Emission Control Technology

for Stationary

Internal Combustion Engines

Status Report

Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association

1660 L Street NW ! Suite 1100 ! Washington DC 20036

tel: (202) 296-4797 ! fax: (202) 331-1388

July 1997
Emission Control Technology for Stationary Internal Combustion Engines

July 1997

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I. INTRODUCTION

Internal combustion (IC) engines are used in a variety of stationary applications ranging

from power generation to inert gas production. Both spark ignition and compression ignition

engines can be found. Depending on the application, stationary IC engines range in size from

relatively small (~50 hp) for agricultural irrigation purposes to thousands of horsepower for

power generation. Often when used for power generation, several large engines will be used in

parallel to meet the load requirements. A variety of fuels can be used for IC engines including

diesel and gasoline among others. The actual fuel used depends on the owners/operators

preference but can be application dependent as well.

The operation of IC engines results in the emission of hydrocarbons (NMHC or VOC),

carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM). The actual

concentration of these criteria pollutants varies from engine to engine, mode of operation, and is

strongly related to the type of fuel used.

Various emission control technologies exist for IC engines which can afford substantial

reductions in all four criteria pollutants listed above. However depending on whether the engine

is being run rich, lean, or stoichiometrically and the emission control technology used, the

targeted emissions vary as do the levels of control. For example, an oxidation catalyst can be

used to control NMHC, CO, and PM emissions from diesel engines which inherently operate in a

lean environment, whereas selective catalytic reduction (SCR) could be used to additionally

control NOx emissions. More recently, lean-NOx catalysts have been demonstrated to provide

greater than a 80 percent reduction in NOx emissions from a stationary diesel engine, while

providing significant CO, NMHC, and PM control as well.

PM emissions from stationary diesel engines are more of a concern than those for IC

engines using other fuels. Several emission control technologies exist for diesel engine PM

control. Oxidation or lean-NOx catalyst can be used to not only reduce the gaseous emissions

associated with the use of diesel engines but further provide significant PM control. Likewise,

diesel particulate filter systems can be used to achieve up to and greater than 90 percent PM

control while in some instances, also providing reductions in the gaseous emissions.

Additionally, special ceramic coatings applied to the combustion zone surfaces of the

piston crown, valve faces, and head have shown the ability to significantly reduce NOx and PM

emissions in diesel engines. These ceramic coatings can be used by themselves or combined with

an oxidation catalyst to give even greater reduction of PM. Ceramic engine coatings change the

combustion characteristics such that less dry, carbon soot, is produced. Also, when combined

with an oxidation catalyst, ceramic coatings allow retarding of the engine to reduce NOx, while

CO and particulates are maintained at low levels.
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In the case of gaseous fuels, ceramic coatings have shown the ability to allow the user to

operate their engines with timing significantly advanced generating higher power levels. Also,

wider ranges of fuel composition and ambient air temperature fluctuations are tolerated without

the deleterious effects of precombustion. Tests are currently underway to evaluate the effects of

the coatings on specific emissions from gaseous fueled engines.

Emission control technology for stationary IC engines is currently available and can be

used to provide substantial reductions in the CO, NMHC, NOx, and PM emissions from these

sources in a cost-effective manner.

II. STATIONARY INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Stationary applications for IC engines include:

! gas compression,

! pumping,

! power generation,

! cogeneration,

! irrigation,

! and inert gas production.

IC engines use a variety of fuels and run rich, lean, or stoichiometrically as outlined in

Table 1. The engines used in these applications range in size from fifty horsepower to thousands

of horsepower. There are cogeneration facilities in the U.S. which use several large engines in

parallel to generate electricity.

Table 1: Engine Types and Fuels

Rich Burn Natural Gas

Propane

Gasoline

Stoichiometric Natural Gas

Propane

Gasoline

Lean Burn Diesel

Natural Gas

Dual Fuel

Typical gaseous emission levels of some of these engines is included in Table 2.
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Table 2: IC Engine Typical Emission Levels

Engine Type Lambda*(ë) Mode Emission (g/bhp-hr)

NMHC CO NOx PM

Natural Gas 0.98 Rich 0.3 13.9 8.3 Low

0.99 Rich 0.2 8.0 11.0 Low

1.06 Lean 1.0 1.0 18.0 Low

1.74 Lean 1.0 3.0 0.7 Low

Diesel 1.6-3.2 Lean 0.3 1.0 11.6 0.25-0.8

Dual Fuel 1.6-1.9 Lean 0.5 2.5 4.1 NA

* ë is the ratio of the actual air to fuel ratio to the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio.

It is important to note that emissions vary from engine to engine and model to model. 

Nonetheless, the above values are representative of what may be expected. Natural gas, propane,

and dual fuel engines are characterized by relatively low PM emissions, whereas diesel engines

have relatively high PM emissions.

The difference between rich, lean, and stoichiometric engine operation lies in the air to fuel

ratio. Stoichiometric engine operation is defined as having the chemically correct amount of air in

the combustion chamber during combustion. Hence, perfect combustion would result in the

production of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. However, perfect combustion not being possible

results in the production of NMHC, CO, NOx, PM, and water as well. A rich-burn engine is

characterized by excess fuel in the combustion chamber during combustion. A lean-burn engine,

on the other hand, is characterized by excess air in the combustion chamber during combustion

which results in an oxygen rich exhaust. Diesel engines inherently operate lean, whereas IC

engines which use natural gas, gasoline, or propane can be operated in all three modes of

operation.

III. GASEOUS EMISSION CONTROL OF STATIONARY IC ENGINES

Catalyst Control Technologies

The principle behind a catalyst for control of the gaseous emissions of a stationary IC

engine is that the catalyst causes chemical reactions without being changed or consumed. An

emission control catalyst system consists of a steel housing, whose size is dependent on the size of

the engine for which it is being used, that contains a metal or ceramic structure which acts as a

catalyst support or substrate. There are no moving parts, just acres of interior surfaces on the

substrate coated with either base or precious catalytic metals such as platinum (Pt), rhodium (Rh),

palladium (Pd), and vanadium (V) depending on targeted pollutants. Catalysts transform
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pollutants into harmless gases by causing chemical reactions in the exhaust stream. These

reactions differ depending on the technology being used which further depends on whether the

engine is operating rich, lean, or stoichiometric. In any case, emission control catalysts all serve

to eliminate NOx, CO, and NMHC to varying degrees.

The selection of an emission control technology for gaseous emissions depends not only

on the targeted pollutants but also the engine type and operating mode, i.e. speed and load. In

some instances with rich burn engines, NOx alone may be controlled accompanied by modest, if

any, reductions in CO and NMHC. Whereas in the case of stoichiometric and lean burn engines,

significant reductions in all three pollutants can be achieved. Table 3 outlines the emission control

technologies available for the different engine types.

Table 3: Emission Control Technologies for Stationary IC Engines

Engine Operation Control Technology Target Pollutants

Rich NSCR Catalyst NOx, CO, NMHC

Stoichiometric NSCR Catalyst (three-way) NOx, CO, NMHC

Lean

Oxidation Catalyst (two-way) CO, NMHC

Lean-NOx Catalyst NOx, CO, NMHC

SCR Catalyst NOx

Engine Coating NOx*, CO, NMHC

*with engine retard

Note: NSCR - nonselective catalytic reduction, SCR - selective catalytic reduction.

Different emission control technologies have to be applied to stationary IC engines

depending on their air to fuel ratio. This is due to the fact that the exhaust gas composition differs

depending on whether the engine is operated in a rich, lean, or stoichiometric burn condition. 

Figures 1 through 3 highlight the performance of different catalyst systems for a wide range of air

to fuel ratios. Engine operating mode (speed and load) as it affects exhaust gas temperature also

has to be considered.

As can be seen in Figure 1, NSCR can achieve substantial NOx reductions for rich burn

engines. This same catalyst technology is referred to as a three-way catalyst when the engine is

operated at the stoichiometric point (ë=1) where not only is NOx reduced but so are CO and

NMHC as shown in the figures. Conversely, lean NOx and oxidation catalysts provide little, if

any, emission control in a rich-burn environment. However in a lean-burn environment, oxidation

catalysts provide significant reductions in both CO and NMHC, and lean-NOx catalysts provide

reductions in NOx, CO, and NMHC. Table 4 outlines the different catalyst technologies available

for use on stationary IC engines and the typical reductions that can be achieved (the performance

of some catalyst formulations will deviate somewhat from those shown).
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Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3

Table 4: Performance of Different Catalyst Technologies
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Catalyst Technology Engine % Reduction

Operation NMHC CO NOx

NSCR Rich >77 >90 >98

NSCR Stoich 80 >97 >98

SCR Lean minimal minimal >95

Oxidation Lean >90 >98 n.a.

Lean NOx Lean ^0 60 >80

Oxidation Catalyst and Engine Coatings* Lean 60 80 40

Nonselective Catalytic Reduction (NSCR) and Three-way Catalysts. NSCR has been used to

control NOx emissions from rich-burn engines for over 15 years. The systems have demonstrated

the ability to achieve greater than 98 percent reduction. Over 3000 rich burn IC engines have

been equipped with NSCR technology in the U.S. alone. Engines in excess of 250 hp have been

equipped with NSCR. In the presence of CO and NMHC in the engine exhaust, the catalyst

converts NOx to nitrogen and oxygen.

As shown in Figures 2 and 3, NSCR reduces NOx, CO, and NMHC emissions if an engine

is operated stoichiometrically. NSCR used in this manner is defined as a three-way conversion

catalyst. In order for conversion efficiencies to remain high, the air to fuel ratio must remain

within a fairly narrow window of the stoichiometric point (ë=1). NOx conversion efficiency

drops dramatically when the engine is run in the lean regime, while NMHC and CO conversion

efficiency also declines somewhat. Three-way catalysts are installed on over 1000 stationary IC

engines in the U.S. and have been in use for over 10 years.

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR). SCR is a method of controlling NOx emissions from

lean-burn stationary IC engines. The technology was first patented in 1959 in the U.S. and has

been used on over 700 NOx generating sources worldwide, some of which are stationary IC

engines. Lean-burn engines are characterized by an oxygen-rich exhaust, thereby making the

reduction of NOx virtually impossible using NSCR catalyst technology. However, introducing a

reducing agent such as ammonia, urea, or others makes the necessary chemical reactions possible. 

The reactions that occur over the catalyst bed using ammonia are as follows:

4NO + 4NH3 + O2 -----> 4N2 + 6H2O

2NO + 4NH + O -----> 3N + 6H O. 2 3 2 2 2
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Figure 4: Selective Catalytic Reduction

NOx emissions can be reduced by greater than 90 percent. This approach is called

selective catalytic reduction (SCR) because with the reducing agent present, the catalyst

selectively targets NOx reduction alone. A schematic of a typical SCR system is shown in Figure

4. As shown, the reducing agent is injected upstream of the catalyst bed. The amount of reagent

injected is calibrated by measuring the NOx concentration upstream of the catalyst (and possibly

downstream) or by its predicted concentration knowing the engine's operating parameters.

Both precious metal and base metal catalysts have been used in SCR systems. Base metal

catalysts, typically vanadium and titanium, are used for exhaust gas temperatures between 450EF

and 800EF. For higher temperatures (675EF to 1100EF), zeolite catalysts may be used. Both the

base metal and zeolite catalysts are sulfur tolerant for diesel engine exhaust. Precious metal SCR

catalysts are useful for low temperatures (350EF to 550EF). When using precious metal SCR

catalysts, attention should be paid to the fuel sulfur content and the appropriate formulation

selected.

Oxidation Catalysts. Oxidation catalysts have been used on off-road mobile source lean-burn

engines for almost 30 years. More recently, they have been applied to on-road lean-burn engines

as well. In fact, over 350,000 oxidation catalysts were equipped to on-road diesel engines in

1994 alone. In the U.S., over 500 stationary lean-burn IC engines have been outfitted with

oxidation catalysts.

Oxidation catalysts contain precious metals impregnated onto a high geometric surface

area carrier and are placed in the exhaust stream. They are very effective in controlling CO and

NMHC emissions. As previously shown in Table 4, CO can be reduced by greater than 98

percent and NMHC emissions can be reduced by over 90 percent. They are also used to reduce

particulate emissions of diesel engines by oxidizing the soluble organic fraction of the particulate -

reductions of over 30 percent can be achieved. Oxidation catalysts also serve to eliminate the

characteristic odor associated with diesel exhaust by oxidizing the aldehyde and acrolein

emissions.

Lean-NOx Catalysts. In anticipation of the on-road heavy-duty diesel engine 4.0 g/bhp-hr NOx

standard in 1998 and a further tightening of that standard in 2004, much research and

development has been carried out in the area of lean-NOx catalysis. Initial work resulted in

catalyst formulations and structures that could reduce NOx emissions in the oxygen-rich diesel
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exhaust environment. However, durability problems could not be overcome as the structures

collapsed within a short period of time. This resulted in further work with both base metal and

precious metal catalysts which performed satisfactorily if a small amount of reducing agent was

added. For diesel engines, the fuel itself can be used as the reductant.

A small amount of diesel fuel (equivalent to approximately a three percent fuel penalty)

can be injected upstream of the catalyst to provide the additional hydrocarbons needed to

significantly reduce NOx emissions. At the same time, CO and NMHC emissions are reduced

dramatically. Although a relatively new technology, one stationary diesel engine has been

equipped with a lean-NOx catalyst and NOx emissions are being reduced by 80 percent, CO by 60

percent, and NMHC emissions by 60 percent.

Maintenance of Catalysts for Stationary IC Engines. Whether employing NSCR, SCR,

oxidation, or lean-NOx catalytic controls on an IC engine, there are conditions which can reduce

catalytic activity. Catalytic deactivation may result from (1) chemical poisoning, (2) masking, or

(3) thermal sintering. All three can take place slowly; the process is often called "aging". 

Thousands of stationary IC engine catalyst applications have been effectively used for stationary

IC engine gaseous emission control for five years or more. Some installations, however, do

experience performance loss over time. In most of these cases, the reduced performance results

from the catalyst being masked by contaminants in the exhaust. Catalyst manufacturers can test

such a catalyst, taking a sample from the lower-performing unit to determine the cause of the

activity loss and the best method of regeneration. Cleaning procedures can remove contaminants

from the catalyst, usually restoring catalytic activity.

Chemical poisoning of a catalyst can be either temporary or more permanent. A

temporary poison is one like oxides of sulfur which inhibits optimum catalyst performance, but

such loss is recovered by exposure to temperatures above 400EC. In many instances, chemical

poisoning can be reversed with special procedures. Poisoning is less of a concern with today's

high technology catalysts, many of which are formulated to have a degree of poison resistance.

Thermal sintering of the catalyst is not reversible because it causes a collapse of the

washcoat. However, overtemperature control can be incorporated into the system to prevent this

from happening. Also, high temperature catalysts have been developed with components resistant

to >1000EC for some applications.

In order to ensure continued high catalyst performance, manufacturers often recommend a

maintenance program. Components of the program include overtemperature monitoring and

control, as mentioned above; specifying a maximum pressure drop across the catalyst; lubricating

oil specifications to prevent poisoning; catalyst washing procedures; emissions monitoring; and

laboratory catalyst evaluations. Following the manufacturer's recommendations will ensure

maximum catalyst life and performance.

Ceramic Engine Coatings
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Ceramic engine coatings have been used for almost 5 years in well over 200 stationary and

mobile diesel engines. The primary motivation has been to reduce carbon soot, or visible smoke. 

However, recent testing has shown that when used in diesel engines, engine coatings in

combination with an oxidation catalyst will allow the engine timing to be retarded such that NOx

emissions are reduced by 40%, with decreases in NMHC and CO. 

Work is currently under way on ceramic coatings in combination with other technologies

which may lead to even further PM reductions and NOx levels below a 4.0 g/bhp-hr for both on

road and stationary heavy duty diesel engines.

In the case of gaseous fuels, ceramic coatings have shown the ability to allow the user to

operate their engines with timing significantly advanced generating higher power levels. Also

wider ranges of fuel composition and ambient air changes are tolerated without the deleterious

effects of precombustion. Tests are currently underway to understand the effects of the coatings

on specific emissions from gaseous fueled engines.

Costs of Emission Control of Stationary IC Engines

Table 5 outlines the approximate costs the different catalytic controls available for IC

engines.

Table 5: Cost of Catalytic Control Technologies

Catalyst Type $/bhp

NSCR 10-12

SCR 50-125

Oxidation 9-10

Lean NOx 10-20

Engine Coatings 5-12

IV. PARTICULATE EMISSION CONTROL OF STATIONARY IC ENGINES

Particulate matter (PM) emission control of stationary IC engines is a concern for diesel

engines which emit a relatively high amount of particulate compared to engines using other fuels. 

Diesel particulate emissions are composed of a variety of compounds from fuel and lube oil

combustion, as well as engine wear and sulfate from diesel fuel sulfur. The majority of the

particulate consists of carbon and the soluble organic fraction (SOF) consisting of unburned fuel

and unburned lube oil. Both oxidation catalysts and diesel particulate filters can be used to

substantially reduce diesel PM emissions.

Diesel Oxidation Catalysts
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Recently, a catalyst system has been approved with EPA's urban bus retrofit/rebuild

program. The program requires that particulate emissions be reduced by at least 25 percent. 

Other investigations reported in SAE papers substantiate that 25 percent PM reductions are easily

achieved. SAE Paper No. 900600 reported that catalysts will reduce 90 percent of the SOF

resulting in a 40 to 50 percent reduction in total PM emissions.

The sulfur content of diesel fuel is critical to applying catalyst technology. Catalysts used

to oxidize the SOF of the particulate can also oxidize sulfur dioxide to form sulfates, which is

counted as part of the particulate. Catalyst formulations have been developed which selectively

oxidize the SOF while minimizing oxidation of the sulfur dioxide. However, the lower the sulfur

content in the fuel, the greater the opportunity to maximize the effectiveness of oxidation catalyst

technology.

Figure 5

As for gaseous emission control, the cost of using an oxidation catalyst for PM control is

approximately $9-10/bhp. As noted earlier, Oxidation catalysts have been used on off-road

mobile source lean-burn engines for almost 30 years. More recently, they have been applied to

on-road lean-burn engines as well. In fact over 350,000 oxidation catalysts were equipped to onroad diesel engines in 1994 alone. In the U.S., over 150 stationary diesel engines have been

outfitted with oxidation catalysts.

Ceramic Engine Coatings

Ceramic engine coatings have been proven to reduce carbon soot. Recent tests for EPA

certification show about 50% reduction in opacity. This reduction results because of the change

in combustion characteristics in the cylinder. Additionally, this reduction in carbon soot results in
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about a 30% reduction in PM. When used in combination with diesel oxidation catalyst, the

overall PM reduction increases to about 35%.

Ceramic engine coatings were found to improve fuel economy by 7% in a 4-year

demonstration conducted by a U.S. transit authority. With over 100,000 miles on some buses

participating in the study, engine parts were removed that showed no wear or deterioration of the

engine coatings.

Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF) or Trap Oxidizer System

The trap oxidizer system consists of a filter positioned in the exhaust stream designed to

collect a significant fraction of the particulate emissions while allowing the exhaust gases to pass

through the system. Since the volume of PM generated by a diesel engine is sufficient to fill up

and plug a reasonably sized DPF over time, some means of disposing of this trapped particulate

must be provided. The most promising means of disposal is to burn or oxidize the particulate in

the trap, thus regenerating, or cleansing, the DPF of collected particulate.

A complete trap oxidizer system consists of the filter and the means to facilitate the

regeneration.

Filter Material. A number of filter materials have been tested, including ceramic monoliths,

woven silica fiber coils, ceramic foam, mat-like ceramic fibers, wire mesh, and sintered metal

substrates. Collection efficiencies of these filters range from 50 percent to over 90 percent. 

Excellent filter efficiency has rarely been a problem with the various filter materials listed

above, but work has continued with the materials, for example, to: (1) optimize high filter

efficiency with accompanying low back pressure, (2) improve the radial flow of oxidation through

the filter during regeneration, and (3) improve the mechanical strength of the filter designs.

Figure 6
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Particulate-ladened diesel exhaust enters the filter but because the cell of the filter is capped at

the opposite end, the exhaust cannot exit out the cell. Instead the exhaust gases pass through the

porous walls of the cell. The particulate is trapped on the cell wall. The exhaust gases exit the

filter through the adjacent cell.

For example, a recent SAE Paper (No. 940235) reported impressive results with an

improved cordierite ceramic monolith filter. The newly designed filter achieved over a 90 percent

particulate control efficiency while improving the coefficient of thermal expansion by 60 percent

and the predicted thermal shock resistance by 200 percent over current filter designs. These

significant improvements will enable the filters to withstand the rigorous operating conditions

during planned, as well as unplanned, regenerations.

Regeneration. The exhaust temperature of diesels is not always sufficient to initiate regeneration

in the trap. A number of techniques are available to bring about regeneration of traps. It is not

uncommon for some of these various techniques to be used in combination. Some of these

methods include:

! Using a catalyst-coated DPF or catalyst soot filter. The application of a base or

precious metal coating applied to the surface of the DPF reduces the ignition

temperature necessary for oxidation of the particulate so that the collected

particulate is spontaneously ignited at a temperature of -375E (a condition often

achieved in 4-stroke engine exhaust). Regeneration is achieved without the use of

a burner or heater.

! Using a catalyst to oxidize NO to NO which adsorbs on the collected particulate, 2

substantially reducing the temperature required to regenerate the filter.

! Using fuel additives to reduce the temperature required for ignition of the

accumulated material.
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! Throttling the air intake to one or more of the cylinders, thereby increasing the

hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide concentration in the exhaust as well as

increasing the temperature.

! Using fuel burners, electrical heaters, or combustion of atomized fuel by catalyst to

heat the incoming exhaust gas to a temperature sufficient to ignite the particulate.

! Using periodically compressed air flowing in the opposite direction of the

particulate from the filter into a collection bag which is periodically discarded or

burned.

! Throttling the exhaust gas downstream of the trap. This method consists of a

butterfly valve with a small orifice in it. The valve restricts the exhaust gas flow,

adding back pressure to the engine, thereby causing the temperature of the

exhaust gas to rise and initiating combustion.

! Using ceramic engine coatings, which will increase the exhaust temperature,

thereby increasing the time the exhaust temperature exceeds the required

regeneration temperature.

Some combinations of the above are also possible.

Some trap systems, to protect the filter from overheating and possibly being damaged,

incorporate a by-pass for exhaust gases which is triggered and used only when exhaust

temperatures reach critical levels in order to slow the regeneration process. The period during

which the by-pass is operated is very short and relatively infrequent. Some systems are also

designed with dual filters in which one filter collects while the other is being regenerated.

Trap Oxidizer System Evolution. First generation trap oxidizer systems, which were designed

for buses in the U.S. in the early 1990s, used electric heaters as the principle means of

regeneration. These systems generally performed well when the trap system was maintained

according to the manufacturer's specifications. However, failures have occurred when

maintenance was not performed. Also, these systems proved quite complex and expensive.

Learning from the experience gained from these first generation systems, manufacturers

are now focusing on systems which are 1) less complex and less costly, 2) use passive or near

passive regeneration, 3) are more flexible, and 4) are targeted for specific applications. 

Using improved catalyst coatings to facilitate regeneration is an attractive option,

particularly for four-stroke engine applications where exhaust temperatures are typically higher

than with two-stroke engines. A catalytic coating applied to a properly designed DPF can

combine the best features of both types of control technologies. One manufacturer uses a

combination of a catalyst in front of a filter to convert NO to NO2 to significantly reduce the

temperature required for regeneration. Both systems are simple and have achieved excellent

results in field demonstrations.
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Fuel additives to reduce the temperature required for ignition of the accumulated material

has recently received considerable attention and is achieving impressive results. Metal-containing

(e.g., Cerium, Copper, Platinum) fuel additives are used to enhance the oxidation process under

normal vehicle operating conditions. The system is very simple; it consists of the filter and the

diesel fuel additive. This approach is being successfully demonstrated worldwide. The resultant

metal oxides become embedded in the core carbon particulates during the combustion process. 

As such, they are in intimate contact with the carbon core. The metal oxides serve as effective

catalytic surfaces for the combustion of the solid PM. This occurs at reduced temperatures

relative to the temperature required for ignition in the absence of fuel additives. It is this principle

of operation that eliminates the need, for the most part, of costly and complex control hardware. 

The additives are formulated to ensure that neither fuel quality nor the resulting combustion

process are adversely affected and in fact, additive manufacturers have noted that in some

instances, combustion may be improved.

Although most trap systems have been applied in mobile source applications, there has

been some use for stationary source IC engines. Over thirty systems have been in use for over

three years in Europe. These systems use a fuel burner for regeneration. Indeed, stationary

source applications are well suited to trap-use in that the engines normally operate at a given load

and speed settings. Thus, there is a predictable exhaust temperature, making the selection of the

optimum technology an easier task. Depending on engine size, the cost of trap oxidizer system

technology ranges from approximately $30-$50/bhp.

Maintenance of Diesel Particulate Filters or Trap Oxidizers. Given the limited use of trap

oxidizers for stationary IC engines currently, maintenance procedures are not well documented. 

Nonetheless, the components of a maintenance program could include:

! measuring pressure drop across the trap compared to a speed/load map to

ensure it does not exceed design limits,

! measuring inlet exhaust gas temperature to ensure it does not drop below

the regime the regeneration system was designed for,

! measuring inlet and outlet exhaust gas temperature during regeneration to

ensure these are within design values,

! measuring opacity to be compared to a baseline to ensure trap core

integrity.

As residual, noncombustible particles build-up in the trap, the backpressure of the system

will increase. Pressure drop measurements should be used to ensure that engine manufacturer's

specifications are not exceeded. Techniques have been developed for certain systems and others

continue to evolve for removal of the accumulated material. This should be performed as needed.
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V. USE OF CATALYST AND PARTICULATE FILTER CONTROL IN

CONJUNCTION WITH OTHER CONTROL STRATEGIES

Retarding injection timing slightly or incorporating exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) will

reduce NOx emissions of diesel engines by more than 40 percent. However, both techniques are

accompanied by secondary effects. Injection timing retard, while decreasing NOx emissions

substantially, increases the emissions of CO, NMHC, and PM and reduces fuel economy. The

increase in the other exhaust emissions, however, can be offset with either oxidation catalyst or

diesel particulate filter technology. Ceramic engine coatings have been found to offset the fuel

economy penalty as well. Employing EGR to diesel engines introduces abrasive diesel particulate

into the air intake which could result in increased engine wear and fouling. Using EGR after a

diesel particulate filter would supply clean EGR and effectively eliminate this concern.
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VI. CONCLUSIONS

! A variety of emission control technologies exist for controlling NOx, CO, NMHC, and

PM emissions from stationary IC engines and have been in use for 10 years.

! Oxidation catalysts provide significant reductions in CO (90%) and NMHC (90%) from

lean burn engines at a cost of $9-10/bhp. In the case of diesel engines, PM emissions are

also reduced by greater than 25 percent with no additional cost.

! NSCR can be used to eliminate greater than 90 percent of NOx emissions from rich burn

engines for $10-15/bhp.

! NSCR, or three-way catalysts, eliminate over 90 percent of NOx, CO, and NMHC for

engines operated stoichiometrically at a cost of $10-15/bhp.

! SCR can be used to reduce greater than 90 percent of NOx emissions from lean burn

engines at a cost of $50-125/bhp.

! More recently, lean NOx catalysts have been applied to stationary lean burn IC engines to

provide significant reductions in NOx (80%), CO (60%), and NMHC (60%) at a cost of

$10-20/bhp.

! Although not currently in wide spread use on stationary engines, diesel particulate filters

or trap oxidizers provide considerable potential to eliminate more than 90 percent of the

PM emissions from stationary diesel engines at a cost of $30-50/bhp depending on engine

size. Catalytic coatings on such DPFs add the advantage of also reducing CO and HC.

! Ceramic coatings used on the internal combustion surfaces of IC engines can improve

performance, reduce emissions or allow a trade off in performance and emission levels not

possible using catalyst technology itself. Used in conjunction with catalyst, ceramic

coatings have allowed significant reductions in PM and NOx for heavy duty diesels while

providing significant performance increases in power and torque. Costs are in the range of

$5-15/bhp. Improved fuel economy offsets the cost of the coating.