GREAT BASIN NATIVE PLANT PROJECT

2013 PROGRESS REPORT

USDA FOREST SERVICE, ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION

AND USDI BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT, BOISE, ID

APRIL 2014

COOPERATORS

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program, Boise, ID, Provo, UT, and Albuquerque, NM

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Plant Conservation Program, Washington, DC and Idaho, Nevada, Utah, 

Oregon, and California State Offices

Boise State University, Boise, ID

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT

College of Western Idaho, Nampa, ID

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services, Prineville, OR

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR

Private Seed Industry

Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX

Truax Company, Inc., New Hope, MN

University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

University of Idaho Parma Research and Extension Center, Parma, ID

University of Nevada, Reno, NV

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, Elko and Reno, NV

Utah State University, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Pollinating Insect – Biology, Management, and Systematics Research 

Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Forage and Range Research Laboratory, Logan, UT

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Great Basin Rangelands Research Unit, Reno, NV

USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Plant Introductions Station, Pullman, WA

USDA Forest Service, National Seed Laboratory, Dry Branch, GA

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, ID

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Morley Nelson Birds of Prey National Conservation Area, Boise, ID

US Geological Survey Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Boise, ID

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin Research Center, Ephraim, UT

Utah Crop Improvement Association, Logan, UT

v

Great Basin Native Plant Project

2013 Progress Report

The Interagency Native Plant Materials Development Program outlined in the 2002 United States 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) and United States Department of Interior (USDI) Report to 

Congress encouraged use of native plant materials for rangeland rehabilitation and restoration 

where feasible. The Great Basin Native Plant Project is a cooperative project lead by the Bureau 

of Land Management (BLM) Plant Conservation Program and the United States Forest Service 

(USFS), Rocky Mountain Research Station that was initiated to provide information that will be 

useful to managers when making decisions about the selection of genetically appropriate 

materials and technologies for vegetation restoration. The Project is supported by the USDI 

Bureau of Land Management, Plant Conservation Program and administered by the USFS Rocky 

Mountain Research Station’s Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Research Program.

Research priorities are to: 

 Increase the variety of native plant materials available for restoration in the Great Basin.

 Provide an understanding of species variability and potential response to climate change 

to improve seed transfer guidelines.

 Develop seeding technology and equipment for successful reestablishment of native plant 

communities.

 Transfer research results to land managers, private sector seed growers, and restoration 

contractors.

We thank our many collaborators for their dedication and their institutions for their in-kind 

contributions. The wide array of expertise represented by this group has made it possible to 

address the many challenges involved with this endeavor. We thank Corey Gucker for the careful 

editing and compiling of this report and other outreach materials and Jan Gurr for managing our 

financial reporting. Special thanks also to our resident students: Erin Denney for her artistic 

ability and development of outreach materials and Matt Fisk and Alexis Malcomb for expertly 

managing the often arduous, challenging, and always multifacited field and laboratory research.

Francis Kilkenny

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

Boise, ID

ffkilkenny@fs.fed.us

Great Basin Native Plant Project

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise/research/shrub/greatbasin.shtml

Citation

Kilkenny, Francis; Shaw, Nancy; Gucker, Corey. 2014. Great Basin Native Plant Project: 2013 

Progress Report. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain

Research Station. 222 p.
vi

Results in this report should be considered preliminary in nature and should not be quoted or 

cited without the written consent of the Principal Investigator for the study.

The use of trade or firm names in this report is for reader information only and does not imply 

endorsement by the USDA or USDI of any product or service.

Pesticide Precautionary Statement: This publication reports some research involving pesticide 

use. It does not contain recommendations for their use, nor does it imply that the uses discussed 

here have been registered. All uses of pesticides must be registered by appropriate State and/or 

Federal agencies before they can be recommended.

CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, and fish 

or other wildlife―if they are not handled or applied appropriately. Use all pesticides selectively 

and carefully. Follow recommended practices for the disposal of surplus pesticides and pesticide 

containers.

The USDA and USDI are equal opportunity providers and employers.
vii

HIGHLIGHTS FOR 2013

GENETICS AND SEED ZONES

Testing the Efficacy of Seed Zones for Re-establishment and Adaptation of 

Bluebunch Wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata)

Francis Kilkenny and Brad St.Clair

 Seed was collected in summer 2013 from 138 populations in eight seed zones in the 

Snake River Plain and the Northern Basin and Range ecoregions (southern transect) and 

in eight seed zones in the Columbia Plateau and Blue Mountains ecoregions (northern 

transect).

 Populations were mapped relative to the seed zones and five populations from each of 

eight seed zones in the northern and southern transects were selected for inclusion in the 

study.

 Candidate test sites and potential collaborators have been identified in each seed zone.

Genetic Diversity and Genecology of Prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha) and 

Squirreltail (Elymus elymoides)

Francis Kilkenny and Brad St. Clair

 Common gardens were established in contrasting sites for prairie junegrass (Koeleria 

macrantha) and squirreltail (Elymus elymoides).

 We evaluated and compared growth, morphology, and reproductive traits for populations 

of each species. 

 General patterns that emerged from the preliminary analysis of prairie junegrass common 

gardens were largely congruent with large-scale ecoregions, suggesting that Omernick’s 

Level III ecoregions may be useful for seed zones. A preliminary seed zone map was

developed. 

 Analyses from squirretail common gardens suggest that squirreltail traits are highly 

plastic with phenological traits varying primarily by year, and size traits varying 

primarily by planting site.

Conservation, Adaptation, and Seed Zones for Key Great Basin Species

Richard C. Johnson, Erin K. Espeland, Matt Horning, Elizabeth Leger, Mike Cashman, and Ken 

Vance-Borland

 Study objectives are to collect key Great Basin species and establish common garden 

studies to quantify genetic variation in plant traits associated with phenology, production, 

and morphology and its relationship to source location climates.

 Data analysis from Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) common gardens has been 

completed, and seed zone models were developed for mapping across the Great Basin. 
viii

 Basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus) data collection was completed on 112 source locations 

over two garden sites and three years. Initial analysis indicates climate-linked genetic 

variation and interactions with ploidy are important in adaptation.

 Data collection in common gardens continued for squirreltail and Thurber’s needlegrass 

(Achnatherum thurberianum) from Central Ferry, Washington; Powell Butte, Oregon;

and Reno, Nevada.

Ecological Genetics of Big Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata): Genetic Structure 

and Climate-based Seed Zone Mapping

Bryce Richardson, Nancy Shaw, and Matthew J. Germino

 Project objectives are to use common garden experiments to determine climatic factors 

important to adaptation and develop climate-based seed zone maps for big sagebrush 

races. 

 Flower phenology and mortality show an association with climate of origin. 

 The electronic nose shows promise in diagnosing big sagebrush subspecies based upon 

volatile compound profiles.

Selecting Big Sagebrush Seed Sources for Restoration in a Variable Environment: 

Assessment of Young Seedling Responses to Climate and Management Treatments 

of Herbs 

Matthew J. Germino and Martha Brabec

 Landscape-scale experiments have been established in the USDI Bureau of Land 

Management Morley Nelson Birds of Prey National Conservation Area to test the 

importance of seed source, manager options for treating herbs, and climate variability on 

growth and survival of big sagebrush seedlings.

 Seedling response to experimental warming in burned areas varies considerably among 

the subspecies, according to preliminary findings.

 Land treatments that target herb community abundance and composition, such as 

herbicide application, mowing, seeding, or their combinations, can impact survival of 

outplanted big sagebrush seedlings.

Field-testing Competitive Native Plant Genotypes for Restoration in Cheatgrassinvaded Rangelands

Elizabeth A. Leger and Daniel Z. Atwater

 Study objectives are to identify heritable root traits in squirreltail and determine how 

these traits affect emergence, survival, and height of seedlings after one growing season 

in the field.

 We conducted field plantings with native seeds, which were wild-collected and screened 

for early root growth characteristics by growing seedlings for 10 days in a greenhouse. 

Siblings of these seeds were planted back into their home site.

 Root architecture strongly affected performance of squirreltail in northern Nevada 

rangelands. Squirreltail families that produced the longest, thickest roots with the most 

tips had up to a six-fold increase in seedling survival and a 1.5-fold increase in size in 

2012.
ix

 Root length, specific root length (length/volume), root mass ratio (root dry mass/total dry 

mass), and days-to-emergence were inherited in greenhouse conditions.

 Effects of specific root traits were complex, with some traits having linear effects on 

performance and other traits with intermediate values being favored.

 Seed mass had weak but complex effects on squirreltail height and survival probability, 

with important direct effects but also complex indirect effects on performance mediated 

by effects of seed mass on root architecture.

Dynamics of Germination and Cold Hardiness for Great Basin Native Plants

Anthony S. Davis, Matthew R. Fisk, Kent G. Apostol, and Kenneth W. Pete

 Master’s thesis titled: Advancing Nursery Production of Big Sagebrush Seedlings: Cold 

Storage and Variation in Subspecies Growth was completed by Emily Overton.

 Germination characteristics of sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum) were 

examined and analyzed.

 Research was initiated on cold tolerance acclimation and loss in sulphur-flower 

buckwheat.

 Initial research results indicate there are cold hardiness differences across the range of 

sulphur-flower buckwheat. This information is critical in defining seed transfer 

guidelines.

 Sulphur-flower buckwheat plants have been propagated by USFS Rocky Mountain 

Research Station, Moscow Forestry Sciences Laboratory personnel to be used in 

subsequent work testing seedling cold tolerance levels across ecoregions, collection 

years, elevation and longitudinal gradients, and provisional seed zones.

Modeling Seedling Root Growth of Great Basin Species

Bruce A. Roundy, Kert Young, and Nathan Cline

 We developed thermal accumulation models for seedling root penetration for forbs, 

grasses, and cheatgrass. 

 The general trend across species in soil was that annual grasses required the least amount 

of thermal time, forbs required the most thermal time, and perennial grasses were 

intermediate; although Secar Snake River wheatgrass (Elymus wawawaiensis) was quite 

slow for a grass.

 Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) roots grew the fastest at cool temperatures. However, 

crested wheatgrasses (Agropyron cristatum and A. desertorum) and Anatone bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata subsp. spicata) definitely grew well enough to 

compete with cheatgrass.

 We addressed a concern that germination timing response at extremely warm (> 86 °F 

[30 °C]) and cool (< 41 °F [5 °C]) temperature ranges would have high variability and 

may require further investigation if a large sum of thermal time occurs at those 

temperatures. Our results indicate that a minority of time is spent at the temperature 

ranges of concern. As a result, germination prediction models based on the summation of 

thermal time should be valid.
x

Pre-inoculation of Wyoming Big Sagebrush Seedlings with Native Arbuscular 

Mycorrhizae: Effects on Mycorrhizal Colonization and Seedling Survival after 

Transplanting

Marcelo D. Serpe and Bill E. Davidson

 Objectives of this study were to determine whether pre-inoculation of Wyoming big 

sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis) with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 

(AMF) increases colonization in roots that develop after transplanting, causes changes in 

the AMF community composition of the roots, and affects seedling survival.

 Pre-inoculation of Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings with native AMF increased 

colonization of the roots that developed after transplanting but only for seedlings 

transplanted in the fall.

 Higher levels of colonization after transplanting were associated with an increase in 

seedling survival. 

Smoke-induced Germination of Great Basin Native Forbs

Robert Cox

 Study objectives were to test the effects of smoke on the germination of select Great 

Basin species.

 Tests for smoke response have been completed for 11 species: Indian ricegrass 

(Achnatherum hymenoides), Thurber’s needlegrass (A. thurberianum), common yarrow 

(Achillea millefolium), bigflower agoseris (Agoseris grandiflora), big sagebrush,

fourwing saltbrush (Atriplex canescens), rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa), 

silverleaf phacelia (Phacelia hastata), king desertparsley (Lomatium graveolens), royal 

penstemon (Penstemon speciosus), and Sandberg bluegrass.

 Big sagebrush showed a strong negative response to a 1:10 concentration of smoke. 

 Fourwing saltbrush demonstrated a significant positive response to smoke at a 1:1000 

concentration.

 The results from bigflower agoseris, Indian ricegrass, common yarrow, Thurber’s 

needlegrass, rubber rabbitbrush, king desertparsley, silverleaf phacelia, Sandberg 

bluegrass, and royal penstemon were not statistically significant.

PLANT MATERIALS AND CULTURAL PRACTICES

Developing Protocols for Maximizing Establishment of Great Basin Legume 

Species

Douglas A. Johnson and B. Shaun Bushman

 Study objectives were to evaluate how scarification treatments, soil crusting, and soil 

type affected germination and emergence of select legume species and how these findings 

can improve establishment of legumes in the field.

 Greenhouse studies showed that seed scarification markedly improves germination and 

seedling emergence in western prairie clover (Dalea ornata), Searls’ prairie clover (D. 

searlsiae), and to a lesser extent that of basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes). 
xi

 Seeded plots were established in fall 2012 and spring 2013 at Clarno, Powell Butte, and 

Ontario, OR. Because of extremely low spring and summer precipitation at these sites, 

seedlings did not establish. Plots will be seeded again in fall 2014 and spring 2015.

 Three ecotypes of Searls’ prairie clover successfully established at Pleasant View, CO. 

Plants flowered and produced seed in the first year. 

Native Forb Cultural Practices, Seed Increase, and Forb Island Plantings

Jason Stettler, Kevin Gunnell, and Alison Whittaker

 This project involved studies to produce native lupine seed (Lupinus spp.), treat iron 

deficiency in four cultivated native lupine species, collect germplasm for native 

penstemon species (Penstemon spp.), and utilize ecological niche models to identify 

germplasm sources.

 Native lupine seed production was tracked for a 5-year period in two common garden 

locations.

 Second-year data was collected for the native lupine iron deficiency chlorosis study, and 

seed was harvested for silky lupine (L. sericeus). 

 Ecological niche models were developed for Palmer’s penstemon (P. palmeri) and 

firecracker penstemon (P. eatonii) to prioritize locations for germplasm collections.

 There were 89 seed collections made of 22 native forb species.

Plant Material Evaluations at the Shrub Sciences Laboratory

Scott Jensen

 Study objectives were to provide additional seed of Great Basin forbs adapted to specific 

seed zones.

 Collected seed from 32 wildland sources for 5 species.

 Increased seed for 14 species representing 53 source populations. 

 Evaluated emergence rates of 20 native forb species. 

 Compared emergence rates of basin wildrye sources. 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center Report of Activities

Loren St. John and Derek Tilley

 The Aberdeen Plant Materials Center (PMC) is involved with plant collection, selection,

and development, and seed and plant production for improving degraded or disturbed 

lands as well as the transfer of their garnered plant species production, establishment, and 

management knowledge to others. 

 Natural Resource Conservation Service Plant Guides were completed or revised for: 

Palmer’s penstemon, thickleaf penstemon (P. pachyphyllus), Rydberg’s penstemon (P. 

rydbergii), Columbia needlegrass (Achnatherum nelsonii), bigflower agoseris, showy 

goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora), and limestone hawksbeard (Crepis intermedia).

 The Aberdeen PMC is progressing toward releasing seed of: Douglas’ dustymaiden 

(Chaenactis douglasii), hoary tansyaster (Machaeranthera canescens), and Wyeth and 

sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum heracleoides and E. umbellatum).
xii

Bee Pollination and Breeding Biology Studies

James H. Cane

 Established plantings of six prevalent Great Basin forb species were subjected to 

controlled burning of stepwise intensities and durations designed to mimic wildfires in 

big sagebrush communities. 

 Several species largely survived burning (<30% mortality) and flowered the following 

year: basalt milkvetch, prairie clover, and fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum). 

Two others were sensitive to prolonged heating where surface temperatures were 572  ̊F 

(300  ̊C) or greater: blue penstemon (Penstemon cyaneus) and sulphur-flower buckwheat.

Etiology, Epidemiology, and Management of Diseases of Native Wildflower Seed 

Production

S. Krishna Mohan and Clinton C. Shock

 In 2013, the major objective of this project was to identify potentially important diseases 

especially powdery mildews that can result in serious native plant material losses.

 We identified many powdery mildew species, some new to the United States and some 

using hosts reported here for the first time.

Seed Production of Great Basin Native Forbs

Clinton C. Shock, Erik B. Feibert, Lamont D. Saunders, Nancy Shaw, and Ram K. Sampangi

 New forb establishment trials for seed production demonstrated reliable ways to establish 

12 species.

 Long-term irrigation trials on perennial forbs demonstrated the water needs for more than 

12 species and their longevity.

 Shorter-term irrigation trials on new forb species determined their water requirements.

 New irrigation trials on annual forb species were initiated in 2013, and preliminary 

results are reported.

 New preemergence and postemergence herbicide trials indicate promising products for 

seed production of a number of species.

SEED INCREASE

Stock Seed Production and Inventory for Native Plants in the Great Basin

Stanford Young and Michael Bouck

 The Utah Crop Improvement Association Buy-Back project facilitates development of a 

seed market for specific germplasm accessions, pooled accessions, and/or formal 

germplasm releases developed through the Great Basin Native Plant Project and rewards 

initial seed growers financially for the risks they assumed to participate in the program.

 Progress was made in defining seed accession groupings, knowledge of agronomic seed 

production techniques, and understanding the reality of the commercial seed marketplace.
xiii

Coordination of Great Basin Native Plant Project Seed Increase and Eastern 

Oregon/Northern Nevada Seed Collections

Berta Youtie

 Through the use of known collection sites and provisional seed zone maps, we can 

strategically identify future seed collection efforts for genecology (common garden) 

studies, germplasm conservation, and wildland seed collection or agricultural seed field 

increase for restoration.

 Maps were developed for three important Great Basin restoration species: sulphur-flower

buckwheat, fernleaf biscuitroot, and nineleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium triternatum) to 

prioritize seed collection within the range of each species.

HORTICULTURAL USES OF NATIVE PLANTS

Demonstration, Propagation, and Outreach Education Related to Great Basin 

Native Plant Project Plant Materials 

Heidi A. Kratsch

 Project objectives were to increase awareness and use of native Great Basin plants by the 

public in northwestern Nevada through use of trainings and publications.

 Created a penstemon demonstration garden with interpretive signage on the grounds of 

the Washoe County Cooperative Extension building.

 Developed three University of Nevada Cooperative Extension (UNCE) Fact 

Sheets/Special Publications on horticultural use of native Great Basin plants.

 Developed an educational module, Native Plants in the Landscape, for UNCE’s face-toface and online Master Gardener training programs and for Nevada’s Grow Your Own 

consumer education program.

SPECIES INTERACTIONS

Use of Native Annual Forbs and Early-seral Species in Seeding Mixtures for 

Improved Success in Great Basin Restoration

Keirith A. Snyder and Shauna M. Uselman

 Project objectives were to determine the relative success of early-seral and late-seral 

native species against aggressive nonnative species that are typically problematic in 

Great Basin restoration. 

 Seedling emergence and early survival of early-seral native species was generally 

greater than that of late-seral native species when seeded with cheatgrass or medusahead 

(Taeniatherum caput-medusae).

 Native grasses were more successful than native forbs and shrubs in terms of emergence 

and early seedling survival, especially in a coarse-textured soil.

 Emergence and survival of medusahead was consistently very high on divergent soil 

types, supporting the need for preventive measures against its spread in the 

Intermountain West.

 Early-seral natives show promise for improving success of rangeland 

restoration/rehabilitation efforts in the Great Basin.
xiv

 When the early-seral native forb, bristly fiddleneck (Amsinckia tessellata), established 

successfully, its substantial biomass and reproductive output suppressed the biomass 

and reproductive output of medusahead.

SCIENCE DELIVERY

Science Delivery for the Great Basin Native Plant Project

Corey Gucker

 Project objectives were to facilitate delivery of Great Basin Native Plant Project 

(GBNPP) science.

 Became acquainted with Great Basin Native Plant Project (GBNPP) cooperators, 

maintained contact and correspondence throughout the year about upcoming events and 

project due dates. 

 Developed posters and brochures for Great Basin events and meetings. 

 Updated the GBNPP website with meeting announcements, new publications, and 

updated cooperator information.

 Worked through all aspects of planning, logistics, scheduling, and running the GBNPP 

annual meeting with about 100 participants.

 Compiled and edited the GBNPP annual progress report of more than 200 pages.

CRESTED WHEATGRASS DIVERSIFICATION

Evaluating Strategies for Increasing Plant Diversity in Crested Wheatgrass 

Seedings

Kent McAdoo and John Swanson

 Project objectives were to determine the effect of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron 

cristatum) control methods on revegetation and establishment of native seeded species.

 Preliminary results showed that density of seeded native grasses was greatest in plots that 

received the disking + spring glyphosate treatment for reduction of crested wheatgrass. 

 Forb densities were greatest in plots receiving the disk + glyphosate treatments. 

 Data analysis is currently in progress and preliminary indications suggest that glyphosate 

was more effective in reducing crested wheatgrass than imazapic or chlorsulfuron + 

sulfometuron.

The Ecology of Great Basin Native Forb Establishment

Jeremy James

 The broad objective of this research is to examine the degree to which wheatgrass 

competition, soil texture, and annual precipitation influence recruitment of three key 

Great Basin native forb species.

 Simultaneously seeding wheatgrass and forbs does not decrease forb establishment.

 Field germination of native forbs can vary 20-fold across sites within a year, but even in 

the best germination scenarios, more than 98% of germinated seeds die before they 

emerge.

 Our ability to increase forb abundance and diversity in restoration will depend on 

identifying traits and populations that have greater emergence probabilities.
xv

Recruitment of Native Vegetation into Crested Wheatgrass Seedings and the 

Influence of Crested Wheatgrass on Native Vegetation

Kirk Davies and Aleta Nafus

 Study objectives are to determine what factors are associated with native plant 

recruitment in crested wheatgrass plant communities and the successional trajectories and 

persistence of native perennial bunchgrasses that are planted with crested wheatgrass.

 Twenty crested wheatgrass-dominated sites with a range of native vegetation 

establishment were sampled between June and September 2013.

 Management (Actual Use/Seeding) records were obtained for most of our 121 sites.

RESTORATION STRATEGIES AND EQUIPMENT

Revegetation Equipment Catalog Website Maintenance

Robert Cox

 The Revegetation Equipment Catalog has been fully redesigned and redeployed on the 

Texas Tech University server system.

Evaluation of Imazapic Rates and Forb Planting Times on Native Forb 

Establishment

Corey Ransom

 This project attempts to determine the tolerance of basalt milkvetch and Blue Mountain 

prairie clover to herbicides that are often used to control cheatgrass in conjunction with 

revegetation efforts.

 Scarification trials revealed that basalt milkvetch germination generally increased with 

longer durations of scarification up to 90 minutes, but durations above 45 minutes 

appeared to injure cotyledons.

 Basalt milkvetch seed germination increased dramatically when seeds were scarified for 

30 minutes and then subjected to cold stratification.

 Testing forb tolerance to herbicides using an agar-based system was not a viable testing 

technique using the methods employed in this study.

 Impact of herbicides on germination was highly variable, and while some treatments 

were significantly different from each other, there were no logical trends; basalt 

milkvetch appeared tolerant of Prowl H2O, but seedling development was reduced by 

high rates of Plateau and Matrix.

Development of Seeding Equipment for Establishing Diverse Native Communities

James Truax

 For the last 15 years, a number of modifications have been made and tested to improve 

the performance, durability, and success of the Truax Roughrider Minimum-till Drill in 

rangeland restoration. 

 Modifications to improve the drill have included: changing materials to reduce drill 

weight, adding materials for improved seed placement, modifications to limit clogging of 
xvi

seed delivery mechanisms, and altered mechanics to improve durability of drill 

components.

Seeding Native Species following Wildfire in Wyoming Big Sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata ssp. wyomingensis)

Jeff Ott and Nancy Shaw

 Density and cover of selected plant species were monitored for two years following fire 

and seeding treatments at four Wyoming big sagebrush sites in the northern Great Basin. 

 Responses of large-seeded drilled species and cheatgrass were compared for two types of 

rangeland drills, conventional and minimum-till. For small-seeded species, comparisons 

were made between drill-broadcasting and hand-broadcasting (simulating aerial seeding) 

in combination with both drill types.

 Seeding treatment resulted in similar density and cover of large-seeded species regardless 

of drill type. Density decreased while cover increased between the first and second years.

 Compared to the non-drilled, non-seeded control, first-year cheatgrass density was lower 

in in the conventional drill treatments, but second-year cover was lower in the minimumtill seeded treatment. 

 Higher Wyoming big sagebrush density resulted when it was drill-broadcast through the 

minimum-till drill compared to the conventional drill. For both drills, density increased 

with seeding rate over the range tested (ca. 50-500 pure live seed m-2). Handbroadcasting resulted in lower sagebrush density than drill-broadcasting at a comparable 

rate, with the exception of fall hand-broadcasting following conventional drilling, which 

yielded density equal to drill-broadcasting.

 Density of residual Sandberg bluegrass was reduced following conventional drilling 

compared to minimum-till drilling. Density of new Sandberg bluegrass seedlings was 

similar when drill-broadcast using either drill type, and hand-broadcasting resulted in 

density equal to or lower than drill-broadcasting.

 Density of western yarrow did not differ between seeded treatments, but cover was 

highest in the minimum-till drill-broadcast treatment. 

Reducing Cheatgrass: Research on Bromus tectorum-Sordaria fimicola Symbiosis

and the Fusarium-Ventenata System

George Newcombe

 Study objectives are to determine whether sordaria (Sordaria fimicola) and fusarium 

(Fusarium) negatively impacts cheatgrass growth and if these fungal species affect 

growth of native grasses. 

 Explored the relationship between endophytic fungi and population ecology of invasive 

grasses ventenata (Ventenata dubia) and cheatgrass.

 Developed an understanding of why some native bunchgrasses such as bluebunch 

wheatgrass do not compete well with some exotic winter annual grasses, such as 

cheatgrass and ventenata.

 Assessed the effects of Sordaria fimicola isolate CID 323 on growth and fecundity of 

cheatgrass in the greenhouse and field experiments. Evidence of a reduction in biomass 

and fecundity is mixed, and may depend on genetics of cheatgrass population tested.
xvii

 Assessed the effects of twenty Fusarium strains isolated from ventenata and cheatgrass 

on emergence and aboveground biomass of ventenata, cheatgrass, and bluebunch 

wheatgrass. 

 Determined that bluebunch wheatgrass and cheatgrass were negatively affected by most 

Fusarium strains from both exotic grasses, while ventenata had either resistance to 

negative effects, less negative effects, or even positive effects from Fusarium from both 

hosts.

 Accumulated evidence that Fusarium strains associated with ventenata act as pathogens 

against bluebunch wheatgrass and cheatgrass, giving ventenata a competitive advantage 

as a primary or secondary invader.
xviii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

GENETICS AND SEED ZONES

FRANCIS KILKENNY

BRAD ST CLAIR

Testing the Efficacy of Seed Zones for Re-establishment and 

Adaptation of Bluebunch Wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria 

spicata)

 1

FRANCIS KILKENNY

BRAD ST CLAIR

Genetic Diversity and Genecology of Prairie Junegrass 

(Koeleria macrantha) and Squirreltail (Elymus elymoides)

 5

RICHARD C. JOHNSON 

ERIN K. ESPELAND

MATT HORNING 

ELIZABETH LEGER

MIKE CASHMAN

KEN VANCE-BORLAND

Conservation, Adaptation, and Seed Zones for Key Great 

Basin Species

 11

BRYCE RICHARDSON 

NANCY SHAW

MATTHEW J. GERMINO

Ecological Genetics of Big Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata): 

Genetic Structure and Climate-based Seed Zone Mapping

 18

MATTHEW J. GERMINO 

MARTHA BRABEC

Selecting Big Sagebrush Seed Sources for Restoration in a 

Variable Environment: Assessment of Young Seedling 

Responses to Climate and Management Treatments of Herbs 

 25

ELIZABETH A. LEGER 

DANIEL Z. ATWATER

Field-testing Competitive Native Plant Genotypes for 

Restoration in Cheatgrass-invaded Rangelands

 36

ANTHONY S. DAVIS 

MATTHEW R. FISK

KENT G. APOSTOL 

KENNETH W. PETE

Dynamics of Germination and Cold Hardiness for Great 

Basin Native Plants

 39

BRUCE A. ROUNDY

KERT YOUNG

NATHAN CLINE

Modeling Seedling Root Growth of Great Basin Species 47

MARCELO D. SERPE

BILL E. DAVIDSON

Pre-inoculation of Wyoming Big Sagebrush Seedlings with 

Native Arbuscular Mycorrhizae: Effects on Mycorrhizal 

Colonization and Seedling Survival after Transplanting

 62

ROBERT COX Smoke-induced Germination of Great Basin Native Forbs 69
xix

PLANT MATERIALS AND CULTURAL PRACTICES

DOUGLAS A. JOHNSON 

B. SHAUN BUSHMAN

Developing Protocols for Maximizing Establishment of 

Great Basin Legume Species

 71

JASON STETTLER

KEVIN GUNNELL

ALISON WHITTAKER

Native Forb Cultural Practices, Seed Increase, and Forb 

Island Plantings

 74

SCOTT JENSEN Plant Material Evaluations at the Shrub Sciences Laboratory 94

LOREN ST. JOHN

DEREK TILLEY

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center Report of Activities 99

JAMES H. CANE Bee Pollination and Breeding Biology Studies 103

S. KRISHNA MOHAN 

CLINTON C. SHOCK

Etiology, Epidemiology, and Management of Diseases of 

Native Wildflower Seed Production

107

CLINTON C. SHOCK

ERIK B. FEIBERT

LAMONT D. SAUNDERS

NANCY SHAW

RAM K. SAMPANGI

Seed Production of Great Basin Native Forbs 109

SEED INCREASE

STANFORD YOUNG

MICHAEL BOUCK

Stock Seed Production and Inventory for Native Plants in the 

Great Basin

156

BERTA YOUTIE Coordination of Great Basin Native Plant Project Seed 

Increase and Eastern Oregon/Northern Nevada Seed 

Collections

162

HORTICULTURAL USES OF NATIVE PLANTS

HEIDI A. KRATSCH Demonstration, Propagation, and Outreach Education 

Related to Great Basin Native Plant Project Plant Materials 

170
xx

SPECIES INTERACTIONS

KEIRITH A. SNYDER

SHAUNA M. USELMAN

Use of Native Annual Forbs and Early-Seral Species in 

Seeding Mixtures for Improved Success in Great Basin 

Restoration

173

SCIENCE DELIVERY

COREY GUCKER Science Delivery for the Great Basin Native Plant Project 178

CRESTED WHEATGRASS DIVERSIFICATION

KENT MCADOO

JOHN SWANSON

Evaluating Strategies for Increasing Plant Diversity in 

Crested Wheatgrass Seedings

179

JEREMY JAMES The Ecology of Great Basin Native Forb Establishment 183

KIRK DAVIES

ALETA NAFUS

Recruitment of Native Vegetation into Crested Wheatgrass 

Seedings and the Influence of Crested Wheatgrass on Native 

Vegetation

188

RESTORATION STRATEGIES AND EQUIPMENT

ROBERT COX Revegetation Equipment Catalog Website Maintenance 190

COREY RANSOM Evaluation of Imazapic Rates and Forb Planting Times on 

Native Forb Establishment

191

JAMES TRUAX Development of Seeding Equipment for Establishing Diverse 

Native Communities

197

JEFF OTT

NANCY SHAW

Seeding Native Species following Wildfire in Wyoming Big 

Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis)

200

GEORGE NEWCOMBE Reducing Cheatgrass: Research on Bromus tectorumSordaria fimicola Symbiosis and the Fusarium-Ventenata

System

214
1

Project Title Testing the Efficacy of Seed Zones for Re-establishment 

and Adaptation of Bluebunch Wheatgrass 

(Pseudoroegneria spicata)

Project Agreement No. 13-IA-11221632-161

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Francis Kilkenny, Research Biologist

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

208.373.4376, Fax 208.373.4391

ffkilkenny@fs.fed.us

Brad St.Clair, Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station

3200 SW Jefferson Way

Corvallis, OR 97331-4401

541.750.7294, Fax 541.750.7329

bstclair@fs.fed.us

Project Description

Objectives

 Evaluate adaptation (establishment, survival, growth, and reproduction) over time of 

bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) populations from local seed zones 

relative to distant seed zones.

 Model adaptation as a function of the climates of source locations and test sites.

 Characterize traits and climates important for adaptation.

 Model effects of climate change on native populations and the consequences of assisted 

migration for responding to climate change.

Methods

Previous genecological research funded by the Great Basin Native Plant Project found that 

bluebunch wheatgrass populations differed in traits important for adaptation to drought and cold. 

Based on results of that study, seed zones were delineated for the interior Northwest including 

the Great Basin, Snake River Plain, Columbia Plateau, and Blue Mountains. This study tests the 

efficacy of seed zones delineated in the previous study for differences in re-establishment and 

adaptation of bluebunch wheatgrass populations from local seed zones compared to climatically 

distant seed zones with the hypothesis that local sources will show better establishment as well 

as better survival, growth, and reproduction in the long-term. To test this hypothesis, seed was 

collected from five populations in each of eight seed zones in each of two broad regions. Plants 

from each seed zone will be planted back into a single test site representative of the climate of 

each of the eight seed zones in a region. The two broad regions include― 1) a transect from the 

hot, dry climates of the lower Snake River Plain to the cool, somewhat wet climates of the 
2

transverse ranges of the Great Basin to the cold, dry climates of the upper Snake River Plain and 

2) a transect from the hot, dry climates of the Columbia Plateau to the cool, wet climates of the 

Blue Mountains to the cold, dry climates east of the Blue Mountains. In addition to populations 

from each seed zone, two widely used varieties will be included at each test site. The 

experimental design at each of the eight test sites per transect will be a split-plot design with a 

plot represented by 25 plants from each seed zone and the subplots being five populations per 

seed zone. Each site will include five replications. Planting spacing will be 0.5 m between plants.

Results and Discussion

This study was initiated in 2013 beginning with seed collections from 138 populations from 

throughout the two broad regions. From these, 78 populations were chosen for inclusion in the 

study based on their distribution within each of the seed zones and the amount of available seed 

(only four populations, not five, were available from the hottest, driest seed zone within each 

transect). The seed has been cleaned and is ready for sowing. The University of Idaho has been 

contracted to produce the containerized planting stock for the study. Potential collaborators were 

contacted during the past winter to help with providing test sites on their lands.

Future Plans

Test sites will be finalized this spring, and any necessary site preparation will be done over the 

summer. Planting stock will be grown over the summer. Test sites will be established in the fall 

beginning with the higher elevation sites in early September and ending with the lower elevation 

sites in October or November. Plans are to measure the sites every year for an indefinite length 

of time, but with early results presented after two growing seasons. The primary variables of 

interest are cover and biomass of bluebunch wheatgrass on each seed zone plot over time, but 

survival, plant height, crown diameter, and biomass of individual plants of each population is 

also of great interest. Cover and biomass of competing vegetation in each plot will also be 

measured. Other variables of interest include phenological, morphological, and physiological 

variables (including root characteristics) of bluebunch wheatgrass plants, but the extent of 

measurements for these other adaptive traits will depend on future funding and potential 

collaborators. In addition, seed from populations will be set aside for potential research looking 

at germination, emergence, and early establishment from seed in the climates of each seed zone, 

an adaptive component that we were unable to consider in this study for practical reasons.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

This study will test the efficacy of recently delineated seed zones for bluebunch wheatgrass for 

ensuring successful re-establishment and long-term adaptation, and maintaining genetic diversity 

of this ecologically important restoration species. The study will also explore the consequences 

of changing climates for adaptation by substituting space for time to evaluate different 

populations in different climates. Long-term productivity and adaptation will be modeled to 

allow evaluation of trade-offs between different management options for current and future 

climates. Population movement guidelines and associated seed zones can be adjusted based on 

results from this study and management objectives.
3

Presentations

Kilkenny, F. F. 2013. Seed zones. Restoration and reforestation technical exchange study tour; 

USFS Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise, ID; 2013 September 9. USAID sponsored tour for Ecuadoran 

government officials.

Kilkenny, F. F. 2013. Characterization of current and future climates within and among seed 

zones to evaluate options for adapting to climate change. Second National Native Seed 

Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Horning, M.; Johnson, R. C.; Leger, E.; Shaw, N. 2013. 

Genecology of three native bunchgrasses: implications for management during climate change. 

Intermountain Native Plant Summit; 2013 March 26-27; Boise, ID.

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Shaw, N.; Richardson, B. 2013. Efficiency of using speciesspecific seed zones for re-establishment of native bunchgrass populations after fire. Poster 

presented at the 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

St. Clair, J. B. Kilkenny, F. F.; Johnson, Richard C. 2013. Adaptation of native grasses to 

climates of the interior western United States. Second National Native Seed Conference; 2013 

April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Publications

Kilkenny, F.; St. Clair, B.; Horning, M. 2013. Climate change and the future of seed zones. In:

Haase, D. L.; Pinto, J. R.; Wilkinson, K. M., technical coordinators. National Proceedings: Forest

and Conservation Nursery Associations—2012. Proceedings RMRS-P-69. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 87-89. [Available 

online at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p069.html]

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Darris, D.; Horning, M.; Erickson. V. [In preparation].

Genecology of prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha). Evolutionary Applications.

St.Clair, J. B.; Kilkenny, F. F.; Johnson, R. C.; Shaw, N. L.; Weaver, G. 2013. Genetic variation 

in adaptive traits and seed transfer guidelines for Pseudoroegneria spicata (bluebunch 

wheatgrass) in the northwestern United States. Evolutionary Applications 6(6): 933-948.

St.Clair, J. B.; Kilkenny, F. F. [In press]. Genecology of prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha): 

Interim Report. Technical report for NRCS Corvallis Plant Materials Center.

Additional Products 

Seed zone maps and map layers for bluebunch wheatgrass are available for download and use at 

the USFS Western Wildland Environmental Threat and Assessment Center at 

http://www.fs.fed.us/wwetac/threat_map/SeedZones_Intro.html
4

Testing seed zones for a key restoration species: bluebunch wheatgrass. 2013. In: Finch, D., ed.

Grassland, Shrubland, and Desert Ecosystems Science Update May 2013.
5

Project Title Genetic Diversity and Genecology of Prairie Junegrass 

(Koeleria macrantha) and Squirreltail (Elymus 

elymoides)

Project Agreement No. 13-IA-11221632-161

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Francis Kilkenny, Research Biologist

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702-7373

208.373.4376, Fax 208.373.4391

ffkilkenny@fs.fed.us

Brad St.Clair, Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station

3200 SW Jefferson Way

Corvallis, OR 97331-4401

541.750.7294, Fax 541.750.7329

bstclair@fs.fed.us

Project Description

Prairie junegrass

Prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha) is a highly variable, moderately long-lived, cool season 

perennial bunchgrass that grows 15 to 60 cm (0.5 to 2 ft) tall. It is adapted to a wide variety of 

climates and soils and is an important component of many native plant communities. Prairie 

junegrass is often used in seed mixes for restoration of native prairie, savanna, coastal scrub, 

chaparral, and open forest habitats across much of North America. Good drought tolerance and 

fibrous roots also make it beneficial for revegetation and erosion control on mined lands, over 

septic systems, in construction areas, on burned sites, and in other disturbed areas. There is a 

need for greater genetic knowledge of prairie junegrass to ensure adapted populations are used 

for restoration and revegetation projects. Most information will be generated from two common 

garden studies conducted on separate and contrasting environments in Oregon. 

Objectives

 Use common gardens to determine the magnitude and patterns of genetic variation among 

prairie junegrass populations from a wide range of source environments in Oregon, 

Washington, and Idaho.

 Relate genetic variation to environmental variation at collection locations.

 Develop seed transfer guidelines.

Methods

Seed was collected from endemic stands of prairie junegrass during the summers of 2003 to 

2006. Populations came from Oregon, Washington, and adjacent areas of Idaho, primarily east of 

the Cascade Mountains. Two families (maternal parents) were sampled from each of 114 
6

populations, while only a single family was sampled from 12 populations, for a total of 240 

families from 126 populations. Common garden studies were established in 2008 at two 

contrasting sites in Oregon: the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Plant Materials 

Center in Corvallis, Oregon, and Oregon State University’s Agricultural Experiment Station at 

Powell Butte, Oregon. A variety of traits were measured in 2009 and 2010 to assess plant 

growth, morphology, phenology, and fecundity. Analyses have been done to evaluate differences 

among test sites, years, populations, families within populations, and interactions between these 

factors. Analyses have also investigated the relationship between population variation and 

climatic variation at source locations. Maps of genetic variation across the landscape have been 

produced, and preliminary seed zones have been delineated based on the results. 

Results

Traits at Corvallis were significantly different from traits at Powell Butte. Plants at Corvallis 

were larger and had earlier phenology in both 2009 and 2010. Plants at Powell Butte flowered 

much more profusely than plants at Corvallis in 2009, but Corvallis plants had a higher 

inflorescence number in 2010. Variation among populations for size traits was much greater 

when plants were grown at Corvallis in both years, and plants grown at Powell Butte generally 

had higher variation among populations in phenology traits for both years. The percentage of the 

total phenotypic variation (populations, families, and residual) found within populations was 

high for most traits, especially crown width, leaf width, leaf ratio, and heading and bloom dates. 

The population × site interaction was significant for most traits. Correlations of population 

means between test sites were higher in 2009 than in 2010, and correlations between years within 

sites were generally high. Populations that had wide crowns, more flowers, wide leaves, upright 

habits, and later phenology at one site were generally the same as those at the other site.

Traits that had large population variation and were correlated with climates at the source 

locations were biomass, crown width, inflorescence number, leaf width, leaf ratio, heading date, 

and bloom date. As might be expected, leaf width was strongly correlated with leaf ratio 

(r=-0.73), and bloom date was strongly correlated with heading date (r=0.93) though only 

moderately correlated with maturation date (r=0.46). These traits are generally correlated with 

temperatures, precipitation, and aridity (as measured by the heat moisture index, which is a 

function of the ratio of temperature to precipitation). Regression equations of traits on source 

climates used various combinations of temperature, precipitation, or aridity variables. Regression 

models were used to map patterns of variation for biomass, inflorescence number, leaf ratio, and 

bloom date. The R

2

values ranged from 0.29 to 0.36. Although the magnitudes and nature of the 

relationships between the source climates and traits differ somewhat among the four traits, 

general patterns of variation emerged. Populations from the Columbia Basin had less biomass, 

narrower leaves, fewer inflorescences, and later phenology when grown together in a common 

environment. Populations from the Blue Mountains had greater biomass, wider leaves, more 

inflorescences, and earlier phenology. Populations from the northern Great Basin were similar to 

those from the Columbia Basin in having narrow leaves and lower biomass but were more 

similar to those from the Blue Mountains in having earlier phenology. The few populations from 

western Oregon had wider leaves, greater biomass, and the latest phenology. From an adaptation 

perspective, we expect narrow leaves from areas of greater aridity, less precipitation, and warmer 

summer temperatures, and we expect earlier phenology from areas with colder winter 
7

temperatures (i.e., selection for quicker responses to springtime warming). The general patterns 

that emerged from this preliminary analysis were largely congruent with large-scale ecoregions, 

suggesting that Omernick’s Level III ecoregions may be useful for seed zones. Preliminary seed 

zones are presented in Figure 1. 

Figure 1. Preliminary seed zones for prairie junegrass. Seed zones are based on dividing the area 

in three principle components that represent small, intermediate, or large plant size, early or late 

phenology, and narrow or wide leaves.

Squirreltail

Squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) is a cool-season, short-lived, self-pollinating, perennial 

bunchgrass of semi-arid regions of western North America. It is found in a wide variety of 

habitats from the Pacific Coast to the Great Plains and from Canada to Mexico at elevations from 

2,000 to 11,500 feet (600-3,500 m). Squirreltail is considered a “workhorse” species in native 

plant restoration. It can rapidly colonize disturbed sites, is relatively fire-tolerant, and is a 

potential competitor with medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) and cheatgrass (Bromus 

tectorum). There are seven cultivars and pre-variety germplasm (PVG) collections of squirreltail 

that have been or are being developed for restoration purposes, however only one variety, Toe 

Jam Creek, is currently used extensively. Previous studies indicate that there is strong ecotypic 

divergence in squirreltail. However, few studies have evaluated genetic variation in relation to 
8

climatic factors across the Great Basin, the greater range of the species in a large set of diverse 

populations, or the mean and variation of cultivars with that of the species as a whole. 

Determining the extent to which adaptive genetic variation is related to climatic variation is 

needed to ensure that the proper germplasm is chosen for revegetation and restoration. 

Furthermore, comparisons of cultivars with the natural range of variation will address questions 

of the suitability of cultivars over larger areas.

Objectives

 Explore genetic variation in putative adaptive traits in bottlebrush squirreltail from a wide 

range of source environments in the inland West.

 Relate genetic variation to environmental variation at collection locations.

 Develop seed transfer guidelines.

Methods

With the help of collaborators from a variety of organizations interested in restoration using 

squirreltail (including the Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of Defense, the Nature Conservancy, Washington 

Department of Natural Resources, and the Yakama Nation), seed was collected from two 

maternal families from 110 populations from five western states, primarily from the northern and 

central Great Basin. In addition to the squirreltail populations, we obtained seed from cultivars 

and PVGs of squirreltail for inclusion in the common garden studies. The cultivars and PVGs 

included Toe Jam Creek, Fish Creek, Rattlesnake, Tusas, Pleasant Valley, Antelope Creek, and 

Sand Hollow (E. multisetus). Common garden studies have been established at three contrasting 

sites: 1) Reno, Nevada, 2) Powell Butte, Oregon, and 3) Central Ferry, Washington. A variety of 

traits were measured to assess plant growth, morphology, phenology, and fecundity in 2009 and 

2010. Analyses have been done to evaluate differences among test sites, years, populations, 

families within populations, and interactions between these factors. Analyses have also 

investigated the relationship between population variation and climatic variation at source 

locations. All wild collected populations were identified to subspecies. Maps of genetic variation 

across the landscape are in progress, and preliminary seed zones will be delineated based on the 

results. 

Results

Site, year, subspecies, population, and family were all significant contributors to variation in 

most measured traits. Inflorescence number was not significantly affected by either subspecies or 

population, and family did not significantly affect flower maturity or leaf length. When broken 

down into components, most of the explained variation in all traits was due either to year or site 

effects. Year explained 72.7 to 78.8% of the variation in phenological traits, 41.4% of the 

variation in reproductive traits, and between 3.0 to 32.1% of the variation in size traits. Site 

explained between 6.0 and 9.0% of the variation in phenological traits, 33.3% of the variation in 

reproductive traits, and between 21.6 and 69.2% of the variation in size traits. Subspecies never 

explained more than 4.8% (biomass), and population never explained more than 7.5% (leaf 

width) of the variation in any traits. The unexplained variation ranged from 9.7 to 39.0%. 

Altogether, this suggests that squirreltail traits are highly plastic, with phenological traits varying 

primarily by year and size traits varying primarily by planting site.
9

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

These studies indicate that populations of prairie junegrass and squirreltail differ greatly across 

the landscapes of the Great Basin, Columbia Basin, Blue Mountains, and adjacent ecoregions for 

traits of plant size, flowering phenology, and leaf width. Much of the variation in prairie 

junegrass is associated with climates of the source locations, indicating adaptive significance. 

However, even though genetic differences exist, squirreltail appears to have highly plastic traits, 

suggesting that most ecotypes are broadly adapted. Seed zones for prairie junegrass are presented 

for recommendations of bulking seed collections and producing plant material for adapted, 

diverse, and sustainable populations for revegetation and restoration. Different levels of 

acceptable risk may be accommodated by choosing whether or not to bulk materials from the 

same zones but in different Level III ecoregions. Results indicate that sources may be 

consolidated over fairly broad areas of similar climate, and thus may be shared between districts, 

forests, and different ownerships. 

Publications 

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Darris, D.; Horning, M.; Erickson. V. [In preparation]. 

Genecology of prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha). Evolutionary Applications.

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Horning, M. 2013. Climate change and the future of seed zones. 

National Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations - 2012. Proceedings 

RMRS-P-69. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station. p. 87-89. 

St.Clair, J. B.; Kilkenny, F. F. [In press]. Genecology of prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha): 

Interim Report. Technical report for NRCS Corvallis Plant Materials Center.

Presentations 

Kilkenny, F. F. 2013. Seed zones. Restoration and reforestation technical exchange study tour; 

USFS Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise, ID; 2013 September 9. USAID sponsored tour for Ecuadoran 

government officials.

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Horning, M.; Johnson, R. C.; Leger, E.; Shaw, N. 2013. 

Genecology of three native bunchgrasses: implications for management during climate change. 

Intermountain Native Plant Summit; 2013 March 26-27; Boise, ID.

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B. 2013. Characterization of current and future climates within and 

among seed zones to evaluate options for adapting to climate change. 2nd National Native Seed 

Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Horning, M.; Johnson, R. C.; Leger, E.; Shaw, N. 2013. 

Genecology and seed zones for prairie junegrass and bottlebrush squireltail. 2nd National Native 

Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.
10

Kilkenny, F. F.; St. Clair, J. B.; Shaw, N.; Richardson, B. 2013. Efficiency of using speciesspecific seed zones for re-establishment of native bunchgrass populations after fire. Poster 

presented at the 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Additional Products 

This study provides seed zones and seed transfer guidelines for developing adapted plant 

materials of prairie junegrass for revegetation and restoration in the Great Basin and adjacent 

areas and guidelines for conservation of germplasm within the National Plant Germplasm 

System. Results for prairie junegrass are being submitted to a peer-reviewed journal and will be 

disseminated through symposia, field tours, training sessions, and/or workshops. 
11

Project Title Conservation, Adaptation, and Seed Zones for Key Great 

Basin Species

Project Agreement No. 10-IA-11221632-023

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

R.C. Johnson, Research Agronomist

USDA Agricultural Research Service

Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.3771, Fax 509.335.6654

rcjohnson@wsu.edu

Erin K. Espeland, Research Ecologist

USDA Agricultural Research Service

NPA Pest Management Research Unit

1500 N Central Ave.

Sidney, MT 59270

406.433.9416, Fax 406.433.5038

erin.espeland@ars.usda.gov

Matt Horning, Geneticist

USDA Forest Service

Pacific Northwest Research Station 

3200 SW Jefferson Way

Corvallis, OR 97331

541.383.5519, Fax 541.750.7329

mhorning@fs.fed.us

Elizabeth Leger, Associate Professor of Plant Ecology

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

Fleishmann Agriculture, Room 121

University of Nevada, Reno

Reno, NV 89557

775.784.7582, Fax 775.784.4789

ealeger@gmail.com

Mike Cashman, Biologist

USDA Agricultural Research Service 

Western Regional Plant Introduction Station

Box 646402, Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164 

509.335.6219, Fax 509.335.6654

mjcashman@wsu.edu
12

Ken Vance-Borland, GIS Coordinator

Conservation Planning Institute 

NW Wynoochee Drive

Corvallis, OR 97330

kenvb@consplan.net

Project Description

Native plant species are critical for wildlife habitat, livestock grazing, soil stabilization, and 

ecosystem function in the Western US. Yet current germplasm releases of our study species do 

not specifically match natural genetic diversity with local climatic variation. Using a genecology 

approach, seed zones matching climate with genetic variation are developed and used to facilitate 

management decisions, ensure restoration with adapted plant material, and promote biodiversity 

needed for future natural selection with climate change. Seed zones have been completed and 

published for tapertip onion (Allium acuminatum), Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides), 

and bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) (Johnson et al. 2012; Johnson et al. 2013; 

St. Clair et al. 2013). Ongoing work with additional Great Basin species includes Sandberg 

bluegrass (Poa secunda), basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus), Thurber's needlegrass (Achnatherum

thurberianum), squirreltail (Elymus elymoides), and sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum 

umbellatum). 

Objectives

 Collect key Great Basin species and establish common garden studies quantifying genetic 

variation in plant traits associated with phenology, production, and morphology.

 Uncover adaptive plant traits in common gardens linked to seed source location climates 

and develop composite plant traits using multivariate statistics. 

 Develop regression models linking composite plant traits with source climates, and map 

seed zones for use in restoration. 

Germplasm 

collection

Multivariate 

traits for data 

reduction 

Link plant traits 

to source 

location climate 

Common garden 

evaluations for 

genetic traits

Regression modeling of plant traits with 

source location climate

GIS mapping plant of 

plant traits with climate 

for seed zones

Figure 1. Schematic showing the steps for genecology studies to establish seed zones.
13

Sandberg bluegrass

Sandberg bluegrass common gardens were established at Powell Butte, Oregon; Central Ferry, 

Washington; and Sidney, Montana in 2008 using seed from 130 collection locations mostly from 

the Great Basin. Data was collected in each garden in 2009 and 2010 for phenology, production, 

and morphological traits. Analyses of variance indicated strong genetic variation among 

Sandberg bluegrass source locations with plant traits often correlating with climatic factors 

(Table 1). Canonical correlation (CanCorr) was used to develop composite plant traits for 

regression modeling with climate. Canonical variables 1, 2, and 3 explained 41%, 14%, and 12% 

of the variation, respectively, for a total of 67%. All three CanCorr variables had significant 

correlations with climatic factors, but CanCorr 1 correlations were strongest and most frequent

(Table 1). For CanCorr variables 1, 2, and 3, regression models were developed linking genetic 

variation and climate. CanCorr 1 scores resulted in especially strong regression models, 

explaining 70% of the variation. These models will be used to develop seed zones for Sandberg 

bluegrass. 

Table 1. Pearson correlation coefficients between garden traits and representative climatic 

factors for Sandberg bluegrass grown at Central Ferry, WA and Powell Butte, OR

Trait MAT† MWMT MCMT TD MAP MSP AH:M PAS EXT

Phenology

 Heading -0.15 -0.27** 0.08 -0.41** 0.42** 0.26** -0.43** 0.21* -0.30**

 Blooming 0.08 0.00 0.21* -0.25** 0.26** 0.08 -0.27** -0.02 -0.03

 Maturity 0.11 -0.27** 0.09 -0.42** 0.48** 0.32** -0.49** 0.24** -0.31**

 Head to 

bloom

0.40** 0.50** 0.21* 0.31** -0.36** -0.39** 0.33** -0.45** 0.49**

 Head to 

bloom

0.14 0.19* -0.03 0.25** -0.24** -0.15 0.24** -0.14 0.20*

 Bloom to 

maturation

-0.19* -0.21* -0.20* 0.01 0.00 0.12 -0.01 0.20* -0.19*

Production

 Survival 0.09 0.26** -0.06 0.37** -0.43** -0.34** 0.42** -0.30** 0.34**

 Panicles 0.11 0.09 0.15 -0.07 -0.08 -0.14 0.01 -0.21** 0.08

 Dry weight 0.01 -0.06 0.08 -0.16 0.12 0.10 -0.25** -0.02 -0.05

 Crown area -0.08 -0.15 0.02 -0.20* 0.23** 0.23** -0.31** 0.15 -0.18*

Morphology

 Leaf 

l × w

0.39** 0.43** 0.20* 0.25** -0.16 -0.31** 0.31** -0.34** 0.40**

 Leaf 

l × w

-0.11 -0.20* 0.00 -0.23** 0.38** 0.26** -0.43** 0.25** -0.17

 Habit 0.07 0.03 0.19* -0.20* 0.00 -0.17 -0.07 -0.19* -0.03

 Culm length 0.00 -0.06 0.09 -0.18* 0.10 0.07 -0.23** -0.07 -0.02

 Panicle 

length

0.09 0.06 0.12 -0.09 0.08 -0.01 -0.12 -0.09 0.06

CanCorr1 -0.35** -0.53** -0.02 -0.58** 0.60** 0.47** -0.65** 0.47** -0.56**

CanCorr2 -0.14 -0.18 -0.15 -0.02 0.19* 0.37** -0.17 0.32** -0.17

CanCorr3 0.31** 0.20* 0.27** -0.09 0.23** -0.03 -0.15 -0.06 0.14

†Annual climatic variables as given by Wang et al. (2012); those not shown correlate at r>0.80 with a variable 

presented; MAT (mean annual temperature); MWMT (mean warmest month temperature); MCMT (mean coldest 

month temperature); TD (continentality MWMT- MCMT); MAP (mean annual ppt.), MSP (mean summer ppt. MaySept.); AH:M (annual heat moisture index [MAT+10°C]/[MSP mm/1000]); PAS (ppt. as snow), EXT (extreme max. 

temperature over 30 years).*,** Significant at p<0.05 (r>0.18) and p<0.01 (r>0.23), respectively.
14

Basin wildrye

Common gardens of basin wildrye were established at Pullman and Central Ferry sites in 

Washington in 2010. The cultivars 'Trailhead', a tetraploid (2n=4x=28) type, and 'Magnar', an 

octoploid (2n=8x=56) type, were also included. Plants from 114 collection locations were 

randomized in complete blocks with six replications. Data collection for phenology, production, 

and morphological traits was completed 2011, 2012, and 2013. Analysis of common garden data 

is now underway.

Ploidy differences are likely critical to basin wildrye distribution and adaptation (Culumber et al. 

2013). Collections of basin wildrye were made in the Columbia Plateau in Washington where the 

octoploid form is common and in the Great Basin where tetraploid and octoploid forms can be 

found (Culumber et al. 2013). Ploidy for all collection locations was determined using a 

cytometer with a Partec CyFlow® Ploidy Analyzer as described by Jakubowski et al. (2011). 

The analysis of field collected sources revealed 58 octoploids and 56 tetraploids. Preliminary 

analyses indicate production differences associated with ploidy that will be considered in climate 

adaptation models.

Thurber's needlegrass

Thurber's needlegrass common gardens were established in fall 2011 in Central Ferry, 

Washington, and Reno, Nevada. The study consists of 67 source locations predominantly from 

the Northern and Central Basin and Range Ecoregions. Plants from each location were 

randomized in eight complete blocks at both garden sites. Data was collected on numerous 

phenology, production, and morphological traits in 2012 and 2013.

Squirreltail

Common gardens of squirreltail were established in 2012 at Central Ferry, Washington; Powell 

Butte, Oregon; and Reno, Nevada, and plant collections were completed in 2013. Taxonomic 

considerations in squirreltail can be complex (Parson et al. 2011). The majority of common 

garden accessions were found to consist of Elymus elymoides subsp. elymoides, but subsp. “C” 

(Parson et al. 2011), subsp. californicus, and subsp. hordeoides were also represented.

Sulphur-flower buckwheat

Collections of sulphur-flower buckwheat were completed in 2012 resulting in 21 accessions. 

There has also been ongoing collection through the BLM Seeds of Success (SOS) program 

resulting in 48 accessions. Seeds from the 2012 collection and the SOS collections will be used 

to establish plants and common gardens.

Seeds of Success activities

Seeds of Success (SOS) and the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) are partnering to 

collect, distribute, and evaluate key native plant materials needed for conservation and 

restoration. In 2013, more than 1,500 new native plant accessions were added to the SOS-NPGS 

collections, which now total more than 8,600 accessions. Since 2006, nearly 3,300 seed 

distributions have been made for research projects including federal, state, US commerce, and 

private cooperators (Figure 2). Distribution continued to increase in 2013 with substantially more 

orders from international sources and US commerce compared to 2012 (Table 2).
15

Table 2. Institutional sources of SOS seed orders distributed from the NPGS over the last eight 

years

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

 Maps visualizing the interaction of genetic variability and climate for restoration species 

allow informed decisions regarding the suitability of genetic resources for restoration in 

varying Great Basin and southwestern environments. 

 The recommended seed zone boundaries may be modified based on management 

resources and land manger experience without changing their basic form or links between 

genetic variation and climate.

Year International State ARS

US 

Commerce

Other 

Federal

US 

Individual

US

Nonprofit Other

2006 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0

2007 7 17 2 8 3 13 1 3

2008 25 38 5 18 3 12 3 25

2009 22 35 5 15 4 10 4 23

2010 29 40 7 11 7 10 5 14

2011 40 46 14 16 4 14 7 25

2012 26 74 11 14 9 25 9 25

2013 53 68 13 25 3 33 16 32

Totals 202 318 58 107 35 117 45 147

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13

SOS distributions by year

Packets

 Taxa

 Orders

0

400

800

1200

1600

2000

2400

2800

3200

06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13

Cumulative SOS distrutions

Packets

Taxa

Orders

Figure 2. Distribution data for SOS accessions within the NPGS from 2006 through 2013.
16

 We recommend utilization of multiple populations of a given species within each seed 

zone to promote the biodiversity needed for sustainable restoration and genetic 

conservation.

 Collections representing each seed zone should be released, grown, and used for ongoing 

restoration projects.

Presentations

Johnson, R. C. 2013. Ecological genetics and seed zones: home on the range. Intermountain 

Native Plant Summit; 2013 March 26; Boise, ID.

Johnson, R. C. 2013. Genecology for seed zones: problems and solutions. National Native Seed 

Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Publications

Johnson, R. C. 2013. Genecology for Indian ricegrass in the Southwest US. In: Plant and Animal 

Genome XXI Conference; 2013 January 12-16; San Diego, CA. Abstract W532.

Johnson, R. C. 2013. Genecology for seed zones: problems and solutions. In: National Native 

Seed Conference Abstracts; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Johnson, R. C.; Hellier, B. C.; Vance-Borland, K. W. 2013. Genecology and seed zones for 

tapertip onion in the US Great Basin. Botany. 91: 686-694.

St. Clair, J. B.; Kilkenny, F. F.; Johnson, R. C.; Shaw, N. L.; Weaver, G. 2013. Genetic variation 

in adaptive traits and seed transfer zones for Pseudoroegneria spicata (bluebunch wheatgrass) in 

the northwestern United States. Evolutionary Applications. 6: 933-948.

Additional Products

 Seed zone maps for key Great Basin restoration species ensure plant materials used for 

restoration are adapted, suitable, and diverse.

 Collection and conservation of native plant germplasm though cooperation between 

NPGS, the Western Regional Plant Introduction Station in Pullman, Washington, the 

USDA Forest Service, and the USDI Bureau of Land Management SOS program. This 

ensures availability of native plant genetic resources that otherwise could be lost to 

disturbances such as fire, invasive weeds, and climate change.

References

Culumber, Mae C.; Larson, S. R.; Jones, T. A.; Jensen, K. B. 2013. Wide-scale population 

sampling identifies three phylogeographic races of basin wildrye and low-level genetic 

admixture with creeping wildrye. Crop Science. 53: 996-1007.
17

Jakubowski, A. R.; Jackson, R. D.; Johnson, R. C.; Hu, J.; Casler, M. D. 2011. Genetic diversity 

and population structure of Eurasian 1 populations of reed canarygrass: cytotypes, cultivars, and 

interspecific hybrids. Crop and Pasture Science. 62: 982-991.

Johnson, R. C.; Cashman, M. J.; Vance-Borland, K. 2012. Genecology and seed zones for Indian 

ricegrass across the Southwest USA. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 65: 523-532.

Johnson, R. C.; Hellier, B. C.; Vance-Borland, K. W. 2013. Genecology and seed zones for 

tapertip onion in the US Great Basin. Botany. 91: 686-694.

Jones, T. A.; Winslow, S. R.; Parr, S. D.; Memmott, K. L. 2010. Notice of release of White River 

Germplasm Indian ricegrass. Native Plants Journal. 11: 133-136.

Parsons, M. C.; Jones, T. A.; Monaco, T. A. 2011. Genetic variation for adaptive traits in 

bottlebrush squirreltail in the northern Intermountain West, United States. Restoration Ecology. 

19(4): 460–469.

St. Clair, J. B; Kilkenny, F. F.; Johnson, R. C.; Shaw, N. L. Weaver, G. 2013. Genetic variation 

in adaptive traits and seed transfer zones for Pseudoroegneria spicata (bluebunch wheatgrass) in 

the northwestern United States. Evolutionary Applications. 6: 933-948.

USDA, Natural Resource Conservation Service. 2000. The PLANTS database. Version: 000417. 

(http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA.
18

Project Title Ecological Genetics of Big Sagebrush (Artemisia 

tridentata): Genetic Structure and Climate-based Seed 

Zone Mapping

Project Agreement No. 13-IA-11221632-161

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Bryce Richardson, Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service, RMRS, Shrub Sciences Laboratory

735 N 500 E

Provo, UT 84606

801.356.5112, Fax 801.375.6968

brichardson02@fs.fed.us

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702 

Phone: 208.373.4360, Fax 208.373.4360

nancylshaw@fs.fed.us

Matthew J. Germino, Research Ecologist

USDI US Geological Survey

Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center

Boise, Idaho 83702

Phone 208.426.3353, Fax 208.426.5210 

mgermino@usgs.gov

This information is preliminary and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the 

need for timely best science. The information is provided on the condition that neither 

the US Geological Survey nor the US Government may be held liable for any damages 

resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of this information.

Project Description

Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is one of the most ecologically important and dominant 

landscape plant species in western North America. This species is a major focus for ecosystem 

restoration after disturbances because of its importance as wildlife forage, in invasive weed 

exclusion (e.g., cheat grass [Bromus tectorum]), and for snow catchment and nutrient cycling. 

Big sagebrush is divided into three major subspecies: tridentata, vaseyana, and wyomingensis

that typically occupy distinct ecological niches. However, subspecies are known to form hybrid 

zones in some areas (Freeman et al. 1991). Maladaptation is a serious problem in restoration and 

becomes more complex with climate change. Planting big sagebrush seed sources outside their

adaptive breadth will lead to continued ecosystem degradation and encroachment of invasive 

species. Successful restoration of big sagebrush requires an understanding of the climatic factors 

involved in defining subspecies and populations. 
19

Objectives

 Establish common gardens from collected seed sources across the range of big sagebrush.

 Determine climatic factors important to adaptation within and among big sagebrush 

ecological races.

 Develop climate-based seed zone maps across the range of big sagebrush.

 Develop an approach to determine subspecies from plant material in the seed warehouse.

Methods

Common Garden Establishment and Measurements

Collection of seed and plant tissue began in fall 2009. A total of 93 seed sources were collected, 

largely by collaborators, in 11 western states. In January 2010, seeds were planted in greenhouse 

containers. Up to 10 families from each of 56 seed sources were outplanted at each of the 

common gardens (Table 1). Outplanting of seedlings occurred in May and June of 2010. Firstyear measurements were conducted in October and November of 2010. Measurements included 

mortality, height, crown area (from overhead photos), and seed yield estimates. Plants were 

supplemented with water until August 2010, and mortality was minimal for the first year (< 2%). 

No supplemental water was added in subsequent years. 

Table 1. Location information and average minimum temperature (mmin) of three big sagebrush 

common garden sites

Site name Latitude Longitude Elevation (m) mmin (oC)*

Orchard, Idaho 43.328 -116.003 976 -6.3

Ephraim, Utah 39.369 -111.580 1686 -11.5

Majors Flat, Utah 39.337 -111.521 2088 -12.0

* mmin estimated from weather station data recorded from 1961 to 1990.

Common Garden Analyses

In this report, we focus on mortality at the Ephraim common garden and flower phenology at all 

gardens as it relates to climate from the site of origin for each population. The site-specific 

climate variables were estimated from a spline model based upon weather station data recorded 

between 1961 and 1990 (http://forest.moscowfsl.wsu.edu/climate/). We used a June 2013 tally of 

mortality. Mortality of each population was calculated as a frequency. These data were regressed 

with 18 climate variables and 16 interacting variables to evaluate correlation and autocorrelation 

among climate variables. Ephraim garden mortality was analyzed together, as separate 

subspecies, and as ploidy groups (i.e., diploids and tetraploids). For flower phenology, linear 

models were developed independently for each garden. Variable selection followed the same 

strategy as mortality with the addition of photoperiod. In this case, latitude of each population 

was used as a surrogate for photoperiod. 

Electronic Nose

Volatile organic compound (VOC) analyses of subspecies were conducted using a Cyranose 320 

electronic nose (Sensigent, Inc). Leaf tissue was placed into a headspace chamber and allowed to 

equilibrate for approximately five minutes. Air within the chamber was then drawn into the 

electronic nose where it was analyzed with 32 sensors. Canonical correspondence analysis was 

then used to discern the sensor responses within and among subspecies. 
20

Results and Discussion

Mortality Responses to Climate

Plant mortality varied considerably among the common gardens by spring of 2013. Orchard and 

Majors Flat gardens had 4% (accounting for early insect mortality) and 3.6% mortality, 

respectively. However, at the Ephraim garden, mortality was 48%. There were strong patterns to 

subspecies and population survial at Ephraim. Regardless of subspecies, there was significant 

correlation (p < 0.001, r = -0.46) between mortality and summer-winter temperature 

differentials. Seed sources from more continental climates (i.e., greater temperature differentials) 

were more likely to survive at Ephraim. However, when populations were analyzed based upon 

ploidy groups (diploids and tetraploids), a different set of temperature and moisture interactions 

provided better correlation. For diploids, including subspecies tridentata and vaseyana, 

preliminary analyses suggested growing-season precipitation (April-September) and temperature 

differential best explained mortality patterns (p < 0.0001, r = -0.69). This suggests that diploid 

subspecies tridentata and vaseyana were more likely to survive at Ephraim if they originated 

from areas that experienced greater temperature extremes and greater growing season 

precipitation levels (Figure 1). Since these climate variables are driven by continentality, it 

would be expected that mortality is associated with longitude. The correlation between longitude 

and mortality was significant (p < 0.0001, r = -0.68).

Figure 1. Average frequency of mortality (June 2013) of each diploid big sagebrush population 

regressed with a linear model of growing season precipitation and temperature differential, t = 

tridentata and v = vaseyana.
21

As for tetraploids, a linear model with temperature differential and the addition of growing 

season precipitation did not improve model fit, nor were tetraploid populations associated with 

longitude. However, preliminary analyses of mortality and an interaction between aridity 

(summer warmth/mean annual precipitation) and the accumulation of winter temperatures below 

32 oF (0 oC) best explained mortality patterns (p = 0.0003, r = -0.72). Plants originating from 

areas with cold winters and greater aridity were more likely to survive at Ephraim (Figure 2). 

This relationship is analogous to the responses observed in blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima) 

using the same climate predictors (Richardson et al. 2014). Tetraploid big sagebrush is shallowrooted like blackbrush. It could be that shallow-rooted desert shrubs are principally adapted to 

aridity and winter temperatures, whereas deep-rooted shrubs can access to deep moisture longer 

throughout the year.

Figure 2. Average frequency of mortality (June 2013) of each tetraploid big sagebrush 

population regressed with an interaction of aridity and the accumulation of winter cold 

temperature. 

Flower Phenology

Plant phenology is principally driven by temperature and photoperiod (Laube et al. 2013). For 

most plants, increases in spring temperatures promote early flowering; however for big 

sagebrush, a fall-flowering species, early spring temperatures appear to delay flowering. 

Photoperiod also affects flower phenology in big sagebrush. Populations collected from higher 

latitudes had earlier fall flowering. Preliminary analyses suggested a linear model of latitude 
22

(photoperiod) and accumulating thermal degree-days (> 41oF [5 oC]) best explained flower 

phenology variation (p < 0.0001, r = 0.92). Populations with longer summer photoperiod (i.e., 

higher latitude) and/or later spring temperatures had earlier flowering (Figure 3). Furthermore, 

plants in colder gardens (e.g., Ephraim) flowered, on average, 16 days earlier than plants from 

the same populations in warmer gardens (e.g., Orchard). When phenology was modeled within 

gardens, flowering responses to latitude and spring warmth were parallel (Figure 3). 

Figure 3. Average date of flowering predicted using the interaction between latitude (a surrogate 

for photoperiod) and spring warmth. 

Subspecies Diagnostics

Developing a robust approach to discern big sagebrush subspecies from volatile compounds is 

ongoing, but preliminary analyses suggest it is possible. A canonical correspondence plot of all 

sensors indicates that there are differences in volatile composition among subspecies (Figure 4). 

Currently, our efforts are focused on sample preparation and determining which sensors are more 

discriminating in specific volatiles, such as methacrolein, which is abundant in subspecies 

tridentata.

Sept. 17

Oct. 7

Oct. 27

Sept. 17 Oct. 7 Oct. 27

Observed

Predicted

Garden

Ephraim

Majors

Orchard
23

Figure 4. A canonical correspondence plot of volatile composition from 32 sensor responses 

recorded from an electronic nose. Eighteen samples from three subspecies were included. 

Colored points represent subspecies: tridentata (red), vaseyana (blue), and wyomingensis

(green).

Future Plans

Seed collected in 2012 and 2013 and additional flower phenology data from 2013 will augment 

ongoing analyses. Quantitative genetic data will also be analyzed and compared with an 

assembly of ecophysiological datasets (Germino et al.), which should provide additional insights. 

Bioclimatic modeling is currently underway to provide an estimate of the big sagebrush climatic 

niche, and a map displaying this niche could be developed to overlay ecological genetic models, 

such as the data presented above. Initial planning and preparation of journal manuscripts are 

underway.

The goal of electronic nose diagnostics is to develop a protocol that would provide reliable 

results in subspecies determination and seed certification for seed warehouses. We also plan to 

look at other attributes including seed weight and size that appear to vary among subspecies or 

ploidy group.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

The goal of this research is to provide a comprehensive set of tools and knowledge to manage 

and restore big sagebrush for contemporary and future conditions. This includes development of 

seed zones based on the some of the data presented above and reliable diagnostic techniques for 

determining subspecies from volatile profiles and seed characteristics. These tools and 

Canonical Projection Plot

Trident at a Vaseyana Wyomingensis

Factor 1

Factor 2
24

knowledge will help ensure that big sagebrush seed is correctly identified and then directed to 

appropriate sites so that restoration is successful and established communities are resilient.

Presentations

Richardson, B. A.; Shaw, N. L. 2013. New insights into the genetic relationships and adaptive 

variation of big sagebrush subspecies. Intermountain Native Plant Summit; 2013 March 26-27; 

Boise, ID.

Richardson, B. A.; Huynh, M.; Shaw, N. L.; Udall, J. A. 2013. Correspondence between 

phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic characters in big sagebrush: implications for seed 

certification. 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM. Abstract.

Richardson, B. A.; Shaw, N .L. 2013. Ecological genetics of big sagebrush. 2nd National Native 

Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM. Abstract.

Additional Products

 Leveraged funding: National Fire Plan 2013-2016 ($72,000/year)

 Leveraged funding: Great Basin LCC 2013-2015 ($35,000)

References

Freeman, D. C.; Turner, W. A.; McArthur, E. D.; Graham, J. H. 1991. Characterization of a 

narrow hybrid zone between two subspecies of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata: Asteraceae). 

American Journal of Botany. 78: 805–815.

Laube, J; Sparks, T. H.; Estrella, N.; Hofler, J.; Ankerst, D. P.; Menzel, A. 2013. Chilling 

outweighs photoperiod in preventing precocious spring development. Global Change Biology.

20: 170-182.

Richardson, B. A.; Kitchen, S. G.; Pendleton, R. L.; Pendleton, B. K.; Germino, M. J.; Rehfeldt, 

G. E.; Meyer, S. E. 2014. Adaptive responses reveal contemporary and future ecotypes in a 

desert shrub. Ecological Applications. 24(2): 413-427.
25

Project Title Selecting Big Sagebrush Seed Sources for Restoration in 

a Variable Environment: Assessment of Young Seedling 

Responses to Climate and Management Treatments of 

Herbs 

Project Agreement No. 14-IA-11221632-012

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Matthew J. Germino, Supervisory Research Ecologist

USDI United States Geological Survey

Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center

970 Lusk St

Boise, ID 83706

208.426.3353, Fax 208.426.5210

mgermino@usgs.gov

Martha Brabec, Student Services Contractor

USDI United States Geological Survey

Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center

970 Lusk St

Boise, ID 83706

208.426-5207, Fax 208.426.5210

mbrabec@usgs.gov

This information is preliminary and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the 

need for timely best science. The information is provided on the condition that neither 

the U.S. Geological Survey nor the U.S. Government may be held liable for any 

damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of this information.

Project Description

Increased frequency and areal extent of wildfires pose a major challenge for big sagebrush 

(Artemisia tridentata) and its dependent species. Big sagebrush is not fire adapted and reestablishes by seed following fire. Its seeds are relatively short-lived and have limited natural 

dispersal distances from unburned or reproductive re-established plants. Given the threats to big 

sagebrush-dependent species such as greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), planting 

and seeding of big sagebrush are becoming increasingly common. Success in restoring big 

sagebrush has been mixed, often producing few or no shrubs. Climate and weather variability, 

appropriateness of seeds, and site conditions relating to management are all factors that may help 

explain success of sagebrush restoration efforts. The large areas designated for post-fire 

rehabilitation seedings are also creating a high demand for seed, which is increasing the need for 

information on seed transfer guidelines to appropriately match seed supply to restoration sites.

Big sagebrush has high intraspecific diversity, and selection of appropriate seed source is 

increasingly a concern in designing and implementing big sagebrush restoration treatments.
26

Recent data suggests that ploidy level is as important as subspecies in explaining the functional 

diversity in big sagebrush. Studies also suggest that functional variability among provenances 

within a subspecies or cytotype can be even greater (Richardson et al. 2012;Germino 2013). The 

diversity of big sagebrush increases the potential for populations to have local climate 

adaptation, which, in turn, suggests that development of seed-transfer zones may improve 

seeding success. Whether seed sources from warmer and drier sites are (or will be) better suited 

than local seed sources on a given site is an important question for climate adaptation in restoring 

native species in rangelands.

Preliminary seed zones for big sagebrush will largely be based on common gardens of big 

sagebrush established from seedlings grown for 4 to 5 months in the greenhouse then outplanted 

into weeded gardens with supplemental initial watering (Richardson et al. 2012). While the 

information culminating from these gardens is highly valuable for understanding persistence of 

different provenances and genotypes, it is also useful to evaluate smaller and younger plants in 

their critical seedling survival stage under a range of neighborhood vegetation conditions that 

represent different post-fire conditions. Climate responses of seedlings are often very different 

than those expressed by adults. Additionally, ploidy level variations, which appear important to 

the phylogeny and diversification of big sagebrush (Richardson et al. 2012), might influence 

seedling stress responses and establishment.

Big sagebrush seeding or planting treatments are often accompanied by treatments that reduce 

wildfire fuels and abundance of invasive species or increase abundance of native herbs through 

mowing, herbicide applications, or rangeland drill seeding. Neighboring herbs can have strong 

effects on big sagebrush seedling establishment and survival, which can relate to competition for 

water and other soil resources (DiCristina and Germino 2006). Physiological water balance, soil 

water uptake, and soil water use all vary considerably among big sagebrush subspecies and 

provenances and are likely important to climate adaptation (Kolb and Sperry 1999;Germino 

2013). Different amounts and types of neighboring herbs likely affect microenvironmental 

factors such as soil water availability differently; so, it is reasonable to expect that provenances 

might differ in their ability to establish in different herb communities as they vary naturally or 

with land use and treatments.

Our previous research with the Great Basin Native Plant Project focused on climate adaptation of

established, reproductive-aged big sagebrush plants in common gardens. Our current research 

focuses on seedlings undergoing the process of establishment, within the first months to a year 

following germination or outplanting as small individuals. The data collected will allow tests for 

local adaptation and will help identify the climate and ecophysiological variables that appear to 

exert strong limitations and should be emphasized in selection analyses. 

Objectives

 Assess climate responsiveness of seedlings from different big sagebrush seed sources to 

experimental warming on burned sites.

 Assess the influence of management treatments on seedlings from different big sagebrush 

seed sources.
27

 Compare ecophysiological-climate adaptation in established plants to that of seedlings, 

and relate differences in ecophysiology to establishment success under different 

management treatments.

Methods

Climate experiment on burned areas

Warming chambers paired with unwarmed 

control plots were established at five separate 

sites burned by wildfires in summer 2012 in 

the USDI Bureau of Land Management 

Morley Nelson Birds of Prey National 

Conservation Area (BOP NCA, Figure 1). 

Each burned block has a corresponding 

unburned block of intact big sagebrush 

communities, and only the burned blocks 

received planting and seeding treatments. The 

unburned blocks will be utilized to record 

natural vegetation response to the treatments. 

The five sites: Poen, South Point, Swan Falls, 

Coyote, and Kave burned in 2012 and

represent a variety of prefire conditions in the 

sagebrush steppe. Where sagebrush was 

present before the fires, it was a blend of 

Wyoming and basin big sagebrush (A. t. 

wyomingensis or A. t. tridentata). The Kave 

site was considered intact sagebrush steppe 

prior to the 2012 fire, whereas the Poen site 

was drill seeded with forage kochia (Kochia 

prostrata) after a fire in 1993. The South 

Point site was also drill seeded after a fire in 

1998 but it was seeded with Russian wildrye 

(Psathyrostachys juncea). The Swan and 

Coyote sites were big sagebrush communities 

with an understory of cheatgrass before 

burning.

Experimental passive warming frames were 

installed in fall 2012 prior to the planting and 

seeding to create the desired warming 

treatment effect. Warming frames are opensided with louvered strips of clear plastic in 

the roof that increase long-wave solar radiation for plants and soil surfaces. Warming frames 

increase minimum nighttime temperatures by 4 to 7 °F (2-4 °C) (devised by Germino and Smith 

1999; modified by Germino and Demshar 2008). Frames dimensions are 7.9 × 7.9 ft2(2.4 × 2.4 

m

2

) in area and 24 inches (60 cm) in height. Roofless frames (with clear nylon string to mimic 

structure of the warming frames) were placed on control plots. Air temperatures, soil 

Figure 1. Map (top) and photo (bottom) 

showing location (south of Boise in the BOP 

NCA) and style of warming and control 

chambers. Red hatched areas in the map are 

burned, and “UB” refers to unburned sites 

that also received the treatments as part of an 

associated study. Photo (bottom) shows the 

warming frame (leftmost) and two frames 

with rainout shelters (back) for a related 

project.
28

temperaures, and water content at the soil surface (≤0.8 inch [2 cm] deep) and at 2 inches (5 cm) 

deep were measured and logged at one- and six-hour intervals, respectively, on all plots. 

Table 1. Genotypes (provenances or populations) outplanted and seeded into five sites in the 

BOP NCA that were burned by wildfire in 2012. At each site, planting and seeding was done on

control or experimentally warmed plots. Ten seedlings or 50 seeds were planted into each 

treatment and replication occurred across five sites. Seed source selection represented local 

sources or distant sources with climates different from the BOP NCA. “Rationale” refers to the 

reason for inclusion, which is either to provide local or distant genotypes or climate differences 

in seed transfer. “Local site” refers to seed transfer distances of 5 to 10 miles (8-16 km) without 

change in elevation or soils; “local region” refers to transfer distances of about 20 miles (32 km), 

and climate described is relative to BOP NCA

Provenance 

code name

State of 

origin

Subspecies of 

big sagebrush

Rationale 

(climate of origin)

Treatments planted 

into

Ploidy

IDT-2 ID tridentata Local region Warmed+Control 2N

BOP-W ID wyomingensis Local site Warmed+Control 4N

IDV-2 ID vaseyana Local region Warmed+Control 2N

NMT-2 NM tridentata Warm/Dry Control 4N

UTT-1 UT tridentata Cool/Wet Control 2N

IDW-2 ID wyomingensis Local region Control 4N

ORT-2 OR tridentata Warm/Dry Control 2N

MTW-3 MT wyomingensis Cool/Wet Control 4N

ORV-1 OR vaseyana Cool/Wet Control 4N

IDW-3 ID wyomingensis Warm/Dry Control 4N

IDV-3 ID vaseyana Cool/Wet Control 2N

CAT-2 CA vaseyana Warm/Dry Control 2N

As a split-plot factor, different subspecies and provenances of big sagebrush (Table 1) were 

planted or seeded into each plot, excluding the outer 16 inches (40 cm) of the plot area to avoid 

edge effects. Fifty seeds were sown into one 8 × 8-inch (20 × 20 cm) frame per seed source per 

plot. Four-month old outplants from three seed sources that were grown outdoors in native soil 

and cone-tainers were planted under each warming frame (10 plants per seed source per frame), 

and all seed sources were planted into control plots. Seedlings were bare-root planted at 4-inch 

(10 cm) spacings in November 2012, and seeds were sown in December 2012. Seed sources 

represented geographically local sources of all three subspecies of big sagebrush, to provide a 

strong contrast in climate adaptation. The other seven seed sources were selected to cover a 

range of ploidy and provenance conditions, including diploid, tetraploid, tridentata and vaseyana

subspecies, and provenances from relatively warm or cool and wet or dry areas. One warm seed 

source came from near the Mojave Desert in California where winter is nearly lacking. 

Additionally, provenances known to have relatively vigorous growth (ORT-2) or slow growth 

(CAT-2) rates were selected.

We are measuring a suite of dependent variables including survival, growth, chlorophyll 

fluorescence, measurements of water status (pressure chamber), isotopic assessment of water-use 

efficiency, photosynthesis, and stomatal conductance. Measurements of community cover are 
29

made periodically, and variation in soil properties will also be assessed. Repeated-measure, splitplot ANOVAs are being used to determine significant differences.

Responses to Management Treatments of Herbs

Seedling responses to management treatments of herbs are being assessed for the sources shown 

in Table 1. Outplanting occurred in pre-existing, landscape-scale herbicide, mowing, or seeding 

treatments in spring 2013 when plants were 4 months old. Treatments were arrayed in a full 

factorial pattern on grazed and fenced areas in three replicate blocks in the BOP NCA as part of a 

Joint Fire Sciences Project led by Doug Shinneman at the US Geological Survey (unburned area 

of Figure 2). A unique feature of this experiment is that plots are large (2.5 acres [1 ha]) and 

dispersed over a large landscape, mimicking the scale of an actual management treatment. A 

second planting using only local seeds of Wyoming big sagebrush was implemented with 12-

inch (30 cm) tall, year-old seedlings on all burned plots in fall 2013 (see Figure 2). Results of the 

second planting on burned plots will be described in a future report.

Each unburned plot had nine seedlings of each of four seed sources planted, with four basin big 

sagebrush sources planted equally into all fenced plots and a more complex mixing of the other 

seed sources in unfenced plots (due to numbers of seedlings available). Seedling spacing was 

greater than 16 feet (>5 m) in the unburned plots. In burned plots, 25 seedlings were planted at 3-

feet (1 m) spacing. Seedlings received approximately one liter of water after planting. Mortality 

was very high following the spring 2013 planting on unburned plots because of drought 

conditions, but initial establishment of the fall 2013 planting on burned plots appears to be very 

high.

Key to accomplishing these large-scale plantings (>3,000 seedlings) was the volunteer program 

available through agency partners, specifically crews from Boise State University, the Master 

Naturalist Programs led by Anne Halford of the USDI Bureau of Land Management, and

volunteer efforts led by Michael Young and Mary Dudley of the Idaho Fish and Game. Growth 

and survival are being monitored periodically on both plantings, and additional physiological 

measurements are planned for the Bigfoot fire. 
30

Figure 2. Experimental layout of management treatments of herbs in the BOP NCA. Map 

courtesy of D. Shinneman.

Results and Discussion

Precipitation was notably scarce in spring 2013, such that little greening was observed 

throughout the BOP NCA, and this likely contributed to seed and seedling establishment.

Response to Climate Treatments on Burned Areas

Emergence was low from the seed sown, and emergence appeared to occur earlier in the year 

under the warming compared to control frames (not shown and statistical tests pending) and was 

followed by high mortality. As of fall 2013, there were only six seedlings that emerged from 

seed in warmed frames and all but one were Wyoming big sagebrush from Idaho seed sources. In 

comparison, only two seedlings remained in the control frames.

In unwarmed plots where the rest of seed sources from Table 1 can be compared, a small and asof-yet insignificant pattern appears to be emerging in which seedlings of diploid seed sources 

have somewhat lower survivorship (Figure 4). In contrast, the greatest height growth may be in 

diploid basin big sagebrush (non-local, Figure 5 compared to less height in local seed 

provenances, Figure 3), as was observed in the Orchard common garden (Germino 2013). An 

important tradeoff in height growth and survivorship may be emerging in these seedlings, which 

contrasts with patterns observed in the older plants in the Orchard common garden. 
31

Response to Treatments of Herbs on Unburned Areas

Very high mortality occurred when precipitation fell far below average from April to June 2013. 

Of provenances planted into fenced areas (all basin big sagebrush), the local IDT2 source had a 

larger number of survivors than the distant provenances that included tretraploids and sources 

from warmer or drier sites (Figure 6, Table 1). Seedling survivorship was greater by May on 

plots that had an array of treatments which lead to reduced herb cover (specifically those that had 

been mowed and treated with herbicide and not drill seeded with herbs) compared to plots that 

had been seeded (Figure 7, p < 0.05), although substantive emergence of seeded herbs was not 

readily detected in the treatments (not shown).

Figure 3. Survival and growth as indicated by height of seed sources of each big sagebrush 

subspecies under experimentally warmed or control conditions at the BOP NCA from late 2012 

through 2013. N = 5 plots.

0

20

40

60

0

20

40

60

Height (mm)

0

20

40

60

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0 IDV-2 (A.t. vaseyana)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Survival fraction

IDT-2 (A.t. tridentata)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0 BOP-W (A.t. wyomingensis)

Control Warmed

Date (month/day)
32

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Survivorship (fraction)

Figure 4. Survival of seedlings based on 

subspecies and ploidy (Table 1), from 

unwarmed control plots. N= 5.

Date (month/day)

ARTRT 2N

ARTRT 4N

ARTRV 2N

ARTRV 4N

ARTRW 4N

Figure 7. Differences in survivorship among eight treatments 

as of May 2013. Red open circles represent non-seeded plots; 

blue crosses represent seeded plots. For the comparison of 

unseeded and seeded plots on mowed + herbicide plots,

p<0.05.

Figure 6. Differences in survivorship for four seed sources of basin 

big sagebrush; IDT2 is the local seed source, and in fall 2013

comprised 35% of survivors; CAT2 is from a warm site in 

California; ORT2 is from Oregon and fast-growing; NMT2 is 

tetraploid from New Mexico, and in fall 2013, comprised 12% of 

survivors. N = 216.

0

20

40

60

80

Height (mm)

Date (month/day)

Figure 5. Height growth of seedlings of the 

different provenances (Table 1) in unwarmed 

control plots. N = 5. 

IDV3

IDW2

IDW3

MTW3

NMT2

ORT2

ORV1

UTT1
33

Our preliminary findings from a dry year and a small number of surviving seedlings offer some 

indication that 1) tetraploids could have greater survival but diploids (of basin big sagebrush) 

may have greater growth, 2) Wyoming big sagebrush might have greater survival in the BOP 

NCA under current conditions but basin big sagebrush would be favored by warming, and 3) 

local seed sources may perform better in basin big sagebrush (aside from greater performance of 

tetraploids, which are not local to BOP NCA). We hypothesize that potentially greater 

performance of basin big sagebrush and reduced performance of Wyoming big sagebrush under 

warming may relate to greater water stress for Wyoming big sagebrush that is overcome by 

extraction of deeper soil water sources by basin big sagebrush. There is some indication of 

greater success of tetraploid seed sources, and that management treatments reducing herb 

presence may enhance big sagebrush seedling establishment. 

We will continue to monitor patterns of growth, survival, and ecophysiological variation that 

may provide a more sensitive indicator of climate relationships. Overall, low survivorship and 

low numbers of surviving seedlings are the result of a dry spring and summer in 2013. We will 

seek means of reproducing and expanding our assessment of seedling establishment of the 

different seed sources. In 2014, ecophysiological assessments will include measurement of 

carbon isotopes as an indicator of water use and low-temperature resistances so that we may 

improve our resolution of genecological and climate adaptation effects, which are key for 

developing seed transfer zone guidelines. Also, through the use of leveraged funding, an 

associated experiment evaluating wind and microclimate amelioration was begun with the 

second planting in the Joint Fire Sciences treatment plots burned by the Bigfoot fire. We will 

continue to monitor that experiment and report on how use of sheltering devices, topographic 

variation, or sagebrush planting arrangements that modify wind regimes impact seedling outplant 

success.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

We anticipated that ploidy, subspecies, and provenance of big sagebrush would matter to 

planting success under the range of plot conditions we are evaluating, perhaps even more than 

for larger plants. The implication of these predictions is that resolute selection of seeds is 

important for sagebrush planting success. As an example of how the developing information 

may apply: a management objective for the sites we evaluated to quickly increase big sagebrush 

presence and structure on the landscape under a warming climate (e.g. to provide shrub canopy 

amelioration of microclimate, creation of safe sites for native herb establishment) might benefit 

from planting seedlings of local diploid basin big sagebrush following treatments such as 

mowing and herbicide. Growth/survival tradeoffs may also have implications for seeding efforts 

in which assurance of germination and initial establishment are the primary concerns, in which 

case, tetraploid seed sources for seeding (and possibly local Wyoming big sagebrush) may 

improve outcomes. Additional data will substantiate or modify these types of findings and 

management applications.

Presentations

Germino, M. J. 2013. Sagebrush responses to climate, seminar given at the College of Idaho; 

2013 October 28; Caldwell, ID.
34

Germino, M. J. 2014. Sagebrush responses to shifting climate and fire disturbances: basic 

insights for restoration. Sage Steppe Partner Forum Webinar Series; 2013 January 21; Boise, ID.

Germino, M. J. 2013. Climate adaptation and sagebrush: biological and management 

perspectives. Brown-bag seminar given to Bureau of Land Management; Idaho State Office; 

2013 May 22; Boise, ID.

Germino, M. J.; Brabec, M.; Davidson, B.; Shinneman, D.; Halford, A.; Richardson, B. 2013. 

Post-fire sagebrush establishment across the landscapes: experimental tests to inform restoration 

success. Poster presented at the Great Basin Consortium Conference; 2013 December 9-10; Reno 

NV.

Germino, M. J.; Lazarus, B.; Richardson, B.; Shaw, N. 2013. Ecophysiological variation of big 

sagebrush in common gardens: Local climate adaptation, ploidy effects, and implications for 

restoration practice. Poster presented at the 98th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of 

America; 2013 August 4-9; Minneapolis, MN.

Germino, M. J.; Richardson, B.; Lazarus, B.; Shaw, N. 2013. Local ecophysiological adaptation 

evident in tetraploid but not diploid big sagebrush. 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 

April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Richardson, B. A.; Germino, M. J.; Kitchen, S. G.; Pendleton, R. L.; Pendleton, B. K.; Meyer, S. 

E. 2013. Climate-adapted populations of blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima). 2nd National 

Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Richardson, B. A.; Kitchen, S. G.; Pendleton, R. L.; Pendleton, B. K.; Germino, M. J.; Rehfeldt, 

G. E.; Meyer, S. E. 2013. Climate-adapted populations of blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima): 

implications for current and future management. 5th World Conference on Ecological 

Restoration; 2013 October 6-11; Madison, WI.

Richardson, B.; Shaw, N,; Germino M. J.; Ortiz, H.; Carlson, S.; Sanderson, S.; Still, S. 2013. 

Development of tools and technology to improve the success and planning of restoration of big 

sagebrush ecosystems. Poster presented at the Great Basin Consortium Conference; 2013 

December 9-10; Reno, NV. 

Publications

The ongoing data collections will be useable for potential publications after summer 2014. 

Several manuscripts are in preparation from work on established sagebrush in common gardens, 

described in two prior Great Basin Native Plant Project reports. 

Additional Products

We procured additional, leveraged funding for the management-treatment aspects of this project 

from the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service contributions to the Great Basin Landscape 

Conservation Cooperative. 
35

References

DiCristina, K.; Germino, M. 2006. Correlation of neighborhood relationships, carbon 

assimilation, and water status of sagebrush seedlings establishing after fire. Western North 

American Naturalist. 66(4): 441-449.

Germino, M. J. 2013. Selecting sagebrush seed sources for restoration in a variable climateEcophysical variation among genotypes. In: Shaw, N. L., Pellant, M. eds., Great Basin Native 

Plant Selection and Increase Project: FY2011 Progress Report. USDA Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station and USDI Bureau of Land Management: Boise, ID. p. 24-29.

Germino, M. J.; Demshar, D. 2008. A new approach for passive warming in field experiments. 

In: 93rd annual meeting of the Ecological Society of America; 2008 August 7; Milwaukee, WI. 

Abstract.

Germino, M. J.; Smith, W. K. 1999. Sky exposure, crown architecture, and low‐temperature 

photoinhibition in conifer seedlings at alpine treeline. Plant, Cell & Environment. 22(4): 407-

415.

Kolb, K. J.; Sperry, J. S. 1999. Differences in drought adaptation between subspecies of 

sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Ecology. 80(7): 2373-2384.

Richardson, B. A.; Page, J. T.; Bajgain, P; Sanderson, S. C.; Udall, J. A. 2012. Deep sequencing 

of amplicons reveals widespread intraspecific hybridization and multiple origins of polyploidy in 

big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata; Asteraceae). American Journal of Botany. 99: 1962-1975.
36

Project Title Field-testing Competitive Native Plant Genotypes for 

Restoration in Cheatgrass-invaded Rangelands

Project Agreement No. 13-JV-11221632-080

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Elizabeth A. Leger, Associate Professor of Plant Ecology

Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, MS 186

University of Nevada

Reno, NV 89557 

775.784.7582, Fax: 775.784.4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Daniel Z. Atwater, Postdoctoral Associate

Dept. of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, MS 186

University of Nevada

Reno, NV 89557 

775.784.4111, Fax: 775.784.4789

danatwater@gmail.com

Project Description

Background

In arid systems, seedling survival can pose a substantial barrier to restoration. From both an 

ecological and management perspective, there is an urgent need to better understand how plant 

traits affect performance of native plant seedlings in field conditions. For example, it is widely 

held that locally accessed seeds represent the ideal restoration material but such seeds are not 

always available. Identifying traits that improve native plant establishment may allow managers 

to identify possible restoration materials based on plant traits rather than provenance.

Research from previous studies has shown the potential for root traits to have strong effects on 

plant competitive performance and resistance to drought, yet relatively little is known about how 

these traits affect seedling survival and growth in the field. In this study, we sampled natural 

squirreltail populations, recorded root traits of over 100 squirreltail families, and monitored the 

performance of those families in field conditions. 

Objectives

The objectives of this study were to― 1) identify heritable root traits in squirreltail and 2) 

determine how these traits affect emergence, survival, and height of seedlings after one growing 

season in the field.

Methods

Seeds of squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) were collected from 53 families at each of two sites in 

northern Nevada: Paradise Valley and Orovada. Seeds from each family were grown in the 

greenhouse and seedling root traits were measured 10 days after emergence. We also planted 20 
37

seeds from each family into field plots near the sites where seeds were collected. Seeds were 

planted in late October and monitored every three to four weeks for emergence until June, when 

they were measured for height and leaf count. We used a generalized linear mixed model and 

model averaging to investigate the importance of root length, specific root length (SRL: root 

length/volume), number of tips, root mass ratio (RMR: root mass/plant mass), days-toemergence (DTE), and seed mass. 

Figure 1. Installing squirreltail experiment at the Paradise Valley field site. 

Results

Root traits had strong effects on squirreltail field performance at both sites. Emergence success 

was primarily determined by seed mass, but survival probability was strongly affected by root 

traits with plants with thick, prolific roots having a 6-fold increase in survival probability at one 

site and a 1.5-fold increase in survival probability at the other site. Seedling size at six months 

showed an up to 2-fold increase due to root traits. Performance increased linearly in response to 

root traits, although many traits also showed pronounced non-linear responses to seed traits, with 

intermediate values being favored. Seed mass had weak effects on root traits. Path analysis 

indicated that about 80 to 90% of effects of root traits on performance were independent of seed 

mass, while the remaining effects mediated indirect effects of seed mass. 

Conclusions

Our results suggest there is potential for root traits to have strong and predictable effects on the

germination, survival, and size of squirreltail seedlings in the field. While seed size was the 
38

primary determinant of emergence probability, survival at both sites was primarily influenced by 

root traits. Prevalent non-linear effects of root traits indicate the importance of restoring 

rangelands using genotypes that have traits correctly matched for their environment. We are 

further investigating this phenomenon by relating root traits to performance of squirreltail 

genotypes collected from 35 populations throughout the Great Basin.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines 

This research examines a pressing management concern: the identification of native plant 

materials for restoration. Although it has been the subject of considerable debate, it is commonly 

held that locally-sourced seeds are the ideal restoration material, because they have already 

adapted to the unique conditions of their home site. However, local seeds are not always 

available in the numbers needed for restoration, and there is question about whether using local 

seeds by default is an optimal restoration strategy. The root traits we observed were measured 

after only 10 days of greenhouse growth and were easily and quickly obtained using 

commercially available root imaging software. While our results provide evidence that locally 

accessed seeds possess traits that are well-matched for their home environment, they also suggest 

it may be possible to identify substitute restoration material based on seedling root traits. We are 

undertaking further research to determine whether this is feasible and applicable to multiple sites.
39

Project Title Dynamics of Germination and Cold Hardiness for Great 

Basin Native Plants

Project Agreement No. 13-JV-11221632-066

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Anthony S. Davis, Department Head, Tom Alberg and Judith 

Beck Chair in Natural Resources, Director of Center for Forest 

Nursery and Seedling Research, and Associate Professor

P. O. Box 441133

University of Idaho

Moscow, ID 83844

208.885.7211, Fax 208.885.6564

asdavis@uidaho.edu

Matthew R. Fisk, Graduate Student and Biological Science 

Technician-Plants

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

208.373.4358, Fax 208.373.4391

mfisk@fs.fed.us

Kent G. Apostol, Research Scientist

University of Idaho 

Moscow, Idaho 83843

651.253.9970, Fax 208.885.6564

kapostol@uidaho.edu

Kenneth W. Pete, Research Experience for Undergraduate 

Students (REU) Intern

University of Idaho

1999 White Ave Apt 511

Moscow, ID 83843

775.397.5320

pete8058@vandals.uidaho.edu

Project Description

Germination Characteristics of Northern Great Basin Sulphur-flower Buckwheat 

Objectives

Sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum) is a perennial forb native to western North 

America for which little scientific information exists. Widely distributed across the Great Basin, 

sulphur-flower buckwheat exhibits a variety of traits that are valuable for wildlife (including 

sage-grouse), pollinators, livestock, restoration, landscaping, and ethnobotanical uses. The Great 

Basin ecosystem is rapidly becoming degraded; consequently, native plant materials for 
40

restoration are lacking. Because suphur-flower buckwheat has a broad distribution, occupies 

wide elevational gradients, and has broad ecoregional representation, understanding the spatial 

and temporal differences among populations will help maximize restoration efforts within the 

Great Basin. There are three main objectives to this research:

 Measure and compare seed morphology characteristics across multiple years and 

populations.

 Measure and test non-stratified germination parameters across geographical and 

temporal gradients. 

 Investigate seed morphology and germination among populations collected along an 

elevational gradient.

Materials and Methods

Wildland seed collections were made starting in 2003. Seeds were cleaned and then placed in 

cold storage at -12 °F (-24 °C). The USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station Moscow Forestry 

Sciences Laboratory germinated 21 seed collections representing nine populations collected in 

2009 and two sources collected across seven years, which encompassed a 2,750- to 5,740-foot 

(840-1750 m) elevational gradient. Seeds were sown 29 June 2013 with two seeds per cell and 

five replications of 28 cells each. Seedlings were grown under controlled greenhouse conditions. 

Daily germination counts started the day after sowing and continued for four weeks (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Sulphur-flower buckwheat germination percentage of nine seed sources over a 25-day 

period after sowing on 29 June 2013. Source 1 and 19 are also represented across seven different 

years. Figure legend gives source number-collection year.
41

Results and Discussion

Germination for seed sources was significantly different across all sources for 2009 (p<0.0001; 

Figure 2A). Seed sources 1 and 19 displayed significant differences in total germination 

(p<0.0001; Figure 2B&C) and seed weights (p<0.0001; Figure 3A&B) across multiple years.

Elevation was not significantly correlated among seed sources for either seed weight (p=0.1446) 

or germination (p=0.3981). The results indicate different germination among years and seed 

sources when stratification is withheld during the propagation process, which leads us to believe 

the age of non-stratified seed had an impact on germination success when seedlings were grown 

in the same environment. We noticed an increase in germination following after-ripening periods 

of four to five years in dry cold storage. 

Future Direction

When propagating on a large scale for restoration, seed germination characteristics can be an 

important factor for success. Little to no stratification is desirable in some instances. 

Germination is only one important feature to consider when selecting a seed source for 

restoration plantings, and it is important to keep the original seed source component as the main 

driving factor. There are ways around germination obstacles of desirable sources such as fall 

planting in the field or artificial stratification. 
42

Figure 2. Mean (+/- SE) total germination (of 280 sown seeds) of sulphur-flower buckwheat 

among seed sources collected in 2009 (A) and for source 1 (B) and 19 (C) collected across seven

different years. Different letters indicate a separation of means (Tukey, α=0.05).
43

Figure 3. Mean (+/- SE) sulphur-flower buckwheat seeds per gram for seed source 1 (A) and 19 

(B) collected across seven different years. Different letters indicate a separation of means 

(Tukey, α=0.05).
44

Cold Hardiness Accumulation and Loss in Suphur-flower Buckwheat across the Great Basin

Objectives

Cold hardiness or the capacity of plant tissue to survive exposure to freezing temperatures is 

variable across and within both species and geographic regions. It is a well-known indicator of 

species durability and distribution patterns and is an important factor to consider in Great Basin 

restoration work as diurnal and seasonal temperature fluctuations within the region can be 

extreme. Knowing where the thresholds of temperature tolerances lie within individual species is 

a key component in determining population or regional potential for restoration success.

 

The current research goals are to provide a streamlined strategy for plant producers and 

restoration specialists in the Great Basin to follow when testing the cold hardiness of forb species 

and specific genetic sources. This could provide better guidelines for developing and testing seed 

zones and improve the understanding of the influence of changing climatic conditions on plant 

populations. Using important candidate forb species, we are working with public and private 

collaborators to develop guidelines that evaluate a species’ cold tolerance. This will greatly 

enhance our ability to both understand the role cold temperatures play in native plant 

establishment following planting as well as potential implications of changing climatic 

conditions for restoration in the Great Basin. 

Materials and Methods

Seeds were procured for an important native Great Basin forb, sulphur-flower buckwheat to 

provide the basis for understanding seasonal cold tolerance accumulation and loss in seedlings 

through laboratory work and field plantings. Plants are being propagated by USFS RMRS 

Moscow Forestry Sciences Laboratory personnel for use in subsequent work to test seedling cold 

tolerance levels among populations collected across ecoregions, collection years, elevational and 

longitudinal gradients, and seed zones.

Mature sulphur-flower buckwheat plants are also being examined. Six accessions growing in a 

common garden planted in fall 2006 in Boise, Idaho were selected as representative of the 

species’ geographical range occurring within provisional seed zones, ecoregions, and elevational 

and longitudinal gradients. One wildland source was selected for research and it is also 

represented in the common garden. Seedlings from this source are being grown at the RMRS 

greenhouse. Leaf tissue samples were collected from the field in August and December of 2013 

and transported to University of Idaho laboratory for processing. The Freeze-Induced Electrolyte 

Leakage (FIEL) method has been used to test cold tolerance of all collected samples and LT50

calculations were made. 

Results and Discussion

As this research is currently in the beginning stages, all results have not yet been analyzed. 

However, initial investigations of the data show some geographic and seasonal differences 

among accessions. 

Future Plans

Ongoing work will continue to examine and employ the FIEL method for, where appropriate, 

foliage, stem, and root tissue. Whole plant freeze tests, coupled with qualitative assessments and 
45

chlorophyll fluorescence of foliage or bark chlorenchyma will be conducted as applicable. We 

may also analyze carbohydrates in plant tissues with cold hardiness accumulation and loss. 

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines 

Upon further investigation of plant materials across geographic distributions, we will be able to 

determine the degree to which cold hardiness results can be extrapolated and applied to other

species and across species and populations. The project will provide a streamlined strategy for 

plant producers and restoration specialists in the Great Basin to test cold hardiness of forb 

species, particular genetic sources, and other plant materials in an effort to provide better 

guidelines for developing and testing seed zones and improve our understanding of the influence 

of changing climatic conditions on plant distributions. In order to fill major knowledge gaps, 

there is a definite need for a manual for analyzing and evaluating cold hardiness. 

Presentations

Kildisheva, Olga A. 2013. A short synopsis of seed dormancy research. 6th Annual Pacific 

Northwest Native Plant Meeting; 2013 December 9-11; Vancouver, WA.

Kildisheva, Olga A.; Davis, A. S. 2013. Temperature and moisture as drivers of survival and 

seedling physiology of a Great Basin perennial. 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 

9-12; Santa Fe, NM.

Kildisheva, Olga A.; Davis, A. S. 2013. New directions in operational seed handling. Poster 

presented at the 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 9-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Pete, Kenneth W.; Santos, Vannesa; Fisk, Matthew R.; Pinto, Jeremy R.; Davis, Anthony 

S. 2013. Germination characteristics of northern Great Basin Eriogonum umbellatum. Poster 

presented at Idaho EPSCoR Annual Meeting; 2013 October 7-8; McCall, ID.

Pinto, Jeremy R.; Overton, Emily C.; Davis, Anthony S. 2013. Subspecies variation in Wyoming 

big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) growth and morphology. 2

nd National 

Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 9-12; Santa Fe, NM.

Publications 

Kildisheva, Olga A.; Davis, Anthony S. 2013. Role of temperature and moisture in the survival 

and seedling physiology of a Great Basin perennial. Ecological Restoration. 31: 388-394.

Kildisheva, Olga A.; Davis, Anthony S.; Dumroese, R. Kasten. 2013. Boiled, tumbled, burned, 

and heated: seed scarification techniques for Munro’s globemallow appropriate for largescale application. Native Plants Journal. 14: 42-48.

Overton, Emily C. 2012. Advancing nursery production of big sagebrush seedlings: cold storage

and variation in subspecies growth. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 33 p. Thesis.

Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2012_overton_e001.pdf [1 April 2014].
46

Overton, Emily C.; Davis, Anthony S.; Pinto, Jeremiah R. 2013. Insights into big sagebrush 

seedling storage practices. Native Plants Journal. 14: 225-230.

Additional Products 

 Fisk, Matthew R. 2013. 34th Intermountain Container Seedling Growers’Association 

Meeting; 2013 September 17-19, Moscow, ID. (Meeting moderator).

 
47

Project Title Modeling Seedling Root Growth of Great Basin Species 

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-056

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Bruce A. Roundy, Professor

Plant and Wildlife Science Department

275 WIDB Brigham Young University

Provo, UT 84602

801.422.8137, Fax 801.422.0008

bruce_roundy@byu.edu

Kert Young, Postdoctoral Fellow at New Mexico State University

Plant and Wildlife Science Department

275 WIDB Brigham Young University

Provo, UT 84602

801.422.4133, Fax 801.422.0008

youngke1@msn.com

Nathan Cline, Ph.D. Student at Brigham Young University

Plant and Wildlife Science Department

275 WIDB Brigham Young University

Provo, UT 84602

801.422.4133, Fax 801.422.0008

ncline1@gmail.com

Project Description

This work is designed to model seedling root growth of revegetation species using thermal 

accumulation. Plant scientists have sought to select plant materials for revegetation of rangelands 

based on physiological and morphological characteristics that allow establishment under 

conditions of limiting temperatures and available water for plant growth. Thermal and 

hydrothermal models have been used to predict germination under the environmental conditions 

of rangelands (Meyer and Allen 2009; Rawlins 2009; Hardegree et al. 2010). However, low 

seedling survival limits revegetation success on rangelands, even if seeds germinate. Using a 

thermal accumulation model to predict seedling root growth would allow us to assess the 

potential for seedlings to survive under a range of field conditions and possibly suggest 

opportunities for plant improvement.

Objectives

 Develop thermal accumulation models for seedling root penetration for forbs, grasses, 

and cheatgrass.

 Test the ability of thermal models to predict root depth under diurnal temperatures in the 

growth chamber and in the field.

 Use thermal models and soil water and temperature data from stations in the Great Basin 

to predict seedling root growth and survival for dry to wet years.
48

Methods

Growth Chamber Study

We have measured seedling root depths over time for six forbs, five perennial grasses, and three

cheatgrass collections in relation to constant temperatures in a walk-in growth chamber (Table 

1). The experiment was organized in a randomized block design of four blocks and two soil 

types in a walk-in growth chamber. Black plexiglass holders were constructed to hold 70 (5 

replicates × 14 collections) clear plastic root tubes (7.9 inches [20 cm] long with 1 inch [2.5 cm] 

diameters). Each block contained two plexiglass holders, one with tubes filled with sand and the 

other with tubes filled with Borvant gravelly loam soil passed through a 0.2-inch (0.6 cm) screen. 

The holders kept the tubes slanted at a 45° angle and minimized root exposure to light. For each 

of six constant temperature runs (41, 50, 59, 68, 77, and 86 °F [5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 °C]), 

three seeds of a collection were sown 0.5 cm below the soil surface against the lower side of a

planting tube. Prior to sowing, Utah milkvetch seeds were scarified in sulfuric acid for 15 

minutes followed by stratification at 34.7 °F (1.5 °C) for two weeks. Tubes were checked six

days per week, and depth of the deepest root was recorded. Twenty-five seeds of each collection 

were placed in petri dishes and incubated on racks below the root experiment in the incubation 

chamber. Time to germination was determined for seeds in each dish. Soil temperatures were 

measured with six thermocouples per block placed into the ends of root tubes and attached to a 

Campbell Scientific, Inc. CR10X micrologger. Temperatures were read each minute, and 

average hourly temperatures were recorded. At the end of each temperature run, one tube of each 

collection per block was harvested and dry weight of root biomass was recorded. The entire 

experiment was also conducted at three diurnal temperatures based on cold, cool, and warm soil 

temperatures recorded in the field. We will compare actual root depths with root depths predicted 

from thermal accumulation models.

Field Experiment

The same experiment as described above was conducted at two locations in Utah for two years: 

one on the Brigham Young University (BYU) campus and another on the east side of the Onaqui 

Mountains in a Utah juniper/Wyoming big sagebrush plant community where the juniper trees 

had been shredded. In the first year of the field experiment, natural precipitation watered the root 

tubes. In the second year, root tubes were watered weekly, as needed, during the growing season. 

Emergence and root depth were recorded five times per week at the BYU campus and at least 

monthly at the Onaqui site. Thermocouples and gypsum blocks were placed in each block in the 

field outside of the root tubes in soil or sand surrounding the tubes. These sensors were read 

every minute, and hourly averages were recorded with Campbell Scientific, Inc. CR10X 

microloggers.
49

Table 1. Plant materials tested in root study

Scientific name Common name Release Source Collection 

date

Forbs Achillea millefolium Eagle yarrow Eagle Eastern WA 2003

A. millefolium White yarrow White-VNS Granite Seed 2003

Agoseris heterophylla Annual agoseris NA USFS Shrub 

Laboratory

2007

Astragalus utahensis Utah milkvetch NA USFS Shrub 

Laboratory

2002

Linum perenne Blue flax ‘Appar’ UDWR 2003

Lupinus arbustus Longspur lupine NA Wells, NV; 

UDWR

2004

Perennial 

grasses

Agropyron cristatum × A. 

desertorum

Crested 

wheatgrass

‘Hycrest’ UDWR 2003

A. desertorum Crested 

wheatgrass

‘Nordan’ Granite Seed 2003

Elymus elymoides Squirreltail Sanpete UDWR 2003

E. wawawaiensis Snake River 

wheatgrass

‘Secar’ WA; Granite 

Seed

2003

Pseudoroegneria spicata 

subsp. spicata

Bluebunch 

wheatgrass

Anatone Granite Seed 2003

Weedy 

grasses

Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass NA Rush Valley, 

UT

2005

B. tectorum Cheatgrass NA Skull Valley, 

UT

2007

B. tectorum Cheatgrass NA Skull Valley, 

UT

2008

Modeling

The first step to model or predict days to reach a 6-inch (15 cm) root depth is to model daily root 

depth as a function of constant temperature. A 6-inch root depth was selected because we were 

interested in seedling establishment, most roots are in the top portion of the soil profile, and there 

were already many thermocouples buried in the field at this depth. Second, solve the modeled 

daily root depth equation to derive the number of days to a 6-inch root depth. Third, invert the 

number of days to 6-inch root depth. The sum of daily inverses serves as an indicator of progress 

toward the goal of a 6-inch root depth. On average, the 6-inch root depth goal has been achieved 

when the sum of the inverses equals one. The inverse of the mean number of days to 6-inch root 

depth for each constant temperature is used as input into TableCurve2D software, which fits a 

non-linear equation to the data. This non-linear equation is the temperature response curve used 

to predict days to a 6-inch root depth in diurnal temperature or field root trials. Most species 

temperature response curves had an R

2

greater than 0.9, and all species temperature response 

curves had an R

2

greater than 0.7 except for Utah milkvetch with an R

2

of 0.47. Days to a 6-inch 

root depth are converted to degree days by summing the daily average temperatures for each day 

of a root trial until the 6-inch root depth has been achieved. For example, if it took a species 80 

days to achieve a 6-inch root depth at a constant 45 °F (7 °C) temperature, then adding the mean 

daily temperature of 45 °F for 80 days would equal 560 degree days.
50

Results and Discussion

Growth Chamber Experiment

We have conducted all six of the constant temperature runs and all three of the diurnal 

temperature runs in the growth chamber. The statistical results of the experiments, so far, are as 

follows:

Actual vs. Predicted for Diurnal Root Trials

In comparing actual versus predicted degree days to a 6-inch root depth in the diurnal root trial at

39 to 54 °F (4-12 °C) temperatures, predicted degree days showed a slightly greater trend than 

actual degree days (Figure 1 and 2). In soil, Secar Snake River wheatgrass, squirreltail, and 

longspur lupine predicted degree days were significantly greater than actual degree days. In sand, 

squirreltail and Nordan crested wheatgrass predicted degree days were greater than actual. These 

differences among predicted and actual degree days can be used to adjust future model 

predictions.

In sand for the diurnal trial at 48 to 63 °F (9-17 °C) temperatures, there were no significant 

differences between predicted and actual degree days, except predicted degree days for 

squirreltail were greater than actual (Figure 3). In soil for the diurnal trial 48 to 63 °F

temperatures, all of the species’ predicted values were greater than actual except for 2005 

cheatgrass, 2007 cheatgrass, annual agoseris, and blue flax (Figure 4). 

Sand vs. Soil for Diurnal Root Trials

When comparing actual and predicted degree days for sand and soil in diurnal trial at 39 to 54 

°F, grasses required more degree days to reach 6-inch root depth in sand than in soil except for 

Secar Snake River wheatgrass, which grew equally well in sand and soil, perhaps because of 

inherently slower root penetration (Figure 5). Most of the forbs did not achieve 6-inch root 

depths in sand. The reduced rate of root depth in sand was likely due to lower nutrient 

availability, although other variables probably had an influence. The texture and nutrient 

differences between sand and soil will be analyzed at a later date.

In the diurnal root trial at 48 to 63 °F temperatures, all grass species required more thermal time 

in sand than in soil except for squirreltail (Figure 6). Most of the forb roots failed to achieve 6-

inch root depths in sand.

Inter-species Comparisons for Diurnal Root Trials

For inter-species comparisons in sand for the root trial at 39 to 54 °F temperatures, squirreltail 

required more degree days than Nordan wheatgrass and 2005 cheatgrass; otherwise, there were 

no inter-species differences in sand. Comparing across species in soil, blue flax required more 

degree days than any other species. Invasive annuals required fewer degree days than all of the 

forbs and the perennial wheatgrasses (Secar and Hycrest). Annual agoseris required more degree 

days than all of the grasses except Secar and Hycrest. The general trend across species in soil 

was that annual grasses required the least amount of thermal time, forbs required the most 

thermal time, and perennial grasses were intermediate, although Secar was quite slow for a grass.
51

For inter-species comparisons in sand for the 48 to 63 °F root trial, there were few significant 

differences, but 2005 cheatgrass did require fewer degree days than Anatone bluebunch 

wheatgrass. For inter-species comparisons in soil, blue flax required the most degree days of any 

species. The 2005 and 2008 cheatgrass required fewer degree days than annual agoseris, Utah 

milkvetch, longspur lupine, and squirreltail. 

As expected, cheatgrass roots grew the fastest at cool temperatures. However, the crested 

wheatgrasses and Anatone bluebunch wheatgrass definitely grew well enough to compete with 

cheatgrass. The importance of faster root growth to establishment is suggested by comparing the 

heat accumulation requirement of the forbs and grasses. Forbs are known to not establish as well 

as grasses in rangeland revegetation projects. Blue flax, one of the most successfully-seeded 

forbs requires about 700 to 800 degree days to reach a 6-inch root depth, while Anatone 

bluebunch wheatgrass requires 250 to 350 degree days (Figure 2). Sagebrush Steppe Treatment 

Evaluation Project data from four Great Basin pinyon-juniper locations for 2 years were used to 

calculate wet degree days in spring 2008 and 2009. Degree day accumulations when the soil is 

wet ranged from around 300 in early spring (March and April) to around 700 in late spring (May 

and June). As long as soil moisture is available from March to June, robust plants of both forbs 

and grasses should establish because there will be sufficient wet degree days for root growth. 

However, if soil moisture becomes unavailable by May, even robust forbs might not establish 

because of insufficient wet degree days to grow their roots below the soil-drying front. The 

details of just how many wet degree days are available under different field conditions in relation 

to how many are needed for successful establishment will become better understood with 

specific modeling exercises and field validation tests. 

What appears to be a major concern for successful establishment of forbs is the lack of robust 

plants. Occurrence of some vigorous forb plants indicates potential for plant improvement. Such 

plant improvement work could potentially increase forb establishment success.

Field Experiments

We have conducted the field root trials at both the BYU campus and the east side of Onaqui 

Mountain for two years. We are currently analyzing these data.

Characterization of Establishment Environment

We derived several seasonal variables to characterize the soil temperature and plant available 

water in seedbeds, including wet thermal time and percentage of time at five temperature ranges, 

frost and frost-free days, and wet period duration. Thus far, we addressed a concern that 

germination timing response at extremely warm (> 86 °F [30 °C]) and cool (< 41 °F [5 °C]) 

temperature ranges would have high variability and may require further investigation if a large 

sum of thermal time occurs at those temperatures. Our results indicate that a minority of time is 

spent at the temperature ranges of concern. As a result, germination prediction models based on 

the summation of thermal time should be valid (Rawlins et al. 2012b). 

Future Work and Research Perspective

We have conducted all of our experimental work for this grant and continue to analyze data and 

prepare publications. The current research is part of an ongoing research program to better 
52

understand how seedling establishment relates to environmental conditions and plant growth 

characteristics (Table 2). Additional future work will include characterization of the 

establishment environment using measurements from 170 soil moisture stations and predict 

establishment success for specific sites, weather scenarios, and plant materials using the 

germination and seedling root growth models we have developed.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines 

An important application of thermal accumulation modeling is to predict which seeded species 

are most likely to establish given site-specific soil temperatures and moisture patterns and 

interspecies interference. As plants have to establish in communities, rates of root depth by 

invasive weeds influence the duration of resource availability to other species through resource 

preemption as the soil dries down from spring into summer. Knowing which species are most 

likely to establish on a site should save money by avoiding the planting of species that are 

unlikely to establish on certain sites. Thermal accumulation modeling can also serve as a cultivar 

development tool selecting for more consistently and vigorously establishing native plants.

Presentations

Cline, N.; Roundy, B. 2013. Soil temperature and available soil water characterization of 

sagebrush steppe seedbeds in the Great Basin. Society for Range Management 66th Annual 

Meeting; 2013 February 2-8; Oklahoma City, OK.

Shakespear, W.; Roundy, B. 2013. Soil water availability in pinyon-juniper communities. 

Society for Range Management 66th Annual Meeting; 2013 February 2-8; Oklahoma City, OK.

References

Chambers, J. C.; Roundy, B. A.; Blank, R. R.; Meyer, S. E.; Whittaker, A. 2007. What makes 

Great Basin sagebrush ecosystems invasible by Bromus tectorum? Ecological Monographs. 77: 

117-145.

Hardegree, S. P.; Moffet, C. A.; Roundy, B. A.; Jones, T. A.; Novak, S. J.; Clark, P. E.; Pierson, 

F. B.; Flerchinger, G. N. 2010. A comparison of cumulative-germination response of cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum L.) and five perennial bunchgrass species to simulated field-temperature 

regimes. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 69: 320-327.

Hardegree, S. P., Moffet, C. A.; Flerchinger, G. N.; Cho, J.; Roundy, B. A.; Jones, T. A.; James, 

J. J.; Clark, P. E.; Pierson, F. B. 2013. Hydrothermal assessment of temporal variability in 

seedbed microclimate. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 66: 127-135.

Meyer, S. E.; Allen, P. S. 2009. Predicting seed dormancy loss and germination timing for 

Bromus tectorum in a semi-arid environment using hydrothermal time models. Seed Science 

Research. 19: 225-239.

Rawlins, J. K. 2009. Wet thermal accumulation modeling of germination of western U.S. 

rangeland species. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University 48 p. Thesis.
53

Rawlins, Jennifer K.; Roundy, Bruce A.; Davis, Scott M.; Egget, Dennis. 2012. Predicting 

germination in semi-arid seedbeds. I. Thermal germination models. Environmental and 

Experimental Botany. 76: 60-67.

Rawlins, Jennifer K.; Roundy, Bruce A.; Egget, Dennis; Cline, Nathan. 2012. Predicting 

germination in semi-arid wildland seedbeds II. Field validation of wet-thermal models. 

Environmental and Experimental Botany. 76: 68-73. 

Roundy, B. A.; Hardegree, S. P.; Chambers, J. C.; Whittaker, A. 2007. Prediction of cheatgrass 

field germination using wet thermal accumulation. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 60: 

613-623.

Roundy, B. A.; Young, K.; Cline, N. Hulet, A.; Miller, R. F.; Tausch, R. J.; Chambers J. C. 2014. 

Piñon-juniper reduction increases soil water availability of the resource growth pool. Rangeland 

Ecology and Management. In press.

Young, K. R.; Roundy, B. A.; Egget, D. L. 2013. Tree reduction and debris from mastication of 

Utah juniper alter the soil climate in sagebrush steppe. Forest Ecology and Management. 310: 

777-785. 
54

Table 2. Schedule and status of research phases to predict seed germination and seedling establishment in the Great Basin

Research phase Past and current work Major findings Published or planned publications 

Characterize 

seedbed 

environment

Soil moisture and temperature 

measurements from 24 

sagebrush/bunchgrass, pinyonjuniper, crested wheatgrass, and 

cheatgrass sites and 170 

stations in the Great Basin

-Soil moisture and temperatures fluctuate much more 

at 1-3 cm in the germination zone than 13-30 cm deep 

in the seedling establishment zone. 

-Wet degree days accumulate fastest in spring, only 

slightly in winter, and erratically in fall as a function 

of timing and amount of precipitation. Number of 

days when the soil is wet and within certain 

temperature ranges has been determined for 24 sites.

-Tree reduction increases time of water availability 

from 1-6 weeks in the spring, providing a major 

resource for weedy and desirable plant growth.

-Wet seedbed temperatures are generally within the 

temperature range where germination is accurately 

predicted by thermal accumulation models.

Published: 

Chambers et al. 2007; 

Roundy et al. 2007; 

Rawlins et al. 2012b;

Young et al. 2013;

Roundy et al. 2014

In preparation or submitted: 

Cline et al. Wet-thermal time at five 

temperature ranges in seedbeds of the 

sagebrush steppe.

Cline et al. Spring drying and wetting for 

seedling root zones in the Great Basin.

Develop 

models of 

germination 

and seedling 

growth

Roundy’s laboratory developed 

germination models for 14 

collections while Hardegree’s 

laboratory developed models 

for numerous desirable and 

weed collections.

Roundy’s laboratory developed 

root growth models for 14 

collections. 

-Timing of germination can be predicted in relation to 

accumulated time and temperature above a threshold 

temperature for non-dormant seed lots. The models 

work best at moderate temperatures.

-Seminal root growth or time for roots to reach a soil 

depth can be predicted similarly but will vary with 

other variables such as soil texture and nutrient 

availability.

Published: 

Roundy et al. 2007;

Rawlins et al. 2012a;

Hardegree et al. 2013 

In preparation:

Cline et al. Germination prediction of 31 

plant materials using soil water potential 

and temperature at 24 Great Basin sites.

Young et al. Thermal accumulation 

modeling of seedling root depth.
55

Research phase Past and current work Major findings Published or planned publications 

Compare 

modeled and 

actual 

responses in 

laboratory and 

field

Roundy’s laboratory has 

compared predicted and actual 

timing of germination under 

simulated field seedbed 

temperatures in the laboratory 

and in field seedbeds for 2 sites 

and 2 years.

-Thermal accumulation tends to overestimate time 

required to germinate seed subpopulations, but is 

accurate enough for field predictions. 

-Wet thermal accumulation models using continuous 

thermal accumulation and a wet threshold of -1.5 MPa 

water potential predicted field germination best. 

Accuracy was 80% or greater for most collections in 

late winter to spring.

-Data from field and laboratory comparisons of 

predicted and actual seedling root depth is being 

analyzed.

Published: 

Rawlins et al. 2012a,b

In preparation:

Young et al. Field prediction of seedling 

root depth using a wet-thermal 

accumulation model.

Extend 

predictions to a 

range of plant 

materials, 

environments, 

and land 

treatments

Cline has prepared a 

germination prediction analysis 

of 31 plant materials for 24 

sites across a range of years 

and treatments, such as 

prescribed fire and mechanical 

brush or tree control.

Roundy, Young, and Cline will 

eventually extend the 

germination and root growth 

model predictions to 24 sites 

across the Great Basin to 

predict probability of seedling 

mortality.

-In an analysis of cheatgrass germination potential for 

9 sites and 4 years (36 site-years), Roundy et al. 

(2007) found that cheatgrass had high germination 

potential in spring, low potential in winter, and high 

potential in fall when rains occurred before 

temperatures decreased to near freezing. 

-Cline found that although prescribed fire increased 

the probability of germination, germination was 

predicted for most plant materials and sites in spring 

and fall. This suggests that germination is not 

generally limiting to plant establishment on similar 

sites and years studied. 

Published:

Roundy et al. 2007

In preparation:

Cline et al. Germination prediction of 31 

plant materials using soil water potential 

and temperature at 24 Great Basin sites.

TBA et al. Predicting seedling mortality 

from thermal accumulation models of 

germination and root growth.
56

Figure 1. Actual vs. predicted degree days to a 6-inch (15 cm) root depth in sand for the growth chamber diurnal root trial at 39 to 54 

°F (4-12 °C) temperatures. Asterisk indicates significant difference at the 95% confidence level.
57

Figure 2. Actual vs. predicted degree days to a 6-inch (15 cm) root depth in soil for the growth chamber diurnal root trial at 39 to 54 

°F (4-12 °C) temperatures. Asterisks indicate significant difference at the 95% confidence level.
58

Figure 3. Actual vs. predicted degree days to a 6-inch (15 cm) root depth in sand for the growth chamber diurnal root trial at 48 to 63 

°F (9-17 °C) temperatures. Asterisk indicates significant difference at the 95% confidence level.
59

Figure 4. Actual vs. predicted degree days to a 6-inch (15 cm) root depth in soil for the growth chamber diurnal root trial at 48 to 63 

°F (9-17 °C) temperatures. Asterisks indicate significant difference at the 95% confidence level.
60

Figure 5. Actual sand vs. soil degree days to a 6-inch (15 cm) root depth for the growth chamber diurnal root trial at 39 to 54 °F (4-12 

°C) temperatures. Asterisks indicate significant difference at the 95% confidence level.
61

Figure 6. Actual sand vs. soil degree days to a 6-inch (15 cm) root depth for the growth chamber diurnal root trial at 48 to 63 °F (9-17 

°C) temperatures. Asterisks indicate significant difference at the 95% confidence level.
62

Project Title Pre-inoculation of Wyoming Big Sagebrush Seedlings

with Native Arbuscular Mycorrhizae: Effects on 

Mycorrhizal Colonization and Seedling Survival after 

Transplanting

Project Agreement No. 14-JV-11221632-014

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Marcelo D. Serpe, Professor, Department of Biological Sciences

Boise State University

1910 University Drive

Boise, ID, 83725-1515

208.426.3687, Fax 208.426.4267

mserpe@boisestate.edu

Bill E. Davidson, Graduate Student, Department of Biological 

Sciences

Boise State University

1910 University Drive

Boise, ID, 83725-1515

208.830.3458, Fax 802.426.4267

billdavidson@boisestate.edu

Partial funding for this research provided by the USDA-NIFA (grant No. 2010-85101-

20480) and the Great Basin Native Plant Project.

Project Description

Introduction

In semiarid steppe communities of the Intermountain West, reintroduction of Wyoming big 

sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) following fires has proven difficult. This is 

in large part due to high seedling mortality during summer droughts (Lambrecht et al. 2007). 

Mortality is also associated with the low growth rates of sagebrush seedlings. Slow growth rates 

decrease the plant’s ability to compete for resources and may prevent seedlings from developing 

an adequate root system to maintain hydration during the dry summer (Stahl 1998; Lambrecht et 

al. 2007).

One factor that could improve the growth rates and stress tolerance of sagebrush seedlings is the 

establishment of symbiotic associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) (Stahl et al. 

1988,1998; Klironomos et al. 1998). Mycorrhizae are known to improve nutrient uptake, 

particularly phosphorus, which can markedly increase plant growth (Smith et al. 2003). 

Colonization by AMF can also increase tolerance to water deficits (Augé 2001; Finley 2008).

Pre-inoculation of seedlings with AMF is a common practice aimed at improving seedling 

establishment. However, the success of this practice largely depends on the ability of the

inoculum to multiply and colonize the growing root system after transplanting. In southern 
63

Idaho, Wyoming big sagebrush is typically transplanted in the spring or early fall. At these times, 

the seedlings and AMF experience different edaphic and climatic conditions. Such differences 

may affect AMF growth after transplanting as well as the AMF impact on seedling 

establishment. To investigate these possibilities, we conducted two experiments at a burned site 

at the Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area. Each experiment 

had three treatments: non-inoculated seedlings, pre-inoculated seedlings with native soil, and 

pre-inoculated seedlings with pot cultures of native mycorrhizae. The three types of seedlings 

were transplanted in the spring and in the fall. 

Objectives

 To determine whether pre-inoculation with AMF increases colonization in roots 

developing after transplanting.

 To evaluate if pre-inoculation causes changes in the AMF community composition of 

the roots.

 To characterize the effects of an increase on AMF colonization on seedling survival.

Methods

Seeds for the experiments were collected from a natural population of Wyoming big sagebrush 

occurring at the experiment sites before the fire (43°18'48.43"N, 116°21'48.57"W). We grew 

sagebrush seedlings in a greenhouse for three months under one of the three inoculation 

treatments: sterile soil from the field site (non-inoculated treatment), untreated soil from the field 

site (natural treatment), or soil from pot cultures of native mycorrhizae (inoculated treatment). 

One hundred seedlings per treatment were transplanted in the field; 300 were transplanted on 12 

April 2012 (spring transplanting) and another 300 were transplanted on 4 October 2012 (fall 

transplanting). 

Following transplanting, we assessed AMF colonization, AMF community composition, and 

seedling survival. For measurements of AMF colonization and community composition, 

seedlings were collected 4 and 5 months after spring and fall transplanting, respectively. Due to 

the laborious nature of this work, we only collected seedlings from the non-inoculated and 

inoculated treatments. AMF colonization was estimated by the intersection method after staining 

with Chlorazol Black E (McGonicle et al. 1990). The AMF phylotypes present in the roots were 

determined as described by Carter et al. (2013). Possible differences in AMF phylotype 

composition between pre-inoculated and non-inoculated seedlings were analyzed using nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS). NMDS is an unconstrained ordination method that 

arranges communities according to their similarities in species composition (Minchin 1987). 

Survival was monitored biweekly or monthly, and statistical differences among treatments were 

evaluated using a log rank test.

Results and Discussion

For the seedlings transplanted in spring, no difference in colonization was observed between 

non-inoculated and pre-inoculated seedlings (Figure 2). However, a significant difference in 

colonization was detected between roots collected in the upper 8 inches (20 cm) of soil (upper 

roots) and roots collected below 20 inches (50 cm) (deep roots). Upper roots had lower levels of 

colonization than deep roots (13% [±3] and 41% [±5], respectively). The most common 

phylotypes found in the roots were within the genus Glomus, while other phylotypes clustered 
64

with Funneliformis mosseae or Rhizophagus irregularis. No clear differences in the proportion 

of the various phylotypes were detected between shallow and deep roots (p = 0.3257) or between 

non-inoculated and pre-inoculated seedlings (p = 0.064, Figure 3). No differences in seedling 

survival were observed between treatments (Figure 2). At the beginning of fall 2012, all 

treatments had similar survival rates of about 40%. No seedling mortality occurred in the fall or 

winter, but additional seedling losses occurred during the summer of 2013. As a result, the 

percent survival on 13 October 2013 was about 20%.

The results of the fall transplanting experiment were somewhat different. Five months after 

transplanting, most roots were within the top 12 inches (30 cm) of the soil. Consequently, no 

attempts were made to differentiate between upper and deep roots, but only between noninoculated and inoculated seedlings. Inoculated seedlings had higher colonization than noninoculated seedlings (p = 0.03, Figure 3), but no differences in AMF composition were observed 

between these treatments (p = 0.36, Figure 5). The most common phylotypes were again within 

the Glomus genus, followed by phylotypes that clustered with Funneliformis mosseae or 

Rhizophagus irregularis. In contrast to spring transplanting, survival following fall transplanting 

was different among the 3 treatments (p < 0.01). The highest survival occurred in the inoculated 

treatment, followed by the natural and non-inoculated treatments (Figure 4). 

Losses of seedlings occurred throughout the year. Due to mortality in the fall and winter, the 

percent survival at the end of the winter was 44%, 62%, and 81% for non-inoculated seedlings, 

natural seedlings, and inoculated seedlings, respectively. Additional losses occurred in the spring 

and summer. As a result, the percent survival one year after transplanting was 4%, 11%, and 

30% for non-inoculated seedlings, natural seedlings, and inoculated seedlings, respectively.

Our results suggest that the ability of the AMF inoculum to multiply and colonize the root 

system is greater in the fall than in the spring or summer. Reasons for seasonal colonization 

difference are unclear but may be attributed to seasonal differences in soil moisture and root 

system morphology. Higher soil moisture and root branching in the upper layers of the soil in the 

fall may facilitate propagation of the AMF inoculum. 

Our results also indicate that with fall transplanting inoculation with native AMF can be 

beneficial. Inoculation resulted in an increase in colonization over the levels naturally occurring 

in the soil and increased seedling survival. 

Overall, survival following spring transplanting was not significantly different from survival 

after fall transplanting. However, this comparison is based on data from only one year. 

Precipitation during fall 2011 and winter 2012 was higher than that occurring during fall 2012 

and winter 2013. A wetter fall, winter, and spring in 2012 and 2013 may have favored survival of 

seedlings transplanted during the fall, because they were smaller and had shallower roots than 

those transplanted in spring. Replication of the experiments over several years is likely to 

provide a better understanding of the comparative advantages and disadvantages of spring versus 

fall transplanting.
65

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines 

Our results indicate that pre-inoculation with native AMF can increase colonization after 

transplanting and pre-inoculation does not significantly alter the composition of the AMF 

community. Pre-inoculation prior to spring transplanting was less effective in increasing 

colonization and seedling survival than pre-inoculation prior to fall transplanting. Pre-inoculation 

with native AMF can be used to improve reestablishment of Wyoming big sagebrush, but time of 

application of this treatment is likely important to successful seedling establishment.

Presentations

Carter K. A.; Serpe, M. D.; Smith, J. F. 2013. Assessing the diversity of mycorrhizal 

communities in sagebrush steppes of southwestern Idaho. Poster presented at Botanical Society 

of America annual meeting; 2013 July 27-31; New Orleans, LA.

Davidson, B. E.; Serpe, M. D. 2013. Colonization of Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis

by native arbuscular mycorrhizae: persistence and consequence of inoculation. Poster presented 

at the Great Basin Consortium Conference; 2013 December 9-10; Reno, NV.

References

Augé, R. M. 2001. Water relations, drought and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. 

Mycorrhiza. 11: 3-42.

Carter, K. A.; Smith, J. F.; White, M. M.; Serpe, M. D. 2013. Assessing the diversity of 

arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in semiarid shrublands dominated by Artemisia tridentata ssp. 

wyomingensis. Mycorrhiza. DOI 10.1007/s00572-013-0537-4.

Finley, R. D. 2008. Ecological aspects of mycorrhizal symbiosis: with special emphasis on the 

functional diversity of interactions involving the extraradical mycelium. Journal of Experimental 

Botany. 59: 1115-1126.

Klironomos, J. N.; Ursic M.; Rillig, M.; Allen, M. F. 1998. Interspecific differences in the 

response of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to Artemisia tridentata grown under elevated 

atmospheric CO2. New Phytologist. 138: 599-605.

Lambretch, S. C.; Shattuck, A. K.; Loik, M. E. 2007. Combined drought and episodic freezing 

effects on seedlings of low- and high-elevation subspecies of sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). 

Physiologia Plantarum. 130: 207-217.

McGonigle, T. P.; Miller, M. H.; Evans, D. G.; Fairchild, G. L.; Swan, J. A. 1990. A new method 

which gives an objective measure of colonization of roots by vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal 

fungi. New Phytologist. 115: 495-501. 

Minchin, P. R. 1987. An evaluation of the relative robustness of techniques for ecological 

ordination. Vegetatio. 69: 89-107.

Smith, S. E.; Smith, F. A.; Jakobsen, I. 2003. Mycorrhizal fungi can dominate phosphate supply 

to plants irrespective of growth responses. Plant Physiology. 133: 16-20.
66

Stahl, P. D.; Schuman, G. E.; Frost, S. M.; William, S. E. 1998. Arbuscular mycorrhizae and 

water stress tolerance of Wyoming big sagebrush seedlings. Soil Science Society of America 

Journal. 62: 1309-1313. 

Stahl, P. D.; William, S. E.; Christensen, M. 1988. Efficacy of native vesicular-arbuscular 

mycorrhizal fungi after severe soil disturbance. New Phytologist. 110: 347-354.

Figure 1. Mycorrhizal colonization four months after spring transplanting. Bars represent the 

mean (± SE) of six seedlings. No significant differences were observed in mycorrhizal 

colonization between treatments (p >0.05), but differences in colonization were detected between 

upper and deep roots (p <0.001). 

Figure 2. Seedling survival following spring transplanting. No significant differences were 

observed in survival between treatments (p> 0.05). 
67

Figure 3. Mycorrhizal colonization five months following fall transplanting. Bars represent the 

mean (± SE) of six seedlings. Significant differences were observed among treatments (p< 0.05). 

Figure 4. Seedling survival following fall transplanting. Significant differences were observed 

among treatments (p< 0.05).
68

Figure 5. Similarities among arbuscular mycorrhizal communities as revealed by non-metric 

multidimensional scaling. Effect of inoculation on seedlings transplanted during the spring (top) 

and during the fall (bottom) in the ordination space of AMF communities. Phylotypes are 

represented by open triangles and plants by filled circles. Phylotypes: R, Rhizophagus; G1, 

Glomus I; G2, Glomus II; G3, Glomus III; Gm, Glomus macrocarpum; F, Funneliformis; C1, 

Claroideoglomus I, C2, Claroideoglomus II. Other figure abbreviations- I: inoculated seedlings, 

NI: non-inoculated seedlings, and when available, U: upper roots, D: deep roots. Ellipses 

represent 95% confident limits around centroids of each treatment.
69

Project Title Smoke-induced Germination of Great Basin Native Forbs

Project Agreement No. 11-CR-11221632-005

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Robert Cox, Assistant Professor

Texas Tech University

Box 42125 

Lubbock, TX 79409

806.742.2841, Fax 806.742.2280

robert.cox@ttu.edu 

Project Description

Objectives and Methods

We tested 11 species for germination response to smoke: Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum 

hymenoides), Thurber’s needlegrass (A. thurberianum), common yarrow (Achillea millefolium),

bigflower agoseris (Agoseris grandiflora), big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), fourwing 

saltbrush (Atriplex canescens), rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa), silverleaf phacelia 

(Phacelia hastata), king desertparsley (Lomatium graveolens), royal penstemon (Penstemon 

speciosus), and Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda).

For each species, there were four treatment groups that were treated with 0:1, 1:10, 1:100, and 

1:1000 concentrations of smokemaster, aqueous smoke mixed with distilled water (REGEN 

2000). Each treatment group had 25 treated seeds and treatments were replicated four times. 

Seeds were placed in plastic containers with two moist blotter sheets in a germination chamber 

programmed to simulate the alternating temperature and light intensity regimes required by the 

species. Observations were recorded for four weeks. Seeds were considered germinated when 

radicles extended at least 1 mm past the seed coat. Data were analyzed using a repeated measure 

ANOVA and JMP software to identify significant treatment effects.

Results and Discussion

Big sagebrush showed a strong negative response to a 1:10 concentration of smoke, while 

fourwing saltbrush demonstrated a significant positive response to smoke at a 1:1000 

concentration. The other species tested did not respond to smoke. 

Although sagebrush steppe grasslands generally have natural fire frequencies of 40 to 70 years, 

few species showed a germination response to smoke treatments. Only two of 11 species showed 

any significant response to smoke treatments. Big sagebrush was inhibited by high 

concentrations of smoke. Some species may not have exhibited a smoke response because of 

other germination requirements that were not met in our experimental design. Of the species 

tested, cold stratification is recommended by the Association of Official Seed Analysts as a 

pretreatment for Indian ricegrass, big sagebrush, and rubber rabbitbrush. Big sagebrush smoke 

has been shown to positively affect the germination of Indian ricegrass in other studies (Blank 

1998), but we were not able to detect smoke treatment effects for this species. 
70

Future Plans

We plan to continue testing species and have several tests underway at this time.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines 

When understood, the response of native seeds to smoke could be a powerful management tool 

to either stimulate or inhibit germination of target species. For the species tested, big sagebrush 

seedling emergence could be inhibited by smoke application, while fourwing saltbrush seeds 

could be treated with smoke to increase their germinability.

Presentations

Miller, Sarah; Pendell, Elizabeth; Chandler, Alisa; Cox, Robert. Smoke-induced seed 

germination of Great Basin species. Texas Tech University Undergraduate Research Conference; 

2013 April 22-25; Lubbock, TX.
71

Project Title Developing Protocols for Maximizing Establishment of 

Great Basin Legume Species

Project Agreement No. 11-IA-11221632-007

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Douglas A. Johnson, Plant Physiologist

USDA Agricultural Research Service

Forage and Range Research Laboratory 

Utah State University

Logan, UT 84322-6300

435.797.3067, Fax 435.797.3075

doug.johnson@ars.usda.gov

B. Shaun Bushman, Research Geneticist

USDA Agricultural Research Service

Forage and Range Research Laboratory 

Utah State University

Logan, UT 84322-6300

435.797.2901, Fax 435.797.3075

shaun.bushman@ars.usda.gov

Project Description 

Rapid, uniform germination and initial stand establishment of legume species is frequently 

limited by hardseededness. As part of this project, we previously conducted greenhouse 

experiments that determined how depth of planting and seed scarification treatments (soaking in 

concentrated sulfuric acid for 5 minutes or mechanically scarifying with 120-grit sandpaper) 

affected germination and emergence of western prairie clover (Dalea ornata), basalt milkvetch 

(Astragalus filipes), and Searls’ prairie clover (D. searlsiae). These studies showed that seedlings 

of western prairie clover and Searls’ prairie clover emerged well at both the 0.6-cm (0.3 inch) 

and 1.9-cm (0.8 inch) planting depths. Scarification greatly improved emergence in both western 

and Searls’ prairie clover, but much less so for basalt milkvetch. Scarification by acid was 

significantly better than sandpaper scarification for the two prairie clover species. For basalt 

milkvetch, sandpaper scarification resulted in slightly higher emergence than acid scarification; 

however, total emergence was still less than 40% (on a pure live seed basis) for basalt milkvetch, 

compared to 95% emergence for acid-scarified seedlots of western and Searls’ prairie clover. 

In a second greenhouse study, the effects of soil crusting (water droplet size), soil type (sand, 

clay/sand, and clay), and acid scarification were evaluated. Similar to the first greenhouse study, 

speed of emergence was greater for western prairie clover than for basalt milkvetch. All species 

emerged faster when seed was scarified; however, this effect was least for basalt milkvetch, 

which generally had a low rate of emergence. For western and Searls’ prairie clover, speed of 

emergence was greater in sand than in soils with clay. For basalt milkvetch, emergence was 
72

slower in sand than in soils with clay, probably because of the drying effect on seed germination 

and emergence for basalt milkvetch.

Seeded plots were previously established during 2011 and 2012 at three sites in Oregon (Clarno, 

Powell Butte, and Ontario) by cooperators, Matt Horning and Clinton Shock. Results from their 

first year of data indicated that early spring plantings of scarified western prairie clover seed 

were most successful and that scarified basalt milkvetch seed established best when seeded in the 

fall. 

Field Seedings for 2013

Plots were again planted at the three Oregon sites in fall of 2012 and spring of 2013 to duplicate 

the 2011 and 2012 experiments. Because of extremely low spring and summer precipitation, 

seedlings failed to establish. Seedings will be conducted at these sites again in fall of 2014 and 

spring of 2015. Spring seedings were also made near Pleasant View, Colorado by Walter Henes 

and Angela Rohwer. Three ecotypes of Searls’ prairie clover established successfully, and plants 

flowered and produced seed in their first year. Results in Colorado also confirmed that spring 

seeding is not good for basalt milkvetch. In another spring seeding study in Panguitch, Utah, 

establishment and emergence results were similar to those observed in Colorado. In Logan, Utah, 

a large-scale, seed-increase field of Searls’ prairie clover was successfully established in spring 

of 2013 with supplemental irrigation, and prospects are excellent for seed production in 2014. A 

release of Searls’ prairie clover is anticipated in 2014.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines 

Seed producers will benefit by knowing how to obtain stands of these North American legume 

species for seed production. This information will allow land managers to diversify their 

rangeland revegetation projects. 

Publications

Cane, J. H.; Johnson, C. D.; Napoles, J. R.; Johnson, D. A.; Hammon, R. 2013. Seed-feeding 

beetles (Bruchinae, Curculionidae, Brentidae) from legumes (Dalea ornata, Astragalus filipes) 

and other forbs needed for restoring rangelands of the Intermountain West. Western North 

American Naturalist. 73: 477-484.

Johnson, D. A.; Bushman, B. S.; Jones, T. A.; Bhattarai, K. 2013. Using common gardens and 

AFLP analyses to identify metapopulations of indigenous plant materials for rangeland 

revegetation in western USA. In: Michalk, D. L.; Millar, G. D.; Badgery, W. B.; Broadfoot, K. 

M., eds. Proceedings of the 22nd International Grassland Congress: Revitalizing grasslands to 

sustain our communities; 2013 September 15-19; Sydney, Australia. Orange, Australia: New 

South Wales Department of Primary Industry: 371-372.

Presentations

Bushman, B. S.; Johnson D. A.; Horning, M.; Shock, C.; Connors, K. J. 2013. Improving 

seedling germination and emergence of legumes native to the semi-arid western USA. 2nd Native 

Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.
73

Johnson, D. A.; Bushman, B. S.; Jones, T. A.; Bhattarai, K. 2013. Using common gardens and 

AFLP analyses to identify metapopulations of indigenous plant materials for rangeland 

revegetation in western USA. XXII International Grassland Congress; 2013 September 15-19; 

Sydney, Australia.

Johnson, D. A.; Bushman, B. S.; Jones, T. A.; Connors, K. J. 2013. Impact of seed scarification 

and soil crusting on greenhouse seedling emergence in three native legumes. Society for Range 

Management Annual Meeting; 2013 February 2-8; Oklahoma City, OK.
74

Project Title Native Forb Cultural Practices, Seed Increase, and Forb 

Island Plantings

Project Agreement No. 12-JV-11221632-050

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Jason Stettler, Native Forb Biologist

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center

494 West 100 South

Ephraim, Utah 84627

Phone 435.283.4441, Fax 435.283.2034

jasonstettler@utah.gov

Kevin Gunnell, Range Trend Project Leader

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center

494 West 100 South

Ephraim, Utah 84627

Phone 435.283.4441, Fax 435.283.2034

kevingunnell@utah.gov

Alison Whittaker, Habitat Biologist

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources

Great Basin Research Center

494 West 100 South

Ephraim, Utah 84627

Phone 435.283.4441, Fax 435.283.2034

alisonwhittaker@utah.gov

Project Description

Native Lupine Seed Production

In fall 2007, we planted cultural practice trials of four common native lupine species: silvery 

lupine (Lupinus argenteus), longspur lupine (L. arbustus), hairy bigleaf lupine (L. prunophilus), 

and silky lupine (L. sericeus) to evaluate several planting methods: seed broadcast and covered 

with mulch and N-sulate fabric, seed drilled in rows left uncovered, and transplants planted into 

weed barrier. No longspur lupine plantings established due to nutrient deficiency. Emergence 

and establishment have previously been reported and will not be addressed in this report. 

However, seed production cycles have not been reported and will be addressed.

Seed production was harvested from each treatment and analyzed for the first several years. 

Once the most productive plots were identified, seed production was recorded as a whole for 

each species. We tracked seed production as an indicator of stand health and longevity. As stands 

mature, seed production will eventually reach peak seed levels and then decrease. When seed 
75

production dropped below 33.6 kg/ha (30 lb/acre) the plots were removed. This was done to 

imitate the actions of a private grower who is unwilling to maintain a seed increase field after it 

becomes unprofitable.

Silvery lupine seed production peaked in the third growing season with 66 kg/ha (59 lb/acre) on 

the Fountain Green WMA farm and 64 kg/ha (57 lb/acre) on the Snow Field Station farm (Figure 

1 and 2). After the forth growing season the plots were removed.

Seed production for silky lupine peaked in the fourth growing season with 93 kg/ha (83 lb/acre) 

on the Fountain Green WMA farm and 116 kg/ha (104 lb/acre) on the Snow Field Station farm 

(Figure 1 and 2). In 2013 all plots except the broadcast and covered treatments were removed. 

We believe that the decreased seed production in 2012 and 2013 was due to the drought 

conditions during the winter and spring.

Hairy bigleaf lupine exhibited signs of iron deficiency chlorosis shortly after emergence. One of 

our three treatment groups became established, however, it suffered from iron deficiency 

chlorosis each year and did not flower and set seed until 2011, 4 years after planting. Seed 

production for hairy bigleaf lupine peaked in the sixth growing season with 43 kg/ha (38 lb/acre) 

on the Fountain Green Wildlife Management Area (WMA) farm and 338 kg/ha (302 lb/acre) on 

the Snow Field Station Farm (Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 1. Seed production of three native lupine species over a five-year period at the Fountain 

Green WMA common garden site.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

kg/ha

Fountain Green WMA

Silvery Lupine

Silky Lupine

Hairy Bigleaf Lupine
76

Figure 2. Seed production of three native lupine species over a five-year period at the Snow 

Field Station common garden site.

Lupine Iron Deficiency Chlorosis Treatments

In our early cultural practices, lupine crops were typically failures because of iron deficiency 

chlorosis (IDC). In fall 2011, two common gardens (randomized complete block design) were 

planted at the Fountain Green WMA and Snow Field Station Research Farm to study the effects 

of iron fertilizer treatments. The treatments of EDDHA chelated iron fertilizer were: seedapplied iron, foliar-applied iron, a combined seed- and foliar-applied iron, and no iron 

fertilization (Table 1). These were applied to three lupine species: longspur lupine, hairy bigleaf 

lupine, and silky lupine.

Table 1. Iron fertilizer treatments

Code Treatment Type Application Timing

Control No fertilizer application N/A

Foliar Foliar-applied fertilizer

1 lb/acre applied twice in the spring of 

2012

Seed Seed-applied fertilizer 1 lb/acre applied before planting fall 2011

Combined Seed- and foliar-applied fertilizer Seed and foliar

In spring 2012, we sampled seedling density by randomly sampling five 0.8-foot (0.25 m) 

sections of each 16-foot (5 m) row in each plot to calculate emergence and to use as a baseline to 

calculate establishment in 2013. We also took chlorophyll content meter readings to quantify the 

efficiency of each treatment. Silky lupine was the only species to flower and set seed in 2013. 

We took the following additional measurements for silky lupine: plant height at maturity, seed 

yield, and 1,000 count seed weight.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

kg/ha

Snow Field Station

Silvery Lupine

Silky Lupine

Hairy Bigleaf Lupine
77

In spring 2013, we sampled plant establishment using the same method described for emergence. 

We used emergence sampling data from 2012 to determine the baseline for survival. We 

calculated survival and establishment percentages, comparing our sampling counts to the 

emergence counts. The data were analyzed by ANOVA and Tukey HSD. Although no 

significance was reported, there were qualitative differences in the data. Establishment of 

longspur lupine was greatest for the combined treatments at Snow Field Station and Fountain 

Green WMA, 58% and 54%, respectively. These establishment rates are 25 points higher than 

the control (33%) and foliar (29%) treatments at Snow Field Station and at Fountain Green 

WMA, respectively. Hairy bigleaf lupine had establishment rates of 61% and 70% for the seed 

treatment at Snow Field Station and the combined treatment at Fountain Green WMA, 

respectively. These establishment rates are 15 and 32 points greater than the control (46%) and 

foliar (38%) treatments at Snow Field Station and Fountain Green WMA, respectively. Silky 

lupine had establishment rates of 80% for both the seed treatment at Snow Field Station and the 

foliar treatment at Fountain Green WMA. These establishment rates are 15 points greater than 

the combined (65%) treatments at both Snow Field Station and Fountain Green WMA. For all 

establishment rates, see Figure 3.

Chlorophyll content (CC) readings were taken in the spring of 2013 with a CCM-300 (Optisciences, Hudson, NH) to verify the long term effects of the fertilizer treatments on each species. 

Two separate analyses were done. The first was a one-way ANOVA and Tukey HSD to compare 

the significance of 2012 and 2013 CC readings. The second was a two-way ANOVA with 

interaction and Tukey HSD to compare the significance of treatments and locations for the 2013 

CC readings.

Figure 3. Plant establishment (%) in 2013 based on 2012 seedling emergence.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Combined

Control

Foliar

Seed

Combined

Control

Foliar

Seed

Snow Field Station Fountain Green

2013 Establishment

Longspur Lupine

Hairy Bigleaf Lupine

Silky Lupine
78

Longspur Lupine

When CC readings for 2012 and 2013 were compared with those from 2012, there were no 

significant treatment differences in 2013, but there were significant treatment differences in 2012 

and between treatments in 2012 and 2013 (i.e. control 2013 and control 2012). All p-values are 

listed in Table 2 and Figure 4. There were some significant findings in the 2013 CC reading 

analysis, where treatments and locations were compared. However, there was no clear difference 

between locations. All significant differences are listed in Table 4 and Figure 5.

Table 2. Multiple comparisons of means: Tukey contrasts for longspur lupine two-year 

chlorophyll content (treatment vs. year)

Comparison Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) 

Combined 2013 - Combined 2012 85.5392 11.6451 7.346 <0.01

Control 2012 - Combined 2012 -130.0271 10.7912 -12.049 <0.01

Control 2013 - Combined 2012 60.1687 11.2907 5.329 <0.01

Foliar 2013 - Combined 2012 85.6706 11.3012 7.581 <0.01

Seed 2012 - Combined 2012 -46.6807 10.7912 -4.326 <0.01

Seed 2013 - Combined 2012 51.9200 11.5164 4.508 <0.01

Control 2012 - Combined 2013 -215.5664 10.0025 -21.551 <0.01

Foliar 2012 - Combined 2013 -109.4365 11.6018 -9.433 <0.01

Seed 2012 - Combined 2013 -132.2199 10.0025 -13.219 <0.01

Seed 2013 - Combined 2013 -33.6192 10.7809 -3.118 0.0465

Wild Population - Combined 2013 -50.2342 15.7591 -3.188 0.0368

Control 2013 - Control 2012 190.1958 9.5876 19.838 <0.01

Foliar 2012 - Control 2012 106.1298 10.7445 9.878 <0.01

Foliar 2013 - Control 2012 215.6977 9.5998 22.469 <0.01

Seed 2012 - Control 2012 83.3464 8.9939 9.267 <0.01

Seed 2013 - Control 2012 181.9471 9.8524 18.467 <0.01

Wild Population - Control 2012 165.3321 15.1391 10.921 <0.01

Foliar 2012 - Control 2013 -84.0660 11.2461 -7.475 <0.01

Seed 2012 - Control 2013 -106.8494 9.5876 -11.145 <0.01

Foliar 2013 - Foliar 2012 109.5678 11.2565 9.734 <0.01

Seed 2013 - Foliar 2012 75.8173 11.4727 6.609 <0.01

Wild Population - Foliar 2012 59.2023 16.2402 3.645 <0.01

Seed 2012 - Foliar 2013 -132.3512 9.5998 -13.787 <0.01

Seed 2013 - Foliar 2013 -33.7505 10.4084 -3.243 0.0313

Wild Population - Foliar 2013 -50.3655 15.5067 -3.248 0.0309

Seed 2013 - Seed 2012 98.6007 9.8524 10.008 <0.01

Wild Population - Seed 2012 81.9857 15.1391 5.416 <0.01
79

Figure 4. Box-and-whisker plots of longspur lupine chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2), 

comparing treatments in 2012 and 2013. Treatments with the same letter are not significantly 

different (p>0.05).

Table 3. Mean chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2) for longspur lupine by treatments in 2012 

and 2013; treatments groups are identified in Figure 4; means with the same letter are not 

significantly different (p>0.05)

Groups Treatments Means

A Foliar 2013 369.4 

A Combined 2013 369.3 

AB Control 2013 343.9 

AB Seed 2013 335.7 

BC Wild Population 319.0 

CD Combined 2012 283.7 

DE Foliar 2012 259.8 

E Seed 2012 237.1 

F Control 2012 153.7 
80

Table 4. Multiple comparisons of means: Tukey contrasts longspur lupine 2013 chlorophyll 

content (treatment vs. location)

Comparison Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)

Combined.Snow Field - Control.Ft. 

Green

48.065 14.022 3.428 0.0148

Foliar.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green 72.427 14.048 5.156 <0.001

Foliar.Snow Field - Foliar.Ft. Green 65.747 14.048 4.680 <0.001

Foliar.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green 68.087 14.972 4.548 <0.001

Foliar.Snow Field - Control.Snow Field 41.437 13.397 3.093 0.0423

Seed.Snow Field - Foliar.Snow Field -60.895 13.397 -4.545 <0.001

Figure 5. Box-and-whisker plots of longspur lupine chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2), 

comparing treatments and common garden locations in 2013. Treatments with the same letter are 

not significantly different (p>0.05).
81

Table 5. Mean chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2) for longspur lupine by treatment and 

location in 2013; treatments groups are identified in Figure 5; means with the same letter are not 

significantly different (p>0.05)

Hairy Bigleaf Lupine

Results of the CC reading analysis comparing 2012 and 2013 CC readings are shown in Table 6 

and Figure 6. In general, 2013 CC readings were significantly higher than 2012 CC readings 

with the exception of the combined treatments. Results of the 2013 CC reading analysis 

comparing treatments and locations are shown in Table 8 and Figure 7. Generally, the CC 

readings from Snow Field Station were significantly higher than the readings from Fountain 

Green WMA with the exception of the Fountain Green WMA seed treatment that was not 

significantly different from control and seed treatments at the Snow Field Station. 

Table 6. Multiple comparisons of means: Tukey contrasts for hairy bigleaf lupine two-year 

chlorophyll content (treatment vs. year)

Comparison Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) 

Control 2012 - Combined 2012 -106.961 12.338 -8.669 < 0.001

Foliar 2013 - Combined 2012 66.996 12.893 5.196 < 0.001

Control 2012 - Combined 2013 -137.902 10.966 -12.576 < 0.001

Foliar 2012 - Combined 2013 -46.766 12.868 -3.634 0.00864

Foliar 2013 - Combined 2013 36.055 11.587 3.112 0.04689

Seed 2012 - Combined 2013 -67.397 10.948 -6.156 < 0.001

Control 2013 - Control 2012 115.170 10.980 10.489 < 0.001

Foliar 2012 - Control 2012 91.136 12.312 7.402 < 0.001

Foliar 2013 - Control 2012 173.957 10.966 15.864 < 0.001

Seed 2012 - Control 2012 70.505 10.289 6.852 < 0.001

Seed 2013 - Control 2012 127.127 10.898 11.666 < 0.001

Wild Population - Control 2012 119.282 17.299 6.895 < 0.001

Foliar 2013 - Control 2013 58.787 11.600 5.068 < 0.001

Seed 2012 - Control 2013 -44.665 10.962 -4.074 0.00146

Foliar 2013 - Foliar 2012 82.821 12.868 6.436 < 0.001 

Seed 2012 - Foliar 2013 -103.452 10.948 -9.449 < 0.001 

Seed 2013 - Foliar 2013 -46.830 11.522 -4.064 0.00161 

Seed 2013 - Seed 2012 56.622 10.880 5.204 < 0.001

Groups Treatments Means

A Foliar—Snow Field 399.4

AB Combined—Snow Field 375.1

ABC Combined—Ft. Green 359.4

ABC Control—Snow Field 358.0

BC Seed—Snow Field 338.5

BC Foliar—Ft. Green 333.7

BC Seed—Ft. Green 331.4

C Control—Ft. Green 327.0
82

Figure 6. Box-and-whisker plots of hairy bigleaf lupine chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2), 

comparing treatments in 2012 and 2013. Treatments with the same letter are not significantly 

different (p>0.05).

Table 7. Mean chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2) for longspur lupine by treatments in 2012 

and 2013; treatments groups are identified in Figure 6; means with the same letter are not 

significantly different (p>0.05)

Groups Treatments Means

A Foliar 2013 395.7

AB Combined 2013 359.7

BC Seed 2013 348.9

BC Wild Population 341.1

BC Control 2013 337.0

BCD Combined 2012 328.7

CD Foliar 2012 312.9

D Seed 2012 292.3

E Control 2012 221.8
83

Table 8. Multiple comparisons of means: Tukey contrasts for hairy bigleaf lupine 2013 

chlorophyll content (treatment vs. location)

Figure 7. Box-and-whisker plot of hairy bigleaf lupine chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2), 

comparing treatments and common garden locations in 2013. Treatments with the same letter are 

not significantly different (p>0.05).

Comparison Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)

Control.Ft. Green - Combined.Ft. Green 59.047 17.679 3.340 0.01975 

Foliar.Ft. Green - Combined.Ft. Green 72.410 17.634 4.106 0.00114

Combined.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green 174.270 16.884 10.322 < 0.001 

Control.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green 83.278 16.884 4.932 < 0.001 

Foliar.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green 180.028 16.884 10.663 < 0.001 

Seed.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green 114.578 16.884 6.786 < 0.001 

Combined.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green 115.223 16.930 6.806 < 0.001 

Foliar.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green 120.982 16.930 7.146 < 0.001 

Seed.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green 55.532 16.930 3.280 0.02363

Combined.Snow Field - Foliar.Ft. Green 101.860 16.884 6.033 < 0.001

Foliar.Snow Field - Foliar.Ft. Green 107.618 16.884 6.374 < 0.001

Combined.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green 124.614 16.663 7.479 < 0.001

Foliar.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green 130.373 16.663 7.824 < 0.001

Seed.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green 64.923 16.663 3.896 0.00252

Control.Snow Field - Combined.Snow Field -90.992 16.098 -5.652 < 0.001

Seed.Snow Field - Combined.Snow Field -59.692 16.098 -3.708 0.00528

Foliar.Snow Field - Control.Snow Field 96.750 16.098 6.010 < 0.001

Seed.Snow Field - Foliar.Snow Field -65.450 16.098 -4.066 0.00132
84

Table 9. Mean chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2) for hairy bigleaf lupine by treatment and 

location in 2013; treatments groups are identified in Figure 7; means with the same letter are not 

significantly different (p>0.05)

Silky Lupine-Chlorophyll Content 

Chlorophyll content readings taken of the silky lupine treatments in 2013 were all significantly 

greater than those taken in 2012 (Figure 8, all p-values are listed in Table 10). Treatment and 

location comparisons from the 2013 CC readings showed no significant treatment differences 

(Figure 9), however, CC readings from Fountain Green WMA were significantly higher than 

those from Snow Field Station (p-values are listed in Table 12).

Figure 8. Box-and-whisker plots of silky lupine chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2), comparing 

treatments in 2012 and 2013. Treatments with the same letter are not significantly different (p > 

0.05).

Groups Treatments Means

A Foliar—Snow Field 444.7 

A Combined—Snow Field 438.9 

B Seed—Snow Field 379.2 

BC Control—Snow Field 347.9 

BC Foliar—Ft. Green 337.0 

C Control—Ft. Green 323.7 

CD Seed—Ft. Green 314.3 

D Combined—Ft. Green 264.6
85

Table 10. Tukey contrasts for silky lupine two-year chlorophyll contents (treatment vs. year)

Comparison Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) 

Combined 2013 - Combined 2012 126.3325 11.5991 10.892 < 0.001

Control 2012 - Combined 2012 -129.7337 11.0887 -11.700 < 0.001

Control 2013 - Combined 2012 108.0279 11.5991 9.313 < 0.001

Foliar 2013 - Combined 2012 129.2098 11.5991 11.140 < 0.001

Seed 2012 - Combined 2012 -79.3136 11.0817 -7.157 < 0.001

Seed 2013 - Combined 2012 129.6734 11.5991 11.180 < 0.001

Control 2012 - Combined 2013 -256.0662 9.8963 -25.875 < 0.001

Foliar 2012 - Combined 2013 -165.1585 11.6220 -14.211 < 0.001

Seed 2012 - Combined 2013 -205.6461 9.8885 -20.796 < 0.001

Wild Population - Combined 2013 -156.1985 15.9856 -9.771 < 0.001

Control 2013 - Control 2012 237.7617 9.8963 24.025 < 0.001

Foliar 2012 - Control 2012 90.9077 11.1126 8.181 < 0.001

Foliar 2013 - Control 2012 258.9435 9.8963 26.166 < 0.001

Seed 2012 - Control 2012 50.4201 9.2846 5.431 < 0.001

Seed 2013 - Control 2012 259.4071 9.8963 26.213 < 0.001

Wild Population - Control 2012 99.8677 15.6192 6.394 < 0.001

Foliar 2012 - Control 2013 -146.8539 11.6220 -12.636 < 0.001

Seed 2012 - Control 2013 -187.3416 9.8885 -18.945 < 0.001

Wild Population - Control 2013 -137.8939 15.9856 -8.626 < 0.001

Foliar 2013 - Foliar 2012 168.0358 11.6220 14.458 < 0.001

Seed 2012 - Foliar 2012 -40.4876 11.1057 -3.646 0.00828

Seed 2013 - Foliar 2012 168.4994 11.6220 14.498 < 0.001 

Seed 2012 - Foliar 2013 -208.5234 9.8885 -21.087 < 0.001 

Wild Population - Foliar 2013 -159.0758 15.9856 -9.951 < 0.001 

Seed 2013 - Seed 2012 208.9870 9.8885 21.134 < 0.001 

Wild Population - Seed 2012 49.4476 15.6142 3.167 0.03948

Wild Population - Seed 2013 -159.5394 15.9856 -9.980 < 0.001 

Table 11. Mean chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2) for silky lupine by treatments in 2012 and 

2013; treatments groups are identified in Figure 8; means with the same letter are not 

significantly different (p>0.05)

Groups Treatments Means

A Seed 2013 497.8 

A Foliar 2013 497.3 

A Combined 2013 494.4 

A Control 2013 476.1 

B Combined 2012 368.1 

BC Wild Population 338.2 

C Foliar 2012 329.3 

D Seed 2012 288.8 

E Control 2012 238.4 
86

Table 12. Tukey contrasts for silky lupine 2013 chlorophyll contents (treatment vs. location)

Figure 9. Box-and-whisker plots of silky lupine chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2), comparing 

treatments and common garden locations in 2013. Treatments with the same letter are not 

significantly different (p > 0.05).

Comparison Estimate Std. 

Error

t value Pr(>|t|) 

Combined.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green -76.318 15.762 -4.842 < 0.001

Control.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green -95.635 15.762 -6.067 < 0.001

Foliar.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green -71.277 15.762 -4.522 < 0.001

Seed.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green -69.960 15.762 -4.438 < 0.001

Combined.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green -59.228 15.762 -3.758 0.00472

Control.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green -78.545 15.762 -4.983 < 0.001 

Foliar.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green -54.187 15.762 -3.438 0.01430

Seed.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green -52.870 15.762 -3.354 0.01880

Combined.Snow Field - Foliar.Ft. Green -76.598 15.762 -4.860 < 0.001

Control.Snow Field - Foliar.Ft. Green -95.915 15.762 -6.085 < 0.001

Foliar.Snow Field - Foliar.Ft. Green -71.557 15.762 -4.540 < 0.001

Seed.Snow Field - Foliar.Ft. Green -70.240 15.762 -4.456 < 0.001

Combined.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green -76.038 15.762 -4.824 < 0.001

Control.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green -95.355 15.762 -6.050 < 0.001

Foliar.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green -70.997 15.762 -4.504 < 0.001

Seed.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green -69.680 15.762 -4.421 < 0.001
87

Table 13. Mean chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2) for silky lupine by treatment and location 

in 2013; treatments groups are identified in Figure 9; means with the same letter are not 

significantly different (p>0.05)

Silky Lupine-Plant Height at Maturity

We randomly selected ten plants per treatment and measured plant height before seed was 

harvested. We compared height means by treatments and locations using a two-way ANOVA 

with interaction and Tukey HSD to assess significance (Figure 10). In general, all of the Snow 

Field Station plant heights were significantly greater than those from Fountain Green WMA, 

with the exception of the foliar treatment from Fountain Green WMA which had only a 

significant difference with the foliar treatment from Snow Field Station. All p-values are listed in 

Table 14.

Table 14. Multiple comparisons of means: Tukey contrasts for silky lupine plant height at 

maturity (treatment vs. location)

Comparison Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) 

Combined.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green 3.6875 0.8877 4.154 <0.01

Control.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green 3.5205 0.9059 3.886 <0.01

Foliar.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green 4.6542 0.8877 5.243 <0.01

Seed.Snow Field - Combined.Ft. Green 3.9375 0.8877 4.436 <0.01

Combined.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green 3.2075 0.8877 3.613 <0.01

Control.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green 3.0405 0.9059 3.356 0.0190

Foliar.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green 4.1742 0.8877 4.702 <0.01

Seed.Snow Field - Control.Ft. Green 3.4575 0.8877 3.895 <0.01

Foliar.Snow Field - Foliar.Ft. Green 3.0244 0.8877 3.407 0.0162

Combined.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green 3.5075 0.8877 3.951 <0.01

Control.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green 3.3405 0.9059 3.688 <0.01

Foliar.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green 4.4742 0.8877 5.040 <0.01

Seed.Snow Field - Seed.Ft. Green 3.7575 0.8877 4.233 <0.01

Groups Treatments Means

A Foliar—Ft. Green 536.3 

A Combined—Ft. Green 536.1 

A Seed—Ft. Green 535.8 

A Control—Ft. Green 519 

B Seed—Snow Field 466.1 

B Foliar—Snow Field 464.8 

B Combined—Snow Field 459.7 

B Control—Snow Field 440.4 
88

Figure 10. Box-and-whisker plots of silky lupine chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2), 

comparing treatments and common garden locations in 2013. Treatments with the same letter are 

not significantly different (p > 0.05).

Table 15. Mean chlorophyll concentrations (mg/m-2) for silky lupine by treatment and location 

in 2013; treatments groups are identified in Figure 10; means with the same letter are not 

significantly different (p>0.05)

Groups Treatments Means

A Foliar—Snow Field 29.63 

AB Seed—Snow Field 28.91 

AB Combined—Snow Field 28.66 

AB Control—Snow Field 28.5 

BC Foliar—Ft. Green 26.6 

C Control—Ft. Green 25.46 

C Seed—Ft. Green 25.16 

C Combined—Ft. Green 24.98 
89

Silky Lupine-Seed Production

When approximately 50% of the seedpods were ripe or nearly ripe, a single silky lupine seed 

harvest was made with a custom push-cart harvester from each block and treatment individually. 

Seed was air dried, cleaned, weighed, and analyzed using a two-way ANOVA with an 

interaction between treatment and location and Tukey’s HSD to assess significance. The only 

notable significant difference in seed production was for the combined treatment seed yield at 

Snow Field Station, which was significantly greater than the combined treatment seed yield at 

Fountain Green WMA (p=0.0262, Figure 11).

Figure 11. Silky lupine seed production, the only statistically significant difference in seed 

production was with combined treatments.

Table 16. Tukey multiple comparisons of means for silky lupine seed production, comparison of 

treatments and common garden locations in 2013; means with the same letter are not 

significantly different (p>0.05)

Silky Lupine-1,000 Count Seed Weight

Using the harvested seed from each treatment, block, and common garden we counted 1,000 

seeds and weighed them. We ran a two-way ANOVA with interaction between treatment and 

location, and Tukey’s HSD to assess significance and found no significant differences in the 

data. In general, seed from Fountain Green WMA had greater mass than that from Snow Field 

Station with the exception of the foliar treatment which had the lowest overall mass in the study. 

Means of the 1,000 count seed weight are presented in Figure 12.

204 172 172 170

85 105 104 109

0

100

200

300

Combined Control Foliar Seed

kg/ha

Silky Lupine - Seed Production

Snow Field

Ft. Green

Groups Treatments Means

A Combined—Snow Field 204 

AB Control—Snow Field 172.4 

AB Foliar—Snow Field 171.8 

AB Seed—Snow Field 169.5 

AB Seed—Ft. Green 109.2 

AB Control—Ft. Green 105.4 

AB Foliar—Ft. Green 103.7 

B Combined—Ft. Green 84.62 
90

Figure 12. Silky lupine 1,000-count weight means. Typically seed weight was greater at 

Fountain Green WMA than Snow Field Station.

Wildland Germplasm Collection

This year we primarily focused our efforts on penstemon species, specifically firecracker 

penstemon (Penstemon eatonii) and Palmer’s Penstemon (P. palmeri). We wanted to identify, 

collect, and evaluate germplasm from these two species for improved drought and heat tolerance 

in firecracker penstemon and tolerance to growth in heavy soils in Palmer’s penstemon. 

However, we did not limit ourselves to these species. We made 89 germplasm collections from 

22 species (Table 17). These collections were primarily from the Central Basin and Range of 

eastern Nevada and western Utah. However, several collections were made from the Wasatch 

and Uintah mountians and from the Colorado Plateau of eastern Utah (Figure 13).

Table 17. New populations found and germplasm collections made in 2013

Code Species Common Name New Sites Collections

CHAN9 Chamerion angustifolium Fireweed 1 1

LOUT3 Lotus utahensis Utah bird's-foot trefoil 0 1

PEAC Penstemon acuminatus Sharpleaf penstemon 1 1

PECO Penstemon confusus Owens Valley beardtongue 3 4

PEDE4 Penstemon deustus Scabland penstemon 1 1

PEEA Penstemon eatonii Firecracker penstemon 29 19

PEIM2 Penstemon immanifestus Steptoe Valley beardtongue 1 1

PELE7 Penstemon leiophyllus Smoothleaf beardtongue 0 1

PENA3 Penstemon nanus Dwarf beardtongue 2 2

PENST Penstemon sp. Penstemon species 2 2

PEPA6 Penstemon pachyphyllus Thickleaf beardtongue 5 6

PEPA8 Penstemon palmeri Palmer's penstemon 40 32

27.9

27.2

24.1

27.4

26.1

26.6

25.6

26.4

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

Combined Control Foliar Seed

Grams

Treatment

1,000 ct Seed Weight

Ft. Green

Snow Field
91

Code Species Common Name New Sites Collections

PEPL4 Penstemon platyphyllus Broadleaf beardtongue 1 1

PEPR2 Penstemon procerus Littleflower penstemon 0 1

PERO10 Penstemon rostriflorus Bridge penstemon 1 1

PERY Penstemon rydbergii Rydberg's penstemon 1 2

PESP Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon 1 1

PEUT Penstemon utahensis Utah penstemon 2 2

PEWA Penstemon watsonii Watson's penstemon 3 3

SPCO Sphaeralcea coccinea Scarlet globemallow 2 3

SPGR2 Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia Gooseberryleaf globemallow 2 3

SPMU2 Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallow 1 1

Total 99 89

Figure 13. New populations recorded and germplasm collections in 2013.

Ecological Niche Modeling

A common difficulty with native plant materials development research is identifying sufficient 

germplasm sources to be used in species evaluation trials. Diverse germplasm from many 

sources from throughout a species’ geographic range is needed in the native plant materials 

development process to identify germplasm adapted to the areas where the released germplasm 

will be used for restoration work. Current methods for identifying germplasm sources involve 

using historical records obtained from online herbaria databases, and sources identified by 

happenstance while doing fieldwork. Another approach to identifying germplasm sources is 

through the use of ecological niche models (ENMs).

In an effort to identify additional populations of Palmer’s penstemon and firecracker penstemon 

throughout the Great Basin, ENMs were developed and field tested for these two native forb 

species. We used 19 climatic envelopes, which include temperature and precipitation variables 

and elevation data to develop the ENM in Maximum Entropy (Maxent, 3.3.3e). The ENM found 

“hotspots” where there would be relatively high probabilities for each species to grow. Although 
92

there may not be populations growing in all locations, we believe that the habitat is suitable for 

the species to grow if there was at least a 75% probability in the models. In general, the ENMs 

showed the predicted distribution for firecracker penstemon to be on middle to upper elevations 

in mountain ranges primarily within 62 miles (100 km) of the Utah-Nevada border (Figure 14). 

The predicted distribution for Palmer’s penstemon appeared to be primarily within the sagebrush 

(Artemisia spp.) steppe foothills at mid-elevations of mountain ranges primarily within 62 miles 

(100 km) of the Utah-Nevada border (Figure 15).

There were 19 test sites identified for Palmer’s penstemon and 16 test sites identified for 

firecracker penstemon. A 3.1-mile (5 km) buffer was placed around each test site for two 

purposes: applying a search area or zone for each species and eliminating sites with historic 

records in the area. The model-predicting distribution for Palmer’s penstemon was more accurate 

with plants being present in 15 out of the 19 test sites, one of which was eliminated due to its 

proximity to a historic site. The model for firecracker penstemon was less accurate with plants 

being present in less than half of the sites (7 of 16), two of which were eliminated due to 

proximity to historic sites. All test site information can be found in Table 18.

Figure 14. Distribution model for firecracker penstemon.
93

Figure 15. Distribution model for Palmer’s penstemon.

Presentations

Stettler, J. 2013. Agronomic production of native lupine species. 2nd National Native Seed 

Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Stettler, J. 2013.Enhancing germination of mountain hollyhock. Poster presented at the 2nd

National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Stettler, J. 2013. Agronomic production of native lupine species. Intermountain Native Plant 

Summit VII; 2013 March 26-27; Boise, ID.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

The development and use of Ecological Niche Modeling maps will be extremely useful in 

identifying new populations for use in plant materials development and delineating areas of 

adaptability for restoration and land management.

Additional Products

Seed Increase

 Gooseberryleaf globemallow (Sphaeralcea grossulariifulia)-1,800 g 

 Scarlet globemallow (S. coccinea)-1,300 g

 Limestone hawksbeard (Crepis intermidia)- 810 g

 Tapertip hawksbeard (C. acuminata) 8 g

 Hairy bigleaf lupine-6,350 g

 Silky lupine-6,100 g

 89 wildland seed collections made from 22 forb species

 11 seed allocations made to two private growers
94

Project Title: Plant Material Evaluations at the Shrub Sciences

Laboratory

Project Agreement No. 13-IA-11221632-161

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Scott Jensen, Botanist

Rocky Mountain Research Station 

Grassland, Shrubland and Desert Ecosystem Program

735 N. 500 E.

Provo, UT 84606-1865

801.356.5124, Fax 801.375.6968

sljensen@fs.fed.us

Project Description

Wildland Seed Collection

Seed collection efforts in 2013 focused on identifying and harvesting new populations of 

thickleaf penstemon (Penstemon pachyphyllus) and collecting additional sources of promising 

species underrepresented in existing provisional seed zone collections (Table 1).

Table 1. Species and number of sources collected in 2013

Name Common Name Family Collections

Enceliopsis nudicaulis nakedstem sunray Asteraceae 5

Ipomopsis aggregata scarlet gilia Polemoniaceae 1

Linum lewisii Lewis flax Linaceae 4

Penstemon pachyphyllus thickleaf penstemon Scrophulariaceae 18

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf globemallow Malvaceae 4

Evaluating Emergence from Increasing Planting Depth for 20 Native Forbs

Objectives

Evaluate the effect of increasing planting depth on seedling emergence for 20 native forb species 

planted in loam soils at three locations (Table 2). 

Methods

Each species was sown at four depths from just beneath the soil surface to 1 inch (3 cm) deep in 

a randomized block design with 10 blocks per site. Seeding rates were adjusted for viability and 

purity to 25 pure live seed (PLS)/ft. Five blocks were covered with N-Sulate fabric, and five 

were left uncovered. The study was replicated at three sites: Orovada, Nevada; Wells, Nevada;

and Fountain Green, Utah. Planting occurred in 2013 and will be repeated in 2014. Emergence

and short-term persistence data will be collected from 2014 to 2016. 
95

Table 2. Forbs seeded in the increased planting depth study

Scientific Name Common Name Family

Achillea millefolium common yarrow Asteraceae

Agoseris grandiflora bigflower agoseris Asteraceae

Agoseris heterophylla annual agoseris Asteraceae

Arenaria macradenia subsp. ferrisiae Ferris' sandwort Caryophyllaceae

Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Fabaceae

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker's balsamroot Asteraceae

Enceliopsis nudicaulis nakedstem sunray Asteraceae

Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat Polygonaceae

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis Nevada showy goldeneye Asteraceae

Ipomopsis aggregata scarlet gilia Polemoniaceae

Lomatium nudicaule barestem biscuitroot Apiaceae

Lupinus argenteus silvery lupine Fabaceae

Lupinus prunophilus hairy bigleaf lupine Fabaceae

Machaeranthera canescens hoary tansyaster Asteraceae

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf penstemon Scrophulariaceae

Penstemon pachyphyllus thickleaf penstemon Scrophulariaceae

Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon Scrophulariaceae

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf globemallow Malvaceae

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro's globemallow Malvaceae

Stanleya pinnata var. integrifolia golden princesplume Brassicaceae

Testing the Provisional Seed Zone Concept with Basin Wildrye (Leymus cinereus)

Objectives 

With increasing focus on genecological-based plant development techniques, provisional seed 

zones have been proposed as an intermediary option for identifying seed source populations until 

genecological zones are delineated. Competing with these two options is the agronomic plant 

development model that has brought most of the cultivar materials currently available in the 

marketplace. Each approach has its strengths and proponents.

The agricultural model can be generally defined as a genetically narrow-based approach founded 

on selection for a superior source or breeding for specific traits. The genecological model is a 

broad genetically-based approach focused on pooling similar germplasm within data-derived 

seed zones. The agricultural model typically results in the development of a few cultivars 

recommended for use over large areas, whereas the genecological approach relies on speciesspecific data to determine an appropriate number of seed zones, each necessitating its own 

pooled seed source. The agricultural model typically selects sources with good seeding 

establishment through direct comparison or indirect breeding line observation and vigor 

measurements, whereas the genecological model incorporates no selection for seedling 
96

establishment, relying on correlation between measured plant parameters and source-site 

characteristics to predict a zone of adaptation. 

The genecological model is growing in popularity, in part because of the perceived benefit that a 

broader genetic base material has a higher likelihood of adapting to invasive species, altered fire 

frequencies, climate change, and other anthropogenic impacts. The antagonistic counter is that 

any real or perceived benefit can only be realized if the material first establishes on site, an 

advocated advantage of the agronomic model. 

The provisional seed zone approach shortcuts the genecological model by including only climate 

parameters in zone development without any species-specific data. Some have argued that even 

this shortcut approach improves upon the agronomic model by identifying broad genetic base 

source materials tied to reasonable climatic brackets.

Intriguing research questions abound relating to differential success between approaches from 

establishment through plant community composition years into the future. The genecological 

model is sufficiently new that while development is underway for three species common to the 

Great Basin, bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), Sandberg’s bluegrass (Poa 

secunda), and Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides) verification of the initial empirical 

seed zones is not complete, thus final model recommendations are not available, so seed source 

materials have not been designated. 

Provisional seed zones are complete nationwide. Following the provisional seed zone concept,

source populations for any species can be identified, harvested, and pooled to initiate zone-based 

stock seed supplies. For species where cultivar materials do not exist, this seems a logical 

approach, but where cultivar materials have been developed following the agronomic model, the 

question arises, are cultivar materials or provisional seed zone materials a better fit? This study is 

intended to evaluate one aspect of this fitness, short-term establishment. We chose basin wildrye 

as a test species. This study will compare initial establishment of basin wildrye cultivar materials 

and provisional seed zone materials across four Great Basin climate envelopes common to the 

species.

Methods

Seed from four basin wildrye cultivars, Magnar, Trailhead, Continental, and Tetra was procured 

through local vendors, and 27 wildland seed sources representing four provisional zones were 

collected from native stands. Individual sources were sampled for seed weight, viability, and 

ploidy. Seeding at 25 PLS/ft occurred in a randomized block design with ten blocks per site and 

four sites, each representing a different provisional seed zone. Five blocks were covered with NSulate fabric and 5 blocks were left uncovered. Plots were seeded in 2013 and will be replicated 

in 2014. Emergence and persistence data will be collected from 2014 to 2016.

Provisional Seed Zone-Based Stock Seed Production

Objectives

Our seed increase efforts follow the model described by Johnson et al. (2010) to develop locally 

adapted and regionally appropriate native seed sources. Johnson et al. (2010) recommends seed 

sources be composed of more than 50 parents from at least five populations from the same 
97

ecosystem. We selected Bower’s (Bower et al. 2010) provisional seed zone (PSZ) map as our 

surrogate for genecological-derived seed zones (ecosystems), because empirical zones have not 

been developed for any species currently in our increase program. Our wildland seed collection 

protocol restricts seed gathering to populations with more than 25 individual plants thus retaining 

a broad genetic base, though most collections represent hundreds of plants. We assign each 

species collection site a PSZ based on its mapped location. Seed sources from the same PSZ of 

the same species are increased without regard for isolation. Sources from different zones are 

increased at different farms to prevent cross-pollination. 

In 2009, we began establishing seed increase and evaluation plantings at farm facilities in Juab 

and Sanpete counties in Utah. Information generated from these plantings provides a better 

understanding of appropriate cultural practices necessary to grow specific plant materials and 

dramatically increase the quantity of seed available for distribution to researchers and private 

sector seed producers. In 2013, we harvested seed from 14 species representing 53 different sites 

(Table 3). This seed is currently being cleaned. In most cases, additional quantities are needed 

before volumes are adequate to permit commercial seed production. 

Table 3. Seed was harvested from these species at Fountain Green, Utah in 2013

Scientific Name Number of Sources Provisional Seed Zone v1.0

Precipitation (in) / oF

Arenaria macradenia subsp. ferrisea 1 Outside Great Basin

Cleome serrulata 2 <10 / > 80 

Cryptantha rugulosa 1 10-14 / 70-80 

Enceliopsis nudicaulis 4 <10 / <80 

Erigeron speciosus 1 14-24 / <70

Frasera albomarginata 2 10-14 / 70-80 

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis 4 10-14 / 80-90 

Hesperostipa comata 7 <10 / <80 

Linum lewisii var. lewisii 12 10-14 / 70-80 

Linum subteres 1 <10 / <80 

Penstemon pachyphyllus 5 14-24 / <70 

Stanleya pinnata var. integrifolia 1 <10 / > 80 

Thelypodium milleflorum 1 <10 / <80 

Presentations

Anderson, Val; Jensen, Scott. 2013. Plant materials for ecological restoration. Local ecotypes; 

both sides of the story. Society for Range Management 66th Annual Meeting; 2013 February 2-8;

Oklahoma City, OK. 

Jensen, Scott. Approaches to deciphering local ecotype issues in the Great Basin, developing 

plant materials in the absence of verified genecological data. Plant materials development, 

production, and use in habitat restoration. 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; 

Santa Fe, NM.
98

Jensen, Scott; Stettler, Jason. Incorporating technology in plant material collecting tasks. Poster 

presented at 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Jensen, Scott; Stettler, Jason. Applying provisional seed zones to native forb development in the 

Great Basin, USA. National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM. (Poster)

References

Bower, A.; St. Clair, J. B.; Erickson, V. J. 2010. Provisional seed zones for native plants.

[Online]. Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/wwetac/threat_map/SeedZones_Intro.html

Johnson, Randy; Stritch, Larry; Olwell, Peggy; Lambert, Scott; Horning, Mathew E.; Cronn,

Richard. 2010. What are the best seed sources for ecosystem restoration on BLM and USFS 

lands? Native Plants Journal. 11(2): 117-131.
99

Project Title Aberdeen Plant Materials Center Report of Activities

Project Agreement No 11-1A-11221632-004

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Loren St. John, Team Leader

USDA NRCS, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

PO Box 296

Aberdeen, ID 83210

208.397.4133, Fax 208.397.3104

Loren.Stjohn@id.usda.gov

Derek Tilley, Agronomist 

USDA NRCS, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center

PO Box 296

Aberdeen, ID 83210

208.397.4133, Fax 208.397.3104

Derek.Tilley@id.usda.gov

Project Description

The Aberdeen Plant Materials Center (PMC) is involved with plant collection, selection and 

development, and seed and plant production for improving degraded or disturbed lands as well as 

the transfer of their garnered plant species production, establishment, and management 

knowledge to others. 

Plant Guides

The Aberdeen PMC is gathering information on selected plant species to create Natural 

Resources Conservation Service Plant Guides. Plant guides offer the most up-to-date information 

on plant establishment, management, and seed and plant production information on a given 

species. General information including potential uses, ethnobotanical significance, adaptation, 

pests and potential production problems can also be found in the Plant Guides. In 2013, Plant 

Guides were completed or revised for Palmer’s penstemon (Penstemon palmeri), thickleaf 

penstemon (P. pachyphyllus), Rydberg’s penstemon (P. rydbergii), Columbia needlegrass 

(Achnatherum nelsonii), bigflower Agoseris (Agoseris grandiflora), showy goldeneye 

(Heliomeris multiflora), and limestone hawksbeard (Crepis intermedia). Plant guides are 

available at the PLANTS database, www.plants.usda.gov and at the Aberdeen PMC website, 

www.id.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/plant.html.

Plant Materials Development

Douglas’ dustymaiden

Fifteen accessions of Douglas’ dustymaiden (Chaenactis douglasii) were evaluated at the 

Aberdeen PMC from 2009 to 2010. The accessions were evaluated for establishment, growth, 

and seed production. Following evaluation, accession 9076577 was chosen for selected class 

release. Accession 9076577 was originally collected in Boise County, Idaho near Arrow Rock 
100

and Lucky Peak Reservoirs, approximately 0.5 mile (0.8 km) west of the dam on Forest Service 

Road 268. The site is a mountain big sagebrush-bitterbrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. 

vaseyana-Purshia tridentata) community in coarse granitic soils at 3,150-foot (960 m) elevation. 

Accession 9076577 ranked at or near the top in percent establishment, plant vigor, height, flower 

production, and seed yield. 

Seed increase plots have been established at the Aberdeen PMC for early generation Certified 

seed production. In fall 2013, we planted a total of 0.18 acres (0.07 ha) of weed barrier fabric to 

G-0 seed. Release documentation is being developed and official release will occur once the 

PMC has produced a sufficient amount of early generation seed. 

Hoary tansyaster

Nine accessions of hoary tansyaster (Machaeranthera canescens) were evaluated from 2009 

through 2011 for establishment, plant growth, and seed production. Accession 9076670 had the 

best establishment and stands in 2009 and 2010, and had the highest rated vigor in 2010. This 

accession also produced the tallest plants in the study. The population for 9076670 is located 

near the St. Anthony Sand Dunes in Fremont County, Idaho at 5,000-foot (1,520 m) elevation. 

The site has sandy soils and supports a bitterbrush, Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides), 

yellow rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus visciflorus), and lemon scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum) 

community. The location receives on average between 10 and 15 inches (254-381 mm) of annual 

precipitation. 

Several strips of weed barrier fabric have been planted to hoary tansyaster for initial seed 

bulking. An additional 0.6 acres (0.2 ha) of hoary tansyaster was drill seeded in spring 2012 to 

investigate agronomics without using weed barrier fabric. 

We made comparisons between using a small-plot combine in a single combine harvest and 

multiple vacuum harvests from a jet harvester. The single combining method takes less time in 

the field; however, this method yields less seed and the collected seed requires significantly more 

time to clean than the vacuum harvested seed. The 2010 drill seeded 0.6 acres (0.2 ha) was 

harvested twice in 2013 using a Flailvac harvester. The field was harvested on the 3rd and the 

23rd of September. The first harvest yielded 4.5 lb clean seed and the second harvest yielded 2.8 

lbs for a total of 7.3 lbs (equivalent to 12.2 lbs/ac). 

Release documentation is being developed and official release will occur once the PMC has 

produced a sufficient amount of early generation seed.

Wyeth and sulphur-flower buckwheat

Thirty-nine accessions of Wyeth and sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum heracleoides and E. 

umbellatum) were compared in a common garden study from 2007 through 2011. Accession 

9076546 Wyeth buckwheat showed good establishment, seed production, and longevity 

compared with the other accessions.

In fall 2011, two 500-foot (150 m) rows of weed barrier fabric were planted to accession 

9076546. Accession 9076546 was originally collected in Caribou County, Idaho northeast of 

Soda Springs in an area receiving 18 to 20 inches (457-508 mm) of annual precipitation and 
101

supporting mountain big sagebrush, threetip sagebrush (Artemisia tripartita), bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), and basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus). Germination in the 

weed barrier fabric in 2012 was poor, likely due to drier and warmer than normal winter and 

early spring conditions. Plants were propagated in the greenhouse in winter/spring 2013 and 

transplanted to the fabric in summer 2013.

In the summer of 2013, 520 feet (160 m) of weed barrier fabric was planted to approximately 

700 greenhouse-grown transplants. Establishment was excellent, and survival was good. First 

seed harvest should occur in 2014. Release documentation is being developed and official release 

will occur once the PMC has produced a sufficient amount of early generation seed.

Publications

Ogle, D.; Peterson, S.; St. John, L. 2013. Plant Guide for Palmer’s penstemon (Penstemon 

palmeri). Aberdeen, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. 4 p. (Revised October 2013). Available: 

http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_pepap9.pdf [2014, March 3].

Ogle, D.; Peterson, S.; St. John, L. 2013. Plant Guide for mucronate penstemon (Penstemon 

pachyphyllus var. mucronatus). Aberdeen, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. 4 p. Available: 

http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_pepam5.pdf [2014, March 3].

Ogle, D.; Peterson, S.; St. John, L. 2013. Plant Guide for Rydberg’s penstemon (Penstemon 

rydbergii). Aberdeen, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. 4 p. Available: 

http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_pery.pdf [2014, March 3].

St. John, L.; Tilley, D. 2012. Plant Guide for limestone hawksbeard (Crepis intermedia). 

Aberdeen, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. 3 p. Available: 

http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/doc/pg_crin4.docx [2014, March 3].

Tilley, D.; St. John, L. 2013. Plant guide for Columbia needlegrass (Achnatherum nelsonii). 

Aberdeen, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

Aberdeen Plant Materials Center. 3 p. Available: 

http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_acne9.pdf [2014, March 3].

Tilley, D. 2013. Plant Guide for bigflower agoseris (Agoseris grandiflora). Aberdeen, ID: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center. 2 p. Available: http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_aggr.pdf [2014, March 3].

Tilley, D. 2012. Plant Guide for showy goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora). Aberdeen, ID: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Aberdeen Plant Materials 

Center. 2 p. Available: http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_hemu3.pdf [2014, March 3].
102

Additional Products

Early generation certified seed of hoary tansyaster, Douglas’ dustymaiden and Wyeth buckwheat 

is being produced and will be available through Utah Crop Improvement and the University of 

Idaho Foundation Seed Program when release is approved. 
103

Project Title Bee Pollination and Breeding Biology Studies

Project Agreement No. 11-IA-11221632-010

 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

James H. Cane, Research Entomologist 

USDA ARS Bee Biology and Systematics Lab

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5310 

435.797.3879, Fax 435.797.0461

Jim.Cane@ars.usda.gov

Project Description

Successful reproduction by flowering plants requires the confluence of several favorable factors. 

Some are intrinsic to the plant (e.g., age, nutritional status); others are external, either abiotic 

(e.g., rainfall, fire) or biotic (e.g. pollinators). The survival and performance of perennial 

sagebrush steppe forbs after fire is unknown, with potentially great ramifications for pollinators 

(floral resources for reproduction). Seed choices and management tactics may be needed to retain 

remnant pollinator communities while awaiting recovery and/or establishment of floral hosts. 

Breeding Biology and Pollination Needs of Silverleaf Phacelia (Phacelia hastata)

In 2012, established transplants (n=50) of silverleaf phacelia successfully survived the winter. 

Silverleaf phacelia plants were caged before bloom and manually pollinated (selfed and 

outcrossed) to establish the species’ breeding biology. Bloom was spectacular, with enough 

flowers to obscure foliage. However, the flowers are small, and worse, their stigmas were 

miniscule, with only enough surface area to receive a few dozen pollen grains. Even with 

magnifying visors, we could not confidently see the stigmas when applying self- or outcross 

pollen. Probably as a consequence, many hours of daily manual pollinations were rarely 

effective. From 937 hand-pollinated flowers on 19 plants and 76 racemes, we only obtained 54 

plump seeds. Out of 3,748 ovules seed set was a paltry 1.4%. Clearly, the species does require a 

pollinator’s visit, but we do not yet know its need for outcrossing.

Floral visitors were sampled at a half dozen wild populations of silverleaf phacelia in northern 

Utah and Nevada. Visitors were exclusively bees except for one pollen specialist wasp. 

Silverleaf phacelia attracts a diversity of native bees, which is promising for fostering Great 

Basin bee communities that fly in the late spring/early summer.

Concentrating Seed Weevils of Wild Forbs for Practical Control on Seed Farms 

We explored a novel trap-cropping technique for seed beetle control to help growers avoid 

broadcast insecticide sprays that kill pollinators when applied while plants are in flower. We 

tried advancing bloom on short cultivated rows of basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) and 

prairie clover (Dalea ornata) at our common garden in Logan, Utah. A small patch of blooming 

plants at a field’s edge could be used as a trap-crop that concentrates emerging specialist seed 

weevils for control (adults feed and mate at host flowers, then oviposit). A month before bloom, 

a 10-foot (3-m) row was covered with a portable grow tunnel made of regularly perforated clear 
104

plastic. Plants grew well under the plastic, but we failed to advance bloom, perhaps because the 

plants were grown in black fabric weed barrier, which we had seen advance bloom by several 

weeks. 

Fire Impact on Forb Survival

Changes in the frequency and intensity of fire in the sagebrush steppe have become key factors 

in degrading native plant communities in basin and foothill habitats. We know that many of the 

dominant Great Basin shrubs are consumed by fire and rarely if ever resprout. Some forbs 

survive wildfires and thrive and bloom after burning, but the survival observations are often 

anecdotal and rarely related to fire attributes. Hence, we do not know which native forb species 

survive fires of a particular intensity. 

To examine the individual plant’s response to wildfire, six common Great Basin perennial forb 

species were experimentally burned in 2012 at increasing intensities using a custom portable 

propane burner designed to mimic wildfire attributes. The plants were growing at the Malheur 

Experiment Station in Ontario, Oregon in adjacent 200-foot (60-m) monoculture rows. Soils 

were uniform. Plants were mature and of the same age. All members of a species received the 

same controlled sub-irrigation and pest management. Individuals of basalt milkvetch, prairie 

clover, sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum), fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium 

dissectum), blue penstemon (Penstemon cyaneus), and gooseberryleaf globemallow 

(Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia) were chosen for their prevalence, contrasting life histories and 

morphological traits, and their importance to native bees. Prior to treatments, 11-ft2(1-m

2

) plots 

were marked, and the number of plants in each plot to be burned was counted. Any dead 

material was trimmed to 4 inches (10 cm); loose dead vegetation was cleared from the burn zone 

to equalize combustibles. Thermocouples were put at the soil surface to monitor temperatures 

and standardize heating. Six propane-fueled prescription treatments were conducted at varying 

heat intensities and durations (Table 1). After burning, each plot was sprayed with a liter of water 

to extinguish any embers. 

In spring 2013, survival data were collected along with a number of characteristics thought to be 

important for bees in a postfire environment (e.g., numbers of flowers, numbers of flowering 

stalks, and/or the lengths of racemes). Initial analyses for mortality are shown in Figure 1, except 

for gooseberryleaf globemallow, which is pending resolution of protocols for reliably 

distinguishing age classes. 

Table 1. Propane burn treatments used on native plants

Category Prescription Heat attained (oC)

Control No fuel applied Ambient

Very Low 7.5 psi, 25 sec 100

Low 7.5 psi, 50 sec 200

Medium 15 psi, 65 sec 300

High 15 psi, 175 sec 500

Very High 15 psi, 240 sec 600
105

Figure 1. Percent mortality (+ standard deviation) of forbs subjected to various propane-fueled 

burn treatments. Species codes: ASFI – Astragalus filipes; DAOR – Dalea ornata; LODI –

Lomatium dissectum; PECY – Penstemon cyaneus; ERUM – Eriogonum umbellatum. 

Future plans

1) Complete analyses and a manuscript for the forb burning study. Two other manuscripts are 

planned that detail recently completed investigations of the responses of native forbs and bees to 

fire in Great Basin sagebrush steppe. 

2) Improve our novel trap-cropping technique for seed beetle control. Attempt to find local 

plantings with a dirt surface, rather than the hot black fabric weed barrier, and again try this 

strategy to advance bloom as bait for beetles.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Very High High Medium Low Very Low Control

% Mortality

Burn Treatment

Fire Hardy Forbs

ASFI

DAOR

LODI

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Very High High Medium Low Very Low Control

% Mortality

Burn Treatment

Fire Susceptable Forbs

PECY

ERUM
106

3) Find a new method for documenting the breeding biology of silverleaf phacelia. We can grow 

the plants from seed for transplanting. Next we will use resident bees to provide the pollinations. 

We are lining up cooperating xeriscape gardeners, as well as suitable campus gardens for 

outplantings. At each site, we will plant one isolated silverleaf phacelia and, at a distance, a 

close-set trio of plants. The former should be primarily selfed by resident bees, whereas the trio 

should have considerable outcrossing. We will collect seeds per umbel of counted flowers to 

evaluate seed production with these naturally pollinated plants.

Publications

Cane, J. H.; Johnson, C.; Romero Napoles, J.; Johnson, D.; Hammon, B. 2013. Seed-feeding 

beetles (Bruchidae, Curculionidae, Brentidae) from legumes (Dalea ornata, Astragalus filipes) 

and other forbs needed for restoring rangelands of the Intermountain West. Western North 

American Naturalist. 73(4): 477-484.

Cane, J. H.; Love, B.; Swoboda, K. A. 2012. Breeding biology and bee guild of Douglas’ 

dustymaiden, Chaenactis douglasii (Asteraceae, Helenieae). Western North American Naturalist. 

72(4): 563-568.

Additional Products

Wrote and aired a program for “Wild About Utah”, a weekly nature series produced for Utah 

Public Radio, entitled: “Great Basin Defined”. Program aired December 5, 2013. Available: 

http://www.bridgerlandaudubon.org/wildaboututah/archive.htm
107

Project Title Etiology, Epidemiology, and Management of Diseases of 

Native Wildflower Seed Production

Project Agreement No. 10-CR-11221632-073

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

S. Krishna Mohan, Professor, Department of Plant, Soil, 

and Entomological Sciences

University of Idaho

Southwest Idaho Research and Extension

29603 U of I Lane

Parma, ID 83660 

208.722.6701 Ext. 218, Fax 208.722.6708 

kmohan@uidaho.edu

Clinton C. Shock, Director/Professor

Oregon State University 

Malheur Experiment Station

595 Onion Ave.

Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu

Project Description

Disease problems may cause serious losses of native plants in nurseries and losses of seed in 

production fields. The major objective of this project in 2013 was to identify potentially 

important diseases, with an emphasis on powdery mildews. Specifically we surveyed seed 

production plots at Oregon State’s Malheur Experiment Station (MES), collected samples, and 

identified powdery mildew species present. 

Seed production and maintenance plots for various native wildflowers at the MES were surveyed 

during September, 2013. Any plants showing powdery mildew-like symptoms were sampled and 

studied at the plant pathology laboratory at the University of Idaho’s Parma Research and 

Extension Center. Samples were critically examined for presence of typical symptoms and signs 

of the disease. A total of 15 plant samples were collected. Laboratory examinations revealed that 

Douglas’ dustymaiden (Chaenactis douglasii), silverleaf phacelia (Phacelia hastata), and 

common woolly sunflower (Eriophyllum lanatum) samples were not infected with powdery 

mildew. The other 12 samples were confirmed to be infected with different powdery mildews. 

The identity of the powdery mildew species and whether or not the host plant is a new record to 

the United States and /or to the literature were confirmed by Dr. Uwe Braun (Martin-LutherUniversität, Institut für Biologie, Halle, Germany) who is the foremost world authority on 

powdery mildews, their host plants, and worldwide distribution. The results are shown in Table 

1. 
108

Table 1. Powdery mildews identified on wildflower plants at MES (2013 September 11)

Scientific name Common name Result

Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch

Leveillula papilionacearum 

(new host)

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dustymaiden No powdery mildew detected

Cleome lutea yellow spiderflower

Leveillula cleomes (new host, 

new to US)

Cleome serrulata Rocky Mountain beeplant

Leveillula cleomes (new host, 

new to US)

Cucurbita maxima winter squash

Leveillula taurica (sens. lat.) 

(new to US on this host)

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie clover

Leveillula papilionacearum 

(new host)

Dalea searlsiae Searles’ prairie clover

Leveillula papilionacearum 

(new host)

Enceliopsis nudicaulis nakedstem sunray

Leveillula picridis (new host, 

new to US)

Eriophyllum lanatum common woolly sunflower

No powdery mildew 

confirmed

Heliomeris multiflora showy goldeneye

Leveillula picridis (new host, 

new to US)

Heliomeris multiflora var. 

nevadensis Nevada goldeneye

Leveillula picridis (new host, 

new to US)

Machaeranthera canescens hoary tansyaster Leveillula picridis (new host)

Phacelia hastata silverleaf phacelia No powdery mildew detected

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf globemallow Leveillula spp.

Trifolium fragiferum strawberry clover Erysiphe trifoliorum

These findings will provide useful information to seed producers, researchers, and other 

specialists about the identification and management of powdery mildews.

Publication

Braun, U.; Mohan, S. K. 2013. New records and new host plants of powdery mildews 

(Erysiphales) from Idaho and Oregon (USA). Schlechtendalia. 27: 7-10.
109

Project Title Seed Production of Great Basin Native Forbs

Project No. 12-JV-11221632-014

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Clinton C. Shock, Director/Professor 

Oregon State University 

Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Avenue

Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

clinton.shock@oregonstate.edu 

Erik B. Feibert, Senior Faculty Research Assistant 

Oregon State University 

Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Avenue

Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

erik.feibert@oregonstate.edu 

Lamont D. Saunders, Biosciences Research Technician and Farm 

Foreman 

Oregon State University 

Malheur Experiment Station 

595 Onion Ave.

Ontario, OR 97914 

541.889.2174, Fax 541.889.7831 

monty.saunders@oregonstate.edu 

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist 

USFS Rocky Mountain Research Station 

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401 

Boise, ID 83702 

208.373.4360, Fax 208.373.4391 

nshaw@fs.fed.us 

Ram K. Sampangi, Plant Pathologist 

Formerly of University of Idaho

Southwest Research and Extension Center 

29603 U of I Lane 

Parma, ID 83660 
110

Management Applications and Seed Production Guidelines

Amount of subsurface drip irrigation for maximum native wildflower seed yield, years to seed 

set, and life span; a summary of multi-year research findings from Oregon State UniversityMalheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR, 2013.

Species Optimum amount of irrigation

Years to first 

seed set

Life 

span

inches/season

from fall 

planting years

Eriogonum umbellatum 0 in wet years, 6 to 8 in dry years 1 7+

Lomatium dissectum 5 to 8 4 7+

Lomatium grayi 0 in wet years, 6 to 8 in dry years 2 7+

Lomatium triternatum 4 to 8 depending on precipitation 2 7+

Penstemon acuminatus no response 1 3

Penstemon speciosus 0 in wet years, 4 to 8 in dry years 1 3

Sphaeralcea coccinea no response 1 5

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia no response 1 5

Sphaeralcea parvifolia no response 1 5

Amount of subsurface drip irrigation for maximum native wildflower seed yield of new 

plantings; a summary of multi-year research findings, OSU-MES, Ontario, OR, 2013.

Species

Optimum amount of irrigation

inches/season

Astragalus filipes no response in 2011, 2012, and 2013

Cleome lutea no response in 2012a

Cleome serrulata 8 inches in 2011, no response in 2012a

Dalea ornata 0 inches in 2011 (wet year), 7.7 & 8 inches in 2012 &2013 (dry years)

Dalea searlsiae 0 inches in 2011 (wet year), 6.6 & 8 inches in 2012 &2013 (dry years)

Eriogonum heracleoides no response in 2012, 4.9 inches in 2013 (dry year)

Lomatium nudicaule no response in 2012, 4 inches in 2013 (dry year)

Penstemon cyaneus no response in 2011 (wet year), 8 & 2 inches in 2012 &2013 (dry years) 

Penstemon deustus 0 inches in 2011 (wet year), no response in 2012 (dry year)

Penstemon pachyphyllus no response in 2012, 8 inches in 2013 (dry year)

a Results might be compromised due to poor flowering and seed set in 2012.
111

A. Direct Surface Seeding Systems for Successful Establishment of Native Wildflowers 

Clinton Shock, Erik Feibert, and Lamont Saunders, Oregon State University, Malheur 

Experiment Station, Ontario, OR

Nancy Shaw, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID 

Project Description

Seed of native plants is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Reliable 

commercial seed production is desirable to make seed readily available. Direct seeding of native 

range plants can be problematic, especially for certain species. Fall planting is important for 

many species, because their seed requires a period of cold to break dormancy (vernalization). 

Fall planting of native seed has resulted in poor stands in some years at the Malheur Experiment 

Station (MES). Loss of soil moisture, soil crusting, and bird damage are some detrimental factors 

hindering emergence of fall planted seed. Previous trials at the MES have examined effects of 

seed pelleting, planting depth, and soil anti-crustants on seedling establishment (Shock et al. 

2010). Planting wildflower seeds at a shallow depth with the addition of a soil anti-crustant 

increased seedling emergence compared to surface planting. Seed pelleting did not improve 

emergence. Despite these positive results, emergence was extremely poor for all treatments, due 

to soil crusting and bird damage.

In rangelands and in established native perennial fields at the MES, we have observed prolific 

natural emergence from seed that falls on the soil surface and is covered by thin layers of organic 

debris. This trial tested the effect of seven planting systems on the establishment of 15 native 

wildflower species (Table 1). Row cover can be a protective barrier against soil desiccation and 

bird damage. Sawdust can mimic the protective effect of organic debris. Sand can help hold the 

seed in place. Fungicide seed treatments can protect the emerging seedlings from fungal 

pathogens that might cause decomposition or damping off. Hydroseeding mulch could be a low 

cost replacement for row cover. Treatments did not test all possible combinations of factors, but 

tested the combinations that could provide systems that would result in adequate stand 

establishment. In previous trials, we demonstrated the importance of row cover in the 

establishment of native wildflower stands (Shock et al. 2012).

This trial tested seven plant systems that included combinations of seed cover, row cover, seed 

treatment, and hydroseeding mulch for stand establishment of 15 important wildflower species 

that are native to Malheur County and surrounding areas. 

Methods

Fourteen species for which stand establishment may be problematic were chosen. A fifteenth 

species, royal penstemon (Penstemon speciosus), was chosen as a check, because of its reliable 

production of stands in Ontario, Oregon. Seed weights for all species were determined. A portion 

of the seed was treated with a liquid mix of the fungicides Thiram®and Captan (10 g Thiram, 10 

g Captan in 0.5 liter of water). Seed weights of the treated seeds were determined after fungicide 

treatments. The seed weights of untreated and treated seed were used to make seed packets 

containing close to 300 seeds each. The seed packets were assigned to one of seven treatments 

(Table 1). The trial was planted manually on 15 November 2012. The experimental design was a 
112

randomized complete block with six replicates. Plots were one bed 30 inches (76 cm) wide and 5 

feet (1.5 m) long. Two seed rows were planted in each bed. 

Tetrazolium tests were conducted to determine seed viability of each species (Table 2). The 

tetrazolium results were used to correct the plant stands to a percent of viable seed planted. 

At planting, treatments receiving sawdust had sawdust applied in a narrow band over the seed 

row at 558 pounds/acre of row (0.26 oz/ft). For the treatments receiving both sawdust and sand, 

the sand was applied at 1,404 pounds/acre (0.65 oz/ft) of row as a narrow band over the sawdust. 

Following planting and sawdust and sand applications, some of the treatments had row cover 

installed over the beds. The row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO) covered four 

rows (two beds) and was applied with a mechanical plastic mulch layer. For the simulated 

hydroseeding mulch treatments, hydroseeding mulch (Hydrostraw LLC, Manteno, IL) was 

applied dry at 7.5 g/ft of row in a 1-inch (3 cm) band over the seed row. The mulch was applied 

dry and sprayed with water using a backpack sprayer to simulate hydroseeding.

On 15 March 2013, the row cover was removed and plant stand counts were made in each plot. 

Plant stands were counted again on the 2nd and 18th of April.

 

Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (General Linear Models Procedure, NCSS, 

Kaysville, UT). Means separation was determined using Fisher’s least significant difference test 

at the 5 percent probability level, LSD (0.05). 

Results and Discussion

By the first plant count on 15 March 2013, all species were emerging. Between the second count 

on 2 April and the third count on 18 April, most species showed no increase in stand density and 

some species showed a decline in stand density. Even by 18 April the stands of threadleaf 

phacelia (Phacelia linearis), coyote tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata), and cleftleaf wildheliotrope 

(P. crenulata) were too poor to draw meaningful conclusions. 

Direct planting of the seed without other aids was among the least successful plant system 

(Tables 3, 4, and 5). Row cover was beneficial to plant stand establishment. For the 12 species 

where there were statistical differences among planting systems, the planting systems with 

greatest plant establishment included row cover. The most effective system for plant 

establishment for each species varied somewhat by the date that the evaluations were made. 

Since plant stands later in the growing season are critical to seed yield, the discussion that 

follows is based on the last stand count on 18 April (Table 5). 

Overall seedling plant stands were lower with simulated hydroseeding mulch plus seed treatment 

than with row cover plus seed treatment. Actual hydroseeding may result in better stand 

establishment than our simulated application.

Seedlings of scarlet gilia (Ipomopsis aggregata) established best using a system of row cover 

plus sawdust, and this system was among the most favorable system for seven other species. 

Row cover plus seed treatment was among the most favorable systems for 8 of the species, while 

row cover plus seed treatment plus sawdust was among the most favorable system for six of the 
113

species. The system using row cover plus sawdust plus sand was among the best systems for ten 

of the twelve species where significant differences between planting systems were found.

References

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N. 2010. Emergence of native plant seeds 

in response to seed pelleting, planting depth, scarification, and soil anti-crusting treatment. In: 

Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2009: 218-222.

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Parris, C. A.; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N. 2012. Direct surface 

seeding strategies for establishment of Intermountain West native plants for seed production. In: 

Shock, C. C., ed. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station, Malheur Experiment 

Station Annual Report 2011; Department of Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 141. p. 130-135. 

Available: //www.cropinfo.net/AnnualReports/2011/Forbemergence2011.php

Table 1. Seven planting systems evaluated for the establishment of 15 native wildflower species. 

Mouse bait packs were scattered over the trial area at Oregon State University (OSU)-MES, 

Ontario, Oregon in 2013

System no. Row cover Seed treatment* Sawdust Sand Mulch

1 yes yes yes no no

2 yes yes no no no

3 yes no yes no no

4 no yes yes no no

5 yes yes yes yes no

6 no yes no no yes

7 no no no no no

*Mixture of Captan and Thiram fungicides for prevention of seed decomposition and seedling damping off.
114

Table 2. Seed weights and tetrazolium test (seed viability) for 15 native wildflower species 

submitted to seven planting systems in the fall of 2012 at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR

Species Common name

Untreated seed 

weight

(seeds/g)

Tetrazolium 

test

(%)

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dustymaiden 787 72

Enceliopsis nudicaulis nakedstem sunray 127 92

Eriophyllum lanatum common woolly sunflower 1,634 88

Heliomeris multiflora showy goldeneye 1,700 85

Ipomopsis aggregata scarlet gilia 656 76

Ligusticum canbyi Canby's licorice-root 238 63

Ligusticum porteri Porter's licorice-root 158 93

Machaeranthera canescens hoary tansyaster 2,321 84

Mentzelia albicaulis whitestem blazingstar 1,130 84

Nicotiana attenuata coyote tobacco 13,000 25

Penstemon speciosus showy penstemon 710 88

Phacelia crenulata cleftleaf wildheliotrope 942 94

Phacelia hastata silverleaf phacelia 1,471 100

Phacelia linearis threadleaf phacelia 2,843 100

Thelypodium milleflorum many flower thelypody 3,650 96

Machaeranthera canescens hoary tansyaster 2,321 84
115

Table 3. Plant stands of 15 native plant species on 15 March 2013 in response to seven planting systems used at the time of planting 

(fall 2012). Plant stand for each species was corrected to the percent based on the number of viable seed planted at OSU-MES, 

Ontario, Oregon.

Species

Row cover, seed 

treatment, 

sawdust

Row cover, 

seed 

treatment

Row 

cover, 

sawdust

Seed 

treatment, 

sawdust

Row cover, seed 

treatment, 

sawdust, sand

Seed 

treatment, 

mulch

Untreated 

check LSD (0.05)

---------------------------------------------- % stand ------------------------------------------

Chaenactis douglasii 22.2 21.9 17.8 1.6 45.6 9.2 0.3 13.6

Enceliopsis nudicaulis 12.1 12.6 5.5 0.1 5.5 0.3 4.0 NS

Eriophyllum lanatum 47.9 55.1 31.8 1.6 45.8 14.5 2.0 21.9

Heliomeris multiflora 5.8 15.0 9.5 0.4 15.9 0.5 0.3 6.7

Ipomopsis aggregata 0.3 0.3 9.4 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.5 3.8

Ligusticum canbyi 0.4 9.3 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.7 0.0 NS

Ligusticum porteri 0.1 0.8 1.7 0.0 5.8 0.0 1.3 NS

Machaeranthera canescens 69.6 54.5 53.0 20.7 61.6 18.1 21.7 23.1

Mentzelia albicaulis 18.9 22.5 16.7 3.1 22.2 5.6 3.4 10.8

Nicotiana attenuata 1.6 0.2 0.2 0.9 6.9 7.8 0.0 NS

Penstemon speciosus 25.7 25.1 7.8 0.1 34.0 0.4 0.1 13.9

Phacelia crenulata 0.1 1.1 4.1 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 NS

Phacelia hastata 7.4 10.2 18.5 0.3 12.2 0.2 1.3 9.2

Phacelia linearis 2.8 0.1 0.2 0.0 2.4 0.1 0.1 NS

Thelypodium milleflorum 29.7 41.0 31.5 4.6 21.2 2.7 3.1 20.4
116

Table 4. Plant stands of 15 native plant species on 2 April 2013 in response to seven planting systems used at the time of planting (fall 

2012). Plant stand for each species was corrected to the percent based on the number of viable seed planted at OSU-MES, Ontario, 

Oregon.

Species

Row cover, seed 

treatment, 

sawdust

Row cover, 

seed 

treatment

Row 

cover, 

sawdust

Seed 

treatment, 

sawdust

Row cover, seed 

treatment, 

sawdust, sand

Seed 

treatment, 

mulch

Untreated 

check

LSD 

(0.05)

---------------------------------------------- % stand ------------------------------------------

Chaenactis douglasii 21.5 28.6 18.7 4.2 46.5 13.1 2.5 11.8

Enceliopsis nudicaulis 13.8 12.5 7.1 0.2 8.9 0.6 4.1 NS

Eriophyllum lanatum 44.8 52.1 29.2 4.2 47.5 14.6 3.9 23.4

Heliomeris multiflora 7.5 19.0 12.3 1.0 17.6 0.1 0.3 7.5

Ipomopsis aggregata 0.5 0.4 13.5 0.4 0.9 0.0 0.3 3.0

Ligusticum canbyi 4.1 20.2 6.4 0.2 10.1 0.0 0.0 8.8

Ligusticum porteri 3.6 7.6 11.8 0.0 12.5 0.0 2.5 7.2

Machaeranthera canescens 70.5 46.2 61.6 18.5 61.4 21.3 21.4 28.8

Mentzelia albicaulis 19.3 21.4 17.2 3.4 19.9 6.5 3.3 11.3

Nicotiana attenuata 0.4 10.4 1.6 0.4 4.2 16.4 6.0 NS

Penstemon speciosus 31.4 27.3 11.2 0.1 43.0 0.6 0.4 15.5

Phacelia crenulata 0.4 5.6 4.4 0.0 2.1 0.0 0.1 NS

Phacelia hastata 12.1 26.4 20.9 1.1 15.8 0.4 3.2 14.9

Phacelia linearis 2.8 0.1 0.2 0.1 2.8 0.1 0.2 NS

Thelypodium milleflorum 28.0 40.5 34.8 3.9 23.1 3.6 3.9 20.7
117

Table 5. Plant stands of 15 native plant species on 18 April 2013 in response to seven planting systems used at the time of planting 

(fall 2012). Plant stand for each species was corrected to the percent based on the number of viable seed planted at OSU-MES, 

Ontario, Oregon.

Species

Row cover, seed 

treatment, 

sawdust

Row cover, 

seed 

treatment

Row 

cover, 

sawdust

Seed 

treatment, 

sawdust

Row cover, seed 

treatment, 

sawdust, sand

Seed 

treatment, 

mulch

Untreated 

check

LSD 

(0.05)

---------------------------------------------- % stand ------------------------------------------

Chaenactis douglasii 18.8 26.5 17.5 4.2 39.1 12.2 5.4 12.2

Enceliopsis nudicaulis 10.9 11.5 6.4 0.1 7.8 0.0 3.7 8.6

Eriophyllum lanatum 38.8 46.6 25.6 4.7 44.0 14.6 3.9 22.9

Heliomeris multiflora 8.0 14.2 11.2 0.3 17.4 0.1 0.3 8.2

Ipomopsis aggregata 0.3 1.1 14.3 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.7 3.2

Ligusticum canbyi 5.3 16.1 6.3 0.0 8.8 0.8 0.1 7.6

Ligusticum porteri 3.4 7.7 10.6 0.0 12.1 0.1 2.5 7.1

Machaeranthera canescens 67.3 47.4 48.8 18.7 57.7 19.1 22.1 26.3

Mentzelia albicaulis 18.7 20.3 15.7 3.3 17.5 7.1 2.9 10.5

Nicotiana attenuata 4.4 11.8 1.8 0.0 4.2 12.2 0.0 NS

Penstemon speciosus 27.0 27.0 7.6 0.0 33.1 0.7 0.1 14.6

Phacelia crenulata 0.6 3.4 4.3 0.1 2.0 0.0 0.1 NS

Phacelia hastata 10.6 23.6 19.9 1.0 14.2 0.7 1.9 13.9

Phacelia linearis 2.6 0.1 0.1 0.0 2.7 0.0 0.1 NS

Thelypodium milleflorum 23.2 37.0 28.5 1.7 19.7 2.4 2.0 17.5
118

B. Irrigation Requirements for Native Perennial Wildflower Seed Production in a Semi-arid 

Environment

Clinton C. Shock, Erik B. G. Feibert, and Lamont D. Saunders, Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2013 

Nancy Shaw, U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID

Ram S. Sampangi, University of Idaho, Southwest Research and Extension Center, Parma, ID

Project Description

Native wildflower seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial seed 

production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A major 

limitation to economically viable commercial production of native wildflower (forb) seed is stable 

and consistent seed productivity over years.

 

In native rangelands, the natural variations in spring rainfall and soil moisture result in highly 

unpredictable water stress at flowering, seed set, and seed development, which for other seed crops 

is known to compromise seed yield and quality. 

Native wildflower plants are not well adapted to croplands. They often are not competitive with 

crop weeds in cultivated fields. Poor competitiveness with weeds could also limit wildflower seed 

production. Both sprinkler and furrow irrigation could provide supplemental water for seed 

production, but these irrigation systems risk further encouraging weeds. Also, sprinkler and furrow 

irrigation can lead to the loss of plant stand and seed production due to fungal pathogens. By 

burying drip tapes at a 12-inch (30 cm) depth and avoiding wetting the soil surface, we hoped to 

assure flowering and seed set without undue encouragement of weeds or opportunistic diseases. 

The trials reported here tested the effects of three low rates of irrigation on the seed yield of 13 

native wildflower species. 

Methods

Plant Establishment

Seed of seven Intermountain West wildflower species (sulphur-flower buckwheat [Eriogonum 

umbellatum], biscuitroot species [Lomatium spp.], and penstemon species [Penstemon spp.]) was 

received in late November 2004 from the Rocky Mountain Research Station (RMRS) in Boise, 

Idaho. See Table 6 for all wildflower species evaluated. The plan was to plant the seed in fall 2004, 

but due to excessive rainfall in October, ground preparation was not completed and planting was 

postponed to early 2005. To try to ensure germination, seed was cold stratified. Seed was soaked 

overnight in distilled water on 26 January 2005 then the water was drained and seed was soaked for 

20 minutes in a 10 percent by volume solution of 13 percent bleach in distilled water. The bleachwater was drained, and the seed was placed in thin layers in plastic containers. The plastic 

containers had lids with holes drilled in them to allow air movement. These containers were placed 

in a cooler set at approximately 34°F (1 °C). Every few days the seed was mixed and, if necessary, 

distilled water added to maintain seed moisture. In late February, seed of Gray’s biscuitroot 

(Lomatium grayi) and nineleaf biscuitroot (L. triternatum) had started to sprout. 

In late February 2005, drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch (30 cm) depths 

between two 30-inch (76 cm) rows of a Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic 
119

matter. The drip tape was buried in alternating inter-row spaces (5 ft [1.5 m] apart). The flow rate 

for the drip tape was 0.34 gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches (41 cm) apart, 

resulting in a water application rate of 0.066 inch/hour.

On 3 March 2005, seed of sulphur-flower buckwheat, lomatium species, and penstemon species 

(Table 6) was planted in 30-inch rows using a custom-made plot grain drill with disc openers. All 

seed was planted at 20 to 30 seeds/foot of row. Sulphur-flower buckwheat and the penstemon 

species were planted at 0.25-inch (0.6 cm) depths and the biscuitroot species at 0.5-inch (1.3 cm) 

depths. The trial was irrigated with a mini sprinkler system (R10 Turbo Rotator, Nelson Irrigation 

Corp., Walla Walla, WA) for even stand establishment from 4 March to 29 April. Risers were 

spaced 25 feet (8 m) apart along the flexible polyethylene hose laterals that were spaced 30 feet (9 

m) apart and the water application rate was 0.10 inch/hour. A total of 1.72 inches (43.7 mm) of 

water was applied with the mini sprinkler system. Sulphur-flower buckwheat, nineleaf biscuitroot, 

and Gray’s biscuitroot started emerging on 29 March. All other species except fernleaf biscuitroot 

(L. dissectum) emerged by late April. Starting 24 June, the field was irrigated with the drip system. 

A total of 3.73 inches (9.47 cm) of water was applied with the drip system from 24 June to 7 July. 

The field was not irrigated further in 2005. 

Plant stands for sulphur-flower buckwheat, nineleaf biscuitroot, Gray’s biscuitroot, and penstemon 

species were uneven. Fernleaf biscuitroot did not emerge. None of the species flowered in 2005. In 

early October 2005, more seed was received from the RMRS for replanting. Empty lengths of row 

were replanted by hand in the sulphur-flower buckwheat and penstemon species plots. The 

biscuitroot species plots had the entire row lengths replanted using the planter. Seed was replanted 

on 26 October 2005. In the spring of 2006, stands of the replanted species were excellent, except for 

scabland penstemon (P. deustus). 

On 11 April 2006, seed of three globemallow species: smallflower (Sphaeralcea parvifolia), 

gooseberryleaf (S. grossulariifolia), and scarlet globemallow (S. coccinea), two prairie clover 

species: Searls’ (Dalea searlsiae) and Blue Mountain prairie clover (D. ornata), and basalt 

milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) was planted at 30 seeds/foot of row. The field was sprinkler irrigated 

until emergence. Emergence was poor. In late August 2006, seed of the three globemallow species 

was harvested by hand. On 9 November 2006, the six wildflowers planted in 2006 were 

mechanically flailed and on 10 November, were replanted. On 11 November, scabland penstemon 

plots were also replanted at 30 seeds/foot of row. 

Irrigation for Seed Production 

In April 2006, each planted strip of each wildflower species was divided into plots 30 feet (9 m) 

long. Each plot contained four rows of each species. The experimental designs were randomized 

complete blocks with four replicates. The three treatments were a non-irrigated check, 1 inch (25 

mm) of water applied per irrigation, and 2 inches (50 mm) of water applied per irrigation. Each 

treatment received 4 irrigations that were applied approximately every 2 weeks starting with the 

flowering of each species. Amount of water applied to each treatment was calculated by the length 

of time necessary to deliver 1 or 2 inches through the drip system. Irrigations were regulated with a 

controller and solenoid valves. After each of the irrigations, the amount of water applied was read 

on a water meter and recorded to ensure correct water applications. 
120

Table 6. Wildflower species planted in the drip irrigation trials at the Oregon State UniversityMalheur Experiment Station (OSU-MES), Ontario, OR

Species Common names

Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie clover, western prairie clover 

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover

Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat

Lomatium dissectum fernleaf biscuitroot

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot, Gray’s lomatium

Lomatium triternatum nineleaf biscuitroot, nineleaf desert parsley

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf penstemon, sand-dune penstemon

Penstemon deustus scabland penstemon, hotrock penstemon

Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon, sagebrush penstemon

Sphaeralcea coccinea scarlet globemallow, red globemallow

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf globemallow

Sphaeralcea parvifolia smallflower globemallow

In March of 2007, the drip-irrigation system was modified to allow separate irrigation of the species 

due to differences in flowering timing. The three biscuitroot species were irrigated together and 

scabland and royal penstemon (P. speciosus) were irrigated together, but separately from the others. 

Sharpleaf penstemon (P. acuminatus) and sulphur-flower buckwheat were irrigated individually. In 

early April 2007, the three globemallow species, two prairie clover species, and basalt milkvetch 

were divided into plots with a drip-irrigation system to allow the same irrigation treatments that 

were received by the other wildflowers. 

Irrigation dates are found in Table 7. In 2007, irrigation treatments were inadvertently continued 

after the fourth irrigation. Irrigation treatments for all species were continued until the last 

irrigation on 24 June 2007. 

Soil volumetric water content was measured by neutron probe. The neutron probe was calibrated by 

taking soil samples and probe readings at 8-, 20-, and 32-inch (20, 51, and 81 cm) depths during 

installation of the access tubes. Soil water content was determined volumetrically from the soil 

samples and regressed against the neutron probe readings separately for each soil depth. Regression 

equations were then used to transform the neutron probe readings into volumetric soil water content. 

Flowering, Harvesting, and Seed Cleaning 

Flowering dates for each species were recorded (Table 7). Sulphur-flower buckwheat and 

penstemon species plots produced seed in 2006, in part because they had emerged in spring 2005. 

Each year, the middle two rows of each plot were harvested when seed of each species was mature 

(Table 7), using the methods listed in Table 8. The plant stand for P. deustus was too poor to result 

in reliable seed yield estimates. Replanting of P. deustus in the fall of 2006 did not result in 

adequate plant stand in the spring of 2007.

Sulphur-flower buckwheat seeds did not separate from the flowering structures in the combine; the 

unthreshed seed was taken to the United States Forest Service, Lucky Peak Nursery in Boise, Idaho 
121

and run through a dewinger to separate the seed, which was further cleaned in a small clipper seed 

cleaner. 

Scabland penstemon seed pods were too hard to be opened by the combine; the unthreshed seed was 

precleaned in a small clipper seed cleaner and then seed pods were broken manually by rubbing the 

pods on a ribbed rubber mat. Seed was then cleaned again in the small clipper seed cleaner.

Sharpleaf and royal penstemon were threshed in the combine, and seed was further cleaned using a 

small clipper seed cleaner. 

Cultural Practices in 2006

On 27 October 2006, 50 lb phosphorus (P)/acre and 2 lb zinc (Zn)/acre were injected through the 

drip tape to all plots of sulphur-flower buckwheat, penstemon species, and biscuitroot species. On 

11 November, 100 lb nitrogen (N)/acre as urea was broadcast to all biscuitroot species plots. On 17 

November, all plots of sulphur-flower buckwheat, penstemon species (except scabland), and 

biscuitroot species had Prowl®at 1 lb active ingredient (ai)/acre broadcast on the soil surface. 

Irrigations for all species were initiated on 19 May and terminated on 30 June. Harvesting and seed 

cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 8.

Cultural Practices in 2007

Sharpleaf and royal penstemon were sprayed with Aza-Direct®at 0.0062 lb ai/acre on 14 and 29 

May for lygus bug control. Irrigations for each species were initiated and terminated on different 

dates (Table 7). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 8. All 

plots of the globemallow species were flailed on 8 November 2007. 

Cultural Practices in 2008

On 9 November 2007 and on 15 April 2008, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots for 

weed control. Capture®2EC at 0.1 lb ai/acre was sprayed on all plots of sharpfleaf and royal 

penstemon on 20 May for lygus bug control. Irrigations for each species were initiated and 

terminated on different dates (Table 7). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are 

listed in Table 8.

Cultural Practices in 2009

On 18 March, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre and Volunteer®at 8 oz/acre were broadcast on all plots for weed 

control. On 9 April, 50 lb N/acre and 10 lb P/acre were applied through the drip irrigation system to 

the three biscuitroot species. The flowering, irrigation timing, and harvest timing were recorded for 

each species (Table 7). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 8. 

On 4 December 2009, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast for weed control on all plots. 

Cultural Practices in 2010

The flowering, irrigation, and harvest timing of the established wildflowers were recorded for each 

species (Table 7). Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 8. On 

17 November, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots for weed control. 
122

Cultural Practices in 2011

On 3 May, 50 lb N/acre was applied to all biscuitroot species plots and Uran (urea ammonium 

nitrate) was injected through the drip tape. Timing of flowering, irrigations, and harvests varied by 

species, see Table 7. Harvesting and seed cleaning methods for each species are listed in Table 8. 

On November 9, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots for weed control. 

Cultural Practices in 2012

Soil volumetric water content was very low in 2012 prior to the onset of irrigation for each species. 

Iron deficiency symptoms were prevalent in 2012. On 13 April, 50 lb N/acre, 10 lb P/acre, and 5 lb 

iron (Fe)/acre was applied to all biscuitroot species plots as liquid fertilizer injected through the drip 

tape. On 7 November, Prowl at 1 lb ai/acre was broadcast on all plots of sulphur-flower buckwheat 

and Gray’s, fernleaf, and nineleaf biscuitroot for weed control. 

Cultural Practices in 2013

On 29 March, 20 lb N/acre, 25 lb P/acre, and 5 lb Fe/acre were applied through the drip tape to all 

plots of Gray’s, fernleaf, and nineleaf biscuitroot. On 3 April, Select Max at 32 oz/acre was 

broadcast for grass weed control on all plots of sulphur-flower buckwheat, royal penstemon, and 

Gray’s, fernleaf, and nineleaf biscuitroot. 

Results and Discussion

Precipitation from January through April in 2013 was only 1.4 inches (36 mm), substantially lower 

than average. The accumulated growing degree-days (50-86 °F [10-30 °C]) from January through 

June in 2013 were higher than average (Table 9, Figures 1 and 2). 

Flowering and Seed Set

Sharpleaf and royal penstemon had poor seed set in 2007, partly due to a heavy lygus bug 

infestation that was not adequately controlled by the applied insecticides. In the Treasure Valley, 

the first hatch of lygus bugs occurs when 250 degree-days (52 °F [11 °C] base) are accumulated. 

Data collected by an AgriMet weather station adjacent to the field indicated that annual first lygus 

bug hatches occurred on 14 May 2006, 1 May 2007, 18 May 2008, 19 May 2009, and 29 May 

2010. The average (1995-2010) lygus bug hatch date was 18 May. Sharpleaf and royal penstemon

start flowering in early May. The earlier lygus bug hatch in 2007 probably resulted in harmful levels 

of lygus bugs present during a larger part of the penstemon species flowering period than normal. 

Poor seed set for sharpleaf and royal penstemon in 2007 also was related to poor vegetative growth 

compared to 2006 and 2008. In 2009, all plots of sharpleaf and royal penstemon again showed poor 

vegetative growth and seed set. Root rot affected all plots of sharpleaf penstemon in 2009, killing 

all plants in two of the four plots in the wettest treatment (2 inches [50 mm] of water per irrigation). 

Root rot affected the wetter plots of royal penstemon in 2009, but the stand partially recovered due 

to natural reseeding.
123

Table 7. Native wildflower flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species in 2006-2013 at 

OSU-MES, Ontario, OR

Flowering Irrigation

Species Start Peak End Start End Harvest

2006

Eriogonum umbellatum 19-May 20-Jul 19-May 30-Jun 3-Aug

Lomatium dissectum 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium grayi 19-May 30-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 19-May 30-Jun

Penstemon acuminatus 2-May 10-May 19-May 19-May 30-Jun 7-Jul

Penstemon deustus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 4-Aug

Penstemon speciosus 10-May 19-May 30-May 19-May 30-Jun 13-Jul

2007

Dalea ornata 20-Jun, 10-Jul

Dalea searlsiae 20-Jun, 10-Jul

Eriogonum umbellatum 25-May 25-Jul 2-May 24-Jun 31-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 5-Apr 24-Jun

Lomatium grayi 5-Apr 10-May 5-Apr 24-Jun 30-May, 29-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 1-Jun 5-Apr 24-Jun 29-Jun, 16-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 19-Apr 25-May 19-Apr 24-Jun 9-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 25-May 25-Jun 19-Apr 24-Jun 23-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 13-

Aug

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 13-

Aug

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 25-May 16-May 24-Jun 20-Jun, 10-Jul, 13-

Aug

2008

Dalea ornata 19-Jun

Dalea searlsiae 19-Jun

Eriogonum umbellatum 5-Jun 19-Jun 20-Jul 15-May 24-Jun 24-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 29-May

Lomatium grayi 25-Mar 15-May 10-Apr 29-May 30-May, 19-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 5-Jun 10-Apr 29-May 3-Jul

Penstemon acuminatus 29-Apr 5-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 11-Jul

Penstemon deustus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 5-May 20-Jun 29-Apr 11-Jun 17-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 5-May 15-Jun 15-May 24-Jun 21-Jul
124

Table 7, continued. Native wildflower flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species in 

2006-2013 at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR

Flowering Irrigation

Species start peak end start end Harvest

2009

Eriogonum umbellatum 31-May 15-Jul 19-May 24-Jun 28-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 7-May 20-Apr 28-May 16-Jun

Lomatium grayi 10-Mar 7-May 20-Apr 28-May 16-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 10-Apr 7-May 1-Jun 20-Apr 28-May 26-Jun

Penstemon acuminatus 2-May 10-Jun 8-May 12-Jun 10-Jul

Penstemon deustus 19-May 24-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 14-May 20-Jun 19-May 24-Jun 10-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 1-May 10-Jun 22-May 24-Jun 14-Jul

2010

Eriogonum umbellatum 4-Jun 12-19 Jun 15-Jul 28-May 8-Jul 27-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 25-Apr 20-May 15-Apr 28-May 21-Jun

Lomatium grayi 15-Mar 15-May 15-Apr 28-May 22-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 25-Apr 15-Jun 15-Apr 28-May 22-Jul

Penstemon speciosus 14-May 20-Jun 12-May 22-Jun 22-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 10-May 4-Jun 25-Jun 28-May 8-Jul 20-Jul

2011

Eriogonum umbellatum 8-Jun 30-Jun 20-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 1-Aug

Lomatium dissectum 8-Apr 25-Apr 10-May 21-Apr 7-Jun 20-Jun

Lomatium grayi 1-Apr 25-Apr 13-May 21-Apr 7-Jun 22-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 30-Apr 23-May 15-Jun 21-Apr 7-Jun 26-Jul

Penstemon speciosus 25-May 30-May 30-Jun 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

Sphaeralcea coccinea 26-May 15-Jun 14-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 26-May 15-Jun 14-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 26-May 15-Jun 14-Jul 20-May 5-Jul 29-Jul

2012

Eriogonum umbellatum 30-May 20-Jun 4-Jul 30-May 11-Jul 24-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 9-Apr 16-Apr 16-May 13-Apr 24-May 4-Jun

Lomatium grayi 15-Mar 25-Apr 16-May 13-Apr 24-May 14-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 12-Apr 17-May 6-Jun 13-Apr 24-May 21-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 2-May 20-May 25-Jun 2-May 13-Jun 13-Jul

2013

Eriogonum umbellatum 8-May 27-May 27-Jun 8-May 19-Jun 9-Jul

Lomatium dissectum 10-Apr 25-Apr 4-Apr 16-May 4-Jun

Lomatium grayi 15-Mar 30-Apr 4-Apr 16-May 10-Jun

Lomatium triternatum 18-Apr 10-May 4-Apr 16-May 4-Jun

Penstemon speciosus 2-May 10-May 20-Jun 2-May 12-Jun 11-Jul
125

Table 8. Native wildflower seed harvest and cleaning by species at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR

Species Number of 

harvests/year

Harvest method Pre-cleaning Threshing 

method

Cleaning 

method

Dalea ornata 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanicalc

Dalea searlsiae 0 or 2 hand none dewinger mechanicalc

Eriogonum umbellatum 1 combineanone dewingerb mechanicalc

Lomatium dissectum 1 hand hand none mechanicalc

Lomatium grayi 1–2 hand hand none mechanicalc

Lomatium triternatum 1–2 hand hand none mechanicalc

Penstemon acuminatus 1 combinednone combine mechanicalc

Penstemon deustus 1 combinea mechanicalchande mechanicalc

Penstemon speciosusf1 combinednone combine mechanicalc

Sphaeralcea coccinea 1–3 hand or combinednone combine none

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia 1–3 hand or combinednone combine none

Sphaeralcea parvifolia 1–3 hand or combinednone combine none

a Wintersteiger Nurserymaster small-plot combine with dry bean concave.

b Specialized seed threshing machine at USDA-FS Lucky Peak Nursery used in 2006. Thereafter an adjustable handdriven corn grinder was used to thresh seed.

c Clipper seed cleaner.

d Wintersteiger Nurserymaster small-plot combine with alfalfa seed concave. For the Sphaeralcea spp., flailing in the 

fall of 2007 resulted in more compact growth, and only one combine harvest was necessary in 2008, 2009, and 2010.

e Hard seed pods were broken by rubbing against a ribbed rubber mat.

f Harvested by hand in 2007 and 2009 due to poor seed set.

The three globemallow species had a long flowering period (early May through September) in 2007. 

Multiple manual harvests were necessary because seed falls out of the capsules once they mature. 

The flailing of the three globemallow species starting in fall 2007 was done annually to induce a 

more concentrated flowering, allowing only one mechanical harvest. Precipitation in June of 2009 

(2.27 inches [58 mm]) and 2010 (1.95 inches [50 mm]) was substantially higher than average (0.76 

inches [19 mm]). Rust (Puccinia sherardiana) infected all three globemallow species in June 2009 

and 2010, causing substantial leaf loss and reduced vegetative growth. Stands of all three species 

deteriorated in 2011, and plots were disked out in 2012.

Seed Yields

Sulphur-flower Buckwheat

In 2006, seed yield of sulphur-flower buckwheat increased with increasing water application, up to 

8 inches (20 cm), the highest amount tested (Tables 10 and 12). From 2007 to 2009, seed yield 

showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Tables 11 and 12). Seed yields were maximized by 

8.1 inches (206 mm), 7.2 (183 mm) inches, and 6.9 inches (175 mm) of water applied in 2007, 

2008, and 2009, respectively. In 2010, there was no significant difference in yield between 

irrigation treatments. In 2011, seed yield was highest with no irrigation. The 2010 and 2011 seasons 

had unusually cool and wet weather (Table 9, Figure 2). Accumulated precipitation in April through 

June of 2010 and 2011 was highest of all years of the trial (Table 9). Relatively high seed yield of 

sulphur-flower buckwheat in non-irrigated treatments in 2010 and 2011 seemed to be related to high 
126

levels of spring precipitation. The negative effect of irrigation on seed yield in 2011 might have 

been related to the presence of rust. Irrigation could have exacerbated the rust and resulted in lower 

yields. In 2012, seed yield of sulphur-flower buckwheat increased with increased water application, 

up to 8 inches (200 mm), the highest amount tested (Tables 11 and 12). In 2013, seed yield showed 

a quadratic response to irrigation rate. Seed yield was maximized at 5.6 inches (142 mm) of water 

applied in 2013. Averaged over 8 years, seed yield of sulphur-flower buckwheat increased with 

increasing water applied. Shape of the quadratic seed yield responses in most years suggests that 

additional irrigation above 8 inches would not be beneficial.

Sharpleaf Penstemon

There was no significant difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments for sharpleaf 

penstemon in 2006 (Table 10). Precipitation from March through June was 6.4 inches (163 mm) in 

2006. The 64-year average precipitation from March through June is 3.6 inches (91 mm). Wet 

weather in 2006 could have attenuated the effects of the irrigation treatments. In 2007, seed yield 

showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate. Seed yields were maximized by 4.0 inches (102 mm) 

of water applied in 2007. In 2008, seed yield showed a linear response to applied water. In 2009, 

there was no significant difference in seed yield between treatments (Table 12). However, because 

root rot affected all plots in 2009, seed yield results were compromised. By 2010, substantial 

lengths of row contained only dead plants. Measurements in each plot showed that plant death 

increased with increasing irrigation rate. The stand loss was 51.3%, 63.9%, and 88.5% for the 0, 4-

inch (102 mm), and 8-inch (203 mm) irrigation treatments, respectively. The trial area was disked 

out in 2010. Following the 2005 planting, seed yields were substantial in 2006 and moderate in 

2008. Sharpleaf penstemon performed as a short-lived perennial.

Royal Penstemon

From 2006 to 2009, seed yield of royal penstemon showed a quadratic response to irrigation rates 

(Tables 10, 11, and 12). Seed yields were maximized by 4.3, 4.2, 5.0, and 4.3 inches (109, 107, 127, 

and 109 mm) of water applied in 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, respectively. In 2010, 2011, and 

2012, there was no difference in seed yield between irrigation treatments. Seed yield was low in 

2007 due to lygus bug damage, as discussed previously. Seed yield in 2009 was low due to stand 

loss from root rot. The plant stand recovered somewhat in 2010 and 2011, due in part to natural 

reseeding, especially in non-irrigated plots. In 2013, seed yield increased with increasing water 

application, up to 8 inches (203 mm), the highest amount tested. Averaged over 8 years, seed yield 

was maximized by 4.9 inches (125 mm) of water applied.

Nineleaf Biscuitroot

Nineleaf biscuitroot showed a trend for increasing seed yield with increasing irrigation in 2007 

(Table 10). The highest irrigation rate resulted in significantly higher seed yield than the nonirrigated checks in seven of the last eight years. Seed yields of nineleaf biscuitroot were 

substantially higher from 2008 to 2011 than in other years (Tables 11 and 12). From 2008 to 2011 

seed yields of nineleaf biscuitroot showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate. Seed yields were 

estimated to be maximized by 8.4, 5.4, 7.8, and 4.1 inches (213, 137, 198, and 104 mm) of water 

applied in 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011, respectively. In 2012 and 2013, seed yield increased linearly 

with increasing water applied up to the highest amount, 8 inches (203 mm). Over 7 years, seed yield 

of nineleaf biscuitroot was estimated to be maximized by 6.4 inches (163 mm) of applied water 

(Table 12). 
127

Gray’s Biscuitroot

Gray’s biscuitroot showed a trend for increasing seed yield with increasing irrigation in 2007 (Table 

10). The highest irrigation rate resulted in significantly higher seed yield than non-irrigated checks 

in six of the last eight years. Seed yields of Gray’s biscuitroot were substantially higher in 2008 and 

2009. In 2008, seed yields showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate. Seed yields were 

estimated to be maximized by 6.9 inches (175 mm) of water applied in 2008. In 2009, seed yield 

showed a linear response to irrigation rate (Tables 11 and 12). Seed yield with the 4-inch (102 mm) 

irrigation rate was significantly higher than in the non-irrigated check, but the 8-inch (203 mm) 

irrigation rate did not result in a significant increase above the 4-inch rate. In 2010, seed yield was 

not responsive to irrigation, possibly because of the unusually wet spring of 2010. A further 

complicating factor in 2010 that compromised seed yields was rodent damage. Extensive rodent 

(vole) damage occurred over the 2009-10 winter. Affected areas were transplanted with 3-year-old 

Gray’s biscuitroot plants from an adjacent area in spring 2010. To reduce their attractiveness to 

voles, plants were mowed after becoming dormant in early fall 2010 and in each subsequent year. In 

2011, seed yield again did not respond to irrigation. Spring 2011 was unusually cool and wet. In 

2012, seed yields of Gray’s biscuitroot showed a quadratic response to irrigation, with a maximum 

seed yield at 5.5 inches of applied water. In 2013, seed yield increased linearly with increasing 

water application, up to 8 inches, the highest amount applied. Over 7 years, seed yield of Gray’s 

biscuitroot was estimated to be maximized by 5.5 inches (140 mm) of applied water. Most 

appropriately, irrigation probably should be varied with precipitation.

Fernleaf Biscuitroot

Fernleaf biscuitroot had very little vegetative growth from 2006 to 2008 and produced very few 

flowers in 2008. In 2009, vegetative growth and flowering for fernleaf biscuitroot were greater. 

Seed yield of fernleaf biscuitroot showed a linear response to irrigation rate in 2009 (Figure 14). 

Seed yield with the 4-inch (102 mm) irrigation rate was significantly higher than the non-irrigated 

check, but the 8-inch (203 mm) irrigation rate did not result in a significant increase above the 4-

inch rate. In 2010 and 2011, seed yields of fernleaf biscuitroot showed a quadratic response to 

irrigation rate. Seed yields were estimated to be maximized by 5.4 and 5.1 inches (137 and 130 mm) 

of applied water in 2010 and 2011, respectively. In 2012, seed yields of fernleaf biscuitroot were 

not responsive to irrigation rates. In 2013, seed yield increased linearly with increasing irrigation 

rate up to 8 inches (203 mm), the highest amount applied. Over 5 years, seed yield showed a 

quadratic response to irrigation rate and was estimated to be maximized by 5.5 inches (140 mm) of 

applied water.

All the biscuitroot species tested were affected by Alternaria fungus, but the infection was greatest 

on fernleaf biscuitroot. This infection delayed fernleaf biscuitroot plant development.

Globemallow Species

From 2007 to 2011, there were no significant differences in seed yield among irrigation treatments 

for the three globemallow species (Tables 10 and 11). Stand development for the globemallow 

species was poor in 2012, and plantings were eliminated.
128

Conclusions

Subsurface drip irrigation systems were tested for native seed production because they have two 

potential strategic advantages: low water use and buried drip tape provides water to plants at a depth 

that precludes irrigation-induced germination of weed seed and keeps water away from native plant 

tissues not adapted to a wet environment. 

Due to the arid environment, supplemental irrigation may often be required for successful flowering 

and seed set because soil water reserves may be exhausted before seed formation. Total irrigation 

requirements for these arid-land species were low and varied by species (Table 12). Globemallow 

species and sharpleaf penstemon did not respond to irrigation in these trials. Natural rainfall was 

sufficient to maximize seed production in the absence of weed competition.

Fernleaf biscuitroot required approximately 6 inches (152 mm) of irrigation. Gray’s biscuitroot, 

nineleaf biscuitroot, and sulphur-flower buckwheat responded quadratically to irrigation with the 

optimum varying by year. Scabland penstemon had insufficient plant stands to reliably evaluate its 

response to irrigation over multiple years. 

Table 9. Early season precipitation and growing degree-days at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR, 2006-

2013

Year

Precipitation (inches) Growing degree-days (50-86°F)

Jan-June April-June Jan-June

2006 9.0 3.1 1120

2007 3.1 1.9 1208

2008 2.9 1.2 936

2009 5.8 3.9 1028

2010 8.3 4.3 779

2011 8.3 3.9 671

2012 5.8 2.3 979

2013 2.6 1.4 1118

70-year average 5.8 2.7 1026a

a

27-year average.
129

Table 10. Native wildflower seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) in 2006, 2007, and 2008 at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR

2006 2007 2008

Species

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

---------------------------------------------------------- lb/acre --------------------------------------------------------

Eriogonum umbellatuma 155.3 214.4 371.6 92.9 79.6 164.8 193.8 79.8 121.3 221.5 245.2 51.7

Lomatium dissectumd---- no flowering ---- --- no flowering --- --- very little flowering ---

Lomatium grayid---- no flowering ---- 36.1 88.3 131.9 77.7b393.3 1287.0 1444.9 141.0

Lomatium triternatumd---- no flowering ---- 2.3 17.5 26.7 16.9b195.3 1060.9 1386.9 410.0

Penstemon acuminatusa 538.4 611.1 544.0 NS 19.3 50.1 19.1 25.5b 56.2 150.7 187.1 79.0

Penstemon deustusc1246.4 1200.8 1068.6 NS 120.3 187.7 148.3 NS --- very poor stand ---

Penstemon speciosusa 163.5 346.2 213.6 134.3 2.5 9.3 5.3 4.7b 94.0 367.0 276.5 179.6

Sphaeralcea coccineae279.8 262.1 310.3 NS 298.7 304.1 205.2 NS

Sphaeralcea grossulariifoliae442.6 324.8 351.9 NS 275.3 183.3 178.7 NS

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae1062.6 850.7 957.9 NS 436.2 569.1 544.7 NS

a Planted March 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005.

b Values within the same row and year are significantly different p=0.10.

c Planted March 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005, and whole area replanted in October 2006. Yields in 2006 are based on small areas 

with adequate stand. Yields in 2007 are based on a very poor and uneven stand.

d Planted March 2005, whole area replanted in October 2005.

e Planted spring 2006, whole area replanted in November 2006.
130

Table 11. Native wildflower seed yield in response to irrigation rate (inches/season) from 2009 to 2013 and for 2- to 8-year yield 

averages at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR.

2009 2010 2011

Species 0 inches 4 inches 8 inches

LSD 

(0.05) 0 inches 4 inches 8 inches

LSD 

(0.05) 0 inches 4 inches 8 inches

LSD 

(0.05)

----------------------------------------------------------- lb/acre ------------------------------------------------------

Eriogonum umbellatuma132.3 223 240.1 67.4 252.9 260.3 208.8 NS 248.7 136.9 121.0 90.9

Lomatium dissectumd50.6 320.5 327.8 196.4b 265.8 543.8 499.6 199.6 567.5 1342.8 1113.8 180.9

Lomatium grayid359.9 579.8 686.5 208.4 1035.7 1143.5 704.8 NS 570.3 572.7 347.6 NS

Lomatium triternatumd181.6 780.1 676.1 177 1637.2 2829.6 3194.6 309.4 1982.9 2624.5 2028.1 502.3b

Penstemon acuminatusa 20.7 12.5 11.6 NS -- Stand disked out --

Penstemon speciosusa 6.8 16.1 9.0 6.0b 147.2 74.3 69.7 NS 371.1 328.2 348.6 NS

Sphaeralcea coccineae332.2 172.1 263.3 NS 385.7 282.6 372.5 NS 89.6 199.6 60.5 NS

Sphaeralcea 

grossulariifoliae270.7 298.9 327.0 NS 310.5 351 346.6 NS 224.0 261.9 148.1 NS

Sphaeralcea parvifoliae285.9 406.1 433.3 NS 245.3 327.3 257.3 NS 81.6 142.5 141.2 NS

2012 2013 2- to 8-year averages

0 inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches 4 inches

8 

inches

LSD 

(0.05)

0 

inches

4 

inches

8 

inches

LSD 

Species (0.05)

----------------------------------------------------------------- lb/acre ------------------------------------------------------

Eriogonum umbellatuma 61.2 153.2 185.4 84.4 113.2 230.1 219.8 77.5 146.5 192.9 211.9 32.2

Lomatium dissectumd388.1 460.3 444.4 NS 527.8 959.8 1166.7 282.4 360.0 767.6 710.5 153.1

Lomatium grayid231.9 404.4 377.3 107.4 596.7 933.4 1036.3 NS 460.5 715.6 675.6 NS

Lomatium triternatumd238.7 603.0 733.2 323.9 153.7 734.4 1050.9 425.0 627.4 1235.7 1299.5 168.2

Penstemon speciosusa103.8 141.1 99.1 NS 8.7 80.7 138.6 63.7 112.5 162.8 144.9 35.9

a Planted March 2005, areas of low stand replanted by hand in October 2005.

b Values within the same row and year are significantly different p=0.10.

c Planted March 2005, whole area replanted in October 2005.

d Planted spring 2006, whole area replanted in November 2006.

e Planted spring 2006, whole area replanted in November 2006.
131

Table 12. Regression analysis for native wildflower seed yield response to irrigation rate 

(inches/season) from 2006 to 2013 at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR. For the quadratic equations, 

amount of irrigation that resulted in maximum seed yield was calculated using the formula: -

b/2c, where b is the linear parameter and c is the quadratic parameter. 

Eriogonum umbellatum Maximu

m yield

(lb/acre)

Water applied for 

maximum yield

Year intercept linear quadratic R (inches/season) 2 P

2006 137.9 27.8 0.68 0.01 360.3 8.0

2007 79.6 28.3 -1.8 0.69 0.05 194.0 8.1

2008 121.3 34.6 -2.4 0.73 0.01 246.0 7.2

2009 132.3 31.9 -2.3 0.60 0.05 242.9 6.9

2010 252.9 9.2 -1.8 0.08 NSa

2011 232.7 -16.0 0.58 0.01 232.7 0.0

2012 71.2 15.5 0.61 0.01 195.2 8.0

2013 101.1 33.4 -3.0 0.40 0.10 194.1 5.6

Average 151.0 8.2 0.67 0.01 216.6 8.0

Lomatium dissectum

2009 86.4 34.6 0.31 0.10 363.2 8.0

2010 265.8 109.8 -10.1 0.68 0.01 564.2 5.4

2011 567.5 319.3 -31.4 0.86 0.001 1379.2 5.1

2012 402.7 7.0 0.04 NSa

2013 565.3 79.9 0.65 0.01 1204.2 8.0

Average 360.0 160.0 -14.5 0.80 0.001 800.7 5.5

Lomatium grayi

2007 37.5 12.0 0.26 0.10 133.5 8.0

2008 393.3 315.4 -23.0 0.93 0.001 1474.6 6.9

2009 378.7 40.8 0.38 0.05 705.1 8.0

2010 1035.7 95.3 -17.1 0.22 NS

2011 608.2 -27.8 0.07 NS

2012 231.9 68.1 -6.2 0.66 0.01 418.9 5.5

2013 635.6 55.0 0.25 0.10 1075.3 8.0

Average 460.5 100.6 -9.2 0.43 0.10 735.2 5.5

Lomatium triternatum

2007 3.3 3.1 0.52 0.01 27.7 8.0

2008 195.3 283.9 -16.9 0.77 0.01 1387.6 8.4

2009 181.6 237.4 -22.0 0.83 0.001 822.0 5.4

2010 1637.2 401.5 -25.9 0.83 0.001 3193.2 7.8

2011 1982.9 315.1 -38.7 0.45 0.10 2624.3 4.1

2012 277.8 61.8 0.49 0.05 772.2 8.0

2013 211.5 101.8 0.57 0.01 1026.0 8.0

Average 627.4 221.6 -17.4 0.79 0.001 1333.7 6.4

Penstemon speciosus

2006 163.5 85.1 -9.9 0.66 0.05 346.4 4.3

2007 2.5 3.2 -0.4 0.48 0.10 9.2 4.2

2008 94.1 113.7 -11.4 0.56 0.05 377.6 5.0

2009 6.8 4.4 -0.5 0.54 0.05 16.1 4.2

2010 147.2 29.8 -2.1 0.35 NS

2011 360.6 -2.8 0.01 NS

2012 103.8 19.3 -2.5 0.3 NS

2013 11.0 16.2 0.77 0.001 141.0 8.0

Average 112.5 21.1 -2.1 0.45 0.10 164.8 4.9

a Not significant; there was no statistically significant difference in yield between the non-irrigated plots and the 

plots receiving 4 or 8 inches (102 or 203 mm) of water. 
132

Table 13. Amount of irrigation water for maximum native wildflower seed yield, years to seed 

set, and life span. A summary of multi-year research findings from OSU-MES, Oregon State 

University, Ontario, OR

Species Optimum amount of irrigation

Years to first 

seed set

Life 

span

inches/season from fall planting years

Eriogonum umbellatum 0 in wet years, 6 to 8 in dry years 1 7+

Lomatium dissectum 5 to 8 4 7+

Lomatium grayi 0 in wet years, 6 to 8 in dry years 2 7+

Lomatium triternatum 4 to 8 depending on precipitation 2 7+

Penstemon acuminatus no response 1 3

Penstemon speciosus 0 in wet years, 4 to 8 in dry years 1 3

Sphaeralcea coccinea no response 1 5

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia no response 1 5

Sphaeralcea parvifolia no response 1 5

Figure 1. Cumulative annual growing degree-days for 2006-2009 compared with the 23-year 

average growing degree-days at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR.
133

Figure 2. Cumulative annual growing degree-days for 2010-2013 compared with the 23-year 

average growing degree-days at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR.
134

C. Irrigation Requirements for Native Wildflower Seed Production for Perennial and 

Annual Species Planted in Fall of 2009

Clinton C. Shock, Erik B. G. Feibert, and Lamont D. Saunders, Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2013 

Nancy Shaw, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID

Project Description

Native wildflower seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial 

seed production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A 

major limitation to economically viable commercial production of native wildflower (forb) seed 

is stable and consistent seed productivity over years. 

In natural rangelands, the natural variations in spring rainfall and soil moisture result in highly 

unpredictable water stress at flowering, seed set, and seed development, which for other seed 

crops is known to compromise seed yield and quality. 

Native wildflower plants are not well adapted to croplands and are often not competitive with 

crop weeds in cultivated fields. Poor competitiveness with weeds could also limit wildflower 

seed production. Both sprinkler and furrow irrigation could provide supplemental water for seed 

production, but these irrigation systems risk further encouraging weeds. Also, sprinkler and 

furrow irrigation can lead to the loss of plant stand and seed production due to fungal pathogens. 

By burying drip tapes at 12-inch (30 cm) depths and avoiding wetting the soil surface, we hoped 

to assure flowering and seed set without undue encouragement of weeds or opportunistic 

diseases. Trials reported here tested the effects of three low rates of irrigation on the seed yield of 

11 native wildflower species (Table 14) planted in 2009. 

Methods

Plant Establishment

Each wildflower species was planted in four rows 30 inches (76 cm) apart (a 10-foot [3 m] wide 

strip) about 450 feet (137 m) long on Nyssa silt loam at OSU-MES, Ontario, Oregon. The soil 

had a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic matter. In October 2012, two drip tapes 5 feet (1.5 m) 

apart (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) were buried at 12-inch (30 cm) depths to irrigate the four rows 

in the plot. Each drip tape irrigated two rows of plants. The flow rate for the drip tape was 0.34 

gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches (41 cm) apart, resulting in a water 

application rate of 0.066 inch/hour.

On 25 November 2009, seed of nine perennial species (Table 14) was planted in 30-inch (76 cm) 

rows using a custom-made plot grain drill with disk openers. All seed was planted on the soil 

surface at 20 to 30 seeds/foot of row. After planting, sawdust was applied in a narrow band over 

the seed rows at 0.26 oz/ft of row (558 lb/acre). Following planting and sawdust application, 

beds were covered with row cover. The row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO) 

covered four rows (two beds) and was applied with a mechanical plastic mulch layer. The field 

was irrigated for 24 hours on 2 December 2009 due to very dry soil conditions.

Cultural Practices in 2010

After the newly planted wildflowers emerged in April, the row cover was removed. Irrigation 

treatments were not applied to these wildflowers in 2010. Stands of blue penstemon (Penstemon 

cyaneus), thickleaf beardtongue (P. pachyphyllus), and parsnipflower buckwheat (Eriogonum 
135

heracleoides) were not adequate for an irrigation trial. Gaps in the rows were replanted by hand 

on 5 November. The replanted seed was covered with a thin layer of a 50:50 mixture by volume

of sawdust and hydro seeding mulch (Hydrostraw LLC, Manteno, IL). The mulch mixture was 

sprayed with water using a backpack sprayer. 

On 18 November 2010, seed of Rocky Mountain beeplant (Cleome serrulata) was planted as 

described above.

Cultural Practices in 2011

Seed from the middle two rows in each plot of scabland penstemon (P. deustus) and 

parsnipflower buckwheat was harvested with a small plot combine. Seed from the middle two 

rows in each plot of the other species was harvested manually. On 11 November 2011, seed of 

Rocky Mountain beeplant was planted. On 5 December 2011, seed of yellow beeplant (C. lutea) 

was planted as described above. The beeplant species are annuals so they were replanted in new 

strips of land.

Cultural Practices in 2012

Many areas of the wildflower seed production were suffering from severe iron deficiency early 

in spring 2012. On 13 April 2012, 50 lb nitrogen (N)/acre, 10 lb phosphorus (P)/acre, and 5 lb 

iron (Fe)/acre was applied to all plots of barestem biscuitroot (Lomatium nudicaule), Hayden’s 

cymopterus (Cymopterus bipinnatus), scabland penstemon (P. deustus), blue penstemon, and 

thickleaf beardtongue as liquid fertilizer injected through the drip tape. On 23 April 2012, 5 lb 

Fe/acre was applied to all plots of scabland penstemon, blue penstemon, thickleaf beardtongue, 

parsnipflower buckwheat, Searls’ prairie clover (Dalea searlsiae), Blue Mountain prairie clover 

(D. ornata), and basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) as liquid fertilizer injected through the drip 

tape.

Flea beetles were observed feeding on leaves of Rocky Mountain and yellow beeplant in April. 

On 29 April, all plots of Rocky Mountain and yellow beeplant were sprayed with Capture®at 5 

oz/acre to control flea beetles. On 11 June, Rocky Mountain beeplant was sprayed again with 

Capture at 5 oz/acre to control a reinfestation of flea beetles.

A substantial amount of plant death occurred in the scabland penstemon plots during winter 2011 

and spring 2012. For scabland penstemon, only the undamaged parts of each plot were harvested. 

Seed of all species was harvested and cleaned manually. On 26 October, dead scabland 

penstemon plants were removed and the empty row lengths were replanted by hand at 20 to 30 

seeds/foot of row. After planting, sawdust was applied in a narrow band over the seed row. 

Following planting and sawdust application, the beds were covered with row cover.

 

On 1 November, seed of Rocky Mountain and yellow beeplant was planted on the soil surface at 

20 to 30 seeds/foot of row. After planting, sawdust was applied in a narrow band over the seed 

row. Following planting and sawdust application, the beds were covered with row cover. 

Cultural Practices in 2013

On 27 March, row cover was removed and bird netting placed over the Rocky Mountain and 

yellow beeplant plots to protect seedlings from bird feeding. The bird netting was placed over 

No. 9 galvanized wire hoops. Bird netting was also placed over Hayden’s cymopterus on 29 

March to protect new shoots. 
136

Table 14. Wildflower species planted in fall 2009 at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR. All species are 

perennial except Rocky Mountain and yellow beeplant, which are annuals

Species Common names Growth habit

Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Perennial

Cleome lutea yellow beeplant Annual

Cleome serrulata Rocky Mountain beeplant Annual

Cymopterus bipinnatusa Hayden's cymopterus Perennial

Dalea ornata western prairie clover, Blue Mountain prairie clover Perennial

Dalea searlsiae Searls’ prairie clover Perennial

Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial

Lomatium nudicaule barestem biscuitroot, barestem lomatium Perennial

Penstemon deustus scabland penstemon, hotrock penstemon Perennial

Penstemon cyaneus blue penstemon Perennial

Penstemon pachyphyllus thickleaf beardtongue Perennial

a Recently classified as Cymopterus nivalis S. Watson “snowline springparsley.”

Irrigation for Seed Production 

In April 2011, each strip of each wildflower species was divided into twelve 30-foot (9 m) plots. 

Each plot contained four rows of each species. The experimental design for each species was a 

randomized complete block with four replicates. The three treatments were a non-irrigated 

check, 1 inch (25 mm) of water applied per irrigation, and 2 inches (51 mm) of water applied per 

irrigation. Each treatment received four irrigations that were applied approximately every 2 

weeks starting with flowering of the wildflowers. Amount of water applied to each treatment was 

calculated by the length of time necessary to deliver 1 or 2 inches through the drip system. 

Irrigations were regulated with a controller and solenoid valves. After each irrigation, the amount 

of water applied was read on a water meter and recorded to ensure correct water applications.

 

The drip-irrigation system was designed to allow separate irrigation of the species due to 

different timings of flowering and seed formation. The three penstemon species were irrigated 

together, and the two prairie clover species were irrigated together. Parsnipflower buckwheat and 

basalt milkvetch were irrigated individually. Flowering, irrigation, and harvest dates were 

recorded (Table 15). Barestem biscuitroot flowered in 2012; irrigation treatments were applied 

and seed was harvested. Hayden’s cymopterus had not flowered as of 2012, and differential 

irrigation treatments were applied to Hayden’s cymopterus starting in 2012. 

Soil volumetric water content was measured by a neutron probe. The neutron probe was 

calibrated by taking soil samples and probe readings at 8-, 20-, and 32-inch (20, 51, and 81 cm) 

depths during installation of the access tubes. Soil water content was determined volumetrically 

from the soil samples and regressed against the neutron probe readings for each soil depth. 

Regression equations were then used to transform the neutron probe readings during the season 

into volumetric soil water content. 
137

Table 15. Native wildflower flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates by species at OSUMES, Ontario, OR

Flowering Irrigation

Species start peak end start end Harvest

2011

Astragalus filipes 20-May 26-May 30-Jun 13-May 23-Jun 18-Jul

Cleome serrulata 25-Jun 30-Jul 15-Aug 21-Jun 2-Aug 26-Sep

Cymopterus bipinnatus No flowering

Dalea ornata 8-Jun 20-Jun 20-Jul 27-May 6-Jul 22-Jul

Dalea searlsiae 8-Jun 20-Jun 20-Jul 27-May 6-Jul 21-Jul

Eriogonum heracleoides 26-May 10-Jun 8-Jul 27-May 6-Jul 1-Aug

Lomatium nudicaule No flowering

Penstemon cyaneus 23-May 15-Jun 8-Jul 13-May 23-Jun 18-Jul

Penstemon deustus 23-May 20-Jun 14-Jul 13-May 23-Jun 16-Aug

Penstemon pachyphyllus 10-May 30-May 20-Jun 13-May 23-Jun 15-Jul

2012

Astragalus filipes 28-Apr 23-May 19-Jun 11-May 21-Jun 5-Jul

Cleome lutea 16-May 15-Jun 30-Jul 2-May 13-Jun 12-Jul to 30-Aug

Cleome serrulata 12-Jun 30-Jun 30-Jul 13-Jun 25-Jul 24-Jul to 30-Aug

Cymopterus bipinnatus No flowering

Dalea ornata 23-May 10-Jun 30-Jun 11-May 21-Jun 11-Jul

Dalea searlsiae 23-May 10-Jun 30-Jun 11-May 21-Jun 10-Jul

Eriogonum heracleoides 23-May 30-May 25-Jun 11-May 21-Jun 16-Jul

Lomatium nudicaule 12-Apr 1-May 30-May 18-Apr 30-May 22-Jun

Penstemon cyaneus 16-May 30-May 10-Jun 27-Apr 7-Jun 27-Jun

Penstemon deustus 16-May 30-May 4-Jul 27-Apr 7-Jun 7-Aug

Penstemon pachyphyllus 23-Apr 2-May 10-Jun 27-Apr 7-Jun 26-Jun

2013

Astragalus filipes 3-May 10-May 25-May 8-May 19-Jun 28-Jun

Cymopterus bipinnatus 5-Apr 15-May 12-Apr 22-May 10-Jun

Dalea ornata 13-May 21-May 15-Jun 8-May 19-Jun 28-Jun

Dalea searlsiae 13-May 15-Jun 8-May 19-Jun 29-Jun

Eriogonum heracleoides 29-Apr 13-May 10-Jun 24-Apr 5-Jun 1-Jul

Lomatium nudicaule 11-Apr 20-May 12-Apr 22-May 10-Jun

Penstemon cyaneus 3-May 21-May 5-Jun 24-Apr 5-Jun 11-Jul

Penstemon deustus 3-May 18-May 15-Jun 24-Apr 5-Jun

Penstemon pachyphyllus 26-Apr 21-May 24-Apr 5-Jun 8-Jul

Results and Discussion

Precipitation from January through July was higher than average in 2011, close to average in 

2012, and lower than average in 2013 (Figure 3). The accumulation of growing degree-days (50-

86 oF [10-30 oC]) was below average in 2011, close to average in 2012, and higher than average 

in 2013 (Figure 4).
138

Flea beetle feeding occurred earlier in 2013 than in 2012. Upon removal of the row cover in 

March, flea beetle damage to the seedlings of Rocky Mountain and yellow beeplant was 

extensive, resulting in full stand loss. Harvested seed pods of parsnipflower buckwheat and 

Searls’ and Blue Mountain prairie clover had extensive damage from feeding by seed beetles in 

2013, indicating that control measures during and following flowering will be necessary to 

maintain seed yields.

Blue Penstemon

Seed yields did not respond to irrigation in 2011 (Tables 16 and 17). In 2012, seed yields 

increased with increased irrigation up to the highest tested of 8 inches (203 mm). In 2013, seed 

yields showed a quadratic response to irrigation with a maximum seed yield at 4 inches (102 

mm) of water applied. 

Thickleaf Beardtongue

Seed yields did not respond to irrigation in 2011 and 2012. In 2013, seed yields increased with 

increasing irrigation up to the highest tested of 8 inches (203 mm). 

Parsnipflower Buckwheat

Seed yields did not respond to irrigation in 2011 and 2012. In 2013, seed yields showed a 

quadratic response to irrigation with a maximum seed yield at 4.9 inches (125 mm) of water 

applied. 

Searls’ and Blue Mountain Prairie Clover

In 2011, Searls’ prairie clover seed yields were highest with no irrigation. In 2012, seed yields 

showed a quadratic response to irrigation with a maximum seed yield at 6.6 inches (168 mm) of 

water applied. In 2013, Searls’ prairie clover seed yields increased with increasing irrigation rate 

up to the highest tested of 8 inches (203 mm).

 

Blue Mountain prairie clover seed yields did not respond to irrigation in 2011. Seed yields 

showed a quadratic response to irrigation in 2012 and 2013, with a maximum seed yield at 7.7 

and 8.1 inches (196 and 206 mm) of water applied, respectively. Averaged over the 3 years, Blue 

Mountain prairie clover seed yield increased with increasing irrigation rate up to the highest 

tested of 8 inches (203 mm). 

Basalt Milkvetch, Barestem Lomatium, and Hayden’s Cymopterus

Basalt milkvetch seed yields did not respond to irrigation in any year from 2011 through 2013. 

Barestem lomatium seed yields did not respond to irrigation in either 2012 or 2013. Hayden’s 

cymopterus seed yields did not respond to irrigation in 2013.

Rocky Mountain and Yellow Beeplant

In 2011, Rocky Mountain beeplant seed yields increased with increased irrigation up to the 

highest tested of 8 inches (203 mm). Seed yields did not respond to irrigation in 2012. Averaged 

over 2 years, Rocky Mountain beeplant seed yield increased with increasing irrigation rate up to 

the highest tested. There was no plant stand in 2013.

Yellow beeplant seed yields did not respond to irrigation in 2012. There was no plant stand in 

2013. Early attention to flea beetle control is essential for beeplant seed production.
139

Figure 3. Cumulative annual and 66-year average precipitation from January through July at 

OSU-MES, Ontario, OR.

Figure 4. Cumulative growing degree-days (50-86 °F [10-30 oC]) for selected years and 23-year 

average at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR.
140

Table 16. Native wildflower seed yield response to irrigation rate (inches/season) at OSU-MES, 

Ontario, OR

Species

2011 2012

0 inches 4 inches 8 inches

LSD 

(0.05) 0 inches 4 inches 8 inches

LSD 

(0.05)

--------- lb/acre --------- --------- lb/acre ---------

Astragalus filipes 87.0 98.4 74.0 NS 22.7 12.6 16.1 NS

Cleome lutea 111.7 83.7 111.4 NS

Cleome serrulata 446.5 499.3 593.6 100.9b184.3 162.9 194.7 NS

Dalea ornata 451.9 410.8 351.7 NS 145.1 365.1 431.4 189.3

Dalea searlsiae 262.7 231.2 196.3 50.1 175.5 288.8 303.0 93.6

Eriogonum heracleoides 55.2 71.6 49.0 NS 252.3 316.8 266.4 NS

Lomatium nudicaule 53.8 123.8 61.1 NS

Penstemon cyaneus 857.2 821.4 909.4 NSa343.3 474.6 581.2 202.6b

Penstemon deustus 637.6 477.8 452.6 NS 308.7 291.8 299.7 NS

Penstemon pachyphyllus 569.9 337.6 482.2 NS 280.5 215.0 253.7 NS

Species

2013 Average

0 inches 4 inches 8 inches

LSD 

(0.05) 0 inches 4 inches 8 inches

LSD 

(0.05)

--------- lb/acre --------- --------- lb/acre ---------

Astragalus filipes 8.5 9.8 6.1 2.7 39.4 24.0 32.1 NS

Cleome lutea 111.7d 83.7d111.4d NS

Cleome serrulata 315.4c331.1c349.2c NS

Cymopterus bipinnatus 194.2 274.5 350.6 NS 194.2d274.5d350.6d NS

Dalea ornata 28.6 104.6 130.4 38.8 208.5 293.5 304.5 64.2b

Dalea searlsiae 14.8 31.7 44.4 6.1 151.0 183.9 181.2 NS

Eriogonum heracleoides 287.4 516.9 431.7 103.2 198.3 301.7 249.0 NS

Penstemon cyaneus 221.7 399.4 229.2 74.4 474.1 565.1 573.2 NS

Penstemon deustus 512.7c403.1c374.2c NS

Penstemon pachyphyllus 159.4 196.8 249.7 83.6 336.6 249.8 328.5 NS

Lomatium nudicaule 357.6 499.1 544.0 NS 205.7c311.5c302.6c NS

a Not significant. 

b LSD (0.10).

c Two-year average.

d Only one year of data.
141

Table 17. Regression parameters for native wildflower seed yield in response to irrigation rate 

(inches/season) at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR; for the quadratic equations, the amount of irrigation 

that resulted in maximum yield was calculated using the formula: -b/2c, where b is the linear 

parameter and c is the quadratic parameter

Year Intercept Linear Quadratic R

2 P

Estimated 

maximum 

yield

Water applied 

for estimated 

maximum yield

Astragalus filipes inches/season

2011 90.6 -1.6 0.01 NSa90.6 0

2012 19.7 -0.8 0.04 NS 19.7 0

2013 9.3 -0.3 0.1 NS 9.3 0

Average 35.5 -0.9 0.02 NS 39.9 0

Cymopterus bipinnatus

2013 194.9 19.6 0.07 NS No resp.b

Cleome lutea

2012 102.4 -0.031 0.01 NS 102.4 0

Cleome serrulata

2011 439.6 18.4 0.35 0.05 586.7 8

2012 175.4 1.3 0.01 NS No resp.b

Average 307.5 9.8 0.33 0.05 386.3 8

Dalea ornata

2011 454.9 -12.5 0.11 NS 454.9

2012 145.1 74.2 -4.8 0.65 0.01 431.8 7.7

2013 28.6 25.3 -1.6 0.88 0.001 130.4 8.1

Average 220.9 12.0 0.37 0.05 316.8 8.0

Dalea searlsiae

2011 263.3 -8.3 0.49 0.05 263.3 0

2012 175.5 40.7 -3.1 0.62 0.05 309.3 6.6

2013 15.5 3.7 0.54 0.01 45.1 8.0

Average 156.9 3.8 0.22 NS

Eriogonum heracleoides

2011 61.7 -0.8 0.01 NS 61.7 0

2012 271.5 1.8 0.01 NS No resp.b

2013 287.4 96.7 -9.8 0.64 0.05 525.1 4.9

Average 166.6 0.5 0.01 NS

Lomatium nudicaule

2012 75.9 0.9 0.01 NS No resp.b

2013 373.7 23.3 0.1 NS No resp.b

Average 224.8 12.1 0.07 NS

Penstemon pachyphyllus

2011 507.1 -11.0 0.04 NS 507.1 0

2012 263.1 -3.3 0.01 NS 263.1 0

2013 156.8 11.3 0.33 0.10 247.2 8.0

Average 385.1 -7.2 0.03 NS

aNot significant; there was no statistically significant difference in yield between the non-irrigated plots and the plots 

receiving 4 or 8 inches (102 or 203 mm) of water. 

bNo response. 
142

D: Irrigation Requirements of Annual Native Wildflower Species for Seed Production, Fall 

2012 Planting

Clinton C. Shock, Erik B. G. Feibert, and Lamont D. Saunders, Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR, 2013 

Nancy Shaw, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID

Project Description

Native wildflower seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial 

seed production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A 

major limitation to economically viable commercial production of native wildflower (forb) seed 

is stable and consistent seed productivity over multiple years. 

In natural rangelands, the natural variations in rainfall modify the emergence and establishment 

of annual wildflowers. Spring rainfall and soil moisture result in highly unpredictable water 

stress at flowering, seed set, and seed development, which are factors known to compromise seed 

yield and quality for other seed crops. 

Native wildflower plants may not be well adapted to croplands and are often not competitive 

with crop weeds in cultivated fields. Poor competitiveness with weeds could limit wildflower 

seed production. Both sprinkler and furrow irrigation could provide supplemental water for seed 

production, but these irrigation systems risk further encouraging weeds. Also, sprinkler and 

furrow irrigation can lead to the loss of plant stand and seed production due to fungal pathogens. 

By burying drip tapes at 12-inch (30 cm) depths and avoiding wetting the soil surface, we hoped 

to assure flowering and seed set without undue encouragement of weeds or opportunistic 

diseases. The trials reported here tested the effects of three low rates of irrigation on the 2013 

seed yield of 11 native wildflower species (Table 18) planted in fall 2012. 

Methods

Plant Establishment

Each wildflower species was planted in four rows 30 inches (76 cm) apart (a 10-foot [3 m] wide 

strip) about 450 feet (137 m) long on Nyssa silt loam at OSU-MES, Ontario, Oregon. The soil 

had a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic matter. In October 2012, two drip tapes 5 feet (1.5 m) 

apart (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) were buried at 12-inch (30 cm) depths to irrigate the four rows 

in each plot. Each drip tape irrigated two rows of plants. The flow rate for the drip tape was 0.34 

gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches (41 cm) apart, resulting in a water 

application rate of 0.066 inch/hour.

On 30 October 2012, seed of 11 species (Table 18) was planted in 30-inch (76 cm) rows using a 

custom-made plot grain drill with disk openers. All seed was planted on the soil surface at 20 to 

30 seeds/foot of row. After planting, sawdust was applied in a narrow band over the seed row at 

0.26 oz/ft of row (558 lb/acre). Following planting and sawdust application, the beds were 

covered with row cover. The row cover (N-sulate, DeWitt Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO) covered four 

rows (two beds) and was applied with a mechanical plastic mulch layer. 

Cultural Practices in 2013

Starting on 29 March, the row cover was removed. Immediately following the removal of the 

row cover, bird netting was placed over the seedlings to prevent bird feeding on young seedlings 

and new shoots. The bird netting was placed over No. 9 galvanized wire hoops. During seedling 
143

emergence, wild bird seed was placed several hundred feet from the trial to attract quail away 

from the trials. On 26 July, all plots of hoary tansyaster (Machaeranthera canescens) were 

sprayed with Capture at 19 oz/acre (0.3 lb ai/acre) for aphid control. 

Table 18. Wildflower species planted in fall 2012 at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR

Species Common name

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dustymaiden

Enceliopsis nudicaulis nakedstem sunray

Heliomeris multiflora showy goldeneye

Ipomopsis aggregata scarlet gilia

Ligusticum canbyi Canby's licorice-root

Ligusticum porteri Porter's licorice-root

Machaeranthera canescens hoary tansyaster

Nicotiana attenuata coyote tobacco

Phacelia hastata silverleaf phacelia

Phacelia linearis threadleaf phacelia

Thelypodium milleflorum manyflower thelypody

Irrigation for Seed Production 

In March 2013, the strip of each wildflower species was divided into twelve 30-foot (9 m) long 

plots. Each plot contained four rows of each species. The experimental design for each species 

was a randomized complete block with four replicates. The three treatments were a non-irrigated 

check, 1 inch (25 mm) of water per irrigation, and 2 inches (51 mm) of water per irrigation. 

Each treatment received four irrigations that were applied approximately every 2 weeks starting 

with flowering of the wildflowers. The amount of water applied to each treatment was calculated 

by the length of time necessary to deliver 1 or 2 inches through the drip system. Irrigations were 

regulated with a controller and solenoid valves. 

The drip-irrigation system was designed to allow separate irrigation of each species due to 

different timings of flowering and seed formation. All species were irrigated separately except 

for the two phacelia (Phacelia spp.) and the two licorice-root (Ligusticum spp.) Flowering, 

irrigation, and harvest dates were recorded (Table 19) with the exception of coyote tobacco 

(Nicotiana attenuata), which did not germinate and the licorice-root species, which did not 

flower. 
144

Table 19. Native wildflower flowering, irrigation, and seed harvest dates in 2013 by species 

from experiments conducted at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR

Species Flowering Irrigation Harvest

start peak end start end

Chaenactis douglasii 23-May 30-Jun 15-Jul 22-May 3-Jul 2-, 22-Jul

Enceliopsis nudicaulis 30-Jun 15-Sep 3-Jul 14-Aug 8-Aug to 30-Aug

Heliomeris multiflora 15-Jul 30-Aug 5-Jun 17-Jun 8-, 15-, 28-Aug

Ipomopsis aggregata 31-Jul very little 

flowering 31-Jul 11-Sep

Machaeranthera canescens 13-Aug 1-Oct 17-Jul 28-Aug 2-Oct

Phacelia hastata 17-May 30-Jul 22-May 3-Jul 30-Jul (0 in), 

7-, 19-Aug (8 in)a

Phacelia linearis 3-May 16-May 15-Jun 2-May 12-Jun 2-Jul

Thelypodium milleflorum no flowering

a Seeds from plants grown in the 0- and 8-inch pots did not ripen at the same time.

Results and Discussion

Precipitation from January through July in 2013 was 2.6 inches (66 mm), below the 66-year 

average of 6.1 inches (155 mm) (Figure 5). The accumulation of growing degree-days (50-86 oF 

[10-30 oC]) was higher than average in 2013 (Figure 6).

Stands of Douglas' dustymaiden (Chaenactis douglasii), coyote tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata), 

Porter’s licorice-root (L. porteri), and Canby’s licorice-root (L. canbyi) were poor and uneven, 

not permitting evaluation of irrigation responses. Manyflower thelypody (Thelypodium 

milleflorum) is a biennial and scarlet gilia (Ipomopsis aggregata) had very little flowering in 

2013, perhaps also a biennial in this trial.

Seed yields of hoary tansyaster, silverleaf phacelia (Phacelia hastata), and threadleaf phacelia 

(P. linearis) showed a quadratic response to irrigation rate (Tables 20 and 21). Seed yields were 

estimated to be maximized by a seasonal total of 2.4, 5.4, and 6.2 inches (61, 137, and 158 mm) 

of applied water for hoary tansyaster, silverleaf phacelia, and threadleaf phacelia, respectively. 

Seed yield of nakedstem sunray (Enceliopsis nudicaulis) was very low and was not responsive to 

irrigation. Seed yield of showy goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora) increased with increasing 

irrigation rate up to the highest tested of 8 inches (203 mm) (Tables 20 and 21).
145

Figure 5. Cumulative annual and 66-year average precipitation from January through July at 

OSU-MES, Ontario, OR.

Figure 6. Cumulative growing degree-days (50-86 °F [10-30 °C]) for selected years and 23-year 

average at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR.
146

Table 20. Native wildflower seed yield response to season-long irrigation rates (inches) at OSUMES, Ontario, OR

Species

------- Irrigation -------

0 in 4 in 8 in LSD (0.05)

--------- lb/acre ---------

Enceliopsis nudicaulis 2.3 6.8 5.9 NS

Heliomeris multiflora 28.7 57.6 96.9 NS

Machaeranthera canescens 206.1 215.0 124.3 73.6

Phacelia hastata 35.3 102.7 91.2 35.7

Phacelia linearis 121.4 306.2 314.2 96.0

Table 21. Regression parameters for native wildflower seed yield response to irrigation rate 

(inches/season) at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR. For the quadratic equations, the amount of irrigation 

that resulted in maximum yield was calculated using the formula: -b/2c, where b is the linear 

parameter and c is the quadratic parameter. 

Species Intercept Linear Quadratic R

2

P

Estimated

maximum 

yield

Water applied

for estimated 

maximum 

yield

lb/acre inches/season

Enceliopsis 

nudicaulis 3.1 0.4 0.16 NSa

Heliomeris 

multiflora 27.0 8.5 0.38 0.05 95.1 8.0

Machaeranthera

canescens 206.1 14.7 -3.1 0.54 0.05 223.4 2.4

Phacelia linearis 121.4 68.3 -5.5 0.69 0.01 332.5 6.2

Phacelia hastata 35.3 26.7 -2.5 0.66 0.01 107.7 5.4

a

Not significant; there was no statistically significant difference in yield between the non-irrigated plots and the 

plots receiving 4 or 8 inches (102 or 203 mm) of water. 
147

E: Tolerance of Native Wildflower Seedlings to Preemergence and Postemergence 

Herbicides

Clinton C. Shock, Erik B. G. Feibert, and Lamont D. Saunders, Malheur Experiment Station, 

Oregon State University, Ontario, OR 

Nancy Shaw, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, ID

Project Description

Native wildflower seed is needed to restore rangelands of the Intermountain West. Commercial 

seed production is necessary to provide the quantity of seed needed for restoration efforts. A 

major limitation to economically viable commercial production of native wildflower seed is 

weed competition. Weeds are adapted to growing in disturbed soil, and native wildflowers are 

not competitive with these weeds. The use of preemergence and postemergence herbicides for 

wildflower weed control is important, because wildflowers are fall planted. Fall planting results 

in nearly simultaneous wildflower and weed emergence early in the spring, complicating weed 

control. There is considerable knowledge about the relative efficacy of different herbicides to 

control target weeds, but few trials have tested the tolerance of native wildflowers to commercial 

herbicides. Two trials in 2013 tested the tolerance of 11 wildflower species to preemergence and 

postemergence herbicides. 

This work sought to discover products that could eventually be registered for use 

for native wildflower seed production. The information in this report is for the 

purpose of informing cooperators and colleagues in other agencies, universities, and 

industries of the research results. Reference to products and companies in this 

publication is for their specific information only and does not endorse or recommend 

that product or company to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. Nor should any 

information and interpretation thereof be considered as recommendations for the 

application of any of these herbicides. Pesticide labels should always be consulted 

before any pesticide use. Considerable efforts may be required to register these 

herbicides for use in native wildflower seed production.

Methods

The trials were conducted on a field of Nyssa silt loam with a pH of 8.3 and 1.1 percent organic 

matter where wheat was the previous crop. After the wheat harvest in fall 2012, the stubble was 

flailed and the field was plowed, disked, and groundhogged.

 

Before planting, drip tape (T-Tape TSX 515-16-340) was buried at 12-inch (30 cm) depths 

midway between each pair of 30-inch (76 cm) rows. The flow rate for the drip tape was 0.34 

gal/min/100 ft at 8 psi with emitters spaced 16 inches (41 cm) apart, resulting in a water 

application rate of 0.066 inch/hour. 

Seed of 11 wildflower species (Table 22) was planted on the soil surface on 27 November at 30 

seeds/foot of row. After planting, a thin layer of sawdust was applied over the seed row. The 

sawdust was applied at approximately 0.18 oz per foot of row (198 lb per acre). Row cover (Nsulate, DeWitt Co., Inc., Sikeston, MO 63801) that covered 4 rows was applied with a 

mechanical plastic mulch layer after planting. The field was divided in two. One half of the field 

was used for a preemergence herbicide trial and the other half was dedicated to a post emergence 
148

trial. Each half of the field was divided into plots which consisted of 11 single rows 5 feet (1.5 

m) long with one wildflower species planted per row. 

Procedures for Preemergence Trial

The experimental design was a randomized complete block with 13 herbicide treatments (Table 

22) replicated 4 times. For the treatments receiving charcoal, the charcoal was applied on 28 

November in a narrow band over the seed row that had been covered with sawdust. Charcoal 

was applied using a CO2 sprayer with a 5-foot (1.5 m) boom and 8008 nozzles spraying at 10 

PSI. The sprayer boom was oriented parallel to the seed row. Charcoal was mixed at 23 grams of 

charcoal per gallon of water and applied at a rate of 189 pounds of charcoal per treated acre and 

3,675 gallons of water per treated acre. The herbicides were broadcast following the charcoal 

application using the same CO2 sprayer but spraying at 30 PSI, applying 20 gallons per acre. 

Row cover was applied after the herbicide application. On 24 April 2013, the row cover was 

removed and stand counts were made in each plot. 

Procedures for Postemergence Trial

The experimental design was a randomized complete block with 9 herbicide treatments (Table 

24) replicated 4 times. Each plot consisted of 11 single rows 5 feet (1.5 m) long with one 

wildflower species planted per row. On 24 April 2013, the row cover was removed and stand 

counts were made in each plot. On 26 April, the treatments were broadcast using the same CO2

sprayer described above at 30 PSI applying 20 gallons per acre. On 14 May, stand counts and 

subjective plant damage ratings were made in each plot. 

General Considerations

The focus of the evaluations was wildflower tolerance to the herbicides, not weed control, so 

weeds were removed as needed.

Treatment differences were compared using ANOVA and protected least significant differences 

at the 95 percent confidence level (LSD 0.05) using NCSS Number Cruncher software (NCSS, 

Kaysville, UT).

Results and Discussion 

The weather during the winter and spring of 2012 was relatively dry, not favoring stand 

establishment. Even weed emergence was erratic.

All observations made on the herbicides tested are strictly preliminary observations. Herbicides 

that damaged wildflowers as reported here might be helpful if used at a lower rate or in a 

different environment. The herbicides were relatively safe in this trial but they might be harmful 

if used at higher rates or in a different environment. Nothing in this report should be construed as 

a recommendation.

Response to Preemergence Herbicides

Emergence was not uniform between replicates, complicating the interpretation of results. Weed 

pressure was too poor and not uniform enough to allow any estimates of the relative 

effectiveness of herbicide weed control. Emergence for threadleaf phacelia (Phacelia linearis), 

showy goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora), coyote tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata), cleftleaf 

wildheliotrope (P. crenulata), and Porter’s licorice-root (Ligusticum porteri) was extremely 

poor, and data is not presented. Emergence for manyflower thelypody (Thelypodium 
149

milleflorum) and Canby’s licorice-root (L. canbyi) was too poor to result in statistically 

significant differences. 

For Douglas’ dustymaiden (Chaenactis douglasii), common woolly sunflower (Eriophyllum 

lanatum), manyflower thelypody and Canby’s licorice-root none of the herbicides significantly 

reduced emergence compared to the check (Table 25). For Douglas’ dustymaiden, plant stands 

following treatment with Eptam plus charcoal were statistically greater than the untreated check 

treatment. For hoary tansyaster, only Prowl without charcoal, Outlook without charcoal, and 

Treflan significantly reduced stands compared to check treatment. For silverleaf phacelia 

(Phacelia hastata), many products tested significantly reduced emergence compared to untreated 

check. For Douglas’ dustymaiden, Eptam with charcoal resulted in higher emergence than Eptam 

without charcoal, but charcoal provided no benefits for the Prowl or Dual Magnum treatments. 

For hoary tansyaster, Prowl with charcoal resulted in higher emergence than Prowl without 

charcoal, but charcoal provided no benefits for the Eptam or Dual Magnum treatments. Charcoal 

application did not significantly improve emergence for any other species plus herbicide 

combinations tested. 

Response to Postemergence Herbicides

Postemergence herbicides were evaluated on 26 April 26 (Table 26). Buctril resulted in 

significantly higher injury than the untreated check for all species tested, except the licorice-root 

(Ligusticum spp.) for which poor stand development did not allow for injury evaluation. Aim 

resulted in significantly higher injury than the check for all species tested, except for the licoriceroot species for which poor stand did not allow for injury evaluation. Buctril resulted in 

significantly higher stand loss than the check for silverleaf phacelia, showy goldeneye,

manyflower thelypody, Canby’s licorice-root, and Porter’s licorice-root. Aim resulted in 

significantly higher stand loss than the check for silverleaf phacelia, showy goldeneye, and 

manyflower thelypody. Raptor and Chateau resulted in significantly higher stand loss than the 

check for manyflower thelypody. Goal Tender, Select Max, Prowl H2O, and Outlook did not 

result in higher injury or stand loss than the check for any species. 

Conclusions 

These results, while preliminary, suggest that some of the herbicides tested in these trials could 

be used for weed control in wildflower seed production. Charcoal was an effective safening 

agent for certain species-herbicide combinations. For additional information regarding the use of 

charcoal to reduce the toxicity of preemergent herbicdes, please see 

Felix, J.; Ishida, J. 2010. Use of activated charcoal to detoxify Dual Magnum and Outlook 

applied pre-emergence on direct-seeded onions. Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 

2009: 115-118.
150

Table 22. Wildflower species planted in fall 2012 in herbicide trials conducted at OSU-MES, 

Ontario, OR

Species Common name

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dustymaiden

Eriophyllum lanatum common woolly sunflower, Oregon sunshine

Heliomeris multiflora var. nevadensis showy goldeneye

Ligusticum canbyi Canby's licorice-root

Ligusticum porteri Porter's licorice-root

Machaeranthera canescens hoary tansyaster

Nicotiana attenuata coyote tobacco

Phacelia crenulata var. congesta cleftleaf wildheliotrope

Phacelia hastata silverleaf phacelia

Phacelia linearis threadleaf phacelia

Thelypodium milleflorum manyflower thelypody

Table 23. Preemergence herbicide treatments applied in fall 2012 following fall planting of 

native wildflowers at OSU-MES, Ontario, OR

Treatment Herbicide Charcoal Rate (lbs ai/acre)

1 Check no none

2 Prowl no 0.95

3 Outlook no 0.84

4 Eptam no 2.60

5 Dual Magnum no 0.95

6 Prowl yes 0.95

7 Outlook yes 0.85

8 Eptam yes 2.60

9 Dual Magnum yes 0.95

10 Treflan no 0.38

11 Balan no 1.20

12 Prefar no 5.00
151

Table 24. Postemergence herbicide treatments applied in spring 2013 following fall planting of 

native wildflowers at OSU_MES, Ontario, OR

Treatment Activity

Rate 

oz/acre lb ai/acre

Buctril foliar 8.0 0.12

Goal Tender soil/foliar 2.0 0.06

Select max foliar 6.0 0.05

Prowl H2O soil 32.0 0.95

Outlook soil 18.0 0.85

Aim foliar 1.0 0.02

Chateau soil/foliar 1.5 0.05

Raptor soil/foliar 4.0 0.03
152

Table 25. Plant stand of native wildflowers on 24 April 2013 in response to preemergence herbicide treatments with and without charcoal 

applied in the fall of 2012 to fall planted seed at OSU_MES, Ontario, OR

Herbicide Rate Charcoal

Chaenactis 

douglasii

Machaeranthera

canescens

Phacelia

hastata

Eriophyllum 

lanatum

Thelypodium 

milleflorum

Ligusticum 

canbyi Average

(lbs ai/acre) ------------------------------------------------- Stand, % emergence -----------------------------------------------

Check none no 27.5 46.3 30.0 24.5 21.0 8.8 26.3

Prowl 0.95 no 30.8 23.0 10.5 24.0 5.0 13.3 17.8

Outlook 0.84 no 6.8 8.5 5.8 5.8 5.5 3.3 5.9

Eptam 2.6 no 22.3 62.8 25.0 15.0 9.8 4.8 23.3

Dual Magnum 0.95 no 32.5 55.5 0.3 14.0 5.5 8.0 19.3

Prowl 0.95 yes 14.5 65.3 18.3 13.8 11.8 15.3 23.1

Outlook 0.85 yes 20.5 22.5 9.3 14.3 12.0 7.3 14.3

Eptam 2.60 yes 47.0 45.0 8.5 15.8 11.0 6.3 22.3

Dual Magnum 0.95 yes 31.0 49.3 15.3 28.8 16.3 3.8 24.0

Treflan 0.38 no 33.3 22.0 7.5 34.0 5.5 12.0 19.0

Balan 1.20 no 30.5 42.8 6.8 21.0 8.5 5.8 19.2

Prefar 5.00 no 29.0 43.5 14.5 15.5 8.5 13.0 20.7

Average 27.1 40.5 12.6 18.9 10.0 8.4 19.6

LSD (0.05) Treatment 13.8

LSD (0.05) Species 5.9

LSD (0.05)Treatment × Species 20.4
153

Table 26. Native wildflower stand loss and subjective evaluation of injury (0 = no injury, 10 = highest injury) in response to 

postemergence herbicide treatments applied on 26 April to fall-planted seed at OSU-MESOntario, OR

Chaenactis douglasii Machaeranthera canescens Phacelia hastata Eriophyllum lanatum Average

Treatment Injury Stand loss Injury Stand loss Injury Stand loss Injury Stand loss Injury Stand loss

0 - 10 % 0 - 10 % 0 - 10 % 0 - 10 % 0 - 10 %

Untreated 0.0 4.8 0.0 4.3 0.0 3.4 0.0 3.8 0.7 6.6

Buctril 2.0 7.8 2.3 0.0 3.7 43.3 4.0 22.3 3.9 31.7

Goal Tender 0.0 1.3 0.0 4.6 0.5 13.5 1.0 3.8 1.1 9.1

Select max 0.0 2.5 0.0 8.6 0.0 5.0 0.0 22.8 0.8 10.0

Prowl H2O 0.0 9.0 0.0 10.7 0.0 21.5 0.0 0.0 0.4 10.8

Outlook 0.0 5.6 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.2 0.6 11.5

Aim 2.4 5.4 3.2 4.1 7.0 52.8 7.5 16.7 4.5 22.1

Chateau 0.0 2.3 0.0 2.7 1.7 4.2 1.3 14.0 1.2 14.7

Raptor 0.0 13.3 0.3 8.2 5.0 6.7 0.0 5.6 2.6 12.9

Average 0.5 5.8 0.6 5.0 2.0 16.2 1.5 11.4 1.8 14.4

Heliomeris multiflora Thelypodium milleflorum Ligusticum porteri Ligusticum canbyi Average

Untreated 0.0 4.0 2.5 12.2 1.0 12.5 4.0 8.5 0.7 6.6

Buctril 4.0 33.3 6.5 59.3 0.0 51.7 0.0 41.7 3.9 31.7

Goal Tender 0.0 0.0 3.7 27.7 1.0 19.6 5.0 0.0 1.1 9.1

Select max 0.0 7.1 2.8 26.0 2.0 0.0 4.0 6.3 0.8 10.0

Prowl H2O 0.0 12.5 2.3 11.0 0.0 17.8 2.0 8.3 0.4 10.8

Outlook 0.0 12.5 3.0 27.9 1.0 16.7 1.5 15.5 0.6 11.5

Aim 4.5 40.5 4.2 39.6 0.0 8.3 0.0 21.4 4.5 22.1

Chateau 0.0 0.0 3.0 43.8 3.0 21.3 0.0 25.0 1.2 14.7

Raptor 0.0 0.0 7.7 37.5 5.0 22.2 5.0 5.1 2.6 12.9

Average 0.9 12.2 4.0 31.7 1.4 18.9 2.4 14.6 1.8 14.4

LSD (0.05) Treatment NS 8.0

LSD (0.05) Species 0.5 7.6

LSD (0.05) Treatment × Species 1.4 22.9
154

Publications

Annual Reports

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L.,D.; Johnson, D.; Bushman, S. 2013. Direct surface seeding 

strategies for the establishment of two native legumes of the Intermountain West. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Oregon 

State University Agricultural Experiment Station, Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2012, 

Department of Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 144. p. 132-137.

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L.,D.; Shaw, N.; Sampangi, R. S. 2013. Eight years evaluating the 

irrigation requirements for native wildflower seed production. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Oregon State University 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2012, Department of Crop and 

Soil Science Ext/CrS 144. p. 138-159.

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L.,D.; Shaw, N.; Sampangi, R. S. 2013. Preliminary estimates of the 

irrigation requirements for novel native wildflower seed production. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Oregon State 

University Agricultural Experiment Station, Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2012, Department of 

Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 144. p. 160-172.

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L.,D.; Shaw, N. 2013. Tolerance of sulphur-flower buckwheat 

(Eriogonum umbellatum) to rates and mixtures of postemergence herbicides. In: Shock, C. C., ed. Oregon State 

University Agricultural Experiment Station, Malheur Experiment Station Annual Report 2012, Department of 

Crop and Soil Science Ext/CrS 144. p 173-175.

Extension Publications, Circulars, and Newsletters

Shock, C. C. 2013. Drip irrigation: an introduction. Sustainable Agriculture Techniques, Oregon State 

University Extension Service, Corvallis. EM 8782-E. 8 p. Available: 

http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/37461/em8782.pdf

Shock, C. C.; Welch, T. 2013. El riego por goteo: una introducción. Tecnicas para la agricultura sostenible, 

Oregon State University Extension Service, Corvallis. EM 8782-S. 9 p. Available: 

http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/37461/em8782.pdf

Presentations

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L.,D.; Shaw, N.; Sampangi, R. S. 2013. Modest supplemental 

irrigation for Great Basin native wildflower seed production. 2

nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 

8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L. D.; Shaw, N. 2013. Tolerance of three Great Basin wildflower 

species to rates and mixtures of postemergence herbicides. 2

nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-

11; Santa Fe, NM.

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G.; Saunders, L.,D.; Parris, C.A.; Shaw, N. L. 2013. Planting systems for improved 

stands of Great Basin native perennials. 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Field days

Feibert, E. B. G.; Shock, C. C. 2013. Establishing wildflower plantings. Native Wildflower Seed Production 

Field Day; 2013 May 23; Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR.

Feibert, E. B. G.; Felix, J.; Shock, C. C. 2013. Weed control for native wildflowers. Native Wildflower Seed 

Production Field Day; 2013 May 23; Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR.
155

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G. 2013. Low irrigation water needs of native wildflowers. Native Wildflower Seed 

Production Field Day; 2013 May 23; Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR.

Shock, C. C.; Larsen, L.; Klauzer, J. 2013. Irrigation efficiency and water quality. Summer Farm Festival and 

Field Day; 2013 July 10; Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station, Ontario, OR.

Shock, C. C.; Feibert, E. B. G. 2013. Wildflower and native plant seed production. Summer Farm Festival and 

Field Day; 2013 July 10; Oregon State University Malheur Experiment Station. Ontario, OR.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

This section can be found at the beginning of this report.

Additional Products

 Seed produced from these plantings was used to establish commercial seed production fields.

 A field tour for growers was conducted in May 2013; a tour of the seed production trials was 

incorporated into the annual Malheur Experiment Station Field Day activities in July 2013.

 Continued improvement of native plant database on the internet: 

http://www.malag.aes.oregonstate.edu/wildflowers/
156

Project Title Stock Seed Production and Inventory for Native Plants in the Great 

Basin

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-268 

Principle Investigators and Contact Information 

Stanford Young, Research Professor

Utah Crop Improvement Association

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855

435.797.2082, Fax 435.797.0642 

 stanford.young@usu.edu

 Michael Bouck, Foundation Seed and Field supervisor

Utah Crop Improvement Association

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4855

435.797.2101, Fax 435.797.0642 

 michael.bouck@usu.edu

Project Description

This project was initially titled “Establishment and Maintenance of the Buy-Back Program for Certified Seed”. 

It was funded through a Memorandum of Understanding between the United States Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station (USFS-RMRS) in Boise and the Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA), 

initiated in fall 2003 and renewed with additional funds in fall 2004 and fall 2007. A new joint venture 

agreement titled “Stock Seed Production of Native Plants for the Great Basin” was completed on August 17, 

2009. Seed has been distributed during this time period through a Buy-Back Program, a mechanism for 

returning a portion of the seed increased by private growers back to the UCIA for redistribution to the original 

and new seed growers to further seed increase. 

Germplasm identity and purity of both original plant materials (as collected) and field increase has been 

facilitated by the Pre-Variety Germplasm program of the Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies 

(AOSCA), of which the UCIA is a vested member. Following the protocols of this program is mandatory to 

make sure that what is on the tag, is in the bag and all the work of original germplasm collectors is maintained 

during field production, marketing, and planting.

A synopsis of the Stock Seed Buy-Back Program for the 1 January to 30 September 2013 period is available 

(see Table 1).

Objectives

The objectives of the UCIA Buy-Back Program were to: 

 Increase stock seed of specific germplasm accessions, pooled accessions, and/or formal germplasm 

releases developed through the Great Basin Native Plant Project (GBNPP)

 Quickly identify and recruit interested seed growers, who would potentially benefit economically, to 

facilitate this seed increase

 Accelerate stock seed supplies and ultimately increase the availability and decrease the cost of 

commercial seed of specific species on the open market for reclamation projects and fire rehabilitation 

in the Great Basin
157

Methods

A detailed procedure for the Buy-Back Program has been outlined in previous GBNPP reports. In summary, 

small amounts of seed of selected species that were wildland collected or increased by public agency 

cooperators are allocated and distributed to private growers with special interests and/or experience in native 

plant seed production. A portion of the initial seed production is purchased by the UCIA through a Buy-Back 

agreement with specified quantities and costs. The Buy-Back seed is held in inventory and allocated, 

distributed, and sold to original or new growers with an interest in producing and marketing commercial 

quantities of select Great Basin species.

In addition, germplasm accessions of some species were distributed by public agencies to growers without 

specific agreements for stock seed Buy-Back or seed being held in UCIA inventory. In these cases, UCIA 

printed Source Identified certification tags from information provided by the germplasm developer on the UCIA 

Stock Materials Tagging Information Form (see Appendix 2). This identification legitimizes seed transfer, and 

the grower can enter the production field information for certification with the applicable state agency, whether 

the production is meant to have a Buy-Back contract or not. 

Results and Discussion

For many of the species being studied by GBNPP cooperators, wildland seed collection is insufficient to 

provide for reclamation planting needs. Thus, accessions consisting of limited quantities of seed, obtained from 

distinct wildland stands or pooled from defined geographic areas, must be increased in commercial fields or 

nurseries in order to be available in the marketplace in quantities sufficient for revegetation projects needed in 

the Great Basin. 

The UCIA Buy-Back Program has been nominally successful in providing a bridge between a) small-quantity 

initial accessions and b) commercial marketplace production. The UCIA has worked with specialized growers 

who have been willing to provide land, time, and expertise to produce increased amounts of stock seed from the 

small quantity of initial accessions. With UCIA facilitation, these have become available for commercial 

marketplace production. 

This process has been more successful for some species than others, but in general, progress was made in 

defining seed accession groupings, compiling knowledge of agronomic seed production techniques, establishing 

the importance of maintaining genetic identity and purity through seed certification, and understanding the 

reality of the commercial seed marketplace.

The pounds of seed of grasses and forbs that have been entered into inventory and distributed to growers under 

the auspices of the UCIA project from 2002 to 2012 are now updated for 2013 and are summarized in Table 1. 

Grasses are easier to produce and are generally used in greater quantities than forbs in reclamation plantings. 

Stock seed quantities in Table 1 reflect this reality.

Management Applications

The overall application and impact of this project has been minimal as related to the stated objective, which was 

to “accelerate stock seed supplies and ultimately increase availability and decrease cost of commercial seed of 

specific species on the open market for reclamation projects and fire rehabilitation in the Great Basin”.

The few successes in the commercial market include plant materials that were previously identified and 

developed by USFS-RMRS scientists and were adopted by the GBNPP originally. These include Eagle 

Germplasm yarrow, Mountain Home Germplasm Sandberg bluegrass, and Anatone Germplasm bluebunch 

wheatgrass. A notable exception is the Utah Department of Wildlife Resources (UDWR) Tetra Germplasm 

basin wildrye developed by a GBNPP cooperator at the UDWR Great Basin Experiment Station utilizing 
158

pooled tetraploid accessions from the Great Basin. It is now a factor in the commercial market since it is being 

purchased in sufficient quantities by both the UDWR and Bureau of Land Management consolidated seed buys 

and allowing growers to make money producing and marketing it.

Some of the forbs listed in Table 1 were increased successfully and made available in the commercial market 

but only Eagle Germplasm yarrow was purchased in any significant amount for revegetation projects by the 

BLM. Growers have thus abandoned some production because of unsold inventory. These include most of the 

buckwheat (Eriogonum spp.), penstemon (Penstemon spp.), globemallow (Sphaeralcea spp.), and lomatium 

(Lomatium) species. Most of these forbs are difficult and expensive to grow and economy of scale may never be 

applicable for the limited quantity of these niche species needed for revegetation projects. However, these 

niche species could be used in “island” plantings for the improvement of habitat for sage-grouse and other 

wildlife.

Publications

Young, S. A.; Vernon, J.; Shaw, N. 2013. Basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus) pooled tetraploid accessions for U. 

S. Intermountain West rangeland reclamation. In: Proceedings of the 22nd International Grasslands Congress; 

2013 September 15-19; Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; p. 381-382.

Presentations

Young, S. A. 2013. Native plants seed certification for genetic identity and purity (varieties and pre-variety 

germplasm). National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Young, S. A.; Andersen, W. 2013. Seed certification for wildland collected seed. National Native Seed 

Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Young, Stanford; Waibel, Gil. 2013. Organizers for the Symposium: What’s really in that bag of seed? National 

Native Seed conference; 2013 April. 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.
159

Table 1. Great Basin Native Plant Project 2013 stock seed inventory/distributed report

Species/Crop Variety/Germplasm ID

Class/

Generation Lot #

2004-2012 2013 2013 2013

Distributed 

from

inventory

Added to

Inventory

Distributed 

from

inventory Inventory

Bulk lbs. Bulk lbs. Bulk lbs. Bulk lbs.

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm? S G3

ACMI2-RMRS-63-

G3-ERSTROM-10 3.3

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm S G3 RMRS-ACMI2-11 0.5 0.0

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm S G2 NWS-1-YAR-FDN 12.0

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm S G1 NSW4-1-EMY1-1 6.5 0.0

Achnatherum thurberianum Orchard Idaho Site SI G1 2005.0394-1 13.0 0.0

Achnatherum thurberianum Orchard Idaho Site SI G1 2005.0394-2 1.0

Achnatherum thurberianum Orchard Idaho Site SI G1 2005.0394-C 6.0

Achnatherum thurberianum Orchard Idaho Site SI G1 2007.0498 1.0 0.0

Balsamorhiza hookeri BAHO B1 SI G0 BAHO B1-02 0.6

Balsamorhiza hookeri BAHO B1 SI G?? 2009.0426 15.9

Chaenactis douglasii NBR ?? ?? 4.0 4.0

Chaenactis douglasii NBR ?? ?? 12.0 12.0

Crepis intermedia CRIN U36-2004 SI G1 RP 2013-U36 0.2 0.2

Elymus elymoides Little Sahara SI/ G0 Lot # CU-907 91.0 32.0

Elymus elymoides

Toe Jam Creek 

Germplasm S G4 Lot # LHS1B2G-335 40.2

Elymus elymoides Fish Creek Germplasm S G3 Lot # LHS1B2H-335 47.1

Elymus elymoides

Toe Jam Creek 

Germplasm S G4 Lot # LHS1B2J-337 127.5

Elymus elymoides Fish Creek Germplasm S G3 Lot # LHS1B2K-337 113.5

Eriogonum heracleoides NBR/SRP SI G1 BFI-10-10139687 220.0

Eriogonum umbellatum NBR ?? ?? 20.0 20.0

Leymus cinereus UDWR Tetra Germplasm S/G1 ELCI-GBG-SFS-08 42.0

Leymus cinereus UDWR Tetra Germplasm S/G2 BF-10-101596762 405.0

Leymus cinereus UDWR Tetra Germplasm S/G2 BFI-11-1159676 1850.0 229.0 121.0
160

Species/Crop Variety/Germplasm ID

Class/

Generation Lot #

Distributed 

from

inventory

from 2004-

2012 (bulk 

lbs.)

Added to

Inventory

in 2013 

(bulk 

lbs.)

Distributed 

from

inventory

in 2013 

(bulk lbs.)

Inventory

in 2013 

(bulk lbs.) 

Leymus cinereus UDWR Tetra Germplasm S/G1 SFS Tetra-11 70.0 59.0

Lomatium dissectum NBR SI/G1 LODI TD-10 1.2 0.0

Lomatium dissectum NBR SI/G1 LODI TD-12 10.0 10.0

Machaeranthera canescens NBR ?? ?? 20.0 20.0

Penstemon cyaneus PECY B6-02 SI G1 2009-0570 6.1 0.0

Penstemon cyaneus PECY B6-02 SI G1 2004.0448 16.0 0.0

Penstemon cyaneus PECY B6-02 SI G2 2006.0413 5.0 0.0

Penstemon cyaneus PECY B6-02 SI G2 PPI-04-1 3.0 0.0

Penstemon deustus PEDE B11 SI G2 ?? 20.0

Penstemon pachyphyllus Pine Hollow Canyon SI G1 A5-4-P1 11.9 38.1

Penstemon palmerii Cedar Variety Foundation

CPP KL-05-3, GBRI 

36 10.0 10.0

Penstemon palmerii Cedar Variety Foundation

CPP KL-05-2, GBRI 

26 4.0 0.0

Penstemon palmerii Cedar Variety Foundation

CPP KL-05-1, GBRI 

16 96.5 36.5 0.0

Penstemon speciosus Great Basin SI BFI-12-10178761 20.0

Penstemon speciosus NBR ?? ?? 20.0 20.0

Poa secunda

Mountain Home 

Germplasm S/G1 NBS-RR8-MTH-1 829.0 171.0 0.0

Poa secunda

Mountain Home 

Germplasm S/G1 NBS-RR9-MTH-1 534.0

Poa secunda

Mountain Home 

Germplasm SI G2 557-215-31A 304.0 0.0

Poa secunda

Mountain Home 

Germplasm SI G2 016-215-611A 112.0 0.0

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm SI G1 JA-03, UCIA 44 300.0 0.0

Sphaeralcea coccinea SPCO-U55,U6 SI G1 WB 2013-U55,U6 1.0 1.0

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia SPGR-U63-2007 SI G1

SPGR2-U63-2007-

2012 3.0 3.0

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia CBR SI G1 GBGM-12 40.0
161

Species/Crop Variety/Germplasm ID

Class/

Generation Lot #

Distributed 

from

inventory

from 2004-

2012 (bulk 

lbs.)

Added to

Inventory

in 2013 

(bulk 

lbs.)

Distributed 

from

inventory

in 2013 

(bulk lbs.)

Inventory

in 2013 

(bulk lbs.) 

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia SPGR 2 U-63-09 SI G1 GLM-1 20.0 20.0

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia SPGR 2 U-63-08 SI G1 WB 2013-U63 2.0 2.0

Sphaeralcea munroana NBR SI G1 MGM-12-B 24.0

Sphaeralcea munroana Succor Creek SI G1 MUN-2 20.0 20.0

Sphlaeralcea parvifolia SPGR U14 SI G1 S04-2-4 5.0 0.0
162

Project Title Coordination of Great Basin Native Plant Project Seed Increase and 

Eastern Oregon/Northern Nevada Seed Collections

Project Agreement No. 12-JV-11221632-044

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Berta Youtie, Owner

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services 

P. O. Box 606 

Prineville, OR 97754

541.447.8166 

byoutie@crestviewcable.com

Project Description

Objectives

 Develop distribution and seed zone maps for sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum), 

fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum), nineleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium triternatum), and other 

priority seed collections in eastern Oregon.

 Establish a Great Basin Native Plant Project (GBNPP) Native Seed Growers Information Network and 

collect seed for GBNPP growers.

 Assist with bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata) seed collections for research to determine 

efficacy of using species-specific seed zones for re-establishment of native bunchgrass populations after 

fire.

Introduction

Some background is needed to understand the procedures necessary to develop a method for collecting 

genetically diverse, regionally-adapted native plant material for restoration in the Great Basin.

 Seed zones are used to select restoration plant materials that are best adapted to current and projected 

future climatic conditions.

 Provisional seed zones are used when common garden studies have not been used to develop speciesspecific seed zones. Common garden studies are rare for non-tree species in the United States.

 Great Basin provisional seed zone maps (Figure 1) are based on total annual precipitation and an aridity 

index.

 By mapping the distribution of known collection sites on provisional seed zone maps, we can identify 

future seed collection needs for genecology (common garden) studies, germplasm conservation, and 

wildland seed collection of agricultural seed field increase for restoration.
163

Figure 1. Great Basin provisional seed zone map (Bower et al. 2014). 

For each commonly used restoration species, our goal is to provide adapted and genetically diverse germplasm 

for each provisional seed zone within the species distribution where there is a restoration need.

Methods

Germplasm for a specific seed zone is developed by pooling multiple seed collections from the seed zone to 

provide genetically diverse, regionally adapted material. This material can then be planted immediately, 

increased in agricultural seed fields, or propagated in a nursery to provide seed or plants for restoration use.

We mapped known collection sites for three important Great Basin restoration species: sulphur-flower 

buckwheat (Figure 2), nineleaf biscuitroot (Figure 3), and fernleaf biscuitroot (Figure 4) to identify collection 

sites within the range of each species.
164

Maps were examined to develop field season collection plans that focused on identified collection site gaps.

Results and Discussion 

Development of Distribution and Seed Zone Maps for Important Great Basin Restoration Species

Figure 2. Map of sulphur-flower buckwheat collection sites.

Sulphur-flower buckwheat is an important, widespread, and often dominant Great Basin species. Seed will be 

collected from at least five of the seed zones where sulphur-flower buckwheat is most common (Northern 

region: bright green, dark green, and red; Central region: blue; Southern region: light green). Collections will be 

from the most common subspecies within each zone and populations from each seed zone will be pooled.
165

Figure 3. Map of nineleaf biscuitroot collection sites.

Nineleaf biscuitroot is important only in the northern part of the Great Basin, and the target variety is Lomatium 

triternatum var. triternatum. Additional seed collections are needed in southeastern Oregon, northern Nevada, 

northeastern Utah, and eastern Idaho. Pooled sources are needed for the bright green, dark green, and tan zones 

on the map.
166

Figure 4. Fernleaf biscuitroot collection sites map.

The most common fernleaf biscuitroot variety in the Great Basin is Lomatium dissectum var. multifidum. 

Current collections are concentrated in the Snake River Plain (red regions on the map). Future seed collecting 

work will focus in the red and tan zones of the map to develop two pooled sources in the north. Further 

collecting and herbarium research is needed to identify needs for the central region.

Conclusion

The Great Basin provisional seed zone map provides a valuable tool that can be used to strategically plan future 

collections. Additional tools that are valuable for seed collecting include soil surveys, ecological site 

descriptions, and local knowledge and experience. Provisional seed zone maps and some species-specific seed 

zones maps based on common garden or genecological studies of widespread species are available on the USFS 

Western Wildlands Environmental Threat Assessment Center (WWETAC) website: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/wwetac/threat_mapIntro.html

Results and Discussion

Establishment of a GBNPP Native Seed Growers Information Network and Seed Collection for GBNPP 

Growers

Two native seed farms in the Columbia Basin of Washington were visited in 2013. In May and June, forb fields 

of hoary aster (Machaeranthera canescens), showy penstemon (Penstemon

speciosus), sharpleaf penstemon (Penstemon acuminatus), basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes), 

Wyeth’s buckwheat (Eriogonum heracleoides), sulphur-flower buckwheat, dusty maiden (Chaenactis 

douglasii), and western prairie clover (Dalea ornata) were inspected. In 2013, there was an early warm period 

in May and unseasonable June rains, some seed yields were low. However, a few fields planted in 2011 or 

2012 were growing well. Growers were encouraged with their latest BLM seed buys. 
167

Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services (EOSS) collected 23 seed lots from 11 species for GBNPP growers and 

cooperators (Tables 1 and 2). Collections were made for Richard Johnson at the USDA Agricultural Research 

Service, Western Regional Plant Introduction Station; Clint Shock at the Oregon State University Malheur 

Experiment Station, and Robert Karrfalt at the USFS Forest Service National Seed Laboratory. Sulphur-flower 

buckwheat flowering specimens were collected for Matt Fisk, graduate student researcher at the University of 

Idaho.

Table 1. Forb species collected in 2013 for the GBNPP

Scientific name Common name

Chaenactis douglasii Douglas' dusty maiden

Dalea ornata Blue Mountain prairie clover

Eriogonum heracleoides Wyeth’s buckwheat

Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flowerbuckwheat

Ipomopsis aggregata scarlet gilia

Lomatium triternatum nineleaf biscuitroot

Machaeranthera canescens hoary tansyaster

Penstemon acuminatus sharpleaf penstemon

Penstemon deustus scabland penstemon

Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon

Sphaeralcea munroana Munro’s globemallow
168

Table 2. Seed lots collected during the 2013 field season by Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services for the 

GBNPP

Site number Site details Collection date No. of plants

CHDO1BY13S Lookout Mt., OR 7/24/13 50

CHDO2BY13S Pine Creek, ID 7/31/13 50

DAOR1BY08S North of Harper, OR 6/8/13 120

DAOR1BY13S Sag RD (Halfway), OR 6/25/13 72

ERHE1BY13S Lookout Mt., OR 7/24/13 50

ERHE2BY13S Pine Creek, ID 7/28/13 50

ERUM2BY13S Drinking Water Pass, OR 8/9/13 30

ERUM3BY13S Hwy 20 MP 196, OR 8/9/13 30

ERUM4BY13S Lookout Mt., OR 8/15/13 30

ERUM5BY13S Rye Valley, OR 8/15/13 30

ERUM6BY13S Boise Ridge, ID 8/17/13 30

ERUM7BY13S Upper Pine Creek, ID 8/17/13 30

ERUM8BY13S Lower Pine Creek, ID 8/17/13 30

ERUM9BY13S Pine Creek Ranch, ID 8/18/13 30

IPAG1BY13S Lookout Mt., OR 7/24/13 50

IPAG2BY13S Pine Creek, ID 7/31/13 50

LOTR1BY13S Bonita RD, OR 6/17/13 122

MACA1BY 13S Pine Creek, ID 8/18/13 50

MACA2BY13S Walgreens, Ontario, OR 10/15/13 50

PEAC11BY13S Keeney Pass, OR 6/17/13 91

PEDE1BY13S Sag RD (Halfway), OR 6/28/13 72

PESP1BY13S Halliday RD., OR 7/3/13 151

SPMUBY10S Overstreet RD, OR 6/17/13 86

Results and Discussion

Bluebunch wheatgrass Collections Using Species-specific Seed Zones

Bluebunch wheatgrass seed was collected in all major seed zones within the Columbia Plateau/Blue Mountains 

and Northern Great Basin/Snake River Plain Ecoregions for a new research project to establish common 

gardens and evaluate the efficacy of using species-specific seed zones for establishment of bluebunch 

wheatgrass on burned sites. The EOSS made 33 seed collections from zones 3a, 4,7a, and 7b.
169

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines 

Increased communication and collaboration has led to better seed distribution to growers and development of 

new forb species that may be used in BLM seed buys and restoration projects in the future. The USFS 

preliminary seed zone maps for the Great Basin are used for developing seed accessions for on-the-ground 

restoration.

Presentations

Youtie, Berta. Using preliminary USFS seed zones for developing seed collections for GBNPP native seed 

growers. 2nd Annual National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 9-11; Santa Fe, NM.

Youtie, Berta; Shaw, Nancy. The Great Basin provisional seed zone map: a tool for developing genetically 

diverse native plant materials for ecological restoration. 5th World Conference on Ecological Restoration; 2013 

October 6-11; Madison, WI.

References

Johnson, R.; Stitch, L.; Olwell, P.; Lambert, S.; Horning, M.; Cronn, R. 2010. What are the best seed sources 

for ecosystem restoration on BLM and USFS lands? Native Plants Journal. 11: 117-130.

Bower, A. D.; St.Clair, B.; Erickson, V. [In press]. Generalized provisional seed zones for native plants. 

Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/13-0285.1
170

Project Title Demonstration, Propagation, and Outreach Education Related to 

Great Basin Native Plant Project Plant Materials

Project Agreement No 11-CR-11221632-008 

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Dr. Heidi A. Kratsch, Horticulture Specialist

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension

4955 Energy Way

Reno, NV 89502

775.784.4848, Fax 775.784.4881

kratschh@unce.unr.edu 

Project Description

Introduction

The greatest challenges to increasing the use of native plants in northwestern Nevada urban landscapes are the

lack of local availability and prevailing myths about native plant characteristics. Our main objective is to 

encourage greater adoption of native plants by the local retail nursery industry and the general public in urban 

areas of northwestern Nevada. This year, our focus was on the Penstemon genus because of their showy floral 

display and attractiveness to pollinators.

Objectives

 Develop regional demonstration/trial gardens with interpretive signage for Great Basin Native Plant 

Project plant materials deemed appropriate for horticultural use.

 Investigate practical propagation methods for difficult native Great Basin plant species and 

communicate those methods through written publications and web-based educational resources.

 Integrate information on the ornamental, habitat, and water conservation benefits of native plants into 

appropriate courses and master gardener programs.

Methods

In May 2013, University of Nevada Cooperative Extension (UNCE) Master Gardeners planned and installed a 

penstemon demonstration garden on the grounds of the Washoe County Extension building. Ninety seedlings, 

representing nine regionally appropriate penstemon species were planted on the west side of the building. 

Species planted were Palmer’s penstemon (Penstemon palmeri), desert penstemon (P. pseudospectabilis), ‘Red 

Rocks’ penstemon (P. x mexicali), firecracker penstemon (P. eatonii), Rocky Mountain penstemon (P. strictus), 

Sunset Crater beardtongue (P. clutei), Front Range beardtongue (P. virens), ‘Elfin Pink’ beardlip penstemon (P. 

barbatus), and ‘Tall Orange Mix’ pineneedle beardtongue (P. pinifolius). Soil was prepared by ripping to 

eliminate the roots of shrubs that previously occupied the space. The site was amended with well-aged compost. 

A temporary drip system was installed for first-year establishment. Irrigation occurred three times per week for 

30 minutes the first month and once per week thereafter. 

Results and Discussion

We installed nine species of penstemon in a common garden under similar conditions of soil fertility and 

irrigation to compare their performance in a typical western Nevada garden setting. We are hoping to introduce 

the most successful and easiest care species to our retail nurseries that are largely unfamiliar with native plant 
171

species. In a preliminary evaluation, we judged desert penstemon, ‘Red Rocks’ penstemon, Rocky Mountain 

penstemon, firecracker penstemon, and ‘Elfin Pink’ beardlip penstemon as excellent performers under typical 

garden conditions of regular irrigation and compost-amended soil. Palmer’s penstemon and Sunset Crater 

beardtongue exhibited a 40 percent mortality rate over the summer, likely due to over-watering. Front Range 

beardtongue exhibited burning of foliage with western sun exposure and may be more successful if planted in 

eastern exposure. ‘Tall Orange Mix’ pineneedle beardtongue survived the season but was slow to establish; 

performance may be improved in its second season. 

We have used various methods to evaluate and educate members of the public about the potential use of native 

plant materials. A public survey was developed to gather marketing information about public perception, plant 

preferences, and plant purchasing habits related to penstemon and other flowering perennials. The survey is 

being conducted from June 2013 through June 2014. Information gathered will be disseminated to nursery 

owners, landscapers, and the public through a Native Plant Summit to be held in June 2014. A UNCE fact sheet 

titled Penstemons are for Great Basin Gardens was developed for distribution at educational events. 

Preliminary results from our survey showed that two out of three respondents had no idea that penstemons were 

native to Nevada, and 100 percent would purchase them if made available locally. Commonly cited factors in 

plant purchase decisions were: ‘native’, ‘color’, ‘attractive to pollinators’, ‘ease of care’, and ‘hardy to our 

climate’.

We also developed an online training module to educate Nevada Master Gardeners and the general public about 

regionally appropriate native plants for urban garden use. The module will be included as one component of a 

new online Master Gardener training program for the UNCE and is expected to go live in 2015. We developed 

two accompanying UNCE publications Flowers at the Border: Plant Native Flowers around your Yard to 

Attract Native Pollinators and other Beneficial Insects and Gardening Guide for High-Desert Urban 

Landscapes of Great Basin Regions in Nevada and Utah. These publications will be used to support the Master 

Gardener and other UNCE training programs, including Grow Your Own, Nevada, which trains the public on 

growing edible and ornamental plants in northern Nevada. Flowers at the Border includes an extensive list of 

herbaceous annual and perennial plants native to northern Nevada or surrounding states with similar climates. It 

highlights plant characteristics, cultural requirements, and attractiveness to pollinators and other beneficial 

insects. The Gardening Guide for High Desert targets northern Nevada newcomers and focuses on plant 

selection and care.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

Our work demonstrates that common gardens can be useful in determining species that will survive conditions 

common to a typical homeowner or landscaper. Demonstration gardens can also create awareness, interest, and 

excitement about plant species. Preliminary results of our survey confirm that if we are to be successful in 

increasing adoption of native species by the public on a large scale, we need to focus on those that exhibit 

elements marketable to consumers. Conventional retail nurseries will not take on the economic risk for plants 

that cannot sell. Consumer education about the ecology and landscape care of native species is also important; 

early success with native species may encourage repeat purchases and active searches for similar species in 

future plantings.
172

Presentations

Kratsch, H. 2013. Native plants in Nevada. 5th Annual meeting of the Multistate Research and Extension 

Project, WERA 1013: Intermountain Regional Evaluation and Introduction of Native Plants. 2013 October 

11; Reno, NV.

Publications

Bennett, P. J.; Bauske, E. M.; O’Connor, A. S.; Reeder, J.; Busch, C.; Kratsch, H. A.; Leger, E.; 

O’Callaghan, A.; Nitzche, P. J.; Downer, J. 2013. Farmer’s market, demonstration gardens, and research 

projects expand outreach of extension Master Gardeners. HortTechnology. 23(4): 411-415.

Sriladda, C.; Kjelgren, R.; Kratsch, H. A.; Monaco, T.; Larson, S. R.; Shen, F. A. [In Press]. Ecological 

adaptation of the endemic Shepherdia rotundifolia to conditions in its Colorado Plateau range. Western 

North American Naturalist.

Additional Products

A list of intermountain regional native plant growers has been revised and sent to the Native Plants for the 

Intermountain West website: http://www.wyoextension.org/westernnativeplants. 

Extension Fact Sheets/Special Publications/Newspaper Articles

Kratsch, H. [In Press]. Penstemons are for Great Basin gardens. University of Nevada Cooperative Extension 

(UNCE) Fact Sheet FS-13-35. Available: http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ho/2013/fs1335.pdf

Kratsch, H. [In press]. Flowers at the border: plant native flowers around your yard to attract pollinators and 

other beneficial insects. University of Nevada Cooperative Extension Spec. Pub. SP-13-XX.

Kratsch, H.; Heflebower, R. [In press]. Gardening guide for high-desert urban landscapes of Great Basin 

regions in Nevada and Utah. University of Nevada Cooperative Extension Special Publication SP-13-09. 

Available: http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ho/2013/sp1309.pdf

Kratsch, H. 2013. June is for penstemons. Reno Gazette Journal. 2013 June 22.

Web-Based Training Module

Kratsch, H. 2013. Native plants for garden pollinators. Training module for master gardeners and the general 

public. Available at http://www.growyourownnevada.com/grow-your-own-nevada-summer-2013-native-plantsfor-garden-pollinators/. 
173

Project Title Use of Native Annual Forbs and Early-Seral Species in Seeding 

Mixtures for Improved Success in Great Basin Restoration

Project No. 11-IA-11221632-011

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Keirith A. Snyder, Research Ecologist

USDA Agricultural Research Service

Great Basin Rangelands Research Unit

920 Valley Road

Reno, NV 89512

775.784.6057 Ext. 245, Fax 775.784.1712

keirith.snyder@ars.usda.gov

Shauna M. Uselman, Research Scientist/ 

Temporary Academic Faculty

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

University of Nevada-Reno

Reno, NV 89557

775.784.6057 Ext. 237, Fax 775.784.1712

s.uselman@sbcglobal.net

Additional Collaborators

Sara E. Duke, Statistician

USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 

Southern Plains Area

College Station, TX 77845

979.260.9320, Fax 979.260.9377

sara.duke@ars.usda.gov

Elizabeth A. Leger, Associate Professor

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

MS 186, University of Nevada

Reno, NV 89557

775.784.4111, Fax 775.784.4789

eleger@cabnr.unr.edu

Project Description

Background/Objectives/Hypotheses

Use of native annual and early-seral species in Great Basin rangeland reseeding efforts may increase invasion 

resistance, facilitate succession to desired vegetation and improve restoration/rehabilitation success. Early-seral 

species may be similar to exotic annual grasses in growth and resource acquisition strategies. Because they 

occupy a similar ecological niche and have similar functional traits (e.g., growth rates and resource acquisition 

strategies), theory predicts that early-seral species would compete more strongly against invasives like 
174

cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae). As invasion and success of 

exotic grasses appears to be associated with soil type, competitive interactions may also depend on soil type. 

In this study, we used a common garden approach to evaluate the performance of two exotic annual grasses:

cheatgrass and medusahead and mixtures of native species in two soil types: clay loam and sandy loam. We 

assessed emergence, early seedling survival, biomass, and reproductive output during the first growing season 

since early life stages are critical to restoration success. Our first objective was to assess the relative 

performance of two native seed mixes, a seed mix of early-seral species and a traditional seed mix of late-seral 

species, when seeded with an exotic annual grass. We hypothesized that the early-seral seed mix would be more 

successful than the late-seral seed mix. Our second objective was to test the potential suppressive effect of the 

early- and late-seral seed mixes on the early life stages of the exotic annual grasses. Here we hypothesized that 

the early-seral seed mix would have a greater suppressive effect on the exotic annual grasses than the late-seral 

seed mix and that the suppressive effect would be strongest in the soil type where the exotic is presumed to be 

least well adapted. Our third objective was to examine the performance of exotics and natives in two different 

soil types: clay loam and sandy loam. We hypothesized that the exotics would be more successful when 

growing in soils where they are presumed to be best adapted. Specifically, we predicted that medusahead would 

be most successful in clay loam, while cheatgrass would be most successful in sandy loam. For the native 

species, we hypothesized that performance would differ by soil type based on the soil preference of the exotics. 

Methods

We used a common garden approach to assess exotic and native plant performance in two soil types under the 

same climatic conditions. Three experiments were performed, using completely randomized designs. We 

designed two, parallel 2×3-factorial experiments, one with cheatgrass another with medusahead, to assess the 

performance of the early-seral native seed mix and the late-seral seed mix and the relative performance of 

cheatgrass and medusahead growing with and without native species. In these experiments, clay loam and sandy 

loam soil types were planted with three types of seed mixes (early-seral species, late-seral species, and no native 

species). In an additional experiment we evaluated the performance of native species growing without exotics. 

In the ‘No Exotic’ experiment, soil type was crossed with early- and late-seral seed mixes.

Each seed mix consisted of two forbs, two perennial grasses, and one shrub. The early-seral mix included: 

bristly fiddleneck (Amsinckia tessellata), Veatch’s blazingstar (Mentzelia veatchiana), squirreltail (Elymus 

elymoides), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda), and rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa). Early-seral 

species seed was collected from multiple wild populations. The late-seral mix was representative of species 

used in restoration and included: Palmer’s penstemon (Penstemon palmeri), goosberryleaf globemallow 

(Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia), Snake River wheatgrass (Elymus wawawaiensis), Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum 

hymenoides), and Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp. wyomingensis). Late-seral species seeds 

were purchased from Comstock Seeds (Gardnerville, Nevada). Representative clay loam soils (clayey, 

smectitic, mesic, Lithic Argixeroll) and sandy loam soils (fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, mesic Durinodic 

Xeric Haplargid) were collected from multiple field locations, homogenized by soil type, and used to fill 16-

inch (41 cm) deep treepots. Pots were sunk into the ground at a site on the University of Nevada Agricultural 

Experiment Station grounds in Reno, Nevada. Pots were seeded in October 2010. In each pot, seeds were sown 

by hand into randomized locations within each pot using a 20-location fixed grid (pot surface area was 6 × 6 in2

[15 × 15 cm2]). In the ‘No Exotic’ experiment, we used two species combinations: 1) early-seral native species 

only (10 total seeds, two of each species), and 2) late-seral native species only (10 total seeds, two of each 

species). In the two parallel experiments with exotic grasses, we used three species combinations: 1) exotic 
175

species only (10 seeds of either cheatgrass or medusahead), 2) exotic and early-seral native species together (10 

exotic and 10 native seeds), and 3) exotic and late-seral native species together (10 exotic and 10 native seeds).

Emergence and seedling survival were monitored biweekly from first emergence (November 2010) through 

spring of the following year (May 2011) (Figure 1). We also measured aboveground biomass production, seed 

output, and final establishment though fall 2011. Logistic regression analysis was performed on the emergence 

and survival of exotics and natives in each experiment. We used ANOVA to analyze establishment, biomass, 

and seed production. Models included seed mix and soil type as factors. For the native species models, 

functional group (grass, forb, and shrub) was included as a factor. Additionally, ANOVA was used to assess 

treatment differences in timing of emergence for exotics and natives using the same model structure described 

above. Analyses were performed using SAS 9.3 or JMP 9.0 statistical analysis software (SAS Institute, Inc., 

Cary, NC).

Figure 1. One of the replicates in the medusahead experiment where several exotic and native individuals have 

emerged. Photo taken during emergence monitoring about three weeks after seeding.

Results

Emergence and Survival

We found that early-seral species generally outperformed late-seral species growing with exotic annual grasses, 

for emergence probabilities (p<0.0001), survival probabilities (p<0.05, with medusahead), and earlier 

emergence timing (p<0.0001), though results differed among functional groups and soil types. When growing 

with cheatgrass, early- and late-seral native species survivorship was variable in sandy loam soil but not in clay 

loam soil (p<0.01). Within each seed mix, native grasses exhibited the highest emergence probabilities of the 

functional groups (p<0.0001). In both the cheatgrass and medusahead experiments, we found that the presence 

of native species did not have a suppressive effect on the exotics. Cheatgrass had a high probability of survival 

when growing with either of the native seed mixes. A suppressive effect of the natives on the exotics may be 

more likely in later life stages. In terms of soil preference, we found that cheatgrass performed better in sandy 

loam, as predicted, for emergence and survival (p<0.0001). Contrary to our prediction, medusahead did not 

show a preference for clay loam; medusahead demonstrated superior performance in both soil types. Emergence 

of all native functional groups was generally higher on sandy loam when growing with exotics (p<0.01). We 

also found that native grasses had higher survival in sandy loam, while forbs and shrubs had higher survival in 

clay loam when growing with exotics (p<0.0001). 
176

Establishment, Biomass, and Reproductive Output in the Medusahead Experiment

Establishment of medusahead was not affected by seed mix but was significantly higher in sandy loam than clay 

loam (p=0.003). Medusahead establishment was high in all treatments and ranged from 83% to 93%. When 

growing with medusahead, establishment of early-seral natives was higher than that of late-seral natives for 

grasses and forbs but not for shrubs (p=0.02). Native grasses generally exhibited higher establishment than 

forbs and shrubs. Establishment of grasses was higher in sandy loam than clay loam, while establishment of 

forbs and shrubs was not significantly affected by soil type. Both biomass and seed production of medusahead 

were reduced in the early-seral seed mix when compared to growing alone, although this effect was relatively 

small. Medusahead biomass and seed production were more strongly reduced in the sandy loam (21% and 22%, 

respectively) than in the clay loam (13% and 14%, respectively). In contrast, biomass and seed production of 

medusahead were not suppressed by the late-seral seed mix. When growing with medusahead, native 

aboveground biomass and seed production varied by seed mix, soil type, and functional group (seed mix × soil 

type × functional group interaction p=0.02). Both biomass and seed production of early-seral native forbs was 

higher in clay loam than sandy loam. All other native treatment group means were zero or near zero. 

Figure 2. Bristly fiddleneck suppressing the medusahead. Photo taken 3 June 2011.

Conclusions

Given their generally better performance, early-seral native species may have a greater chance of persisting in 

the presence of cheatgrass or medusahead than late-seral native species. Success of seeded natives at the 

seedling stage is likely critical in determining the eventual success of native reseeding efforts. Our findings 

suggest that use of native annuals and other early-seral species in reseeding may result in greater density of 

native species in communities with exotics; though additional studies or longer term monitoring are needed to 

assess future persistence and successional change. Based on the few species that we tested, differences in native 

species emergence and survival with exotics on the two soil types suggest that use of early-seral species in 

restoration may result in greater success on sites with coarse-textured soils, particularly when native grasses 

comprise a large proportion of the native seed mix. However, when biomass and reproductive output were 

measured, the early-seral forb, bristly fiddleneck, had a suppressive effect on medusahead on both soil types 

and performance of medusahead was comparable in the two soil types. To date, medusahead invasions have 

been most closely associated with fine-textured soils, but it has been observed on sites with coarse-textured 

soils (Dahl and Tisdale 1975). Our results support these observations and suggest that medusahead is capable of 

expanding its current range in the Intermountain West. 
177

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

This research lends support to the use of early-seral native species to improve success of rangeland restoration 

and rehabilitation in the Great Basin. Given their greater early life stage performance than late-seral native 

species growing with exotics, early-seral species may have a greater chance of persistence in communities with 

exotic annual grasses. If they persist, and possibly suppress exotics once they mature, their establishment may 

facilitate succession to a more native later seral community, provided a seed bank of late-seral species is 

present. 

Our research findings on emergence and survival among the different native functional groups suggest that it 

may be advisable to rely more heavily on native grasses in restoration seedings. Although forbs in this study did 

not establish as well as the native grasses, certain species such as bristly fiddleneck show promise for use in 

rangeland reseedings. Further research is needed to say whether an increased seeding rate for bristly fiddleneck 

and a more diverse seeding mix improves suppression of exotics. Additional research is also needed to assess 

the impact of native perennial grasses on exotic annual grasses in later stages of community development. Our 

findings suggest that finding species for seed mixtures might focus on early-seral species similar to bristly 

fiddleneck.

Presentations

Uselman, S. M.; Snyder, K. A.; Leger, E. A.; Duke, S. E. Using annual forbs and early seral species in seeding 

mixtures for improved success in Great Basin restoration. 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-

11; Santa Fe, NM. 

Publications

Uselman, S. M.; Snyder, K. A.; Leger, E. A.; Duke, S. E. 2014. First-year establishment, biomass and seed 

production of early vs. late seral natives in two medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae) invaded 

soils. Invasive Plant Science and Management. [In Press].

Uselman, S. M.; Snyder, K. A.; Leger, E. A.; Duke, S. E. [In revision]. Emergence and survival of early vs. late 

seral species in Great Basin restoration during early life stages in two different soil types. Applied Vegetation 

Science.

Uselman, S. M.; Snyder, K. A.; Leger, E. A. [In preparation]. Comparison of early vs. late seral native biomass 

and seed production when growing with Bromus tectorum. 

Additional Products

Brochures for the public at the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station Field Day, College of Agriculture, 

Biotechnology, and Natural Resources, University of Nevada-Reno, September 2013, Reno, Nevada.

References

Dahl, B. E.; Tisdale, E. W. 1975. Environmental factors related to medusahead distribution. Journal of Range 

Management. 28: 463-468.
178

Project Title Science Delivery for the Great Basin Native Plant Project

Project Agreement No. 14-JV-11221632-018

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Corey Gucker, Outreach Coordinator

Corey Gucker Company

416 N. Garden St.

Boise, Idaho 83706

208.373.4342

coreylgucker@fs.fed.us

Project Description

Science integration and application is an integral function of the Great Basin Native Plant Project (GBNPP). 

Completed studies in the areas of plant material development, cultural practices for seed production, and 

restoration ecology and technology provide a constantly increasing body of knowledge that is published and 

distributed in many ways: published in journals, theses and dissertations, and reports, presented through posters, 

brochures, and flyers, and disseminated through e-mail, webinars, and meeting networking. Sharing and 

synthesizing this information is essential to rapid and appropriate application in the selection of appropriate 

plant materials for planting mixes, commercial seed production, and ecological restoration.

Objectives

The objectives of this project are to promote timely, useful, and user-friendly informational materials to GBNPP 

cooperators and collaborators to advance successful Great Basin restoration efforts.

Results and Discussion

At this early date of the project’s life, considerable progress has been made in the attempt to disseminate the 

scientific developments made by the GBNPP project. Since January 2013, I have: 

 Became acquainted with Great Basin Native Plant Project (GBNPP) cooperators, maintained contact and 

correspondence throughout the year about upcoming events and project due dates. 

 Developed posters and brochures for Great Basin events and meetings. 

 Updated the GBNPP website with meeting announcements, new publications, and updated cooperator 

information.

 Worked through all aspects of planning, logistics, scheduling, and running the GBNPP annual meeting 

with about 100 participants.

 Compiled and edited the GBNPP annual progress report of more than 200 pages.

Presentations

Kilkenny, F.; Gucker, C. L. 2013. The Great Basin Native Plant Project. Poster presented at the Great Basin 

Consortium Conference; 2013 December 9-10; Reno NV.
179

Project Title Evaluating Strategies for Increasing Plant Diversity in 

Crested Wheatgrass Seedings

Project No. 10-CR-11221632-117

Principle Investigators and Contact Information

Kent McAdoo, Associate Professor, Natural Resources Specialist

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension

701 Walnut Street

Elko, NV 89801

775.738.1251, Fax775.753.7843

mcadook@unce.unr.edu

John Swanson, Rangeland Ecologist

University of Nevada

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science

1664 North Virginia Street

Reno, NV 89512

775.784.1449, Fax 775.784.4583

jswanson@cabnr.unr.edu

Project Description

Objectives

Objectives of this research include:

 Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass (Aropyron desertorum) control methods on wheatgrass 

density and cover.

 Determine the effect of crested wheatgrass control methods and revegetation on establishment of seeded 

species.

Methods

Study Site

The study site, approximately 15 miles (24 km) southeast of Elko, Nevada, is located within the 8- to 10-inch 

(203-254 mm) precipitation zone on sandy loam soils (Orovada Puett association) in vegetation that was 

formerly dominated by Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis). The area was 

seeded with crested wheatgrass in the 1970s. Located within the boundaries of South Fork State Park, the site 

has had the necessary cultural resources clearance from the Nevada State Historic Protection Office and is 

fenced to eliminate livestock grazing. 

Crested Wheatgrass Control and Revegetation Treatments

The following strategies are being tested in a randomized block, split-split plot design: 1) untreated crested 

wheatgrass, 2) partially controlled crested wheatgrass, and 3) completely controlled crested wheatgrass. The 

study site is comprised of five 5-acre (2 ha) blocks. 

Within 1-acre (0.4 ha) plots in each block, the following methods are being compared: mechanical and chemical 

control, revegetation, and no revegetation. Specific strategies tested are:
180

 Untreated crested wheatgrass plots receiving no chemical or mechanical control treatment, but divided 

into unseeded and seeded subplots.

 Partially controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into three-way disked or herbicide-treated plots and 

divided into unseeded and seeded subplots. 

 Completely controlled crested wheatgrass plots split into combined three-way disked and herbicidetreated plots or combined spring and fall herbicide-treated plots and divided into unseeded and seeded 

subplots. 

Treatment Implementation and Sampling

The disked-only plots were three-way disked in November 2007. The spring-applied herbicide plots and 

combined disk + herbicide plots were sprayed with 66 oz. glyphosate (Roundup ®)/acre in May 2008. 

Combined spring + fall-applied herbicide plots were sprayed with 66 oz. glyphosate/acre in early October 2008. 

Subplots targeted for seeding were seeded at Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)-recommended 

rates in late October 2008 by personnel from the NRCS Aberdeen Plant Materials Center with a Truax Rough 

Rider rangeland drill. For small-seed species, seed tubes were pulled so that seed fell on the soil surface; drill 

disks were raised, no furrows made, and a brillion-type cultipacker was attached to the rear of the drill to press 

broadcast seeds into the soil surface. The seed mixture used is identified in Table 1. 

In May 2010, another treatment trial was implemented within the same general study area using the same 

randomized block, split-split plot design. Crested wheatgrass control treatments consisted of 1) imazapic 

(Panoramic 2SL®), 2) chlorsulfuron + sulfometuron methyl (Landmark XP ®), 3) glyphosate (Roundup ®) full 

rate and glyphosate half-rate, and 4) untreated. The study site was comprised of five 5-acre (2 ha) blocks, with 

each 1-acre (0.4 ha) treatment plot divided into 0.5-acre (0.2 ha) seeded and unseeded subplots. All treatments 

were seeded in late October 2010 using the same seed mixture (Table 1), rates, and methodology described 

above.

During the summers of 2009 through 2013, we measured cover and density of crested wheatgrass, as well as 

nested frequency of crested wheatgrass seedlings. We also measured density of seeded species. All parameters 

were measured for each subplot with ten randomly placed 0.5-m

2

quadrats on each of 5 transects and 

perpendicular to each transect. 

Results

2009

Complete control or 100% mortality of crested wheatgrass was not obtained with any of the control treatments. 

However, spring-applied glyphosate, combined spring + fall-applied glyphosate, and combined disk + 

glyphosate treatments all significantly reduced crested wheatgrass cover (p<0.05) as compared to untreated 

plots, with no significant differences among these treatments (p>0.05). Similarly, these same three treatments 

all significantly reduced crested wheatgrass density (p<0.05), again with no significant differences among these 

treatments. Crested wheatgrass density was significantly greater on disked plots (p<0.05) than on the untreated 

plots and plots receiving the other treatments, but crested wheatgrass cover was not significantly different 

(p>0.05) between disked and untreated plots.

Preliminary observations showed the following: 1) four of the six seeded native grass species established, 

including basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus), bluebunch wheatgrass (Psuedoroegneria spicata), bottlebrush 

squirreltail (Elymus elymoides), and Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides), 2) all of the seeded forb 

species: western yarrow (Achillea millefolium), Lewis flax (Linum lewisii), and Munro globemallow 
181

(Sphaeralcea munroana) established, and 3) of the two seeded shrub species, establishment of Wyoming big 

sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis) was spotty and spiny hopsage (Grayia spinosa) failed to 

establish. Seeded native grasses germinated on plots with and without crested wheatgrass control, but were 

much taller and more robust in plots where crested wheatgrass was controlled to some extent. Spring growing 

conditions were nearly ideal, with an extremely wet June. Some grass and forb plants produced seed in the first 

growing season.

Table 1. Final seeding mix for South Fork study plots, Elko County, Nevada, in sandy loam soils (Orovada 

Puett association) at about the 8-inch (203 mm) precipitation zone

Species Kind/Variety Seeding Rate 

(PLS lb/acre)

Total no. lb

(for 12.5 acres)

Indian ricegrass1

(Achnatherum hymenoides) ‘Nezpar’ 2.0 25.0

Bottlebrush squirreltail1

(Elymus elymoides) Toe Jam Creek 2.0 25.0

Needle-and-thread grass2

(Stipa comata) 2.0 25.0

Basin wildrye3

(Leymus cinereus)

‘Magnar’

2.0 25.0

Bluebunch wheatgrass3

(Psuedoroegneria spicata) ‘Secar’ 1.0 12.5

Sandberg bluegrass4

(Poa secunda) 0.75 9.4

Munro globemallow4

(Sphaeralcea munroana) 0.50 6.25

Lewis flax3

(Linum lewisii) ‘Appar’ 0.75 9.4

Western yarrow4

(Achillea millefolium) 0.20 2.5

Wyoming big sagebrush3

(Artemisia tridentata wyomingensis) 0.20 2.5

Spiny hopsage5

(Grayia spinosa) 0.50 6.25

Totals 11.9 148.8

1Granite Seed Co.; 2BFI Native Seeds; 3Comstock Seed Co.; 4

FS Collection; 5Native Seed Co.

2010

In 2010, density of crested wheatgrass seedlings continued to be significantly higher (p<0.05) in the untreated 

plots and disked plots. Density of seeded native grasses was highest in plots that received the combination of 

disking + spring glyphosate treatment, significantly greater than that of disk-treated plots (p<0.05), but not 

significantly different than either the spring-treated glyphosate plots or the spring + fall-applied glyphosate 

plots. 

Forb densities were highest in the spring + fall-applied glyphosate plots and the disk + glyphosate plots, but 

because of large standard errors, only the latter treatment was significantly greater (p<0.05) than the untreated 
182

plots and the disked only plots. For all seeded species combined, the spring + fall-applied glyphosate treatment 

and disk + glyphosate treatment produced significantly higher densities of seeded species than the disked only 

treatment (p<0.05).

2011 through 2013

In 2013, we collected vegetation data, as described above, for both treatment trials (fifth-year data for the first 

trial, third-year data for second trial). Data analysis is currently being completed for data collected in 2011, 

2012, and 2013. We noted an obvious increase in exotic annual forbs in the 2011 growing season, especially 

tansy mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum). In 2012 and 2013, the tansy mustard infestation was considerably less 

than in 2011. Preliminary indications are that glyphosate was more effective at reducing crested wheatgrass than 

imazapic or chlorsulfuron + sulfometuron. Establishment of seeded species from the 2010 planting was 

negligible. 

In 2014, data will be analyzed using mixed model analysis, with blocks and years considered random and other 

treatments considered fixed. 

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines 

The relative success and/or failure of revegetation strategies and methodologies used in this research will be 

communicated in appropriate venues for the benefit of both public and private land managers and resource 

users. This research will add to the body of knowledge regarding the rehabilitation, functionality, and 

restoration of Great Basin rangelands. 

Presentations

McAdoo, K.; Swanson, J.; Shaw, N. Native seed planting to diversify crested wheatgrass monocultures in 

Nevada. 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM.
183

Project Title The Ecology of Great Basin Native Forb Establishment 

Project Agreement No. 13-JV-11221632-102

Principal Investigators and Contact Information 

Jeremy James, Rangeland Specialist

University of California

8279 Scott Forbes Rd

Browns Valley, CA

530.639.8803, Fax 530.639.8800

jjjames@ucanr.edu 

Project Description

Objectives

Forbs are a key functional group in sage steppe systems, yet forb seed is expensive and many forb seedings fail, 

greatly limiting the ability of practitioners to increase native forb density in degraded systems (Hardegree et al. 

2011). Forb recruitment is likely limited by a complex set of interacting biotic and abiotic factors. The broad 

objective of this research is to examine the degree to which desert wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum) 

competition, soil texture, and annual precipitation influence recruitment of three key native forb species. 

Restoration research has traditionally focused on ecological processes such as competition (Funk et al. 2008). 

However, there is little emphasis placed on understanding the relative importance of ecosystem processes in 

determining plant community structure, which is ultimately the information most useful to practitioners. 

Understanding the relative importance of various ecological processes in influencing forb establishment will 

provide the foundation for improving the ability of land managers to capitalize on the array of forb plant 

material available through the Great Basin Native Plant Project and ultimately understanding how to integrate 

available forb plant materials with other restoration practices. 

Methods

This project consists of two phases. The first phase 

assessed general patterns of survival of native grass and 

forb seed. The interim and final results of this phase were 

published in a report focused on the methods and results of 

the first phase, which identified and quantified the 

ecological processes and conditions limiting native forb 

establishment (James et al. 2011). 

In the second study phase, we seeded three native forb 

species across nine sites in the Great Basin that differed in 

soil texture, annual precipitation, and a number of other 

characteristics that influence seed bed abiotic conditions 

(Figure 1). Sites were seeded in fall 2012 and fall 2013. 

This report highlights results from the first seeding year. 

In spring 2014, we will have results from the second 

seeding year. Ultimately we will combine results across 

all seeding years so we can quantify forb establishment 

Figure 1. Location of the nine study sites for phase 2.
184

as a function of abiotic and biotic conditions rather than categorical responses. 

The forbs seeded in this study were western yarrow (Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis), fernleaf biscuitroot 

(Lomatium dissectum), and scarlet globemallow (Sphaeralcea coccinea). Forbs were seeded at recommended 

seeding depths and rates (600 pure live seed [PLS]/m2). Ten (3 × 3-foot [1 × 1 m]) plots were seeded for each 

species at each site, and half of the plots also were seeded with desert wheatgrass at 600 PLS/m2. Desert 

wheatgrass is often used in restoration as a bet-hedging strategy for managers. Depending on the drill and seed 

mixture used, desert wheatgrass seed may or may not be planted in the same rows as forb seed. Our desert 

wheatgrass seeding treatment allows us to quantify the degree to which these seeding practices may influence 

native forb establishment. Scarlet globemallow seeds were acid scarified prior to sowing.

Forb and desert wheatgrass seeds (50 seeds/bag) were also sown in germination bags in the fall of each planting 

year to quantify germination rates and express seedling emergence rates as a function of seeds germinating in 

the field (James et al. 2011). Demographic transitions key to recruitment including seedling emergence and 

survival were monitored at the plots each month in the spring and each month throughout the second growing 

season. Forb and desert wheatgrass survival will be measured in spring 2012 and spring 2013. Final data will be 

summarized and published in the last year of the study.

Results and Discussion

Germination for the three native forb species differed by site (p < 0.01) and broadly corresponded to mean 

annual precipitation with wet sites showing higher germination (Figure 2). Desert wheatgrass showed higher 

and less variable germination than the native forbs and high germination (> 85%) across all sites. Seeding desert 

wheatgrass with forbs had no effect on native forb germination rates. Emergence was categorically low for all 

forbs across the five sites (Figure 3) and represented a major bottleneck in the recruitment process. Even when 

germination was high (80% germination of fernleaf biscuitroot on a wet, silt loam site) less than 2% of the 

germinated seeds emerged and survived the spring. This recruitment bottleneck was also apparent for desert 

wheatgrass, which had less than 2% emergence and survival. Given the relatively low desert wheatgrass 

densities, seeding desert wheatgrass with forbs had little effect on forb recruitment (p > 0.5). Precipitation for 

the 2012 and 2013 growing seasons was about 30% of normal with an exceptionally dry winter. Combing the 

second seeding year with these first year responses will improve our ability to link precipitation to germination, 

emergence, and survival. Results to date suggest a minimal role for biotic interactions in influencing forb 

establishment and that for many sites precipitation may be adequate to stimulate germination but mortality rates 

are massive following germination. 

Future Plans

We will sample our first- and second-year forb plots in spring 2014. This will give us two seeding years across 

nine sites to try and link precipitation patterns, soil texture, and desert wheatgrass seedling density to native forb 

establishment rates. We plan to use multivariate linear regression on the full data set to assess the relationships 

between environmental variables and recruitment. 

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

Under the conditions of this first seeding year, seeding desert wheatgrass with forbs had no short-term negative 

effect on forb recruitment. As a result, managers may be able to simultaneously seed these two contrasting 

functional groups without major risks to native forb establishment. There is substantial mortality of germinated 

forb seeds (98% or greater). Decreasing the time between sowing and when seedlings emerge in spring may 

mitigate this mortality to some degree. For plant material selection and development, these results indicate that 
185

it is hugely important to understand and quantify population variation in traits related to emergence and that 

selecting for these traits may be one way to accelerate our ability to increase native forb establishment in 

restoration. 

Presentations

James, Jeremy. Increasing native plant recruitment in dryland systems. October 2012. University of California; 

Berkeley, CA.

James, Jeremy. Restoring native plant diversity in the Great Basin. April 2012. Sage-grouse working group; 

Susanville, CA.

Publications 

James, Jeremy J.; Sheley, Roger L.; Erickson, Todd; Rollins, Kimberly S.; Taylor, Michael H.; Dixon, Kingsley 

W. 2013. A systems approach to restoring degraded drylands. Journal of Applied Ecology. 50:730-739.

References

Funk, Jennifer L.; Cleland, Elsie E.; Suding, Katherine N.; Zavaleta, Erica S. 2008. Restoration through 

reassembly: plant traits and invasion resistance. Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 23: 695-703.

Hardegree, Stuart P.; Jones, Tom A.; Roundy, Bruce A.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Monaco, Tom A. 2011. Assessment 

of range planting as a conservation practice. In: Briske, David D., ed. Conservation benefits of rangeland 

practices: assessment, recommendations, and knowledge gaps. Lawrence, KS: Allen Press: 171-212.

James, Jeremy J.; Svejcar, Tony J.; Rinella, Mathew J. 2011. Demographic processes limiting seedling 

recruitment in arid grassland restoration. Journal of Applied Ecology. 48: 961-969.
186

20

40

60

80

Germination (%)

20

40

60

80

20

40

60

80

Dry Sandy loam

Mid precip silt loam

Dry sandy loam

Germination (%)

20

40

60

80

20

40

60

80

Wet silt loam

Wet sandy loam

AGDE ACMI LODI SPCO

AGDE ACMI LODI SPCO

No comp

Comp

No comp

Comp

Figure 2. Field germination of the four study species seeded at five study sites with two competition treatments 

(seeded without desert wheatgrass = No comp and seeded with desert wheatgrass= Comp). Sites were sown fall 

2012 and sites are characterized by mean annual precipitation and soil texture from published ecological site 

descriptionsSpecies codes: AGDE = Agropyron desertorum, ACMI = Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis, 

LODI = Lomatium dissectum, and SPCO = Sphaeralcea coccinea. Germination was quantified from 

germination bags with 50 PLS/bag. 
187

Seedlings (plants m-2

)

4

8

12

16

2

4

6

Wet silt loam

Wet sandy loam

AGDE ACMI LODI SPCO

AGDE ACMI LODI SPCO

No comp

Comp

No comp

Comp

1

2

3

4

5 Seedlings (plants m-2

)

1

2

3

4

5

2

4

6

Dry Sandy loam

Mid precip silt loam

Dry sandy loam

Figure 3. Seedling establishment of the four study species seeded at five study sites with two competition 

treatments (seeded without desert wheatgrass = No comp and seeded with desert wheatgrass= Comp). Species 

codes: AGDE = Agropyron desertorum, ACMI = Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis, LODI = Lomatium 

dissectum, and SPCO = Sphaeralcea coccinea. Sites were sown fall 2012 and sites are characterized by mean 

annual precipitation and soil texture from published ecological site descriptions.
188

Project Title Recruitment of Native Vegetation into Crested Wheatgrass Seedings 

and the Influence of Crested Wheatgrass on Native Vegetation

Project Agreement No. 11-IA-11221632-003

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Kirk Davies, Rangeland Scientist

USDA Agricultural Research Service

67826-A Hwy 205 

Burns, OR 97720

541.573.4074, Fax 541.573.3042

Kirk.Davies@oregonstate.edu 

Aleta Nafus, Graduate Research Assistant

USDA Agricultural Research Service

67826-A Hwy 205 

Burns, OR 97720

541.573.4074, Fax 541.573.3042

Aleta.Nafus@oregonstate.edu

Project Description

Objectives

The objectives of our study were to 1) determine what factors (management, site/environmental characteristics, 

etc.) are associated with native plant recruitment in crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) plant 

communities, and 2) determine vegetation successional trajectories of native perennial bunchgrasses that were 

co-planted with crested wheatgrass and their persistence in the community.

Methods

We sampled 20 crested wheatgrass plant communities in southeastern Oregon between June and September 

2013 to try to determine which factors promote native plant recruitment in crested wheatgrass plant 

communities. This data supplements data collected in 2012. The same sampling protocol was followed in both 

years.

Sites were selected with input from BLM Rangeland Management Specialists to represent a wide range of 

management practices such as timing (spring or fall) and intensity (distance to water/fence lines) of grazing, a 

range of time since seeding, and a variety of environmental conditions (elevation, aspect, slope, and proximity 

to untreated areas). At each plot, slope, aspect, elevation, and UTM coordinates were recorded.

To sample vegetation, 197 ×164-foot (60 × 50 m) plots were used to sample each site. In each plot, four 164-

foot (50 m) transects were deployed at 66-foot (20 m) intervals along the 197-foot (60 m) transect. Along each 

transect, herbaceous vegetation, basal cover and density were visually estimated by species inside 16 × 20-inch 

(40 × 50 cm) frames located at 10-foot (3 m) intervals on each transect line (starting at the 10 foot mark and 

ending at 148 feet [45 m]), resulting in 15 frames per transect and 75 frames per plot. Percentage ground cover 

(bare ground, rock, litter and crypto-biotic crust) were measured in the 16 × 20-inch frames. Shrub canopy 
189

cover by species was measured by line intercept. Canopy gaps less than 6 inches (15 cm) were included in the 

canopy cover measurements. Shrub density was determined by counting all rooted individuals in five, 7 × 164-

foot (2 × 50 m) belt transects at each plot. 

Soil samples were collected at three locations in each plot from a 24-inch (61 cm) deep hole located at the 

center of the plot and at 49 feet (15 m) NW and SE of the center of the plot. From each of these holes soil 

samples were taken from 0 to 6 inches (15 cm), 0 to 8 inches (20 cm), and 8 to 24 inches (15-60 cm). Depth to 

hardpan was recorded if it was observed within the 24 inch hole. The values for each of the samples per plot 

were averaged into a single plot value. Soil texture for the 0- to 8-inch and 8- to 24-inch samples was measured 

using the hydrometer method. The 0- to 6-inch samples were used to obtain soil pH, nitrogen, carbon, and total 

organic matter for each site.

We accessed BLM records at local offices to determine past management. We collected actual use data and 

disturbance and seeding history for each site when available. 

Future plans are to perform statistical analysis on data and submit two peer-reviewed manuscripts. 

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

Results are still preliminary and should not yet be incorporated into management applications. 

Presentations

Nafus, Aleta M; Davies, Kirk W.; Svejcar, T. J. 2013. Recruitment of native vegetation into

crested wheatgrass seedings and the influence of crested wheatgrass on native vegetation.

Society for Range Management Annual Meeting; 2013 February 2-6; Oklahoma City, OK. 
190

Project Title Revegetation Equipment Catalog Website Maintenance

Project Agreement No. 12-IA-11221632-149

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Robert Cox, Assistant Professor

Texas Tech University 

Box 42125 

Lubbock, TX 79409

806.742.2841, Fax 806.742.2280

robert.cox@ttu.edu 

Project Description

Objectives

The Revegetation Equipment Catalog is an online repository of descriptions, photos, and company information 

for equipment used for revegetation efforts throughout the United States. With pages on topics ranging from 

“All-terrain Vehicles” through “Fertilizing and Mulching,” to “Transport Trailers,” the catalog is an important 

reference for information about revegetation equipment. 

Methods

In 2013, the online catalog was updated. All links were checked and corrected, and the website was fully 

redesigned. The website is now entirely hosted by Texas Tech University.

Future Plans

We plan to begin tracking visits to the website, as well as expanding it to include a wider variety of topics.
191

Project Title Evaluation of Imazapic Rates and Forb Planting Times on Native Forb 

Establishment 

Project No. 09-JV-11221632-100

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Corey Ransom, Associate Professor

Utah State University

Department of Plants, Soils, and Climate

4820 Old Main Hill

Logan, UT 84322-4820

435.797.2242, Fax 435.797.3376

corey.ransom@usu.edu

Project Description

Successful establishment of native forb species is critical to re-establish structure and function to disturbed 

range sites. A large portion of degraded rangeland in the Intermountain West is invaded by cheatgrass (Bromus 

tectorum). The most common herbicide currently available for cheatgrass control is imazapic (Plateau). Since 

restoration sites will likely be treated with imazapic for cheatgrass control prior to successful establishment of 

desirable species, a greater understanding of the tolerance of different native forb species to imazapic is needed. 

This project aims to describe native forb and grass species’ tolerance to imazapic and other herbicides often 

used to suppress cheatgrass. This project will also examine the effect of herbicide application timing and 

planting dates on successful species germination and growth.

Methods

Field Plantings

Maintenance treatments were applied to 0.125-acre (0.5 ha) plots of both basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipes) 

and Blue Mountain prairie clover (Dalea ornata). Roundup plus Prowl H2O was applied to the basalt milkvetch 

while only Prowl H2O was applied to the Blue Mountain prairie clover because new buds were present at the 

time of application. Treatments were applied with a 4-wheeler mounted sprayer. Plots were hand-weeded 

several times during the summer at which time it was determined that variation among plants across the plot 

area would be too great to allow additional herbicide tolerance testing. The plot areas were maintained weed 

free throughout the season. Basalt milkvetch was in full flower by mid-May and Blue Mountain prairie clover 

by early to mid-June. Basalt milkvetch seed was harvested on 1 July using a small-plot forage harvester to 

collect all biomass into large bags. Bags were allowed to dry, and harvested material was run through a 

stationary combine and then a seed thresher to try to extract seeds from their pods. Further hand cleaning was 

done to collect as much seed as possible, but a substantial amount of seed was lost. Blue Mountain prairie 

clover seed was harvested on 15 July using a gas-powered leaf blower as a vacuum. Seed tufts had begun to 

shatter from the plants, and tufts were vacuumed from both the soil and the plants. Seed was further processed 

by running it through a set of sieves to remove chaff and fluff. Seeds were also dropped in front of a fan to 

remove additional seed contaminants.

Fresh seed of basalt milkvetch and Blue Mountain prairie clover were used in additional tests, which are 

described below.
192

Scarification to Increase Germination

Inadequate germination of basalt milkvetch and Blue Mountain prairie clover in the 2012 petri dish trials made 

it difficult to determine herbicide tolerance. A second test had to be developed. We germinated these species on 

agar media containing the herbicides of interest following a screening model used by the agrichemical industry. 

Preliminary trials were conducted to determine if both species were conducive to culture on agar growth media. 

Freshly harvested seeds were scarified for different durations using concentrated sulfuric acid. Scarification 

times for Blue Mountain prairie clover were 0, 5, 15, 20, and 30 minutes. Scarification times for basalt 

milkvetch were 0, 5, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 minutes. After scarification, seeds were placed on agar media in 

petri dishes with 35 seeds per dish, and treatments were replicated four times. Petri dishes were placed in a 

growth chamber at 77  ̊F (25  ̊C). The number of seeds germinating and the percent of each petri dish 

contaminated by fungal growth were recorded at 7 and 14 days after treatment. 

Stratification to Increase Germination

Low germination in basalt milkvetch seed, even following long scarification times required that a second 

germination trial be established. In this trial, all basalt milkvetch seeds were scarified for 30 minutes in sulfuric 

acid, placed on the agar media in petri dishes, and then placed in a refrigerator (39-43  ̊F [4-6  ̊C]) for durations 

of 0, 3, 7, 11, 17, and 21 days. The number of germinated seeds was counted 7 days after the dishes were 

removed from the refrigerator.

Petri dish Agar-Herbicide Tolerance Trial

Because Blue Mountain prairie clover exhibited high germination percentages when seeds were incubated on 

agar, an additional trial was conducted to evaluate Blue Mountain prairie clover germination in response to 

various rates of Plateau and Matrix herbicides added to the agar media. Blue Mountain prairie clover seeds were 

placed in concentrated sulfuric acid for 2.5 minutes, not to increase germination, but to disinfest the seeds from 

the fungal contamination that was observed in the previous trials. Treatments included Plateau at 0, 0.19, 0.375, 

0.75, 1.5, 3.0, 6.0, and 12.0 oz ai/acre and Matrix at 0, 0.06, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 oz ai/acre. 

Herbicides were placed on the surface of agar media just prior to the agar solidifying in the petri dishes when 

temperatures were low enough not to affect the herbicide molecule. Seeds were then placed in each dish, and 

the dishes were sealed and placed in the growth chamber as described for the previous experiments. Petri dishes 

were kept in the dark to reduce any potential photolysis of the herbicides. At 7 and 14 days after treatment, 

germination percentages and the number of plants with root and shoot development were recorded. Shoot 

length, root length, number of plants with secondary leaves, average secondary root length, visual estimates of 

shoot vigor, and plant biomass were measured at 14 days after treatment. 

Greenhouse Field Soil Herbicide Tolerance Trial

A greenhouse trial was established to evaluate basalt milkvetch and Blue Mountain prairie clover response to 

herbicides in pots filled with Millville silt loam soil. Basalt milkvetch seeds from a 2013 harvest were scarified 

for 30 minutes, sown in 4-inch (10 cm) pots (12 seeds/pot), and sprayed with the appropriate herbicide 

treatment. Pots were then placed in a 39  ̊F (4  ̊C) refrigerator for 11 days before being placed in the 

greenhouse. Blue Mountain prairie clover seeds were scarified for 1 minute, planted in pots, and sprayed with 

herbicide treatments. Treatments were replicated 8 times. Blue Moutain prairie clover planted pots were placed 

directly in the greenhouse. Once moved to the greenhouse, pots were placed under a shade cloth where 

temperatures were maintained at 77  ̊F (25  ̊C) during the day and 73  ̊F (23 C) at night. Treatments included 

Plateau, Matrix, Prowl H2O, and Outlook at various rates (Table 1). 
193

Results and Discussion

Data from all trials were analyzed using ANOVA. Treatment means were separated using Fishers Protected 

LSD (P < 0.05).

Field Plantings

There was no evidence of herbicide injury from early spring applications of Roundup plus Prowl H2O to basalt 

milkvetch or Prowl H2O to Blue Mountain prairie clover. In total, approximately 1,100 grams of Astragalus and 

1,800 grams of Blue Mountain prairie clover seed were recovered from harvesting 0.125-acre (0.05 ha) plots 

that were maintained weed free. Fresh seed of basalt milkvetch and Blue Mountain prairie clover were used in 

additional tests described below.

Scarification to Increase Germination

In the scarification trials (Figure 1), basalt milkvetch germination increased slightly as duration of exposure to 

sulfuric acid increased, but at exposure of 45 minutes or more injury to emerging shoots was observed. It was 

also observed that scarification for 45 minutes or more significantly reduced fungal contamination found in the 

agar-filled petri dishes. In contrast, scarification of Blue Mountain prairie clover for longer than 5 minutes 

caused significant reductions in germination. Any exposure of Blue Mountain prairie clover to sulfuric acid 

reduced fungal contamination in the agar plates. Blue Mountain prairie clover was scarified in concentrated 

sulfuric acid for 2.5 minutes before plating seed in the agar-herbicide trial described below.

Stratification to Increase Germination

As expected, when basalt milkvetch seed was scarified for 30 minutes and then subjected to cold stratification, 

seed germination increased dramatically (Figure 2). Seed germination was greater than 80% for stratification 

periods longer than 11 days. Scarification followed by stratification could potentially allow summer plantings of 

basalt milkvetch to establish successfully where previous attempts at summer field plantings of have failed. This 

would need to be tested through field trials.

Petri dish Agar-Herbicide Tolerance Trial

Similar to 2012 trials conducted on filter paper, Blue Mountain prairie clover germination, root and shoot 

number, root and shoot length, secondary root and shoot length, and total biomass were not significantly 

affected by any of the rates of either Plateau or Matrix added to an agar substrate (data not shown). This 

demonstrates that testing forb tolerance to herbicides using an agar-based system is not a viable testing 

technique using the methods employed in this trial. It may be that the herbicides are not available to the plant in 

the agar or that the plants need to be rooted in the agar to take up the herbicides. 

Greenhouse Field Soil Herbicide Tolerance Trial

The impact of herbicides on germination in the greenhouse was highly variable. While some treatments were 

significantly different from each other, there was no logical trend and some higher herbicide rates had higher 

germination than lower rates (Table 1). However, for basalt milkvetch, the number of leaves per pot displayed 

an expected trend, with leaf numbers generally following a dose response pattern. Interestingly, Plateau at 0.188 

oz ai/acre or higher, Matrix at 0.063 oz ai/acre and higher, and Outlook at all rates significantly reduced the 

formation of new leaves compared to the untreated controls. None of the Prowl H2O treatments reduced leaf 

numbers compared to untreated controls. The lack of response to Prowl H2O supports field observations that 

suggest that basalt milkvetch is quite tolerant of Prowl H2O. Our data does suggest, however, that basalt 

milkvetch seedling development will be reduced by high rates of Plateau and Matrix. The reduction in basalt 

milkvetch plant establishment after treatment with Plateau was observed in a field trial conducted in 2010 
194

(Figure 3) and suggests that delayed planting of basalt milkvetch following Plateau or Matrix applications may 

be required to allow the herbicides to break down in the soil to low levels. Challenges in growing basalt 

milkvetch plants uniformly has greatly limited the knowledge of its tolerance to herbicides

Scarification duration (minutes)

0 20 40 60 80 100

Germination (%)

0

20

40

60

80

Astragalus filipies

Dalea ornata

Figure 1. Effect of concentrated sulfuric acid scarification on basalt milkvetch (Astragalus filipies) and Blue 

Mountain prairie clover (Dalea ornata) seed germination in petri dishes. While basalt milkvetch germination 

generally increased with longer durations of scarification up to 90 minutes, durations above 45 minutes 

appeared to cause injury to cotyledons.
195

Stratification time (days at 5C)

0 5 10 15 20 25

Germination (%)

0

20

40

60

80

100

Figure 2. Effect of cold stratification at 39 to 43  ̊F (4-6  ̊C) on scarified basalt milkvetch seeds. All seeds were 

scarified for 30 minutes in concentrated sulfuric acid prior to stratification.

Figure 3. Response of basalt milkvetch plant density to various rates of imazapic applied in either the spring 

(circles) or the fall (triangles).
196

Table 1. Germination of Blue Mountain prairie clover and germination and number of cotyledons of basalt 

milkvetch in response to herbicide treatments in the greenhouse

Treatment Rate Blue Mountain 

prairie clover

basalt milkvetch basalt milkvetch

oz ai/acre emergence (% of untreated) leaves/pot

Untreated 100 abcd 100 abc 1.25 abc

Plateau 0.0235 80 cde 125 a 1.50 ab

Plateau 0.047 88 cde 96 abc 0.75 bcdef

Plateau 0.094 60 def 118 ab 0.50 cdef

Plateau 0.188 80 cde 89 abc 0.375 def

Plateau 0.375 100 abcd 111 abc 0.125 ef

Plateau 0.75 72 de 68 bc 0.125 ef

Plateau 1.5 96 bcd 132 a 0.125 ef

Plateau 3.0 76 cde 100 abc 0.125 ef

Matrix 0.0158 72 de 61 c 0.50 cdef

Matrix 0.0314 72 de 93 abc 0.75 bcdef

Matrix 0.063 56 def 82 abc 0.125 ef

Matrix 0.126 88 cde 68 bc 0.00 f

Matrix 0.25 80 cde 61 c 0.125 ef

Matrix 0.5 16 f 64 c 0.00 f

Matrix 1.0 128 abc 68 bc 0.00 f

Prowl H2O 1.5 144 ab 96 abc 0.875 abcdef

Prowl H2O 3.0 148 a 121 a 1.125 abcd

Prowl H2O 6.0 84 cde 93 abc 1.00 abcde

Prowl H2O 12.0 100 abcd 96 abc 1.125 abcd

Prowl H2O 24.0 92 bcde 118 ab 1.25 abc

Outlook 1.5 56 def 61 c 0.25 def

Outlook 3.0 40 ef 104 abc 0.25 def

Outlook 6.0 60 def 100 abc 0.25 def

Outlook 12.0 92 bcde 68 bc 0.00 f

Means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly according to the LSD test at p=0.05.
197

Project Title Development of Seeding Equipment for Establishing Diverse Native 

Communities

Project Agreement No. 09-JV-11221632-068

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

James Truax, Owner

Truax Company, Inc.

4300 Quebec Avenue North

New Hope, MN 55428

763.537.6639, Fax 763.537.8353

truax1@qwestoffice.net

Project Description

Background

The historical rangeland drill that was designed, developed, and first manufactured in the late l940's and early 

1950's has been the backbone of restoration and reclamation research for over 60 years. This untiring tool has 

re-seeded millions of acres in many areas, but as researchers learned more about soils, plant diversity, and 

habitat restoration there has been increased interest in updating and improving this tool.

Design of a New Rangeland Drill

The Truax Company from New Hope, Minnesota took up the challenge to design a better rangeland drill 14 

years ago and has worked with the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, USDI Bureau of Land 

Management, U.S. Department of Defense, and other non-governmental organizations to improve 

the restoration success rate achieved by researchers to: 

 Improve the habitat diversity 

 Improve seeding economics

 Control erosion on disturbed lands

Improving habitat diversity requires the introduction of multiple species of native grasses and forbs into existing 

stands. This has been challenging when using historic, as well as current "Rangeland" drills because of the 

closeness of planter assemblies and therefore their inability to plant in trashy sites. Rangeland drill planters are 

on 12-inch (30.5 cm) row spacing; however, the discs and mounting hardware take up all but 2 inches (5 cm) of 

the space between individual planting units. As a result, the drill becomes a giant rake when used for 

interseeding on sites with existing vegetation. Truax overcame this problem by adding a second rock shaft that 

increases the individual spacing between rakes to 48 inches (122 cm) and side-to-side spacing between planters 

to 24 inches (61 cm). This increased spacing between planters allows the Truax Roughrider to plant through 

sites with heavy litter without plugging or raking litter. Unfortunately, little attention has been paid to the need 

to introduce multiple native species to existing range sites and over the last 10 to15 years only a few trials were 

directed to this important issue.

The engineering that resulted in the two-rock shaft design complicated the Truax Roughrider Rangeland 

Minimum Till Drill in several ways. For example:
198

 The two rock shafts were made of solid steel bars (2.5× 2.5 inches [6.4 × 6.4 cm]) and added a lot of 

weight. Re-engineering the stoke control knuckles in 2011 allowed us to change to structural tubing and 

reduced the weight of the Roughrider by nearly 1,000 lbs (450 kg).

 The long distance to the individual planters required three telescoping seed delivery tubes in early 

production drills; however, re-engineering in 2005 and 2006 allowed us to move the seed boxes forward 

and reduce the number of tubes to two. This modification was followed by a second re-engineering in 

2011 to modify the seed tube mounts under the seed boxes.

 Fabricated boots or shoes on early production drills had open tops that allowed dirt, mud, and snow to 

enter and thereby plug the seed delivery unit. Re-engineering in 2007 and 2008 and changing to ductile 

iron boots solved the dirt-plugging problems; yet, this resulted in an internal plugging problem. Reengineering in 2011 identified a 37% restriction of the seed passage way in the ductile casting which 

was then subsequently changed to allow free flow of the seed to the ground. 

 Weight transfer from machine mass to individual planting units is achieved through flexible-stroke 

control knuckles. Early production drills experienced a lot of frame breakage and damage because the 

control knuckles moved only in one direction. Re-engineering in 2011 changed the stroke control 

knuckle to allow free movement in the both directions when placed under load and reduced frame 

breakage and damage to zero.

 Metal seed tube lengths varied between rows and between drills because of the inherent, manufactured 

twist in the hot rolled material used in the rock shafts, which affected the clamp point of the tube 

attachment. A change to structural tubes for the rock shafts in 2011 resolved this problem. 

Several other changes and improvements have been made to the Truax Roughrider Minimum-till Drill to 

increase its performance, including:

 The gage wheels were changed in 2012 from a semi-pneumatic style to a solid rubber, 90 durometer 

tire that is vulcanized to a steel backing plate that is then bolted to the disc blade.

 The drive-wheel linkage was changed in 2012 to an adjustable/clevis style, which allowed the 

operator to compensate for misalignment of the linkage.

 Molded rubber elbows were added in the 2008 re-engineering and replaced the open neck boots, 

which were subject to plugging.

Decreasing Seed Waste in Restoration

Restoration economics can be improved through small reductions in the seeding rate per acre, which is 

particularly important for landscape-scale projects. Current and historical rangeland drills are calibrated from 

the perspective that "if a little seed is good, then a lot of seed is better" with little consideration given to 

minimizing the quantity of seed needed by maximizing controlled seed placement.

Rangeland drills typically plant by allowing a concave disc to open a furrow 1 to 4 inches (2.5-10 cm) deep and 

then broadcasting seeds into the furrow before dragging a chain across the surface to randomly cover the 

seed. This is called "drill seeding." To broadcast seed using conventional rangeland drills you follow the same 

protocol but without the drag chain. Unlike these drill seeding methods, the Truax Roughrider Minimum Till 

Drill utilizes a flat planting disc with an attached rubber 3 × 18-inch (8 × 46 cm) depth gage tire to assure that 

the furrow is no deeper than 0.75 inch (2 cm), so that seed is planted at a depth of 0.5 to 0.75 inch (1-2 cm) with 

a following, independent rubber press wheel to firm the soil over the planted seed.
199

During the course of research and development, several changes and improvements have been made in addition 

to those mentioned in the previous section to improve seed placement and potentially reduce the quantity of 

seed needed. 

 An internal seed deflector was added to the Roughrider boot to help move the seed to the bottom of 

the furrow. Failure led us to remove the internal deflector after several attempts proved ineffective. 

 Wind deflectors were added to the top of the seed delivery tubes and later improvements included a 

closed seed tube or hose from the seed cup down to the metal seed tube.

 Aluminum seed transitions had their incline angle changed to help prevent plugging of the front rank 

of planters.

 Planter mud scrapers were moved to a higher location to help deflect mud.

 Mud scraper material was changed to heat-treated spring steel for greater durability. 

These changes, as well as improvements currently being made, help users to better control placement of seed 

and reduce waste of valuable seed supplies. 

Minimizing Erosion

Erosion control, whether by wind or water, can be a major limiting factor to success when restoring 

rangelands. The historical rangeland drills did little to control erosion from wind or water, and in fact, 

contributed to increased erosion. The deep furrowing action of the concave discs loosened soils, which 

were later blown away. Loose soil would hold some rainfall if drilling was done on the contour; however, 

furrows would contribute to riling actions if the drilling was not done on the contour.

Seeding Wyoming Big Sagebrush

Unlike conventional rangeland-drills the Truax Roughrider Minimum-till Drill can micro-plant multiple 

species. The single disc openers of the Roughrider open a controlled depth seed slot for the metered seed to be 

deposited. Soil crusts are not destroyed and important soil cryptograms are left intact. More importantly, 

existing species, which have survived the disturbance caused by fire or construction, are able to reestablish 

themselves because they are not plowed under by the conventional rangeland drill's concave discs. Most 

importantly the Truax Roughrider Minimum-till Drill has addressed the historical challenge of establishing 

Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis) after disturbances.

Proper seed placement and getting soil to seed contract for Wyoming big sagebrush has 

challenged researchers for years, and it was only after a U.S. Forest Service scientist's observation and 

suggestion that the first Roughrider Imprinter was installed and tested. The first plantings done with the 

imprinter were spotty and had a lot of skips. It became apparent that the lack of mud scrapers allowed dirt and 

seed to stick to the rolling imprinter and then drop off several feet down the row, much like snow does when 

rolling a large snow ball. The addition of effective mud scrapers solved this problem. A second problem 

involved the blowing of seed as it dropped in front of the rolling imprinter wheel. A 6-inch (15 cm) rubber hose 

was added below the metal tube to carry the seed close to the ground so it could be immediately pressed into the 

soil surface. It is estimated that up to 40% of the seed was blown away before the imprinter could press it into 

the soil surface. 

Conclusion

A lot has been learned about ways to improve the equipment to restore and repair disturbed rangelands; 

however, there can always be more improvements.
200

Project Title Seeding Native Species following Wildfire in Wyoming Big 

Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis)

Project Agreement No. 11-IA-11221632-077

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

Jeff Ott, Post-doctoral Research Geneticist

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

208.373.4353, Fax 208.373.4391

jeott@fs.fed.us

Nancy Shaw, Research Botanist

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

322 E. Front Street, Suite 401

Boise, ID 83702

208.373.4360, Fax 208.373.4391

nancylshaw@fs.fed.us

Additional Collaborators 

Mike Pellant Robert Cox

USDI Bureau of Land Management Department of Natural Resources Management

Idaho State Office Texas Tech University

1387 Vinnell Way Box 42125

Boise, ID 83702 Lubbock, TX 79409

208.373.3823, Fax 208.373.3805 806.742.2280, Fax 806.742.2841 

michael_pellant@blm.gov robert.cox@ttu.edu

Dennis Eggett Bruce Roundy

Department of Statistics Department of Plant and Wildlife Sciences

233A TMCB 463 WIDB

Brigham Young University Brigham Young University 

Provo, UT 84602 Provo, UT 84602

801.422.4199, Fax 801.422.0635 801.422.8137, Fax 801.422.0008

theegg@byu.edu Bruce_Roundy@byu.edu

Partial funding provided by the Joint Fire Sciences Program and the National Fire Plan.
201

Project Description

The cycle of annual weed invasion and wildfire has altered western shrublands, disrupted ecosystem 

functioning, and increased wildfire size, intensity, and frequency. These impacts are costly in terms of losses to 

native species and ecosystems. Postfire seeding provides an opportunity to stabilize and revegetate at-risk 

shrublands. United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management policies and regulations 

encourage the use of native species, but improved seeding equipment and strategies are required to increase the 

success of multi-species native seedings. We examined the effectiveness of two drills, a conventional rangeland 

drill and a minimum-till drill, techniques for seeding small-seeded species, and sagebrush seeding rates as 

approaches for re-establishing native species in Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. 

wyomingensis) shrublands following wildfire.

Objectives

We sought to evaluate the general effectiveness of different drill types and seeding techniques for establishing 

native plants and suppressing exotic annual weeds in burned Wyoming big sagebrush communities. Our 

experiment compares conventional vs. minimum-till drills, drill-broadcasting vs. aerial broadcasting in fall and 

winter, and different seeding rates for Wyoming big sagebrush. We monitored density and cover of individual 

species for two years following treatment applications at four sites where the experiment was replicated.

Methods

Study Sites and Experimental Treatments

Postfire seeding treatments were established at four locations in the northern Great Basin following wildfires in 

2007 to 2010 (Figure 1; Table 1). A total of 13 treatments differing by drill type (conventional rangeland drill or 

minimum-till drill), seeding method, and sagebrush seeding rate (Table 2) were applied to 99 × 230-foot (30 m 

× 70 m) plots in fall or winter following each fire. A randomized complete block design with five blocks was 

replicated at each site. A drill seed mix (large seeds) was seeded in alternate rows (Table 3). The seed passed 

from the large seed box through the drill assembly of each drill. The broadcast mix (small seeds) (Table 3) was 

allowed to fall to the soil surface of the intervening rows from the broadcast seed box and was covered by 

chains (conventional drill) or imprinter units (minimum-till drill). Aerial seeding was simulated by handseeding the broadcast mix in fall or winter on plots that had been drill-seeded in alternate rows with the 

broadcast seed boxes empty. All plots were fenced to exclude livestock.

Figure 1. Northern Great Basin postfire seeding locations.
202

Data Collection

Vegetation data were collected at each site during the first two growing seasons following protocols modified 

from Herrick et al. (2005) and Wirth and Pyke (2007). Five 66-foot (20 m) transects were established 33 feet 

(10 m) apart, perpendicular to the long axis of each plot. Density of seeded species and cheatgrass (Bromus 

tectorum) was recorded for each of four quadrats along each transect. Canopy cover by species was recorded by 

line point intercept at 20 points along each transect. 

Data Analysis

Data were parsed into sets containing relevant treatments for each species (Table 2). All thirteen treatments 

were included for Wyoming big sagebrush, but the 1X and 10X sagebrush seeding rate treatments were 

excluded for other broadcast species. Analyses of drilled species and cheatgrass focused on five treatments: 

three unseeded and two 5X seeded treatments (Table 2). Each seeded species was analyzed only for the sites 

where it was seeded (Table 3). We ultimately merged all drilled species into a single category. The broadcast 

species rubber rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa) and penstemon (Penstemon spp.) are excluded from this 

report.

For each species with relevant treatments, density and cover were analyzed in SAS 9.3 (SAS Institute Inc. 2011) 

as general linear mixed effects models with the Poisson or negative binomial distribution. Treatment and year 

were modeled as fixed effects; site and block were nested random effects. We built models testing treatment, 

year, and treatment-year interactions. We used Tukey’s HSD for mean comparisons.

Table 1. Northern Great Basin study locations, fire and seeding dates, and site attributes

Location 

Mountain Home Glass Butte Scooby Saylor Creek

42o58'42" N, 

115o37'57" W

43o31'44" N, 

119o54'4" W

41o51"16" N, 

113o2'46" W

42o39'43" N,

115o28'18" W

County, State Elmore, ID Lake, OR Box Elder, UT Elmore, ID

Wildfire date 6 Jul 2007 5 Jul 2007 22 Sep 2008 29 Jun 2010

Fall seeding date 29-30 Oct 2007 31 Oct-1 Nov 2007 18-19 Nov 2008 27-28 Oct 2010

Winter broadcast date 18 Jan 2008 16 Jan 2008 29 Jan 2009 15 Feb 2011

Elevation (m) 911 1,430 1,422-1,475 1,204

Annual precip. (mm)1178-305 203-305 203-356 203-330

Frost-free days1100-170 50-90 100-150 90-170

Soils1

Coarse-silty, mixed, 

superactive mesic 

Xereptic and Xeric 

Haplocalcids

Ashy, glassy, 

frigid Vitriorrandic 

Haploxerolls

Loamy- skeletal, 

mixed, mesic Xeric 

Haplocalcids; Sandyskeletal, mixed, mesic 

Xeric Torriorthents

Fine-silty, mixed, 

superactive, mesic 

Haploxeralfic Argidurids, 

Durinodic Xeric 

Haplargids, and Xeric 

Natridurids

1

Soil Survey Staff (2011).
203

Table 2. Postfire drilling and seeding treatments applied in the northern Great Basin

Drill

Drill 

mix1 Broadcast mix2

Wyoming big 

sagebrush 

seeding rate2

Relevant Treatments

Wyoming big 

sagebrush

Other 

broadcast 

species3

Drilled 

species, 

cheatgrass

No drill No seed No Seed No Seed x x x

Conventional 

drill 

No seed No Seed No Seed x x x

Drilled in 

alternate 

rows in 

fall

Broadcast through drill in 

alternate rows in fall

1X x

5X x x x

10X x

Hand broadcast in fall 5X x x

Hand broadcast in winter 5X x x

Minimum-till 

drill

No seed No Seed No Seed x x x

Drilled in 

alternate 

rows in 

fall

Broadcast through drill in 

alternate rows in fall

1X x

5X x x x

10X x

Hand broadcast in fall 5X x x

Hand broadcast in winter 5X x x

1One drill mix was used for all seeding treatments.

2The broadcast mix varies among treatments only by the Wyoming big sagebrush seeding rate.

3Broadcast species other than Wyoming big sagebrush, e.g. Sandberg bluegrass, western yarrow.

Results and Discussion

Wyoming big sagebrush

First-year seedling density of Wyoming big sagebrush was near zero in the three non-seeded control treatments 

and was not significantly higher than controls in the winter hand-broadcast and 1X conventional drill-broadcast 

treatments (Figure 2). Sagebrush density in all other drill-broadcast treatments was higher than controls, 

increased with each increased seeding rate, and was higher for minimum-till than conventional drill treatments 

at each seeding rate (Figure 2). Sagebrush density was similar in the conventional drill + fall hand-broadcast 

treatment and the minimum-till drill-broadcast treatment at the equivalent rate (5X), and both treatments 

exceeded the sagebrush density resulting from the conventional drill-broadcast (5X) or the minimum-till + fall 

hand-broadcast treatments. Sagebrush density declined in all treatments by the second year but treatment 

differences remained (Figure 2). Sagebrush cover was low across all treatments in both years and could not be 

adequately modeled in SAS. 
204

Table 3. Seed mixes for postfire seedings in the Northern Great Basin

Broadcast mix Seed origin PLS (%) PLS*/m2

MT. 1X** 5X 10X

HOME Artemisia tridentata spp.

wyomingensis

Lincoln/Blaine/Jerome Co., ID 

(1230 m) 20.9 52 262 525

Ericameria nauseosa Uinta Co., WY (2060m) 27.0 86 86 86

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 83.9 91 91 91

Penstemon deustus Northern Great Basin - pooled 56.2 76 76 76

Total Broadcast 305 515 778

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 86.3 67 67 67

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 85.7 51 51 51

Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm 91.6 47 47 47

Sphaeralcea munroana Utah Co., UT (1470 m) 53.2 93 93 93

Eriogonum umbellatum Northern Great Basin - pooled 61.0 8 8 8

Total Drill 266 266 266

Total Drill + Broadcast 571 781 1044

GLASS Broadcast mix

BUTTE A. tridentata ssp. 

wyomingensis

Elko/Humboldt Co., NV (1220-1830 

m) 29.3 52 234 495

Ericameria nauseosa Uinta Co., WY (2060 m) 27.0 86 86 86

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 83.9 91 91 91

Penstemon deustus Northern Great Basin - pooled 56.2 76 76 76

Total Broadcast 305 487 748

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 86.3 67 67 67

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 85.7 51 51 51

Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm 91.6 47 47 47

Sphaeralcea munroana Utah Co., UT (1470 m) 53.2 93 93 93

Eriogonum umbellatum Northern Great Basin - pooled 61.0 11 11 11

Total Drill 269 269 269

 Total Drill + Broadcast 574 756 1017
205

Broadcast mix Seed 

origin

PLS 

(%)

PLS*

/m2

 X** 5X 10X

SCOOBY Broadcast mix

A. tridentata spp. wyomingensis Sanpete Co., UT (1460 m) 17.5 52 234 495

Ericameria nauseosa Sanpete Co., UT (1460 m) 14.8 86 86 86

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 81.6 91 91 91

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm 88.2 100 100 100

Penstemon cyaneus Lincoln Co., ID (1370 m) 69.2 76 76 76

Total Broadcast 405 587 848

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 88.9 67 67 67

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 98.0 51 51 51

Elymus elymoides Toe Jam Creek Germplasm 94.3 47 47 47

Sphaeralcea munroana Uintah Co., UT (1550 m) 65.8 93 93 93

Eriogonum umbellatum Northern Great Basin - pooled 50.4 11 11 11

Total Drill 269 269 269

Total Drill + Broadcast 674 856 1117

SAYLOR Broadcast mix

CREEK A. tridentata spp. wyomingensis Power Co., ID (1390 m) 28.4 50 250 500

Ericameria nauseosa Utah Co., UT (1650 m) 40.5 85 85 85

Poa secunda Mountain Home Germplasm 82.0 100 100 100

Achillea millefolium Eagle Germplasm 94.3 100 100 100

Penstemon speciosus Northern Great Basin - pooled 57.8 15 15 15

Total Broadcast 350 550 800

Drill mix

Pseudoroegneria spicata Anatone Germplasm 80.0 60 60 60

Achnatherum hymenoides 'Rimrock' 96.6 50 50 50

Elymus elymoides Emigrant Germplasm 97.0 35 35 35

Achnatherum thuberianum Snake River Plain - pooled 55.4 30 30 30

Hesperostipa comata Millard Co., UT 77.6 20 20 20

Sphaeralcea munroana Uintah Co., UT (1550 m) 61.0 40 40 40

Astragalus filipes Deschutes Co., OR (1330 m) 90.0 14 14 14

Total Drill 249 249 249

Total Drill + Broadcast 599 799 1049

*Pure live seed; **Drill seed mix does not vary among treatments. Broadcast mix varies only by big sagebrush seeding rate, see Table 2. 
206

Sandberg bluegrass

Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) was unique in having a substantial number of residual plants 

that survived fire. Consequently, the non-drilled, non-seeded control treatment had Sandberg 

bluegrass densities similar to any of the other treatments except the minimum-till drill-broadcast, 

which had significantly greater density (Figure 3). The non-seeded conventional drill treatment 

had lower Sandberg bluegrass density than the non-seeded minimum-till (Figure 3), suggesting 

conventional drill-induced mortality of residual plants. In the conventional drill-broadcast and 

conventional + fall hand-broadcast treatments, any such mortality was mitigated by new 

seedlings, but the conventional + winter hand-broadcast treatment was not significantly different 

from the conventional non-seeded control (Figure 3). Among minimum-till treatments, Sandberg 

bluegrass density did not differ between the non-seeded treatment and the hand-broadcast 

treatments but was significantly higher for drill-broadcast compared to non-seeded and fall handbroadcast treatments (Figure 3). These treatment differences are applicable to both years because 

there was no treatment by year interaction, although Sandberg bluegrass densities for year 2 were 

lower than year 1 (Figure 3). Sandberg bluegrass cover, in contrast to density, increased from 

year 1 to year 2 (data not shown).

Western Yarrow

Western yarrow (Achillea millefolium) density and cover were significantly higher in seeded than 

non-seeded treatments regardless of broadcasting method, time of seeding, or drill type (Figure 

4). Western yarrow density did not differ between seeded treatments, but cover was significantly 

greater in the minimum-till drill-broadcast than other seeded treatments (Figure 4). Year was 

non-significant for western yarrow density, implying no density difference between years within 

treatments, but western yarrow cover increased from year 1 to year 2 (Figure 4).

Drilled Species

Individual drilled species responded similarly to drilling and seeding treatments and could 

therefore be modeled collectively as a group (Figure 5). Density and cover of drilled species 

were higher in seeded than non-seeded treatments but did not differ by drill type within years in 

seeded treatments (Figure 5). Density decreased but cover increased between the first and second 

years in seeded treatments (Figure 5). 

Cheatgrass

First-year cheatgrass density was lower in the conventional drill treatments, seeded and nonseeded, than in the non-drilled non-seeded control (Figure 6). First-year cheatgrass cover was 

lower in the conventional drill-seeded treatment than in the non-drilled non-seeded control and 

the minimum-till treatments (Figure 6). By the second year, cheatgrass cover had more than 

doubled in all treatments, and conventional drill treatments no longer differed from the nondrilled non-seeded control (Figure 6). On the other hand, second year cheatgrass cover was lower 

in seeded treatments for both drill types than in the non-seeded minimum-till treatment (Figure 

6). These results suggest that conventional drill tillage reduced cheatgrass abundance via seed

burial during the first year, but competition from seeded plants became a more important factor 

by the second year. Conventional drill furrows lacking perennial plants appeared to be favorable 

microsites for cheatgrass seed accumulation and germination.
207

Future Plans

Fifth-year monitoring has been or will be carried out at our study sites to evaluate longer-term 

treatment effects. We plan to examine more closely the influence of weather patterns on plant 

establishment and success across these and other experimental study sites. Vegetation recovery 

following a new fire (2012) at the Saylor Creek site is also under investigation. 

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

Large-seeded native species such as bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), 

bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides), and Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides) 

were readily established with either the conventional rangeland drill or the minimum-till drill. 

Small-seeded species such as Wyoming big sagebrush, Sandberg bluegrass, and western yarrow 

established equally well or better when broadcast seeded through drills than when aerially 

broadcast seeded (simulated by hand-broadcasting) in fall or winter. The minimum-till drill plus 

imprinter unit combination worked particularly well for establishing small-seeded species 

including Wyoming big sagebrush, which reached its greatest density at drill-seeding rates of 

about 500 PLS/m2. A one-pass seeding of large- and small-seeded species through the minimumtill drill could be just as effective as and more economical than drilling large-seeded species 

followed by aerial seeding. Use of the minimum-till drill may also result in less loss of residual 

Sandberg bluegrass than the conventional drill. Conventional drilling has the benefit of reducing 

cheatgrass density during the first year following treatment, but in the absence of perennial plant 

establishment this effect is likely short-lived.

Figure 2. Wyoming big sagebrush density by seeding treatment and year following wildfires on 

four sites in the northern Great Basin, showing means (bars) and standard errors (error bars). 

Means with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05). The treatment by year 

interaction term is not significant, but means differ by year within treatments (p<0.05).
208

Figure 3. Sandberg bluegrass density by seeding treatment and year following wildfires on four 

sites in the northern Great Basin, showing means (bars) and standard errors (error bars). Means 

with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05). The treatment by year interaction 

term is not significant, but means differ by year within treatments (p<0.05).

Figure 4. Western yarrow density and cover by seeding treatment and year following wildfires 

on two sites in the northern Great Basin, showing means (bars) and standard errors (error bars). 

Means with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05). Means differed by year 

within treatments for cover but not density (p<0.05). The treatment by year interaction term was 

omitted from these models.
209

Figure 5. Density and cover of drilled species by seeding treatment and year following wildfires 

on four sites in the northern Great Basin, showing means (bars) and standard errors (error bars). 

Means with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05). For cover, the treatment by 

year interaction term is not significant, but means differ by year within treatments (p<0.05).

Figure 6. Cheatgrass density and cover by seeding treatment and year following wildfires on 

four sites in the northern Great Basin, showing means (bars) and standard errors (error bars). 

Means with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05).
210

Presentations

Fisk, Matt R.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Cox, Robert D.; Ott, Jeffrey E. 2013. Post-fire native seeding 

strategies: results from a Wyoming big sagebrush site in northern Nevada. 2

nd National Native 

Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM. Abstract. 

Karrfalt, Robert; Shaw, Nancy. 2013. Banking big sagebrush seed. Poster presented at the 2nd

National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM. Abstract.

Kilkenny, Francis; St. Clair, Brad; Shaw, Nancy; Horning, Matt; Erickson, Vicky; Leger, 

Elizabeth; Johnson, Richard; Darris, Dale. 2013. Genecology and seed zones for prairie 

junegrass and bottlebrush squirreltail. 2

nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; 

Santa Fe, NM. Abstract. 

Lazarus, Brynne; Germino, Matt; Vanderveen, Jess; Richardson, Bryce; Shaw, Nancy. 2013. 

Resource-use efficiency differs among sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) subspecies and 

provenances. Poster presented at the 2nd Great Basin Consortium Conference; 2013 January 14-

16; Boise, ID.

McAdoo, Kent; Swanson, John; Shaw, Nancy. 2013. Native seed planting to diversify crested 

wheatgrass monocultures in Nevada. 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; 

Santa Fe, NM. Abstract.

Newingham, Beth A.; Ott, Jeffrey E.; Ganguli, Amy C.; Shaw, Nancy L. 2013. Collaborative 

efforts comparing the effects of two post-fire seed drills on ecosystem responses in the Great 

Basin. Poster presented at the Great Basin Consortium Conference; 2013 December 9-10; Reno, 

NV. Abstract.

Ott, Jeffrey E. 2013. Drill comparisons for seeding in the Great Basin. Webinar hosted by Great 

Basin Fire Science Delivery; 2013 December 18. Available: http://www.gbfiresci.org/webinars/

Ott, Jeffrey E.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Cox, Robert D. 2013. Comparison of native plant seeding 

techniques in burned Wyoming big sagebrush communities. Poster presented at the 2

nd National 

Native Seed Conference; 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM. Abstract.

Ott, Jeff; Shaw, Nancy; Cox, Robert; Pellant, Mike; Roundy, Bruce; Eggett, Dennis. 2013. 

Native plant seeding techniques for burned Wyoming big sagebrush communities: comparisons 

of drilling and broadcasting methods across multiple sites. Poster presented at the Society for 

Ecological Restoration 5th World Conference on Ecological Restoration; 2013 October 6-11; 

Madison, WI.

Padgett, Wayne; Shaw, Nancy. 2013. Colorado Plateau and Great Basin Native Plant Programs. 

Western Governor’s Conference Sage-grouse Committee. 2013 April 10; Salt Lake City, UT. 

Richardson, Bryce R.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Germino, Matt; Ortiz, Hector; Carlson, Stephanie; 

Sanderson, Stewart; Still, Shannon. 2013. Development of tools and technology to improve the 
211

success and planning of restoration of big sagebrush ecosystems. Great Basin Consortium 

Conference; 2013 December 9-10; Reno, NV. Abstract. 

Shaw, Nancy. 2012. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project. Ecosummit 2012: 

Special Session: Large-scale plant materials programs. 2012 September 30-October 5; 

Columbus, OH. Abstract.

Shaw, Nancy. 2012. Joint Fire Science Program research. 2012 December 11; USGS Snake 

River Field Office, Boise, ID. 

Shaw, Nancy; Cox, Robert; Hild, Ann; Taylor, Megan. 2012. Native plant seedings as a tool for 

post-fire restoration of sagebrush systems. Fifth International Fire Ecology and Management 

Congress: uniting research, education and management. Association for Fire Ecology. 2012 

December 3-7; Portland, OR. Abstract. 

Shaw, Nancy. 2013. Update on Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

Research. 2nd Great Basin Consortium Conference; 2013 January 14-16; Boise, ID. 

Shaw, Nancy; Leger, Beth. 2013. Sagebrush restoration and native plant materials. USDI BLM 

Director and Natural Resources Staff. 2013 June 18 and 20; Washington, DC. 

Youtie, Berta; Shaw, Nancy L.; Fisk, Matt R. 2013. Strategy for maximizing native plant 

material diversity for restoration and genecology research. 2nd National Native Seed Conference; 

2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, NM. Abstract.

Publications

Karrfalt, Robert; Shaw, Nancy. 2013. Banking Wyoming big sagebrush seeds. Native Plants 

Journal. 14: 60-69. 

Parkinson, Hilary; Zabinski, Catherine; Shaw, Nancy. 2013. Impact of native grasses and 

cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) on Great Basin forb seedling growth. Rangeland Ecology & 

Management. 6: 174-180.

Kiehl, Kathrin; Kirmer, Anita; Shaw, Nancy; Tischew, Sabine, eds. [In review]. Guidelines for 

native seed production and grassland restoration. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge 

Scholars. 

Sampangi, Ram K.; Shock, Clinton C.; Mohan, S. Krishna.; Harden, Jacqueline L.; Shaw, Nancy 

L. [In review].Wildflower diseases. Common diseases of Intermountain wildflowers. Corvallis, 

OR: Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station: Sustainable Agriculture Techniques. 

Ext./CrS145. 

Sampangi, Ram K.; Mohan, S. Krishna; Shock, Clinton, C.; Harden, Jacqueline L.; Shaw, Nancy 

L. [In review]. Flax rust Malampsora lini. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Malheur 

Experiment Station: Sustainable Agriculture Techniques. Ext./CrS147. 
212

Shaw, Nancy; Jensen, Scott. [In revision]. The challenge of developing and using native plant 

materials for sagebrush steppe restoration in the Great Basin, USA. Chapter 4.2 In: Kiehl, 

Kathrin; Kirmer, Anita; Shaw, Nancy; Tischew, Sabine, eds. Guidelines for native seed 

production and grassland restoration. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars. 

Shaw, Nancy L.; Pellant, Mike. 2013. Great Basin Native Plant Selection and Increase Project 

2012 Annual Report. Boise, ID: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 259 p. 

Shock, Clinton C.; Feibert, Eric B. G.; Harden, Jacqueline L.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Sampangi, Ram 

L.; Mohan, S. Krishna. [In review]. The value of Intermountain wildflower seed production. 

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Malheur Experiment Station: Sustainable Agriculture 

Techniques. Ext/CrS 146. 

Shock, Myrtle P.; Shock, Clinton C.; Feibert, Eric B. G.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Saunders, Lamont D.; 

Sampangi, Ram S. 2012. Cultivation and irrigation of fernleaf biscuitroot (Lomatium dissectum) 

for seed production. HortScience. 4: 1-4. 

Taylor, Megan M.; Hild, Ann L.; Shaw, Nancy L.; Norton, Ursula; Collier, Tim R. [Accepted 

January 2014]. Exotic and native species production and soil microbial characteristics of 

rehabilitation seedings following wildfire in northern Utah sagebrush communities. Restoration 

Ecology. 

Tischew, Sabine; Kiehl, Kathrin; Shaw, Nancy. [In revision]. Implications for the planning and 

implementation of restoration projects. Chapter 5.1 In: Kiehl, Kathrin; Kirmer, Anita; Shaw, 

Nancy; Tischew, Sabine, eds. Guidelines for native seed production and grassland restoration. 

Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars. 

Young, Stanford A.; Vernon, Jason; Shaw, Nancy. 2013. Basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus) 

pooled tetraploid accessions for U.S. West rangeland reclamation. In: Michalk, David L.; Millar, 

Geoffrey D.; Badgery, Warwick B.; Broadfoot, Kim M., eds. Proceedings 22nd International 

Grassland Congress: Revitalising grasslands to sustain our communities. 2013 September 9-15; 

Sydney, Queensland, Australia. Orange, New South Wales, Australia: New South Wales 

Department of Primary Industry: 381-382.

Youtie, Berta; Shaw, Nancy; Fisk, Matt; Jensen, Scott. 2013. A strategy for maximizing native 

plant material diversity for ecological restoration, germplasm conservation and genecology 

research. SER Europe Knowledge Base on Ecological Restoration: 4 p. Available: 

http://ser.semico.be/?id=292&author=youtie

Additional Products

Planning committee member, National Native Seed Conference, 2013 April 9-12, Santa Fe, NM. 

(N. Shaw)
213

Co-chair, planning committee, 2014 Joint Annual Meeting of the SER Northwest and Great 

Basin Chapters, including incorporation of sessions on native plant materials and sagebrush 

restoration. (Work begun summer 2013, N. Shaw)

USFS national excellence in native plant materials development and Asa Gray career 

achievement awards (N. Shaw)

Fisk, Matt. 2013. Moderator, Plant Materials Session. National Native Seed Conference, 2013 

April 9-12, Santa Fe, NM. 

Daniels, Amy; Shaw, Nancy; Peterson, Dave; Nilson, Keith; Tomosy, Monica; Rowland, Mary. 

[In revision]. Facing climate change in the nation’s forests and grasslands. The Wildlife 

Professional. 

References

Herrick, J. E.; Van Zee, J. W.; Havstad, K. M.; Burkett, L. M.; and Whitford, W. G. 2005. 

Monitoring manual for grassland, shrubland and savanna ecosystems, Volume I. Las Cruces, 

NM: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Jornada Experimental 

Range. 36 p.

Wirth, T. A.; Pyke, D. A. 2007. Monitoring post-fire vegetation rehabilitation projects: a 

common approach for non-forested ecosystems. U.S. Geological Survey, Scientific Investigation 

Report 2006-5048. 36 p.
214

Project Title Reducing Cheatgrass: Research on Bromus tectorumSordaria fimicola Symbiosis and the FusariumVentenata System

Project Agreement No. 10-CR-11221632-182

Principal Investigators and Contact Information

George Newcombe, Professor

University of Idaho

CNR 203D

Forest, Rangeland, and Fire Sciences

PO Box 441133

Moscow, ID 83844-1133

208.885.5289, Fax 208.885.6564

georgen@uidaho.edu

Project Description

Objectives

A series of experiments were conducted to assess the complete life cycle of sordaria (Sordaria 

fimicola), isolate CID 323. Sordaria is being studied in order to determine whether it has a 

negative impact on growth of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). Additional experiments were 

conducted to assess the effects of sordaria on native perennial grasses and competition between 

native grasses and cheatgrass.

Experiments were conducted to assess the effects of endophytic fusarium (Fusarium spp.) 

isolated from ventenata (Ventenata dubia) on emergence and growth of ventenata, bluebunch 

wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), and cheatgrass. Investigating the mechanisms behind the 

invasion of ventenata is likely to shed light on the nature of changing grassland communities 

throughout the region (including incursion of ventenata into cheatgrass monocultures).

Methods

Greenhouse plantings and field sites of cheatgrass were inoculated with sordaria in completely 

randomized (greenhouse) or randomized block (field) designs. Sordaria was grown to maturity in 

agaro in laboratory conditions, at which point inoculum was produced from spore suspensions. 

Inoculum was applied to cheatgrass and bluebunch wheatgrass seedlings using bottle sprayers in 

the greenhouse and backpack sprayers in the field. Seedlings in the greenhouse were randomized 

to bench position after inoculation, while treatment was randomized to position for field 

experiments. Observations on growth were made daily, and aboveground biomass was collected 

for drying and weighing. 

Sordaria life cycle experiments involved the inoculation of seedlings in the greenhouse as 

described above. Leaf material from infected cheatgrass plants were collected two weeks post 

inoculation, surface sterilized, plated on potato dextrose agar to determine infection status, and 

incubated on sterile, washed sand. Fungal growth was observed and recorded daily.
215

Twenty fusarium species isolated from ventenata were grown in agaro and used to produce spore 

suspensions for treatment of seedlings. Inoculum was placed directly on seeds of ventenata, 

bluebunch wheatgrass, and cheatgrass, which were then covered with soilless media. Treated 

seedlings in 200-cell trays (one for each treatment and one seed per cell) were grown in the 

greenhouse and observed daily to document emergence. In some experiments, aboveground 

biomass of seedlings was collected 14 days after emergence for a treatment had ceased. Biomass 

was dried in ovens and weighed. Emergence data was analyzed using chi-squared difference in 

proportion tests; biomass data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA. 

Results and Discussion

The Animal-Plant-Fungal life cycle of sordaria CID 323 as a dung fungus was confirmed 

through a series of experiments dating back to 2011 and continuing into 2013. CID 323-infected 

dung was used to show in a greenhouse experiment that fruiting bodies growing on the dung can 

directly infect cheatgrass foliage in close proximity. Spores were discharged from sordaria’s 

perithecia from the dung onto cheatgrass foliage as confirmed by microscopic examination of 

leaves as well as spore traps. A low frequency of infection of cheatgrass foliar tissue by CID 323 

was confirmed in the laboratory. An experiment in the laboratory showed that spores ejected 

from CID 323 perithecia can germinate on the surface of cheatgrass leaves and infect the plants 

directly. This addresses a long standing assumption in the dung-fungi literature that spores 

germinate primarily in the digestive tracts of herbivores and that plants act primarily as a passive 

medium for spores on the surface to regain entrance to the digestive tracts of herbivores. By 

demonstrating that spores can germinate on the leaves of cheatgrass and infect the plant, our 

experiments support the hypothesis that CID 323 is an endophytic dung fungus, with both animal 

and plant hosts.

Sordaria CID 323 was also shown in early 2013 to be able to form perithecia directly on 

cheatgrass foliar tissue in the absence of dung or artificial growth media. Infected tissue was 

incubated on sterilized, moist sand, and perithecia were observed forming on upper leaf surfaces 

within 21 days. Similarly, perithecia formed and clustered on the exposed leaf tissue in various 

artificial media, providing evidence that CID 323 can use senescent foliar tissue as an energy 

source to mature and complete its life cycle. Experiments are currently being repeated in the 

greenhouse and laboratory to demonstrate and further explore this phenomenon. Confirmation 

will again change the conception of sordaria as an obligate dung fungus to a fungus with a much 

more robust life cycle, which it can complete with or without animal hosts, as an endophyte, and 

possibly as a saprophyte.

In late 2012, a field experiment was started with collaborators at MPG Ranch in Montana’s 

Bitterroot Valley to determine if inoculation timing has an effect on growth and fecundity of 

cheatgrass. An experiment was set up as a completely randomized blocked design, with fall and 

spring applications of CID 323 as treatments and a control (cheatgrass sprayed with water). 

Materials are currently being processed for this experiment and will produce data on how 

biomass and relative fecundity (seed mass per plant and number of seeds per plant) vary across 

treatments and controls. All treatments and controls were replicated in three different locations 

on the MPG ranch with different elevations, gradients, and orientations. The hypothesis being 

investigated is that CID 323 will have greater negative effects on cheatgrass when applied to 
216

newly emerged seedlings in late fall than when applied to cheatgrass seedlings after vernalization 

in the spring. 

Experiments to assess the most effective manner of inoculating both cheatgrass and native 

grasses in the field, laboratory, and greenhouse are ongoing. Biomass and fecundity experiments 

are ongoing with CID 323’s effect on native perennials. 

In summer 2012, researchers isolated distinctive communities of fusarium fungi from ventenata 

and cheatgrass root and stem tissue. Preliminary experiments determined that some fusarium 

isolates (about 28 distinct strains in two groups, one associated with ventenata and one with 

cheatgrass) have pathogenic effects on cheatgrass and bluebunch wheatgrass. Ventenata plants 

from which half of the Fusaria were isolated did not show signs of disease or reduced growth, 

whereas cheatgrass plants from which Fusaria were isolated were not as healthy as fusarium-free 

plants. This finding could support a novel-weapons hypothesis related to observed ventenata 

invasions over the last decade or so: namely, that ventenata may have an endophytic association 

with strains of fusarium, which are pathogenic to cheatgrass and native grasses, thus facilitating 

invasion; or, that ventenata is resistant to fusarium-related disease in a manner different from 

cheatgrass and native grasses, thus facilitating invasion. 

Greenhouse experiments have confirmed that ventenata-associated fusarium isolates are 

pathogenic to bluebunch wheatgrass and cheatgrass, while having neutral or even positive 

relationships with ventenata itself. Experiments are providing results confirming the hypothesis 

that ventenata is resistant to fusarium strains that have pathogenic relationships with bluebunch 

wheatgrass and cheatgrass. Ventenata was shown to have slightly reduced emergence and 

increased biomass after being treated with combined inoculum from 10 strains of fusarium 

(Fusarium ex Ventenata or FEV) isolated from ventenata in summer 2012. The same inoculum 

produced markedly different results in bluebunch wheatgrass and cheatgrass. Biomass and 

emergence of bluebunch wheatgrass were dramatically reduced after treatment with FEV, and 

seedlings had levels of post emergence mortality approaching 50%. Cheatgrass had reduced 

biomass, a neutral emergence response, and some post emergence mortality when treated with 

FEV inoculum. Seeds from all three grass species were also treated with fusarium strains isolated 

from cheatgrass (Fusarium ex Bromus or FEB). Ventenata treated with FEB had increases in 

biomass and emergence; bluebunch wheatgrass had a negative emergence interaction and 

significantly reduced biomass with FEB; cheatgrass responded to FEB inoculum with a neutral 

response in emergence and a significantly negative response in biomass. 

Individual strains of fusarium isolated from ventenata and cheatgrass were also used in 

individual emergence and pathogenicity studies to determine whether particular strains are 

pathogenic to some plants and tolerated by others. Results from the first round of testing on 

bluebunch wheatgrass indicated that five individual FEV isolates had significant negative effects 

on bluebunch wheatgrass emergence, and no FEB isolates had negative effects on bluebunch 

wheatgrass emergence. When investigating the effects of FEB and FEV isolates on ventenata and 

cheatgrass, of 10 FEV isolates tested, two had significant positive effects on ventenata 

emergence and three had significant negative effects on cheatgrass emergence. Of 10 FEB 

isolates tested, three had significant negative effects on ventenata and eight had significant 

negative results on cheatgrass. Taken together, the bulk inoculum and individual isolate 

experiments support the hypothesis that ventenata is associated with endophytic fungi from the 
217

Fusarium genus, which act as pathogens towards two major competitors in the invaded range, 

bluebunch wheatgrass and cheatgrass.

Further experiments are being conducted in order to determine the extent to which fusarium 

isolates can be vertically transmitted in ventenata. Since there is also preliminary evidence from 

collaborators in the University of Idaho’s College of Agriculture and Life Sciences suggesting 

that ventenata is apomictic. Vertical transmission of fusarium strains, even at low frequencies, 

may partly explain ventenata’s ability to compete with cheatgrass and native bunchgrasses in the 

field. Field collections of ventenata from several regions in Idaho have contained fusarium, 

although identification of strain and pathogenicity will take significant time and laboratory 

effort. To this point, seeds from four populations of ventenata in two states, Idaho and 

Washington, have been tested for vertically transmitted filamentous fungi. Percentages of 

surface-sterilized seeds infected with fusarium vary dramatically between populations (5% to 

34%), but these numbers are preliminary and represent conservative estimates. There are other 

obvious seed-endophytes of ventenata in all populations examined so far, including fungi in the 

genera Cladosporium and Aureobasidium. Exploring the relationship between these endophytes 

is likely to lead to new research in the next year.

Identification of fusarium strains isolated from ventenata and cheatgrass are being conducted by 

collaborators at Pennsylvania State University.

Management Applications and/or Seed Production Guidelines

Although exploration of the sordaria-cheatgrass-bluebunch wheatgrass system is in the 

preliminary stages, this work will likely lead to useful information for land managers in the 

future. Work on fungal endophytes, fusarium endophytes, and rhizosphere pathogens will 

broaden our understanding of why some native grass plantings fail, how cheatgrass and 

ventenata successfully invade native perennial grasslands and shrub steppe communities, and 

ways to potentially reduce cheatgrass and ventenata infestations.

Presentations

Fusarium-Ventenata-Bromus-Pseudoroegneria symbiosis and implications for rangeland 

restoration and seed production. National Native Seed Conference. 2013 April 8-11; Santa Fe, 

NM.

Publications

Baynes, M.; (and others). [In preparation]. A manuscript focusing on the effects of endophytic 

dung fungi (including but not limited to Sordaria) on cheatgrass. 

Newcombe, G. [In preparation]. Effects of ventenata- and cheatgrass-associated Fusaria on 

emergence, biomass, and fecundity of range grasses, both exotic and native.

Newcombe, G.; Baynes, M.; Griffith, D.; (and others). [In preparation]. The life cycle of S. 

fimicola, re-evaluating the life cycle of the fungus and demonstrating that it is not an obligate 

dung fungus. 
218

Additional Products

Extension presentations on both Sordaria-Bromus symbiosis and the Ventenata-Fusarium

system were made by Dave Griffith and collaborator Tim Prather (University of Idaho’s College 

of Agriculture and Life Sciences) in June, 2013. One presentation focused on ventenata invasion 

of timothy (Phleum spp.) hay fields and control strategies. The second presentation focused on 

the invasion of Idaho and Washington rangelands by ventenata and was given to interested 

ranchers, farmers, land managers, and commercial seed producers. Field tours had 15 to 25 

participants.
219

Appendix 1. Seed lots distributed to cooperators in 2013 by USDA FS Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, Idaho

Species Common Name Seed Origin 

(county, state) Affiliation kg

Achillea millefolium western yarrow Ada, Idaho Boise State University .03

Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber’s needlegrass Ada, Idaho Texas Tech University .03

Agoseris glauca pale agoseris Humboldt, Nevada Texas Tech University .005

Artemisia tridentata big sagebrush Casper, Wyoming Texas Tech University .007

Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Malheur, Oregon USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Atriplex canescens fourwing saltbush Utah Texas Tech University 1.75

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot Ada, Idaho USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot Ada, Idaho USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Balsamorhiza hookerii Hooker’s balsamroot Ada, Idaho Texas Tech University .015

Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Ada, Idaho Texas Tech University .016

Ericameria nauseosus rubber rabbitbrush Utah, Utah Texas Tech University .065

Erigeron pumilus shaggy fleabane Eureka, Nevada Texas Tech University .001

Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Boise, Idaho Texas Tech University .01

Grayia spinosa spiny hopsage Malheur, Oregon Texas Tech University .014

Lomatium dissectum fernleaf biscuitroot Ada, Idaho USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean
220

Lomatium dissectum fernleaf biscuitroot Owyhee, Idaho USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot Ada, Idaho USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Lomatium grayi Gray’s biscuitroot Gooding, Idaho USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Lomatium triternatum nineleaf biscuitroot Ada, Idaho USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Lomatium triternatum nineleaf biscuitroot Ada, Idaho USDA FS National Seed Laboratory N/A unclean

Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon Malheur, Oregon USDI BLM Birds of Prey NCA .001

Phacelia hastata silverleaf phacelia Malheur, Oregon Texas Tech University .006

Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass Owyhee, Idaho Texas Tech University 1.0

Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Asotin, Washington Texas Tech University 1.55

Total Seed Distributed 4.5 
221

Appendix 2. Utah Crop Improvement Association stock materials tagging information form

UCIA STOCK MATERIALS TAGGING INFORMATION FORM (1/4/12)

Utah Crop Improvement Assn. 4855 Old Main Hill Logan, UT 84322-4855 Ph (435) 797-2082 Fax (435) 797-

0642

Please complete this form in detail when requesting certification tags for plant materials sent to growers for stock increase.

Date ________ Propagative type (seeds, plants, cuttings, etc.)_____________Amount sent___________ Date sent__________ 

Breeder/Developer

Agency/Company

Address

Phone/Cell Email

Stock Material Recipient

Address

Phone/Cell Email

Species Common Name

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE:

___ A. Pre-variety Germplasm (SI, S, or T germplasm not intended for variety release) 

___ B. Experimental Variety (germplasm being developed for variety release) 

___ C. Released Variety 

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE DETAILS:

A. Pre-Variety Germplasm Source Identified (SI) ______ Selected (S)*1 ______ Tested (T)*1 ________

 *1 Developmental details (official release notice or equivalent information) on file with appropriate certification agency

1. PVG Official Release: Completed __________ Intended _________ Not Intended _________

2. Germplasm Identification Term (Germplasm ID): ______________________*2

 *2 Optional for SI, recommended for S, T.

3. Material Transfer Agreement required?*3 Yes _____ No _____ 

 *3 If developer wishes to maintain intellectual property rights.

4. Generation of this stock material, and Generation limitation (if specified): G__ /G__

5. Stock material lot #: ____________*4 Seed Certification # ____________ (if assigned)

 *4 Unique designation for this particular lot.

6. a) GO Source location if Natural-Track:

County*5_____________ State*5_______________ Elevation ________________

 *5 Or other geographic designation; pooled plant materials may include more than one county or state; details to certification 

agency

b) GO indigenous? Yes _______ No _______

c) G1 origin location if Manipulated-Track*6: County_________ State _____ Elevation ________

 *6 Where germplasm developed (as released) 

7. Field production location from which this stock material was produced, if applicable: 

County ____________ State _______________ Elevation ________________
222

B. Experimental Variety

1. Experimental number or designation: ______________________

2. Material Transfer Agreement required? Yes _______ No ________

3. Certification status equivalent of this stock material:

Breeder ___________ Foundation _________ Registered _______________

4. Stock material lot #: ____________*4 Seed Certification # ___________ (if assigned)

C. Released Variety

1. Variety Name _________________________

2. PVP applied for? Yes ________ No _________

3. Certification status of this stock material:

Breeder ____________ Foundation _________ Registered ______________

4. Stock material lot #:___________*4 Seed Certification # ___________ (if assigned)