wet weather in 2006 could 

have attenuated the effects of the irrigation treatments. In 2007 and 2008, seed yield showed a 

quadratic response to irrigation rate (Table 5, Figures 10 and 11). Seed yields were maximized by 4.0 

and 8.5 inches of water applied in 2007 and 2008, respectively. 

In 2006, 2007, and 2008, seed yield of Penstemon speciosus showed a quadratic response to 

irrigation rate (Table 5, Figures 12 - 14). Seed yields were maximized by 4.3, 4.2, and 5.0 inches of 

water applied in 2006, 2007, and 2008, respectively. Averaged over the three years, seed yield of 

Penstemon speciosus was maximized by 4.8 inches of water applied (Figure 15). 

There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments for P. deustus in 2006 

or 2007. Both the replanting of the low stand areas in October 2005 and the replanting of the whole 

area in October 2006 resulted in very poor emergence and in plots with very low and uneven stands. 

82
Of the three Lomatium species, L. grayi had the most vigorous vegetative growth in 2007 and 2008. 

L. dissectum had very poor vegetative growth in 2006, 2007, and 2008. L. dissectum only produced 

very small amounts of flowers in 2008. Lomatium grayi and L. triternatum showed a trend for 

increasing seed yield with increasing irrigation rate in 2007. The highest irrigation rate resulted in 

significantly higher seed yield than the non-irrigated check. Seed yields of L. grayi and L. 

triternatum were substantially higher in 2008. In 2008, seed yields of L. grayi and L. triternatum

showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Table 5, Figures 16 and 17). Seed yields were 

maximized by 8.4 and 6.9 inches of water applied in 2008 for L. triternatum and L. grayi, 

respectively. Averaged over the two years, seed yield of L. triternatum and L. grayi were maximized 

by 8.5 and 7.1 inches of water applied, respectively. 

In 2007 and 2008, there was no significant difference in seed yield among irrigation treatments for 

the three Sphaeralcea species, with S. parvifolia having the highest seed yield. Seed yields for the 

three Sphaeralcea species were lower in 2008 than 2007. 

In 2007, there was no significant difference in seed yield among irrigation treatments for the two 

Dalea species, with D. ornata having the highest seed yield. Emergence for the two Dalea species 

was poor with plots having poor and uneven stand. The stand of the three Dalea species declined and 

was too poor for seed harvest in 2008. The three Dalea species were replanted in the fall of 2008. 

Conclusions

Subsurface drip irrigation systems are being tested for native seed production because they have two 

potential strategic advantages, a) low water use, and b) the buried drip tape provides water to the 

plants at depth, precluding stimulation of weed seed germination on the soil surface and keeping 

water away from native plant tissues that are not adapted to a wet environment. 

Knowledge about native forb seed production would help make commercial production of this seed 

feasible. Irrigation methods are being developed at the Oregon State University Malheur Experiment 

Station to help assure reliable seed production with reasonably high seed yields. Growers need to 

have economic return on their seed plantings, but forbs may not produce seed every year. Due to the 

arid environment, supplemental irrigation may be required for successful flowering and seed set 

many years because soil water reserves may be exhausted before seed formation. The total irrigation 

water requirements for these arid land species has been shown to be low, but it varied by species. 

Literature Cited: 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, N. Shaw, and A. DeBolt. 2007. Seed Production of 

Native Forbs Shows Little Response to Irrigation in a Wet Year. Oregon State University 

Agricultural Experiment Station Special Report 1075:13-20. 

USDA, NRCS. 2009. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 13 March 2009). National Plant 

Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA. 

83
84

Table 4. Irrigation treatments and actual amounts of water applied to native forbs in 2006, 2007, and 

2008. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR. 

Actual amount of water applied

Irrigation 

rates 

Lomatium 

spp.

Penstemon deustus,

P. speciosus

Penstemon 

acuminatus

Eriogonum 

umbellatum

Sphaeralcea spp. 

Dalea spp.

spp. 

Date ----------------------------------------------- inches per irrigation ------------------------------------------

19 May 2 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.23 

19 May 1 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.31 

2 Jun 2 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16 

2 Jun 1 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 

20 Jun 2 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 

20 Jun 1 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 

30 Jun 2 2.26 2.26 2.26 2.26 

2006 

30 Jun 1 1.12 1.12 1.12 1.12 

total 2 8.69 8.69 8.69 8.69

total 1 4.89 4.89 4.89 4.89 

5 Apr 2 2.00 

5 Apr 1 1.28 

19 Apr 2 2.78 2.78 

19 Apr 1 1.34 1.34 

2 May 2 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 

2 May 1 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 

16 May 2 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.62 

16 May 1 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 

30 May 2 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 

30 May 1 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 

10 Jun 2 2.46 2.46 2.46 2.46 2.46 

10 Jun 1 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 

24 Jun 2 2.59 2.59 2.59 2.59 2.59 

2007 

24 Jun 1 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.41 

total 2 17.6 15.6 12.9 12.9 10.2

total 1 9.2 7.9 6.5 6.5 5.1 

10-Apr 2 2.34 

10-Apr 1 1.81 

29-Apr 2 2.02 2.02 2.02 

29-Apr 1 1.02 1.02 1.02 

15-May 2 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 

15-May 1 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 

29-May 2 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 

29-May 1 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48 

11-Jun 2 2.06 2.06 2.06 2.06 

11-Jun 1 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 

24-Jun 2 2.10 2.10 

2008 

24-Jun 1 1.00 1.00 

total 2 8.59 8.31 8.31 8.38 8.38

total 1 5.41 4.75 4.75 4.74 4.74 
Table 5. Native forb seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) in 2006, 2007, and 

2008. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

a

planted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005.

 bplanted March, 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005 and whole area replanted in 

October 2006. Yields in 2006 are based on small areas with adequate stand. Yields in 2007 are based on 

whole area of very poor and uneven stand.

 cplanted March, 2005, whole area replanted in October 2005. 

 dplanted spring 2006, whole area replanted in November 2006. 

 eLSD (0.10). 

Species 2006 2007 2008

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

------------------------------------------------------lb/acre ----------------------------------------------------

Eriogonum 

umbellatuma

155.3 214.4 371.6 92.9 79.6 164.8 193.8 79.8 121.3 221.5 245.2 51.7

Penstemon 

acuminatusa

538.4 611.1 544.0 NS 19.3 50.1 19.1 25.5e 56.2 150.7 187.1 79.0

Penstemon 

deustusb

1246.4 1200.8 1068.6 NS 120.3 187.7 148.3 NS ----- very poor stand --

--

Penstemon 

speciosusa

163.5 346.2 213.6 134.3 2.5 9.3 5.3 4.7e 94.0 367.0 276.5 179.6

Lomatium 

dissectumc

---- no flowering ---- ---- no flowering ---- -- very little flowering 

--

Lomatium 

triternatumc

---- no flowering ---- 2.3 17.5 26.7 16.9e 195.3 1060.9 1386.9 410.0

Lomatium grayic ---- no flowering ---- 36.1 88.3 131.9 77.7e 393.3 1287.0 1444.9 141.0

Sphaeralcea 

parvifoliad

1062.6 850.7 957.9 NS 436.2 569.1 544.7 NS

Sphaeralcea 

grossulariifoliad

442.6 324.8 351.9 NS 275.3 183.3 178.7 NS

Sphaeralcea 

coccinead

279.8 262.1 310.3 NS 298.7 304.1 205.2 NS

Dalea searlsiaed 11.5 10.2 16.4 NS ----- very poor stand --

Dalea ornatad 47.4 27.3 55.6 NS ----- very poor stand --

85
130 142 154 166 178 190

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

flowering starts

flowering ends

day 201

 Figure 1. Soil volumetric water content for Eriogonum umbellatum 

 over time in 2008. Soil volumetric water content is the combined 

 average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

 May 15 and ended on June 24. Arrows denote irrigations. E. umbellatum 

was harvested on July 24 (day 205). Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

Ontario, OR, 2008. 

120 132 144 156 168 180

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

flowering starts flowering ends

 Figure 2. Soil volumetric water content for Penstemon acuminatus 

 over time in 2008. Soil volumetric water content is the combined 

 average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

 April 29 and ended on June 11. Arrows denote irrigations. 

P. acuminatus was harvested on July 11 (day 192). Malheur 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

86
120 132 144 156 168 180

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

flowering starts

flowering ends

 Figure 3. Soil volumetric water content for Penstemon speciosus 

 over time in 2008. Soil volumetric water content is the combined 

 average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

 April 29 and ended on June 11. Arrows denote irrigations. 

 P. speciosus was harvested on July 17 (day 198). Malheur 

 Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

120 130 140 150 160 170

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

flowering starts

day 115

flowering ends

irrigation starts

 day 100

 Figure 4. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium triternatum 

 over time in 2008. Soil volumetric water content is the combined 

 average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

 April 10 and ended on May 29. Arrows denote irrigations. 

 L. triternatum was harvested on July 3 (day 184). Malheur 

 Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

87
120 132 144 156 168 180

Day of year

10

15

20

25

30

Volumetric water content, %

8 inches 4 inches 0 inches

flowering starts:

day 84

flowering ends irrigations start

day 100

 Figure 5. Soil volumetric water content for Lomatium grayi 

 over time in 2008. Soil volumetric water content is the combined 

 average at the 8-, 20-, and 32-inch depths. Irrigations started on 

 April 10 and ended on May 29. Arrows denote irrigations. 

 L. grayi was harvested on May 30 (day 151) and June 19 (day 170). 

 Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

048

Total water applied, inches

0

100

200

300

400

500

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 137.9 + 27.8X

R2 = 0.68, P = 0.05

 Figure 6. Eriogonum umbellatum seed yield response to irrigation water 

applied in 2006. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

88
048

Total water applied, inches

0

100

200

300

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 79.6 + 28.3X - 1.75X2

R2 = 0.69, P = 0.05

 Figure 7. Eriogonum umbellatum seed yield response to irrigation water 

 applied in 2007. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

 Ontario, OR, 2008. 

048

Total water applied, inches

0

100

200

300

400

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 121.3 + 34.6X - 2.39X 2

R2 = 0.73, P = 0.01

Figure 8. Eriogonum umbellatum seed yield response to irrigation water 

applied in 2008. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

Ontario, OR, 2008. 

89
048

Total water applied, inches

0

100

200

300

400

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 111.4 + 20.5X

R2 = 0.87, P = 0.001

Figure 9. Average annual Eriogonum umbellatum seed yield response to 

irrigation water applied averaged over three years. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon 

State University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

048

Total water applied, inches

0

25

50

75

100

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 19.3 + 15.4X - 1.93X2

R2 = 0.44, P = 0.10

Figure 10. Penstemon acuminatus seed yield response to irrigation water 

applied in 2007. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

Ontario, OR, 2008. 

90
048

Total water applied, inches

0

100

200

300

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 56.2 + 30.9X - 1.82X2

R2 = 0.63, P = 0.05

Figure 11. Penstemon acuminatus seed yield response to irrigation water 

applied in 2008. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

Ontario, OR, 2008. 

048

Total water applied, inches

0

100

200

300

400

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 163.5 + 85.1X - 9.9X 2

R2 = 0.66, P = 0.05

 Figure 12. Penstemon speciosus seed yield response to irrigation 

water applied in 2006. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

91
048

Total water applied, inches

0

5

10

15

20

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 2.50 + 3.22X - 0.38X2

R2 = 0.48, P = 0.10

 Figure 13. Penstemon speciosus seed yield response to irrigation water 

 applied in 2007. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

 Ontario, OR, 2008. 

048

Total water applied, inches

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 94.0 + 113.7X - 11.4X 2

R2 = 0.56, P = 0.05

Figure 14. Penstemon speciosus seed yield response to irrigation 

water applied in 2008. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

92
048

Total water applied, inches

0

100

200

300

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 83.9 + 58.6X - 6.06X2

R2 = 0.57, P = 0.05

Figure 15. Average annual Penstemon speciosus seed yield 

response to irrigation water applied averaged over three years. 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, 

OR, 2008. 

048

Total water applied, inches

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 98.8 + 144.2X - 8.5X 2

R2 = 0.77, P = 0.01

Y = 3.26 + 3.06X

R2 = 0.52, P = 0.01

Y = 195.3 + 283.9X - 16.9X 2

R2 = 0.77, P = 0.01

2007 2008 Average

 Figure 16. Annual and two year average Lomatium triternatum seed yield 

 response to irrigation water applied. Malheur Experiment Station, 

 Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2008. 

93
0 4

Total water applied, inches

Figure 17. Annual and two year average Lomatium grayi seed yield response to 

irrigation water applied. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, 

OR, 2008. 

8

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Seed yield, lb/acre

Y = 98.8 + 144.2X - 8.5X2

R2 = 0.77, P = 0.01

Y = 3.26 + 3.06X

R2

 = 0.52, P = 0.01

Y = 195.3 + 283.9X - 16.9X2

R2 = 0.77, P = 0.01

2007 2008 Average

 

Publications: 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and N. Shaw. 2008. Subsurface drip irrigation for native 

wildflower seed production. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station, Special 

Report 1087:183-196. http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2007/ForbIrrigation2007.html

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, and L.D. Saunders. 2008. Scarification of basalt milkvetch (Astragalus 

filipes) seed for improved emergence. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Special Report 1087:204-205. 

http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2007/BasaltMilkvetchEmergence2007.html 

Presentations: 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and J. Ishida 2008. Native forb seed production in 

response to SDI in 2007. Great Basin Native Plant Selection & Increase Project Annual Meeting, 

Salt Lake, UT. 

Sampangi, R.K., S.K. Mohan, C.C. Shock, E.B.G. Feibert, and D.A. Glawe. 2008. Powdery mildew 

of onion caused by Leveillula taurica and the possible epidemiological role of alternative hosts in 

Idaho and Oregon. Am. Phytopathalogical Soc. July 26-30, 2008. Minneapolis, MN. 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, E.P. Eldredge, L.B. Jensen, N.L. Shaw, S.K. Mohan, 

R.K. Sampangi, and H.R. Pappu. 2008. Progress on micro-irrigation in Oregon 2008. Regional 

working group W1128: Reducing Barriers to Adoption of Microirrigation. Portland, OR. October 

22-24. PowerPoint presentation and a written report. 

94
Management Applications: 

The report above describes practices that can be immediately implemented by seed growers. 

Products: 

Seed produced from these plantings was used to establish commercial seed production fields. 

A field tour for growers was conducted in May 2008. 

A tour of the seed production trials was incorporated into the annual Malheur Experiment Station 

Field Day activities on July 9, 2008.

 

95
Project Title: Growth Characteristics of Five Great Basin Forbs and 

Interactions between Forbs and Grasses 

Project: Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

Hilary Parkinson 

Montana State University 

Land Resources and Environmental Science 

P.O. Box 173120 

Bozeman, Montana 59717-3120 

406.599.3459 

parkinsonh@gmail.com 

Catherine Zabinski 

Montana State University 

Land Resources and Environmental Science 

P.O. Box 173120 

Bozeman, MT 59717-3120 

406.994.4227 

cathyz@montana.edu 

 

Project Description: 

Objectives

The lack of information on Great Basin forb growth, and competitive interactions between forbs and 

both native and exotic grasses limit the ability of managers to knowledgably select mixtures that limit 

reductions in growth from interspecific competition. Greenhouse and field experiments were 

conducted to address the following objectives for a group of forbs selected for restoration in the Great 

Basin: 

1. Measure differences in forb biomass, relative growth rates, root to mass ratios. 

2. Assess the impact of native grasses on forb seedling growth by comparing forb biomass and 

relative growth rates when growing with two different native grasses to growth alone, and 

growth with the invasive annual cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.). 

3. Measure how forb seedling biomass and survival respond to increasing densities of 

cheatgrass, and whether forbs differ in their response to cheatgrass. 

Methods

In the greenhouse experiment, five forbs--sulfur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum Torr.), 

biscuitroot (Lomatium sp.), hoary tansyaster (Machaeranthera canescens (Pursh) A. Gray), royal 

penstemon (Penstemon speciosus Douglas ex Lindl.), and Munro’s globemallow (Sphaeralcea 

munroana (Douglas) Spach)--were grown for 12 weeks in containers 45 cm deep and 15 cm wide 

(11.5 liters) in a mix of 1/3 top soil (silt loam), 1/3 washed concrete sand, and 1/3 peat moss. After 6, 

9 and 12 weeks of growth, root and shoot material of six replicates per species were harvested to 

96
obtain biomass, relative growth rates of root and shoot material, and root mass ratios. Additionally, 

differences in root morphology were observed and recorded. 

In the same experiment, forbs were grown with a grass neighbor--either squirreltail (Elymus 

elymoides (Raf.) Swezey), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda J. Presl), or cheatgrass to compare the 

effect of grasses on forb seedlings to growth alone. 

In the field experiment, four forbs--sulfur-flower buckwheat, Gray’s biscuitroot (Lomatium grayi 

(J.M. Coult. & Rose) J.M. Coult. & Rose), royal penstemon and yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) 

were seeded in fall 2006 at two locations in the Snake River Plain of southern Idaho, both within 30 

miles of Boise, ID: the Lucky Peak Nursery (43.5829, -115.9938, 975 m, 361 mm average annual 

precipitation) and the Orchard Research Site (43.3276, -116.0077, 973 m, 292 mm annual 

precipitation). To test the effects of cheatgrass density on forb seedling survival and growth, five 

cheatgrass densities: 0 (control), 45, 90, 180 and 360 plants m-2 were randomly assigned to main 

plots. In single-species subplots, forb seed was planted 30-cm apart in two rows of four spots (8 forb 

plants per 1.35 m-2 subplot). The treatments, cheatgrass seeding levels and forb species, were 

repeated in three complete blocks at Lucky Peak and Orchard. Cheatgrass density was recorded as 

the number of plants within a 30-cm diameter frame (0.071 m-2) centered on three randomly selected 

forbs per subplot. Forb response was measured using forb shoot biomass clipped at ground level and 

dried to a constant biomass. All forbs were clipped in late July except biscuitroot, which was 

collected as it senesced to prevent the loss of plant material. Forb biomass for the Orchard site is for 

buckwheat and yarrow only. Small mammals, primarily ground squirrels, began consuming 

cheatgrass in mid spring, and consumed all the penstemon and biscuitroot by early summer. For 

details see Parkinson (2008). 

Results and Discussion

Forb Growth (when growing alone)

Biomass: There were large differences among forbs in biomass in the greenhouse and field 

experiment (Table 1, average biomass of forbs in the field experiment is from the control plots, plants 

growing without cheatgrass). In both experiments, the biomass of biscuitroot was 2-3 orders of 

magnitude smaller than that of the other forbs (Table 1). This is partially explained by its shorter 

period of growth. Biscuitroot entered dormancy after 9 weeks of growth in the greenhouse and after 

12 weeks of growth in the field. In the greenhouse, the biomass differed significantly among all 

forbs (Table 1). For the four species that did not enter dormancy after 12 weeks of growth, Munro 

globemallow produced the greatest biomass, while buckwheat produced the least (Table 1). In the 

field experiment at the Lucky Peak site, biscuitroot shoot biomass was only a fraction of the size of 

the other forbs, similar to the greenhouse results. By contrast, buckwheat and penstemon biomass 

were similar. Yarrow biomass was more than five times greater than that of either of these species. 

At Orchard, the shoot biomass of both yarrow and buckwheat were 10 to 15 times smaller than plants 

of the same species at Lucky Peak. This is likely due to differences in annual precipitation between 

the sites. Orchard averages 50 mm less per year than Lucky Peak, and precipitation was below 

average at Orchard in 2007 (Parkinson 2008). At both sites, yarrow was more than four times the 

size of buckwheat. 

Root growth and morphology: Forbs exhibited large differences in the allocation of biomass to roots 

versus shoots (Table 1, based on growth in the greenhouse-root biomass was not collected in the field 

experiment). Biscuitroot had the largest root:mass ratio (RMR) at 0.83. The RMR of penstemon was 

97
similar to that of buckwheat, tanseyaster and globemallow at week 6; but after 12 weeks of growth, 

its RMR was 0.48, 45% greater than for the other three species (Table 1). 

In the greenhouse, forb roots exhibited two main growth forms. The roots of biscuitroot, buckwheat, 

and tansyaster were oriented primarily vertically and lateral branching was absent, or nearly absent, 

with roots not growing beyond the shoot canopy. In contrast, the roots of penstemon and 

globemallow had a minimum of three main divisions in the root immediately below the soil surface; 

these extended laterally more than vertically until they reached the container walls. Soil pits were 

excavated at both field sites to observe root growth. Yarrow roots grew laterally beyond the shoot 

crown, and were strongly conical, while roots of Gray’s biscuitroot were tap-rooted with no lateral 

branching, similar to biscuitroot root production in the greenhouse. 

 

Phenology: Emergence among yarrow, sulfur-flower buckwheat, Gray’s biscuitroot, and showy 

penstemon differed by up to 8 weeks in the field. Biscuitroot emerged in late February at both sites, 

with no additional emergents appearing after mid-April. Buckwheat emergence began in late March, 

with the most seedlings emerging by mid-April at both sites. Yarrow and penstemon began to 

emerge in early April. By mid-April, half of the yarrow had emerged at Lucky Peak, and slightly 

more at Orchard. Penstemon had an unusually low emergence at Lucky Peak, all of which 

germinated by mid-April, but at Orchard, less than half had emerged by mid-April, with all emerging 

by mid-May. 

Plants in arid environments like the Great Basin are considered most vulnerable to competition as 

seedlings, and forb seedlings whose growth is stunted in the spring by competition from other plants 

are less likely to survive the dry, hot summer (Cline et al. 1977, Aguirre & Johnson 1991, Dyer & 

Rice 1999). The differences in forb phenology, root morphology and biomass suggest mixtures that 

are likely to enhance resource partitioning spatially or temporally, as well as combinations likely to 

increase inter-specific competition. The early germination, and vertically orientated root growth of 

biscuitroot and buckwheat contrast with the later germinating and lateral root growth of yarrow, 

penstemon and globemallow. The smaller biomass of buckwheat and biscuitroot also suggests these 

two are less likely to pre-empt resources and reduce the growth of the later germinating species. In 

contrast, both yarrow and Munro’s globemallow obtained a high biomass relative to the other forbs, 

and have similar root morphologies. These two are more likely to overlap in resource use, increasing 

inter-specific competition if seeded together. However, as seed availability increases, it may be 

worth it to risk some reductions in biomass or survival from inter-specific competition between these 

larger species in order to maximize biomass in the first growing season, thereby sequestering more 

resources and potentially reducing invasibility by cheatgrass (James et al. 2008). 

Impacts of Native Grasses on Forb Growth 

Effects of grasses on forb biomass: The effect of a grass neighbor on forb biomass varied depending 

on whether the grass was native or exotic. When growing with a native grass, the biomass of all four 

forbs was no different than when growing alone (Figure 1). In contrast, the biomass of all forbs was 

greatly reduced when growing with cheatgrass. Reductions ranged from 65% (globemallow) to 92% 

(penstemon). 

The uniform response in biomass of all the forbs to cheatgrass and the absence of a response to native 

grasses is likely attributable to large differences in the biomass of cheatgrass relative to the native 

98
grasses. Averaged across all forb neighbors, cheatgrass obtained a biomass of 24 g (±0.52) after 12 

weeks of growth. This was more than three times the biomass of squirreltail (7.3 g ±0.54) and more 

than 12 times that of Sandberg bluegrass (1.8 g ±0.22). While an unusually high seeding density and 

recruitment of native grasses relative to forbs would likely reduce forb seedling biomass, concerns 

about inter-specific competition from native grasses during the early stages of growth is clearly less 

important than competition from cheatgrass. 

 

Effects of grasses on forb relative growth rates (RGR): Compared to biomass, the RGR of forb 

seedlings was more affected by having a native grass neighbor (Figure 2). The effect of a grass 

neighbor on forb RGR depended on the identity of both the grass neighbor and the forb. The RGR of 

two forbs, penstemon and globemallow, was reduced by 28% and 19%, respectively, when growing 

with squirreltail compared to growth alone. The native grasses did not affect the RGR of the other 

two forbs, tansyaster and buckwheat, relative to growth alone. However, the RGR of buckwheat was 

greater when growing with Sandberg bluegrass than with squirreltail. Consistent with the analysis 

using biomass, cheatgrass reduced the RGR of all the forbs. Reductions ranged from 36% for 

globemallow to 79% for penstemon. 

 

While growth with squirreltail did not change the biomasses of globemallow or penstemon after 12 

weeks, the reductions in RGR mean that at some point in the future, these forbs will be significantly 

smaller than a cohort growing alone. Potential impacts of reduced size could be delay in reproductive 

maturity, reduced seed set or seed quality. However, these side-effects may be offset by the potential 

for squirreltail to reduce the invasibility of cheatgrass (Booth et al. 2003, Beckstead & Augspurger 

2004, James et al. 2008). 

 

Competitive interactions with squirreltail did not correspond to forb size, as the biomass of both the 

largest and second smallest forbs were reduced while the biomass of the other forbs was not affected. 

There are a variety of explanations: the absence of a response in buckwheat may be due to its small 

biomass relative to that of penstemon and globemallow (Figure 1), meaning there was no competition 

for a limiting resource between buckwheat and squirreltail. And while tansyaster was roughly twice 

the size of penstemon, the absence of a response in the RGR of tansyaster may be due to greater 

resource use efficiency compared to penstemon. However, the root morphology of both buckwheat 

and tansyaster was distinctly different from that of penstemon and globemallow. The roots of 

buckwheat and tansyaster were nearly tap-rooted, oriented vertically, and with minimal lateral 

branching. The roots of penstemon and globemallow had a minimum of three divergent branches 

immediately below the soil surface and the roots grew more laterally (Parkinson, 2008). This means 

that the root zones of penstemon and globemallow had much greater overlap with the grasses than did 

the root zones of buckwheat and tansyaster. Although based on a small sample size, this data 

suggests that contrasting root morphologies of buckwheat and tansyaster versus the native grass 

reduced inter-specific competition. Therefore, when composing species mixtures, contrasting root 

morphologies may be an additional trait to consider to increase diversity and reduce inter-specific 

competition among desirable species. 

– Effects of Cheatgrass on Forb Seedling Survival and Growth 

Effect on Survival: At Lucky Peak, mortality increased for only two of the forbs, yarrow and 

biscuitroot, but only at the two highest cheatgrass seeding levels (Parkinson 2008). Assuming that 

the biscuitroot plants that senesced early (prior to late May) actually died rather than entered 

dormancy early, then seedling mortality of these two species was near 100% when growing with 

99
cheatgrass at densities greater than 360 plants m-2 (no yarrow were alive at the highest seedling level 

by mid-May, and 15 of 16 biscuitroot in the highest seeding level senesced prior to May 26th). 

Survival was approximately 50% lower in plots seeded with 180 cheatgrass plants m-2 compared to 

the control. In contrast to these two forbs, the total number of buckwheat and penstemon plants was 

not different among cheatgrass seeding levels at Lucky Peak. However, there was an unusually small 

sample size of penstemon plants at Lucky Peak, limiting the statistical power of analysis of these 

results. At Orchard, the field site with high herbivory levels, total number of forbs did not differ 

among cheatgrass seeding levels for any of the forbs. 

Effect on biomass: At Lucky Peak, scatter plots of forb biomass versus cheatgrass density show the 

biomass of all forbs except biscuitroot declined abruptly as cheatgrass densities increased from 0 to 

100 plants m-2 (Figure 3). Not until densities were greater than 200 cheatgrass plants m-2 were there 

large reductions in biscuitroot biomass (biomass was reduced by 82% at densities >200 plants m-2 

compared to the control). The majority of buckwheat plants were reduced by 90-99% at densities 

greater than 85 cheatgrass plants m-2. For yarrow, the biomass of plants in plots with cheatgrass 

densities greater than 70 plants m-2 was reduced by 90-99% compared to the biomass of plants 

growing in the control plots. The biomass of all penstemon growing with cheatgrass was reduced by 

90-99% compared to plants in the control, even where densities were as low as 14 or 28 cheatgrass

plants m-2. 

Direct comparisons between sites are difficult based on the reductions in cheatgrass biomass and loss 

of biscuitroot and penstemon from herbivory at Orchard. Additionally, lower than average 

precipitation levels reduced the biomass of the remaining forbs. Buckwheat and yarrow plants in the 

control plots were more than 10 times smaller at Orchard than at Lucky Peak. Despite reductions in 

biomass of both forbs and cheatgrass, which we would expect to reduce competitive interactions, 

trends for buckwheat and yarrow were similar at both sites, large reduction in biomass occurred at 

densities less than 100 plant m-2 (Figure 4). 

Revegetation will typically occur in the first year following a major disturbance such as wildfire 

when cheatgrass densities are typically at their lowest (or following some sort of cheatgrass control). 

While actual emergence will vary based on site history and seasonal climactic patterns, research 

suggests that cheatgrass densities can be as low as 10 plants m-2 during the first growing season 

following a fire, but can increase to 10,000 plants m-2 within 3 years (Young & Evans 1985). 

Assuming these low levels, and that seeding projects are not postponed, this research suggests that 

mortality from cheatgrass competition should be low. While mortality for two of the forbs 

(biscuitroot and yarrow) was 50% and close to 100% in plots seeded at 180 and 360 cheatgrass plants 

m

-2 respectively, cheatgrass did not reduce survival of any of the forbs in plots seeded with 45 or 90 

plants m-2. 

However, if densities are closer to 40 or 60 plants m-2 rather than 10 plants m-2 in the first year 

following fire, some forbs may grow better than others with cheatgrass. The rate of decrease of forb 

biomass with increasing cheatgrass density varied between forb species based on significant 

differences in the slopes of ln transformed biomass versus cheatgrass density (Parkinson 2008). 

Biscuitroot biomass declined more slowly with increasing cheatgrass density than the other three 

forbs, and buckwheat responded better than yarrow at Lucky Peak. This suggests that smaller forbs 

are less affected by cheatgrass than larger forbs. However, biscuitroot and buckwheat also had the 

100
earliest germination, 4-8 weeks earlier than yarrow and penstemon. Germinating earlier when water 

is more available could allow the development of a larger root system before competitive interactions 

with cheatgrass increased. Additionally, both biscuitroot and buckwheat have roots that are taprooted, or more vertically oriented, contrasting with cheatgrass, potentially reducing competition via 

spatial resource partitioning. The roots of penstemon and yarrow were more fibrous and conical 

similar to cheatgrass, increasing resource overlap. 

Future studies will be needed to determine the mechanism allowing some forbs to respond better than 

others, but based on these results, the most important trait could be smaller biomass, early phenology, 

contrasting root morphology, or rather a combination of these. 

Publications: 

Parkinson, H.; Zabinski, C.; Shaw, N. 2009. Effects of native grasses and cheatgrass on the growth 

of five Great Basin forbs. Boise, ID: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 

Technical Note. In review. 

Parkinson, H.; Zabinski, C.; Shaw, N. 2009. Growth characteristics of six forbs selected for 

restoration in the Great Basin. Boise, ID: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research 

Station. Technical Note. In review. 

Parkinson, H.; Zabinski, C.; Shaw, N. 2009. The response of four Great Basin forbs to increasing 

densities of cheatgrass. Boise, ID: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 

Technical Note. In review. 

Parkinson, H. 2008. Impacts of native grasses and cheatgrass on Great Basin forb development. 

Thesis. Bozeman: Montana State University, Bozeman. 75 p. Thesis. 

Presentations: 

Parkinson, H.; Zabinski, C.; Shaw, N.; Cox, R. 2008. Assessing the effects of grass competition on 

Great Basin forbs. Society for Range Management and American Forage and Grassland Council 

2008 Joint Annual Meeting, Lexington, KY. Poster. 

Parkinson, H.; Zabinski, C.; Shaw, N. 2007. Reseeding native forbs in the Great Basin: A study of the 

growth patterns of five forbs and interactions with grass neighbors”. Ecological Society of 

America and Society for Ecological Restoration Joint Meeting, San Jose, CA. Poster. 

Management Applications: 

The differences found in forb seedling biomass, phenology and root morphology suggest seeding 

mixtures that will enhance resource partitioning spatially or temporally among forbs. Future studies 

can test this more explicitly. Assuming there is not an unusually high seeding rate and establishment 

of native grasses relative to forbs, the forb-native grass interactions observed in the greenhouse study 

suggest that negative interactions are not likely among the forb seedlings and Sandberg bluegrass, but 

are more likely to occur between squirreltail and penstemon, and squirreltail and globemallow. 

The differences observed in root morphologies in the greenhouse may have contributed to the ability 

of some to avoid competition from squirreltail. Both buckwheat and tansyaster are nearly tap-rooted. 

The roots are oriented vertically with minimal lateral branching. By contrast, the roots of penstemon 

101
and globemallow are more fibrous with a minimum of three divergent branches immediately below 

the soil surface and roots that grow laterally (Parkinson, 2008). This results in greater overlap 

between the root zones of penstemon and globemallow with squirreltail than with the root zones of 

buckwheat and tansyaster. Contrasting root morphologies may be an additional trait to consider when 

composing species mixtures to increase diversity and reduce inter-specific competition among 

desirable species. 

This research emphasizes that to increase survival and establishment of forbs, seeding must be done 

promptly following a disturbance such as fire when densities are expected to be at their lowest, or 

only after some control treatment has been done. If forbs can become established when cheatgrass 

densities are low, the same forbs that respond poorly in the first year of competition may be 

important in creating communities resistant to invasion by cheatgrass as increases in competitive 

interactions means greater overlap of resource use. Forbs with shallower, more fibrous roots, or 

greater biomass may respond poorly as seedlings, such as yarrow relative to biscuitroot or 

buckwheat, but may be capable of resisting cheatgrass invasion in subsequent years, given a year to 

establish. To test this, forb communities could be established in research plots for one or more years 

prior to seeding with cheatgrass. 

Products: 

Two manuscripts will be submitted to peer-reviewed journals to summarize the results of this 

research. 

102
Table 1. Summary of data obtained in greenhouse and field experiment. All forbs except the globemallow grown in the 

greenhouse experiment were collected in southern Idaho. 

Common name Common 

yarrow 

Sulfur-flower 

buckwheat 

Gray’s 

biscuitroot1

Hoary aster Royal 

Penstemon 

Munro’s 

globemallow2

Species Achillea 

millefolium 

Eriogonum 

umbellatum 

Lomatium 

grayi 

Machaeranthera 

canescens 

Penstemon 

speciosus 

Sphaeralcea 

munroana 

Family Asteraceae Polygonaceae Apiaceae Asteraceae Scrophulariaceae Malvaceae 

Greenhouse 

Total biomass, 

12 weeks 

Field 

experiment 

only 

0.46 ±0.12 a 0.08 ±0.003 b 3.38 ±0.5 c 1.49 ±0.33 d 24.09 ±2.02 e 

Root mass ratio 0.23 ±0.02 a 0.83 ±0.01 b 0.29 ±0.01 a 0.48 ±0.02 c 0.24 ±0.02 a 

Root RGR 0.48 ±0.03 a 3 0.48 ±0.04 a 0.72 ±0.03 b 0.53 ±0.03 a 

Shoot RGR 0.38 ±0.03 ab 3 0.36 ±0.04 a 0.41 ±0.03 b 0.40 ±0.03 ab 

Root 

morphology 

Lateral 

branching 

(based on 

soil pits 

from field 

experiment) 

Tap root-like 

(one long, 

thin root, & 

lateral 

branches 

small or 

absent) 

Tap-rooted Tap-rooted 

(with only small 

secondary roots 

off main root) 

Fibrous rooted 

with lateral 

branching 

Fibrous rooted 

with lateral 

branching 

Field Experiment 

Shoot biomass 

Lucky Peak 16.6 ±2.94 3.94 ±0.72 0.04 ±0.005 Field 

experiment only 

2.45 ±1.15 

Orchard 1.62 ±0.18 0.25 ±0.03 All consumed 

by small 

mammals 

 All consumed 

by small 

mammals 

An insufficient 

number 

germinated for 

analysis at 

both sites 

Emergence4 early to 

mid-April 

late March late February mid-April early April 

Forb 

palatability to 

small 

mammals5 

Very low. Low. Very High. 

All consumed 

by mid-May. 

 Very high. All 

consumed by 

mid-May. 

The few that 

emerged were 

not eaten. 

1. Lomatium seed for the the greenhouse experiment was collected at the same location as the L. grayi, but was 

likely L. ambiguum. 

2. Sphaeralcea munroana was used in the greenhouse, and S. grossulariafolia in the field experiment. Less 

than five S. grossulariafolia germinated in total between both field sites; only relative emergence data is 

presented. 

3. Relative growth rate was computed using biomass harvested at 6, 9, and 12 weeks of growth. Because this 

species became dormant after 9 weeks of growth, it was not appropriate to compute RGR or compare to the 

other species. 

4. Based on emergence at the two field locations in 2007. Actual dates are likely to vary based on annual 

climate and elevation, but emergence dates relative to other forbs are expected to be the same. 

5. Ground squirrels and badgers were observed at the Orchard Research Site despite electric fencing and 

chicken wire buried to a depth of >30cm to exclude them. Actual forb use by each of these two mammals was 

not determined. 

103
Buckwheat Penstemon Tansyaster Globemallow

RGR 0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Alone 

Sandberg 

Squirreltail 

Cheatgrass 

ab

a

b

c

a

abb

c

a a

a

b

a

abbc

c

Figure 1. Forb biomass after 12 weeks of growth 

when growing alone and with a grass neighbor (±1 

SE). Note the second y-axis on the right corresponds 

to the biomass of globemallow. Letters represent 

significant differences among neighbor treatments 

within a forb species based on the Tukey multiple 

comparisons test (p<0.05). 

 Figure 2. Relative growth rate of forbs when 

growing alone and with a native grass (±1 SE). 

Letters represent significant differences among 

neighbor treatments within a forb species based 

on the Tukey multiple comparisons test (p<005). 

Yarrow

0 100 200 300

0

5

10

15

20

25 Buckwheat

0 100 200 300

1

3

5

7 Biscuitroot

0 100 200 300

Shoot biomass (g)

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04 Penstemon

Cheatgrass plants m-2

0 100 200 300

0

1

2

3

4

Figure 3. Forb biomass (g) by cheatgrass plants m-2 at Lucky Peak. Note different y-axis 

scales. 

Yarrow

Cheatgrass plants m-2

0 100 200 300

0

2

4

6

8 Buckwheat

0 100 200 300

Shoot biomass (g)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 4. Forb biomass (g) by B. tectorum plants 

m-2 at Orchard. Note different y-axis scales. 

104
Literature Cited:

Aguirre, L., and D. A. Johnson. 1991. Influence of temperature and cheatgrass competition on 

seedling development of two bunchgrasses. Journal of Range Management 44:347-354. 

Beckstead, J., and C. K. Augspurger. 2004. An experimental test of resistance to cheatgrass invasion: 

limiting resources at different life stages. Biological Invasions 6:417-432. 

Booth, M. S., M. M. Caldwell, and J. M. Stark. 2003. Overlapping resource use in three Great Basin 

species: implications for community invasibility and vegetation dynamics. Journal of Ecology 91:36-

48. 

Cline, J. F., D. W. Uresk, and W. H. Rickard. 1977. Comparison of soil-water used by a sagebrushbunchgrass and a cheatgrass community. Journal of Range Management 30:199-201. 

Dyer, A. R., and K. J. Rice. 1999. Effects of competition on resource availability and growth of a 

California bunchgrass. Ecology 80:2697-2710. 

James, J. J., K. W. Davies, R. L. Sheley, and Z. T. Aanderud. 2008. Linking nitrogen partitioning and 

species abundance to invasion resistance in the Great Basin. Oecologia 156:637-648. 

Parkinson, H. 2008. Impacts of native grasses and cheatgrass on Great Basin forb development. 

Montana State University. 

Young, J.A., and R.A. Evans. 1985. Demography of Bromus tectorum in Artemisia communities, p. 

489-501. In: D.J. White, ed. The population structure of vegetation. Dr. W. Junk Publishers. 

Dordrecht, Netherlands. 

105
Project Title: Linking Species and Functional Group Diversity to Resource 

Capture and Invasion Resistance in Great Basin plant 

Communities 

Project Location: USDA ARS, Burns, Oregon 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

 Jeremy James, Plant Physiologist 

USDA-ARS, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center 

 67826-A Hwy 205, Burns, OR 97720 

 541.573.8911, fax: 541.573-3042 

 jermey.james@oregonstate.edu 

Project Description: 

Objectives

Establishing and maintaining invasion resistant plant communities is a central goal of land managers. 

Invasion resistance is expected to be directly tied to the ability of the resident vegetation to sequester 

limiting resources (Stohlgren et al. 1999; Davis et al. 2000). While resource sequestration is known 

to be largely driven by the dominant species, less dominate species also may contribute to resource 

sequestration if they differ in pattern of resource uptake relative to dominate species (Grime 1987; 

Kahmen et al. 2006). For example, spatial and temporal variation in soil nitrogen (N) cycling is 

substantial in the Great Basin and even small increases in soil N availability can facilitate the 

establishment of invasive plants (Paschke et al. 2000). Communities with greater species or 

functional group diversity may partition N to a greater extent than communities with low diversity. 

As a result, communities with greater species or functional group diversity may be better able to 

respond to these fluctuating patterns of N supply and maintain lower levels of soil N through the 

growing season. 

The broad objective of this study was to quantify the degree to which soil N is partitioned in time, 

depth and chemical form (i.e. NO3

-

 or NH4

+

) between native species and functional groups (i.e. 

bunchgrasses and perennial forbs, Table 1) in a sagebrush steppe community and evaluate how these 

patterns of resource acquisition relate to N capture and invasion by annual grasses. I hypothesized 

that the dominant bunchgrasses and subdominant perennial forbs differ in the timing, depth and form 

in which they acquire N. Based on expected differences in timing, depth and form of N capture 

between functional groups, I further hypothesized that plots with all functional groups present will be 

less susceptible to invasion compared to plots where a functional group is removed. 

Methods

This research was conducted in a sagebrush steppe community in eastern Oregon, USA (43 °22′ N, 

118°22′ W, 1300 m elevation). Mean annual precipitation in Drewsey, OR, approximately 16 km 

north of the site is 272 mm. The herbaceous species selected for the experiment are representative of 

the steppe communities in the Great Basin (Table 1). Bunchgrasses are the major herbaceous 

component followed by perennial forbs and annual forbs. 

106
Nitrogen partitioning by time, depth and chemical form 

To quantify temporal, spatial and chemical patterns of plant N capture I injected 15N compounds into 

the soil around naturally established target plants of the seven study species three times during the 

growing season (25 April, 23 May and 20 June 2006), at two different depths (2-7 cm and 17-22 cm) 

and in two chemical forms (NH4

+

 and NO3

-

). Each treatment combination was replicated five times 

in a randomized complete block design. Different plants were used for each treatment replicate. To 

examine how soil water content may influence the pattern of N capture by the study species a second 

set of plants were watered with a simulated 25 mm rain event 2 d prior to the N injections in May and 

June. The water treatment was not applied in April since soils were close to field capacity at this 

time. Shoot N concentration and 15N enrichment were measured by continuous flow direct 

combustion and mass spectrometry at the UCDSIF (Europa Integra, London). A mass balance 

approach following Nadelhoffer and Fry (1994) was used to quantify plant 15N capture, allowing 

comparisons to be made among species with different biomass or leaf N concentration. Here, plant N 

capture (mg N plant-1) = mf × [(Nf -Ni)/(Nlab-Ni)] where mf is the mass of the N pool (mg), Nf, and

Ni are the final and initial Atom % 15N of the sample and Nlab is the Atom % 15N of the labeled 

solution. Spatial, temporal and chemical patterns of N capture by a species were normalized by 

expressing N capture by a species in a particular treatment as a percentage of the total amount of N 

capture by a species in all treatments (McKane et al. 2002; Kahmen et al. 2006). The effect of 15N 

injection time, depth and chemical form on the relative and absolute amount of N captured by a 

species was analyzed with ANOVA (SAS 1999). 

Functional group removal plots 

Removal plots were established at two sites in the community to evaluate the degree to which the 

three most common functional groups in this system resist invasion by the annual grass T. caputmedusae. Four removal treatments were applied at each site including: 1) Nothing removed, 2) 

Annual forbs removed, 3) Perennial forbs removed and 4) Bunchgrasses removed. Each treatment 

was replicated four times at each site in a randomized complete block design. Removal plots were 2 

x 2 m. Functional groups were removed in spring 2004 by brushing a 6% glyphosate solution on all 

species within the functional group targeted for removal. Taeniatherum caput-medusae was seeded in 

fall of 2005 at 3000 seeds per m-2. Taeniatherum caput-medusae density in the entire 2 x 2 m plot 

was counted in June 2006 and 2007. The effect of removal treatment, site and year on density of T. 

caput-medusae was analyzed with ANOVA. Since plots were repeatedly sampled, the ANOVA was 

conducted as a split-split-plot in time using Proc Mixed with site and time as the split factors (SAS 

1999). 

Final results 

Nitrogen partitioning by time, depth and chemical form 

Water addition prior to 15N-labeling increased N capture by the study species about 1.3-fold (P = 

0.021, data not shown) but did not differentially affect the timing, depth, or form of N capture of the 

study species (P > 0.05). The timing and depth of N capture, however, differed significantly among 

species (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001 for species × time and species × depth; Fig. 1). Forbs acquired a 

greater proportion of N in April compared to May while bunchgrasses acquired a greater proportion 

of N in May compared to April (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001, respectively). Annual grasses captured the 

majority of N in April compared to May (P < 0.001). Forbs acquired a greater proportion of N from 

depth compared to bunchgrasses (P = 0.006). Annuals captured more N from shallow soil layers 

107
108

compared to deep soil layers (P < 0.001). All study species showed a tendency to acquire more N as 

NO3

-

 compared to NH4

+

. 

The total amount of N captured following 15N injection at different times, depths and chemical forms 

differed significantly among native species (species × time, species × depth, species × form, P < 

0.001; Fig. 2). In all treatments, however, bunchgrasses acquired significantly more N than the forbs 

(P < 0.001). 

Functional group removal plots 

Bunchgrass removal was the only treatment that significantly increased T. caput-medusae density 

compared to the intact control plots. There was no significant effect of site or interaction between 

removal treatment and site on T. caput-medusae density (P = 0.671 and P = 0.501). Density of T. 

caput-medusae varied across years (P = 0.052) but there was no removal treatment by year 

interaction on T. caput-medusae density (P= 0.155). 

Conclusion

Understanding mechanisms of invasion resistance is critical for conservation biology and land 

management. While the particular resource or combination of resources facilitating annual grass 

invasion may change depending on timing and amount of water input and soil chemistry, these results 

suggest that the main mechanism of invasion resistance likely depends on how species abundance is 

distributed in the plant community. Namely, in systems where coexisting dominants differ in how 

they harvest resources it seems likely that resource partitioning will be a key mechanism contributing 

to invasion resistance. However, in systems where the bulk of community biomass is determined by 

one or two species it seems likely that invasion resistance will mainly be conferred by the resource 

acquisition traits of the dominant species. In terms of reseeding programs trying to maximize 

invasion resistance, these findings suggest it may be appropriate to identify and select perhaps only a 

subset of species that have a strong potential to obtain dominance in the community but are 

differentiated from each other in phenology and rooting structure. Species diverse plant communities 

are critically important for multiple ecosystem properties and processes but these results suggest 

invasion resistance may be achieved at relatively low levels of functional group diversity. 

Table 1. List of the seven species used in this study. Species are arranged by functional group: invasive 

annual grass, native perennial bunchgrass and native perennial forb. Nomenclature follows the USDA 

PLANTS database (http://plants.usda.gov/).

Group Code Common name Scientific name 

Annual BRTE cheatgrass Bromus tectorum L. 

Annual TACA medusahead Taeniatherum caput-medusae (L.) Nevski 

Bunchgrass PSSP bluebunch wheatgrass Pseudoroegneria spicata (Pursh) A. Löve 

Bunchgrass ELEL bottlebrush squirreltail Elymus elymoides (Raf.) Swezey 

Bunchgrass POSE Sandberg’s bluegrass Poa secunda J. Presl 

Forb LOTR nineleaf biscuitroot Lomatium triternatum (Pursh) 

 Coult. & Rose 

Forb CRIN grey hawksbeard Crepis intermedia Gray
20

40

60

BRTE TACA PSSP ELEL POSE LOTR CRIN

20

40

60

Annuals Bunchgrasses Forbs

15N capture (percent of each species total)

April

May

BRTE TACA PSSP ELEL POSE LOTR CRIN

Annuals Bunchgrasses Forbs

2-7 cm

17-22 cm

a)

b)

c)

d) NH4

+

NO3

- 

NH4

+

NO3

- 

NH4

+

NO3

- 

NH4

+

NO3

- 

Figure 1. 15N capture by the seven study species as influenced by the time, depth and form of 15N tracer 

addition. Based on the ANOVA results, panels (a) and (b) show the simple effects of time and N form on 

species N capture while panels (c) and (d) show the simple effects of depth and N form on species N capture. 

Plant N capture data are expressed as a percentage of each species total 15N capture. Percentages were 

calculated individually for each block (mean + SE, n = 10). 

109
15N capture (mg m-2) 1

2

3

April

May

June

1

2

3 2-7 cm

17-22 cm

a)

b)

Annuals Bunchgrasses Forbs

BRTE TACA PSSP ELEL POSE LOTR CRIN

1

2

3 NH4

+ 

NO3

-

c)

Figure 2. Total N capture by the seven study species as affected by the time (a) depth (b) and form (c) of 15N 

injections. Values in (a) are averaged over the different depths and chemical form of tracer addition (mean ± 

SE, n = 20). Values in (b) are averaged over the different times and form of tracer addition (mean ± SE, n = 

40 for BRTE and POSE and n = 60 for the other species). Values in (c) are averaged over the different times 

and depth of tracer addition (mean + SE, n = 40 for BRTE and POSE and n = 60 for the other species). 

110
T. caput-medusae (plants m-2) 100

200

300

Nothing 

removed

 Annual 

 forbs

removed

Perennial

 forbs

 removed

Bunchgrasses

 removed

a

a

a

b

Figure 3. Taeniatherum caput-medusae densities in plots where functional groups had been removed at two 

sites (mean + SE, n = 8). Different letters indicate differences among treatments as determined by LS-means 

(P < 0.05). 

Literature cited: 

Davis MA, Grime JP, Thompson K (2000) Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a general 

theory of invasibility. J Ecol 88:528-534 

Grime JP (1987) Dominant and subordinate components of plant communities-implications for 

succession, stability and diversity. In: Gray AJ, Edwards PJ, Crawley MJ (eds) Colonization, 

Succession and Stability. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 413-428 

Kahmen A, Renker C, Unsicker SB, Buchmann N (2006) Niche complementarity for nitrogen: An 

explanation for the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning relationship. Ecology 87:1244-1255 

McKane RB, Johnson LC, Shaver GR, Nadelhoffer KJ, Rastetter EB, Fry B, Giblin AE, Kielland K, 

Kwiatkowski BL, Laundre JA, Murray G (2002) Resource-based niches provide a basis for plant 

species diversity and dominance in arctic tundra. Nature 415:68-71 

Nadelhoffer KJ, Fry B (1994) Nitrogen isotope studies in forest ecosystems. In: Lajtha K, Michener 

R (eds) Stable isotopes in ecology. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp 22-44 

Paschke MW, McLendon T, Redente EF (2000) Nitrogen availability and old-field succession in a 

shortgrass steppe. Ecosystems 3:144-158 

SAS (1999) Statistical Software, version 8.0. SAS Institute Inc., Cary 

111
Stohlgren TJ, Binkley D, Chong GW, Kalkhan MA, Schell LD, Bull KA, Otsuki Y, Newman G, 

Baskin M, Son Y (1999) Exotic species invade hot spots of native plant diversity. Ecol Monogr 

69:25-46. 

Management Applications: 

Understanding mechanisms of invasion resistance is critical for conservation biology and land 

management. This research demonstrates that at natural levels of species abundance resource 

partitioning may facilitate species coexistence but not necessarily contribute to invasion resistance by 

the plant community. This suggests managers should not expect a general mechanism of invasion 

resistance across systems. Instead, the key mechanism of invasion resistance within a system will 

depend on trait variation among coexisting species and on how species abundance is distributed in the 

system. In short, establishing desirable species that can produce the most biomass during the first 

growing season likely will be the best way to minimize establishment of annual grasses. Establishing 

a diverse plant community will only be likely to increase invasion resistance if these additional 

species contribute significantly to the overall biomass of the community. 

 

Products: 

Provided part of the basis for a $ 3.6 million USDA-ARS Demonstration project. 

Contributed to ongoing efforts to develop reseeding guidelines for annual grass infested rangeland. 

Contributed to development of a workshop and education material for Ecologically Based 

Management of Invasive Annual Grasses. 

Publication: 

James, J. J., Davies, K.W., Sheley, R. L. and Aanderud, Z. T. (2008) Linking nitrogen partitioning 

and species abundance to invasion resistance in the Great Basin. Oecologia 156:637-648

Presentations: 

James, J. 2007. The potential for resource-based niches to contribute to invasion resistance in a semiarid plant community. 60th Annual meeting Society for Range Management Paper No. 213. 

February 9-16, 2007 

 

James, J. 2008. Nitrogen partitioning and invasion resistance in sage steppe communities. CSU 

Sonoma, CA. 

James, J. 2009. The role of abundance and N capture traits for invasion resistance in the Great Basin. 

Oregon State University. Corvallis, OR. 

112
Project Title: Forb and Shrub Establishment in Perennial Grass Stands

Project: Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

 Val Jo Anderson 

 Department of Plant and Animal Science 

 275A WIDB 

 Brigham Young University 

 801.422.3527 

 Provo, UT 84602 

 Val_Anderson@byu.edu 

Project Description: 

In restoration efforts, grasses, both introduced and native, tend to have higher establishment rates 

than either seeded forbs or shrubs. Subsequent interseeding of forbs and shrubs may be required to 

achieve desired levels of plant and community diversity. Understanding the resource use patterns of 

common grasses and subsequent responses of native forb and shrub seedings will be useful in pairing 

potential seed mixes to dominant grass matrixes. The following 6 species of grass were transplanted 

into 12 adjacent plots (3 x 4) each with 1m spacing between plots except Bozoisky and Vavilov 

which had 6 plots (3 x 2) per species. Each plot measured 3m x 3m with plants 0.5m apart to make a 

7 x 7 plant matrix. 

 

 

Common Name Scientific Name 

Alkali sacaton Sporobolus airoides 

Bluebunch wheatgrass Elymus spicatus 

Bozoisky Select Russian 

wildrye 

Elymus junceus (currently 

Psathyrostachys juncea) 

‘Vavilov’ Siberian wheatgrass Agropyron fragile (Agropyron 

sibericum or Agropyron 

cristatum ssp. fragile or 

Agropyon fragile ssp. 

sibericum) 

Salinas wildrye Leymus salinus 

Great Basin wildrye Elymus cinereus 

Alkali sacaton, bluebunch wheatgrass, salina wildrye and Great Basin wildrye were transplanted in 

the summer of 2005. Bozoisky Russian wildrye and Vavilov Siberian wheatgrass were transplanted 

the summer of 2006 from the fields at the BYU farm. Plots were kept weed free with Plateau, 2,4-D, 

and mechanical weed control as needed. 

The following 4 species of forbs and 4 species of shrubs were planted in the interspaces of 6 plots per 

grass species in Nov 2007. 

113
Common Name Scientific Name Source 

Western Yarrow Achillea millefolium Washington Aug 2007 

Hairy goldaster Heterotheca villosa Utah 2006 

Rocky Mountain Penstemon Penstemon strictus Colorado Jun 2006 

Munro’s Globemallow Sphaeralcea munroana Utah Aug 2004 

Serviceberry Amelanchier alnifolia Utah 2004 

Birchleaf Mountain Mahogany Cercocarpus montanus Utah May 2006 

Douglas rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Utah 2002 

Antelope Bitterbrush Purshia tridentata Utah Aug 2007 

In each plot the edge plants were excluded and the inside 16 (4 x 4) interspaces were used. The 8 

species were randomly assigned to 2 inner spaces per plot. Five caches of seeds were placed in each 

interspace with 10 seeds/cache for the bitterbrush, mountain mahogany, and serviceberry. Due to 

seed size and ease of handling, all other species were planted using 1 pinch between the thumb and 

forefinger per cache. Sticky geranium seed contaminated the western yarrow and data was collected 

for this species as well. Subsequent to the planting, several pinches of each species were counted in 

the lab to determine an average of the seed planted per cache. Tetrazolium tests were also conducted 

to determine the viability of each species. The following is a summary of the results. 

Plants in the 

Interspaces Species 

Seeds/ 

cache 

% 

Viability 

Seeds/ 

pinch 

Viable 

Seeds/ 

interspace 

Achillea millefolium Western Yarrow 1 pinch 85 124.0 527 

Geranium viscosissimum Sticky Geranium 

planted 

with 

western 

yarrow 

93 9.6 45 

Heterotheca villosa Hairy Golden Aster 1 pinch 67 88.6 295 

Penstemon strictus Rocky Mountain Penstemon 1 pinch 55 58.1 160 

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro’s Globemallow 1 pinch 90 28.9 130 

Amelanchier alnifolia Serviceberry 10 77 Counted 38 

Cercocarpus montanus Birchleaf Mountain Mahogany 10 42 Counted 21 

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Douglas rabbitbrush 1 pinch 15 62.5 47 

Purshia tridentata Antelope Bitterbrush 10 52 Counted 26 

In Spring 2008, density counts of the seedlings in the interspaces were conducted in May until 

emergence ceased. On July 31, the total emergence and seedling survival were recorded. In addition, 

114
pre-dawn water potential was measured once per week from May 9 to July 11 excluding the 1st week 

of June due to a heavy rainstorm. Plots were hand weeded as needed throughout the season to prevent 

confounding from weed competition. The following summarize our preliminary statistics. 

Change in Water Potential Spring 2008

-4.5

-4

-3.5

-3

-2.5

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

9 May 16 May 23 May 30 May 6 Jun 13 Jun 20 Jun 27 Jun 4 Jul 11 Jul

MPa

Alkali Sacaton

Bozoiski Russian wildrye

Bluebunch wheatgrass

Great Basin wildrye

Salinas wildrye

Vavilov Siberian wheatgrass

Average Emergence and Seedling Survival of Interspace Species Across  All

Grass Matrices Spring 2008

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus

Sphaeralcea munroana

Achillea millefolium

Amelanchier alnifolia

Heterotheca villosa

Penstemon strictus

Geranium viscosissimum

Cercocarpos montanus

Purshia tridentata

%

Avg Emergence

Avg Seedling  Survival

115
Average Emergence and Seedling Survival of All Interspace Species within

Each Grass Matrix Spring 2008

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

Alkali

Sacaton

Bazoisky Bluebunch Great Basin Salinas Vavilov

Avg Emergence

Avg Seedling Survival

In November 2008, the plots were weeded and the interspaces cleared and replanted using the same 

procedure as the previous year with one exception. The Douglas rabbitbrush which had 15% viability 

and 0% emergence was replaced with the sticky geranium seed cleaned from the western yarrow 

seed. 

Overall, emergence was much lower than expected and we look forward to comparing it to this next 

season’s data. 

 

 

116
Project Title: Development of Germination Protocols, Seed Weight, Purity 

and Seed Conditioning/Cleaning Protocols for Great Basin 

Grasses and Forbs 

Project Location: USDA-FS National Tree Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Robert Karrfalt

USDA-FS National Tree Seed Laboratory 

5675 Riggins Mill Road, Dry Branch, GA 31020 

478.751.3551 

rkarrfalt@fs.fed.us 

 

Victor Vankus 

USDA-FS National Tree Seed Laboratory 

5675 Riggins Mill Road 

Dry Branch, GA 31020 

478.751.3551 

vvankus@fs.fed.us 

 

 

Project Description: 

The National Tree Seed Laboratory is developing seed cleaning, testing, and storage protocols for the 

species selected for the Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. The NSL has a 

complete range of seed cleaning equipment so that manipulations of raw seed of almost any species 

can be performed in order to produce clean seed of high viability. Germination is tested over a range 

of temperatures and the data analyzed by response surface analysis to find the optimum combination 

of light and temperatures for optimum germination. Seed storage work continued this year using the 

new technology of equilibrium relative humidity to assess seed moisture conditions in preparing seed 

for storage. Training and information on seed cleaning is also offered in workshops and conference 

presentations. 

Project Status and Products: 

Seed Moisture 

The relative humidity at which a seed equilibrates can be measured and used to determine if the 

seed’s moisture condition is appropriate for preserving its viability in storage. Traditionally this was 

done by oven drying methods and when possible with electronic meters that were calibrated by 

species with oven moisture content measurements on clean seed. Both methods presented a number 

of challenges and could be expensive. The relative humidity method can be done on any seed in any 

state of preparation from raw seed just off the plant to highly cleaned seed. A relatively inexpensive 

electronic hygrometer was adapted to do this moisture test. This method has been outlined in 

presentations made this past year. A handbook on seed drying and storage will be prepared in 2009. 

Seed workers will be easily and accurately able to assess seed moisture in any stage of handling the 

seed in order to preserve its viability. A storage study on sagebrush has produced good first year data 

showing that seed equilibrated at 30% RH stores well at a range of temperatures and freezing 

117
temperatures preserve some seed viability even at the relatively high ERH of 70%. A comparison of 

higher purity and low purity seed lots showed that low purity seed had to be equilibrated at 30% to 

preserve viability. Based on first year data, it seems that sagebrush seed is best stored at a high 

purity, equilibrated at 30% RH and frozen (figures 1, 2). 

– Moisture evaluations with an electronic hygrometer that can be universally applied to any seed lot. 

The procedure is proving to be workable and convenient in the sagebrush seed storage study. 

– Germination conditions were identified for Agoseris glauca, Sphaeralcea coccinea, and Eriogonum 

umbellatum. A minimal amount of work should lead to publication. Lomatium dissectum, L. grayii, 

and L. triternatum germination protocols can also be published in 2009. Rule submission to AOSA 

will occur in either 2009 or 2010 with adoption at the following annual meeting. Penstemon

germination remains to be defined. 

Agoseris glauca germinated well without chilling at temperatures from 5 to 20o

C with either 8 or 16 

hours of light (figure 3). 

Sphaeralcea coccinea germinated well only after the seed coat had been broken by clipping. 

Germination occurred equally well from constant 3oC to alternating 20-30oC (figure 4). 

Eriogonum umbellatum germinated equally well, after 28 days of pre-germination chilling, at 

temperatures from constant 10oC to alternating 20-30oC. Longer pre-germination chilling may yet be 

found to be beneficial (figure 5). 

Penstemon accuminata, P. deustus, and P. speciosis had 0 to 2% germination following 28 days of 

pre-germination chilling. Longer pre-germination chilling periods will be tried. 

Presentations: 

Karrfalt, R.P. Development of germination protocols, seed weight, purity, and seed 

conditioning/cleaning protocols for Great Basin grasses and forbs. Great Basin Native Plant Selection 

and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2008 Feb 13-14, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Publications: 

The 1000 seed weight of several species were determined earlier and posted to the internet at 

http://www.ntsl.fs.fed.us/great_basin_native_plants.html. 

Karrfalt, R.P. and N.L. Shaw. Ten steps to a successful native plant materials program. Submitted to 

Native Plant Journal. 

118
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Germination Percentage

-20 -8 2 20

70

40

Storage Temperature

ERH

Figure 1. Germination of sagebrush seed storage, lot WP High Purity, after 15 months of storage at 

15 ERH (equilibrium relative humidity) temperature combinations. 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

-20 -8 2 20

70

50

30

70

60

50

40

30

Figure 2. Germination of sagebrush seed storage, lot CA2 Low Purity, after 15 months of storage at 

15 ERH (equilibrium relative humidity) temperature combinations.

119
0

20

40

60

80

100

Germination 

Percentage

5 10 15 20 25 20-30

8

Germination Temperature

Hrs 

of 

Light

Figure 3. Agoseris glauca germination at 11 temperature-light combinations without pregermination 

chilling. 

0

20

40

60

80

Germination 

Percentage

5 10 15 20 25 20-30

8

Germination Temperature

Hrs of 

Light

Figure 4. Sphaeralcea coccinea germination at 11 temperature-light combinations without 

pregermination chilling but with seed coat opened by clipping. 

120
0

10

20

30

40

Germination 

Percentage

5 10 15 20 25 20-30

8

Germination Temperature

Hrs of 

Light

 

Figure 5. Eriogonum umbellatum germination at 11 temperature-light combinations with 28 days of 

pregermination chilling. 

121
Project Title: Developing Strategies for Selective Herbicide Use in Native 

Forb Seed Porduction

Project: Utah State University, Logan, Utah 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

 Corey Ransom 

 Utah State University 

 Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate 

4820 Old Main Hill 

Logan, Utah 84322-4820 

 435.797.2242, fax: 435.797.3376 

 corey.ransom@usu.edu 

Kim Edvarchuk 

Utah State University 

 Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate 

4820 Old Main Hill 

Logan, Utah 84322-4820 

 435.797.2367, fax: 435.797.3376 

 kandersen@cc.usu.edu 

Project Description: 

Native forb seed is needed to restore the rangelands of the Intermountain West. Weed control is 

essential for the commercial production of native forb seed. Weeds compete with crop plants 

reducing establishment, vigor, and seed production. In addition, some weed seeds can contaminate 

the seed crop, reducing its value or introducing weeds to reclamation areas. Removal of weeds by 

hand or with cultivation is economically restrictive. 

The overall objective of this research project is to identify herbicides that can be used to control 

weeds in forb seed production with limited injury to the forbs. The forbs evaluated in this project 

include: basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), Western prairie clover (Dalea ornata), Searls’ prairie 

clover (Dalea searlsiae), and tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata). 

Materials and Methods 

Difficulty in culturing and growing plants in the greenhouse resulted in little valuable data from 

greenhouse work in 2008. However, the availability of established plantings of both Astragalus 

filipes and Dalea ornata allowed field testing of several herbicides on these species. Both sites were 

established by Doug Johnson of the USDA-FRRL in 2005 by transplanting growing plants from 

cone-tainers into the field with 0.5 m between plants. Both fields were mixtures of different 

collections that had been evaluated for various traits. Herbicide plots were two plant rows wide and 

13 plants long (1 by 7 m, 26 plants per plot) for Astragalus filipes and two plant rows wide and 8 

plants long (1 by 4 m, 16 plants per plot) for Dalea ornata. Because there were not enough plants to 

have borders between plots, treatments were applied with a shielded sprayer to prevent any 

contamination of adjacent plots during treatment application. Treatments were applied on May 13, 

122
2008 at 20 gpa and 30 psi. Plant injury was evaluated visually 10 days after treatment on May 23 and 

again on July 25 for Astragalus and July 11 for Dalea. Because of the variability in plant size among 

individual plants within plots at the time of application, initial plant height and diameter was 

measured on May 17. The plants were measured again on June 19 and differences in individual plant 

growth between the two dates were used to determine plant growth in response to herbicide 

treatment. Changes in height and diameter of all plants within a plot were averaged and used in the 

analysis of herbicide effects. Ten herbicides were evaluated in the Astragalus trial, while there was 

only room for four herbicide treatments in the Dalea trial. Neither trial received irrigation, which 

may influence the level of herbicide injury exhibited on both species by the herbicides that were 

tested. 

Results 

Astragalus filipes 

Postemergence applications to Astragalus filipes resulted in varying levels of visual injury (Table 1). 

Prowl H2O, Outlook, Chateau, and Sencor all had 6% or less injury at either evaluation date. 

Paramount, Raptor, and 2,4-DB treated plots exhibited little injury at the May evaluation, but 18% or 

greater injury on July 25. Injury from Goal increased from 13 to 28% from the May to the July 

rating, while Transline injury was 60% in May and remained greater than 50% in July. Only 

Transline reduce plant height and plant diameter in comparison the untreated control and in 

comparison to all other herbicide treatments. There was a significant but weak correlation between 

the July visual injury ratings and plant height and diameter (Figure 1). It appears that there is great 

potential to use herbicides including Prowl, Outlook, Chateau, Sencor, and Buctril for weed control 

in established Astragalus filipes. However, further testing is needed to confirm these results and 

future trials need to evaluate seed production to ensure that treatments causing minimal injury or 

small reduction in plant size do not reduce seed yield. 

Table 1. Effect of herbicide treatments on plant injury and average plant height, and average plant 

width of established Astragalus filipes. 

Plant response* 

Injury 

Herbicide† Rate May 23 July 25 Height Width 

lb ai/A _______%______ ________cm_______

Untreated -- 0 0 18 17 

Prowl H2O 0.71 0 0 17 14 

Outlook 0.84 0 0 20 17 

Goal 0.25 13 28 15 14 

Chateau + NIS 0.064 5 6 19 16 

Sencor + NIS 0.5 0 0 17 16 

Buctril 0.25 0 5 16 15 

2,4-DB 0.25 0 18 17 15 

Transline 0.124 60 51 5 6 

Paramount + MSO 0.248 5 18 15 15 

Raptor + MSO 0.078 5 19 16 15 

LSD (0.05) 5.5 10 4 5 

*Injury was measured by visual evaluations. Height and width are the difference between plant 

height and width on May 17, 2008 and the same measurements taken on June 19, 2008. 

123
†

NIS is non-ionic surfactant applied at 0.25% v/v. MSO is methylated seed oil applied at 1.0% v/v. 

All treatments were applied in 20 gpa spray volume. 

Figure 1. Correlation of plant visual injury ratings and measured plant height and diameter. 

Injury (%)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Change in plant height (cm)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Injury (%)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Change in plant width (cm)

0

5

10

15

20

25

P > 0.0001

R2 = 0.47

P > 0.0001

R2 = 0.50

Dalea ornata 

None of the herbicides applied to established Dalea ornata caused visual injury or reduced plant 

height or diameter (Table 2). This is not surprising since very little growth was present on Dalea 

ornata plants at the time of herbicide application. It is possible that producers could make herbicide 

applications prior to spring re-growth for control of winter annual weeds. While no injury was 

observed in this trial, application of these same herbicides at a time when Dalea plants have 

significant leaf growth may result in significant injury. 

Table 2. Effect of herbicide treatments on plant injury, average plant height, and average plant width 

of established Dalea ornata. 

Plant response 

Injury 

Herbicide† Rate May 23 July 11 Height Width 

lb ai/A _______%______ ________cm_______

Untreated -- 3 0 37 51 

Sencor + NIS 0.5 0 0 37 54 

Buctril 0.25 0 0 35 49 

Paramount + MSO 0.248 0 0 34 58 

Raptor + MSO 0.078 0 0 37 57 

LSD (0.05) -- NS NS NS NS 

*Injury was measured by visual evaluations. Height and width are recorded as the difference 

between average plant height and width on May 17, 2008 and the same measurements taken on June 

19, 2008, 2008. 

†

NIS is non-ionic surfactant applied at 0.25% v/v. MSO is methylated seed oil applied at 1.0% v/v. 

All treatments were applied in 20 gpa spray volume. 

124
Direction for 2009

Efforts in 2009 will again focus on evaluating herbicides on additional established planting of 

Astragalus filipies and Dalea ornata made available by Doug Johnson. In addition, efforts will be 

made to evaluate preemergence herbicide effects on emerging seedlings in small-scale field trials if 

enough seed of all the species is available. Evaluation of herbicide tolerance of seedlings grown on 

agar media will be investigated as a method to identify potential candidates for field screening. 

Presentation: 

Ransom, C. V. and K. Israelsen. Grass and forb seed production: Weed control and herbicide effects. Utah 

Crop Improvement Association, Seed School, Brigham City, Utah, February 19, 2008. ~60 attendees. 

Management Applications: 

The preliminary field data suggests several herbicides can be used for selective weed control in 

established Astragalus filipes and Dalea ornata. Additional data is needed to confirm these findings 

and consistent data is still lacking on potential herbicides for weed management during establishment 

of the native forb species evaluated in this research. 

125
Project Title: Identification of Herbicides for Use in Native Forb Seed 

Production, 2008

Project Location: Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Clinton C. Shock 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

 595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

 541.889.2174, fax: 541.889.7831 

 clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu 

Erik Feibert 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, fax: 541.889.7831 

Joey Ishida 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, fax: 541.889.7831 

Nancy Shaw 

U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, Boise, ID 83702 

208.373.4360, fax: 208.373.4391 

Project Description:

Native forb seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial seed 

production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A major 

limitation to economically viable commercial production of native forb seed is weed competition. 

Weeds are adapted to growing in disturbed soil, and native forbs are not competitive with these 

weeds. There is a considerable body of knowledge about the relative efficacy of different herbicides 

to control target weeds, but few trials have tested the tolerance of native forbs to commercial 

herbicides. This report is in two parts. The first part deals with successive years of postemergence 

herbicide applications and the second deals with postemergence herbicide rates and mixtures. 

I. Native Perennial Forb Tolerance to Repeated Annual Application of Post-emergence 

Herbicide

The trials reported here tested the tolerance of seven native forb species in successive years to 

conventional postemergence herbicides in the field. This work seeks to discover products that could 

eventually be registered for use for native forb seed production. The information in this report is for 

the purpose of informing cooperators and colleagues in other agencies, universities, and industry of 

the research results. Reference to products and companies in this publication is for the specific 

126
information only and does not endorse or recommend that product or company to the exclusion of 

others that may be suitable. Nor should any information and interpretation thereof be considered as 

recommendations for the application of any of these herbicides. Pesticide labels should always be 

consulted before any pesticide use. Considerable efforts may be required to register these herbicides 

for use for native forb seed production. 

Materials and Methods

Plant Establishment 

Seed of seven Great Basin forb species (Table 1) received in October 2005 was planted November 1, 

2005. The field had been disked, ground hogged, and marked in rows 30 inches apart. The seven 

forb species were planted in individual rows 435 ft long and 30 inches apart. Planting depths were 

similar to those used in the irrigation trial (Shock et al., 2007) and varied by species. The crop 

preceding forbs was wheat. Prior to planting, one drip tape was inserted 12 inches deep equidistant 

between pairs of rows to be planted. The drip tape was supplied with irrigation water using filtration 

and other common drip irrigation practices (Shock, 2006). 

2006 Postemergence Treatments 

The lower 200 ft of the field was staked out to make 5-ft-wide plots perpendicular to the forb rows, 

crossing all seven species Eight treatments including the untreated check were replicated four times 

in a randomized complete block design (See tables 2-8). Treatments were applied May 24, 2006 at 

30 psi, 2.63 mph, in 20 gal/acre using 8002 nozzles with three nozzles spaced 20 inches apart. Plant 

injury in 2006 was rated visually on May 31, June 15, and June 30. 

In 2006 the trial was irrigated very little with the drip irrigation system because of ample rainfall. 

Very few plants flowered and seed was not harvested in 2006. 

Spring of 2007 

By March 30, 2007, it was difficult if not impossible to distinguish any effects of the 2006 

postemergence herbicide applications on any of the seven forb species. These observations suggest 

that some degree of phytotoxic damage may be acceptable in establishing native forb seed fields if 

effective weed control is achieved. 

2007 Postemergence Treatments 

The same treatments as 2006 were applied again to the same plots on April 24, 2007. The same 

application specifications as in 2006 were used in 2007. Plant injury was rated visually on May 1, 

May 11, May 25, and June 12. 

Drip irrigations were applied every two weeks starting on April 10 and ending on May 29 (total of 

four irrigations). Each irrigation applied 1 inch of water. 

Seed of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, Penstemon deustus, and Penstemon 

speciosus was harvested by hand as the seed reached maturity. The seed was cleaned and weighed. 

Lomatium dissectum, Lomatium triternatum, and Lomatium grayi did not flower in 2007. 

2008 Postemergence Treatments 

The same treatments as 2006 were applied again to the same plots on March 12, 2008. The same 

application specifications as in 2006 were used in 2008. 

127
Drip irrigations were applied every two weeks starting on April 5 and ending on June 24 (total of four 

irrigations). Each irrigation applied 1 inch of water. 

Seed of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, Penstemon deustus, Penstemon speciosus, 

and Lomatium triternatum was harvested by hand as the seed reached maturity from the 5 feet of row 

across the plot width. The seed was cleaned and weighed. Lomatium dissectum and Lomatium grayi 

had only a few flowers in 2008. 

Table 1. Forb species planted at the Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, 

OR and their origins. 

Species Common name Origin Year 

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulfur-flower buckwheat Shoofly Road, 

Owyhee Co., ID 

2004 

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf or sand dune penstemon Bliss Dam, Elmore 

Co., ID 

2004 

Penstemon deustus Scabland or hotrock penstemon Blacks Cr. Rd., 

Elmore Co., ID 

2003 

Penstemon speciosus Royal or sagebrush penstemon Leslie Gulch, 

Malheur Co., OR 

2003 

Lomatium dissectum Fernleaf biscuitroot Mann Creek, 

Washington Co., ID 

2003 

Lomatium triternatum Nineleaf biscuitroot or nineleaf 

desert parsley 

Hwy 395, Lake Co., 

OR 

2004 

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot or Gray’s 

lomatium 

Weiser R. Rd., 

Washington Co, ID 

2004 

General Considerations 

The focus of the evaluations was forb tolerance to the herbicides, not weed control. Therefore, weeds 

were removed as needed in 2006 and 2007. In 2008 the weeds of each species were counted in each 

plot (data not shown). 

For each species the effects of herbicides on plant stand and injury were evaluated independently 

from the effects on other species. Treatment differences were compared using ANOVA and 

protected least significant differences at the 95 percent confidence LSD (0.05) using NCSS Number 

Cruncher software (NCSS, Kaysville, UT). 

Results and Discussion

All observations made on the herbicides tested are strictly preliminary observations. Herbicides that 

were observed to be damaging to the forbs as reported here might be helpful if used at a lower rate or 

in a different environment. The herbicides were relatively safe for the forbs in these trials but they 

might be harmful if used at higher rates or in a different environment. Nothing in this report should 

be construed as a recommendation. 

2008 Postemergence Treatments 

Symptoms of herbicide injury were not observed on any of the plants in 2008. All treatments were 

applied earlier in 2008 (March 12) than in 2007 (April 24). The earlier application in 2008 occurred 

before all the forb species broke dormancy, except the Lomatiums. The Lomatiums were observed 

128
breaking dormancy around February 29. In 2007, the treatments were applied when all the forbs 

were actively growing and herbicide damage was associated with the foliar active herbicides. The 

timing of future applications should be based on the mode of action of each herbicide: early 

applications for the soil active herbicides (before weeds emerge) and later applications for the foliar 

active herbicides (after weeds emerge). Later applications of the foliar active herbicides might have 

resulted in foliar damage as in 2007. 

Although the seed yields were based on very small harvest areas, seed yields were substantial for the 

five species with prolific flowering in 2008. There was no significant difference in seed yield 

between the reapplied herbicide treatments and the check for Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon 

acuminatus, Penstemon deustus, and Penstemon speciosus in 2008 (Table 1). For Lomatium 

triternatum, seed yield was reduced for the Buctril treatment, despite the early application. The 

Lomatium spp. break dormancy early in the growing season, and Lomatium triternatum could have 

been susceptible at the early application date. Buctril, applied later in 2007 also reduced seed yield of 

Lomatium triternatum. 

Lomatium dissectum and Lomatium grayi plants need further plant development prior to seed 

production. Seed productivity may begin in 2009. 

Summary 

All seven species tested were tolerant to Prowl and Outlook applied as postemergence treatments at 

the rate, timing and soils used in these trials. Penstemon deustus, P. specious, and the Lomatium 

species were also tolerant to postemergence applications of Select at the rate, timing and soils used in 

these trials. Prowl and Outlook are broad spectrum, soil active herbicides that will prevent weed 

emergence during the season. Select is a foliar contact, grass herbicide. The use of these three 

herbicides may provide the basis for an effective weed control program for seed production of these 

five species. Further tests are warranted to describe the range of safety for these herbicides and 

whether or not they have any undesirable interactions. 

Table 1. Yield of five forbs in response to post emergence herbicides applied on March 12, 2008, 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR. This was the third consecutive 

year these forbs received the same herbicide treatments. 

Treatment Rate 

Mode 

of 

action 

Eriogonum 

umbellatum

Penstemon 

deustus 

Penstemon 

acuminatus 

Penstemon 

speciosus 

Lomatium 

triternatum

lb ai/acre ----------------------------------- lb/acre -------------------------------- 

Untreated -- 365.1 330.2 93.9 487.5 981.5 

Buctril 2.0 EC 0.125 foliar 285.5 309.1 195.6 781.7 187.9 

Goal 2XC 0.125 foliar 279.7 427.0 173.3 728.1 820.8 

Select 2.0 ECa

 0.094 foliar 263.0 421.3 107.8 814.7 1062.1 

Prowl H2O 3.8 C 1.000 soil 385.0 345.4 112.6 608.4 922.7 

Caparol FL 4.0 0.800 foliar 298.5 267.2 184.6 785.3 1069.8 

Outlook 6.0 EC 0.656 soil 354.8 420.1 110.3 569.0 987.0 

Lorox 50 DF 0.500 soil 368.4 360.4 140.0 672.2 888.1 

LSD (0.05) NS NS NS NS 388.7 a

applied with Herbimax adjuvant at 1% v/v. 

129
II. Native Perennial Forb Tolerance to Rates and Mixtures of Postemergence Herbicides 

The trials reported here tested the tolerance of seven native forb species in successive years to 

conventional postemergence herbicides in the field. This work seeks to discover products that could 

eventually be registered for use for native forb seed production. The information in this report is for 

the purpose of informing cooperators and colleagues in other agencies, universities, and industry of 

the research results. Reference to products and companies in this publication is for the specific 

information only and does not endorse or recommend that product or company to the exclusion of 

others that may be suitable. Nor should any information and interpretation thereof be considered as 

recommendations for the application of any of these herbicides. Pesticide labels should always be 

consulted before any pesticide use. Considerable efforts may be required to register these herbicides 

for use for native forb seed production.

Materials and Methods

In the fall of 2006 Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, Penstemon deustus and

Penstemon speciosus were each planted in areas 10 feet wide and 220 feet long (Table 1). The seed 

were planted in four rows 30 inches apart. The field previously had been disked, ground hogged, and 

marked in rows 30 inches apart. Planting depths were similar to those used in the irrigation trial 

(Shock et al., 2007) and appropriate to each species. Prior to planting, one drip tape was inserted 12 

inches deep equidistant between pairs of rows to be planted. The drip tape was supplied with 

irrigation water using filtration and other common drip irrigation practices (Shock, 2006). Drip 

irrigations were applied every two weeks starting on April 10 and ending on May 29 (total of four 

irrigations). Each irrigation applied 1 inch of water. 

On March 12, 2008, 13 herbicide treatments (Table 2) were applied to plots 4 rows wide and five feet 

long. The treatments consisted of different rates and combinations of the soil active herbicides Prowl 

and Outlook. The treatments were arranged within each species in randomized complete block 

designs with 4 replicates. Treatments were applied at 30 psi, 2.63 mph, in 20 gal/acre using 8002 

nozzles with six nozzles spaced 20 inches apart. 

Seed of each species was harvested at maturity. Seed was harvested from the middle two rows in 

each plot of Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus and Penstemon speciosus. Plant 

populations of P. deustus prior to herbicide applications were not adequate for data on seed yield to 

be meaningful. For P. deustus, only observations on herbicide damage were made. 

General Considerations 

The focus of the evaluations was forb tolerance to the herbicides, not weed control. Therefore, weeds 

were removed as needed. 

The effects of herbicides for each species on plant stand and injury were evaluated independently 

from the effects on other species. Treatment differences were compared using ANOVA and 

protected least significant differences at the 95 percent confidence LSD (0.05) using NCSS Number 

Cruncher software (NCSS, Kaysville, UT). 

130
Table 1. Forb species planted at the Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, 

OR and their origins. 

Species Common name Origin Year 

Eriogonum umbellatum Sulfur-flower buckwheat Shoofly Road, 

Owyhee Co., ID 

2004 

Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf or sand dune penstemon Bliss Dam, Elmore 

Co., ID 

2004 

Penstemon deustus Scabland or hotrock penstemon Blacks Cr. Rd. 

Elmore Co., ID 

2003 

Penstemon speciosus Royal or sagebrush penstemon Leslie Gulch, 

Malheur Co., OR 

2003 

Results and Discussion

All observations made on the herbicides tested are strictly preliminary observations. Herbicides that 

damaged forbs as reported here might be helpful if used at a lower rate or in a different environment. 

The herbicides were relatively safe for the forbs in these trials but they might be harmful if used at 

higher rates or in a different environment. Nothing in this report should be construed as a 

recommendation. 

Symptoms of herbicide injury were not observed in any of the plants in 2008. Foliar injury would not 

be expected since all herbicides tested (except Select) were soil active and were applied early. There 

were no significant differences in seed yield between the herbicide treatments and the untreated 

check for Eriogonum umbellatum, Penstemon acuminatus, and Penstemon speciosus (Table 2). 

Summary

All four species tested were tolerant to Prowl and Outlook applied as postemergence treatments at the 

rate, timing and soils used in these trials. Prowl and Outlook are broad spectrum, soil active 

herbicides that will prevent weed emergence during the season. Select is a foliar contact, grass 

herbicide. The use of these three herbicides may provide the basis for an effective weed control 

program for seed production of these five species. Further tests are warranted to describe the range 

of safety for these herbicides and whether or not they have any undesirable interactions. 

131
Table 2. Yield of three forbs in response to post emergence herbicides applied on March 12, 2008, 

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Ontario, OR. All herbicides except Select are 

soil active. 

Treatment Rate 

Penstemon 

speciosus 

Penstemon 

acuminatus 

Eriogonum 

umbellatum 

(lbs ai / ac) -------------------------------------- lb/acre -------------------------------- 

Weed Free, 

untreated Control 820.9 557.9 276.5 

Select 2.0 ECa 0.094 876.7 491.0 149.1 

Prowl 0.95 644.2 403.7 387.2 

Prowl 1.19 1242.0 506.1 533.1 

Prowl 1.43 941.0 573.0 250.6 

Outlook 0.84 992.5 463.1 319.8 

Outlook 0.98 860.4 348.1 143.5 

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.66 653.7 472.3 300.9 

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.84 965.4 483.6 440.0 

Prowl + Outlook 0.95 + 0.98 827.3 466.4 330.9 

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.66 917.0 627.8 244.0 

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.84 835.0 434.4 336.7 

Prowl + Outlook 1.19 + 0.98 707.4 460.0 285.6 

LSD (0.05) NS NS NS a

applied with Herbimax adjuvant at 1% v/v.

Literature Cited: 

Shock, C.C. 2006. Drip irrigation: an introduction. Sustainable Agriculture Techniques, Oregon State 

University Extension Service. EM8782-E Revised October 2006. 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, N. Shaw, and A. DeBolt. 2007. Seed production of native forbs 

shows little response to irrigation in a wet year. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station 

Special Report 1075:21-32.

 

Publications: 

Shock, C.C., J. Ishida, and E.B.G. Feibert. 2008. Native wildflowers grown for seed production show 

tolerance to conventional postemergence herbicides. Oregon State University Agricultural 

Experiment Station, Special Report 1087:197-203. 

 http://www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2007/ForbWeedControl2007.html 

Presentations: 

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, and J. Ishida 2008. Identification of post-emergence 

herbicides for use in native forb seed production. Great Basin Native Plant Selection & Increase 

Project Annual Meeting, Salt Lake, UT. 

Sampangi, R.K., S.K. Mohan, C.C. Shock, E.B.G. Feibert, and D.A. Glawe. 2008. Powdery mildew 

of onion caused by Leveillula taurica and the possible epidemiological role of alternative hosts in 

Idaho and Oregon. Am. Phytopathalogical Soc. July 26-30, 2008. Minneapolis, MN. 

132
Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, L.D. Saunders, E.P. Eldredge, L.B. Jensen, N.L. Shaw, S.K. Mohan, 

R.K. Sampangi, and H.R. Pappu. 2008. Progress on micro-irrigation in Oregon 2008. Regional 

working group W1128: Reducing Barriers to Adoption of Microirrigation. Portland, OR. October 

22-24. PowerPoint presentation and a written report. 

Management Applications: 

The report above describes practices that can be immediately implemented by seed growers. 

Products: 

Seed produced from these planting was used to establish commercial seed production fields. 

A field tour for growers was conducted in May 2008. 

A tour of the seed production trials was incorporated into the annual Malheur Experiment Station 

Field Day activities on July 9, 2008. 

 

 

133
Project Title: Container production of Artemisia tridentata

Location: University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

 Anthony S. Davis 

 University of Idaho 

 PO Box 441133, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844 

 208.885.7211, 208.885.6226 

 asdavis@uidaho.edu 

Project Description: 

Developing a target plant for restoration of degraded sites may aid in cost-effective restoration. 

This study was conducted to 1) identify the effect of container size on Wyoming big sagebrush 

seedling morphology and 2) determine the level of cold hardiness attained during Wyoming big 

sagebrush seedling production. Seedlings were grown for one year (March 2007 to March 2008) 

in each of three different container sizes (cavity volume of 105, 250, 340 ml) to investigate 

seedling quality with regard to cold hardiness, and the morphological characteristics of height, 

root-collar diameter, dry mass, volume, and root:shoot. Cold hardiness was not affected by 

container size. Plant height, root-collar diameter, shoot volume, and dry mass increased with 

container size. Seedling root volume in the two largest container sizes (340 and 250) was greater 

than that of seedlings grown in 105 containers. The results indicate the strong effect that 

container size has on plant morphology. 

Publications: 

Herriman, K.R., A.S. Davis, and R.K. Dumroese. Effect of stocktype on sagebrush seedling 

development following outplanting. National proceedings, forest and conservation nursery 

associations—2008. Proceedings. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station. In press. 

Presentations: 

Herriman, K.R., A.S. Davis, and R.K. Dumroese. 2008. Effect of stocktype on sagebrush seedling 

development following outplanting. 8-9 October 2008. 29th Intermountain Container Seedling 

Growers’ Association Meeting. Coeur d’Alene, ID. 

Herriman, K.R., A.S. Davis, and R.K. Dumroese. 2008. Effect of stocktype on sagebrush seedling 

development following outplanting. 23-25 July 2008. Western Forest and Conservation Nursery 

Association. Missoula, MT. Invited. 

Management Applications: 

This information provides us with a greater ability to develop target plants for use in restoring 

degraded sites. These results should be of use to land managers and seedling producers.

134
Products: 

 Description of the relationship between container size and plant size for container grown 

Wyoming big sagebrush 

 Sharing of information to growers at the Intermountain Container Seedling Growers’ 

Association and Western Forest and Conservation Nursery Association Meetings 

 Demonstration plantings established in Mt. Home, ID 

 Propagation protocol to be shared through the Native Plant Network

 

135
Project Title: Evaluating Strategies for Increasing Plant Diversity in 

 Crested Wheatgrass Seedings

Project Location: University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, Elko, NV 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

 Kent McAdoo 

 University of Nevada Cooperative Extension 

 701 Walnut Street 

 Elko, NV 89801

 775.738.1251, fax: 775.753.7843 

 mcadook@unce.unr.edu

Project Description: 

Objectives

1. Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass (Aropyron desertorum) control methods on 

wheatgrass density and cover. 

2. Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass control methods and revegetation on establishment 

of seeded species. 

Methods

Study Site 

The study site, approximately 15 miles southeast of Elko, NV, is located within the 8 – 10 inch p.z. in 

sandy loam soil (Orovada Puett association) and formerly dominated by Wyoming big sagebrush 

(Artemisia tridentata wyomingensis). The area was seeded to crested wheatgrass during the 1970s. 

Located within the boundaries area of South Fork State Park, the site has had the necessary cultural 

resources clearance from the Nevada State Historic Protection Office (SHPO) and is fenced to 

eliminate livestock grazing. 

Crested Wheatgrass Control and Revegetation Treatments 

The following strategies are being tested in a randomized block, split-split plot design: (1) untreated 

crested wheatgrass; (2) partially controlled crested wheatgrass; and (3) completely controlled crested 

wheatgrass. 

Within these main plots, the following methods of control (mechanical and chemical) and revegetated 

vs. non-revegetated strategies are being compared: 

1. Untreated crested wheatgrass plots receiving no chemical or mechanical treatment, but 

divided into unseeded and seeded sub-plots. 

2. Partially controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into 3-way disked or herbicide-treated plots, 

divided into unseeded and seeded sub-plots. 

3. Completely controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into combined 3-way disked and 

herbicide-treated plots or combined spring and fall herbicide-treated plots, divided into 

unseeded and seeded sub-plots. 

The study site is comprised of 5 blocks. 

136
Revegetation Species and Methods: 

Sub-plots designated for seeding will be seeded with commercially-purchased native grass, forb, and 

shrub species adapted to the ecoregion. Drill-seeded species will be planted at NRCS-recommended 

rates with a Truax Rough Rider rangeland drill. For small-seed species, seed tubes will be pulled so 

that seed falls on the soil surface; drill disks will be raised and no furrows made, and a brillion-type 

cultipacker will be attached to the rear of the drill to press broadcasted seeds into the soil surface. 

2008 Results 

During November 2007, “disked only plots” were 3-way disked. In May, 2008 “spring-applied 

herbicide plots” and “combined disked and herbicide plots” were sprayed with 66 oz. glyphosate/ac. 

In early October 2008, “combined spring- and fall-applied herbicide plots” were sprayed with 66 oz. 

glyphosate/ac. Sub-plots targeted for seeding were seeded in late October 2008 by personnel from 

the NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center with a Truax Rough Rider rangeland drill. The seed 

mixture used is identified in Table 1. 

137
Table 1. Final seeding mix for South Fork study plots, Elko County, NV, in sandy loam soil 

(Orovada Puett association), approximately 8” precipitation zone.

Species Kind/Variety Seeding Rate 

(PLS lb/acre) 

Total No. lb 

(for 12.5 acres)

Indian ricegrass1

(Achnatherum hymenoides) ‘Nezpar’ 2.0 25 

Bottlebrush squirreltail1

(Elymus elymoides) Toe Jam Creek 2.0 25 

Needle-and-thread grass2

(Stipa comata) 2.0 25 

Basin wildrye3

(Elymus cinereus) 

‘Magnar’ 

2.0 25 

Bluebunch wheatgrass3

(Psuedoroegneria spicata) ‘Secar’ 1.0 12.5 

Sandberg bluegrass4

(Poa secunda) 0.75 9.4 

Munro globemallow4

(Sphaeralcea munroana) 0.50 6.25 

Lewis flax3

(Linum lewisii) ‘Appar’ 0.75 9.4 

Western yarrow4

(Achillea millefolium) 0.20 2.5 

Wyoming big sagebrush3

(Artemisia tridentata 

wyomingensis) 

 0.20 2.5 

Spiny hopsage5

(Grayia spinosa) 0.50 6.25 

Totals 11.9 148.8 

1

 From Granite Seed Co. 

2

 From BFI Native Seeds 

3

 From Comstock Seed Co. 

4

 From FS Collection. 

5

 From Native Seed Co. 

138
Future Plans: 

Sampling

Beginning in spring 2009, we will collect cover and density data for unseeded and seeded species 

during peak standing crop for three years on plots established in 2007-08. Sagebrush cover will be 

measured by line intercept, and density will be counted in 10-30 m long x 2 m wide belt transects in 

each plot. We will ocularly estimate herbaceous cover and density in five 0.5-m2

 quadrats placed 

randomly on each of 5 transects and perpendicular to each belt transect. Mortality of crested 

wheatgrass will be determined by comparing density of live plants on treated vs. untreated plots. 

We will establish additional plots in 2010 for comparisons between years. 

Analysis

Data will be analyzed using mixed model analysis, with blocks and years considered random and 

other treatments considered fixed. 

Publications:

Intermediate results will be presented at scientific meetings and during field tours for scientists, 

agency resource specialists, agricultural producers, and other interest groups. Final results will be 

published in refereed journals. 

Management Applications: 

The relative success and/or failure of revegetation strategies and methodologies used in this research 

will be communicated in appropriate venues for the benefit of both public and private land managers 

and resource users. This research will add to the body of knowledge regarding the rehabilitation, 

functionality, and restoration of Great Basin rangelands. 

Products:

Field Tour for NRCS in May 2008 to look at crested wheatgrass reduction methodologies. 

139
Project Title: Effect of herbicide application timing on crested wheatgrass 

control and subsequent native plant 

re-establishment success

Project: USDA-ARS, Dubois, ID 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 Corey Moffet 

 USDA-ARS, U.S. Sheep Experiment Station 

 19 Office Loop, Dubois, ID 83423 

 208.374.5678, 208.374.5582 

 corey.moffet@ars.usda.gov

Project Description: 

Crested wheatgrass stands in much of the western United States are stable in near monocultures that 

are resistant to native plant reestablishment. Attempts to modify these stands, to increase diversity, 

will require a reduction in crested wheatgrass so other seeded species can become established. 

Experiments were initiated in the spring 2008 to determine whether: (1) glyphosate efficacy differs 

among combinations of crested wheatgrass physiological state (timing of application) and 

disturbance, and (2) establishment of seeded native plants is improved when crested wheatgrass 

control treatments are more effective. 

Methods: 

Effect of crested wheatgrass TNC trend on herbicide efficacy

Two experiments with a fine temporal resolution will be conducted at the U.S. Sheep Experiment 

Station (USSES) headquarters property near Dubois, Idaho to determine the relationship between 

total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) trend and the efficacy of glyphosate to control crested 

wheatgrass. The first experiment will characterize the TNC trend in relation to plant phenology. The 

experiment will be a completely randomized design. A factorial combination of year (2 levels) and 

date (10 levels) will be assigned completely at random to each plant (10 replications). Plants will be 

collected and placed on ice until they can be dried in the laboratory. The root crowns and stem bases 

will be analyzed for TNC. 

The second experiment is a completely randomized design in a split-plot arrangement with repeated 

measures. A factorial combination of year (2 levels) and date (8 levels) will be assigned to main 

plots (1 x 2 m) completely at random. Within each main plot a random half (1 x 1 m) will be 

assigned to a clipping treatment. The clipped half will be clipped two weeks prior to the date that the 

main plot is to be sprayed. At the time these plots are selected, corners of the main plot will be 

permanently marked with fiberglass rods. At clipping, herbicide application, two weeks after 

application, and in mid June the year after herbicide application digital photographs will be taken 

from a 2 m height using an 8 MP camera (see Fig. 1). The photographs will be analyzed for crested 

wheatgrass cover. Analysis of variance will be used to determine whether year, timing of herbicide 

application, or clipping prior to application had an effect on glyphosate efficacy. 

140
Figure 1. Example of images collected of the same plots (A) two weeks prior to herbicide application 

on May 22, 2008, (B) just prior to herbicide application on June 6, 2008, and (C) two weeks after 

herbicide application on June 20, 2008. In June 2009, the 4th image will be collected. 

A B C 

Large scale seeded plot experiment

The large scale plot experiment will be conducted within a 120 acre area that was seeded to crested 

wheatgrass near Aberdeen, Idaho over 13 years ago. The site is mapped to 2 soil map units, the 

Portino silt loam, 4 to 8 percent slopes (Coarse-silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Xeric Haplocalcids) 

and the Portneuf silt loam, 2 to 4 percent slopes (Coarse-silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Durinodic 

Xeric Haplocalcids). Both soil units are correlated with the Loamy 8-12 ARTRW8/PSSSP ecological 

site. The historical plant composition for this site included bluebunch wheatgrass, Thurber 

needlegrass, western wheatgrass, arrowleaf balsamroot, Wyoming big sagebrush, Sandberg 

bluegrass, green rabbitbrush, and bottlebrush squirreltail. 

The large-scale plot experiment is a split-plot arrangement of a completely randomized design with 

repeated measures. A factorial combination of treatment years (2 levels) and crested wheatgrass 

control treatments (8 levels) will be assigned completely at random to 80 main plots (200 x 140 ft). 

A random half of each main plot (100 x 140 ft, subplots) will be seeded with a native mix. Between 

adjacent main plots there will be a minimum 40 ft buffer in all directions. Sampling, within each 

subplot, will be conducted on a central 80 x 120 ft core sampling area. 

The 8 control methods will include combinations of herbicide and disking treatments. The treatments 

will include a control (no treatment), 4 single pass treatments (spring disking, vegetative stage 

herbicide application, reproductive stage herbicide application, or late season regrowth herbicide 

application if regrowth occurs), and 3 dual pass treatments (spring disking followed by herbicide 

application at one of the 3 herbicide application times). For all herbicide treatments, the 

recommended rate (44 oz/ac) of glyphosate will be applied with a tractor pulled sprayer. For the 

disking treatments a tractor pulled disk will be used in the spring before the soils become dry. 

The seeded subplots will be seeded with a mix of native grasses, forbs, and shrubs common to the 

sites historical plant community (Table 1). Seeding will occur in October or early November. A 

Truax Rough Rider rangeland drill will be used for the seeding. 

Establishment success will be evaluated in 2 growing seasons after the treatment and seeding year. 

Data collection will include cover and density of seeded species, crested wheatgrass, and invasive 

plants. Cover will be determined by line point intercept. Density will be determined by counting 

plants in sample quadrates or appropriately sized belt transects. 

141
Table 1. Seed mix. 

Species lb-PLS/ac lb-Bulk Seed/ac 

 Broadcast 

‘Maple Grove’ Lewis flax 0.40 0.43 

Mountain Home Sandberg bluegrass 0.20 0.24 

Royal Penstemon 0.40 0.56 

Wyoming big sagebrush 0.05 0.29 

Rubber rabbitbrush 0.15 1.01 

Rice Hulls – 7.29 

 Drilled 

Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass 3.20 3.60 

‘Magnar’ basin wildrye 0.80 1.04 

‘Bannock’ thickspike wheatgrass 0.60 0.74 

Thurber’s needlegrass 0.60 0.99 

Rice Hulls – 7.29 

Future Plans: 

For the large plot study, all experimental plots have been selected, the 8 crested wheatgrass control 

treatments have been implemented, and seeding has been completed for 2008. In 2009, the second 

round of control treatments and seeding will be conducted and the first year of establishment success 

for the 2008 treatment and seeding year will be determined. 

For the small plot study, first year spray treatments have been applied and the 2008 imagery has been 

collected. The root crowns have been collected for 2008 and the phenological stage of the plants on 

each collection date has been classified. In 2009, the second round of clipping, herbicide application, 

and photography will be conducted on a new set of plots. The 2008 plots will be photographed and 

the images analyzed. Plants will be collected for an additional year for TNC and phenologically 

classified. TNC in crowns collected in 2008 will be analyzed. 

Management Applications: 

When this study is complete, land managers can use this information to choose crested wheatgrass 

control practices that have the greatest efficacy and increase the likelihood that subsequent native 

seeding efforts will be successful.

142
Project Title: Re-establishing Native Plant Diversity in Crested 

 Wheatgrass Stands in the Great Basin 

Project Location: USDA ARS Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, 

 Burns, Oregon 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

 Jane Mangold 

 USDA-ARS (formerly); Montana State University (currently) 

67826-A Hwy 205; Burns, OR 97720 (formerly); 

P.O. Box 173120, Bozeman, MT 59717 (currently) 

 406.994.5513, fax: 406.994.3933 

 jane.mangold@montana.edu 

Cooperators: 

USDA-FS-RMRS 

322 East Front Street, Suite 401Boise, ID 83702 

Malheur National Wildlife Refuge 

36391 Sodhouse Lane, Princeton, OR 97720 

USDA-NRCS, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center 

P.O. Box 296, Aberdeen, ID 83210 

Oregon State University 

Dept. of Range Ecology and Management 

202 Strand Agriculture Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331-2218 

 

Project Description: 

This project investigated the feasibility of increasing native plant diversity in established crested 

wheatgrass stands in the Great Basin. The study location was 80 km south of Burns, OR, on the 

Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in a stand of crested wheatgrass approximately 25 years old. 

Objectives included: 1) determine the effect of crested wheatgrass control methods and revegetation 

on crested wheatgrass density and cover, 2) determine the effect of crested wheatgrass control 

methods and revegetation on establishment of native species, and 3) determine the effect of crested 

wheatgrass control methods and revegetation on cheatgrass density and cover. 

Methods 

Procedures included varying the method and intensity of crested wheatgrass control, followed by 

seeding a mix of native shrubs, grasses, and forbs. Crested wheatgrass control treatments were tested 

in a randomized block, split-plot design with control method and intensity as whole plots and seeded 

vs. unseeded as split-plots. Control treatments included mechanical (disking), herbicide (glyphosate 

application), or undisturbed (no crested wheatgrass control). Control treatment intensity was varied 

by the number of passes with the disk (partial = one pass, full = two passes) and the rate of 

143
glyphosate application (partial = 10 oz ac-1, full = 44 oz ac-1). Half the plot was seeded and half the 

plot was left unseeded to simulate seeding failure following control treatment. The five treatments 

[full control mechanical (FCM), partial control mechanical (PCM), full control herbicide (FCH), 

partial control herbicide (PCH), undisturbed (UD)] were replicated across five blocks each year on 

0.4 ha (1 acre) plots for a total of approximately 10 ha (25 acres) treated annually (5 ha (12.5 acres) 

seeded, 5 ha unseeded). Control and seeding treatments were applied 2005 (Trial 1) and 2006 (Trial 

2). Plots were monitored 2006, 2007, and 2008. Cover and density of unseeded and seeded species 

was collected in June for three years on Trial 1 plots and for two years on Trial 2 plots. A detailed 

description of sampling procedures and data analysis can be found in previous years’ reports. 

Results

– Crested Wheatgrass

Treatment and year interacted to affect crested wheatgrass density (P < 0.0001; Figure 1) in Trial 1. 

In 2006 all treatments resulted in similar crested wheatgrass density. Except in the UD treatment, 

which remained constant at 6.7 ± 0.3 plants·m-2, crested wheatgrass density increased from 2006 to 

2007. By 2007, the FCM treatment increased crested wheatgrass density to 14.3 plants·m-2, which 

was higher than any other treatment. In addition the PCM (8.5 plants·m-2) treatment was higher in 

density than the FCH (7.2 plants·m-2) and UD treatments. The density of crested wheatgrass in 2008 

was similar to that of 2007 for each treatment. Three years post-treatment, the mechanical control 

treatments resulted in increased crested wheatgrass density compared to undisturbed plots. 

Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

crested wheatgrass density (plants m-2)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

2006

2007

2008

HSDa = 1.1

HSDb = 1.5

Figure 1. Crested wheatgrass density as affected by treatment and year in Trial 1. HSDa separates 

means within a treatment across years. HSDb separates means across treatments within a year. Error 

bars equal ± 1.0 SE. FCH = full control herbicide. FCM = full control mechanical. PCH = partial 

control herbicide. PCM = partial control mechanical. UD = undisturbed. 

In Trial 2 the main effect of treatment influenced crested wheatgrass density (P = 0.0073). All 

treatments increased crested wheatgrass density over that of the UD treatment (7.0 ± 0.4 plants·m-2). 

144
Similar to Trial 1, the highest density was found in the FCM treatment (11.7 ± 0.7 plants·m-2) 

followed by FCH (10.5 ±1.2 plants·m-2), PCM (9.2 ± 0.3 plants·m-2), and 

PCH (8.3 ± 0.4 plants·m-2). 

In Trial 1 treatment and year interacted to affect crested wheatgrass cover (P = 0.0037; Figure 2). 

Except for the FCM treatment, cover decreased from 2006 to 2008. In 2006 the FCM treatment 

demonstrated the lowest crested wheatgrass cover compared to all other treatments at 9.9 %, and it 

increased in 2007 and 2008 to 12.6% and 14.8%, respectively. By 2008 crested wheatgrass cover 

was lowest in the PCM treatment (11.1%) and highest in the FCM (14.8%) and UD (14.1%) 

treatments. 

The main effect of year influenced crested wheatgrass cover in Trial 2 (P = 0.0004). Cover was 11.3 

±0.6% in 2007 and increased to 15.1 ± 0.8% in 2008. Crested wheatgrass cover was also influenced 

by an interaction between treatment and seeding level (P = 0.0465; Figure 3). In the PCH treatment, 

the seeded plots (14.8%) resulted in lower crested wheatgrass cover than the unseeded plots (18.4%). 

In contrast the UD treatment resulted in lower crested wheatgrass cover in the unseeded plots 

(14.3%) as compared to the seeded plots (17.8%). Seeding level did not matter in the FCH, FCM and 

PCM treatments. 

Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

crested wheatgrass cover (%)

0

5

10

15

20

25 2006

2007

2008

HSDa = 2.1

HSDb = 2.8

Figure 2. Crested wheatgrass cover as affected by treatment and year in Trial 1. HSDa separates 

means within a treatment across years. HSDb separates means across treatments within a year. Error 

bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment codes. 

145
Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

crested wheatgrass cover (%)

0

5

10

15

20

25

seeded

unseeded

HSDa = 2.3

HSDb = 2.8

Figure 3. Crested wheatgrass cover as affected by treatment and seedling level in Trial 2. HSDa 

separates means within a treatment across seedling level. HSDb separates means across treatments 

within a seeding level. Error bars equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment codes. 

Seeded Species Establishment 

In Trial 1 year interacted with treatment to affect seeded species density (P < 0.0001; Figure 4). The 

highest seeding density of 43.9 plants·m-2 occurred in the FCM treatment in 2006. Except for the UD 

treatment, which saw no change in seedling density (18.2 plants·m-2), seedling mortality ranged from 

25% to 67% between 2006 and 2007. By 2008 all treatments experienced an 88% to 98% decrease in 

seeded species density, and all treatments resulted in similar seeded species density (mean = 1.8 

plants·m-2). 

The main effect of year influenced seeded species density in Trial 2 (P < 0.0001). Density decreased 

from 2007 to 2008 from 26.1 ± 1.5 plants·m-2 to 1.0 ± 0.2 plant·m-2, respectively. 

146
Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

seeded species density (plants m-2)

0

10

20

30

40

50

2006

2007

2008

HSDa = 4.9

HSDb = 5.0

Figure 4. Seeded species density as affected by treatment and year in Trial 1. HSDa separates means 

within a treatment across years. HSDb separates means across treatments within a year. Error bars 

equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment codes. 

Cheatgrass 

In Trial 1 no main effects or interactions significantly affected cheatgrass density. Cheatgrass cover 

was affected by the main effect of year (P = 0.0284). Cheatgrass cover was highest in 2006 at 3.5 ± 

0.4% and decreased over three years to 2.3 ± 0.2% in 2008. 

In Trial 2 cheatgrass density was influenced by the main effect of year (P = 0.0026), the interaction 

of treatment and year (P = 0.0004), and the interaction of treatment and seeding level (P = 0.0028). 

Across treatments and seeding levels, cheatgrass density increased from 29.4 ± 3.1 plants•m-2 in 

2007 to 73.6 ± 8.6 plants•m-2 in 2008. Except for the PCH and UD treatments, cheatgrass density 

increased from 2007 to 2008 (Figure 5) in Trial 2. The highest cheatgrass density was found in the 

FCH treatment in 2008 at 133.1 plants•m-2. Cheatgrass density was lower in the unseeded FCH 

treatment than in the seeded (96.8 vs. 62.8 plants m-2, respectively), but the opposite was true in the 

UD treatment (19.2 vs. 63.6 plants m-2, respectively) (Figure 6). Otherwise, no trends were observed 

in cheatgrass density as affected by seeding level. 

In Trial 2 cheatgrass cover was affected by year (P = 0.0429) and the interaction of treatment and 

seed (P = 0.0446). Cheatgrass cover was 2.3 ± 0.1% in 2007 and increased to 3.1 ± 0.4% in 2008. 

The response of cheatgrass cover to the treatment by seeding level interaction was similar to 

cheatgrass density response (Figure 7). The highest cover was found in the seeded FCH treatment 

(5.2%) and lowest in the seeded PCH and UD (1.0 and 1.4%, respectively) treatments and unseeded 

PCH treatment (1.3%). 

147
Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

cheatgrass density (plants m-2)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

2007 

2008 

HSDa = 20.3

HSDb = 26.5

Figure 5. Cheatgrass density as affected by treatment and year in Trial 2. HSDa separates means 

within a treatment across years. HSDb separates means across treatments within a year. Error bars 

equal ± 1.0 SE. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment codes. 

 

Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

cheatgrass density (plants m-2)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140 seeded

unseeded 

HSDa = 16.2

HSDb = 25.0

Figure 6. Cheatgrass density as affected by treatment and seeding level in Trial 2. HSDa separates 

means within a treatment across seeding levels. HSDb separates means across treatments within a 

seeding level. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment codes. 

 

148
Treatment

FCH FCM PCH PCM UD

cheatgrass cover (%)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

seeded

unseeded 

HSDa = 0.9

HSDb = 1.1

Figure 7. Cheatgrass cover as affected by treatment and seeding level in Trial 2. HSDa separates 

means within a treatment across seeding levels. HSDb separates means across treatments within a 

seeding level. See Figure 1 for explanation of treatment codes. 

Publications: 

Fansler, V.A. and J.M. Mangold. Establishing native plants in crested wheatgrass stands. Journal of 

Rangeland Ecology and Management. In review. 

Presentations: 

Results from this project were included in nine presentations that reached over 500 audience 

members in 2008. 

Management Applications: 

Restoration of crested wheatgrass stands into more diverse plant communities that meet multiple 

land-use objectives has been proposed and in some cases mandated. In spite of high initial densities 

of seeded species, seedling mortality was high and most of the seedlings that emerged the first year 

did not truly establish and persist until the end of the study. Our study suggested that strategies to 

increase native plant diversity in crested wheatgrass stands need to address not only crested 

wheatgrass control and introduction of native propagules, but also follow up management to favor the 

persistence of seeded species, especially between the first and third year after seeding. Our results 

would probably be less than satisfactory for a land manager whose objective is to restore plant 

diversity to a site, and we believe subsequent management that favors the persistence of native 

species and retards crested wheatgrass, such as properly timed grazing or consistent wick application 

of herbicide, is critical. Otherwise, attempts to control crested wheatgrass and establish native 

species will lead to failure and lost investments. Treatments that address species performance 

subsequent to revegetation with native species should be considered in future research projects. 

149
Project Title: Native Plant Selection, Seed Biology and Seeding Equipment 

and Technology

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

Nancy Shaw 

USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station 

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401 

Boise, ID 83702 

208.373.4360, fax : 208.373.4391 

nshaw@fs.fed.us 

Robert Cox

Depatment of Natural Resources Management 

Texas Tech University 

Box 42125 

Lubbock, TX 79409 

806.742.1983, fax: 806.742.2280 

Robert.Cox@ttu.edu 

(formerly USDA FS RMRS, Boise) 

 Amy Ganguli 

USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station 

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401 

Boise, ID 83702 

208.373.4358, fax: 208.373.4391 

 aganguli@fs.fed.us 

I. Plant Materials 

Project Description: 

Development of plant materials of native forbs has been conducted at the USDA Forest Service, 

Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise Botanic Garden, Orchard Research Site and Wells Research Site. 

Project Status: 

Seed Collection and Distribution 

Fifty-two collections were made in 2008. Ten collections were provided to the National Seed 

Laboratory for development of seed testing protocols and 72 were provided to the USDA ARS 

Western Regional Plant Introduction Station for ex situ germplasm conservation. 

150
Research Species and Buy-back Program 

Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata): Collaborative genecological studies of are being 

conducted with USDA FS PNW Corvallis, OR and USDA ARS Pullman, WA. Three common 

gardens of 140 sources were established in 2006 at Pullman, WA, Central Ferry, WA and at the 

USDA FS Lucky Peak Nursery near Boise. Two years of morphological and phenological data 

have been collected and are being analyzed. Water use efficiency of selected populations will be 

compared in 2009. 

Blue penstemon (Penstemon cyaneus): Snake River Plain seed was provided to a grower for seed 

increase. 

Fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum): Morphological and phenological data is being collected 

from about 40 accessions in common gardens at Lucky Peak Nursery. Additional data is 

collected from common gardens at Wells, NV and Corvallis, OR. Molecular genetics work with 

these accessions has been conducted by the USDA ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction 

Station. 

Hotrock or scabland penstemon (Penstemon deustus): Blue Mountains/Northern Basin and Range 

seed provided to a seed grower for seed increase. 

Nineleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium triternatum): Pooled Northern Basin and Range seed was provided 

to a seed grower for seed increase. 

Sharpleaf or sand penstemon (Penstemon acuminatus): Snake River Plain/Northern Basin and Range 

seed was provided to a grower for seed increase. 

Sulfur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum): Two common gardens are being maintained near 

Boise, ID. Data collection will continue through 2009. Northern Basin and Range seed was 

distributed to a grower for seed increase. 

Thurber needlegrass (Achnatherum thurberianum): Northern Basin and Range seed was provided to 

a grower for seed increase. 

Western yarrow (Achillea millefolium): G0 Eagle material provided to a grower for production of 

stock seed. 

Wyeth buckwheat (Eriogonum heracleoides): Pooled Northern Basin and Range/Snake River 

Plains) seed was provided to a seed grower for seed increase. 

Other Seed Distribution 

Anatone Bluebunch Wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicatum): G0 seed was provided to the USDA 

ARS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center for production of Stock Seed. 

Fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum) and Thurber needlegrass (Achnatherum thurberianum): 

seed was provided to Clint Shock, Oregon State University for studies of cultural practices. 

151
Wyeth buckwheat, fernleaf lomatium, and sharpleaf penstemon from the Snake River Plain were also 

distributed for increase of source-identified seed. 

Native seed for establishment of a native plant demonstration area in Owyhee County was provided 

to Susan Filkins and Roger Rosentreter, USDI Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office. 

The Boise seed database was provided to Jim Cane for location of potential study sites for examining 

bee response to wildfires. 

Big flower agoseris (Agoseris grandiflora), tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata), and dusty 

maiden (Chaenactis douglasii) are being screened for growth characteristics, seed production and 

cultural requirements at the Lucky Peak Nursery. Data on big flower agoseris and dusty maiden 

are provided to Scott Jensen, RMRS, Provo, UT, and G1 seed of big flower agoseris was 

provided to him for seed production studies. 

II. Re-establishing Diverse Native Wyoming Big Sagebrush Communities: A Comparison of 

seeding equipment and techniques. 

Additional Collaborators: 

Loren St. John, USDA NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center 

Dan Ogle, USDA NRCS Idaho State Office, Boise, ID 

Mike Pellant, USDI BLM, Reno, NV 

Project Description: 

Objectives and Methods

To evaluate the capabilities of the Kemmerer Rangeland drill and the Truax RoughRider Minimumtill drill to seed seeds of diverse sizes and shapes at appropriate depths to reestablish grasses, forbs, 

and shrubs on former Wyoming big sagebrush sites, study plots were established at two locations 

near Elko, Nevada in October 2006. Locations were selected on areas that had burned in 2006. One 

location was selected on the East Humboldt fire about 10 miles SW of Elko. The second location 

was selected on the Gopher fire, about 10 miles N of Deeth, NV. 

At each location, 35 plots were established in 5 blocks (7 plots per block). Two seeding rates of 

native species plus a control of no seed were seeded into the plots on Nov. 7-10, 2006. An untreated 

“double control” (no seed and no drill) was included to provide adequate comparison. Species and 

rates seeded are listed in Table 1. BLM Elko Field Office personnel were instrumental in all stages 

of this project, including planning, site selection, treatment application, and logistics. Tom Warren, 

Stan Kemmerer, Mark Coca, Brock Uhlig, Mike Mowray and Kyle Blackburn were especially 

helpful. Personnel from the NRCS Plant Materials Center in Aberdeen, ID, including Brent 

Cornforth, Charlie Bair, and Boyd Simonson., did the seeding The broadcast mix was seeded by 

allowing seed to fall on the soil surface in front of either the furrow-chain (Kemmerer drill) or the 

Brillion packer wheels (Truax drill). The drill mix was seeded through the drill assembly. On 

December 19, 2006, autonomous weather stations were placed at each location to record rain, 

temperature, and soil moisture. 

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2008 Activities and Results

Data collection for this project occurred from 

June 9-14, 2008. As in 2007, data were 

collected based on the template provided by 

Dr. David Pyke, USGS, for entry into the 

“Rangeland Database and Field Data Entry 

System”, a cooperative effort between ARS, 

NRCS, BLM, and USGS. This year, five 30m 

transects were established perpendicular to the 

drill rows, in each plot. On each transect, the 

density of all seeded species, plus cheatgrass 

and any native perennial species, were 

observed and recorded in four, 0.5 m2

quadrats; species richness was also recorded 

by noting all unique species in each quadrat. 

Line-point intercept data was collected along 

each transect, by placing a point every 1m 

from a random starting point between 5.0 and 

5.9m along the transect (for a total of 20 points 

per transect, 100 total points per plot). 

Finally, basal gap intercept was collected 

along the same transects, by recording the 

length of all gaps longer than 20cm between perennial species along the transect, beginning at the 5m 

mark and continuing until the 25m mark. Data collection involved up to10 field workers and 

required 1 week. 

Seeding Rate, 

PLS/m2

Species High Low 

Broadcast mix 

Wyoming big sagebrush 15.3 9.5 

Rubber rabbitbrush 17.3 10.2 

Eagle yarrow 171.1 105.9 

Sandberg bluegrass 194.6 114.2 

Rice hulls 

Total Broadcast 398.3 239.8 

Drill seeding mix 

Fourwing saltbush 5.1 3.6 

Blue flax 33.4 23.7 

Munro globemallow 41.2 29.8 

Bluebunch wheatgrass 94.8 67.7 

Bottlebrush squirreltail 8.2 5.9 

Indian ricegrass 54.8 39.1 

Rice hulls 

Total Drill 237.5 169.9 

Total Drill + Broadcast 635.8 409.6 

Table 1. Species seeded and rates, in PLS/m2.

Density data were analyzed with Proc Glimmix in SAS, and mean separations were performed with 

the Tukey adjustment (P=0.01). Analysis of other variables will proceed for the remainder of the 

year. Density of all seeded species was similar between drill types, but greater at one site than at the 

other. There was also a very large loss of density from 2007 to 2008 (Figs. 1a and 1b). Density of 

drilled species was much greater at the Humboldt site than at the Gopher site, and mostly greater in 

areas seeded with the Rangeland drill than with the Minimum-till drill. Densities were much lower in 

2008 than in 2007 (Figs. 2a and 2b). Density of broadcast species was greater at the Humboldt site in 

2007, but greater at the Gopher site in 2008. Minimum-till seeded areas had greater density of 

broadcast species that did Rangeland drill seeded areas in both 2007 and 2008. Density also dropped 

greatly from 2007 to 2008 (Figs. 3a and 3b). Density of Wyoming big sagebrush in 2007 was greater 

at the Humboldt site compared to the Gopher site; in 2008 both sites were similar. The Minimum-till 

drill provided greater density of sagebrush than did the Rangeland drill. Density dropped greatly 

between years (Figs. 4a and 4b). Density of cheatgrass seedlings was much greater at the Gopher site 

than at the Humboldt site and greater in Minimum-till seeded areas than in Rangeland seeded areas 

(2008 data not analyzed yet) (Figs. 5a and 5b). 

Future Plans: 

The fieldwork portion of this study is completed, although the plots have been fenced and will be r 

evisited in several years for reassessment of longer-term success. The data analysis will continue 

153
154

Fig 2. Density of drill-seeded species in 2007 (a) and 2008 (b).

a)

a) b)

Fig 1. Density of all seeded species in 2007 (a) and 2009 (b).

b)

a) b)

Fig 3. Density of broadcast-seeded species in 2007 (a) and 2008 (b). 

a) b)

Fig 4. Density of Wyoming big sagebrush in 2007 (a) and 2008 (b).

Fig 5. Density of cheatgrass in 2007 (a) and 2008 (b). 

a) b) 
Management Applications: 

Land managers will benefit from the information produced by this study by using the results to aid in 

post-wildfire restoration planning. The results of this study should allow managers to better 

understand how the respective drills differ in their abilities to seed native species in a diverse mix and 

their impacts on residual native species and cheatgrass. Such information will help managers in 

selecting seeding equipment that meets both the site requirements and the seeding goals. 

Products: 

Products expected from this project include equipment development and modification, field tours for 

managers and practitioners, fact sheets and brochures, and likely publication in an agency or journal 

venue. 

III. Equipment and strategies to enhance the post-wildfire establishment and persistence of 

Great Basin native plants 

Additional Cooperators: 

 Mike Pellant, USDI BLM, Reno, NV 

 David Pyke, USGS Corvallis, OR 

 Dan Ogle, USDA NRCS Idaho State Office, Boise, ID 

 Loren St. John, USDA NRCS, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, 

 Aberdeen, ID 

 Beth Newingham, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID. 

Project Description: 

Objectives and Methods

This study further investigates the capability of the Truax Rough Rider drill and the Kemmerer 

rangeland drill to reestablish Wyoming big sagebrush plant communities following wildfire. The 

study will test seeding rates and methods for establishing Wyoming big sagebrush along with a 

mixture of other native grasses, forbs, and shrubs. Data collection will follow methods that are 

currently being recommended by the USGS for BLM use as standard techniques for ES&R 

monitoring. Data will be uploaded into a central ES&R monitoring database being developed by the 

USGS and will be permanently stored and available to land managers and researchers. In addition, 

the proposed study also facilitates analysis of long-term grazing effects on sagebrush seedings by 

establishing adjacent plots designed to allow grazing exclusion. 

Objectives

1) Identify seeding methodologies, planting season and seeding rates to successfully establish 

Wyoming big sagebrush on burned rangelands. 

2) Compare establishment and persistence of native species (grasses, forbs and shrubs) seeded 

with a standard rangeland drill or with a minimum-till rangeland drill. Utilize native forbs 

from Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Research when possible. 

3) Compare the physical impacts of the modified rangeland drill and the minimum-till drill with 

respect to planting residual cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) or other invasive weed seeds and on 

recovery of residual native plants and biological soil crusts. 

155
4) Utilize ES&R protocols being evaluated by USGS in addition to other data collected for this 

research to make quantitative vegetation measurements for comparing treatment effects. 

ES&R protocol data will be added to the ES&R database to promote future monitoring and 

will be available to other researchers. 

5) Establish studies that will allow long-term evaluation of the effects of livestock use on ES&R 

mixed seedings of native grasses, forbs and shrubs 

6) Compare physical and chemical characteristics of soil conditions created by the seeding 

treatments to provide an assessment of seedbed conditions, and document climatic conditions 

and variability to better assist managers in implementing successful restoration activities. 

2008 Activities

Data collection for plots established in 2007 occurred from May 19-30, 2008 for plots located at the 

Glass Butte study site, near Burns, Oregon, and from June 2-5, 2008 for plots located at the Mountain 

Home study site. Data were collected based on the template provided by Dr. David Pyke, USGS, for 

entry into the “Rangeland Database and Field Data Entry System”, a cooperative effort between 

ARS, NRCS, BLM, and USGS. Within each plot, five 30m transects were established, perpendicular 

to the drill rows, in each plot. On each transect, the density of all seeded species, plus cheatgrass and 

any native perennial species, were observed and recorded in four 0.5m2

 quadrats; species richness 

was also recorded by noting all unique species in each quadrat. Line-point intercept data was 

collected along each transect, by placing a point every 1m from a random starting point between 5.0 

and 5.9m along the transect (for a total of 20 points per transect, 100 total points per plot). Finally, 

basal gap intercept data was collected along the same transects by recording the length of all gaps 

longer than 20cm between perennial plant species, beginning at the 5m mark and continuing until the 

25m mark. Data collection involved up to10 field workers, and required 3 weeks to complete both 

sites. In November 2008, an additional site was seeded on a burned site west of Snowville in 

northern Utah. 

Future Plans: 

Data will be collected from Oregon, Idaho, and Utah field plots in late May and early June 2009, and 

from Utah plots in 2010. A final set of plots will be established in fall 2009, with data collection for 

those plots occurring in late spring 2010 and 2011. 

Management Applications: 

Land managers will benefit from the information produced by this study, in conjunction with the 

previous study, by using the results to aid in post-wildfire restoration planning. The results of this 

study should allow managers to better understand how the respective drills differ in their abilities to 

seed native species in a diverse mix as well as their impacts on biological soil crusts, residual native 

species and planting of cheatgrass or other weed seeds. This research should provide a better 

understanding of techniques that could best be used to seed Wyoming big sagebrush. Such 

information will help managers in selecting seeding equipment that meets both the site requirements 

and the seeding goals. In addition, by working with the developer of the minimum-till drill, we 

expect to improve the performance of this equipment. 

Products: 

Products expected from this project include equipment development and modification, field tours for 

managers and practitioners, fact sheets and brochures, a website to facilitate public access of the 

project and its information, and likely publication in an agency or journal venue. 

156
IV. Calibration of Drills for Rehabilitation and Restoration Seedings on Western Wildlands 

Collaborator: 

 Lisa Outka-Perkins, USDA FS Missoula Technology and 

 Development Center, Missoula, MT. 

Project Description: 

Emphasis on establishment of diverse native communities to repair damaged wildlands necessitates

proper calibration of drills to plant seeds at prescribed rates. Planners, operations personnel, and 

contractors are often not fully trained in calibrating drills or aware of the options available when 

using newer drills with multiple seed boxes. Standard settings are often used to seed commonly 

planted species such as wheatgrasses through rangeland drills. However, when more complex seed 

mixtures are used, it is necessary to carefully calibrate each mix. Seeding at high rates wastes 

expensive seed and results in excessive competition among seeded species. Seeding at low rates leads 

to inadequate stands and leaves sites open to invasion by weeds. Agency personnel require training to 

administer seedings and check drill calibration. Likewise, training is needed for contractors to assure 

proper equipment calibration and use. 

Project Status: 

A DVD is being developed for use in training sessions to familiarize users (land managers, 

contractors and others) with standard calibration procedures and seeding strategies that may be used 

with drills having single, double or triple seed boxes. Much of the filming has been completed and 

the script is being developed. 

V. Effect of Storage Temperature, Duration, and Packaging Material on Wyoming Big 

Sagebrush Seed Viability 

Additional Collaborator: 

Robert Karrfalt, USFS National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA 

Project Description: 

Objectives and Methods

Specific objectives of the study are to answer the question, “what conditions allow long-term storage 

of Wyoming big sagebrush seed?” Answering this question will improve managers’ ability to seed 

Wyoming big sagebrush in post-fire and other restoration projects by identifying how Wyoming big 

sagebrush seed should be stored over the long-term, thereby allowing it to be purchased when prices 

are low, and stored until needed for restoration activities. 

To evaluate the influence of different storage conditions on the long-term viability of Wyoming big 

sagebrush seed, packets containing small amounts of seed (approx. 1.5grams each) from 5 different 

wild locations in the Great Basin. Seeds from each source were be stored at 2 purity levels (<30% 

and >60% purity) and in two types of storage bag (4mil poly-sheet and woven poly-mesh). Samples 

of all combinations of seed source, purity and storage material were stored at one of 3 storage 

temperatures: -12o

C (10oF), 1.6oC (35oF), and ambient warehouse temperature. Therefore, the study 

157
was established in a split plot arrangement, allowing comparison of effects due to source, purity, 

temperature, and storage bag type over a 50-month sampling period. The response variable to be 

evaluated is percent germination of sagebrush seed in each storage condition, measured as the 

average of four 100-seed germination tests. To evaluate changes in percent germination over time, 

tests will be done after 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 27, 36, and 48 months of storage. Overall, 270 poly-sheet 

and 270 poly-mesh bags will be used for this portion of the study: 5 seed sources x 2 purity levels x 3 

temperatures x 9 sample dates = 270 bags of each type. On each sample date, 30 source x purity x 

temperature treatment bags of each type will be removed from storage and tested for percent 

germination and moisture content. 

A separate analysis will compare source, purity, seed moisture content, and storage temperature in a 

split-split plot arrangement. The same sampling dates and response variable will be used as in the 

above analysis. This will include 1,320 poly sheet bags (including the 270 from the previous 

analysis), representing the full factorial of 5 seed sources x 2 purity levels x 4 moisture contents x 3 

storage temperatures x 9 sampling dates. On each sampling date, 120 bags representing the source x 

purity x moisture content x storage temperature factorial will be removed from storage and tested to 

determine percent germination and moisture content. Therefore, a total of 1,080 bags will be stored 

during the study, with 150 bags sampled on each sampling date (a total of 120 poly-sheet bags and 30 

poly-mesh bags will be sampled on each date; 30 of the poly-sheet bags will be used in both 

analyses). 

2008 Activities

In 2008, seedlots at each storage condition were tested for germination viability in Feb, May, and 

November (9, 12, and 18 months, respectively). Along with germination tests of each seedlot, 

temperature, moisture content, and packaging type combination, moisture content has also been 

tested and recorded. 

Future Plans: 

Germination and moisture tests of each seed packet will continue every 9 months for the remainder of 

the study (approximately 4 years, or until viability reaches zero). 

Management Applications: 

Land managers, seed producers and vendors, and restoration planners will benefit by using the 

information produced by this study to understand how sagebrush seed may be stored to improve longterm viability of the seed. The ability to store Wyoming big sagebrush seed over longer periods will 

help to ameliorate the greatest logistical obstacles to restoring this species: unpredictable supply and 

demand for the seed, which results in high seed prices, and the need to use late-fall ripened seed 

quickly. 

Products: 

Products expected from this project include fact sheets and brochures and likely publication in an 

agency or journal venue. 

 

158
VI. Hydrothermal Germination Time for Wyoming Big Sagebrush 

Additional Collaborator: 

Stuart Hardegree, USDA ARS Northwest Watershed Research 

Center, Boise, ID 

Project Description: 

Objectives and Methods

This study attempts to determine germination and time to germination for Wyoming big sagebrush at 

a range of temperature and water potential combinations. Such information will allow restoration 

practitioners and land managers to more effectively predict the outcome of restoration seedings. 

This study was established at the USDA-ARS Northwest Watershed Research Center, in the array of 

temperature-controlled germination chambers built by Dr. Stuart Hardegree. Five seedlots of 

Wyoming big sagebrush, collected from wildland populations, were tested over a range of 11 

temperatures (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, and 33oC) and seven water potential (-0.33, -0.1, -0.4, 

-0.7, -1.0, -1.3, -1.6) combinations, and the total germination at each temperature/water potential 

combination was recorded daily until germination was essentially complete to provide comparisons 

of germination and germination rate. Individual germination tests occurred in lots of 30 seeds, and 

were conducted in the adjustable water potential vial apparatus already used for several other studies 

by Dr. Hardegree. 

2008 Activities and Results

Seeds were counted in summer 2008 and seeds were placed in vials and germination chambers in late 

summer and fall 2008. 

Future Plans: 

Data analysis for this study is currently underway; full results and conclusions will be published in 

appropriate agency or scientific journal venues. 

Management Applications: 

Land managers, seed producers and vendors, and restoration planners will benefit by using the 

information produced by this study to understand how sagebrush seed germinates under differing 

temperature and moisture conditions. This information may be used to better predict response of 

seed to seedbed environments. 

Products: 

Products expected from this project include fact sheets and brochures and likely publication in an 

agency or journal venue. 

159
Publications: 

Karrfalt, R.; Shaw, N.L. Ten steps to a successful native plant materials program (submitted to 

Native Plant Journal). 

Meyer, S.E.; Booth, D.T.; Shaw, N.L. 2008. Purshia DC. Ex Poir. bitterbrush, cliffrose, p. 916-921. 

In: F.T. Bonner and R.P. Karrfalt, eds. Woody Plant Seed Manual. Agricultural Handbook 727. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/nsl_wpsm.html 

Rudolf, P.O.; Slabaugh, P.E.; Shaw, N.L. 2008. Syringa L. lilac, p. 1083-1086. In: F.T. Bonner and 

R.P. Karrfalt, eds. Woody Plant Seed Manual. Agricultural Handbook 727. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/nsl_wpsm.html 

Scholten, M., Donahue, J., Shaw, N.L., Serpe, M.D. in press. Environmental regulation of dormancy 

loss in Lomatium dissectum (Apiaceae) seeds. Annals of Botany. 

Shaw, N.L.; Haferkamp, M.R.; Hurd, E.G. 2008. Grayia spinosa (Hook.) Moq. spiny hopsage, p. 

567-572. In: F.T. Bonner and R.P. Karrfalt, eds. Woody Plant Seed Manual. Agricultural 

Handbook 727. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/nsl_wpsm.html 

Shaw, N. L.; Hild, A. L.; Kinter, L. Chondrilla juncea L.: 2008. Post-fire invasiveness in Artemisia 

tridentata communities of western North America, p. 808. In: Organizing Committee of 2008 

IGC/IRC Conference, eds. Multifunctional grasslands in a changing world. Guangdong People’s 

Publishing House, Beijing, China. 

Shaw, N.L.; Hurd, E.G. 2008. Chamaebatiaria millefolium (Torr.) Maxim. fernbush, p. 387-390. In: 

F.T. Bonner and R.P. Karrfalt, eds. Woody Plant Seed Manual. Agricultural Handbook 727. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/nsl_wpsm.html 

Shaw, N.L.; Hurd, E.G.; Stickney, P.F. 2008. Holodiscus (K. Koch) Maxim. ocean-spray, p. 592-594. 

In: F.T. Bonner and R.P. Karrfalt, eds. Woody Plant Seed Manual. Agricultural Handbook 727. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/nsl_wpsm.html 

Shaw, N.L.; Hurd, E.G.; Stickney, P.F. 2008. Philadelphus L. mock orange, p. 786-789. In: F.T. 

Bonner and R.P. Karrfalt, eds. Woody Plant Seed Manual. Agricultural Handbook 727. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/nsl_wpsm.html 

Shaw, N.L.; Pellant, M.; Olwell, M.; Jensen, S. 2008. Native plant development and restoration 

program for the Great Basin, USA, p. 454. In: Organizing Committee of 2008 IGC/IRC 

Conference, eds. Multifunctional grasslands in a changing world. Guangdong People’s Publishing 

House, Beijing, China. 

160
Shaw, N.L.; Pendleton, R.L.; Hurd, E.G. 2008. Zuckia brandegei (Gray) Welsh & Stutz ex Welsh 

siltbush, p. 1185-1189. In: F.T. Bonner and R.P. Karrfalt, eds. Woody Plant Seed Manual. 

Agricultural Handbook 727. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/nsl_wpsm.html 

Slabaugh, P.E.; Shaw, N.L. 2008. Cotoneaster Medik. cotoneaster, p. 442-446. In: F.T. Bonner and 

R.P. Karrfalt, eds. Woody Plant Seed Manual. Agricultural Handbook 727. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/nsl_wpsm.html 

Presentations and Abstracts: 

Cox, R.D., Shaw, N.L., Pellant, M. Reestablishing diverse native Wyoming Big Sagebrush 

communities: a comparison of seeding equipment. Society for Range Management/American 

Forage and Grassland Council, 2008 Joint Annual Meeting, 2008 January 26-31. Louisville, KY. 

Abstract. 

 

Cox, R.D., N.L. Shaw, M. Pellant, D. Pyke, L. St. John, D. Ogle, S. Perkins, J. Truax. Seed and 

seeding technologies for reestablishing Wyoming big sagebrush in diverse seed mixes. Great 

Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2008 February 13-14, Salt 

Lake City, Utah. 

Johnson, R.C., N. Shaw, M. Cashman, B. Hellier, B. St. Clair. Adapted germplasm for the Great 

Basin: taper-tip onion, Indian ricegrass, bluebunch wheatgrass and friends. Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2008 February 13-14, Salt Lake City, UT. 

Parkinson, H.A., N.L. Shaw, C.A. Zabinski. Seeding Great Basin forbs: assessing the effects of grass 

competition Society for Range Management/American Forage and Grassland Council, 2008 Joint 

Annual Meeting, 2008 January 26-31, Louisville, KY. Abstract. 

Shaw, N. Development of native plants for the Great Basin. 2008 March, 17-18, USDI BLM 

Wenatchee District Office, Wenatchee, WA. Also attended field tour to visit a local seed grower 

and nurseryman. 

Shaw, N. GBNPSIP Update. Idaho BLM Annual Wildlife and Botany Meeting, Feb. 21, 2008, Boise, 

ID. 

Shaw, N. Native plants for the Great Basin. Animal Science and Technical College, 2008 July, China 

Agricultural University, Beijing, China. 

Shaw, N., R. Cox, N. Williams, K. Sherich, J. Gurr, M. Fisk, H. Wiedemann, J. Truax, H. P., C. 

Zabinski, M. Scholten, M. Serpe, J. Muscha, M. Haferkamp, L. Vemeire. Native forbs – 

selection, species interactions and seedbed ecology. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and 

Increase Project Annual Meeting, 2008 February 13-14, Salt Lake City, Utah. 

Shaw, N.L. A collaborative science-based program to provide native plant materials and restoration. 

Its about the land – Success in BLM Partnerships. Society for Range Management/American 

Forage and Grassland Council, 2008 Joint Annual Meeting, 2008 January 26-31, Louisville, KY. 

Abstract. 

161
Shaw, N.L., A.L. Hild, L. Kinter. Chondrilla juncea L. Post-fire invasiveness in Artemisia tridentata

communities of western North America. 29 June 2008 – 6 July 2008, XXI International Grassland 

Congress/ VIII International Rangeland Congress, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China. Abstract. 

 

Shaw, N.L., M. Pellant, P. Olwell, S. Jensen, E.D. McArthur. Native plant development and 

restoration program for the Great Basin, USA. 29 June 2008 – 6 July 2008, XXI International 

Grassland Congress/ VIII International Rangeland Congress, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China. 

Abstract. 

Shaw, N.L., R. Cox, M. Pellant. Native plants and seeding methods for the Great Basin. Restoration 

and rehabilitation of grazing lands. Society for Range Management/American Forage and 

Grassland Council, 2008 Joint Annual Meeting, 2008 January 26-31, Louisville, KY. Abstract. 

Websites: 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Website 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml 

Maintained by Kelsey Sherich 

Equipment and strategies to enhance the post-wildfire establishment and persistence of Great Basin 

native plants 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/fire.shtml

Maintained by Amy Ganguli and Kelsey Sherich 

Revegetation Technology and Equipment Council 

http://rtec.rangelands.org/index.htm 

 Maintained by Amy Ganguli and Kelsey Sherich 

Reports, Taskorders Agreements, Contracts: 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project FY07 Progress Report. 2008. USDA Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID and Cooperators. 177 p. 

Nevada Native Plant Development Project, Agreement No. DAI 010013. FY07 Progress Report. 

2008. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID and Cooperators. 14 p. 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Progress Report 2001-2007 and Species 

Status Summary. 2008. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID and 

Cooperators. 56 p. (Prepared for the USDI BLM Native Plant Materials Program Report to 

Congress). 

Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project Taskorder FY08. 2008. USDA Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID. 12 p. (Prepared for the USDI BLM Great 

Basin Restoration Initiative Coordinator). 

Seventeen agreements or amendments, two interagency agreements and one contract were 

implemented in 2008. 

162
Grant Proposals Leveraged by GBNPSIP Projects: 

Shaw, N.; Erickson, Vicky; Pellant, Mike. 2008. Calibration of drills for rehabilitation and restoration 

seedings on western wildlands. USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development 

Center (MTDC). 2400 9E92E89 Drill calibration video training. Leader: Lisa Outka-Perkins, 

MTDC, Missoula, MT. Status: Completion expected by September 2009. 

Shaw, N. 2008. GPS applications for monitoring drill seedings. USDA Forest Service, Missoula 

Technology and Development Center. 2008. 2200 9E92D87 GPS Rangeland drill monitor. 

Leader: Gary Kees, MTDC, Missoula, MT. National goal 7: Provide Science-based Applications 

and Tools for Sustainable Natural Resources Management. 

Meetings, Field Tours, Workshops: 

Annual Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project meeting, February 13-14, 2008, Salt 

Lake City, UT. Organized by Utah Division of Wildlife Resources and USDA Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID. 

 

Seed Collection Workshop. Duck Valley Tribes (Shoshone – Paiute), July 16, 2008. Organized by 

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office, Idaho Department of Fish and Game and 

the USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID (Matt Fisk). 

 

Media Releases, Popular Articles: 

Pat McCoy. 22 March 2008. Restoration projects call for native plants. Capitol Press, Salem, Oregon. 

Rush Skeletonweed in the Great Basin. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/projects/documents/shaw_rust_tech_transfer110107

.pdf 

Wells, Gail. 2008. Big Changes in the Great Basin. Fire Digest. National Interagency Fire Center, 

Joint Fire Sciences Program. 11 p. 

McKnight, Laurie. April 2008. Challenging cheatgrass. RMRScience. USDA Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. 5 p. 

Natural doesn’t come easy. 23 May 2008. Capitol Press, Salem, Oregon. 

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Project title: Development of Procedures to Break Dormancy in 

Lomatium dissectum Seeds 

Project Location: Department of Biology, Boise State University 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

 Marcelo Serpe, Ph.D., Associate Professor 

 Department of Biology 

 Boise State University 

 Boise, ID 83725-1515 

 208.426.3687, fax: 208.426.4267 

 mserpe@boisestate.edu 

Project Description: 

Objective 1 

To analyze the effect of longer periods of cold stratification on seed germination and characterization 

of the stratification requirements of different seed populations. 

We have analyzed the stratification requirements of eight populations of Lomatium dissectum. For 

this purpose, we collected seeds from four populations of L. dissectum var. dissectum and four 

populations of L. dissectum var. multifidum. Our results indicate that all populations require long 

periods of cold stratification to germinate. However, there were differences in the cold stratification 

requirements of the various populations. Seeds of L. disssectum var. multifidum from the 

intermediate elevations (1287, 1347, and 1700m) began to germinate after 8 weeks (Fig. 1a). In 

contrast, seeds from Moore’s Mountain (2200m) and seeds of L. dissectum var. dissectum began to 

germinate after 10 weeks. The mean germination time (MGT) for seeds of L. dissectum var. 

multifidum collected at intermediate elevations were between 10.5 and 11 weeks, which were 

significantly shorter than those of L. dissectum var. dissectum seeds (14.4 to 16 weeks) (Fig. 1b). 

The seeds collected at the highest elevation (2200m) had an intermediate MGT of about 13 weeks 

(Fig. 1b). The longer germination time of L. dissectum var. dissectum seeds did not appear to be 

attributed to a negative effect of cold temperatures on germination. Seeds of L. dissectum var. 

dissectum collected at Adair 1 and Adair 2 were placed at 4C for 12 weeks and then some seeds 

were kept at this temperature while others were exposed to a daily (12/12 h) alternating temperature 

regimen of 5/15C. The seeds exposed to the alternating temperatures showed much lower 

germination than those maintained at a constant temperatures of 4C (Fig. 1c). 

In general, the above results indicate that seeds collected from moist habitats have longer cold 

stratification requirements that those from semiarid environments. The shorter stratification 

requirements for seeds from the drier sites may provide an ecological advantage. Seeds of variety 

multifidum were from sites where the growing season is relatively short due to the dry summer 

conditions. For these seeds, the shorter stratification results in early germination, which extend the 

growth period allowing the seedlings to photosynthesize and accumulate reserves until the dry 

summer. On the other hand, variety dissectum seeds were from sites where temperature and 

164
precipitation allow plant growth through most of the spring and summer. Under these conditions, 

early germination is not so critical for seedling survival. 

Figure 1. Germination of Lomatium dissectum seeds collected at different sites. 

a, Germination time courses. 

b, Mean germination time. 

c, Comparison of the effect of changing the incubation temperature; after 12 weeks at 4C some seeds were 

maintained at this temperature while others were exposed to a 12/12 h alternating temperature regimen of 

5/15C. Lomatium dissectum var. dissectum seeds were collected at Adair 1, Adair 2, Buell 1, and Buell 2. 

Lomatium dissectum var. multifidum were collected at Prairie, Harper, Fairfield, Moore’s Mountain. Mean (

SE) of five to ten replications with 60 seeds per replication. In b and c, means not labeled with the same letter 

are significantly different (p < 0.05) 

Objective 2 

To analyze of the effects of fluctuations in temperature on seed germination. 

We have stratified seeds at 4C for 8 weeks and subsequently transferred them to growth chambers 

that provided the following diurnal temperature fluctuations: 17.5/12.5, 20/10 or 15/5C. These 

treatments resulted in much lower germination than that of seeds kept constantly at 4C (cf. fig. 1c). 

165
The fluctuations that we tested were at temperatures that appear to inhibit germination. Based on 

additional experiments, we determined that the optimum temperatures for germination of 

L. dissectum range between 3 and 5C (Fig. 2). Perhaps, smaller oscillations in temperature within 

the range permissive for embryo growth and germination may reduce the cold stratification period. 

Figure 2. Effect of different stratification temperatures on germination of Lomatium dissectum seeds. The 

seeds were left to germinate at the same temperatures used for cold stratification. Mean (SE) of ten 

replications with 60 seeds per replication. Means not labeled with the same letter are significantly different (p 

< 0.05). 

Objective 3 

To determine the effects of plant growth regulators on seed germination. 

Attempts were made to reduce the period of cold stratification using plant growth regulators. 

Gibberellic acid (GA3) in particular can replace the cold stratification requirement of some seeds. 

This, however, was not the case for L. dissectum. We tested four concentration of GA3 (0, 0.03, 0.3 

and 3mM) at two temperatures (4 and 12C). Embryo growth was significantly higher at 4 than at 

12 C and GA3 did not substitute the requirement for low temperatures. At 12C, embryo elongation 

was minimal and no significant differences were observed between seeds incubated in water and 

those incubated in GA3 solutions (Fig. 3). Gibberellic acid did not promote embryo growth at 4C; 

the elongation of the embryo was similar in water and in 0.03 and 0.3mM GA3, while 3mM GA3 

significantly inhibited embryo growth (Fig. 3). Furthermore, at 4C most of the seeds germinated 

after 10 to 12 weeks except for those incubated in 3mM GA3 (data not shown). In contrast, no 

germination was observed in seeds incubated at 12C. The observation that GA3 does not replace 

the cold stratification requirements indicates that L. dissectum seeds have complex 

morphophysiological dormancy. 

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Figure 3. Embryo elongation in Lomatium dissectum seeds incubated at 4 or 12C in various concentrations of 

GA3. Means (SE) of four replications with ten embryos per replication. For a particular week, means not 

labeled with the same letter are significantly different (p < 0.05). 

 

We also investigated the effect of GA3 in combination with kinetin on embryo growth at 4C. None 

of the treatments tested significantly improved embryo growth with respect to seeds incubated with 

water (Table 1). 

Kinetin (μM) GA3 (μM) Embryo length (mm) 

0 0 5.9 1.3 

50 0 4.7  1.6 

100 0 5.1  2.1 

0 250 5.2  1.8 

50 250 5.9  2.0 

100 250 6.5  2.4 

0 500 6.1  1.8 

50 500 6.0  2.3 

100 500 5.9  1.9 

0 1000 5.0  1.8 

50 1000 6.4  2..6 

100 1000 5.1  1.8 

 

Table 1. Effect of GA3 and kinetin on embryo 

growth of L. dissectum at 4C. Embryo length 

was measured after 10 week of incubation. 

Means ( SD) of three replications with 10 

embryos per replication. 

 

167
Presentation: 

Donahue J, Scholten M, Shaw NL, Smith JF, Serpe M (2008) Differences in cold stratification 

requirements among populations of Lomatium dissectum seeds. Presented at the annual meeting 

of the Botanical Society of America. 

Publication:

Scholten M, Donahue J, Shaw NL, Serpe MD. 2009. Environmental regulation of dormancy loss in 

seeds of Lomatium dissectum (Apiaceae). Annals of Botany 103:1091-1101. 

168
Project Title: Revegetation Equipment Catalog

Project Location: Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information: 

 

Robert Cox 

Department of Natural Resources Management 

Texas Tech University 

Box 42125 

Lubbock, TX 79409 

806.742.1983, fax: 806.742.2280 

Robert.Cox@ttu.edu 

Project Description: 

Objectives and Methods 

The purpose of this project is to provide a web-based catalog of descriptions and sources of 

equipment items used in rangeland restoration. This will be a centralized source of information on 

equipment used for all aspects of rangeland restoration. The website, currently hosted at Texas A&M 

University (TAMU), will be migrated to Texas Tech University (TTU) and maintained, updated and 

expanded. This will improve the access of revegetation specialists to information on commercially 

available equipment for accomplishing a wide variety of revegetation goals. 

2008 Activities 

The Catalog was updated and maintained by Mr. Harold Weidemann (TAMU) until his passing in 

October, 2008. Robert Cox (TTU) has agreed to manage the catalog in the future. 

Future Plans: 

The Catalog will me migrated to a TTU address. Robert Cox will also update and maintain the 

catalog. 

Management Applications: 

Various agency personnel, private land managers and revegetation/restoration practitioners will have 

easy access to information about commercially available revegetation equipment. 

Products: 

Products expected from this project include the online Revegetation Catalog itself, as well as various 

brochures and presentations, including trade shows. 

169
170

Project Title: Calibration of Drills for Rehabilitation and Restoration 

Seedings on Western Wildlands 

Project Location: USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center 

(MTDC), Missoula, MT 

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: 

 Lisa Outka-Perkins 

 USDA Forest Service 

 Missoula Technology and Development Center 

 Missoula, MT 59804 

 406.329.3849, fax: 406.329.4811 

 loutka-perkins@fs.fed.us 

Project Description: 

Emphasis on reestablishment of diverse native communities for post-fire restoration, increasing 

resistance to weed invasion, roadway enhancement and other rangeland restoration projects 

necessitates use of equipment designed to properly plant species with seeds of diverse sizes and 

shapes at appropriate rates and depths and in compatible combinations. Once seed mixes are 

developed and seeds have been procured, it is necessary to calculate the appropriate seeding rates for 

each component of the mix and to calibrate the drill to distribute each mix at the desired rate. 

The standard rangeland drill and a number of newer drills are now in use. Operators must be familiar 

with this equipment if it is to be used properly to improve the potential for seeding success, reduce 

waste of costly seed and decrease costs. Project 2400 9E92E89: Drill calibration video training is 

being conducted to provide a video that will describe drill parts and mechanisms and demonstrate 

three common methods of drill calibration. It will also illustrate some of the differences among drills. 

The video will include a glossary of standard terms used in describing seed quality and drill 

operation. 

Filming for the video was conducted at the USDI Bureau of Land Management Vale Equipment Shop 

and at the Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station. Completion of the project is 

expected by September 2009. A shorter version of the video may be linked to the Revegetation 

Equipment Catalog.