8-1

Introduction

Each aircraft comes with documentation and a set of manuals 

with which a pilot must be familiar in order to fly that aircraft. 

This chapter covers airplane flight manuals (AFM), the 

pilot’s operating handbook (POH), and aircraft documents 

pertaining to ownership, airworthiness, maintenance, and 

operations with inoperative equipment. Knowledge of these 

required documents and manuals is essential for a pilot to 

conduct a safe flight. 

Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM)

Flight manuals and operating handbooks are concise reference 

books that provide specific information about a particular 

aircraft or subject. They contain basic facts, information, 

and/or instructions for the pilot about the operation of an 

aircraft, flying techniques, etc., and are intended to be kept 

at hand for ready reference.

Flight Manuals and 

Other Documents

Chapter 8
8-2

The aircraft owner/information manual is a document 

developed by the manufacturer and contains general 

information about the make and model of aircraft. The 

manual is not pproved by the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) and is not specific to an individual aircraft. The 

manual provides general information about the operation of 

an aircraft, is not kept current, and cannot be substituted for 

the AFM/POH.

An AFM is a document developed by the manufacturer and 

approved by the FAA. This book contains the information 

and instructions required to operate an aircraft safely. A 

pilot must comply with this information which is specific 

to a particular make and model aircraft, usually by serial 

number. An AFM contains the operating procedures and 

limitations of that aircraft. Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 requires that pilots comply 

with the operating limitations specified in the approved flight 

manuals, markings, and placards.

Originally, flight manuals followed whatever format and 

content the manufacturer felt was appropriate, but this 

changed with the acceptance of Specification No. 1 prepared 

by the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA). 

Specification No. 1 established a standardized format for all 

general aviation airplane and helicopter flight manuals.

The POH is a document developed by the aircraft manufacturer 

and contains FAA approved AFM information. If “POH” is 

used in the main title, a statement must be included on the 

title page indicating that sections of the document are FAA 

approved as the AFM. 

The POH for most light aircraft built after 1975 is also 

designated as the FAA-approved flight manual. The typical 

AFM/POH contains the following nine sections: General; 

Limitations; Emergency Procedures; Normal Procedures; 

Performance; Weight and Balance/Equipment List; Systems 

Description; Handling, Service, and Maintenance; and 

Supplements. Manufacturers also have the option of including 

additional sections, such as one on Safety and Operational 

Tips or an alphabetical index at the end of the POH.

Preliminary Pages

While the AFM/POH may appear similar for the same make 

and model of aircraft, each manual is unique and contains 

specific information about a particular aircraft, such as the 

equipment installed and weight and balance information. 

Manufacturers are required to include the serial number and 

registration on the title page to identify the aircraft to which 

the manual belongs. If a manual does not indicate a specific 

aircraft registration and serial number, it is limited to general 

study purposes only.

Most manufacturers include a table of contents, which 

identifies the order of the entire manual by section number 

and title. Usually, each section also contains a table of 

contents for that section. Page numbers reflect the section 

and page within that section (1-1, 1-2, 2-1, 3-1, etc.). If the 

manual is published in loose-leaf form, each section is usually 

marked with a divider tab indicating the section number or 

title, or both. The Emergency Procedures section may have 

a red tab for quick identification and reference.

General (Section 1)

The General section provides the basic descriptive 

information on the airframe and powerplant(s). Some 

manuals include a three-dimensional drawing of the aircraft 

that provides dimensions of various components. Included 

are such items as wingspan, maximum height, overall length, 

wheelbase length, main landing gear track width, diameter 

of the rotor system, maximum propeller diameter, propeller 

ground clearance, minimum turning radius, and wing area. 

This section serves as a quick reference and helps a pilot 

become familiar with the aircraft.

The last segment of the General section contains definitions, 

abbreviations, explanations of symbology, and some of 

the terminology used in the POH. At the option of the 

manufacturer, metric and other conversion tables may also 

be included.

Limitations (Section 2)

The Limitations section contains only those limitations required 

by regulation or that are necessary for the safe operation of 

the aircraft, powerplant, systems, and equipment. It includes 

operating limitations, instrument markings, color-coding, and 

basic placards. Some of the limitation areas are: airspeed, 

powerplant, weight and loading distribution, and flight.

Airspeed

Airspeed limitations are shown on the airspeed indicator 

(ASI) by color coding and on placards or graphs in the aircraft. 

[Figure 8-1] A red line on the ASI shows the airspeed limit 

beyond which structural damage could occur. This is called the 

never-exceed speed (VNE). A yellow arc indicates the speed 

range between maximum structural cruising speed (VNO) and 

VNE. Operation of an airplane in the yellow airspeed arc is 

for smooth air only, and then only with caution. A green arc 

depicts the normal operating speed range, with the upper end 

at VNO, and the lower end at stalling speed at maximum weight 

with the landing gear and flaps retracted (VS1). For airplanes 

the flap operating range is depicted by the white arc, with the 

upper end at the maximum flap extended speed (VFE), and 

the lower end at the stalling speed with the landing gear and 

flaps in the landing configuration (VSO).
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Single-Engine Airspeed Indicator

Figure 8-1. Single-engine airpseed indicator.

Figure 8-3. Minimum, maximum, and normal operating range 

markings on oil gauge. 

Oil Gauge

200

245

I50

I00

75

°F P

S

I

II5

60

I00

20

0

OIL

P

R

E

S

S

T

E

M

P

Minimum

Maximum

Normal operating range

Multiengine Airspeed Indicator

160

140

200

250

AIRSPEED

KNOTS

IAS

TAS

IRS

KNO

40

60

80

100

120 140

160

180

200

260

Figure 8-2. Multi-engine airpseed indicator.

Figure 8-4. Manifold pressure gauge (top) and tachometer 

(bottom).

Engine rpm is indicated on the tachometer

RPM HUNDREDS

25

3

5

I5

30

20

I0

35

25

3

5

I5

30

20

I0

35 HOURS

AVOID CONTINUOUS

OPERATION BETWEEN 2250 AND 2350 RPM

I

I0

Manifold Pressure Gauge

IN Hg

ALg.

MANIFOLD

PRESSURE

35

10 50

15

25

40

30

20

45

35

10 50

15

25

40

30

20

45

PR

In addition to the markings listed above, small multi-engine 

airplanes will have a red radial line to indicate single-engine 

minimum controllable airspeed (VMC). A blue radial line 

is used to indicate single-engine best rate of climb speed at 

maximum weight at sea level (VYSE). [Figure 8-2]

Powerplant

The Powerplant Limitations portion describes operating 

limitations on an aircraft’s reciprocating or turbine engine(s). 

These include limitations for takeoff power, maximum 

continuous power, and maximum normal operating power, 

which is the maximum power the engine can produce without 

any restrictions and is depicted by a green arc. Other items 

that can be included in this area are the minimum and 

maximum oil and fuel pressures, oil and fuel grades, and 

propeller operating limits. [Figure 8-3]

All reciprocating-engine powered aircraft must have a 

revolutions per minute (rpm) indicator for each engine. 

Aircraft equipped with a constant-speed propeller or rotor 

system use a manifold pressure gauge to monitor power 

output and a tachometer to monitor propeller or rotor speed. 

Both instruments depict the maximum operating limit with 

a red radial line and the normal operating range with a green 

arc. [Figure 8-4] Some instruments may have a yellow arc 

to indicate a caution area. 

Weight and Loading Distribution

Weight and Loading Distribution contains the maximum 

certificated weights, as well as the center of gravity (CG) 

range. The location of the reference datum used in balance 

computations is included in this section. Weight and balance 

computations are not provided in this area, but rather in the 

weight and balance section of the AFM/POH.
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Figure 8-5. Placards are used to depict aircraft limitations.

Flight Limits

Flight Limits list authorized maneuvers with appropriate 

entry speeds, flight load factor limits, and kinds of operation 

limits. It also indicates those maneuvers that are prohibited, 

such as spins or acrobatic flight, as well as operational 

limitations such as flight into known icing conditions.

Placards

Most aircraft display one or more placards that contain 

information having a direct bearing on the safe operation of 

the aircraft. These placards are located in conspicuous places 

and are reproduced in the Limitations section or as directed 

by an Airworthiness Directive (AD). [Figure 8-5]

Emergency Procedures (Section 3)

Checklists describing the recommended procedures and 

airspeeds for coping with various types of emergencies or 

critical situations are located in the Emergency Procedures 

section. Some of the emergencies covered include: 

engine failure, fire, and system failure. The procedures 

for inflight engine restarting and ditching may also be 

included. Manufacturers may first show an emergency 

checklist in an abbreviated form, with the order of items 

reflecting the sequence of action. Amplified checklists that 

provide additional information on the procedures follow 

the abbreviated checklist. To be prepared for emergency 

situations, memorize the immediate action items and, after 

completion, refer to the appropriate checklist.

Manufacturers may include an optional subsection 

titled “Abnormal Procedures.” This subsection describes 

recommended procedures for handling malfunctions that are 

not considered emergencies.

Normal Procedures (Section 4)

This section begins with a list of the airspeeds for normal 

operations. The next area consists of several checklists that 

may include preflight inspection, before starting procedures, 

starting engine, before taxiing, taxiing, before takeoff, climb, 

cruise, descent, before landing, balked landing, after landing, 

and post flight procedures. An Amplified Procedures area 

follows the checklists to provide more detailed information 

about the various previously mentioned procedures.

To avoid missing important steps, always use the appropriate 

checklists when available. Consistent adherence to approved 

checklists is a sign of a disciplined and competent pilot.

Performance (Section 5)

The Performance section contains all the information required 

by the aircraft certification regulations, and any additional 

performance information the manufacturer deems important to 

pilot ability to safely operate the aircraft. Performance charts, 

tables, and graphs vary in style, but all contain the same basic 

information. Examples of the performance information found 

in most flight manuals include a graph or table for converting 

calibrated airspeed to true airspeed; stall speeds in various 

configurations; and data for determining takeoff and climb 

performance, cruise performance, and landing performance. 

Figure 8-6 is an example of a typical performance graph. For 

more information on use of the charts, graphs, and tables, 

refer to Chapter 10, Aircraft Performance.

Weight and Balance/Equipment List (Section 6)

The Weight and Balance/Equipment List section contains all 

the information required by the FAA to calculate the weight 

and balance of an aircraft. Manufacturers include sample 

weight and balance problems. Weight and balance is discussed 

in greater detail in Chapter 9, Weight and Balance.

Systems Description (Section 7)

This section describes the aircraft systems in a manner 

appropriate to the pilot most likely to operate the aircraft. 

For example, a manufacturer might assume an experienced 

pilot will be reading the information for an advanced aircraft. 

For more information on aircraft systems, refer to Chapter 

6, Aircraft Systems.

Handling, Service, and Maintenance (Section 8)

The Handling, Service, and Maintenance section describes 

the maintenance and inspections recommended by the 

manufacturer (and the regulations). Additional maintenance or 

inspections may be required by the issuance of AD applicable 

to the airframe, engine, propeller, or components.
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60

50

40

70

30

2,400 2,200 2,000 1,800 1,600 0° 20° 40° 60°

Stall speed (knots)

Gross weight (pounds) Angle of bank (degrees)

0° Flaps

0° Flaps 40° Flaps

Maximum weight - 2,440 (pounds)

Calibrated stall speed

Indicated stall speed

EXAMPLE

Gross weight: 2,170 pounds

Angle of bank: 20°

Flap position: 40°

Stall speed, indicated: 44 knots

Stall Speed

40° Flaps

Figure 8-6. Stall speed chart.

Figure 8-7. Supplements provide information on optional 

equipment.

This section also describes preventive maintenance that 

may be accomplished by certificated pilots, as well as the 

manufacturer’s recommended ground handling procedures. It 

includes considerations for hangaring, tie-down, and general 

storage procedures for the aircraft.

Supplements (Section 9)

The Supplements section contains information necessary 

to safely and efficiently operate the aircraft when equipped 

with optional systems and equipment (not provided with the 

standard aircraft). Some of this information may be supplied 

by the aircraft manufacturer or by the manufacturer of the 

optional equipment. The appropriate information is inserted 

into the flight manual at the time the equipment is installed. 

Autopilots, navigation systems, and air-conditioning 

systems are examples of equipment described in this section. 

[Figure 8-7]

Safety Tips (Section 10)

The Safety Tips section is an optional section containing a 

review of information that enhances the safe operation of the 

aircraft. For example, physiological factors, general weather 

information, fuel conservation procedures, high altitude 

operations, or cold weather operations might be discussed.
8-6

Figure 8-8. AC Form 8050-3, Certificate of Aircraft Registration.

Aircraft Documents

Certificate of Aircraft Registration

Before an aircraft can be flown legally, it must be registered 

with the FAA Aircraft Registry. The Certificate of Aircraft 

Registration, which is issued to the owner as evidence of 

the registration, must be carried in the aircraft at all times. 

[Figure 8-8]

The Certificate of Aircraft Registration cannot be used for 

operations when:

• The aircraft is registered under the laws of a foreign 

country.

• The aircraft’s registration is canceled upon written 

request of the certificate holder.

• The aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped.

• The ownership of the aircraft is transferred.

• The certificate holder loses United States 

citizenship.

For additional information, see 14 CFR section 47.41. When 

one of the events listed in 14 CFR section 47.41 occurs, the 

previous owner must notify the FAA by filling in the back of 

the Certificate of Aircraft Registration, and mailing it to:

 FAA Aircraft Registration Branch, AFS-750

 P.O. Box 25504

 Oklahoma City, OK 73125-0504

A dealer’s aircraft registration certificate is another form of 

registration certificate, but is valid only for required flight 

tests by the manufacturer or in flights that are necessary for 

the sale of the aircraft by the manufacturer or a dealer. The 

dealer must remove the certificate when the aircraft is sold.

Upon complying with 14 CFR section 47.31, the pink 

copy of the application for an Aircraft Registration 

Application, Aeronautical Center (AC) Form 8050-1, 

provides authorization to operate an unregistered aircraft 

for a period not to exceed 90 days. Since the aircraft is 
8-7

Figure 8-9. FAA Form 8100-2, Standard Airworthiness Certificate.

unregistered, it cannot be operated outside of the United 

States until a permanent Certificate of Aircraft Registration 

is received and placed in the aircraft. 

The FAA does not issue any certificate of ownership or 

endorse any information with respect to ownership on a 

Certificate of Aircraft Registration.

NOTE: For additional information concerning the Aircraft 

Registration Application or the Aircraft Bill of Sale, contact 

the nearest FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).

Light Sport Aircraft (LSA)

The FAA recently added a new category called Light Sport 

Aircraft (LSA). Requirements for registration of these 

aircraft differ from those of other aircraft. The following 

guidelines are provided for LSA registration, but a more 

detailed explanation can be found on the FAA website at 

http//www.faa.gov.

An existing LSA that has not been issued a United States 

or foreign airworthiness certificate, and does not meet the 

provisions of 14 CFR section 103.1, must meet specific 

criteria in order to be certificated as an experimental LSA 

under 14 CFR section 21.191 (i)(l) before January 31, 2008. 

The following items must be provided: evidence of ownership 

of the parts or the manufacturer’s kit, Aircraft Registration 

Application (AC Form 8050-1), and a $5.00 registration fee. 

If evidence of ownership can not be supplied, an affidavit 

stating why it is not available must be submitted on the AC 

Form 8050-88A. 

If an owner wants to register a newly manufactured LSA 

that will be certificated as an experimental light sport aircraft 

under 14 CFR section 21.191(i)(2), the following items must 

be provided: AC Form 8050-88A or its equivalent (completed 

by the LSA manufacturer, unless previously submitted 

to the Registry by the manufacturer), evidence from the 

manufacturer of ownership of an aircraft (kit-built or flyaway), AC Form 8050-1, and a $5.00 registration fee.

Airworthiness Certificate

An Airworthiness Certificate is issued by a representative 

of the FAA after the aircraft has been inspected, is found to 

meet the requirements of 14 CFR part 21, and is in condition 

for safe operation. The Airworthiness Certificate must be 

displayed in the aircraft so it is legible to the passengers and 

crew whenever it is operated. The Airworthiness Certificate 

is transferred with the aircraft except when it is sold to a 

foreign purchaser. 

A Standard Airworthiness Certificate is issued for 

aircraft type certificated in the normal, utility, acrobatic, 

commuter, transport categories, and manned free balloons. 

Figure 8-9 illustrates a Standard Airworthiness Certificate, 

and an explanation of each item in the certificate follows.
8-8

1. Nationality and Registration Marks. The “N” 

indicates the aircraft is registered in the United States. 

Registration marks consist of a series of up to five 

numbers or numbers and letters. In this case, N2631A 

is the registration number assigned to this airplane.

2. Manufacturer and Model. Indicates the manufacturer, 

make, and model of the aircraft.

3. Aircraft Serial Number. Indicates the manufacturer’s 

serial number assigned to the aircraft, as noted on the 

aircraft data plate.

4. Category. Indicates the category in which the aircraft 

must be operated. In this case, it must be operated 

in accordance with the limitations specified for the 

“NORMAL” category. 

5. Authority and Basis for Issuance. Indicates the aircraft 

conforms to its type certificate and is considered in 

condition for safe operation at the time of inspection 

and issuance of the certificate. Any exemptions from 

the applicable airworthiness standards are briefly 

noted here and the exemption number given. The word 

“NONE” is entered if no exemption exists. 

6. Terms and Conditions. Indicates the Airworthiness 

Certificate is in effect indefinitely if the aircraft is 

maintained in accordance with 14 CFR parts 21, 43, 

and 91, and the aircraft is registered in the United 

States.

Also included are the date the certificate was issued 

and the signature and office identification of the FAA 

representative.

A Standard Airworthiness Certificate remains in effect 

if the aircraft receives the required maintenance and is 

properly registered in the United States. Flight safety relies 

in part on the condition of the aircraft, which is determined 

by inspections performed by mechanics, approved repair 

stations, or manufacturers that meet specific requirements 

of 14 CFR part 43. 

A Special Airworthiness Certificate is issued for all aircraft 

certificated in other than the Standard classifications, such 

as Experimental, Restricted, Limited, Provisional, and LSA. 

LSA receive a pink special airworthiness certificate. There 

are exceptions. For example, the Piper Cub is in the new LSA 

category, but it was certificated as a normal aircraft during 

its manufacture. When purchasing an aircraft classified as 

other than Standard, it is recommended that the local FSDO 

be contacted for an explanation of the pertinent airworthiness 

requirements and the limitations of such a certificate.

Aircraft Maintenance

Maintenance is defined as the preservation, inspection, 

overhaul, and repair of an aircraft, including the replacement 

of parts. Regular and proper maintenance ensures that 

an aircraft meets an acceptable standard of airworthiness 

throughout its operational life.

Although maintenance requirements vary for different 

types of aircraft, experience shows that aircraft need some 

type of preventive maintenance every 25 hours of flying 

time or less, and minor maintenance at least every 100 

hours. This is influenced by the kind of operation, climatic 

conditions, storage facilities, age, and construction of the 

aircraft. Manufacturers supply maintenance manuals, parts 

catalogs, and other service information that should be used 

in maintaining the aircraft.

Aircraft Inspections

14 CFR part 91 places primary responsibility on the owner or 

operator for maintaining an aircraft in an airworthy condition. 

Certain inspections must be performed on the aircraft, and 

the owner must maintain the airworthiness of the aircraft 

during the time between required inspections by having any 

defects corrected.

14 CFR part 91, subpart E, requires the inspection of all civil 

aircraft at specific intervals to determine the overall condition. 

The interval depends upon the type of operations in which the 

aircraft is engaged. All aircraft need to be inspected at least 

once each 12 calendar months, while inspection is required 

for others after each 100 hours of operation. Some aircraft 

are inspected in accordance with an inspection system set up 

to provide for total inspection of the aircraft on the basis of 

calendar time, time in service, number of system operations, 

or any combination of these.

All inspections should follow the current manufacturer’s 

maintenance manual, including the Instructions for 

Continued Airworthiness concerning inspections intervals, 

parts replacement, and life-limited items as applicable to 

the aircraft.

Annual Inspection

Any reciprocating engine or single-engine turbojet/

turbopropeller-powered small aircraft (12,500 pounds and 

under) flown for business or pleasure and not flown for 

compensation or hire is required to be inspected at least 

annually. The inspection shall be performed by a certificated 

airframe and powerplant (A&P) mechanic who holds an 

inspection authorization (IA) by the manufacturer of the 
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Emergency Locator Transmitter

An emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is required by 14 

CFR section 91.207 and must be inspected within 12 calendar 

months after the last inspection for the following:

• Proper installation

• Battery corrosion

• Operation of the controls and crash sensor

• The presence of a sufficient signal radiated from its 

antenna

The ELT must be attached to the airplane in such a manner 

that the probablity of damage to the transmitter in the event 

of crash impact is minimized. Fixed and deployable automatic 

type transmitters must be attached to the airplane as far aft 

as practicable. Batteries used in the ELTs must be replaced 

(or recharged, if the batteries are rechargeable):

• When the transmitter has been in use for more than 1 

cumulative hour.

• When 50 percent of the battery useful life (or, for 

rechargeable batteries, 50 percent of useful life of the 

charge) has expired.

An expiration date for replacing (or recharging) the battery 

must be legibly marked on the outside of the transmitter 

and entered in the aircraft maintenance record. This does 

not apply to batteries that are essentially unaffected during 

storage intervals, such as water-activated batteries.

Preflight Inspections

The preflight inspection is a thorough and systematic means 

by which a pilot determines if the aircraft is airworthy and in 

condition for safe operation. POHs and owner/information 

manuals contain a section devoted to a systematic method 

of performing a preflight inspection.

Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) and 

Operations With Inoperative Equipment 

14 CFR requires that all aircraft instruments and installed 

equipment be operative prior to each departure. When the 

FAA adopted the minimum equipment list (MEL) concept 

for 14 CFR part 91 operations, this allowed operations with 

inoperative equipment determined to be nonessential for safe 

flight. At the same time, it allowed part 91 operators, without 

an MEL, to defer repairs on nonessential equipment within 

the guidelines of part 91.

aircraft or by a certificated and appropriately rated repair 

station. The aircraft may not be operated unless the annual 

inspection has been performed within the preceding 12 

calendar months. A period of 12 calendar months extends 

from any day of a month to the last day of the same month the 

following year. An aircraft overdue for an annual inspection 

may be operated under a Special Flight Permit issued by 

the FAA for the purpose of flying the aircraft to a location 

where the annual inspection can be performed. However, all 

applicable ADs that are due must be complied with before 

the flight.

100-Hour Inspection

All aircraft under 12,500 pounds (except turbojet/

turbopropeller-powered multi-engine airplanes and turbine 

powered rotorcraft), used to carry passengers for hire, must 

have received a 100-hour inspection within the preceding 100 

hours of time in service and have been approved for return to 

service. Additionally, an aircraft used for flight instruction 

for hire, when provided by the person giving the flight 

instruction, must also have received a 100-hour inspection. 

This inspection must be performed by an FAA-certificated 

A&P mechanic, an appropriately rated FAA-certificated repair 

station, or by the aircraft manufacturer. An annual inspection, 

or an inspection for the issuance of an Airworthiness 

Certificate may be substituted for a required 100-hour 

inspection. The 100-hour limitation may be exceeded by not 

more than 10 hours while en route to reach a place where 

the inspection can be done. The excess time used to reach a 

place where the inspection can be done must be included in 

computing the next 100 hours of time in service.

Other Inspection Programs

The annual and 100-hour inspection requirements do not 

apply to large (over 12,500 pounds) airplanes, turbojets, or 

turbopropeller-powered multi-engine airplanes or to aircraft 

for which the owner complies with a progressive inspection 

program. Details of these requirements may be determined 

by reference to 14 CFR section 43.11 and 14 CFR part 91, 

subpart E, and by inquiring at a local FSDO.

Altimeter System Inspection 

14 CFR section 91.411 requires that the altimeter, encoding 

altimeter, and related system be tested and inspected in the 

preceding 24 months before operated in controlled airspace 

under instrument flight rules (IFR).

Transponder Inspection

14 CFR section 91.413 requires that before a transponder can 

be used under 14 CFR section 91.215(a), it shall be tested 

and inspected within the preceding 24 months.
8-10

The use of an MEL for an aircraft operated under 14 

CFR part 91 also allows for the deferral of inoperative 

items or equipment. The primary guidance becomes the 

FAA-approved MEL issued to that specific operator and 

N-numbered aircraft.

The FAA has developed master minimum equipment lists 

(MMELs) for aircraft in current use. Upon written request by 

an operator, the local FSDO may issue the appropriate make 

and model MMEL, along with an LOA, and the preamble. 

The operator then develops operations and maintenance 

(O&M) procedures from the MMEL. This MMEL with O&M 

procedures now becomes the operator’s MEL. The MEL, 

LOA, preamble, and procedures document developed by the 

operator must be on board the aircraft when it is operated. 

The FAA considers an approved MEL to be a supplemental 

type certificate (STC) issued to an aircraft by serial number 

and registration number. It, therefore, becomes the authority 

to operate that aircraft in a condition other than originally 

type certificated.

With an approved MEL, if the position lights were discovered 

inoperative prior to a daytime flight, the pilot would make 

an entry in the maintenance record or discrepancy record 

provided for that purpose. The item is then either repaired or 

deferred in accordance with the MEL. Upon confirming that 

daytime flight with inoperative position lights is acceptable in 

accordance with the provisions of the MEL, the pilot would 

leave the position lights switch OFF, open the circuit breaker 

(or whatever action is called for in the procedures document), 

and placard the position light switch as INOPERATIVE.

There are exceptions to the use of the MEL for deferral. For 

example, should a component fail that is not listed in the MEL 

as deferrable (the tachometer, flaps, or stall warning device, 

for example), then repairs are required to be performed prior 

to departure. If maintenance or parts are not readily available 

at that location, a special flight permit can be obtained from 

the nearest FSDO. This permit allows the aircraft to be 

flown to another location for maintenance. This allows an 

aircraft that may not currently meet applicable airworthiness 

requirements, but is capable of safe flight, to be operated 

under the restrictive special terms and conditions attached 

to the special flight permit.

Deferral of maintenance is not to be taken lightly, 

and due consideration should be given to the effect an 

inoperative component may have on the operation of an 

aircraft, particularly if other items are inoperative. Further 

information regarding MELs and operations with inoperative 

equipment can be found in AC 91-67, Minimum Equipment 

Requirements for General Aviation Operations Under CFR 

Part 91.

The FAA has two acceptable methods of deferring 

maintenance on small rotorcraft, non-turbine powered 

airplanes, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under 

part 91. They are the deferral provision of 14 CFR section 

91.213(d) and an FAA-approved MEL.

The deferral provision of 14 CFR section 91.213(d) is 

widely used by most pilot/operators. Its popularity is due 

to simplicity and minimal paperwork. When inoperative 

equipment is found during preflight or prior to departure, the 

decision should be to cancel the flight, obtain maintenance 

prior to flight, or to defer the item or equipment.

Maintenance deferrals are not used for inflight discrepancies. 

The manufacturer’s AFM/POH procedures are to be used in 

those situations. The discussion that follows assumes that 

the pilot wishes to defer maintenance that would ordinarily 

be required prior to flight.

Using the deferral provision of 14 CFR section 91.213(d), 

the pilot determines whether the inoperative equipment is 

required by type design, 14 CFR, or ADs. If the inoperative 

item is not required, and the aircraft can be safely operated 

without it, the deferral may be made. The inoperative item 

shall be deactivated or removed and an INOPERATIVE 

placard placed near the appropriate switch, control, or 

indicator. If deactivation or removal involves maintenance 

(removal always will), it must be accomplished by certificated 

maintenance personnel and recorded in accordance with 14 

CFR part 43.

For example, if the position lights (installed equipment) 

were discovered to be inoperative prior to a daytime flight, 

the pilot would follow the requirements of 14 CFR section 

91.213(d).

The deactivation may be a process as simple as the pilot 

positioning a circuit breaker to the OFF position, or as 

complex as rendering instruments or equipment totally 

inoperable. Complex maintenance tasks require a certificated 

and appropriately rated maintenance person to perform the 

deactivation. In all cases, the item or equipment must be 

placarded INOPERATIVE.

All small rotorcraft, non-turbine powered airplanes, gliders, 

or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under 14 CFR part 91 

are eligible to use the maintenance deferral provisions of 14 

CFR section 91.213(d). However, once an operator requests 

an MEL, and a Letter of Authorization (LOA) is issued by the 

FAA, then the use of the MEL becomes mandatory for that 

aircraft. All maintenance deferrals must be accomplished in 

accordance with the terms and conditions of the MEL and 

the operator-generated procedures document.
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Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is considered to be simple or minor 

preservation operations and the replacement of small standard 

parts, not involving complex assembly operations. Allowed 

items of preventative maintenance are listed and limited to 

the items of 14 CFR part 43, appendix A(c).

Maintenance Entries

All pilots who maintain or perform preventive maintenance 

must make an entry in the maintenance record of the aircraft. 

The entry must include:

1. A description of the work, such as “changed oil (Shell 

Aero-50) at 2,345 hours.”

2. The date of completion of the work performed.

3. The entry of the pilot’s name, signature, certificate 

number, and type of certificate held.

Examples of Preventive Maintenance

The following examples of preventive maintenance are taken 

from 14 CFR Part 43, Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, 

Rebuilding, and Alternation, which should be consulted for 

a more in-depth look at preventive maintenance a pilot can 

perform on an aircraft. Remember, preventive maintenance 

is limited to work that does not involve complex assembly 

operations and includes:

• Removal, installation, and repair of landing gear 

tires and shock cords; servicing landing gear shock 

struts by adding oil, air, or both; servicing gear wheel 

bearings; replacing defective safety wiring or cotter 

keys; lubrication not requiring disassembly other than 

removal of nonstructural items such as cover plates, 

cowlings, and fairings; making simple fabric patches 

not requiring rib stitching or the removal of structural 

parts or control surfaces. In the case of balloons, 

the making of small fabric repairs to envelopes 

(as defined in, and in accordance with, the balloon 

manufacturer’s instructions) not requiring load tape 

repair or replacement. 

• Replenishing hydraulic fluid in the hydraulic reservoir; 

refinishing decorative coating of fuselage, balloon 

baskets, wings, tail group surfaces (excluding balanced 

control surfaces), fairings, cowlings, landing gear, cabin, 

or flight deck interior when removal or disassembly 

of any primary structure or operating system is not 

required; applying preservative or protective material 

to components where no disassembly of any primary 

structure or operating system is involved and where 

such coating is not prohibited or is not contrary to 

good practices; repairing upholstery and decorative 

furnishings of the cabin, flight deck, or balloon basket 

interior when the repair does not require disassembly 

of any primary structure or operating system or 

interfere with an operating system or affect the primary 

structure of the aircraft; making small, simple repairs 

to fairings, nonstructural cover plates, cowlings, and 

small patches and reinforcements not changing the 

contour to interfere with proper air flow; replacing 

side windows where that work does not interfere with 

the structure or any operating system such as controls, 

electrical equipment, etc. 

• Replacing safety belts, seats or seat parts with 

replacement parts approved for the aircraft, not 

involving disassembly of any primary structure or 

operating system, bulbs, reflectors, and lenses of 

position and landing lights.

• Replacing wheels and skis where no weight-andbalance computation is involved; replacing any 

cowling not requiring removal of the propeller or 

disconnection of flight controls; replacing or cleaning 

spark plugs and setting of spark plug gap clearance; 

replacing any hose connection, except hydraulic 

connections; however, prefabricated fuel lines may 

be replaced.

• Cleaning or replacing fuel and oil strainers or filter 

elements; servicing batteries, cleaning of balloon 

burner pilot and main nozzles in accordance with the 

balloon manufacturer’s instructions.

• The interchange of balloon baskets and burners on 

envelopes when the basket or burner is designated as 

interchangeable in the balloon type certificate data 

and the baskets and burners are specifically designed 

for quick removal and installation; adjustment 

of nonstructural standard fasteners incidental to 

operations.

• The installations of anti-misfueling devices to reduce 

the diameter of fuel tank filler openings only if the 

specific device has been made a part of the aircraft type 

certificate data by the aircraft manufacturer, the aircraft 

manufacturer has provided FAA-approved instructions 

for installation of the specific device, and installation 

does not involve the disassembly of the existing tank 

filler opening; troubleshooting and repairing broken 

circuits in landing light wiring circuits. 

• Removing and replacing self-contained, front instrument 

panel-mounted navigation and communication devices 

employing tray-mounted connectors that connect the 

unit when the unit is installed into the instrument 

panel; excluding automatic flight control systems, 

transponders, and microwave frequency distance 

measuring equipment (DME). The approved unit must 

be designed to be readily and repeatedly removed and 

replaced, and pertinent instructions must be provided. 
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Prior to the unit’s intended use, an operational check 

must be performed in accordance with the applicable 

sections of 14 CFR part 91 on checking, removing, 

and replacing magnetic chip detectors.

• Inspection and maintenance tasks prescribed and 

specifically identified as preventive maintenance 

in a primary category aircraft type certificate or 

supplemental type certificate holder’s approved special 

inspection and preventive maintenance program when 

accomplished on a primary category aircraft.

• Updating self-contained, front instrument panelmounted air traffic control (ATC) navigational 

software databases (excluding those of automatic 

flight control systems, transponders, and microwave 

frequency DME) only if no disassembly of the unit is 

required and pertinent instructions are provided; prior 

to the unit’s intended use, an operational check must 

be performed in accordance with applicable sections 

of 14 CFR part 91.

Certificated pilots, excluding student pilots, sport pilots, and 

recreational pilots, may perform preventive maintenance 

on any aircraft that is owned or operated by them provided 

that aircraft is not used in air carrier service or 14 CFR part 

121, 129, or 135. A pilot holding a sport pilot certificate 

may perform preventive maintenance on an aircraft owned 

or operated by that pilot if that aircraft is issued a special 

airworthiness certificate in the LSA category. (Sport pilots 

operating LSA should refer to 14 CFR part 65 for maintenance 

privileges.) 14 CFR part 43, appendix A, contains a list of the 

operations that are considered to be preventive maintenance.

Repairs and Alterations

Repairs and alterations are classified as either major or minor. 

14 CFR part 43, appendix A, describes the alterations and 

repairs considered major. Major repairs or alterations shall 

be approved for return to service on FAA Form 337, Major 

Repair and Alteration, by an appropriately rated certificated 

repair station, an FAA-certificated A&P mechanic holding 

an IA, or a representative of the Administrator. Minor repairs 

and minor alterations may be approved for return to service 

with a proper entry in the maintenance records by an FAAcertificated A&P mechanic or an appropriately certificated 

repair station.

For modifications of experimental aircraft, refer to the 

operating limitations issued to that aircraft. Modifications 

in accordance with FAA Order 8130.2, Airworthiness 

Certification of Aircraft and Related Products, may require 

the notification of the issuing authority.

Special Flight Permits

A special flight permit is a Special Airworthiness Certificate 

authorizing operation of an aircraft that does not currently 

meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is safe 

for a specific flight. Before the permit is issued, an FAA 

inspector may personally inspect the aircraft, or require it 

to be inspected by an FAA-certificated A&P mechanic or an 

appropriately certificated repair station to determine its safety 

for the intended flight. The inspection shall be recorded in 

the aircraft records.

The special flight permit is issued to allow the aircraft to be 

flown to a base where repairs, alterations, or maintenance 

can be performed; for delivering or exporting the aircraft; or 

for evacuating an aircraft from an area of impending danger. 

A special flight permit may be issued to allow the operation 

of an overweight aircraft for flight beyond its normal range 

over water or land areas where adequate landing facilities 

or fuel is not available.

If a special flight permit is needed, assistance and the necessary 

forms may be obtained from the local FSDO or Designated 

Airworthiness Representative (DAR). [Figure 8-10]

Airworthiness Directives (ADs)

A primary safety function of the FAA is to require correction 

of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft, aircraft engine, 

propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and 

are likely to exist or develop in other products of the same 

design. The unsafe condition may exist because of a design 

defect, maintenance, or other causes. 14 CFR part 39 and 

Airworthiness Directives (ADs) define the authority and 

responsibility of the Administrator for requiring the necessary 

corrective action. ADs are used to notify aircraft owners and 

other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to specify 

the conditions under which the product may continue to be 

operated. ADs are divided into two categories:

1. Those of an emergency nature requiring immediate 

compliance prior to further flight

2. Those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance 

within a specified period of time

ADs are regulatory and shall be complied with unless a 

specific exemption is granted. It is the responsibility of the 

aircraft owner or operator to ensure compliance with all 

pertinent ADs, including those ADs that require recurrent 

or continuing action. For example, an AD may require a 

repetitive inspection each 50 hours of operation, meaning 

the particular inspection shall be accomplished and recorded 
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Figure 8-10. FAA Form 8130-7, Special Airworthiness Certificate.

every 50 hours of time in service. Owners/operators are 

reminded there is no provision to overfly the maximum hour 

requirement of an AD unless it is specifically written into the 

AD. To help determine if an AD applies to an amateur-built 

aircraft, contact the local FSDO.

14 CFR section 91.417 requires a record to be maintained 

that shows the current status of applicable ADs, including 

the method of compliance; the AD number and revision date, 

if recurring; next due date and time; the signature; kind of 

certificate; and certificate number of the repair station or 

mechanic who performed the work. For ready reference, 

many aircraft owners have a chronological listing of the 

pertinent ADs in the back of their aircraft, engine, and 

propeller maintenance records.

All ADs and the AD Biweekly are free on the Internet 

at http://rgl.faa.gov. In July of 2007, the FAA made ADs 

available through e-mail. Individuals can enroll for the email service at the link above. Mailing paper copies of ADs 

will be discontinued when the e-mail system is proven to 

be effective.

Paper copies of the Summary of Airworthiness Directives and 

the AD Biweekly may be purchased from the Superintendent 

of Documents. The Summary contains all the valid ADs 

previously published and is divided into two areas. The small 

aircraft and helicopter books contain all ADs applicable to 

small aircraft (12,500 pounds or less maximum certificated 

takeoff weight) and ADs applicable to all helicopters. The 

large aircraft books contain all ADs applicable to large 

aircraft. 

For current information on how to order paper copies of AD 

books and the AD Biweekly visit the FAA online regulatory 

and guidance library at: http://rgl.faa.gov.

Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities

The registered owner/operator of an aircraft is responsible 

for:

• Having a current Airworthiness Certificate and a 

Certificate of Aircraft Registration in the aircraft.

• Maintaining the aircraft in an airworthy condition, 

including compliance with all applicable ADs, and 

assuring that maintenance is properly recorded.

• Keeping abreast of current regulations concerning the 

operation and maintenance of the aircraft.

• Notifying the FAA Aircraft Registry immediately 

of any change of permanent mailing address, or of 

the sale or export of the aircraft, or of the loss of the 

eligibility to register an aircraft. (Refer to 14 CFR 

section 47.41.)
8-14

• Having a current Federal Communications Commission 

(FCC) radio station license if equipped with radios, 

including emergency locator transmitter (ELT), if 

operated outside of the United States.

Chapter Summary

Knowledge of an aircraft’s AFM/POH and documents such as 

ADs help a pilot to have ready access to pertinent information 

needed to safely fly a particular aircraft. By understanding 

the operations, limitations, and performance characteristics 

of the aircraft, the pilot can make good flight decisions. 

By learning what preventive maintenance is allowed on 

the aircraft, a pilot can maintain his or her aircraft in an 

airworthy condition. The goal of every pilot is a safe flight; 

flight manuals and aircraft documentation are essential tools 

used to reach that goal.