Geology and Mineral 

Deposits of the James 

River-Roanoke River 

Manganese District 

Virginia 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1008 

Geology and Mineral 

·Deposits oftheJatnes 

River-Roanoke River 

Manganese District 

Virginia 

By GILBERT H. ESPENSHADE 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1008 

A description of the geology anq mineral 

deposits, particularly manganese, of the 

James River-Roanoke River district 

UNITED STAT.ES GOVERNMENT, PRINTING. OFFICE• WASHINGTON : 1954 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Douglas McKay, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

W. E. Wrather, Director 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office 

Washington 25, D. C. 
CONTENTS· 

Page 

Abstract---------------------------------------------------------- 1 

Introduction______________________________________________________ 4 

Location, accessibility, and culture_______________________________ 4 

Topography, climate, and vegetation _______________ .,.. _______ ---___ 6 

Field work and acknowledgments________________________________ 6 

Previouswork_________________________________________________ 8 

GeneralgeologY--------------------------------------------------- 9 

Principal features ____________________________ -- __________ ---___ 9 

Metamorphic rocks____________________________________________ 11 

Generalstatement_________________________________________ 11 

Lynchburg gneiss and associated igneous rocks________________ 12 

Evington groUP------------------------------------------- 14 

Candler formation_____________________________________ 14 

Archer Creek formation________________________________ 1& 

Mount Athos formation________________________________ 17 

Greenstone___________________________________________ 19 

Distribution of formations of the Evington group__________ 20 

Biotite-garnet schist_______________________________________ 21 

Age relationships of the metamorphic rocks within the district__ 22 

Age of Lynchburg gneiss and associated greenstone and soapstone_______________________________________________ 22 

Stratigraphic sequence and age of Evington group_________ 22 

Age of biotite-garnet schists_____________________________ 24 

Regional correlation problems of the metamorphic rocks________ 24 

U nmetamorphosed rocks______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 27 

Alluvial deposits_______________________________________________ 28 

Structuralgeology_____________________________________________ 29 

Generalstatement------------------------------~---------- 29 

Bedding, cleavage, and joints_______________________________ 29 

Lineation_________________________________________________ 31 

Folds and faults___________________________________________ 32 

Regional structure_________________________________________ 37 

Metamorphism________________________________________________ 38 

Characteristics of regional metamorphism_____________________ 38 

Progressive metamorphism or retrogressive metamorphism______ 41 

Contact metamorphism____________________________________ 42 

PhysiographY------------------------------------------------- 43 

Description of physiographic features _________________ ------- 43 

Physiographic history______________________________________ 45 

Mineral deposits______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 50 

Types and distribution ____________________________ -----________ 50 

Manganese deposits _______________________________________ --_-- 51 

MineralogY----------------------------------------------- 51 

Manganeseoxides_____________________________________ 51 

General statement ________________________ --------- 51 

Psilomelane type ________________________________ -- 52 

Wad _________________________ ·-___________________ 53 

Distinct mineral species __ -----_·---------- __ -------- 53 

Gangue minerals __________________ -------------------- 54 

m 
IV CONTENTS 

Mineral deposits-Continued 

Manganese deposits-Continued Paee 

Distribution ______ _,_______________________________________ 55 

Structuralfeatures_________________________________________ 55 

Grade of ore_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 58 

Origin____________________________________________________ 59 

Generalstatement_____________________________________ 59 

Occurrence of manganese oxide minerals in rock residuum__ 59 

Association of manganese deposits with the Mount Athos 

formation___________________________________________ 62 

Conditions of ground-water circulation___________________ 65 

Relations of the outcrops of the manganese deposits to the 

upland surface and persistence of the deposits in depth__ 67 

Resume of factors involved in origin of deposits___________ 72 

Iron deposits___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 72 

Barite deposits________________________________________________ 75 

Copper deposits__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 78 

Quartz veins__________________________________________________ 79 

Manganese mines and prospects_____________________________________ 81 

History and production________________________________________ 81 

Prospecting, mining, and milling methods_________________________ 84 

Descriptions of mines and prospects_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 86 

l'relson County____________________________________________ 86 

Piedmont _____________________________ ._~______________ 86 

Cabell________________________________________________ 87 

Bugley_______________________________________________ 89 

Simpson______________________________________________ 90 

Other prospects_______________________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 92 

Amherst County__________________________________________ 92 

Christian prospect and vicinity__________________________ 92 

Prospect near Gaits Mills_______________________________ 92 

Stapleton area________________________________________ 92 

Buckingham County_______________________________________ 93 

Appomattox County_______________________________________ 93 

Moore_______________________________________________ 93 

Manganese deposits in the vicinity of Beckham and Gowans 

Hill_______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 94 

Schoolhouse mine and nearby prospects_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 95 

StonewalL___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 96 

Prospects southwest of the Stonewall_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 100 

Prospects in and southwest of Stonewall Creek valley______ 100 

Hancock-Ferguson_____________________________________ 101 

Chestnut Mountain____________________________________ 101 

Bill Ferguson_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 102 

G. Cabell property_____________________________________ 102 

Campbell County__________________________________________ 102 

Joshua Creek_________________________________________ 103 

MountAthos_________________________________________ 103 

Prospects between Joshua Creek mine and Old Tavern prospect_______________________________________________ 103 

Old Tavern___________________________________________ 104 

Ryan________________________________________________ 104 

Leets ______________________________________ · _________ . 104 
CONTENTS 

Manganese mines and prospects-Continued 

Descriptions of mines and prospects-Continued 

Campbell County-Continued Drinkard and nearby prospects _________________________ _ Piedmont ____________________________________________ _ 

Ilarvey ______________________________________________ _ 

Lindsay _____________________________________________ _ 

~eighbours--~---------------------------------------- Green _______________________________________________ _ 

Bethel ______ ~---------------------------------------- Dodson _____ i _______________________________________ _ 

Jack ~ountall1_~--------------------------------------

Bell _________ ~---------------------------------------- Prospect soutij. of the Bell _____________________________ _ 

~addoX-----1---------------------------------------- McGehee ____ .._ ____________________________________ ·- __ _ 

Mortirner ____ +----------------------------------------

Pribble ______ +---------------------------------------- Phillips ______ ~ ______ .., ________________________________ _ 

Ilall ________ +---------------------------------------- Troublesome Creek ___________________________________ _ 

Iladen------~----------------------------------------

Prospects nortjheast of Evington ________________________ _ Russell Den Hollow ___________________________________ _ 

Saunders ____ ~---------------------------------------- Wood _______ ~ ____________________ . ___________________ _ 

Burton ______ L----------------------------------------

Langhorne ___ ~----------------------------------------

Teates------~----------------------------------------

AnthonY----~---------------------------------------­

Theresa-----~---------------------------------------~ Tardy and Frazier ____________________________________ _ 

GrastY------~----------------------------------------

~:~:;~~~~~.= ~erritt ______ [ ~ = _______________________________________ = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = _ 

Dews _______ ~----------------------------------------

Arthur ______ ~---------------------------------------- Bragg _______ L _______________________________________ _ 

Lucas _______ L _______________________________________ _ 

Perrow ______ ~---------------------------------------- Iron. mines and prospects __ L _______________________________ -_-------

History and prod uctio:Q. _______________________________________ _ Description __________ ..: _______________________________________ _ 

~elson and Amhenst Counties ______________________________ _ 

Appomattox and Campbell Counties ________________________ _ 

Barite mines and prospects.;. _______________________________________ _ 

Ilistory and production_ ..: ______________________________ -------- Desc~iption __________ ,..: _ T _____________________________________ _ 

Copper mmes and prospect$_ -1- ____________________________________ _ 

Ilistory and production_~ ____________________________________ · __ 

Description_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ________________ - - ---- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -

v 

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VI CONTENTS 

Paee 

Stonequarries_____________________________________________________ 145 

Future outlook for mining_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 146 

~anganese___________________________________________________ 146 

Iron--------------------------------------------------------- 147 

Barite________________________________________________________ 148 

Copper_______________________________________________________ 148 

Stone________________________________________________________ 148 

References cited_____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 148 

Index____________________________________________________________ 153 

PLATE 1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

[All plates are in pocket] 

Geologic map and sections of James River-Roanoke River 

· manganese district, Virginia. 

~ap showing distribution of quartzite, white marble, mineral 

deposits, and quarries in the James River-Roanoke River 

manganese district, Virginia. 

Geologic map of the Cabell and Bugley mines, Nelson County, 

Va. 

Plans, projection, and section of the Stonewall mine, Appomattox County, Va. 

Geologic map of the Piedmont mine, Campbell County, Va. 

Horizontal projection and vertical sections of Piedmont mine, 

Campbell County, Va. 

Geologic map and section of the Bell mine, Campbell County, 

Va. 

Geologic map of the Saunders and Russell Den Hollow mines, 

Campbell County, Va. 

Geologic sections and plans of test shafts, Saunders and Russell 

Den Hollow mines, Campbell County, Va. 

Vertical sections through drill holes, Saunders mine, Campbell 

County, Va. 

Geologic map of the Otter River ~ining Co. properties, near 

Lynch, Campbell County, Va. 

Plans, projection, and sections of the Grasty mine, Campbell 

County, Va. 

FIGURE 1. Index map of Virginia showing major geologic provinces and 

the manganese districts studied in the Geological Survey's 

Strategic ~ineral program, 194Q-42 __________________ -- _ 5 

2. Distribution of manganese deposits and manganese production 

according to outcrop elevation of the deposit ___________ --- 68 

3. Diagrammatic cross section showing typical deposit of· barite 

in marble, residual clay, and surficial clay ________ - _- _---- 76 

4. Geologic map of Riverville area, Amherst County, Va _______ - 80 

5. Cross section through open-cut of the Cabell mine (about at 

right angles to the strike)------------------------------- 88 

6. Sketch map and vertical projections of the Simpson mine, 

Nelson County, Va____________________________________ 91 
CONTENTS 

FIGURE 7. Sketch map of deposit of nodular manganese ore and manganiferous chert on N utaH and Aaron Moore properties, 

VII 

Page 

Appomattox County, Va_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ _ _ ____ __ ____ __ __ _ 95 

8. Sketch of southwest face of stope between 62 and 76 levels of 

the Stonewall mine, Appomattox County, Va_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 97 

9. Cross section of prospect shaft (loc. 29, pl. 2) 2,000 feet northeast of the Stonewall mine, Appomattox County, Va_______ 99 

10. Geologic map of the Leets mine area, Campbell County, Va___ 106 

11. Map of the 300-foot level of the Leets mine, Campbell County, 

Va___________________________________________________ 1Q7 

12. Section through northern open-cut of the Pribble mine, Camp- bell County, Va ______________________________ ---- ____ _ 122 

13. Longitudinal projection showing principal mine workings and 

drill hole intersections, Saunders mine, Campbell County, Va. 127 

14. Map of the 35-foot level, Dews mine, Campbell County, Va___ 136 

TABLES 

Page 

TABLE 1. Stratigraphy of the Evington group________________________ 15 

2. Manganese content of calcareous beds of Mount Athos formation and graphitic schist member of Archer Creek formation_ 63 

3. Recorded production of manganese ore from the James RiverRoanoke River district__________________________________ 83 

4. Recorded production of manganiferous iron ore from Campbell County, Va________________________________________ 84 

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL D·EPOSITS OF THE JAMES 

RIVER-ROANOKE RIVER MANGANESE DISTRICT, 

_A 

VIRGINIA 

BY GILBERT H. ESPENSHADE 

ABSTRACT 

This report presents the results of a study of the geology and mineral deposits, 

particularly the manganese deposits, of the James River-Roanoke River district~ 

made by the Geological Survey during 1940-42 as part of its Strategic Mineral 

program. The area is in the Piedmont province of south-central Virginia, and 

it extends from Altavista, on the Roanoke River, for a.bout 60 miles northeast 

to Howardsville on the James River. Lynchburg, the principal city in the region, 

is located a few miles west of the center of the mapped area. 

The predominant rock types are metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous rocks 

that are probably late pre-Cambrian and early Paleozoic in age. The metamorphic rocks form three groups, as follows : the Lynchburg gneiss and associated 

igneous rocks (greenstone and altered peridotite) on the western border of the 

district, the Evington group (consisting of phyllite, mica schist, marble, quartzite, 

and greenstone) in the center of the area, and an unnamed group of biotite-garnet 

schists along the eastern edge of the district. 

The Lynchburg gneiss and associated igneous rocks crop out in only a small 

part of the mapped area; the late pre-Cambrian age assigned to the Lynchburg 

gneiss by earlier workers is provisionally accepted here. The rocks whic~ are 

called the Evington group in this report are the most extensive and the most 

important in the district. The oldest formation of the group seems to be the thick 

series of phyllite and mica schist, here called the Candler formation, that underlies much of the western half of the district. Successively younger formations 

appear to be the Archer Creek formation (consisting of a siliceous graphitic 

schist member and a blue marble member), the Mount Athos formation (composed of quartzite, conglomerate, calcareous quartzite, white marble, mica schist, 

and ferruginous mica schist beds), and an unnamed greenstone, made up largely 

of metamorphosed basaltic flows. The Evington group appears to be younger 

than the Lynchburg gneiss and is of late pre-Cambrian or early Paleozoic age; 

it may be similar in age to the Glenarm series in Maryland and Pennsylvania. 

The third group of metamorphic rocks, the biotite-garnet schists along the eastern 

side of the southern half of the district, are probably more highly metamorphosed 

schists of the Evington group, or possibly the Lynchburg gneiss. 

Unmetamorphosed conglomerate, sandstone, and shale of Triassic age outcrop 

in :five small areas at the northern end of the region; they are outliers of the 

Triassic rocks of the Scottsville basin, which extends about 11 miles northeast of 

Howardsville. Diabase dikes of probable Triassic age intrude the metamorphic 

rocks. 

1 
2 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Alluvial gravel deposits of Pliocene or Pleistocene age occur as high as 220 feet 

above the level of the nearby rivers ; the :floodplain deposits in the present valleys 

of the rivers and larger streams are of Recent age. 

The older rocks were highly deformed and metamorphosed prior to deposition 

of the Triassic sediments. Two generations of cleavage are widespread in the 

more schistose rocks, the. older type usually is crumpled and sliced by the younger. 

The cleavages usually strike to the northeast and dip to the southeast.. Lineations of two types are well developed. One group, represented by cleavage 

crinkles and the intersection of cleavages, is nearly horizontal and trends toward 

the northeast; the other includes drag folds, and elongated minerals and pebbles, 

and plunges steeply in a southern direction. 

The formations of the Evington group trend northeasterly and are repeated 

several times from west to east across the strike. This pattern, together with the 

occurrence of numerous drag folds indicating anticlinal axes to the west, is taken 

as evidence that the major folds are isoclinal folds which have been sliced along 

the western limbs of anticlines by high-angle reverse faults. The rocks of the 

Evington group are thrust over the Lynchburg gneiss along the western border 

of the district by a fault which may be of relatively slight displacement (instead 

of a great overthrust sheet of 15 or 20 miles displacement, as previously thought). 

The youngest faults and fractures are represented by normal faults bordering 

the basins of Triassic sediments and by the fissures occnpied by the Triassic 

diabase dikes. The formations composing the Evington group appear to lie in a 

long, narrow, deep synclinorium underlain by Lynchburg gneiss. In the southern 

part of the area, Lynchburg gneiss is exposed in three domal structures which 

are bordered by rocks of the Evington group. 

The mineralogical changes induced by regional metamorphism, which has 

affected all rocks of pre-Triassic age, are best represented by the rocks of 

argillaceous composition in the Evington group. 'l,he di:tTerent metamorphic 

types derived from these rocks are characterized by the following assemblages 

of index minerals: chlorite-muscovite (with chloritoid in places) in the western 

part of the area, biotite-muscovite in the center, and garnet (with staurolite 

locally) along the eastern edge in the southern part of the area. The low-grade 

chlorite-muscovite phyllites and schists have been considered by previous workers 

to be phyllonites formed by retrogressive metamorphism along the sole of a 

great overthrust. However, the writer has found no evidence for such profound thrusting and retrogressive metamorphism, and believes that the change 

from low-grade chlorite-muscovite schis.ts on the west, through biotite-muscovite 

schists, to garnetiferous schi·sts on the east is the result of progressive metamorphism. 

The principal physiographic feature of the region is a rolling upland surface 

with de~dritic drainage that passes near the rivers into areas of linear ridges 

and valleys with trellis drainage. The upland surface appears to be the remnant 

of an old peneplain that is being dissected by rejuvenated streams.; some of the 

streams ·:have incised northeasterly-trending valleys in the belts of marble and 

weaker schists. Rock exposures are scarce on the upland ; the rocks commonly 

are weathered to depths of 50 feet or more. Several lines of evidence lead to 

the conclusion that the peneplain was formed during a prolonged period ot. 

chemical weathering in early Tertiary time, and that the deposits of manganese 

oxides were formed by ground waters either during this period, or during or 

Immediately following uplift of the peneplain. 

The manganese deposits consist of heavy manganese oxide minerals of th~ 

"psilomelane type" occurring principally in clay, chert, and decomposed schist 

and quartzite; and of mixtures. of soft, lightweight wad and clay. Every man-
ABSTRACT 3 

ganese deposit is associated with beds of the Mount Athos formation. The 

deposits of commercial interest typically consist of steeply dipping lenses of 

clay, with embedded lumps and masses of hard manganese oxides; one wall of 

the clay lens is usually quartzite, and the other wall is of marble or mica schist. 

The white marble beds of the Mount Athos formation have been found to carry 

a small content of manganese, presumably in the form of a sedimentary manganiferous carbonate ; chemical analyses range from 0.11 to 0.85 percent MnO. 

Manganese was evideptly leached from these calcareous beds and deposited as 

manganese oxides by drculating ground waters during or shortly following the 

period of peneplanation, because most of the deposits outcrop on the upland 

surface at elevations above that of present streams. Manganese oxides have 

been found to extend to depths of 312 feet at the Leets, mine and to about 

240 feet at the Piedmont mine (Campbell County). 

Iron deposits of t!te district are of two distinct types, limonite or brown ore 

deposits, and specular hematite deposits. The limonitic deposits are surficial 

bodies of shallow depth, commonly associated with schists, and have been formed 

by ground waters in a manner similar to that of the manganese deposits. The 

8pecular hematite deposits are thin lenses, a few feet thick, interbedded with 

quartzite and schist of the Mount Athos formation; they are probably ferruginous beds of sedimentary origin that have been regionally metamorphosed. 

Barite occurs as veins in the white marble member of the Mount Athos formation and as fragments and masses in the overlying residual and surficial clays 

derived from weathering of the marble and barite veins. 

Minor amounts of copper sulfides and oxidized copper minerals have been 

found in altered peridotite, white marble, and in Triassic shales. 

Quartz veins are very abundant in all the metamorphic rocks and range in 

size from short, thin lenses, less than an inch thick, to veins several hundred 

feet long and as much as 30 feet wide; most veins are essentiallY barren of other 

minerals. 

The first manganese mining in the district was in 1868 and 1869 at the Cabell 

and· Bugley mines, Nelson County. Mining activity and production were renewed in the eighties and nineties at numerous deposits in Campbell County and 

were practically continuous in the district until the end of World War I. Since 

then, production has declined and has been sporadic. Considerable prospecting, 

including drilling and sampling by the Bureau of Mines, was done in the district 

before and during World War II. Production from 1937 through 1945 was only 

993 long tons of washed manganese ore, in comparison to the 1911-1918 production of 7,607 tons. Total recorded production of washed manganese ore from 

the district amounts to 26,107 long tons; 23,760 tons was produced prior to 1920. 

The total production of the district, including estimates of unrecorded production, amounts to 52,779 long tons of washed ore. Most of the operations have 

been small; over 90 percent of the total production of the district is believed 

to have come from 6 mines. 

Nodular or lump ore has been the principal type mined, because the heavy, 

coherent lumps of manganese oxides are easily recovered from the enclosing 

clay by simple log-washing processes. The average grade of some washed ore 

has been 43.3 percent Mn (representing combined shipments of 1,021 long tons 

from 6 mines), and 12.3 percent Si02 (representing shipments totaling 863 

tons). 

Individual manganese mines and prospects are described in the text, and pertinent information is shown on large-scale maps and sections. Known reserves 

are judged to be no more than 10,000 long tons of washed lump ore. These 

reserves might be increased by new discoveries under the stimulation of very 
4 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

high prices during a national emergency, but even under the most favorable conditions it is unlikely that a rate of production greater than several thousand 

tons annually could be maintained for longer than a few years. The soft wad 

ores have not been mined in the past because of difficulties in treating these ores. 

Iron ore was mined at numerous places in the district for more than 100 years, 

beginning about the time of the Revolutionary War and ceasing about 1882. 

The records of iron ore production are very incomplete ; the only recorded production concerns 1880, when 57,124 tons was produced. Reserves of iron ore are 

judged to be small. The limonite deposits are shallow and nearly mined out. 

The deposits of specular hematite interbedded with quartzite and schist are 

small, and the ore is highly siliceous. 

Barite was mined between 1874 and 1935; about a dozen deposits are known. 

The Hewitt mine near Evington, which was closed down in 1935, was the largest 

producer in the state. Recorded production of Campbell County for the period 

1911-1935, inclusive, amounted to 102,917 short tons of bal'ite, much of which 

apparently came from the Hewitt mine. The potential reserves of barite in the 

district are difficult to apprai~e. Reserves in known deposits appear to be small, 

but it is possible that deposits comparable in size to the Hewitt deposit await 

discovery. 

Copper ore is reported to hav:e been mined in the Glades, Amherst County, and 

along Wreck Island Creek, Appomattox County, before the Revolutionary War. 

Work was done later in the Glades area and also at the old Bishop mine in 

Campbell County. Recorded production of copper ore from the district amounts 

to 15 tons, which was shipped from the Glades in 1880. Reserves of copper ore 

are judged to be insignificant. 

Stone bas been quarried at numerous places over a period of many years. 

White and blue marbles have been used mostly for making agricultural lime, 

as :flux in the old iron furnaces, and in masonry construction ; quartzite, greenstone, and Lynchburg gneiss have been quarried mainly for railroad and highway ballast, and for construction purposes. White marble and quartzite have 

been quarried in recent years in two quarries operated by the State, and could 

be quarried from other sites on a more extensive scale. · 

INTRODUCTION 

LOCATION, ACCESSIBILITY, AND CULTURE 

The area described in this report is in south-central Virginia, and 

is an elongated strip extending :from Altavista on the Roanoke River, 

for about 60 miles northeast to Howardsville on the James River 

(fig. 1) . Portions of the :following counties, arranged :from north to 

south, are included in the region: Nelson, Buckingham, Appomattox, 

Amherst, Campbell, and Bedford counties. Lynchburg, the principal 

city in this part of the state, lies a few miles west of the center of the 

mapped area. Three railway lines pass through Lynchburg, the 

Southern Railway System, theN orfolk and Western Railway Co., and 

the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Co.; the southern part of the area 

is served also by The Virginian Railway Co. at Altavista. The region 

is easily accessible by paved highways; secondary roads, many with 

~mproved surfaces, lead to all parts of the district. 
MANGANESE DISTRICTS STUDIED IN THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY'S 

STRATEGIC MINERAL PROGRAM, 1940-1942 

1. James River-&anoke River district (Espenshade, G. H., this report)· 7:9" 

2. Elkton area (King,P.B., U.S.G.S. BulL 940B,1943) 39" I .,w--v ~r.r· - UJ 1- I ~~~~----M 

3. Lyndhurst-Vesuvius district (Knechtel, M.M., U.S.G.S. Bull. 940F,1948) 

4. Lick Mountain district (Stead,F.W.,and Stose,G.W., Va. G.S. BulL 59,1943) 

5. Glade Mountain district (Miller, R.L., Va. G.S. Bull. 61, 1944) 

6. Cedar Creek Valley <Monroe, W.B., U.S.G.S. BulL 936E,1942) 

7. Sweet Springs district (Ladd,H.S., U.S.G.S. Bull. 940G,1944) 

8. Flat Top and Round Mountain districts (Ladd,H.S., and Stead, F. W., U.S.G.S. 

Bull. 940H,1944 

¥ I I I I ? I f. lrfiJet 

a.•• 

83" 

8"3" 

FIGURI!l 1, Index map of Virginia showing major geologic provinces and the manganese districts studied in the Geological Survey's Strategic Mineral 

· program, 1940-42. 

1-4 

~ ~ 

0 

t:l 

Cl 

c 

8 

~ 

0 

z 

Ot 
6 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

The population is mainly rural. Alta vista, the largest town within 

the mapped area, had a population of 3,332 in the 1950 census; 

Lynchburg, just outside the mapped area., the chief center of trade, 

listed 4 7, 727 persons in the 1950 census. 

Agriculture is the principal occupation, and the more important 

crops and products are tobacco, grain and forage, livestock and livestock products, pulpwood, and lumber. The major industries of 

Lynchburg are its dark-tobacco market, and the manufacture of shoes 

and clothing, iron pipes and castings, plows, wagons, paper boxes 

and tanning extracts. The manufacture of cedar chests and textiles 

are important industries in Altavista. Mining has been of importance 

to the economy of the region during various periods in the past when 

manganese, iron, and barite deposits were exploited, but mining activity in recent years has declined and is now largely confined to 

stone quarry operations. 

TOPOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, AND VEGETATION 

The region is characterized by a gently· rolling upland surface, 

dissected by numerous streams, and having linear ridges that rise as 

much as several hundred feet above the general elevation of the 

upland. The James River, major drainage system of the region, 

flows in a meandering course northeasterly through the northern half 

of the area from its abrupt bend just east of Lynchburg. Streams 

in the southern part of the district drain into the Roanoke River or 

its tributary, the Otter River. 

The mean annual rainfall at Lynchburg, as recorded over a period 

of 76 years to the end of 1947, is 40.53 inches. Mean monthly temperatures during the same period range from 35° F. for January to 

76.1° F. for July. 

The best farming lands are the alluvial floodplains of the main 

river valleys. Most of the soil in the rest of the region is not very 

fertile, and some is quite unsuited for cultivation; erosion of the top 

soil has damaged a large portion of the land. Although farming has 

been practiced for over 150 years, a large part of the region is woodland. Some areas, particularly the ridges, have never been cleared 

for farming, but scattered all through the country there are tracts 

that were cultivated at one time (as is readily apparent -from old 

furrow marks) and have since reverted to woodland. The first trees 

to make their appearance on the abandoned land are yellow pines; 

they are gradually displaced by various hard woods. 

FIELD WORK AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

A comprehensive study of the geology and manganese deposits of 

this district was included in the Strategic Minerals program of the 
I 

INTRODUCTION 7 

Geological Survey, and in the spring of 1940, the writer and Warren 

R. Wagner were assigned to study the manganese deposits in a group 

of properties controlled by the Otter River Mining Co. near Altavista, which had been actively explored during the several preceding 

years. Seven weeks were spent during April and May, 1940, in the 

making of a topographic and geologic map to a scale of 1 inch equal 

to 500 feet of an area of approximately 2 square miles, and in mapping 

the geology of the accessible mine openings in that area. 

In November 1940, the writer returned to the area to begin an investigation of the geology and manganese deposits of the entire district from Altavista to Howardsville. These field studies covered 

a period of 13 months, and were completed at the end of November 

1941 ; John Rodgers participated in the geologic mapping during a 

period of 6 months in 1941. Mapping within the area of the Lynchburg 15-minute quadrangle was done on preliminary copies of the 

topographic base to a scale of 1:48,000. In the rest of the district, 

mapping was done on aerial photographs of the Soil Conservation 

Service to a scale of 1 : 20,000 ; planimetric maps had already been 

prepared :from these same photographs by the Works Progress Administration for the State Department of Highways, and acetate 

tracings of these maps (scale, 1: 20,000) were used for compilation of 

the geologic map as the field mapping progressed. The few accessible 

mine workings in the district were mapped also. From late April 

through June, 1942, an exploration program was carried on by the 

Bureau of Mines, chiefly on the basis of the geologic investigation, 

at the Cabell and Bugley mines in Nelson County, and the Piedmont, Bell, and Saunders mines in Campbell County. The writer 

participated in this program by making large-scale topographic and 

·geologic maps at each mine by plane-table methods, by advising upon 

the location of drill sites, and by logging the drill core. At the close 

of this exploration campaign, a preliminary report on the geology 

and mineral deposits of the district, which had been started early in 

1942, was completed and submitted for the use of the Geological Survey and other government agencies. This report was pla~ed in open 

files, available :for public inspection, in July 1944. A brief report 

and simplified geologic map giving the essential information on the 

geology and mineral deposits, particularly the manganeSe deposits, 

was published in1952 (Espenshade, 1952). 

John Rodgers contributed materially to the field work by mapping 

the geology of about one-third of the area. In the initial phase of the 

project, Warren R. Wagner mapped the topography, and the writer 

mapped the geology, of the properties of the Otter River Mining Co. 

The. field work in 1940 and 1941 was accomplished under the supervision of D. F. Hewett, whose guidance and advice (based upon long 
8 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

experience with manganese deposits in this district and elsewher~) 

were of great benefit to the writer. Previously unpublished . information that Hewett had gathered at several of the mines is included 

in this report. . Preparation of the preliminary report and partici pation in the Bu~eau of Mines' exploration program in 1942 was largely 

under the direction ofT. A. Hendricks. Both H. D. Miser and T. L. 

Kesler of the Geological Survey visited the area once during the field 

work. The late Frank K. Mci:n,tosh, project engineer, was.in ch~rge 

of the exploration program of the Bureau of Mines. . 

The geology of part of the region described in this report was being 

mapped by W. R. Brown of the Virginia Geological Survey during 

the course of the writer's field studies; field conferences and discussions with Brown have contributed to a broader understanding of the 

general geologic problems. 

The mine owners, operators, and miners of the district cooperated 

fully by granting access to their properties and furnishing information on past and current operations. Other local residents extended 

cordial interest and aid to the work. The National Paint and :Manganese Co. of Lynchburg supplied records of the local manganese ores 

purchased by that concern between 1921 and 1941. Most of the preliminary report was written in the offices of the Virginia Geological 

Survey from December 1, 1941 to June 1, 1942; the facilities provided 

by that organization are gratefully appreciated. 

PREVIOUS WORK 

The earliest geological studies in this region were made by W. B. 

Rogers (1884) during the course of his geological survey of the state between 1835 and 1841. The first description of manganese deposits is 

that of Mills (18'71) who worked the Cabell and Bugley deposits, 

Nelson County, in 1868 and 1869. A boom in iron mining in 1880 

created wide interest in the iron deposits of this area, and the geology 

and iron deposits were described by Campbell (1882), Frazer (1883), 

and others. The mineral deposits of the· district (iron, manganese, and 

barite) we're briefly described by Watson ( 190'7b) in a report on the 

mineral resources of the state. The manganese deposits were later 

studied and described in more detail by Harder ( 1910) and by Hewett 

(1916); the latter has kept in touch with developments in manganese 

mining in the district since that time. 

The area was included by Jonas (1927) in her reconnaissance geologic studies in the southeastern Piedmont. The small areas of Triassic rock at the northern end of the district were mapped by Roberts 

(1928) in his studyof the Virginia Triassic. The first detailed geological mapping in the region was done by Furcron (1935) from 1925 

to 1929; this work resulted in a geologic map to a scale of i : 125,000 of 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 9 

the northern ·P..alf o:f the region and a considerable part of the adjacent 

area, and also included a report on the geology and mineral deposits. 

The barite deposits of Campbell County wer~ first described by Watson 

(1907a), and later by Edmundson (1938) in a treatise on the barite 

deposits of Virginia. The geology of the part of the· Lynchburg 15-

minute quadrangle lying south and east of the James River was 

mapped in the summers of 1940 and 1941 by W. R. Brown ( 1941, 1942a, 

1942b) o£ the Virginia Geological Survey as a Ph.D. thesis at Cornell 

University; Brown (1953) has since mapped therestofthequadrangle. 

The more important studies of geology and mineral deposits made of 

nearby areas in this part of the state are: to the west and northwest 

of this area, the Blue Ridge region by Bloomer and associates (1947, 

1950), the titanium district of Nelson and Amherst Counties by W atson and Taber ( 1913), Moore ( 1940a, b), and Ross 1941), and to the 

east of the area, the James River gold belt by Taber (1913), and the 

kyanite region of Prince Edward, Buckingham, and adjacent counties 

by Jonas (1932). 

GENERAL GEOLOGY 

PRINCIPAL FEATURES 

The James River-Roanoke River manganese district lies near the 

western side of the Piednwnt metamorphic province in south-central 

Virginia, about 25 miles east of the crest of the Blue Ridge (fig. 1). · 

The predominant rock types of the district are metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous rocks that are thought to be of late pre-Cambrian, 

and probably also early Paleozoic age. These metamorphic rocks form 

three different units whose absolute ages and whose a·ge relationship 

to each other have not been determined with certainty: the Lynchburg gneiss and associated ignerous rocks (late pre-Cambrian ~), the 

Evington group, consisting of phyllite, mica schist, marble, quartzite, 

and greenstone of pre-Cambrian or Paleozoic age, and an unnamed 

group of biotite-garnet schists. Several small remnants of unmetamorphosed Triassic sedimentary rocks occur in the extreme northeastern part of the region. Triassic diabase dikes intrude the metamorphic rocks in the northern half, and also in the southernmost part 

of the area (pl. 1). Many of the mineral deposits in the districtmanganese, iron, and barite-are associated with quartzite, calcareous 

quartzite, and marble beds of the Evington group. 

The principal structure of the region is a trough of Lynchburg 

gneiss enclosing the rocks of the Evington group. This trough has a 

length of 60 miles within the mapped area, and extends well beyond 

to the northeast and southwest. The rocks of the region have been 

highly deformed by tight folding and faulting. The structural fea288201-54-2 
1 Q GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

tures developed in the rocks of the Evington group appear to be more 

complex than those in the Lynchburg gneiss; presumably, this is true 

because the Evington group is composed of an assemblage of comparatively thin rock units with different physical characteristics in contrast to the more uniform, massive character of the underlying Lynchburg gneiss. Throughout nwst of the district the rocks of the Evington group have been compressed into northeast-trending isoclinal folds 

which have been sliced by high-angle reverse faults of the same trend 

so that the formations are repeated several times across the strike. 

In some areas, the fault blocks themselves seem to have been folded. 

The degree of deformation and metamorphism increases gradually 

from west to east across the southern half of the region. Cleavage 

is well developed in the metamorphic rocks, and usually trends northeast and dips southeast parallel to the general strike and dip of bedding; two sets of cleavage are commonly present in schist. Small 

drag folds and other linear structural features are widespread, and 

generally plunge steeply southward. Numerous faults, most of which 

seem to be high-angle reverse faults with northeasterly trends, have 

been mapped in the rocks of the Evington group, and it is likely that 

other, unrecognized faults exist. The contact between the Evington 

group and the Lynchburg gneiss, along the western edge of the district, is interpreted as a persistent reverse fault that extends northeast 

and southwest beyond the mapped area. The several small areas of 

Triassic sedimentary rocks are bordered in part by normal faults 

trending parallel to the regional structure. 

The pre-Triassic rocks have all undergone regional metamorphism. 

In the rocks of the Evington group, zoning of the metamorphic minerals has been developed in the southern half of the district; chloritemuscovite phyllite and schist form the westernmost zone, biotitemuscovite schist is in the center, and garnetiferous schist (with 

staurolite locally) lies along the eastern border of the district. This 

mineral zoning has previously been interpreted as the result of retro-1 

gressive metamorphism, but the writer regards it as progressive meta-· 

rnorphism with increasing intensity toward the east. 

The topography of the region is characterized by a rolling upland 

(believed to be the remnant of an old peneplain) and by parallel 

ridges and valleys where the old erosion surface has been most thoroughly dissected. The James River meanders across comparatively 

weak rocks, such as marble and mica schist, along most of its course 

through the district. A long period of peneplanation appears to 

have been a significant event in the physiographic history; the manganese deposits are believed to have been formed by ground-water 

action during this period, probably in early Tertiary time or shortly 

after regional uplift of the peneplain. 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 11 

Geologic mapping was largely restricted to the narrow elongated 

belt in which the manganese deposits occur, and consequently the information gathered from this area, which is limited to a few miles 

in width, was not sufficient for an understanding of all the major 

geologic features. The order of stratigraphic·sequence of the Evington group, its age, and its correlation with lithologically similar formations in other parts of the Piedmont province, particularly in Maryland and Pennsylvania, are important problems that have not been 

solved. Many of the structural features can be satisfactorily explained on the basis of the order of stratigraphic sequence proposed 

in this report. Certain structural features in the vicinity of dome! 

of Lynchburg gneiss in the southern part of the area, however, are 

difficult to explain on the basis of available knowledge. Considerably 

more work is needed to settle these questions. 

Because of the uncertainty in regard to the stratigraphic order of 

the Evington group, and because of the variation in mineral composition caused by differing degrees of metamorphism of certain beds, 

questions arose about the correlation of some of the rock units. In 

order to show clearly these areas in which correlations are dubious, 

all lithologically similar rock units are shown by the same pattern on 

plate 1, and each unit has an appropriate letter symbol to designate 

that identification of the unit is established or that it is uncertain. 

METAMORPHIC ROCKS 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

Three distinct· groups of metamorphic rocks are present in the region. Bordering the northwestern edge of the area is an assemblage 

of gneiss ahd schist, known as the Lynchburg gneiss, and associated 

igneous rocks-greenstone and altered ultrabasic rocks. This group 

of rocks is thought to be of late pre-Cambrian age (Jonas and Stose, 

1939, p. 577-578, 589-90). The central portion of the mapped area is 

underlain by a series of phyllite, mica schist, marble, quartzite, and 

greenstone 1 (pl. 1). This group of rocks apparently forms a stratigraphic succession, in which the greenstone is thought to be the youngest formation. These rocks have previously been correlated on the 

basis of lithologic similarity with the Glenarm series of Pennsylvania 

and Maryland by Jonas (1927) and Furcron (1935, p. 22-37) and heretofore have been called Glenarm. However, because of the uncertainty 

of lithologic correlations between places some miles apart in meta1 The term "greenstone" is .applied in this report to schists and gneiss composed essentially o:t hornblende, epidote, and albite, with biotite and chlorite in some varieties. 

These metamorphosed rocks of basaltic composition have been called ·"metabasalt" by 

previous geologists in the district. Although most bodies of this rock probably represent 

basaltic flows, some may have originally been diabasic intrusions, and· for this reason, the 

non-genetic term of "greenstone" is adopted in this report. 
12 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

morphic terranes, and because the stratigraphic sequence is interpreted in this report as being the reverse of Furcron's interpretation, 

a new name-the Evington group-is here applied to these rocks 

throughout the area. ·The Evington group structurally overlies the 

Lynchburg gneiss and its associated rocks and is believed to be younger 

than the Lynchburg gneiss, possibly of very late pre-Cambrian or 

early Paleozoic age; the contact between the Evington group and the 

Lynchburg gneiss is faulted. The third group of metamorphic rocks 

is along the southeastern edge of the belt, in the southern half of the 

area, and consists of biotite-garnet schists that carry staurolite locally. 

Their age and their structural relationship to the Lynchburg gneiss 

and the Evington group are obscure, but these garnetiferous schists 

are probably the more highly metamorphosed equivalents of some of 

the schists of the Evington group, or possibly of the Lynchburg gneiss .. 

LYNCHBURG GNEISS AND ASSOCIATED IGNEOUS ROCKS 

The Lynchburg gneiss erops out in an extensive northeast-trending 

belt about 5 miles wide lying west of the James River-Roanoke River 

district ( Stose and others, 1928; Jonas and Stose, 1939, p. 577-578; 

Fureron, 1935, p. 20-22) ; within the area shown in plate 1, it appears 

only in a narrow strip bordering the northwestern side of the district, 

and in three fairly small areas in the southern part of the region. The 

formation is well exposed along the James River near Lynchburg, and 

was named by Jonas (1927, p. 845) after this locality. 

The typical Lynchburg gneiss is a fine- to medium-grained, gray 

gneiss composed chiefly of quartz, feldspar, and biotite, with scattered 

garnets. It is a uniformly foliated massive rock with widely spaced 

cleavage planes. In places the gneiss contains large grains of feldspar and blue quartz, as much as a quarter of an inch in size, and 

resembles a gritty arkose. Layers of mica schist, containing abundant 

large flakes of muscovite, are common. Thin layers of micaceous or 

chloritic marble are exposed in a quarry 1 mile west of Evington, 

and at the bend of Buffalo River, a mile northwest of Norwood. The 

entire formation evidently represents a metamorphosed group of clastic sedimentary rocks with a few, thin calcareous beds. 

Greenstone, or chlorite-hornblende schist and gneiss, is intercalated 

with the Lynchburg gneiss as layers several hundred feet thick along 

the western border of the district, and surrounds the domes of Lynchburg gneiss in the southern part of the area. It has previously been 

correlated with the Catoctin metabasalt of northern Virginia and 

~Iaryland (Jonas, 1927, p. 844-845; Furcron, 1935, p. 44-45; Jonas 

and Stose, 1939, p. 582-591). The relationship of this greenstone to 

the Lynchburg gneiss in the James River region is not clear, and it is 

not known whether the several narrow parallel belts of greenstone 

shown in the Lynchburg gneiss on plate 1 are basaltic flows at dif-
GENERAL GEOLOG1:" 13 

ferent horizons, whether. there is one flow that ha8 been repeated by. 

folding or faulting, or whether some greenston~ may have been inr 

truded as diabasic sills into the Lynchburg gneiss. 

Greenstone schist of similar character is also associated with the 

Evington group in this region, and seems to" be the youngest formation in that group. Thus, there appear to be at leas~ two greenstone 

formations of distinctly different ages. The greenstone associated 

with Lynchburg gneiss is designated the "older greenstone" on plate 

1, and the greenstone associated with rocks of the Evington group 

is called the "younger greenstone." In the vicinity of the domes of 

Lynchburg gneiss in the southern part of the area, greenstone is 

associated both with Lynchburg gneiss and with rocks of the Evington group, and its age and structural relations have not been de.; 

termined; this uncertainty is indicated on plate 1. Because of these 

correlation problems and the uncertainty in regard to the stratigraphi~ 

order of the· Evington group, formational names are not applied to 

the greenstone units in this report. 

The Lynchburg gneiss is cut by ultrabasic intrusions, now largely 

altered to soapstone, at a number of places along the western side of 

the region and also in the larger dome of Lynchburg gneiss at the 

southern end of· the district. The largest area of soapstone (pl. 1) 

forms a long swampy belt, known as the Glades, 'along the west foot 

of Buffalo Ridge. Important deposits of soapstone to the northeast 

along the strike of this belt have been quarried for many years at 

Schuyler, about 5 miles northwest of Howardsville. These deposits 

have been described and their origin discussed by Burfoot ( 1930), 

Hess (1933), and others. The soapstone varies in color from tan, to 

mottled blue gray, to dark green, and usually weathers brown. It 

has a fine to medium grain, with scattered relict phenocrysts of pyroxene and olivene as large as an inch in size, and commonly has a 

poorly developed· cleavage. It typically forms numerous, large 

rounded outcrops. The most abundant minerals in the few thin sections examined are chlorite, of which two varieties are usually present, 

and a colorless amphibole. Relict crystals of olivene and pyroxene are 

present locally and are accompanied by a carbonate mineral. Talc is 

rather abundant in places, especially where pyroxene and olivene have 

been destroyed. Accessory metallic minerals are common. 

Originally, the Lynchburg gneiss was thought to be the oldest preCambrian formation in the Catoctin-Blue Ridge anticlinorium, because the Lynchburg gneiss seemed to be intruded by granitic gneisses 

(Jonas, 1927, p. 844-845, and 1929, p. 507-508; and Furcron, 1935, 

p. 20, 56). However, at the base of the Lynchburg gneiss Nelson 

(1932) has found a conglomerate horizon containing pebbles of 

granite gneiss, thus showing that the Lynchburg gneiss is the younger. 
14 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Jonas and Stose (1939, p. 589-590) now consider the Lynchburg gneiss 

to be late pre-Cambrian in age. 

EVINGTON GROUP 

The phyllites, mica schists, marbles, quartzites, and greenstones that 

underlie most of the district to the east of the area of Lynchburg 

gneiss appear to be members of the metamorphosed stratigraphic 

sequence, which is here called the Evington group. These formations-Candler (oldest), Archer Creek, Mount Athos, and greenstone 

(youngest) -are well exposed near the village of Evington. The age 

of this group has not been established, because of the absence of 

fossils, and because of uncertainty in regard to the structural and 

stratigraphic relationship of these rocks to the Lynchburg gneiss. 

The Evington group seems to occupy a synclinorium underlain by 

Lynchburg gneiss, and it seems to be thrust over the Lynchburg gneiss 

along the western side of the district. In this report, it is tentatively 

concluded that the Evington group is younger and is of late preCambrian or Paleozoic age. The different formations of the Evington 

group are repeated from west to east across the strike by folding and 

faulting. 

On the geologic map (pl. 1), the lithologic units represent stratigraphic members and formations of the Evington group. However, 

because of varying degrees of metamorphism of the argillaceous rocks, 

the stratigraphic identity of certain bodies of these rocks could not 

be definitely established. 

Although the order of succession of the formations has not been 

conclusively determined, various structural features (discussed in 

detail under the section on structural geology) suggest that phyllite 

and mica schist are the oldest units of the group and that the greenstone is the youngest; this order is favored in this report. The reverse order of sequence was proposed by Furcron · ( 1935, p. 22-37), 

who correlated the rocks of the Evington group with the Glenarm 

series of Pennsylvania and Maryland because of lithologic similarities. Furcron regarded the thick sequence of phyllite and mica schist 

in the James River area to be the youngest formation, because he 

believed it to be equivalent to the Wissahickon schist, which forms 

the top of the Glenarm series. The greenstone was considered to· be 

the oldest formation of the sequence. 

The stratigraphy of the Evington group is summarized in table 1, 

and is described later in detail. 

CANDLER FORMATION 

The thick series of phyllite and mica schist, with thin lenses of 

quartzite and white and blue marble, that seems to form the base of 

the Evington group and underlies a large part of the district, is 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 15 

TABLE 1.-Stratigraphy oi the Evington group 1 

Formation Thickness Lithology and remarks (feet)' 

Greenstone (youngest 1,000+ Hornblendb-epidote-albite-chlorite schist and gneiss. The original formation?). volcanic features are usually entirely destroyed. Believed to lie at the top of the Evington group, and to be distinct in age from 

the greenstone associated with the Lynchburg gneiss. -~ .... 

Mount Athos a __________ 50-900 White to gray micaceous quartzite and conglomerate, with widespread beds of calcareous quartzite, white to cream marble, and 

quartz-muscovite schist. TI;J.e basal member of the formation, as much as 400 feet thick, is a tan to gray, siliceous muscovite schist, 

with biotite porphyroblasts in areas of middle grade metamor- phism. Ferruginous muscovite schists, carrying hematite and 

martite, are interbedded with quartzite, and occur in upper part of formation in places. The quartzitic beds usually form ridges. The manganese, barite, and most of the iron deposits of the region occur in the Mount Athos formation. 

Archer Creek 4 __ -------- 50-900 Green to blue-gray, siliceous graphitic schist member, as much as 500 feet thick, forms lower part of formation. Bluish, fine-to 

medium-grained marble member, as much as 400 feet thick, lies 

in upper part of formation and is interbedded with the graphitic schist member. Marble usually forms valleys. 

Candler (oldest formation?).l 3, ooo-5, 000 Silvery to green, fissile sericite-chlorite phyllite and muscovite 

schist, with thin quartzite and marble beds locally. Commonly forms ridges. 

t The names Evington and Candler have been used by the writer and by W. R. Brown since about 1942 

in their mutual discussions of these rocks. These names appear in recent papers by Brown (1951, 1953). 2 Thickness is approximate; accurate measurements are not possible because of close folding and faultmg. a Name introduced by A. S. Furcron. 4 N arne proposed in this report. 

called the Candler formation in this report because of the occurrence 

of these strata along Candler Mountain, a prominent ridge to the 

east of Lynchburg. 

The phyllites and mica schists are typically silvery green to gray, 

fine-grained, and very fissile. Sericite, chlorite, quartz, and albite 

are the principal constituents. Porphyroblasts of chloritoid are 

common, and tiny biotite flakes are present occasionally. Tourmaline, 

rutile, zircon, and apatite are accessory minerals. 

Thin lenses of white quartzite and white marble (similar to the 

qua~zite and white marble members of the Mount Athos formation) 

and lenses of blue marble (similar to the marble of the Archer Creek 

formation) are locally interbedded with phyllite. Calcareous schists 

are common along the James River in the northern third of the area. 

The schists in the eastern part of the region are usually more siliceous 

and somewhat·less fissile than those to the west, and contain epidote 

and numerous magnetite crystals. Cleavage is characteristically 

well-developed in the phyllites and schists, and cuts across the bedding 

which is still visible in places. In some parts of the area two sets 

of cleavage are present. Quartz veins are very common along cleavage 

surfaces and range in size from thin stringers to lenticular pods several 

fe.et thick. Where thoroughly weathered, the rocks of the Candler 

formation are decomposed to a tan to pinkish, micaceous, clayey soil, 

which is not very fertile. Much of the area underlain by schist and 

phyllite forms wooded ridges and hills. 
16 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANO~E RIVER:S M4NGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

The phyllite and schist of the Candler formation, as well as the 

garnetiferous schists along the eastern border of the southern part of 

the district, were considered by Furcron (1935, p. 27--~37) to be equivalent to the Wissahickon schist of Maryland and Pennsylvania. 

ARCHER CREEK FORMATION 

The Archer Creek formation is made up of a siliceous graphitic 

schist member in the lower part of the formation, and a bluish marble 

member that forms the upper part of the formation. Some marble is 

also interbedded with the graphitic schist. Maximum thickness of 

the formation is estimated at 900 feet. The formation is exposed 

most extensively along the James River valley to the southwest of 

Allen Creek, in the neighborhood of Jack Mountain and Chestnut 

Mountain, and southeast of Evington. 

Graphitic schist and blue marble are exposed along Archer Creek 

about 1% miles above its confluence with the James River. The 

formation is named after this locality and includes the Joshua schist 

and Arch marble of Brown (1951, 1953). 

The graphitic schist member is greenish to blue gray, hard, siliceous 

schist, composed of quartz and albite arranged in a mosaic pattern, 

with interstitial muscovite and chlorite, and prominent porphyroblasts of biotite. A considerable amount of fine-grained opaque 

Inineral, apparently graphite, is evident under the microscope. 

Pyrite is a com1non constituent and is present in such abundance in 

many places that, after weathering, it yields a characteristic yellowish stain on the rock. Tourmaline and apatite are widespread accessory minerals, and garnet occurs locally. Manganese is usually 

present in the schist in very small amounts, as shown by blowpipe 

tests,-2 but no deposits of manganese oxides are known to be associated 

with the graphitic schists. Pink, manganiferous garnet is present in 

the graphitic schist belt lying between Wreck Island Creek and Pavid 

Creek (pl. 1). 

Blue marble, which has a fine- to medium-grained texture and resembles unmetamorphosed limestone, overlies and is interlayered with 

the graphitic schist member. The blue marble is distributed throughout the region, but exposures are usually restricted to stream valleys. 

Wide exposures of marble near the village of Allen Creek, along Wreck 

Island Creek, and Otter River, north of Scott Mountain, are due to 

the repetition of beds by folding and faulting. The marble commonly 

contains disseminated cubes of pyrite and large flakes of brown 

biotite, partly altered to chlorite. Tiny sericite flakes impart a silky 

luster to cleavage surfaces. Thin siliceous or schistose beds occur, 

1 The presence of manganese in these schists was pointed out to the writer by W. R. 

Brown, and it was confirmed by blowpipe determination of samples from dift'erent parts of 

the region. 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 17 

and are well displayed in a quarry at the mouth of Opossum Creek, 

where beds of marble containing abundant small grains of blue quartz 

alternate with phyllitic layers. The marble resembles the graphitic 

schist in the blue color and in the presence of biotite flakes and pyrite. 

It is probable that the parent sediments of the marble represent a 

highly calcareous facies of the sediments from which the graphitic 

schist originated. The blue marble, however, does not contain manganese in amounts detectable by blowpipe tests, as does the graphitic 

schist. The marble typically weathers to a blue-gray or greenish, 

micaceous, clayey soil, which carries irregular fragments of vein 

quartz with rhombohedral cavities from which calcite has been 

leached. 

The calcareous beds of the Archer Creek formation, together with 

the white Inarble member of the overlying Mount Athos formation, 

were correlated with the Cockeysville marble of the Glenarm series 

by Furcron ( 1935, p. 27-31). This correlation, based solely on lithologic similarity, is not followed in this report. 

MOUNT ATHOS FORMATION 

The Mount Athos formation, as originally defined by Furcron (1935, 

p. 22-27) for its occurrence at Mount Athos, east of Lynchburg, included the quartzite and schist beds described below, but it did not 

include the beds of white marble, which were grouped with the underlying blue marble and pl~ced in the Cockeysville marble. The present 

study has demonstrated that the white marble is associated nearly 

everywhere with quartzite or calcareous quartzite of the Mount Athos 

formation, and that it is stratigraphically distinct from the blue 

marble. 

The Mount A.thos formation comprises quartzite, conglomerate, calcareous quartzite, marble, siliceous mica schist, and ferruginous mica 

schist. The quartzitic beds usually form long ridges which rise as 

much as several hundred feet above the surrounding country. The 

Mouth Athos formation is of particular economic interest becttuse deposits of manganese, iron, barite, and marble are associated with it at 

many places in the region. The quartzite beds have also been quarried for road metal at several localities. 

At many places, the lowest beds of the Mount Athos formation are . 

composed of a characteristic siliceous muscovite schist, tan to greenishgray in color. It typically carries porphyroblasts of black biotite, 

about a sixteenth of an inch in diameter, that lie transverse to the 

cleavage. The matrix of the rock is a fine-grained mosaic mixture of 

quartz and muscovite. Tourmaline, zircon, and epidote are common 

accessory minerals ; garnet and magnetite also are present. This type 

of schist generally lies on the flanks of ridges formed by the quartzite 

member. Good exposures occur in the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad 
18 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

cut near Six Mile Bridge, at the mouth of Archer Creek. In the 

central part of the region, this schist has been mapped as a separate 

unit and termed the biotite-muscovite schist member of the Mount 

Athos formation. Brown (1951, 1953) has given the name, Pelier 

schist, to this siliceous muscovite schist with biotite porphyroblasts. 

In the northern and southern parts of the district, however, the schists 

in the lower part of the Mount Athos formation are generally more 

fissile and lack biotite, and usually they cannot be distinguished from 

the muscovite schists of the Candler formation. Consequently, they 

have been represented by the same pattern on plate 1. 

The quartzite of the Mount Athos formation is white to light gray 

in color, and weathers gray with occasional brown or pink stains. 

The texture ranges from a fine-grained porcelaneous type to conglomerate with flattened blue quartz or feldspar pebbles up to a 

quarter-inch in size. Quartz and minor amounts of microcline and 

albite, form an interlocking mosaic with sutured grain boundaries. 

Silvery to pearly-green muscovite is abundant. Epidote, apatite, 

martite, and biotite are the more common accessory minerals; chlorite, 

zoisite, zircon, garnet, and tourmaline are present in some mylonitized 

(highly crushed) quartzite along the eastern side of the area. 

The calcareous quartzite superficially resembles the varieties described above, but may contain as much as 40 percent of white to tan 

carbonate. Weathering of the calcareous variety of quartzite results 

in characteristic blocks of porous, honeycomQed rock whose irregular, 

leached cavities are stained black with manganese oxide or filled with 

red clay. 

The calcareous quartzite grades into white to tan marble at several 

places within the region. The marble has been mapped as a separate 

member of the Mount Athos formation. Doubtless, it is considerably 

more widespread than is shown in plate 1 because it weathers rapidly. 

The few outcrops are mainly along streams and in quarries and mines. 

The more· prominent outcrops of marble are located near Warminster, along the James River between Allen Creek and Gladstone, 

on Wreck Island Creek, at Little Beaver Creek near the Piedmont 

mine, along Beaver Creek, near the McGehee mine southeast of Lawyer, and at several places along Otter River. The marble is generally 

coarse- to medium-grained, but some dolomitic varieties in the northern part of the district are rather fine-grained. Biotite, muscovite, 

and chlorite are not uncommon constituents. Small amounts of 

metallic minerals are present in places. In the State limestone quarry 

on Wreck Island Creek, several thin veins of sulfides-pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and bornite-cut the marble. V einlike deposits of 

barite occur in the marble in the southern part of the district. 

Chemical analyses, supplemented by blowpipe tests for manganese 

of a considerable number of samples, show that the marble uni-
GENERAL GEOLOGY 19 

formly carries a small content of manganese, probably in the form of 

·carbonate. All of the manganese deposits in the region occur within 

the Mount Athos formation, and it is believed that the manganese was 

dissolved from the calcareous beds and was concentrated as manganese 

{)Xides during a period of prolonged weathering in early Tertiary time. 

These features are fully discussed in the section on the origin of the 

manganese deposits. The marble typically weathers to a chocolate-

~olored, loamy soil, whose color doubtless is due to the formation of 

manganese oxide during weathering. 

Gray, hematite-magnetite-quartz schist with thin seams of lustrous 

hlack, micaceous, specular hematite occur with conglom~rate beds on 

the west side of the James River, north of Round Mountain. These 

ferruginous beds were worked for iron ore many years ago near Riverville and also in areas farther to the north. Thin beds of tan to 

greenish martite-bearing schist occur in the formation at many places, 

and in a few places are at the top of the Mount Athos formation in 

sufficient thickness to be mapped as a separate member. These ferruginous beds may represent a tuffaceous gradation to the overlying 

greenstone. 

GREENSTONE 

Greenstone, which includes hornb1ende-epidote-albite-chlorite schist 

and gneiss, is widespread throughout the district in narrow belts that 

are usually flanked on the west side by quartzite of the Mount Athos 

formation. As already pointed out, certain structural features suggest that this greenstone is the youngest formation of the Evington 

group, and hence distinct from greenstone associated with Lynchburg 

gneiss. Although it seems reasonably certain that greenstone occurs 

at two different stratigraphic horizons, no characteristics other than 

association with the Mount Athos formation or with the Lynchburg 

gneiss were recognized which would permit distinctions between the 

two greenstone formations. As a result, it was not possible to determine whether greenstone surrounding the three domes of Lynchburg 

gneiss in the southern part of the region belonged to the greenstone 

horizon of the Evington group or to the Lynchburg gneiss. FurtherInore, several areas of greenstone in the southern part of the district 

underlie the Mount Athos formation structurally. As discussed below, it is possible that some bodies of greenstone in the southern part 

of the region are basaltic flows occurring at an intermediate stratigraphic position, or may have been intrusive rather than extrusive. 

Because of these uncertainties in determining the relative age of some 

bodies of greenstone, all greenstone in the area is shown by the same 

pattern on plate 1, and no formational names are used. Bodies of 

greenstone considered to be stratigraphically associated with the 

Lynchburg gneiss are distinguished as the "older greenstone", those 

bodies that apparently are flows at the top of the Evington group as 
20 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

the "younger greenstone," and the bodies of uncertain correlation as 

simply "greenstone". The greenstone that is interpreted here as overlying the Mount Athos formation was considered by Furcron ( 1935, 

pp. 4 7-49) to be lying beneath the Mount Athos formation. Brown 

( 1951, 1953) uses the name "Slippery Creek greenstone volcanics" for 

the "younger greenstone". 

The greenstones include a variety of schists and gneiss and are composed principally of hornblende, epidote, albite, and chlorite. The 

rocks range from light green to dark green or greenish gray in color, 

and from fine-grained schist to coarse gneiss. Biotite is generally 

present as ragged flakes, partly altered to chlorite. Magnetite and 

apatite are common accessory minerals. Hornblende needles generally 

have strong linear orientation. The greenstone is usually so mylonitized that no traces of its primary volcanic features are preserved, 

although epidote-filled amygdules still remain in a few places. 

The greenstone areas are generally rolling uplands, and are underlain by a red to red-brown clayey soil that is characteristic of the 

formation. 

DISTRIBUTION OF FORMATIONS OF THE EVINGTON GROUP 

All formations of the Evington group occur throughout most of 

the mapped area, but in the northern section, phyllite and mica schist 

predominate and the other rock units occur mainly as thin, discontinuous lenses. The graphitic schist member of the Archer Creek formation was not recognized to the north of Greenway. The abundance 

of phyllite and mica schist at the northern end of the district may 

mean that the trough containing the Evington rocks is more shallow 

here, and that most of the Archer Creek formation, the Mount Athos 

formation, and the greenstone have been eroded. Another explanation may be that the original conditions of sedimentation progressively 

changed toward the northeast, with deposition here mainly of argillaceous material, and lesser amounts of sand, lime, and greenstone than 

in areas to the southwest. 

The quartzite and white marble members of the Mount Athos formation show some variations in their distribution that possibly reflect original differences in the composition and conditions of deposition of the sediments and may have some bearing on the distribution 

of manganese and specular hematite deposits. Between Otter River 

and Wreck Island Creek, white marble seems to be most abundant 

with quartzite near the eastern border of the district, whereas there 

is little marble in the westernmost quartzite belts. No marble· is 

known in the thick beds of quartzite that underlie Jack Mountain and 

Round Mountain. This suggests that the Mount Athos sediments 

originally became more limy toward the east in this part of the district. On the other hand, in the northern part of the district, marble 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 2l 

is most abundant in the westernmost quartzite belt, and seems to be 

absent from the thick beds of quartzite associated with greenstone on 

the eastern side of the district between Wreck Island Creek and Bent 

Creek. Specular hematite of probable sedimentary origin is associateq 

with quartzite at several places between Round Mountain and 

Greenway. · 

If the present distribution and thickness of the quartzite and white 

marble members, and lenses of specular hematite of the Mount Athos 

formation are reflections of the original conditions of deposition; it is 

suggested that th~ depositional basin was elongated in a northeasterly 

direction nearly parallel to present structural trends, and that thick 

beds of sand with a small amount of lime mud were deposited along 

the margins of the basin qr trough while a large amount of lime with 

thinner layers of sand was being deposited in the center. Thin, len~ 

ticular ferruginous beds were deposited locally i~ various parts of the 

basin, but are found most abundantly in a rather small area west of 

the thickest lime deposition. · 

Narrow belts of quartzite and white and blue marble in the phyllite 

of the Candler formation have been mapped as members of the Candler formation. These thin beds of quartzite and marble could be thin 

lenses of sandy and calcareous sediments that were deposited with the 

argillaceous Candler sediments, or they may be thin or highly sheared 

beds of the Mount Athos and Archer Creek formations that were 

folded or faulted with schists of the Candler formation. 

BIOTITE-GARNET SCHIST 

Garnetiferous schists and gneisses occur along the southeastern edge 

of the district between Rustburg and Altavista (pl. 1). The structural and age relations of these higher grade metamorphic rocks to 

the other formations of the region are not clear, but they are probably 

strongly metamorphosed equivalents of the Evington group. To the 

northeast of this belt, the garnet-bearing schists associated with quartzite and marble members of the Mount Athos formation between 

Archer Creek and the headwaters of Beaver Creek are probably more 

highly metamorphosed schists of the Mount Athos formation. Gar~ 

net-bearing schist that occurs in discontinuous narrow strips around 

the largest dome of Lynchburg gneiss is garnetiferous Lynchburg 

gneiss. 

The garnet schists between Rustburg and Altavista usually are gray 

to greenish in color, medium- to coarse-grained, and are schistose to 

gneissic. Quartz and albite, with variable amounts of muscovite, 

make up the matrix. Biotite, partly altered to chlorite, and garnet 

crystals are characteristic; tourmaline and epidote are accessory minerals. Staurolite, forming crystals as large as 2 centimeters in size, 

is a common constituent. 
22 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

AGE RELA.TIONSH·IPS OF THE METAMORPHIC ROCKS WITHIN 

THE DISTRICT 

The various problems regarding the relative ages of the different 

metamorphic rock units in this area are summarized and discussed 

below. The discussion is limited to rock units within the mapped 

area; the broader problems of correlation with formations in other localities are treated in the following section. 

AGE OF LYNCHBURG GNEISS AND ASSOCIATED GREENSTONE AND SOAPSTONE 

No new information on the absolute age of the Lynchburg gneiss 

and its associated igneous rocks was gathered in the limited area comprising this study. Greenstone occurs in the upper part or at the top 

of the Lynchburg gneiss. Several belts of greenstone are exposed, 

but it was not evident whether one basaltic flow occurred that was 

repeated by folding or faulting, or that several flows occurred, or that 

some greenstone bodies were basaltic flows and others were diabasic 

intrusions. The late pre-Cambrian age for the Lynchburg gneiss and 

the greenstone, as proposed by Jonas and Stose ( 1939), is provisionally 

accepted in this report; it had formerly been called early pre-Cambrian by Jonas ( 1927). The soapstone bodies represent altered peridotite intrusions in the Lynchburg gneiss, and hence, although they 

are younger than the Lynchburg gneiss, their age is unknown; they 

may be either late pre-Cambrian or Paleozoic in age. The absence of 

ultrabasic intrusives from the Evington group is assumed to mean 

either that the Evington rocks are younger than the ultrabasic intrusives (in which case the peridotite may have been intruded in late preCambrian time) or that the Evington rocks are overthrust onto the 

area of Lynchburg gneiss and peridotite (in which case, the ultrabasic rocks may have been intruded either in late pre-Cambrian or 

Paleozoic time, prior to overthrusting of the Evington group). 

STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE AND AGE OF EVINGTON GROUP 

Despite careful mapping of the Evington group over a fairly large 

area, the age and stratigraphic order of these rocks were not established with certainty. The Evington group overlies Lynchburg 

gneiss structurally wherever the two groups are in contact within the 

area, and although there appears to have been thrusting along the 

main contact on the western border of the district, the writer thinks 

that the rocks of the Evington group were originally deposited upon 

the Lynchburg gneiss, and hence are of late pre-Cambrian or early 

Paleozoic age. Furcron (1935, p. 22, 52-53) assigns pre-Cambrian 

age to the rocks included in the Evington group, and interprets the· 

contact between the Evington rocks and the Lynchburg gneiss to be a 

thrust along which normal faulting later took place. Brown (1942b) 

has suggested that the rocks called the Evington group represented a 

deeper-water facies which were deposited at about the same time that 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 23 

the Lynchburg sediments were laid down; thus, both units would be 

essentially equivalent in age. 

The stratigraphic order of the Evington group is regarded as greenstone (youngest), Mount Athos formation, Archer Creek formation, 

and· Candler formation (oldest). This view is based largely upon 

structural features, which are essentially the determination of nature 

and the position of major fold axes by means of drag folds, and similar repetition of formations in adjacent fault blocks. This evidence, 

which is not conclusive, is treated at greater length in the section on 

structural geology. Brown (1941) was the first to propose this order 

of sequence and his reasons for considering the greenstone to be the 

youngest formation are: 

1. Coarsening of grain size in the quartzite member of the Mount 

Athos formation at many places near its contact with the biotiteInuscovite schist member at the base of the formation. (The writer, 

however, has observed pebble or grit beds at different horizons within 

the quartzite members, even near the greenstone contact at a number 

of places, but has not seen definite graded bedding). · 

2. Nature of drag folds. 

3. Apparent dip of the Candler formation (Wissahickon schist in 

Brown's 1941 paper) under both sides of the belt of greenstone, quartzite, and marble suggests a synclinal structure for the belt. 

4. Absence of greenstone pebbles in quartzite of the Mount Athos 

formation. 

5. Simpler explanation of structures and regional age relationships. 

Nearly all structural features in the region can be explained satisiactorily on the basis of this stratigraphic order, except in the vicinity 

of the domes of Lynchburg gneiss near Altavista and Rustburg. If 

the stratigraphic order of the Evington group is the reverse of the 

sequence just discussed, then the greenstone would be the oldest formation of the group ( Furcron, 1935), and could be equivalent to the 

greenstone associated with the Lynchburg gneiss. The structures of 

the domed areas might be explained more readily by this sequence. 

Other possible explanations for the distribution of greenstone in 

the domed areas are : 

1. Some greenstone bodies may be intrusive, cutting across formation 

boundaries. 

2. Basaltic :flows may occur locally at intermediate stratigraphic horizons. 

3. Basaltic flows may be younger than some of the deformation of Lynchburg 

gneiss and the Evington group, and may rest unconformably on both units in the 

southern part of the area. 

4. The Lynchburg gneiss may be a shallow water facies and the sediments of 

the Evington group may be a deeper water facies that were deposited about the 

same time, as suggested by Brown ( 1942b) . The final stage of deposition could 

then have been extrusion of basaltic :flows over both groups. 
24 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

AGE OF BIOTITE-GARNET SCHISTS 

The probable equivalence of garneti£erous schists in different areas 

to formations of the Evington group or to the Lynchburg gneiss has 

been discussed above. 

REGIONAL CORRELATION PROBLEMS OF THE METAMORPHIC ROCKS 

In the small area of Lynchburg gneiss mapped in this study, no new 

information was discovered in regard to the age relationships of the 

formation to underlying rocks, inasmuch as the base of the formation 

lies several miles to the west of the district. The Lynchburg gneiss 

and associated greenstone are considered by some geologists to be representative of a series of clastic sediments and volcanics deposited at 

different places in the Great Smoky Mountains and Blue Ridge. areas 

in late pre-Cambrian time ; the various views are sketched briefly below. The correlation problems of the Lynchburg gneiss and associated greenstone have been discussed by Jonas and Stose (1939). 

According to them, the base of the Lynchburg gneiss rests uncomformably upon an injection complex of gneiss and granodiorite northwest of the James River area. They correlate the Lynchpurg gneiss 

with the tuff that rests upon the early pre-Cambrian injection complex 

at Swift Run Gap on the western side of the Catoctin-Blue Ridge 

anticlinorium. They consider this tuff, later named the Swift Run 

tu1f ( Stose, G~ W. and Stose, A. J., 1944), to be of late pre-Cambrian age, and conclude that the Lynchburg is the same age. They also 

assign late pre-Cambrian age to the Catoctin metabasalt, overlying 

the Swift Run tuff, and correlate the Catoctin with the greenstone 

associated with the Lynchburg gneiss. More recently, the Stoses have 

extended their studies of the Cambrian and late pre-Cambrian forlnations to the southern Appalachians; they conclude th.at the Ocoee 

series of conglomerate, graywacke, shale, etc. in the Great Smoky . 

Mountains and vicinity is of late pre-Cambri~n age, and prob~bly correlative with the Lynchburg gneiss ( Stose and Stose, 1944; 1949) . 

The same conclusions have also been reached by King (1949b) as a 

result of extensive field work by himself and associates at several places 

in the Blue Ridge of Virginia and Tennessee and in the Great Smoky 

Mountains. 

Another view on the age of volcanics and clastic sedimentary rocks 

beneath known Cambrian rocks and resting on the injection complex 

in central Virginia has been reached by Bloomer and Bloomer (1947). 

They Conclude that the Catoctin metabasalt in the Blue Ridge in the 

Buena Vista quadrangle, about 20 miles northwest of Lynchburg, is 

basal Cambrian, and suggest that the Lynchburg gneiss is also of the 

same age. Bloomer ( 1950) has since discussed more fully the distribution, characteristics, and ages of the rocks of the Catoctin-Blue 

Ridge anticlinorium; he concludes that there is a continuous sequence 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 25 

from the base of the Lynchburg gneiss up through the clastic rocks 

that lie above the Catoctin metabasalt and below known· Cambrian 

rocks. However, he is undecided "about the ages of these rocks, and 

states that the boundary between pre-Cambrian and Cambrian rocks 

may be as low as the base of the Lynchburg gneiss, or as high as the 

non-fossiliferous rocks above the Catoctin metabasalt. 

The formations making up the Evington group of this report were 

correlated by Jonas (1927) and Furcron (1935) with the Glenarm 

series of Maryland and Pennsylvania because of lithologic similarities. 

The Glenarm series was considered by Jonas and others. to be preCambrian in age, and the order of sequence of formations (from 

oldest to youngest) in the Glenarm series was determined as Setters 

quartzite (resting upon Baltimore gneiss) , Cockeysville marble, and 

Wissahickon gneiss and schist. Furcron believed that a similar stratigraphic sequence was represented in the James River area. He 

thought that the Mount Athos formation (resting on greenstone) was 

the oldest sedimentary formation, the marble (both the blue and 

white types that are clearly members of two distinct formations) to 

be equivalent to the Cockeysville marble, and the mica schist to be 

the youngest formation and correlative with the Wissahicko~ 

formation. 

Inasmuch as the writer believes that the stratigraphic order of the 

Evington group is the reverse of that proposed by Furcron, correlation with the Glenarm series would seem to be uncertain. Nevertheless, there is reason to believe that the Evington group may be correlative with metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks in the 

Piedmont of Maryland and southeastern Pennsylvania. Solution of 

the problem is severely handicapped by the fact that the two regions 

are neaTly 150 miles apart, and in much of the intervening area the 

metamorphic rocks are covered by younger Triassic sediments. An 

area of extremely complex geology in Frederick and Carroll Counties, 

Maryland, involves several varieties of marble, metamorphosed volcanic rocks (basalt, rhyolite, and tuffs), quartzite, and mica schist. 

Stose and Stose have studied these formations in some detail her~ 

( Stose and Stose, 1946) and farther northeast in the Hanover-York 

district, Pennsylvania ( Stose and Stose, 1944) ; although they were 

unable to establish the relationship of this series of rocks to the Setters 

quartzite, Cockeysville marble, and Wissahickon formation farther 

east in the Maryland Piedmont, they believe that the two series may 

be correlative. 

Correlation of the Evington group with the lithologically similar 

series of marble-volcanic rocks, and quartzite-mica schist of possible 

Glenarm age in Frederick and Carroll Counties, Maryland, is proposed 

by the writer as a possibility. 

283201-54-3 
26 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

The geologic structure. and age o:f the Glenarm series in Pennsylvania and Maryland has been the ~ubject o:f much investigation over 

a long period o:f time. Although most o:f the area in the Piedmont 

between the Potomac River and the Schuylkill has been mapped to 

the scale o:f 1 inch to the mile, many o:f the :fundamental problems 

remain unsolved. These studies will not be reviewed here; the interested reader will find summaries o:f investigations and interpretations in· papers by Cloos and Hietanen ( 1941) and by Stose and 

Stose (1944; 1946). One of the controversial questions has been the 

age o:f the Glenarm series, whether it is pre-Cambrian in age (as long 

held by the Stoses and others) , or whether it is Paleozoic, representing the metamorphosed, near shore, argillaceous and arenaceous :facies 

of early Paleozoic calcareous rocks (as believed by Cloos and others). 

Although the question is far from settled, the most recent view expressed by the Stoses ( 1946, p. 83) is that the Setters quartzite and 

Cockeysville marble may be o:f Early Cambrian age, and the Wissahickon formation may be an argillaceous facies of Early Cambrian 

to Ordovician age (possibly including some rocks o:f pre-Cambrian 

age) that is thrust. upon the Setters, Cockeysville, and other :formations. The writer believes that the Evington group is probably o:f 

early Paleozoic age, and that the formations included in the Evington group were deposited together in the same basin o:f sedimentation. 

The possible relationship o:f formations of the Evington group to 

two areas o:f Ordovician rocks in the Virginia Piedmont must be kept 

in mind. A belt o:f calcareous rocks, tenned the Everona limestone, 

lies 15 miles northeast of Howardsville on the strike. These rocks 

are separated from the Evington group by a basin o:f Triassic rocks 

and extend 60 miles farther northeast (Jonas, 1927, p. 842). About 

17 miles east of Howardsville is the syncline of quartzite and fossiliferous slate of the Arvonia slate belt ( Stose and others, 1928; Stose 

and Stose, 1948) . 

Very little detailed geologic study has been devoted to the large 

area o:f the Piedmont province southwest of the James River-Roanoke 

River district, and information on which to base suggested correlations of the Evington group is correspondingly scarce. One area having an assemblage of rocks somewhat similar to this district is the 

Gaffney-Kings Mountain region in South Carolina and North Carolina. Greenstone, quartzite, mica schists (some varieties of which are 

manganiferous), graphitic schists, and marble (both blue and white 

varieties) are among the metamorphic rocks in this region; barite, 

iron, and residual manganese deposits also occur (Keith and Sterrett, 

1931). The possibility of correlation between the Evington group 

and the lithologically similar group of rocks in the Gaffney-Kings 

Mountain region should be recognized. One or more types of rock 

lithologically similar to members or formations o:f the Evington group, 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 27 

such as quartzite, marble or graphitic schist, are present at numerous 

places in the southern Piedmont, but their stratigraphic and structural 

characteristics have not been determined. 

If the stratigraphic order of the Evington group should be the 

reverse of the order favored in this report, then the greenstone formation of the Evington group would be the oldest formation and might 

be equivalent to the Catoctin metabasalt. In that case, the Mount 

Athos, Archer Creek, and Candler formations would be younger and 

might be regarded as Cambrian in age. The manganiferous marble 

and calcareous quartzite members of the Mount Athos formation might 

therefore be considered as equivalent to the manganiferous Tomstown 

(Shady) dolomite of early Cambrian age along the west flank of the 

Blue Ridge, and the residual manganese deposits in the two districts 

would thus have been derived from beds of comparable age. 

UNMETA:MORPHOSED ROCKS 

The only rocks in the region that have not undergone metamorphism are the sedimentary and igneous rocks of Triassic age. In the 

northern end of the district, red, tan, and greenish shale, sandstone, 

and conglomerate rest unconformably upon phyllite in five isolated 

areas (pl. 1). The green shale is fine-grained and composed mostly of 

quartz and feldspar grains with some epidote in a matrix of chlorite 

and sericite; coarse-grained, tan sandstone and conglomerate layers 

with pebbles of phyllite and vein quartz occur with the shale. Red 

shale and conglomerate containing pebbles of greenstone and vein 

quartz are abundant. 

Although no fossils were found in these rocks, they are outliers of 

the Scottsville basin of Triassic rocks that extends for about 11 miles 

northeast of Howardsville, and are similar in character to Triassic 

sedimentary rocks elsewhere in Virginia (Roberts, 1928}. The outliers south of Howardsville are bounded on one side or on both sides 

by normal faults that drop the Triassic rocks against phyllite. During 

the present study, several areas of Triassic rocks were mapped that 

are not shown on the geologic maps of Roberts ( 1928, pl. 4) or 

Furcron (1935, pl.1). 

The metamorphic rocks in the northern and southern parts of the 

district are intruded by diabase dikes considered to be of Triassic age 

because they are unmetamorphosed and similar to the diabase bodies 

intruded into Triassic sediments farther north. The dikes in this area, 

however, do not cut Triassic sediments. The larger and most persistent dikes are 100 to 150 feet thick and usually trend slightly northwest, 

although the courses of some dikes are irregular and branching. The 

intruded rocks have been metamorphosed for a distance of a few feet 

from the larger dikes. Diabase has usually weathered more readily 

than the enclosing rocks, and the course of a dike is typically marked 
28 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

by northerly trending depressions that make gaps in the transected 

quartzite and schist ridges. Blocks of diabase rounded by weathering 

lie on the surface of the ground along the dikes. The texture of the 

diabase in the larger dikes is coarse-grained, and becomes fine-grained 

at the walls of the dike and in the thinner dikes. Large crystals· of 

andesine and pyroxene, with scattered olivine crystals, occur with interstitial crystals of finer-grained plagioclase and pyroxene; shreds 

of brown biotite are present,· and accessory metallic minerals are 

abundant. Olivine is partly altered to serpentine, pyroxene is partly 

replaced by hornblende, and olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase are 

partly replaced by pale-green chlorite. 

ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS 

Two types of alluvial deposits of different ages are found along 

and near the rivers and streams. The older deposits are gravels 

composed of pebbles and cobbles of quartzite resting on terraces, 

bluffs, and intermeander spurs along the river valleys at elevations 

as much as several hundred feet above river level. These gravels are 

distributed along the James River in isolated patches. Evidently, 

they are erosion remnants of extensive sheets of gravel that were deposited in the river flood plain at an earlier stage or stages of the 

river's development when its valley was at a higher elevation. The 

ground surface is littered with quartzite pebbles and cobbles, but 

exposures of the gravel in place were not seen, and it is uncertain 

how much downslope migration of gravels may have taken place 

during progressive down-cutting of the river valley. Certainly, there 

has been some movement of the gravel in some places, particularly 

on some of the lower intermeander spurs of the James River where 

cobbles and pebbles are scattered over the surface down to the present 

flood plain. Gravels on the flat-topped bluffs along the river just 

east of Lynchburg are probably nearer their original levels of deposition; the upper surface of these patches of gravel ranges from 

150 to 220 feet above the river. Deposition of gravel may have taken 

place at different stages of downcutting over a long period of time. 

The age of these gravels has not been determined, but they are probably Pliocene or Pleistocene; the question is discussed in the section 

on Physiographic History. 

The younger alluvial deposits are made up of fine-grained sediments that form flood plain deposits in the present valleys of the 

rivers and larger streams. The flood plain in the James River valley 

is composed of several broad terraces, 10 to 20 feet above the adjacent 

lower terrace. · Several terraces are present along some of the larger 

stream valleys. These terraces evidently represent successive stages 

in the lowering of the drainage systems and are judged to be of 

Recent age. 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 29 

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

The strong deformation that the pre-Triassic rocks of the region 

, have undergone has folded and faulted the rocks in a complex fashion 

and has imposed cleavages upon them which have obscured or destroyed the bedding. Structural trends prevail in a northeasterly 

direction; bedding, cleavages, faults, and the axial planes of folds 

usually dip toward the southeast. Lineations of several types and 

ages are widespread. One group, represented by cleavage crinkles 

and the intersection of cleavages, is nearly horizontal and trends toward the northeast; the other group, including drag folds and elongated minerals and pebbles, plunges steeply in a southerly direction. 

Most of the major folds appear to be isoclinal, faulted by high-angle 

reverse faults that have sheared out the western limbs of anticlines. 

Axes of many of these folds appear to be nearly horizontal; some 

large folds plunge toward the south. Low-angle thrust faults parallel to the regional strike are present in addition to high-angle reverse 

faults. The contact between the phyllite of the Candler formation 

and Lynchburg gneiss along the western border for a distance of 

60 miles coincides with a fault; the displacement along this fault 

may be relatively slight, and not a distance 'of 15 or 20 miles as 

previously had been thought. The latest faulting and fracturing is 

represented by normal faults that cut the Triassic sediments and by 

fractures filled by the Triassic diabase dikes. The most complex 

structure in the district is in the area of Wreck Island Creek and 

Riverville where a complex of faulted folds seems to have been refolded along a northerly trending cross structure and in the southern 

part of the area where rocks believed to be Lynchburg gneiss are exposed in three domes that are surrounded by rocks of the Evington 

group. The major structural feature of the belt of formations composing the Evington group is believed to be a long, narrow, deep 

synclinorium underlain by Lynchburg gneiss. 

BEDDING, CLEAVAGE, AND JOI:li.~S 

The original sedimentary and igneous features of the pre-Triassic 

rocks have been largely destroyed by the development of cleavage 

and the formation of new minerals during regional metamorphism. 

Bedding is still apparent locally in some phyllite of the Candler 

formation where it is represented by color banding, or by limy or 

sandy layers. It is also evident in some outcrops of the marble 

member of the Archer Creek formation as siliceous or micaceous 

layers and at places in the quartzite member of the Mount Athos 

formation as differences in grain size between layers. The bedding, 

particularly in phyllite or marble, is commonly crumpled into tigh~, 

small folds that are sliced by the cleavage. However, on a larger 
30 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

scale, bedding and cleavage are nearly parallel in many places; this 

is indicated by the fact that the principal strike and dip of many 

of the lithologic units nearly coincide with main trends of cleavage. 

No bedding was recognized with certainty in the Lynchburg gneiss , 

or in the higher grade biotite-garnet schists along the eastern edge 

of the area. Relicts of vesicular structure in greenstone are found 

jn place as light-colored, elongate amygdules. 

Cleavage is well developed, in variable manner and degree, in all of 

the metamorphic rocks of the region. In the more massive rocks, 

such as quartzite and the Lynchburg gneiss, usually only a single set 

of cleavage planes with a rather uniform strike and dip is present. 

In marble, cleavage is generally apparent as lustrous surfaces on which 

numerous tiny muscovite flakes are visible. Cleavage is most strongly 

developed in mica schist and phyllite, and several sets of cleavage 

of two general types are commonly present in these rocks. In one 

type, that is rather widespread in the western belt of phyllite of the 

Candler formation, the several cleavages seem to be about equally 

developed and have about the same northeasterly strike, but dip 

southeasterly at different angles, so that in exposures normal to the 

8trike the rock appears to be sliced into lenticular blocks by the intersecting surfaces. In the other type, a well-developed cleavage is 

present. that is sliced by later cleavage planes. All degrees of deformation of the early cleavage and its displacement along the younger 

cleavage may be observed. In some places, the early cleavage shows 

little or no crumpling and displacement and is merely sliced by later 

cleavage. Commonly, the older cleavage is tightly crumpled and 

slightly displaced by movements along the younger surface; the two 

sets of cleavage usually have nearly the same strike, but may dip in 

the same general direction or in the opposite direction. Crumpled 

early cleavage with general westerly dips that is sliced and displaced 

by cleavage with easterly dips is found in the phyllite and schist of 

the Candler formation near its contact with Lynchburg gneiss along 

the western edge of the area and in the region of Bent Creek and 

David Creek on the eastern border of the district. Small quartz 

lenses and stringers are very common along the cleavage surfaces in 

phyllite and schist and may have a crumpled or folded shape conformable with the cleavage. 

The late cleavage in these rocks resembles types that have been 

called "fracture cleavage" by many geologists in the past. Recently, 

White {1949) has described and discussed two types of cleavage in 

Vermont metamorphic rocks, schistosity or flow cleavage (the older), 

and slip cleavage (the younger). The early schistosity is commonly 

crumpled into numerous tiny crinkles whose axial planes are paralleled by the later slip cleavage that slices the rock. In parts of the 

Vermont area, the slip cleavage has become so prominently developed 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 31 

that the early schistosity is obscured, or even wholly obliterated. The 

late cleavage of the James River area seems to be very similar to the 

slip cleavage described by White, and the term "slip cleavage" ( ori~ 

ginally introduced by T. N. Dale) can be appropriately applied to the 

late cleavage in this area. Very close crumpling of the early cleavage 

and slicing by the slip cleavage, gives a "herringbone tweed" appearance in cross section at places on the eastern border of the district. 

Complete destruction of the early cleavage was not noted by the 

writer, but such a condition might be easily overlooked. 

The writer·feels that the several sets of cleavage present in schist 

and phyllite at many places were developed during different stages 

of a single orogenic period; thus, several cleavages were formed in 

these incompetent rocks while a single cleavage was being formed in 

quartzites and other competent rocks. Jonas ( 1932, p. 32-37) and 

others believe that these rocks have undergone two periods of deformation, the earlier cleavage formed in a pre-Cambrian period of metamorphism, an.d the younger cleavage formed during metamorphism 

in the late Paleozoic. However, the writer concludes that the facts 

point to a single period of metamorphism. 

Olea vage in this area generally trends toward the northeast; the 

trends are quite irregular in the tightly folded area along Wreck 

Island Creek. Dips are usually toward the southeast at angles of 60 

degrees or more; however, rather gentle easterly dips, from 20 to 

30 degrees, prevail along the eastern side of the district between 

'Vreck Island Creek and Bent Creek. Westerly dipping cleavage 

prevails along the southeastern edge of the district, and is found in 

the western phyllite belt of the Candler formation in the northern 

part of the region. In the domes of Lynchburg gneiss near Rustburg 

and Altavista, the cleavage dips outward from the center, and becomes more closely spaced near the borders of the domes; broad folds 

in the cleavage are indicated in the northern half of the larger dome. 

The most prominent system of joints in the district trends northwesterly and usually dips rather steeply toward the northeast. This 

joint system is well reflected in the rectilinear drainage pattern in the 

Candler Mountain area. 

LINEATION 

Linear structures, or lineations, of several different kinds are prominent in all of the metamorphic rocks; they are represented by smallscale folds of bedding, cleavage, or quartz stringers, by tiny cleavage 

crinkles, intersection of two cleavage surfaces, elongation and alinement of such minerals as biotite, muscovite, and hornblende, elongation of pyrite crystals in marble and graphitic schist of the Archer 

Creek formation, and stretched pebbles in conglomeratic beds. Orientation of the linear structure is variable, but there are two general 

trends. One group of lineations trends nearly parallel to the regional 
32 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

strike and plunges rather gently northeasterly or southwesterly; this 

group is represented chiefly by crumpled cleavage and intersections 

of several cleavage surfaces. The other group of lineations plunges 

rather steeply in a southerly direction; it is represented by elongated 

minerals and pebbles, and also by some small-scale drag folds, particularly of siliceous beds in marble. This trend seems to be represented by at least one of the manganese deposits of the district, the 

Stonewall deposit, which has an elongate form that apparently plunges 

steeply southwest; the Piedmont deposit (Campbell County) is also 

elongated downward, but plunges steeply westward. · 

Interpretations of the significance of these lineation trends in terms 

of direction .of movement must be used with caution, because information on the trends and age relationships of these structures is inadequate, due to the fact that the relative ages of cleavage and lineation were not distinguished and recorded in the field mapping. More 

careful observation and more complete statistical analyses of these 

e,tructural elements are needed for satisfactory interpretation of the 

structural movements. Nevertheless, it is probably safe to assume 

from the present data that the lineation trending nearly parallel to 

the regional strike and plunging gently northeast or southwest is 

approximately parallel to the regional fold axes, or the tectonic axis, b. 

T·he more steeply plunging lineation represented by elongated minerals and pebbles that streak the cleavage planes and by the axes of 

some small folds is doubtless parallel to at least one direction of 

movement. However, this group of steeply plunging lineations is not 

at right angles to the gently plunging lineation, as seems to be the 

case in many areas (see the treatise on lineation by Cloos, 1946), but 

is usually at an angle of 40° to 60° in the plane of cleavage. This 

relationship suggests that during one stage of the regional deformation, the compressive stresses were directed toward the major structural trends in an oblique direction. 

FOLDS AND FAULTS 

Recognition of faults and most of the major folds of the region is 

based mainly upon the regional strike and dip, the outcrop pattern of 

lithologic units, and the juxtaposition of lithologic units in s:uch a 

manner as to indicate a fault; few large-scale folds and faults have 

been observed directly in the field. The general structure of the 

Evington rocks is interpreted to. consist of tight, isoclinal folds that 

have been faulted by high-angle reverse faults which have sheared 

out the western limbs of the anticlines. This conclusion is based upon 

the distribution of lithologic units of the Evington group along persistent northeast-trending belts with southeasterly dips, the repetition 

of these lithologic units from west to east across the strike several 

times in the following sequence-members of Archer Creek forma-
GENERAL GEOLOGY 33 

tion, members of the Mount Athos formation, and greenstone, and the 

common occurrence of small-scale drag folds which indicate that each 

repeated group of formations is on the eastern limb of an anticline. 

If this structural interpretation is correct, the rock units on the 

eastern side of most faults (commonly members of the Archer Creek 

formation) are older than the rocks on the western side of the faults 

(usually greenstone). The interpretation of the stratigraphic sequence 

of the Evington group is based upon this assumption. Structural 

features and age relations of this character are rather typical of the 

folded belts of known Paleozoic rocks in the Appalachians and lend 

support to the interpretation of apparently similar structures in the 

Evington group. Nevertheless, the writer realizes that the small drag 

folds, upon which are based the structural and stratigraphic interpretations, may have a completely false relationship to the larger folds. 

It is quite possible that these small drag folds, nearly all of which 

indicate anticlinal axes to the west, were superimposed indiscriminatingly on eastern and western limbs of folds alike in the late stages 

of deformation. The structural and stratigraphic interpretations 

favored by the writer may be incorrect; the Candler formation may be 

the youngest in the Evington group, and the· greenstone the oldest. 

Structural hiterpretations based upon the two possible orders of stratigraphic sequence a1·e shown in plate 1. 

The axial planes of the major folds, and the reverse faults probably 

dip southeasterly at high angles. Without doubt, the axes of some of 

these large folds are nearly horizontal over long distances, because the 

limbs of the folds are essentially straight for several miles. On the 

other hand, it is probable that broad areas of quartzite are formed by 

plunging folds; examples are Cove Mountain, Round Mountain, Chestnut Mountain, Jack Mountain, and Scott Mountain (pl. 1). 

Rather small, tight folds in the bedding (with axial planes several 

inches to 5 or 10 feet apart and with steeply plunging fold axes) are 

fairly common, particularly in the blue marble member of the Archer 

Creek formation and in the folded complex of quartzite and greenstone 

on Wreck Island Creek. In this latter area, the tight minor folds 

present in nearly all outcrops show a consistent relationship between 

the strike direction of the limbs and axes of individual folds (northerly) and the directional trend of the bedding within a group of folds 

(northeasterly). These patterns in individual outcrops are the basis · 

for the inferred zig-zag nature of the contacts between quartzite and 

greenstone, as shown in plate 1. The contacts are quite definitely offset 

between exposures, and close folding instead of cross faulting seems 

the most logical explanation. Similar zig-zag contacts caused by 

steeply plunging, tight folds are inferred in the Riverville area, in 

blue marble near the head of Flat Creek, and in quartzite in the vici:nity 

of the Bell mine. Small scale recumbent folds with nearly horizont~l 
34 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

axes are found on the eastern edge of the area along Troublesome 

Creek in the southern part of the district, and along Bent Creek, 

within a mile of its mouth, in the northern part of the area. 

The rocks of the Evington group have undergone considerable faulting during deformation; certain contacts between lithologic units are 

obviousfaults, and certain other contacts are interpreted as faults (pl. 

1}. The high-angle reverse faults that slice the isoclinal folds have 

been discussed above. Gently dipping contacts between schist and 

underlying quartzite and greenstone along the eastern side of the district, between Wreck Island Creek and David Creek, are probably lowangle thrusts. It is probable that the contact east of the mouth of 

Bent Creek dips about 5 to 15 degrees southeast, because·its irregular 

trace conforms to the rolling topography. This probable thrust is 

well exposed in a road cut on U. S. Highway 60, east of Bent Creek; 

the contact is undulating, and crushed quartzite with greenstone lenses 

is infolded in the mica schist. 

Faulting has undoubtedly taken place along the contact between the 

fissile phyllite of the Candler formation and the massive Lynchburg 

gneiss, throughout the 60-mile extent of that contact along the western 

edge of the district. The phyllite typically becomes more highly deformed as the contact is approached; this is obvious at various places, 

especially along the northern bank of the James River, east of Lynchburg, and along the Otter River, where early cleavage in the phyllite 

is strongly folded and sliced by slip cleavage near the contact. However, it is uncertain whether the phyllite has been thrust fo:r; a great 

distance onto the Lynchburg gneiss, as postulated by Jonas and Furcron, or whether the amount of movement may have been much less. 

Jonas (1929, p. 507-508; 1932, p. 3-4,32-34, pl.1} believes that the formations here called the Evington group (her Glenarm series), have 

been thrust westward 15 to 20 miles as a great nappe upon the Lynchburg gneiss and other rocks of the Catoctin-Blue Ridge anticlinorium; 

this view is evidently accepted by Furcron (1935, p. 52). This great 

thrust sheet is judged by Jonas to be the southwestern extension of the 

Martie thrust block originally mapped in southeastern Pennsylvania. 

To the northeast of Lynchburg, the Martie thrust sheet is considered 

by Jonas and Furcron to have later been faulted downward against 

Lynchburg gneiss by the Catoctin Border fault; Jonas (1932, pl. 1) 

·shows the Martie overthrust to be unaffected by normal faulting southwest of Lynchburg. 

So far as the writer has been able to determine from study of this 

contact between the phyllite of the Candler formation and Lynchburg 

gneiss along a distance of 60 miles, this contact is structurally uniform over the entire distance. No evidence was found to support the 

view that it is disturbed by normal faulting northeast of Lynchburg 

but not to the southwest. Jonas' conception of a nappe, thrust west-
lJENERAL GEOLOGY 35 

ward for 15 or 20 miles, depends to a large extent upon her interpretation that the belt of phyllitic rocks (Candler formation in this 

report), lying structurally upon the Lynchburg gneiss, represents 

gneisses and schists (originally of fairly high metamorphic grade) 

that were reduced to a lower metamorphic grade by retrogressive 

metamorphism resulting from profound movement along the sole of 

a great thrust. Therefore, she views these rocks as phyllonites, formed 

by mylonitization. The writer, on the other hand, has found no evidence that the rocks of the Candler formation are phy llonites in this 

sense, but instead, believes them to be normal phyllites of low Inetamorphic grade, and doubts very much that vast thrust movements 

have taken place within the area. It seen1s quite probable that the 

parent muddy sediments of the Candler formation were originally 

deposited on the Lynchburg gneiss. If so, the amount of fault movement between the Candler formation and Lynchburg gneiss may have 

been relatively slight, and in the nature of large-scale bedding faults 

or slippage between lithologic units of contrasting competency during 

deformation. 

The evidence of a later period of faulting and fracturing after the 

1najor deformation of the region is indicated by normal faults cutting the Triassic sedimentary rocks and by Triassic diabase dikes. 

Each of the five areas of Triassic sedimentary rocks at the northern 

end of the district is bordered on the west side, and several are bordered 

on the east side, by a normal fault. The fault along the west side 

of the largest area of Triassic rocks is exposed along a small tributary 

of the Rockfish River. Green Triassic shales and phyllite of the 

Candler formation are mashed and deformed within 25 feet of the 

fault, and gash veins, 1 foot thick, of quartz with carbonate masses, 

occur in the Triassic rocks. The normal faults bordering the Triassic 

basins have the same northeasterly trends as the structures of the 

metamorphic rocks, and it seems probable that normal faulting has 

occurred here along ancient faults or zones of structural weakness. 

Diabase dikes occur in two groups, one in the northern part of the 

district, and the other in the southern part. Their trend is usually 

a little west of north; this direction is a common trend for Triassic 

diabase dikes in the Piedmont province and is probably the result 

of certain unknown structural conditions of wide extent. No offset 

is discernible between beds on the two sides of the dikes. The fissures 

now occupied by the dikes apparently were tension fractures that 

were widened by intrusion of the diabase magma. The dikes do not 

cut the Triassic sedimentary rocks within the area of plate 1, but a 

· diabase dike intruding Triassic sedimentary rocks near Boiling 

Springs, about 7 miles northeast of the Rockfish River, is mentioned 

by Roberts (1928, p. 44; pl. 4), and diabase intrusions in the Triassic 

sedimentary rocks are very extensive in northern Virginia (Roberts, 
36 GEOLOG~ OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

1928, pl. 1) . It is reasonable to assume, therefore, that the diabase 

dikes in this area south of the Rockfish River are younger than the 

'rria.Ssic sedimentary rocks. It is quite probable, also, that the dikes 

are younger than most of the normal fault movements that affected 

the Triassic sedimentary rocks. In the vicinity of Norwood, along 

the strike of the normal faults bordering the Triassic basins, the faults 

in the metamorphic rocks are cut at numerous places by dikes. Only 

one dike in the area (near Buffalo Springs) shows any signs of displacement by faulting, and this dike could be along a fracture that 

had previously been offset by faulting. A number of dikes end 

abruptly at faults, whereas other nearby dikes extend across the same 

faults. 

Furcron ( 1935, p. 52-53, pl. 1) concluded that diabase dikes in the 

nrea are commonly offset by normal faults, but the writer's observations are definitely contrary to this view. Furcron also shows anumber of normal faults cutting across the strike of the metamorphic 

rocks, and states (1935, p. 53) that the most conspicuous example of_ 

this type of fault is near Gaits Mills. No large-scale cross faulting 

was recognized in the present study ; the disappearance of the Mount 

Athos formation and greenstone south of Gaits Mills seems to be due 

to a plunging fold with thrust faults along. its limbs (pl. 1). 

One of the most structurally complex places in the area is in the 

region of Wreck Island Creek and Riverville. Some of the details of 

this ~rea shown on plate 1 involve considerable interpretation, and 

may be incorrect, but it is believed that the general nature of the area 

and many of the details are correctly shown. Broadly speaking, it 

appears that the complexity of this area is due to localized cross-folding along trends more northerly than the older regional strike on 

which it was superimposed. Thus, extensive folding and thrusting 

seem to have taken place prior to the cross-folding. This folded belt 

athwart the general strike is not continuous between the Wreck Island 

Creek area and the Riverville area, but is interrupted by the quartzite 

belt of Gowans Hill which is not folded. No cross folding was recognized northwest of the Riverville area in the Candler formation or 

in the. Lynchburg gneiss. 

The structure in the southern part of the district between Evington 

and Altavista is also complicated and incompletely understood. 

Rather fine-grained gneissic rock, believed to be Lynchburg gneiss, is 

exposed in two domal structures, each surrounded by greenstone (pl. 

1). Cleavages in the gneissic rock and in the overlying greenstone dip 

outward from the centers of the domes. Decipherment of the structure 

is dependent upon determination of the true age relationship between 

the greenstone and the gneiss, and between the greenstone and the 

schist and quartzite lying between the domes and to the north of them. 

If the stratigraphic sequence here favored is correct, the structures 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 37 

may be as shown in sections CC', and DD', and EE' in the left hand 

column of plate 1. The greenstone around the domes would then be 

the youngest formation of the Evington group, and the Lynchburg 

gneiss would have been thrust or punched up through all the older 

formations of the Evington group. If the -reverse stratigraphic order 

is correct, the greenstone would then be overlying the Lynchburg 

gneiss of the domes in normal sequence, and should be older than the 

quartzite composing Scott Mountain. However, due to the fact that 

greenstone overlies the quartzite on the southwestern side of the mountain, this would mean that the quartzite and the schist and marble 

north of the mountain were in a recumbent fold (pl. 1, sections CC' 

and DD', right hand column) ; no features to suggest the existence of 

such a large recumbent fold were found in mapping this area. It will 

be noted that, in accordance with the structural interpretation following either stratigraphic order, the larger dome of Lynchburg gneiss is 

thrust westward over phyllite of the Candler formation (pl. 1, sections 

R'E') . Either interpretation makes it possible that the greenstone 

arch 3% miles east of Evington is underlain at depth by Lynchburg 

gneiss (pl. 1, sections CC'). 

The greenstone surrounding the arch of Lynchburg gneiss northwest 

of Rustburg (pl. 1, sees. BB') is interpreted in both sections to be 

lying on the gneiss with normal depositional contact; the interpretation that the gneiss is punched up into greenstone (the youngest 

formation of the Evington group) could also have been made in the 

left hand section BB', plate 1. 

The stratigraphic interpretations of the extrusive origin and possible ages of the greenstone overlying the domes and archs of Lynchburg 

gneiss represent the simplest relationships. As pointed out under the 

discussion of the age of the Evington group, the greenstone surroundjug the domes might either be intrusive, or extrusive, with strat~graphic 

relationships different from those considered in plate 1. Such conditions would require modification of the structural interpretations 

made in plate 1. 

REGIONAL STRUCTURE 

The general structure of the entire district is probably synclinal, 

with the belt of rocks of the Evington group occupying a trough 

underlain by Lynchburg gneiss. This idea was originally expressed 

by Brown ( 1941) . The three domes of Lynchburg gneiss lend support 

to this view that Lynchburg gneiss underlies the belt. Furthermore, 

tight buckling of the rocks of the Evington group within a long, 

narrow, and relatively deep synclinorium would seem to be one of the 

most likely mechanisms by which the long isoclinal folds, sliced by 

high-angle reverse faults, could have originated .. If the regional 

structure is synclinal, and if the phyllites and schists of the Candler 

formation form the base of the Evington group, then the occurrence 
38 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

of abundant phyllite and schist at the northern end of the district 

suggests that the axis of the syncline is rising toward the northeast. 

Jonas and Stose (1939) have concluded that the Lynchburg gneiss, 

and the complex of igneous and metamorphic rocks that makes up the 

Blue Ridge farther west are exposed in a large anticlinal structure 

which they call the Catoctin Mountain-Blue Ridge anticlinorium. 

The probable syncline enclosing the Evington group lies along the 

eastern side of this anticlinorium. 

METAMORPHISM 

CHARACTERISTICS OF REGIONAL METAMORPHISM 

The principal mineralogical changes induced in the rocks by re-

. gional metamorphism consist of recrystallization of some of the original sedimentary minerals, such as carbonates and detrital quartz and 

feldspar, and the formation of such new minerals as muscovite, chlorite, chloritoid, biotite, garnet, staurolite, epidote, and hornblende. 

The factors that have primarily determined what new minerals were 

formed in these rocks have been the bulk chemical compositions of 

the rocks and the temperature and pressure conditions during metamorphism. The effects of mineral zoning, due to variations in the 

intensity of temperature and pressure conditions that accompanied 

metamorphism in this region, are best displayed in the rocks of argillaceous composition, which are the most abundant and widespread 

class. The different metamorphic types derived from argillaceous 

rocks are characterized by the following assemblages of index minerals: chlorite-muscovite (with chloritoid in places), biotite-muscovite, and garnet (with staurolite locally) . Rocks with the chemical 

composition of quartzite, marble, and greenstone have little variety 

in their mineral content, and zonal arrangement of the mineral assemblages has not been developed, or has been developed very poorly. 

These last-named rocks are therefore less important than the argillaceous rocks for an understanding of the metamorphic history of the 

region; they are described below, prior to discussion of the argillaceous rocks. 

In rocks of quartzitic composition, the varying intensity of the 

metamorphic processes is best recorded in the texture. Recrystallization of quartz has taken place universally, most commonly to a mosaic 

texture with sutured grain boundaries; original pebbles are still preserved in some of the least deformed conglomeratic rocks, whereas 

the most highly deformed quartzite beds are essentially mylonites. 

Muscovite is the most co1nmon mineral accompanying quartz and has 

formed from the argillaceous material of the original sediment. Chlorite is a rare constituent of some quartzite beds, and garnet is found in 

small quantities in other quartzite beds. Variable amounts of feldspar (usually albite) and carbonates are present depending upon the 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 39 

primary composition of the sediment. The accessory minerals, apatite, tourmaline, aild zircon, appear to be of detrital origin. 

In marbles, the intensity of deformation is again most comn1only 

recorded by textural or structural features. Bedding persists, and 

the texture is fine-grained in the least deformed beds of the blue marble member of the Archer Creek formation; highly deformed marble 

of the Mount Athos formation is coarse grained and has irregular 

color streakings that are relicts of bedding. Calcite has been recrystallized, and muscovite is the most widespread new mineral developed. Light brown biotite and chlorite may be present in the same 

rock; tremolite is found in some areas of higher metamorphism. 

Original detrital minerals are quartz, apatite, and zircon. Small 

amounts of sulfides (usually pyrite in blue marble) and chalcopyrite 

(in white marble) are common. 

The greenstones are mostly fine- to medium-grained hornblendic 

schists. with some moderately coarse gneisses. All types are characterized by hornblende, epidote, and albite; chlorite is also an essential mineral of some greenstone. Ragged flakes of biotite are very 

common, and are nearly always altered or partly altered to chlorite. 

Apatite, magnetite, and ilmenite are characteristic accessory minerals. 

Only incidental mention can be made here of metamorphism in the 

Lynchburg gneiss and associated soapstone because of the very limited studies made of these rocks. In the Lynchburg gneiss, biotite 

is a characteristic mineral, and garnet is common. Along the northeastern and southern contact of the largest dome of Lynchburg gneiss, 

quartz-muscovite schist, with garnets sheathed in chlorite, is exposed 

at intervals. Numerous chlorite flakes in the schist are relict from 

biotite, but it is not certain whether the chlorite surrounding the garnets has replaced garnet, or whether it has replaced biotite that previously enveloped garnet. Principal minerals in the metamorphosed 

peridotite or soapstone are tremolite and chlorite (usually two varieties); talc and carbonate are abundant in som.e of the soapstones. 

Consideration is now directed toward the argillaceous rocks, represented mainly by the phyllites and schists of the Candler formation, 

the mica schists of the Mount Athos formation, and the biotite-garnet 

schists with some staurolite that are on the eastern edge of the mapped 

area between Altavista and Rustburg; the graphitic schists are also 

included as a special variety. :Mineral zoning in these rocks is best 

developed in the central part of the district in the latitude of Lynchburg and Rustburg, where argillaceous rocks along the western side 

of the district are characterized by chlorite-muscovite (indicative of 

low -grade metamorphism) , those in the middle by biotite, and those 

·along the eastern side by garnet, and locally staurolite. Similar zoning appears to be developed in the southern end of the district, but the 

picture is obscured by the domes of Lynchburg gneiss and by the fact 
40 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

that the biotite zone is not as distinct. In the northern third of the 

district, argillaceous rocks predominate, but the ·chlorite-muscovite 

zone extends the full width of the district. Thus, the characteriStic 

biotite-bearing schist member (the Pelier schist of Brown, 1951) of 

the Mount Athos formation, which is widely developed in the central 

part of the district, is not found in the area of low-grade metamorphism to the north. 

The phyllites and schists in the chlorite zone are typically composed 

of chlorite, muscovite, quartz, and -albite forming a fine-grained matrix; some varieties have abundant epidote or zoisite. Accessory minerals are. tourmaline, zircon, and apatite, probably all of detrital origin; magnetite, leucoxene, and tiny rutile crystals may be present. 

Chloritoid is a common constituent of some beds, usually as small 

crystals 1 to 2 millimeters in size, but occasionally as large as 5 to 8 

millimeters, lying transverse to the cleavage. This mineral is commonly developed in low-grade metamorphic rocks of argillaceous composition. Various workers have pointed out that chloritoid is probably formed in those rocks with an abundance of alumina and a high 

iron oxide content, and that ·staurolite may form in beds of similar 

composition under more intense conditions of metamorphism (Harker, 

1932, p. 213-214, 224-227). The formation of chloritoid in chloritemuscovite schists of the Pennsylvania Piedmont may have been partly 

favored by shearing stresses, as well as by chemical composition, according to Hietanen ( Cloos and Hietanen, 1941, p. 119-123, 152). 

Argillaceous rocks in the biotite zone are characterized by a matrix 

of quartz, albite and muscovite, and by porphyroblasts of biotite lying 

transversely to cleavage and generally partly altered to chlorite. Epidote and zoisite are commonly present, and minor amounts of chlorite 

may be found in the matrix. The usual accessory minerals of probable 

detrit8.I origin are tourmaline, zircon, and apatite; leucoxene and 

magnetite were not recognized and have possibly been destroyed during the formation of biotite. Small red garnets are occasionally present, and mark the appearance of the garnet zone; such rocks with very 

minor garnet content, however, are not designated as garnet schists 

on plate 1. ·The graphitic schists ·have similar mineral composition, 

but are characterized by abundantly disseminated, very fine-grained 

graphite; pyrite is also usually present. Garnets are more common 

than in the argillaceous rocks, but appear to be the pinkish manganiferous variety that is formed under conditions of lower grade metamorphism than almandite, according to Harker (1932, p. 217-218) 

and others. 

Crystals of red garnet 3 to 5 millimeters in size, with quartz, muscovite, and biotite, are abundant in the higher grade garnet zone along 

the eastern side of the district; here also, the biotite may be partly or 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 41 

wholly altered to chlorite. Staurolite is present in some beds in the 

form of crystals as large as 2 centimeters. 

PROGRESSIVE METAMORPHISM OR RETROGRESSIVE METAMORT•HISM 

The mineralogical changes in the argillaceous rocks (described 

above) from chlorite-muscovite phyllites and schists on the west, 

through biotite-muscovite schists, to garnet-staurolite schists on the 

east, have been interpreted by earlier workers, Jonas (1932, p. 7-11, 

32-37} and Furcron (1935, p. 55), as the result of retrogressive metamorphism. They regard the low grade chlorite-muscovite schists 

along the entire western side of the district as having been formed 

from higher grade schists and gneisses by retrogressive metamorphism 

induced by profound movement along the base of a great thrust sheet. 

According to their views, the effects of retrogressive metamorphism 

diminished eastward from the base of the supposed thrust sheet ; the 

biotite-mu·scovite schists would thus have been less affected by retrogressive metamorphism than the chlorite-muscovite schists. Their 

interpretations are based on the assumption that the two sets of 

cleavage c·ommonly present in the schists were formed during two 

different periods of regional metamorphism, the earlier cleavage during pre-Cambrian time, and the later cleavage accompanying over-

. thrusting during the Appalachian revolution. Observed alteration to 

chlorite and muscovite of biotite, garnet, and staurolite are interpreted as the result of retrogressive metamorphism attending the late 

Paleozoic thrusting. 

The writer, on the other hand, has not found evidence for such 

large-scale thrusting, and interprets the mineral zoning as indicative 

of progressive metamorphism. Several sets of cleavages are commonly 

developed in regionally metamorphosed terranes, and do not necessarily signify several periods of deformation or metamorphism of 

widely different ages. Two sets of cleavage are present in much of 

the Piedmont area of Pennsylvania and Maryland studied by Cloos 

and Hietanen (1941, p. 72, 135-136, 1.82-185); they concluded that 

only one period of deformation and metamorphism had taken place. 

In the James River area, the development of two cleavages seems 

t.o be primarily a function of the physical properties of the rocks, because two cleavages are commonly present in phyllite and schist, but 

usually only one cleavage is developed in quartzite, marble, and greenstone. Therefore, it seems doubtful, that the two sets of cleavage in 

the schists mentioned in this discussion were formed during two 

widely separated orogenic periods, that is, in pre-Cambrian and late 

Paleozoic time. 

The other evidence of retrogressive metamorphism cited by Jonas 

and Furcron, alteration of high-grade metamorphic minerals to lower 

283201-54-4 
42 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

grade minerals, has been observed in this district by the writer as 

alteration of biotite to chlorite (a rather common and widespread 

feature), and as garnet crystals sheathed in chlorite (found only 

locally in a restricted part of the district). These 1nineralogical 

changes are indeed retrogressive in character, but the cause need not 

necessarily be related to very large-scale thrusting, as advocated by 

~Jonas and Furcron. Instead, the widespread alteration of biotite 

to chlorite in this district, and the local alteration of garnet (or possibly biotite sheaths surrounding garnet) to chlorite, might have been 

caused by hydrothermal solutions, as suggested by Hietanen in the 

Pennsylvania-Maryland area (Cloos and Hietanen, 1941, p. 135-136), 

or might represent adjustments to lower temperatures in the waning 

stages of regional metamorphism, as discussed by Harker ( 1932, 

p. 348-349). 

Strong evidence in favor of progressive metamorphism is the fact 

that at numerous places within the chlorite and biotite zones of 

metamorphism, bedding is preserved as siliceous layers in blue marble 

and as color banding in the phyllites; no bedding was seen in staurolite-garnet schists. The presence of bedding in low-grade phyllites, 

schists, and marbles, and its absence in high-grade schists is convincing proof that the low-grade rocks had never attained a higher 

grade of metamorphism. If the low -grade rocks were phy llonites 

retrogressive from high-grade schists, their bedding would certainly 

have been destroyed at the higher stages of metamorphism and would 

no longer be visible. 

The retrogressive metamorphism that has occurred therefore appears to have been a relatively mild process that has slightly modified 

the minerals and mineral zoning developed during progressive metamorphism. A full understanding of the metamorphic history of 

these rocks requires study of a much larger region than the area concerned here. Granitic intrusions are found about 12 miles east of 

the district, and pegmatite and kyanite deposits are numerous 10 to 15 

miles farther east (Jonas, 1932). The metamorphic features of the 

James River district can be completely understood only in the light 

of the metamorphic history of this larger region. 

CONTACT METAMORPHISM 

Contact metamorphis1n is restricted to the country rocks in a narrow 

zone along the Triassic diabase dikes. Because of poor exposure, the 

effects have been observed at only a few localities; the best exposed 

locality is on the road along Partridge Creek, about half a mile northwest of Stapleton. The diabase dike here is about 100 feet thick. 

Phyllite at a distance of llh feet from the dike is tan in color, dull in 

luster, and has a poor schistosity. Abundant dark greenish-brown 

spots, 1 to 2 millimeters in size, are present; some of the spots were 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 43 

determined under the microseope to be composed of sericite, and others 

were determined to be of chlorite and biotite. Similar spots are developed in the rock 11 feet from the contact, but the rock is darker 

in color and has the typical lustrous sheen of the phyllites. No effects 

of contact metamorphism were observed at a distance of 20 feet from 

the dike. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 

DESCRIPTION O:E' PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES 

The physiography of the area is characterized by two varieties of 

surface forms and drainage patterns. The surface of part of the region is a dissected, rolling upland with dendritic drainage, occasionally 

grading into areas of elongated ridges and valleys having rectilinear 

or trellis drainage. These different kinds of surface and drainage features are thought to be reflections of two stages in the sculpturing of 

the land surface by stream action. The rolling upland seems to represent an old erosion surface or peneplain that has been uplifted and is 

now partly dissected by present streams. Where erosion has been sufficiently vigorous since uplift, linear ridges and valleys with northeasterly trends have been carved in the belts of Evington rocks in which 

beds of contrasting resistance to erosion alternate across the strike. 

Quartzite and some types of schist form ridges, .and marble and the 

weaker schists are cut into valleys. 

The widespread, rolling upland is the most prominent physiographic 

feature of the district, and is well shown on the old 30-minute sheet of 

the Lynchburg quadrangle with 100-foot contour intervals. On the 

new 15-minute sheet of the: Lynchburg quadrangle (having 20-foot 

contours and showing the northeast quarter of the area of the old map) 

the rolling upland is not as readily apparent in the belt of Evington 

rocks. Linear ridges and valleys are common in the area draining into 

James River, but in the area of Lynchburg gneiss farther west, dendritic drainage prevails and linear ridges and valleys are absent. The 

upland ranges from altitudes of about 700 to 1,000 feet; quartzite and 

schist ridges rise above the surface, and streams and rivers are dissecting it. Altitudes of the upland surface reach a maximum, between 

900 and 1,000 feet, along that part of the watershed ·of the James and 

Roanoke Rivers that extends west and northwest of Rustburg. The 

nature and extent of the rolling upland are easily determined when one 

travels the old country roads that follow the interstream divides. 

Exposures of fresh rock are scarce on the upland. The soil mantle 

is cornmonly no more than a few feet thick, and passes downward 

through red clay into the clayey residuum of highly weathered rocks. 

Fragments of the n1ost resistant types of rock are present in the soil, 

such as iron-stained pieces of quartzite, vein quartz, tough mica schist, 

.and pieces of limonite and hard manganese oxides. The highly weath-
44 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

ered rock beneath the soil cover has usually been altered to a clayey 

material, in which the structures of the parent r.ock are usually well 

preserved. These relict structures and other characteristics may serve 

as aids in the identification of the parent rock. Mica schists are usually weathered near the surface to a schistose, pinkish mixture of 

clayey material and interspersed fine mica, passing downward into tan 

or gray decomposed schists. White marble commonly yields a residue 

of chocolate-brown clayey loam, and the blue marble weathers to a stiff 

blue-gray or greenish, micaceous clay. The original foliation of the 

two kinds of marble generally is absent in the weathering residuum. 

Greenstone weathers, as a rule, to light green or brown, punky material that breaks into blocky fragments with surfaces covered with 

very thin manganese oxide coatings. Calcareous quartzite weathers 

to characteristic porous blocks stained with limonite or manganese 

oxides. This highly weathered rock material that generally retains 

some of the structures and textures of the original rock is known as 

"saprolite." It is a distinctive geologic feature of the southern Piedmont province, and the geologist working in the region must learn to 

recognize the different kinds of saprolite and correlate them with the 

rocks from which they were derived. A general account of saprolite 

in the region is given in the paper by Pardee and Park (1948, p. 24-27) 

on gold deposits in the Piedmont. 

The depth to which weathering extends is highly variable, and is the 

result of a number of factors, such as the original mineral composition 

of the rock, its structure and texture, and the action of ground watP .... 

and erosion processes during different stages of the physiographic 

history. In this area, decomposed schists are exposed to depths of 30 

to 50 feet in numerous railroad and highway cuts. Mining operations 

have shown that weathering extends still deeper, because weathered 

rock and residual clay have been found at depths of over 200 feet at 

the Piedmont mine (Campbell County), and more than 300 feet at the 

Leets mine; however, within a few hundred feet ol each mine fresh 

marble is exposed at higher elevations in the stream beds. The decayed rock found with the manganese deposits in depth was probably 

formed by ground waters circulating along deep, restricted channelways. 

Some of the most prominent and persistent ridges in the district are 

composed of phyllite and schist of the Candler formation; best examples are the series of three ridges along the western side of the 

district (Johnson Mountain, Candler Mountain, and Buffalo Ridge), 

and a series of unnamed lower ridges along the eastern border of the 

district between Beaver Creek and Bent Creek. Most of the quartzite 

belts form ridges or mountains rising above the upland surface; the 

more prominent ones are Mount Athos, and Jack, Round, Chestnut, 

and Scott Mountains. Linear valleys are usually cut into the upland 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 45 

along belts of marble, either as short tributary streams, or as northeasterly trending intervals several miles long in the courses of major 

streams, such as stretches along the course of Beaver, Opossum, Flat, 

and Stonewa11 Creeks. Exposures of fresh rock are found in nearly 

all stream valleys. 

One of the most interesting physiographic features in the region 

is the abrupt change in the course of the James River a short distance east of Lynchburg where it turns from the southeasterly course 

it had taken for 25 miles front the Blue Ridge, and flows northeasterly 

for nearly 50 miles (airline distance) to Scottsville, where it again 

turns toward the southeast. The northeasterly course of the river 

here has obviously been controlled by the northeastern trending belts 

of weak and strong rocks of the Evington group, across which the 

river swings in broad meanders. The course of the river is first deflected toward the northeast by the quartzite ridge at Mount Athos, 

and for over 15 miles (airline distance) to the northeast, the river 

meanders back and forth across schist, marble, and greenstone to the 

west of the Mount Athos belt of quartzite, and cuts into that quartzite 

belt af only three places. Beyond Allen Creek, the river cuts through 

the same quartzite belt, and. from there, it wanders across almost 

the full width of the belt of :Evington rocks until it reaches the area 

of Triassic rocks near Howardsville. From there, it continues northeast across Triassic and metamorphic rocks to Scottsville, where it 

once more turns toward the southeast and crosses the Piedmont. 

Along the stretch of river bet.ween Mount Athos and Scottsville, the 

larger streams entering the :river are on its western side where the 

drainage basin between the James and the crest of the Blue Ridge is 

about 25 miles wide, as compared with a drainage basin of only 3 to 

10 miles in width on the eastern side of the river. 

The gravel deposits resting upon terraces and intermeander spurs 

along the valleys of the James, Roanoke, and Otter rivers, as described 

above, are remnants of extensive gravel sheets originally deposited 

on the river flood plains when they were at higher elevations. Deposits of gravel on the river bluffs just east of Lynchburg are 150 

to 220 feet above the bed of the James River, which has an altitude 

of 480 feet near Mount Atlws. Thus, the surfaces of the higher 

gravel deposits are at altitudes of about 700 feet, or 200 to 300 feet 

below the level of the upland surface of the divide between the 

James and Roanoke river drainage basins. Among the most recent 

physiographic features of alluvial origin are the low, broad terraces 

on the floodplains of the rivers and larger streams. 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC HISTORY 

In order to gain a proper perspective and understanding of the 

development of the physiographic features within this area, the gen-
46 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

eral physiographic :features and history o:f the entire Piedmont 

province, the neighboring Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, and the 

Coastal Plain provinces, must all be considered. Our know ledge o:f 

the physiographic history o:f these regions is incomplete, however, 

because :few physiographic studies have been made in the Piedmont, 

and unsolved problems remain in regard to the history of physiographic events in both this and the adjoining provinces. The principal views on the erosional history o:f the Atlantic slope as reviewed 

below will aid in understanding the origin o:f physiographic :features 

of the James River-Roanoke River district. · 

The basis for modern concepts of the physiographic history of 

the eastern United States was first outlined by Davis (1890), who 

concluded that two widespread peneplain surfaces were recognizable 

throughout much of the region. In the folded Appalachians, he be~ 

lieved the nearly level crests of sandstone ridges to be remnants of 

a peneplain formed in Cretaceous time at the culmination of a long 

erosion period during the Mesozoic, and further believed that the 

broad, rolling valleys on limestone and shale represented a younger 

peneplain of Tertiary age. He believed the present drainage ~stem 

to have been entrenched on the Tertiary peneplain following the 

uplift of the entire region. The rolling surface of the Piedmont to 

the east of the Blue Ridge was considered to represent the Cretaceous 

peneplain, because it passed eastward beneath Cretaceous sediments 

of the Coastal Plain. The elevation of this surface gradually declines eastward from an altitude of at least 1,000 feet;along the base 

of the outlying spurs of the Blue Ridge west of Lynchburg, to an 

altitude of about 200 feet at the Fall Line, 80 miles east of Lynchburg, where the crystalline rocks are overlapped by Coastal Plain 

sediments. 

A few years later, Hayes and Campbell (1894) gave a comprehensive account of the geomorphology of the southern Appalachians, in 

which they agreed with most of Davis' views, and showed by contours on small-scale maps the uplifted and deformed Cretaceous and 

Tertiary peneplains which they believed had been strongly warped 

by differential uplift along longitudinal and transverse axes. However, they thought (1894, p. 85-86; pl. 6) that the Piedmont surface 

represents a Tertiary peneplain instead of an erosion surface developed during the Cretaceous, as Davis had concluded. 

Various refinements and modifications of these ideas, consisting 

Inostly of the recognition and correlation of intermediate erosion surfaces, were offered subsequently by other workers. The older of the 

Inajor peneplains has become known as the Schooley or Kittatinny 

peneplain, and the younger surface as the Harrisburg, Shenandoah, 

or Valley peneplain. Outstanding among the new ideas was the 

theory suggested by Shaw (1918), and later elaborated by Johnson 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 47 

(1931), that both major peneplains must be Tertiary in age, because 

the erosion surface beneath Cretaceous sediments of the Coastal Plain 

projects upward to the west to heights well above the remnants of 

the older peneplain. The most recent descriptive account of the Blue 

Ridge-Piedmont provinces has been given by Wright (1931). An 

important concept of his work is the correlation-with the Harrisburg peneplain-of surfaces that differ considerably in elevation, such 

as the floor of the Shenandoah Valley, the Piedmont, extensive rolling 

uplands in the Blue Ridge, and large local basins in the Great Smokies 

and southern Blue Ridge. He explained the difference in elevations 

between these various surfaces as being caused chiefly by differences 

in the base-level of erosion of the several drainage basins, rather than 

by differential uplift of the peneplain. Wright does not assign any 

age determinations to the Schooley and Harrisburg peneplains. 

The physiographic history of the region is reflected not only by the 

physiographic features, but also by the record of sedimentation of 

the Coastal Plain formations of Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary 

age. In fact, the sedimentary record is more revealing and shows 

that the sea level in the Chesapeake Bay region has varied much more 

than is suggested by the physiographic features of the Piedmont. 

During the Cretaceous period, sediments of continental origin were 

deposited extensively on the Coastal Plain. A great transgression 

of the sea occurred during Eocene time, and glauconitic marine sediments were deposited as far west as the present edge of the Coastal 

Plain, and perhaps even farther west. Clark and Miller (1912, p. 

213) state: "The great amount of glauconite present in these fonnations indicates that the adjacent landmass must have been low and 

flat so that the streams carried only small amounts of terrigenous 

materials." 

Sediments of Oligocene and early Miocene age do not occur in the 

region, thus indicating that these were periods of widespread uplift 

and erosion. Beginning in middle Miocene time, the region was 

again downwarped and a series of sediments was deposited that now 

extends to the western edge of the Coastal Plain. A period of uplift 

followed in Pliocene time, when the drowned valleys of Chesapeake 

Bay and its tributary rivers were eroded ( StephGnson, Cooke, and 

Mansfield, 1932, p. 11-14); the region was again submerged at the 

close of the Pliocene. During Pleistocene time, the sea level fluctuated by several hundred feet; it was lowest during the stages of glaciation and highest in the interglacial stages, when the water from the 

melted ice had returned to the sea. 

The physiographic history of the James River-Roanoke River district may now be examined with these general concepts of the physiographic and sedimentary record in mind. The oldest event that can 

be recognized with confidence is recorded by the rolling, upland sur-
48 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

face, underlain by deeply decayed rock; these features evidently were 

developed during a long period of peneplanation. Near the end of 

this period, erosion was at a minimum, and solution and rock decay 

prevailed. The higher ridges projecting above this surface, such as 

Candler Mountain, Round Mountain, and Jack Mountain, and others, 

may be remnants of an earlier peneplain, or may simply have been 

hills of more resistant rock. No direct evidence on the time of development of the upland surface has been found within the district, but 

various lines of indirect evidence suggest early Tertiary time as the 

period of peneplanation. Hewett ( 1916, p. 43-47) has expressed the 

view that the manganese deposits probably were formed either during 

the later stages of peneplanation, or immediately following uplift of 

the peneplain. He points out further that manganese deposits along 

the west foot of the Blue Ridge also occur in the residuum of highly 

decayed rocks at elevations several hundred feet above present drainage levels, and that beds of lignite containing fossil plants of Tertiary 

age have been found associated with residual iron deposits in Pennsylvania and Vermont. These facts lead him to suggest the possibility 

that many of the manganese and limonite deposits of residual origin 

in the east may have been formed during the same general period, 

probably in early Tertiary time, when the land surface had been 

reduced to a peneplain over wide areas, and deep rock decay and 

solution were favored by warm, moist climatic conditions. 

Some years ago, Adams ( 1927) suggested that bauxite deposits 

in the Coastal Plain, and Valley and Ridge provinces of the southeastern states had been formed during the early Tertiary, and Bridge 

(1950) has recently presented new facts and interpretations derived 

from the Geological Survey's wartime studies of these bauxite deposits, 

which give additional support to Adams' theory. Present knowledge 

and interpretation of the origin of these bauxite deposits as discussed 

by Bridge are discussed briefly, as follows: Bauxite deposits are associated with clay lenses of sedimentary origin at the contact between 

the Midway (Paleocene) and Wilcox (Eocene) groups in the Coastal 

Plain of Georgia and Alabama. Bauxite deposits are also found jn 

sink holes and in the residuum of early Paleozoic magnesian limestone at a numbe.;r of places in Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, and 

Virginia. kt two· bauxite deposits of this type in Alabama and 

Georgia, plant fossils have been found in clay and have been identified 

as early Tertiary, or possibly Cretaceous, in age (Bridge, 1950). 

Bridge believes that the bauxite deposits in the limestone sinkholes 

and residuum, like the ones in the Coastal Plain sediments, were 

formed from deposits of transported, finely divided aluminous sediments. He concludes that all of the bauxite deposits were formed 

during the same period (at a time when the region had been reduced 

to a peneplain, erosion was slight, and rock decay was promoted by 
GENERAL GEOLO~GY 49 

warm, moist climatic conditions). Bridge believes that the bauxite 

deposits in the Appalachian valley region were formed during the 

Harrisburg time of peneplanation, because they occur slightly below 

the general surface of the Harrisburg peneplain (probably because of 

post-Harrisburg erosion), and therefore concludes that the Harrisburg peneplain is early Tertiary in age. 

These various items of evidence concerning conditions and time of 

origin of the bauxite, residual manganese, and limonite deposits in 

the Valley and Ridge province, seem consistent with one another, and 

strongly suggest that these deposits originated during the same period 

of widespread peneplanation (Harrisburg) under favorable climatic 

conditions. It seems reasonable to assume that these conditions also 

prevailed in the Piedmont province, and that the deeply weathered 

upland surface and manganese deposits in the James River-Roanoke 

River district were likewise formed during the same general period, 

probably in early Tertiary time. 

The time of the peneplain development evidently was ended by a · 

widespread regional uplift (involving the whole Atlantic slope) that 

rejuvenated the erosion power of the streams and rivers and permitted 

them to start dissection of the peneplain. In this district, the James, 

Otter, and Roanoke Rivers have entrenched themselves in valleys 200 

to 300 feet below the general level of the upland surface. Entrenchment of streams and rivers to comparable depths below the Harrisburg 

peneplain has occurred at many places in the Piedmont, Blue Ridge, 

and Valley and Ridge provinces. At different stages in the dissection 

of the upland surface in this area, sheets of gravel were deposited in 

the river floodplains, and are now preserved as deposits of pebbles and 

cobbles, mantling spurs and terraces as much as 200 feet above the 

river level. The gravel material is well rounded and composed mostly 

of quartzite and sandstone resembling the different quartzites and 

sandstones of early Paleozoic age that comprises the ridges in the 

Valley and Ridge province to the west. Similar gravels are found 

much farther east in the Piedmont near the Coastal Plain along the 

James, Potomac, and other rivers in Virginia and neighboring states, 

and also to the west, and along the edges of the Shenendoah Valley. 

Evidently, at some stage or stages during the dissection of the Harrisburg peneplain, a large amount of very coarse material was carried for 

distances as much as several hundred miles from its source. 

The gravel deposits in the eastern Piedmont and the Coastal Plain 

have been studied by a large group of investigators; the most recent 

and comprehensive work in Virginia was done by Wentworth (1930). 

He described the gravel deposits as terraces at six different, general 

elevations (the gravels in the highest and westernmost terrace being 

the oldest, and the terraces becoming progressively lower and younger 

easterly toward the coast). The oldest gravels, known as the Brandy 
50 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

wine, are assigned to the Pliocene age by Wentworth, and the younger 

gravels are termed Pleistocene. The classification was based on the 

fact that the younger gravels have large, striated boulders that ( according to Wentworth) were ice-rafted in Pleistocene rivers; on the 

other hand, such boulders are absent in the Brandywine gravels. 

King (1949a) has recently given an account of gravel deposits in the 

Shenandoah Valley near Elkton, Va., where the gravels occur on three 

general surfaces or benches that rise in step-like fashion above the 

present river level to the foot of the bordering mountains. Beneath 

the gravel capping (as thick as 140 feet in one place, and 175 feet in 

another), is the clayey residuum of shales and calcareous rocks containing manganese oxides, which is considered to be the partly eroded 

and buried mantle of decayed rock on the Harrisburg peneplain. 

King believes that the gravels were deposited in Pleistocene time, 

probably during rather arid periods in interglacial stages when the 

mountains were exposed to erosion because of scant vegetation cover. 

It is probable that the terrace gravels in the James River-Roanoke 

River district were deposited during the same period as gravels in the 

Shenandoah Valley to the west and the fluviatile gravels in the upper 

terraces farther east in the Piedmont. The best age classification of 

the gravels in this district seems to be either Pliocene or Pleistocene. 

The period of the establishment of the northeasterly course of the 

James River cannot be determined, but the remnants of terrace gravel 

as high as 200 feet above its present channel indicate that the river 

has followed this general trend during much of the time since uplift 

of the Harrisburg peneplain; it is quite possible that the ancient James 

River may also have meandered northeasterly in this area during the 

development of the Harrisburg peneplain. 

The most recent stage in the erosion cycle is marked by alluvial 

flood plains and flats in the valleys of the rivers and larger streams. 

MINERAL DEPOSITS 

TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION 

The principal mineral deposits of the district are manganese, iron, 

and barite; nearly all are in or near beds of the Mount Athos formation. The distribution of these deposits is shown in plates 1 and 2. 

The manganese deposits contain manganese oxide minerals that were 

formed by ground water action. Limonitic iron deposits also were 

deposited by circulating ground waters; specular hematite deposits 

are believed to be sedimentary ferruginous beds that have been metamorphosed. Barite occurs as veins in marble, and as masses in the 

overlying soil and residuum; its origin is obscure. Copper sulfides 

and oxidized copper minerals are found in minor amounts in various 

types of rocks. Quartz veins are widespread and are usually barren, 
MINERAL DEPOSITS 51 

or practically barren, of other minerals; tourmaline is present in some 

quartz veins nad ilmonite in others. 

MANGANESE DEPOSITS 

MINERALOGY 

The manganese minerals are heavy manganese oxides of the "psiloInelane type", and the soft, lightweight manganese oxide, wad. The 

heavy manganese oxides are generally composed of mixtures or intergrowths of several manganese oxide minerals; species identified from 

the deposits of this region are cryptomelane, psilomelane, and pyrolusite. Quartz, mica, clay, and chert are the principal gangue 

1ninerals. 

MANGANESE OXIDES 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

The manganese oxide minerals of this district exhibit a variety of 

forms and differ in their physical appearance, color, hardness, and 

specific gravity, as well as in their chemical composition and crystalline structure. The name, "psilomelane", has generally been applied 

by previous workers to the hard, heavy varieties, commonly having 

dense textures and nodular forms. Heavy manganese oxides with 

visible crystalline structure, usually friable, have been called "pyrolusite" ; soft, lightweight mixtures of fine-grained manganese oxides 

and clay have been named "wad". These terms have been merely 

convenient field names, however, and have not signified distinct mineral species; similar usage has been followed in classifying manganese 

oxide minerals of residual manganese deposits elsewhere. 

Studies of the complex mineralogy of the manganese oxides by 

Fleischer and Richmond (1943) of the Geological Survey, by X-ray, 

chemical analyses, and other means, have provided new data on chemical and physical properties that clarify the identification of these 

minerals and establish the existence of several new species and varieties. This work has demonstrated that (in many cases) the manganese oxides are difficult or impossible to identify by simple qualitative chemical tests or microscopic examination, either because several 

1ninerals are present in fine-grained intergrowths, or because certain 

species show variations in chemical or physical properties. 

Fleischer and Richmond now recognize 21 species of 1nanganese 

oxide minerals. Four minerals of this group-braunite, cryptomelane, psilomelane, and pyrolusite-are the most common and are 

known to occur widely throughout the United States. Specimens of 

manganese oxides from several deposits in this district (submitted to 

Fleischer and Richmond for study) were found to contain cryptomelane, psilomelane, and pyrolusite; these species are described below. 

Fleischer and. Richmond (1943, p. 271-272) discuss the problem of 
52 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

naming the manganese oxides, pointing out that the term "psilomelane" has been widely used for any hard, massive, unidentified 

manganese oxide mineral. They say, 

This usage is doubtless convenient in the field, where it is generally impossible 

to determine the mineral or minerals present, and some collective term is needed. 

However, as stated below, the term "psilomelane" should not be used in this 

sense, but should refer to only one of the several distinct minerals hitherto 

grouped under this designation. 

The following rules of nomenclature are recommended: 

(1) Massive, hard, heavy material not specifically identified should be referred to as belonging to the "psilomelane type". This term is to be understood 

to include several distinct minerals or mixtures of them, and no chemical formula 

should be given. 

(2) Massive, soft material of low apparent specific gravity, not examined in 

the laboratory, should be referred to as "wad". Such material also may be any 

one of several distinct minerals, may be a mixture, or may be unidentifiable and 

no chemical formula should be given. 

( 3) Definitely identified minerals should be named * * * 

According to these recommendations, all the heavy manganese oxides of the deposits in this district should be classed as the "psilomelane type" of minerals, and the soft, lightweight mixture of manganese oxides and clay should be termed "wad". Both types are present 

in about equal abundance, apparently, but only the heavy psilomelano 

type minerals have been recovered in mining operations. Charact~"··· 

istics of these minerals are described below. 

PSILOMELANE TYPE 

The heavy manganese oxides of these deposits show a wide range in 

their physical appearances. Judging :from the results of Fleischer 

and Richmond's study of a :few samples from different localities, it is 

probable that several mineral species are commonly present as mixtures or intergrowths. Nodular or botryoidal :forms are the most 

common. Some are cellular masses, whereas others are clusters of 

small rounded particles (ranging :from the size of shot to that of 

grapes), irregular lumpy aggregates, or slab by masses with rounded 

or discoidal protuberances. Color is typically bluish-black, hardness 

about 5 or 6, and the texture dense; tiny platy crystals are commonly 

scattered through the dense matrix. Some specimens consist largely 

of material with visible crystalline structure. A concentrically 

layered structure may be evident in the denser varieties in which 

thin shell-like layers of slightly different color and grain size alternate, thus giving a finely banded appearance. The forms described 

above are those usually found where the enclosing material ("country 

rock") is clay, chert, decomposed mica schist or calcareous quartzite. 

In many instances, these nodular manganese oxides have a flattened 
MINERAL DEPOSITS 53 

shape that evidently is the result of preferred growth along relict 

foliation planes of the decomposed rock. Scattered quartz grains and 

mica flakes are nearly always present in the manganese minerals. 

Dense-textured oxides also occur in hard, relatively fresh· rock, as 

fracture fillings in quartzite, or as the matrix in a breccia of quartzite 

or vein quartz . 

.A less abundant form of the heavy manganese oxides has a massive 

or blocky, layered structure, a somewhat bluer color than the nodular 

forms, a fine powdery texture, and is friable enough to soil one's hands 

with a bluish smudge. This variety appears to occur principally as 

thin seams in wad, but it also forms disseminations in quartzite at a 

few places; it has generally been called "pyrolusite". 

Common impurities of the heavy manganese oxides are quartz, mica, 

and possibly other silicate minerals derived from the country rock and 

enclosed in the manganese oxide minerals during their growth. Son1e 

iron is usually present also, but it is not known whether it is a com-· 

ponent of the manganese minerals or whether it is in an admixed iron 

mineral. Limonite is rarely recognized in the manganese deposits, 

although it is a widespread mineral in the district and occurs at a 

number of localities in deposits of appreciable size within a few hundred feet of manganese deposits. Barium has been found to be a constituent of the manganese oxide minerals from several deposits ; it is an 

essential component of the mineral psilomelane, as discussed below. 

WAD 

Soft, brown to black manganese oxides, of apparently low specific 

gravity and rather high moisture content, occur at numerous localities, as mixtures with clay, sand, or mica, or as seams interlayered 

with seams of clay and decomposed mica schist. The mineralogy of 

these manganese oxides has not been studied. 

DISTINCT MINERAL SPECIES 

The three mineral species identified in the heavy manganese ores 

of the district by Fleischer and Richmond are described below: 

O'f'Yptomelane.-The chemical formula provisionally assigned to 

cryptomelane is KRsOts( n, in which R is chiefly Mn (tetravalent), 

and may also be Mn (divalent), Zn, and Co. Two to four percent of 

nonessential water may be present. Cryptomelane was identified in 

samples of nodular ore from the Bell, Mortimer, and Piedmont mines 

in Campbell County. In the Bell mine specimen, the hard portion of 

the ore was found to be cryptomelane; the rest of the material was 

undeterminable. The sample from the Mortimer mine was almost 

Bntirely cryptomelane; the specimen from the Piedmont mine was 

found to consist of breccia fragments of cryptomelane in a matrix of 

pyrolusite. 
54 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Psilomelane.-The formula, Ba~018 .2H 0 ( ~), is given as the provisional composition of psilomelane; R is chiefly Mn (tetravalent), 

and also Mn (divalent) and Co. Psilomelane was identified in ore 

specimens from the Hancock-Ferguson mine. and the Pribble mine. 

The psilomelane in both specimens forms feathery aggregates of small 

prismatic crystals with a bluish-gray steely luster resembling a common variety of pyrolusite; apparently, this is a rather rare form of 

psilomelane. Partial analysis of the specimen from the Pribble mine 

showed 49.1 percent Mn, 14.03 percent BaO, and 0.63 percent Si02 

(M. Fleischer, analyst). Psilomelane probably is an important constituent of the ores of the Stonewall mine also, because a car load of ore 

from there is reported to have analyzed 8.76 percent BaO. It is not 

known whether this ore showed a crystalline structure similar to thA 

Hancock-Ferguson and Pribble specimens. 

Py1•olusite.-The formula is Mn02 , usually with a little nonessential water. Pyrolusite was found in nodular ore from the Piedmont 

n1ine as the matrix to cryptomelane fragments, and in nodular orP 

:from the Stonewall mine. 

GANGUE MINERALS 

Quartz, chert, mica, and clay are the principal gangue minerals 

associated with the manganese oxides; they were derived through 

weathering of the country rocks, either as resistant, relict minerals 

(quartz from quartzite and quartz veins, mica from schist, quartzite, 

and marble), or as secondary minerals (chert and clay). Quartz and 

mica are disseminated through the manganese oxides at nearly every 

deposit in the district. The manganese minerals evidently have grown 

in decmnposed quartzite or micaceous rock, the disseminated quartz 

and mica representing unreplaced portions o:f the rock or rock residuum. Manganese oxides also occur as dissen1inations in decomposed 

quartzite, perhaps representing initial stages of replacement. Angular· 

breccia fragments of hard quartzite or vein quartz are found with 

the manganese oxides of some deposits; the manganese minerals appear to have filled open spaces as a cementing matrix. 

Yellow to brown micaceous clay is the typical material enclosing the 

nodular oxides of these deposits. The clay generally occurs in seams 

conformable to the foliation of the country rocks and may have a 

banding parallel to the foliation, owing to variations in color or· 

quartz-mica content. The clay is believed to have been derived from 

decomposition of marble, calcareous schist, or quartzite. 

Nodular manganese oxides are found in a m.atrix of yellow to brown 

chert or jasperoid at numerous deposits. This association, which has 

not previously been reported from this district to the writer's knowledge, is so common that experienced prospectors consider chert (with 

or without manganese minerals) as a favorable guide to ore. The 
l\1INERAL DEPOSITS 55 

chert usually forms masses or seams as much as several feet thick 

within yellow to brown clay. Small cavities lined with tiny white 

quartz crystals may be present in the chert. Age relations of the 

manganese oxide nodules and the chert have not been determined, so 

it is not known whether the nodules grew within chert, or possibly 

gelatinous silica, or whether they grew in marble or clay that was 

later replaced by chert. 

Carbonate minerals in the form of white marble have been found in 

more than half a dozen deposits as undissolved relicts of the calcareous 

beds interbedded with the quartzite and mica schist members of the 

Mount Athos formation throughout the district. White marble at 

the Piedmont and Pribble mines is streaked with brown carbonates, 

and the marble at the Lucas mine has irregular streaks of pink carbonate. The white marble is always manganiferous, as are the brown 

and pink carbonates; partial analyses of white marble from different 

localities range from 0.11 to 0.85 percent MnO. These manganiferous 

carbonates are believed to have been the source of the manganese 

released through weathering to form the manganese oxides. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Every manganese deposit in the district is associated with the Mount 

Athos formation. As already mentioned, calcareous beds in the Mount 

Athos formation have a small, but persistent, manganese content, and 

it is thought that the deep weath~ring of these beds has resulted in 

the formation of the manganese oxide deposits; this subject is discussed in more detail in the section on the origin of the deposits. Distribution of manganese deposits and quartzite and white marble are 

shown in plate 2. It will be seen that manganese deposits are not found 

uniformly throughout the district where quartzite and white marble 

occur. In the northern third of the district, manganese deposits are 

scarce and largely restricted to a narrow belt about 5 miles long near 

Warminster, although the Mount Athos beds seem to be almost as 

extensively distributed here as elsewhere in the region. Most of the 

deposits are in Campbell and Appomattox Counties between the mouth 

of Wreck Island Creek and the Roanoke River, a distance of about 

40 miles. In this part of the area, 1nanganese deposits seem to occur 

principally where the Mount Athos beds are calcareous and are absent 

from some larger areas of quartzite that are apparently non-calcareous. 

White marble of the Mount Athos formation is known to occur southwest of the Roanoke River in Pittsylvania County where several manganese deposits have been found, but very little mining has been done. 

STRUCTURAL FEATURES 

The four principal modes of occurrences of manganese oxides are: 

1. Nodules and masses of psilomelane-type oxides in seams of clay, 
56 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

chert, or decomposed rocks, conformable to the dip of bedding or 

cleavage which is usually steep. 

2. Psilomelane-type oxides forming coatings or fillings in cavities 

in fractured rock, as in open fractures and as the matrix in a breccia 

of quartz and quartzite fragments. 

3. Wad mixed with clay and in seams interlayered with clay or 

decomposed rock conformable to the bedding or cleavage. 

4. Residual concentrations of psilomelane-type minerals in the red 

clay soil over lying eroded manganese deposits. 

The deposits that have been most productive are those with nodular 

or lumpy oxides of the psilomelane-type in seams of clay, chert, or 

decomposed rock, generally along a contact of quartzite with mica 

schist or marble, dipping steeply and conformable with the enclosing 

rocks. Such manganiferous zones are locally known as "leads." The 

clay seams are the product resulting from the decomposition of calcareous beds or mica schist by ground water; the bedding or foliation 

of the parent rock is preserved in the clay as color banding or micarich layers. In some deposits, the nodules or masses of the psilomelanetype mineral are distributed along certain planes of this relict bedding 

or foliation and may have a flattened form parallel to the layering, 

which evidently is due to preferential grQwth along these planes. 

The lumps of ore range from the size of peas to masses weighing 

several hundred pounds. The amount of manganese oxides is small 

in proportion to the clay in most depo$its, but parts of the ore bodies 

of the Piedmont and Saunders mines are said to have been practically 

massive manganese oxides with only minor amounts of clay. 

One wall of the manganiferous zone, usually the hanging wall, 

is generally composed of quartzite; the other wall may be mica schist 

or marble. The quartzite is . commonly porous and leached due to 

solution of interstitial calcite by ground waters. Mica schist may be 

decomposed to a soft aggregate retaining its physical appearance as 

a schist, or it may be completely weathered to micaceous clay. Marble 

weathers to clay also, but where it is protected from ground water 

solution, it is preserved as fresh solid rock, as in the footwall of the 

Piedmont deposit (pl. 6). Blocks of decomposed quartzite or schist 

may be intermingled in the clay as a breccia that has probably been 

formed by the spalling off of rock fragments into solution cavities 

with formation of a rubble whose interstices are later filled with clay 

and sand. 

The manganiferous lenses have trends conformable in strike and dip 

to contacts and bedding. At least one deposit, the Stonewall, plunges 

in the same direction as the lineations in the country rock. It seems 

probable that there was an original structural feature at this point, 

perhaps a plunging fold, along which the deposition of manganese 

oxides was favored. The Piedmont deposit (pl. 6) also appears to 
MINERAL DEPOSITS 57 

plunge steeply, with elongation of the ore body in the direction of 

plunge. This apparent relationship between the plunge of ore shoots 

and the plunge of linear structures in the country rock may be found 

to be a rather common characteristic of the deposits; knowledge of 

these relationships should be a helpful guide in exploration and 

mining. 

The ore-bearing clay seams are seldom over 6 feet thick, nor more 

than several hundred feet long. The thickest ore body found is the 

Piedmont (pl. 6), which had a maximum thickness of about 30 feet; 

the longest ore body known is the Saunders deposit which is said to 

have been about 900 feet long with a barren interval of about 100 feet. 

Maximum depth of the deposits is determined by the depths to which 

ground waters were able to circulate; these depths seem to be from 

300 to 400 feet for some deposits, but they may be shallower for others. 

The Leets deposit was followed to a depth of 312 feet below its outcrop, and the Piedmont or Myers ore body _was worked to a depth 

of about 240 feet without reaching the lower limits of manganese 

oxide mineralization. At the Piedmont mine, a deep drill hole beneath 

the lowest workings found perfectly fresh quartzite and marble with 

no manganese oxides at a depth of 367 feet below the surface; presumably, the bottom of the ore body lies somewhere l?etween the lowest 

mine workings and this intersection of the quartzite-marble contact, 

that is, between 240 and 367 feet beneath the surface. 

At some localities, psilomelane-type minerals occur as the coatings 

or fillings of cavities in fresh or fairly hard rock, hut such occurrences 

seem to be small and of no commercial importance. Principal examples of this type are breccias composed of angular fragments of 

quartzite or vein quartz in a matrix of manganese oxides. Fractures 

in quartzite that are coated or filled with manganese oxides are common. Porous quartzite may be impregnated rather uniformly with 

manganese oxides, as at Chestnut Mountain, the Theresa, and Dews 

deposits. 

Wad deposits are composed of seams of soft, greasy, brown to black 

wad, usually containing disseminated sand or clay, interlayered with 

yellow, white, or red clay or decomposed quartzite. The original 

foliation or bedding of the country rock (which was probably highly 

calcareous in most instances) may be preserved as alternating seams 

of wad and clay having uniform steep dips. In some deposits the wad 

and clay seams are highly contorted because of slumping and compaction of the rock residuum; the Dews mine (fig. 14) is an example of 

this type. Friable, granular, manganese oxides of the type previously 

termed "pyrolusite" occur as stringers or seams in many wad deposits; 

on the other hand, the nodular type of oxides, which is so common in 

yellow clay seams, is very scarce in wad. 

283201-54-5 
58 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Erosion and weathering of the manganese deposits have resulted in 

some residual concentration of the hard psilomelane-type minerals in 

the red clay surface mantle overlying the deposits. The heavy manganese minerals have gradually accumulated in the soil cover as erosion 

progressed. The amount of ore concentrated in this fashion is usually 

negligible compared to the size of the underlying ore body, and the 

layer in which there has been residual concentration of manganese 

oxides may be only one or two feet thick. However, exceptionally rich 

concentrations of ore were found in the soil and residual clay mantles 

over the Cabell and Bugley deposits. 

GRADE OF ORE 

Grade of ore, as used here, refers to manganese oxide-bearing materials, whether they are of commercial value or not. The only type of 

ore that has been of commercial importance in the past is the hard 

nodular or lumpy oxides type that occurs in yellow or brown clays. 

Manganese oxides intimately associated with abundant siliceous material (quartzite, quartz, or chert), and the soft, fine-grained wad 

type of ore have not been of value because beneficiation of such ores 

is difficult or costly. 

The grade of the nodular oxide-clay ore must be considered from 

two viewpoints, namely, the manganese content of the mixture of 

nodular oxides and clay as it occurs in the ground, and the chemical 

composition of the nodular oxide concentrate after the clay has been 

washed away. There is not much information in regard to the grade of 

ore in the ground, but an indication of the range of grade is given by 

the concentration ratios of ores from two deposits in the district, the 

Piedmont (Campbell Co.), and the Stonewall. According to Hewett 

(1916, p. 52), the yield of lump oxides or washed ore from the Piedmont mine ranged from 1j3 to o/a the weight of the mine dirt; therefore, 

the corresponding manganese content would range from about 15 to 30 

percent. At the Stonewall mine, the average recovery of washed ore 

was found to be about YJ. 5 the volume of the mine dirt, or probably 

about ¥1 2 the weight; manganese content of the mine dirt would be 

about 3.5 percent. The nodular oxide content of the Piedmont ore is 

certainly exceptionally high for the district; the content of the Stonewall ore seems to be fairly typical of most of the deposits. 

Information on chemical composition of concentrates or washed 

ore is available for shipments from 6 mines, and is tabulated below: 

Average Range Washed ore 

(percent) (percent) (long tons) 

Manganese_____________________________ 43.3 40.4 to 50.2 1, 021 

Iron_---------------------------------- 5. 1 1.9 to 5. 5 863 

Silica- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 12. 3 7. 0 to 20. 6 863 

Phosphorus content of the nodular ores is variable. The average 

content of 101 tons shipped from the Stonewall mine was 0.159 per-
MINERAL DEPOSITS 59 

cent P. Analyses of picked samples of hard ores from several other 

deposits range from 0.087 to 0.254 percent P. 

Information on the grade of other types of manganiferous Jnaterials, or "ores," is given below. Selected samples of siliceous ore 

(manganese oxides disseminated in quartzite) from Chestnut Mountain contained about 21 percent :Mn, 4 percent Fe, and over 40 percent Si02 (Furcron, 1935, p. 107). Manganiferous limonite from 

the McGehee mine contained 12.4 percent Mn, 41.5' percent Fe, and 

8.5 percent Si02 Wad ore from Chestnut Mountain contained 11.63 

percent Mn, 29.13 percent Fe, 29.04 percent Si02, and 0.214 percent 

P (Furcron, 1935, p. 107). A 100-pound sample of wad ore taken by 

the Bureau of Mines from the Columbia manganese deposit (old 

Mortimer mine) analyzed 8.8 percent Mn, 3.4 percent Fe, 41.9 percent 

Si02, and 0.42 percent P (Montgomery, 1949, p. 6). In 1952, the 

Defense Materials Procurement Agency contracted with a private 

firm to sample and make beneficiation tests of the wad ores of this district. Large channel samples were taken of wad ores by means of 

hand-dug trenches and bulldozer trenches at the following places: 

Mays (loc. 35, pl. 2), Wright (loc. 41, pl. 2), Piedmont (Campbell 

County), Lindsay, Pribble, and Dews. Partia\ analyses of these 

samples are given below. 

Partial analyses of typical wad ores 

[in percent] 

Sample Mn F'e Si02 AhOa P CaO MgO Pb 

----------1----------------

A _____ ------- _________ ------ ____ ----- 5. 37 15. 52 47. 61 3. 00 B____________________________________ 5. 95 11.10 47.84 8.48 c____________________________________ 6. 52 8. 84 69.55 3. 49 

D----------------------------------- 6. 72 20.06 37.01 8.42 E_________________________________ ___ 6. 91 20.42 40.72 8. 72 

F ------------------------------------ 7. 29 18. 51 40.21 3. 57 

G ___ ------------------------------- _ 9. 48 27. 56 17.54 7. 72 H----------------------------------- 11.30 23.24 29.50 4.93 

ORIGIN 

GENERAL STATEMENT 

0.54 .0.06 

.35 .09 

.38 .06 

.39 .07 

.32 .11 .59 .08 

.46 .25 

.34 .21 

0.26 

.64 

.03 

.01 

.04 

.23 

.18 

.07 

0. 76 

.07 

.10 

.24 

.48 

.59 

.03 

.04 

J\ilost of the features relating to the origin of the manganese deposits 

have already been me~tioned, but they are summarized here as a preface to a more complete discussion of the genesis of the deposits: 

1. The concentrations of manganese oxides occur only in decomposed rock material and evidently were formed during, or following, 

the period of weathering that caused rock decay. Manganese was 

dissolved from the country rock by circulating ground waters, and was 

transported and deposited in rock residuum as manganese oxides. 

2. The manganese deposits are normally restricted to the residuum 

of one formation, the Mount Athos; only minor amounts of manganese oxides occur with other formations. Calcareous beds of the 
60 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Mount Athos formation usually have a small content of manganese, 

apparently present as manganese carbonate of sedimentary origin; 

these beds are believed to have been the chief source of manganese 

dissolved by ground waters. 

3. Ground water circulation seems to have been most active in the 

calcareous quartzite beds of the Mount Athos formation because of 

the increased permeability resulting from solution of interstitial carbonates. Ground water movement, attended by deposition of manganese oxides, has reached depths of several hundred feet below the 

ground water table by circulation along restricted channelways in 

steeply-dipping beds. 

4. The outcrops of most deposits are on the upland, above the present drainage system, and it appears that the manganese deposits were 

formed during an earlier erosion cycle, probably in Tertiary time. 

OCCURRENCE OF MANGANESE OXIDE MINERALS IN ROCK RESIDUUM 

The intimate association in this region of manganese oxide minerals with decomposed rock material was recognized years ago; this 

aSsociation has generally been accepted as signifying that the deposits 

were formed by ci!culating ground waters and that the manganese 

was dissolved from the country rock, transported, and deposited as 

manganese oxides in the rock residuum. (Watson, 1907, p. 238; 

Harder, 1910, p. 46-47; Hewett, 1916, p. 43-60). The numerous manganese oxide and limonite deposits elsewhere in the Appalachian region, particularly along the west foot of the Blue Ridge, also have 

been thought to be of similar origin. 

The additional information on the nature of the deposits, which was 

gathered during the present study, is in harmony with the theory of 

origin by circulating ground waters. Present evidence pointing to 

this origin is briefly as follows: 

1. The manganese oxide minerals are most abundantly associated 

with decomposed rock material, generally micaceous or sandy clay. 

2. The manganese minerals commonly show evidence of having 

grown by replacement of the enclosing clay. Psilomelane-type minerals commonly contain quartz or mica particles, and occur as flattened masses along layers parallel to the relict bedding or foliation of 

the country rock; seams of wad are also inter layered with clay seams 

parallel to this relict structure. 

3. Manganese oxides have coated and replaced quartzite and quartz 

in the zone of weathering, and occur as coatings and fillings in fractures, as the matrix of breccias, as disseminations in porous quartzite 

(whose porosity is evidently due to ground water leaching), and as 

a thin rind on quartz fragments in the soil cover. 

4. Massive manganese oxide minerals have not been found in fresh 

quartzite or marble unaffected by ground waters (as could be expected 
MINERAL DEPOSITS 61 

if the manganese oxides had origil).ally ·been deposited in the parent 

sediments or had been formed during regional metamorphism or by 

hydrothermal solutions). An item of especial interest here is given 

hy the data of a deep drill hole at the Piedmont mine (No. 1, pl. 6), 

which encountered perfectly fresh quartzite and white marble with 

no manganese oxides at a depth of about 130 feet beneath the lowest 

mine working; manganese oxides had been found in abundance with 

decomposed rocks from the surface to the bottom of the mine. Manganese oxide nodules occur in porous or crumbly quartzite at several 

localities, but at these places the quartzite has obviously been thoroughly decomposed by ground waters. Nodules are present in massive 

brown chert or jasperoid at numerous places, and it might be' argued 

that both the chert and the manganese minerals were deposited in the 

original sediments. However, this type pf chert, both manganiferous 

and non-manganiferous, is associated with clay, and has never been 

observed to occur in fresh, unweathered rock; this is regarded as evidence that the chert also was deposited by circulating ground waters. 

It is interesting that jasperoid of apparently very similar character 

is associated with the manganese deposits in the residuum of the Shady 

dolomite in northeastern Tennessee, and is thought by King, Ferguson, Craig, and Rodgers (1944, p. 22-24), to be supergene replacement 

of the dolomite. 

The process of solution of manganese from the country rock during 

weathering, its transportation in ground water, and deposition as 

manganese oxides is a common phenomenon, and has been the subject 

of considerable investigation. Detailed discussions of the problem 

are given by Stose-, Miser, Katz, and Hewett (1919, p. 54-56), Zappfe 

(1931), Hewett (1932), and Savage (1936). There appears to be 

general agreement that the following three processes have taken place 

in the formation of such manganese oxide deposits. 

(1) Solution: Percolating ground water containing free carbonic 

acid is probably the most common agent capable of dissolving manganese from the country rock. 

(2) Transportation: Manganese is possibly carried in solution in 

the carbonated ground waters as manganese bicarbonate. However, 

Hewett (1932, p. 579) suggests that manganese in waters carrying 

organic matter exists as a hydrosol that is stabilized by organic 

colloids. 

(3) Precipitation: Precipitation of manganese oxides may be 

caused by several agents, such as thread bacteria, free oxygen, limestone, and by the catalytic effect of previously formed Mn02 (one of 

the best agents according to Zappfe). The acidic ground waters must 

become neutral or slightly alkaline in order to permit precipitation of 

manganese oxides. 

In this district, the manganese oxides commonly replace clay, quartz-
62 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

ite, and brown chert, and either replace or coat vein quartz. They 

have not been found in similar association with marble, as might be 

expected if marble had acted as an important precipitating agent. 

This association of manganese oxides with quartz and clay minerals 

is a common one in the southeastern deposits and is found in many 

of the manganese deposits along the west foot of the Blue Ridge. 

There seems to be a particular affinity of the manganese oxides for 

silica and clay minerals, and the question may be raised as to whether 

these minerals play a part in the precipitation of manganese oxides. 

The subject seems to deserve some experimental research. 

ASSOCIATION OF MANGANESE DEPOSITS WITH THE MOUNT ATHOS FORMATION 

The present study has ascertained that every known manganese 

deposit in the area is associated with the Mount Athos formation, and 

that only minor amounts of ·manganese oxides are found with other 

formations. This association naturally indicates genetic significance 

in the weathering theory of origin, and it may be assumed that the 

Mount Athos formation either originally contained the manganese 

that was provided to the ground water, or that it has characteristics 

especially favorable for the circulation of ground water. It now appears that the Mount Athos formation possesses both these features. 

The calcareous members of the formation have been found to contain 

manganese in amounts that are small but appear to be significantly 

greater than the quantities of manganese found in other formations; 

furthermore, the manganese is probably present as a carbonate mineral which would be readily soluble in ground waters. The calcareous 

beds of the Mount Athos formation appear to have aided ground 

water circulation by virtue of their relative solubility. This seems to 

be particularly true of the calcareous quartzite beds, which become 

highly porous after leaching of the interstitial calcite by ground 

water. 

In order to discover the original source of the manganese, qualitative blowpipe tests for manganese were made of fresh, unweathered 

specimens of the different rock types of the region during the course 

of the field studies. Manganese was found to be present in practically every specimen of white marble or calcareous quartzite from 

the Mount Athos formation. It should be mentioned here that according to Harder ( 1910, p. 38), a suggestion was made by Watson 

years ago that the black manganiferous earth, or "umber", associated 

with the manganese deposits in this area, was residual from crystal· 

line limestone. Specimens from the other important calcareous beds 

of the area, the blue marble member of the Archer Creek formation, 

were found to give only a few, weak reactions for manganese. A 

little manganese had previously been found in the graphitic schist 

member of the Archer Creek formation by W. R. Brown (oral com-
MINERAL DEPOSITS 63 

muni,cation) during his field investigations in the Lynchburg quadrangle. Blowpipe tests by the writer proved this association to be 

fairly widespread; the garnets that are occasionally present in the 

graphitic schist were found to be manganiferous. 

Specimens of the two predominant types o:f manganese-bearing 

rocks, calcareous beds of the Mount Athas :formation and graphitic 

schists o:f the Archer Creek :formation, were analyzed :for manganese 

in the chemical laboratory o:f the Geological Survey, with the re-

~ults given in table 2. The total MnO content o:f white marble :from 

the Mount Athas :formation was :found to range :from 0.11 to 0.85 

percent in the specimens analyzed. Most o:f the manganese contained 

in the white marble is in a :form that is soluble in 10 percent HN03, 

presumably as a manganiferous carbonate. The three samples o:f 

g-raphitic schist :from the Archer Creek :formation were :found to contain :from 0.036 to 0.161 percent total MnO; the greater portion o:f 

this is in a :form not soluble in 10 percent HN03, probably as a 

manganiferous silicate. 

TABLE 2.-Manganese content of calcareous beds of Mount .Athos fot·mation and 

graphitic schist member of Archer Greek formation 

{Samples 1-5, 16-18 analyzed by Joseph M. Axelrod; samples 6-15 analyzed by Charlotte M. Warshaw] 

Description of sample 

Mount Athos formation 

1. White marble, Pribble mine----------------------------------------------- 2. Brown carbonate veins in above marble sample, Pribble mine ____________ _ 

3. Pinkish carbonate, Lucas mine-------------------------------------------- 4. White marble along C. & 0. R. R. near Gladstone _______________________ _ 5. White and tan marble, Piedmont mine, Campbell County ________________ _ 6. White marble from stream near Bishop mine 2 ____________________________ _ 

7-15. White marble from drill hole 1, Piedmont mine, Campbell County s ______ _ 

7. From 359 to 359Y2 feeL----------------------------------------------------- 8. From 362 to 363 feet _______________________________________________________ _ 

9. From 370Y2 to 371 feeL-----------------------------------------------------

10. From 372Yz to 373Y2 feeL--------------------------------------------------

11. From 376 to 377 feet-------------------------------------------------------- 12. From 381 to 382 feet-------------------------------------------------------- 13. From 386 to 387 feeL------------------------------~-----------------------

14. From 390Y2 to 391Y2 feeL-------------------------------------------------- 15. From 485 to 486Y2 feet------------------------------------------------------

Archer Creek formation 

16. Graphitic schist, tributary to Stonewall Creek, just SW. of Stonewall mine __ 17. Graphitic schist, Tardy Creek near Scott Mountain ______________________ · 

18. Graphitic schist, Archer Creek near Leets mine----------------------------

1 Soluble manganese is that soluble in 10 percent HN03• 

2 Sample 6 contains 0.01 percent BaO. a Samples 7 to 15 all contain less than 0.01 percent BaO. 

Percent of Percent of 

MnO as MnO as soluble insoluhle 

manganese 1 manganese 

0.85 

.46 

.35 

.10 

.29 

.31 

.41 

.54 

. 51 

.58 

.54 

• 70 

.57 

.65 

.60 

.031 

.016 

.018 

0.004 

.14 

.070 

.013 

.016 

<.001 

.007 

.002 

.015 

.005 

.001 

.003 

<.001 

.001 

.003 

.13 

.047 

.018 

Sampling o:f the white marble beds has 1 been insufficient to show 

a pattern in the local or regional distr~bution o:f manganese in these 

beds. However, the nine samples o:f white marble :from drill hole 1 

at the Piedmont mine, Campbell County, ai'e interesting because they 

give an example of the manganese content of the marble associated 
64 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

with the largest known manganese deposit in the district; total• MnO 

content of the samples ranges from 0.42 to 0.70 percent. This drill 

hole first cut white marble at a depth of approximately 130 feet 

beneath the lowest mine working and remained in marble to the bottom of the hole, 253 feet vertically beneath the mine bottom (pl. 6) ; no 

manganese oxides were found and the marble showed no signs whatever of having undergone decomposition. The low manganese content ( 0.11 percent MnO) of the white marble specimen from near 

Gladstone (table 2, sample 4), may be of significance in explaining 

the scarcity of manganese deposits in this part of the district. Systematic sampling would be necessary to determine whether the white 

marble has a generally lower manganese content in the part of the 

region around Gladstone than it does farther south, where there are 

more manganese deposits. 

The presence of manganese in the Mount Athos calcareous beds and 

its scarcity in other formations, particularly in the calcareous beds of 

the Archer Creek formation, is a good indication that the manganese 

was deposited as an original sedimentary constituent of the Mount 

Athos calcareous rocks. V einlike occurrences of brown carbonate in 

white marble at the Piedmont and Pribble mines, and pink carbonate 

in white marble at the Lucas mine might be suspected to be of hydrothermal origin; however, they could also represent original sedimentary segregations that became highly deformed during flowage 

of the marble under conditions of regional metamorphism. These 

colored carbonates apparently veining white marble are not known 

to occur at other deposits in the district, and if they have a hydrothermal origin, it is believed that hydrothermal activity played 

only a very minor role in the formation of manganese carbonates. 

Furthermore, analyses in table 2 show that the white carbonates of 

probable sedimentary origin commonly contain more manganese than 

the colored carbonates of possible hydrothermal origin. 

The occurrence in this district of manganese deposits in clay residual 

from calcareous rocks that contained manganese carbonate of probable 

sedimentary origin is paralleled by the occurrence of manganese 

oxide minerals in residual clays of manganiferous Paleozoic limestones in the two other Virginia districts, one along the west foot of 

the Blue Ridge and the other near the western border of the state 

(fig. 1). The deposits at the foot of the Blue Ridge are in residual 

clays of the lower Tomstown (Shady) dolomite, and commonly rest 

on Antietam (Erwin) quartzite (both formations are Early Cambrian 

jn age) ; similar manganese and limonite deposits are found at this 

stratigraphic horizon at many places from Alabama to Vermont. 

It was suggested some years ago by Stose and his associates ( 1919, 

p. 54-56) that the manganese was derived from the weathering of beds . 

in the Shady dolomite containing manganese minerals of sedimentary 
MINERAL DEPOSITS 65 

origin, and this widespread occurrence of sedimentary manganese 

minerals, probably as a manganiferous carbonate, now seems to be 

satisfactorily demonstrated ( Stose, 1942; King, Ferguson, Craig, anrl 

Rodgers, 1944, p. 57-59; Rodgers, 1945). The analyses presented by 

Rodgers of drill core from the lower part of the Shady dolomite in · 

Bumpass Cove, Tenn. are of partieular interest; the maximum concentration of manganese in the dolomite was found to average 0.6 percent 

MnO for a thickness of 43 feet. This content is practically identical 

with the manganese content of white marble at the Piedmont mine, 

Campbell County, as indicated by the nine analyses of drill core samples (table 2) . King reports manganese content as high as 1.24 percent Mn in a sample of the Shady dolomite from Shady Valley, Tem1. 

Along the border of Virginia and West Virginia, manganese deposits 

commonly occur in residuum of upper Silurian and Lower Devonian 

limestones and sandstones ( Stose and Miser, 1922; Ladd and Stead, 

1944, p. 235); two samples of Tonoloway limestone (Silurian) are 

reported by Ladd to carry 0.36 and 0.23 percent Mn respectively. 

Thus, it appears that the source beds in each of the three Virginia 

manganese districts are calcareous rocks containing sedimentary manganiferous carbonates in small but essentially equivalent amounts; 

sandy beds are closely associated with the calcareous beds in each district. It is not known whether the manganiferous limy beds of the 

James River-Roanoke River district are equivalent in age to manganiferous sediments in either one of the other districts. The erosion history of each region has been very similar, and probably all of the 

manganese oxide concentrations were formed under similar condi· 

tions and during, or just following; the same period of prolonged 

weathering. 

CONDITIONS OF GROUND-WATER CIRCULATION 

Attention is now turned from the manganese content of the calcareous beds of the Mount Athos formation to the other characteristic of the formation that is of importance in the genesis of the 

Inanganese deposits, namely, the ready solubility of the carbonate 

minerals in ground waters. As the calcite is dissolved from the rock, 

particularly where minerals of differing solubilities are closely associated, an insoluble residue of quartz, mica, or clay is left, and this aggregate appears to be more permeable to ground waters than the parent 

rock. During the course of time, channelways of ground-water circulation may be extended laterally and to greater depths because of 

leaching of carbonates. 

The Mount Athos formation contains beds of fairly pure quartzite, 

of nearly pure marble, of muscovite schist, and beds with compositions 

jntermediate between these three types. There is considerable difference in the relative solubilities of the various rock types, and in the 
66 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

permeabilities of the weathered rocks. The type most easily decomposed by weathering seems to be calcareous quartzite, which is present 

in the formation at many places in the region, as shown by exposures of 

the fresh rock in some of the stream valleys, and by the porous, leached 

quartzite, stained with manganese or iron oxides, that is found on the 

surface or underground at most of the manganese deposits. The rock 

contains several times as much quartz as calcite; a few thin sections of 

fresh calcareous quartzite were found to contain 20 to 30 percent carbonate by weight. When the interstitial calcite is dissolved, a residual 

mass of quartz grains is left that may retain much of its coherence or 

may break down to loose sand; in either case, permeability is increasing by leaching. 

None of the other rocks of the Mount Athos formation react in 

quite the same way. In the case of thick beds of fairly pure marble 

uot closely associated with calcareous quartzite, the argillaceous 

material in the marble is decomposed to clay at the surface, and a 

thick mantle of clay is gradually developed on the marble that apparently inhibits ground water movement. Permeability of thick 

quartzite or mica schist beds is not much increased through weathering. Thus, there seems to be a tendency for channelways of ground 

water circulation to be more extensively developed in calcareous quartzite than in any of the other rock types. Once such a channelway is 

started, the attitude of the beds (usually more than 50 degrees) favors 

its extension to depths of several hundred feet; the seams of manganese 

oxide-bearing clays that are· now found in thick beds of leached 

quartzite at such depths probably were thin beds of marble or layers 

of schist at one time. 

Some ore bodies plunge at an angle to the direction of dip with a 

trend nearly parallel to the plunge of linear structures in the country 

rock; examples are the Stonewall deposit (pl. 4) , and possibly the 

Piedmont deposit (pl. 6). Such plunging ore bodies may lie in or 

alongside steeply plunging tight folds and n1ay have been deposited 

from ground waters that followed beds of calcareous quartzite within 

the fold. 

Not only is there a difference between ground water circulation in 

marble and in calcareous quartzite, but there is also a difference between the character of manganese oxide minerals in weathered marble 

and those in calcareous quartzite. \V ad and clay appear to be developed most extensively in the decomposition of nearly pure marble, 

as at the Bishop and Pribble mines. Yellow clay seams containing 

psilomelane-type minerals are nearly everywhere associated with calcareous quartzite or occur at the contact of quartzite with marble or 

schist and apparently extend to greater depths than the wad deposits. 

Both types of oxides are present a.t the Piedmont mine, Campbell Co.; 

the psilomelane-type mineral is most abundant at the contact of 
MINERAL DEPOSITS 67 

quartzite and marble, whereas 'vad seems to be the dominant manganese 

oxide mineral overlying the main mass of marble. The nodular oxides 

along the contact between quartzite and marble extend to depths of 

over 240 feet; the wad probably extends to 1nuch shallower depths, because fresh marble is exposed in Little Beaver Creek at an elevation 

about 130 feet below the collar of the shaft. These relationships seem 

to indicate that. the deep lying deposits of psilomelane-type oxides are 

formed in calcareous quartzite because of active ground water circulation and that shallow deposits of wad are formed from marble where 

ground water movement has been less active. 

In deposits vvhere underground conditions could be examined during the present study (at the Stonewall, Grasty, and Dews mines, and 

in the exploratory tunnel at the Cabell mine), angular fragments and 

blocks of decomposed mica schist and quartzite in clay or sand were 

found in some abundance either in the manganiferous zone or in its 

hanging wall. It seems most likely that these breccias were formed 

by collapse of the rock in places where support was weakened by 

solution, and the resulting cavities were then filled with a rubble of 

rock fragments. Gradually the interstices between breccia blocks 

were filled with clay and sand, and the mass became compacted and 

thoroughly deeomposed. 

The two deepest mines in the distr'ict, the Piedmont (Campbell 

County) , and the Leets mines, were examined by Hewett who was 

able to observe the nature of the manganese oxides and rock decomposition on the lowest levels. He has drawn attention to the :fact 

that ground waters have evidently circulated to considerable depths 

below the present ground water table in nearby strean1s (1916, p. 47-

48) -over 200 feet in the case of the Leets mine ( 1935) . He suggests 

in his latter paper that precipitation of manganese oxides at these 

depths may have been accomplished by free oxygen carried from the 

surface in the ground waters. As pointed out above, it is believed 

that such deep circulation may readily be explained as taking place 

along permeable channels leached in steeply dipping beds of calcareous 

quartzite. 

RELATIONS OF 'J~HE OUTCROPS OF THE MANGANESE DEPOSITS TO THE UPLAND 

SURF ACE AND PERSISTENCE OF THE DEPOSITS IN DEPTH 

The majority of the Inanganese deposits in the district crop out 

either on the upland, or on lower hills or ridges, at elevations 100 to 

400 feet above the nearby strea1ns. The range in elevation is considerable, with such extremes as at the Bell mine, which-is over 300 :feet 

a~ove Flat Creek half a mile away, and the Chestnut Mountain deposits at an el1wation about 500 feet higher than the James River only 

0.7 miles dist:Lnt. The rocks on the upland surfaees are very thoroughly clecorEposed; exposures of hard rock a~e scarce and consist 
68 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

mainly of siliceous quartizite. On the other hand, fresh exposures 

of all rock types, including marble, are found along the stream valleys. 

A number of deposits, including such important ones as the Piedmont (Campbell County), Saunders, .and Leets, are located on bluffs 

or knolls adjacent to streams, and it is evident that the manganese 

deposits and associated decomposed country rock have been partly 

eroded by the streams. Furthermore, as Hewett originally pointed 

out (1916, p. 44), these deposits are on isolated hills or ridges whose 

surface areas are hardly large enough to provide sufficient ground 

water at the present time for contemporaneous deposition of manganese oxides on a large scale. All these features point to the formation 

of the manganese deposits during the earlier erosion cycle which developed the upland surface and which provided the necessary conditions of deep weathering and ground water action. The manganese 

deposits and the deeply decayed rock of this old surface have gradually been eroded over a long period of time, thus removing the upper 

parts of many deposits so that their present outcrops are appreciably 

lower than their original elevations. 

The statistical distribution of the average surface elevations of the 

manganese deposits, and the percentages of total manganese production from mines in different 100-foot elevation intervals are shown 

in figure 2. The outcrops of the majority of the deposits (65.4 percent) have surface elevations between 600 and 800 feet above sea 

level, and the greater portion of total manganese production from the 

district ( 82.0 percent) has com.e from mines that crop out in this same 

elevation interval. Manganese deposition seems to have been of less 

consequence on that part of the old surface that now lies above 800 

feet; the outcrops of 20 percent of the deposits have average· surface 

elevations above 800 feet, but only 2.3 percent of the total district 

production has come from these deposits. 

1200 

1100 

0.2 

1000 

900-n 2.1 

~--------~----~------+800~----------~ 

47 125. ~--------~------------+700+-----------~--------------~ 

57.0 . 1 

~--.-------+soo+-------~------------------~ 

115.7 . 

Number of manganese deposits in 100-foot elevation intervals 

16 

L-.--------+500 +--------' Percentage of total district manganese· 

400 

production from mines in 100-foot elevation intervals 

FIGURE 2.-Distribution of manganese deposits and· manganese production according to 

outcrop elevation of the deposit. 
MINERAL DEPOSITS 69 

Hewett (1916, pp. 43-47) was the first to suggest that the manganese 

deposits of this region were formed in an earlier erosion cycle; he 

pointed out that manganese deposits along the west foot of the Blue 

Ridge are also situated on upland surfaces underlain by decayed roek, 

and that these deposits were formed during an old erosion eycle, probably during early Tertiary time. He believed that eonditions for 

deposition of manganese oxides were most favorable either in the late 

stages of peneplanation when rock decay and solution predominated 

over erosion, or immediately following uplift of the peneplain when 

deeper ground water circulation was faeilitated. He says: 

During the period when peneplanation was being perfected locally there 

was probably little rock disintegration and removal, but solution and decay 

were going on in the zone accessible to migrating waters that contained 

oxygen. At this time the best conditions for the solution of large amounts 

of manganese probably existed, but as the relief of the surface was low the 

opportunity for circulation in localized channels was poor. During the next 

stage in the erosional history of the region, that represented by the uplift 

of the early Tertiary peneplain, the gradients of the streams and consequently 

their capacity for transporting sediment were again augmented, but also with 

the increase in surface relief the opportunity was afforded for more active 

circulation of water to deeper levels. 

In considering the effectiveness of the processes that went on during the last 

two periods in aiding the accumulation of manganese oxide it is necessary 

to balance the duration of the first period against the better facility for circulation 

during the second period. There is no doubt that the depth below the peneplain to which the ores are known to occur is a good reason for placing a considerable part of the accumulation in the last period, but it is also known that 

surface water may descend much deeper below the surface than the difference 

in elevation between the points of entrance and outlet, a difference which 

on the early Tertiary peneplain was probably in some place as much as 100 

feet. The data are not available at present to evaluate properly the relative 

importance of these two periods in the formation of the masses of manganese 

ore. 

It would be unwise without further study to assert that all the manganese 

deposits of Virginia or tile region from Alabama to eastern Pennsylvania were 

formed during the early Tertiary period of erosion, but it is interesting to note 

that this suggestion was once made for the Appalachian deposits of iron 

ore, which have a similar areal distribution, as a result of the discovery of 

small basins of lignite of Tertiary age near Brandon, Vt. (Hitchcock, 1861), and 

Pond Bank, Pa. (Lesley, 1864), near deposits of iron ore. It was then thought, 

however, that the residual iron ores within this entire region were the weathered 

residue, of an essentially continuous horizontal iron-bearing bed. This assumption is not necessary, but it is reasonable to suppose that conditions during earlY 

Tertiary time may have favored, more than those of later periods, the solution 

and transportation of iron and manganese salts to favorable sites for deposition. 

The existence of many extensive deposits of residual iron ore and related 

laterite in regions having warm and moist if not tropical climates has long 

been recognized. In this connection it may be noted that Berry, as a result of 

the study of the floras of the Upper CretaceomJ and Eocene formations of the 

Coastal Plain of South Carolina and Georgia, concludes. that the prevailing 
70 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

c·limate. of that region at the time these beds were laid down was mild and 

humid, with possibly a brief period during Eocene time that was less mild. 

Geologic investigations by other authorities of manganese deposits 

west of the Blue Ridge since the appearance of Hewett's paper have 

confirmed his view that most of the deposits crop out above present 

drainage systems, commonly on terraces, spurs or ridges that are the 

inuch weathered remnants of old soil erosion surfaces. King ( l94Ua) 

has recently discussed the nature, origin, and age of the physiographic 

features in the Elkton region where he and Rodgers investigated the 

manganese deposits in the residuum of the Tomstown dolomite. The 

residuum in which these deposits occur lies mostly at the eastern 

border of the Shenandoah Valley along the base of the Blue Ridge; 

sheets of gravel composed of pebbles and boulders of fresh quartzite 

overlie the residuum. King considers the physiographic history to 

have been more complex than previously believed; he concludes that 

the residuum and its manganese deposits were formed in Tertiary time, 

probably in a warm moist climate, and that the gravel sheets were 

laid down in the Pleistocene. 

Although our knowledge of the physiographic history of this part 

of the Piedmont province is rather meager, there seems to be good 

reason to believe that manganese deposition in this district, as well 

as in areas west of the Blue Ridge, occurred in the deeply decayed 

material of an old peneplain. As has already been pointed out in 

the discussion of the physiographic history, the formation of manganese deposits probably took place at about the same time that bauxite 

and residual limonite deposits were being formed (that is, during a 

period in early Tertiary time when favorable climatic and physiographic conditions permitted extreme rock decay and solution). 

Some solution, transportation, and deposition of manganese has 

doubtless continued to the present time, but the amount of manganese 

oxides for1ned since the early Tertiary period is believed to be relatively small. Little pieces of quartz and quartzite with a thin rind of 

manganese oxide are found at many places in the soil cover; the manganese oxide coatings may have been formed during the early Tertiary 

Qr at any time since then. An example of formation of 1nanganese 

oxides at the present time has been described by Hamaker ( 1933) . 

During an investigation by one of his students (L. B. }Jenderson) of 

the plant ecology of a small bog on the headwaters of a branch of 

Burton Creek, about 2 miles south of Lynchburg, small rounded manganiferous pellets as large as marbles were found on the surface of the 

lower part of the bog. The pellets were distributed along mud cracks 

on barren patches of the surface in a manner suggesting that they had 

been deposited from solutions rising through the soil. No pellets were 
MINERAL DEPOSI'rS 71 

found beneath the surface, in vegetated areas, or in the upper part of 

the bog that had never been cultivated. .According to Hamaker, he 

was informed by Hewett that samples of the pellets, which were analyzed in the Geological Survey laboratory, contained about 5 percent 

Mn and 25 percent Fe. Hamaker found considerable lime in the water 

of the small fork draining into this part of the bog from Candler 

l\Iountain, and suggested that passage of this lime-bearing water 

through soil of the upper bog, which was saLturated in C02 and organic 

acids, and emergence of these ground waters in barren patches of the 

lower bog, may have caused formation of the pellets in some manner. 

The rocks within the drainage basin, phyllite of the Candler formation, Lynchburg gneiss, and greenstone, are not known to be particularly manganiferous. 

If only minor amounts of manganese oxides have been formed since 

the early Tertiary, then the depth to which a deposit extends beneath 

the present surfa.ce depends on the original depth of the deposit beneath the peneplain and the amount that has been eroded from the 

upper part of the deposit since uplift of the peneplain. The best information on persistence of the deposits in depth pertains to the Loots 

and Piedmont (Campbell County) deposits. The Leets deposit crops 

out at an altitude of about 670 feet, and rr1anganese oxides were present 

in the lowest mine workings at an altitude of about 360 feet. The 

surface of the Piedmont deposit is at an altitude of about 615 feet. 

Manganese oxides persisted to the lowest mine workings, and were 

found in a drill hole a short distance below the workings at an altitude 

of about 375 feet; in the deeper drill hole that seems to have cut beneath 

the ore body, fresh rock with no manganese oxides were found at the 

intersection of the quartzite-marble contact at an altitude of about 265 

feet. 

The upland surface in the vicinity of these two deposits, which are 

a little more than a mile apart and within 2 miles of the James River, 

has undergone considerable erosion since i11is uplift. The highest altitudes within a few miles of the deposits are a little over 800 feet, which 

may represent the average elevation of the upland surface here. Thus, 

ihe amount that has been eroded from the upper parts of the two deposits seems to be between 100 to 200 feet; their bottoms may have 

originally been 400 to 500 feet beneath the upland surface. In discussing the persistence in depth of manganese ores of residual origin in 

Virginia and Maryland, Hewett (1916, p. 48) rea.ched a similar conclusion: "From analogy with similar deposits it is very doubtful 

whether manganese ores in any of these deposits will persist 500 feet. 

below the surface, and a more probable lin1it is 400 feet." 
72 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

USUD OF FACTOR& INVOLVED IN ORIGIN OF DEPOSITS 

In addition to the optimum climatic conditions for development of 

such manganese oxide deposits-a warm, moist climate-the four principal factors that have governed the formation of the deposits to their 

present-day character are: ( 1) Amount of manganese originally available in calcareous beds for solution by ground waters, (2) effect of 

local stratigraphic and structural conditions upon development of 

channels for ground water circulation, ( 3) effect of local topographic 

and drainage conditions upon ground water circulation; these conditions are chiefly those prevailing in Tertiary time, and may have been 

quite different from present conditions, and ( 4) amount of erosion a 

deposit has undergone since its formation. 

The formation of one deposit may have been favored by unusually 

large quantities of manganese available to the ground waters. At another site excellent channels for ground water circulation, such as 

thick beds of calcareous quartzite, perhaps in steeply plunging folds, 

may have been present. Or local topographic and drainage conditions 

may have been more important in influencing composition and circulation of ground waters at other places. Some deposits may owe their 

existence to the fortunate conjunction of two or more of these factors. 

If it were possible to determine the relative importance of the role 

played by each of these factors in the formation of any one deposit. 

or group of deposits, that information would be very helpful in guiding exploratio.n. Unfortunately, rock exposures are far too poor to 

enable the detailed determination of such local geologic conditions as 

average manganese content of calcareous beds, thickness of calcareous 

quartzite, and various structural features. Furthermore, it seems impossible to analyze the physiographic history in sufficient detail to. 

deduce what may have been the local topographic and drainage conditions in Tertiary time which would have influenced ground water 

circulation. The only factor that can be used is the extent of erosion 

undergone by a deposit since its origin. The manganese deposits in 

a belt of Mount Athos formation outcropping on the old upland surface should be eroded only slightly, whereas the deposits in Mount. 

Athos beds, which now outcrop in the bottoms of major valleys, may 

have been reduced by erosion to only a fraction of their original size. 

IRON DEPOSITS 

The iron deposits in the district are of two distinct types : the limonite or brown ore deposits, and the specular hematite deposits. Th.ese 

two types of deposits are very different in their mineralogical and 

geologic characteristics and in their modes of origin. 

The limonite deposits are composed primarily of impure mixtures 
MINERAL DEPOSITS 73 

of limonitic minerals, quartz, and mica, and have been formed as near 

surface accumulations by ground waters carrying a solution of iron 

that had been leached from the country rock. The ores are variable 

in chemical composition; in eight analyses of limonite ore from near 

Mount Athos, quoted from Britton by Fu:rcron ( 1935, p. 101), the 

following ranges in composition were determined: 

Iron _______________________________ from 34.63 percent to 55.95 percent 

Phosphorus________________________ from 0.43 percent to 1.048 percent 

Silica______________________________ from 7.08 percent to 31.31 percent 

Manganese oxide ___________________ from trlllce to 2.97 percent 

These limonitic accumulations range in size from a few tons to deposits that probably contain several thousand tons of recoverable 

limonite, and they have been found to occnr with nearly every formation in the region, except the Triassic sedimentary rocks and diabase. 

They occur most abundantly, however, in mica schists, graphitic mica 

schists, in quartzite, or along the contacts between quartzite and schist. 

Some of the larger limonite deposits are in the graphitic mica schist 

member of the Archer Creek formation, such as deposits of the old 

Oxford or Ross mine and those along and near Stonewall Creek. It is 

assumed that the pyrite disseminated through the graphitic mica 

schists provided a nearby source of iron for the ground water solutions 

that formed the limonite deposits. In some of the deposits, the iron 

may have been derived :from the weathering of other iron minerals, 

such as the iron-bearing silicates or carbonates. Possibly, in some 

deposits the iron was not derived from the adjacent country rock but 

was transported for some distance from a source in other formations 

and accumulated in its present site because of favorable topographic, 

structural, or permeability conditions. The limonite deposits are 

believed to have been formed under sirnilar geologic conditions, 

and during the same general period, as the manganese deposits of 

the region. 

Little information is available now iit regard to the size, shape, 

and extent of the limonite deposits, because no records were kept of 

the conditions encountered in mining a century or more ago, and 

present exposures of the deposits are inadequate. Much of the limonite contains relict layers of mica schist; this fact suggests that the ore 

was formed by partial :replacement of schist. Because the schist is 

less permeable and less soluble than the calcareous quartzite and 

marble associated with the manganese deposits, it is probable that the 

limonite deposits do not extend to the depths of some manganese 

deposits. However, some of the limonite deposits seem to have had 

a lateral extent of several hundred yards, judging from the clusters 

of large pits at a few places: Many of the limonite deposits occur 

283201-54-6 
7 4 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

within a few hundred feet of manganese deposits, but the deposits 

are not ii1timately associated. 

The specular hematite deposits consist of iron-rich lenses or seams 

in schistose and quartzitic beds of the Mount Athos formation. Deposits of this type have been found throughout the area, but the 

majority of mines and deposits are located along the west side of the 

James River in Amherst and Nelson Counties (pl. 2). Specular 

hematite is the dominant-iron mineral and is accompanied by minor 

amounts of magnetite and martite. Quartz is always present and 

ranges from a minor constituent in schistose specular hematite to the 

principal mineral in hematitic quartzite. The ore is commonly conglomeratic. Barite and 1narble were found in one of the mines near 

Riverville. The iron-rich, schistose seams are commonly no more than 

1 to 2 feet thick, and several such layers separated by leaner, siliceous 

beds may occur close together. According to Furcron (1935, p. 84), 

the lenses that were mined probably averaged only 1 to 3 feet thick, 

including the lean layers. The No. 16 ore body near Greenway is 

described by Frazer ( 1883, p. 209) as being exceptionally thick for 

the area; several iron-rich layers having a total thickness of 7 feet 

are present within a 10-foot thickness of vein. 

Much of the ore shipped from the district had a high silica content. 

Frazer (1883, p. 211-214) gives numerous analyses of the ore, which 

are summarized below. 

A L~erage analy.ses of specular hematite ores 

Iron ___________________________________________ _ 

Phosphorus _____________________________________ _ 

Silica __________________________________________ _ 

Percent 

48.69 

. 07 

23.98 

Number of 

analyses 

82 

77 

22 

Very good, contemporary accounts of the iron deposits and mining 

operations have been given by Frazer (1883), Campbell (1882), and 

several other authors from whom Furcron. (1935, p. 81-104) has abstracted information. Both Frazer and Campbell point out that the 

ore bodies are lenticular and that they pinch out laterally. and vertically. Frazer also notes that some ore bodies were terminated by 

bodies of quartz, that were found in every c.ase to plunge toward the 

southwest at angles of 25 to 50 degrees. The nature of these quartz 

bodies cannot be determined now, but they are probably plunging, 

podlike bodies that belong structurally to the lineation pattern of the 

region. 

Several of the early geologists considered these specular hematite 

ores to be of sedimentary origin; Frazer ( 1883, p. 210-211) and Furcron (1935, p. 98-100) concluded that they probably were hydrother-
MINERAL DEPOSITS 75 

mal in origin. The constant occurrence of the deposits in the restricted stratigraphic interval of the ·Mount Athos formation, whose 

calcareous beds contain manganese minerals of sedimentary origin, 

leads the writer to believe that originally they were formed as thin 

accumulations of iron-rich sediments, and later they were altered to 

their present state by metamorphic processes. Ferruginous schist, in 

layers as much as several hundred feet thick, is present between the 

quartzite member of the Mount Athos formation and greenstone near 

Evington, l\{ount Athos, and other places. 

BARITE DEPOSITS 

Barite deposits have been found in Campbell County at about a 

dozen localities in the southwestern part of the district (pls. 1 and 2), 

and also to the south of Hoanoke River in Pittsylvania County. All 

of the barite deposits in Campbell County are within the white marble 

member of the Mount Athos formation; the deposits in Pittsylvania 

County are also associated with marble and quartzites that are presumably the continuation of the Mount Athos formation. Barite occurs as fragments and rr1asses in the black, manganiferous residual 

clay, or "umber", that overlies the marble, and as stringers and veins 

within marble; pyrite and chalcopyrite are commonly disseminated 

in the deposits. The barite in the residual mantle has been derived 

from barite veins in marble and has accumulated in the clay during 

weathering of the marble; the general relationships are shown diagrammatically in figure 3. ..A .. t several of the barite deposits, hard 

manganese oxides are present or occur nearby; deposits on the Burton, 

Grasty, and Merritt tracts of the Otter River Mining Co. near Altavista, are examples of this situation. · 

The barite deposits and mining operations were first described in 

detail by Watson ( 1907 a) in a paper on Virginia barite deposits, and 

have been discussed by Edmundson (1938) in a more recent study of 

the barite deposits of the state. These writers both point ou.t that 

barite in this region is practically limited in its occurence to white 

marble and to the overlying residual and surficial clays, and they give 

information on geologic details, as well as history and data about the 

mining operations. Little additional information on the nature of 

the. barite deposits was gathered during the present study because 

of poor exposures. 

Watson and Edmundson arrived at opposing conclusions in regard 

.to the origin of the barite deposits of Pittsylvania and Campbell 

Counties, and the other deposits of the stab~; Watson concluded that 

the barite deposits were formed by weathering processes, whereas 

Edmundson believed that they were of hydrothermal origin. Watson 
76 OEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

10 0 I I I I I 

Soil and surficial c-loy 

[TI 

Cloy residual from marble 

~ Barite 

EIZJ 

Quo rtz ite 

~ Marble 

Mica 

r:==-:=1 

~ 

schist 

30 Feet 

I 

FIGURE B.-Diagrammatic cross section showing typical deposit of barite in marble, 

residual clay, and surficial clay. 

{1907, p. 720-721) gives three analyses of marble that have a range 

in barium sulfate content from 0.62 to 1.62 percent; black clay from 

one deposit contained only a trace of barium oxide. He does not 

state, however, whether he regards the barite content of the marble 

to be of primary origin or of secondary origin due to weathering 
WNERAL DEPOSITS 77 

:action. On the other hand, Edmundson ( 1938, p. 20-24) lists analyses 

-of marble and other rock types in the vicinity of barite deposits that 

show a lower barium content, as follows: 

Content of barium oxide in rocks assooiated with Barite deposits 

BaO 

Rock type (percent) 

Marble from Hewitt mine, Campbell County-------------------- 0. 078 

Marble not associated with any known barite deposits__________ . 02 

Pegmatite dike in vici~ity of Thompson mine, Pittsylvania County 

(barite was observed microscopically in sample) _____________ .,. .12 

Diabase dike in vicinity of Phillips mine, Campbell County______ . 044 

Mica schist from barite workings in Campbell and Pittsylvania 

Counties____________________________________________________ . 12 

Ten samples of white Inarble were analyzed for BaO in the present 

study (table 2), and only one sample (from near the Bishop manganese 

mine) was found to contain as much as 0.01 percent BaO. 

Edmundson thinks it doubtful that the barite deposits of the region 

could have been concentrated by the weathering of rocks that originally contained barium in such small amounts. He found tourmaline, 

hornblende, biotite, epidote, and chlorite to occur in the barite deposits 

of the region, and he considered these minerals, as well as the presence 

-of barite in a few pegmatites, to indicate a hydrothermal origin of the 

barite. As supporting evidence, he states that the wall rocks of many 

veins are hydrothermally altered to quartz, epidote, and chlorite, that 

leaching is absent in the wall rocks, and that magmatic solutions are 

probably better agents of transportation and deposition than meteoric 

solutions. 

The writer believes that the case for hydrothermal origin of these 

barite deposits in marble has not been conclusively established. The 

strongest evidence to support that theory is the occurrence of tourmaline in several barite deposits, and the presence of barite in minor 

amounts in a few pegmatites. Such accessory minerals as hornblende, 

biotite, epidote, chlorite, quartz, and pyrite are common and characteristic minerals of the different metamorphic rocks of the area and 

have been formed or modified by the processes of regional metamorphism, rather than by localized hydrothermal action. Some leaching 

of the barite deposits and their wall rocks by meteoric waters has 

obviously taken place, because every deposit shows such features as 

residual clays, wad, and porous quartzite fragments that were 

orginally calcareous. 

The writer has no further evidence to offer in regard to the origin 

of the barite deposits, but he feels that several additional points should 

be given consideration. The first point to be emphasized is that the 

restriction of all the barite deposits in Campbell County to a limited 

stratigraphic interval-the white marble member of the Mount Athos 
78 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

formation-and their absence from the blue marble member of the 

Archer Creek formation suggests that sedimentary deposition of barium minerals might have taken place locally in the calcareous beds. 

Another point is that there sems to be very little information about the 

behavior of barite or other barium minerals in the regional metamorphism of rocks that contained barium minerals prior to metamorphism. 

_\.re barium minerals relatively stable and unaffected by metamorphism, or are they mobilized and transported under certain conditions~ 

ls it possible that barium may have been present (possibly as a mineral 

of sedimentary origin) in the limestone before its metamorphism, and 

could it have been transported during metamorphism to form the 

present vein deposits in marble~ In this connection, it may be pointed 

out that the barite deposits in Campbell County all lie a short distance 

west of the garnet-staurolite zone of most intense deformation and 

metamorphism. The regional metamorphic features of the area of 

barite deposits in Pittsylvania County are unknown to the writer. 

The final point is that barium is known to occur in significant quantities in some manganese ore of the district; analysis of a shipment 

of 51 tons o:f manganese ore :from the Stonewall mine showed a content o:f 8.76 percent BaO. It is evident that barium was mobile to 

a certain extent, and underwent solution, transportation, and deposition during the weathering process that :formed the manganese deposits from the marble and calcareous quartzites of the Mount Athos 

formation. 

To sum up, the writer :feels that the genesis of these barite deposits 

is obscure and that a possibility exists that several geologic prooesses 

may have played a part in the origin of the deposits. The barite may 

be hydrothermal in origin, or it, or some other barium mineral, may 

have been an original sedimentary constituent of the limestone and 

occurred locally in greater amounts in the southwestern part o:f the 

belt. These barium minerals may have been transported and deposited 

as barite veins in marble under :favorable metamorphic conditions, and 

locally mixed with minor hydrothermal solutions to :form the association with tournaline or pegmatitic solutions to form the few occurrences of barite in pegmatite. As a final step, some transportation and 

deposition o:f barium by ground waters in the r~sidual clay may have 

tak~n place during the long weathering process that has affected the 

regiOn. 

COPPER DEPOSITS 

Minor amounts of copper minerals have been found at several places 

in the region, principally in the Glades west of Buffalo Ridge, along 

Wreck Island Creek, at the Bishop manganese mine, and in the area 

o:f Triassic sedimentary rocks southwest of Rockfish River. These 

deposits occur in three different types o:f rocks and are prob;:tbly 
MINERAL DEPOSITS 79 

different in nature and mode of origin; however, poor exposures 

prevent adequate study of their characteristics. Stringers and disseminations of copper sulfides appear to be present at all of the localities. Near the surface, the sulfides have been oxidized to malachite, 

and in one case, to turquoise. 

Copper deposits in the Glades are in altered peridotite, or soapstone; stringers and small lenses of bornite and chalcopyrite are associated with tremolite. At the copper prospect on Wreck Island 

Creek, stringers and disseminations of pyrite, hematite, and chalcopyrite are found in marble; bornite and chrysocolla are also present 

according to Furcron (1935, p. 110)-(no copper minerals were visible 

at the time of the writer's visit). Crystalline turquoise has been found 

on the dump of the old Bishop mine, which is the only locality in the 

world where turquoise with crystalline structure is known (Schaller, 

1912; Robinson, 1942'). Chalcopyrite disseminated in white marble 

has been observed at several localities, and the copper deposit at the 

Bishop mine may be of this type. In the largest area of Triassic rocks 

near Warminster, grains of bornite and malachite with small lenses 

of quartz and calcite are found in irregular fractures in shale; the 

fractures and mineralization may be related to the fault bordering the 

Triassic rocks on the west. 

QUARTZ VEINS 

Quartz veins are common in all of the metamorphic rocks in the 

region ; they range in size from short, thin lenses, less than an inch 

thick, to veins several hundred feet long and as much as 30 feet wide. 

Veins in schistose rocks are very numerous, small, and usually conformable to cleavage, even where the cleavage is folded. Veins in 

quartzite and other massive rocks are less numerous, but they are 

larger and may cut across the cleavage, apparently occupying tension 

fractures. The quartz is commonly fractured or crushed, and the veins 

have the same systems of joints and linear structures as the enclosing 

rocks. 

Ilmenite occurs in some of the quartz veins and is particularly 

abundant in veins cutting greenstone. Carbonates and pyrite are 

common in some veins; a few veins carry small amounts of feldspar 

and muscovite. An unusually persistent tourmaline-quartz vein, in 

which black tourmaline exeeeds quartz, occurs at Riverville, about a 

quarter of a mile east of St. James Church (fig. 1=) • This vein attains 

a width of 30 feet in places, and can be traced for a third of a mile in 

a northerly direction. Limonitic alteration of the abundant tourmaline attracted attention in the· days of iron mining around Riverville, 

and the vein was explored by an open-cut at one place. Float of 

tourmaline-bearing quartz has also been found near the southwest end 
80 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

~~ 

:X: 

~ :X: 

~ 0 a:: z 0 0 z i= 1&.1 

1&.1 ::l 

z a:: I!> ~ 

.s: 

:=£ 

mbs 

Geology by G. H. Espenshade, 1941 

EXPLANATION 

~ Alluvium 

Younger ~ greenstone 

. 

5 

Mount Athos formation 

mq, quartzite member 

mm, white marble member 

mbs, biotite-muscovite schist member 

Archer 

~ 

~ Creek formation 

am, blue limestone and marble member 

ag. graphitic schist member 

Contact, dashed where 

approximately located 

- - -Indefinite contact- - -

l ~ jffi 1-

<( 

:::> 

0 

Fault 

40-e----

Piunge of minor anticline 

........§.0 

Strike and dip of foliation 

-+- Vertical foliation 

25~0 

Strike and dip of foliation 

and plunge of lineation 

4-0_.._ 

Strike of vertical foliaticm 

and plunge of lineation ------?- Tourmaline-quartz -?- vein 

Probable extensions shown between 

areas of outcrops and abundant float 

>- Portal of tunnel 

X Mine shaft or prospect 

All mines and prospects 

dug for iron ore 

ll'JGURE. 4.-Geologic map of Riverville area, Amherst County, Va. 
MANGANESE ~NES AND PROSPECTS 81 

of Chestnut Mountain and in the valley of Flat Creek northeast of 

Evington. 

MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 

mSTORY AND PRODUCTION 

Manganese mining in the district was initiated in 1868 and 1869 

when the Cabell and Bugley mines in Nelson County were operated 

by James E. Mills (1871) who had undertaken a search for manganese 

oxide ores to supply a firm inN ewcastle, England, for the manufacture 

of chlorine gas in the making of bleaching powder. About 7,000 tons 

of ore was shipped to England for this purpose from these two mines. 

There is no record of manganese production during the seventies, but 

ore was produced in the eighties (according to official records) from 

the Simpson and Davis mines in Nelson County,3 and from the Leets 

(or Mount Athos), Bishop, and Lucas mines in Campbell County. 

Some, or all of this ore was shipped to England for the manufacture 

of chemicals. The Saunders, Phillips, and Mortimer mines near 

Evington may also have been operated in the eighties (Watson, 1907b, 

p. 241-242); according to local residents the Piedmont mine in Nelson 

County and the Perrow mine south of Leesville were operated about 

the same time. Mining at the Saunders and Lucas mines was carried 

on by a Robert Wood, who is credited with other manganese mining 

operations in the region during the eighties and nineties. 

The record of mining operations and production for the period 

1889-1894 is very poor, but it is known that the Bishop and Leets 

mines were worked during some of these years. The production 

records from 1895 to 1905 have been preserved 4 and show that ore 

was produced from the Saunders mine, Piedmont or Lerner mine, 

W. R. Wood mine near Evington,5 and the Pittsville Mining Co., near 

Pittsville, Pittsylvania County. Apparently, the Leets mine was not 

operated during these years. 

From 1903 or 1904 until 1907 the Saunders mine was operated by 

the National Paint and Manganese Co., and the ore was ground at 

the company's plant in Lynchburg for use as a pigment in paint and 

brick and as a decolorizing agent in glass. This company is still active 

and purchases most of the local ores; the company has not operated 

any mines for many years. No record is available for the production 

from 1906 to 1910, but it is known that the Piedmont (Campbell 

County) and Saunders mines were active during much of this period. 

The Theresa mine was worked in 1908. 

II The Davis mine is thought to be the same as the Simpson mine . 

. 

4 U. S. Bureau of Mines, unpublished records. 1 This is probably the Mortimer mine, which has been called the Wood mine in the past. 
82 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

The period :from 1911 to 1918 was one of the most active and productive in the history o:f mining in the district; ore was produced fron1 

at least 15 mines, most o:f which were in Campbell County, two were 

in Nelson County, and one was in Pittsylvania County. The principal 

producer during these years was the Piedmont or Lerner mine, which 

was worked by several different operators between 1911 and 1918. 

Other producing mines o:f importance were the Mortimer and Pribble 

mines, worked by the Virginia Ores Corporation; the Theresa mine, 

operated by John B. Guernsey and Co., Inc.; and the Saunders mine. 

Production :from the rest o:f the mines in the district was small and 

averaged considerably less than 100 tons per mine. 

Manganese mining evidently ceased altogether :following the drop in 

the price o:f ore at the close o:f World War I ; no production is recorded 

from the district :for the year 1920. From 1921 to 1926 a small amount 

o:f ore was produeed, mainly :from the adjoining Saunders and Wood 

properties near Evington, by small hand operations conducted by 

local lessees who sold the washed ore to the National Paint and 

Mangan~se Co. in Lynchburg. There seems to have been no production :from 1927 to 1929. Small scale production at the Saunders mine 

was resumed in 1930, and has been intermittent since then. In 1933, 

the Leets or Mount Athos mine was reopened by the Southern Mines 

and Metals Co., Inc., after about 40 years o:f inactivity and was worked 

until1935 when the shaft was destroyed by fire. 

Interest in the manganese deposits o:f the region was revived in the 

late thirties, as in manganese districts in other parts o:f the country, 

and more than 25 different deposits were worked or prospected until 

the close o:f World War II in 1945. Production, however, during the 

period 1937 to 1945 amounted to only 993 tons from about 20 deposits, 

compared to the 1930-35 production o:f 1,035 tons, or the 1911-1918 

production o:f 7,607 tons. The more ambitious operations were those 

conducted by the Otter River Mining Co. on a group of properties near 

Altavista :from 1937 to 1943, and work done at the Stonewall mine, 

Appomattox County, by several different operators :from 1937 until 

late 1941. The combined production :from the Bell and Saunders 

mines probably amounted to nearly as much as the combined production o:f the Stonewall mine and the Otter River Mining Co., although 

operations at the Bell and Saunders mines were crude and the ore was 

washed by hand. Production from other mines was very small; work 

was done on a small scale with shallow workings and inexperienced 

labor and supervision. Part o:f the ore mined in the district during 

this period was sold to the National Paint and Manganese Co. at 

Lynchburg, and the remainder was sold to E. J. Lavino Co., Reusens 

(near Lynchburg), manufacturers o:f :ferromanganese. 

The production records :for manganese ore :from this district are 

incomplete, and the total amount produced is not accurately known. 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 83 

The official recorded production is 26,107 long tons, but it is probable 

that the total quantity of washed ore produced is twice as large as 

this figure. Recorded production of washed ore from the district 

since 1868 is summarized in table 3; this information has been compiled from official records of the U. S. Geological Survey, the U. S. 

Bureau of Mines; the Virginia Geological Survey, and purchase records of the National Paint and Manganese Co. The record from 1911 

through 1945 appears to be complete, but records are not available for 

20 of the 43 years from 1868 through 1910. According to statements 

in the literature, production from the Piedmont and Saunders mines 

was larger than the amounts listed in available official records. Hewett 

(1916, ·P· 50) states that the total yield of the Piedmont mine is reported to be about 30,000 tons of washed ore; since the recorded production from the mine amounts to 9,350 long tons, it is possible that 

the unrecorded production is about 20,000 tons. Watson ( 1907b, p. 

241) said that the total output of the Saunders mine up to 1907 was 

between 6,000 and 7,000 tons of ore; the recorded production through 

1905 was 2,453 tons, so the unrecorded production may be about 4,000 

tons. The production of other mines brings the production for the 

district to an estimated total of 52,779long tons of washed ore (including recorded and unrecorded production). Over 90 percent of the 

manganese ore produced in the district has come from six mines; arranged in order of production, they are as follows: Piedmont or Myers 

(the largest producer), Saunders, Cabell, Leets, Bugley, and Simpson 

mines. 

TABLE 3.-Recorded production of manganese ore 1 from the James River-Roanoke 

River district 

Period Washed ore (long tons) Principal producing mines 

1868-69------------------------

1870_- ------------------------- 1880-88------------------------

1889-92_- ---------------------- 1893_- ------------------------- 1894_- ------------------------- 1895-1905_--------------------- 1906-10_- ----------------------

1911-14------------------------

1915-19_----------------------- 1920_-------------------------- 1921-26_----------------------- 1927-29_- ---------------------- 193Q-35_----------------------- 1936_- ------------------------- 1937-39------------------------

194Q-45_-----------------------

7,000 (2', Cabell, Bugley. 

Leets, Simpson. . '2, 459 

(2) Small production from Leets mine in 1889-90. 

700 Record for Bishop mine only. (2) 

3 5. 953 

(2) . 

4,185 

{ 3, 463 

(!) 

Piedmont, Saunders, Wood. 

The Piedmont, Theresa, and Saunders mines were operated during part or all of this period. 

Piedmont. 

Piedmont, Saunders. 

(6) 

319 Saunders, Wood. 

1, 035 

(6) 

Leets, Saunders. 

484 Stonewall, Otter River Mining Co., Saunders. 

509 Stonewall, Saunders, Bell. 

Total1868-1945______________ 26.107 

I Manganese ore was defined prior to 1917 as containing more than 40 percent Mn, and since then as con- taining more than 35 percent Mn. 2 No record. a Includes 177long tons from Pittsylvania County. t Includes lllong tons from Pittsylvania County. 6 );To production?. 
84 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Production of manganiferous iron ore in the district is known only 

for Campbell County for the years 1916 through 1918 and is given in 

table 4. The unrecorded production of manganiferous iron ore from 

manganese mining operations is probably quite small; there is no way 

of estimating the amount of this ore produced or its grade. 

TABLE 4.-Recorded production of manganiferous iron ore from Campbell 

County, Va.. 

Year 

1916_ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1917-------------------------------------------------------------------------

1918_------------------------------------------------------------------------

Washed ore (long tons) 

30 

li61 

lliO 

PROSPECTING, MINING, AND MILLING METHODS 

Manganese 

(percent) 

15-4() 

10-35 

10-35 

Practically all of the manganese ore mined in the district has been 

of the nodular or lump type which consists of coherent nodules or 

rounded lumps of relatively hard manganese oxides embedded in a 

matrix of clay or soft clayey rock residuum. This ore has been mined 

in preference to the other kinds of manganiferous material because 

the manganese oxide lumps can readily be recovered from the mine 

dirt by simply washing away the clay, and the resulting "washed ore" 

or "concentrate" is generally a merchantable product containing at 

least 40 percent manganese. However, the other types of manganiferous material are not amenable to treatment by the washing methods. 

The friable manganese oxides and the soft, fine-grained material in 

the wad ores are washed away with the clay in the washing processes; 

in material containing abundant silica interspersed with manganese 

oxides (as manganiferous chert, quartzite with disseminated manganese oxides, and brecciated quartzite or vein quartz cemented by 

manganese oxides) , the washing process will not remove the interlocked silica, and the resulting product may contain no more than 20 

or 30 percent manganese. 

Naturally, prospecting and mining methods have been influenced 

by the characteristics of the deposits of nodular ores. These are 

usually steeply dipping lenses of clay containing manganese oxide 

lumps; the wall rocks too are commonly decomposed and soft. The 

soft nature of the ore and wall rock permits prospecting and smallscale mining to be carried on at moderate depths with simple tools 

and procedures (using pick and shovel, hand windlass, etc.). The 

lump ore can easily be separated from the n1ine dirt by washing away 

the clay with a stream of water. A nearby market for local manganese ores within 40 miles has existed for many years at the National 

Paint and Manganese Co., Lynchburg, and the E. J. Lavino furnace 

(makers of ferromanganese) at Reusens, a few miles up river from 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 85 

Lynchburg. As a result, it has been possible to mine, wash the ore, 

and sell on a small scale, without the necessity of a large capital investment to start and maintain the operation. Many of the man~ 

ganese mines and prospects in the region have been small enterprises 

worked by a few individuals with modest equipment; however, total 

production from these small and crude operations has been small 

(less than 10 percent of the district total). 

The practices followed in prospecting, mining, and milling the ore 

:are described below. PJLospecting has been done mainly by sinking 

pits or driving tunnels at places where float of manganese oxides appeared on the surface. The manganiferous zones are usually prospected along the strike by a series of pits, which may be enlarged into 

m.ine workings where ore is discovered and followed downward or 

laterally. Trenches dug normal to the strike at intervals of 100 feet 

<>r more along the manganiferous zone were used extensively as a means 

.of prospecting by the Otter River Mining Co.; some thousands of feet 

of trenches were dug by a ditch digging machine, and by hand. A 

bulldozer was used for trenching by the Bureau of Mines in some of 

its exploration in the district. Trenches that are 5 to 6 feet deep are 

_generally deep enough to give good exposures of the saprolite in place 

-£•xcept on some of the steeper slopes where the cover of transported red 

.c]ay and soil extends to greater depths. The only type of prospec1 

-drilling known to have been tried in the area has been diamond drilling; most of the drillin:g was done by the Bureau of Mines. Core 

:recovery in the manganHerous clay and other rock residuum has been 

very poor, and this method of drilling has not proved to be satisiactory. 

Because the ore-bearing clay lenses dip steeply, nearly all of the 

mining has been done underground. Open-pit work has been done at 

·only a few places, at the Cabell and Bugley mines where considerable 

·ore was mined from shallow cuts, and at the Pribble mine where the 

:mang~niferous zone was Bxposed in long open-cuts. Most of the shafts 

.and underground workings in the region have been less than 100 feet 

deep because power hoists are needed for deep operations, and pumps 

.are required where workings extend below the ground water table. 

The deepest mines in the area are the Leets, 312 feet deep, and the 

Piedmont or Myers mine, about 240 feet deep. The mine workings 

.are usually in soft, decom.posed rock, and strong timbering is generally 

necessary to support the roof. Proper timbering has seldom been 

done, however, and because of the poor support the workings have 

.quickly caved. The Oxford shaft in the marble footwall of the Piedmont deposit is one of the few shafts that have been put down in solid 

rock. 

The simplest method used to wash away the soft clay from the lump 

{)Xides has been to spread the mine dirt out on a wooden platform and 
86 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

rake it back and forth while washing it with a stream of water; any 

large pieces of quartz or rock are picked out by hand. It is reported 

that a small concrete mixer was used successfully by the VirginiaWisconsin Manganese Co. to wash the ore at the Stonewall mine. The 

most elaborate treatment plant in recent years was installed at the 

Stonewall mine by the Stonewall Mining Co.; it consisted of log 

washers (to remove clay)' screens (to size the washed material)' and 

jigs (to separate pieces of quartz and rock from the manganese oxides). 

Methods of treating the other types of manganiferous material by 

processes other than washing have not received much attention until 

recently. It is understood that experiments have been made since 

1945 by the Myers Chemical Co. of Lynchburg to extract manganese 

from the wad ores of the Piedmont or Myers mine by sulfuric acid 

leaching, followed by evaporation of the leach liquor to precipitate 

manganese sulfate. Beneficiation tests of the samples of wad ore 

taken in 1952 for the Defense Materials Procurement Agency are still 

jn progress (March 1954). 

DESCRIPTIONS OF MINES AND PROSPECTS 

NELSON COUNTY 

The principal deposits of manganese in Nelson County are near 

Warminster, about midway between the Rockfish River and the Buffalo River. The manganese deposits are associated with the quartzite member of the Mount Athos formation which is enclosed in fissile 

chlorite-muscovite schists. The quartzite is rather conglomeratic and 

highly sheared; it is commonly weathered to fine micaceous sand. 

Marble interbedded with the quartzite is exposed at the northern end 

of the belt near Rockfish River and was found in the northernmost 

mine opening; marble has not been found in the quartzite at the 

various Nelson County mines and prospects farther south, but possibly 

it exists below the limits of weathering. Mining and prospecting have 

been done at different places for a distance of about four miles along 

the strike of the quartzite bed. The principal mines from northeast 

to southwest are the Piedmont, Cabell, Bugley, and Simpson mines; 

they are discussed in detail below. These mines were active between 

1868 and 1887, when eight or nine thousand tons of washed ore is 

reported to have been shipped. A little prospecting and mining were 

done in the county during World Wars I and II. The Cabell and 

Bug ley· properties were explored by the Bureau of Mines in !"942. 

PIEDMONT 

The Piedmont, or Laynesville, mine is located about 11j2 miles north 

of Warminster on property owned by C. D. Larus, Jr. of Richmond, 

V a. According to A. C. Horsley (oral com1nunication), of Manteo, 

the first work on this property was done about 1887 by a Mr. Miller. 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 87 

At a point about half a mile northeast o:f the Cabell mine, a tunnel 

was driven, and a shaft was sunk to a depth of about 150 :feet (loc. 

3, pl. 2). Considerable water was encountered which could not be 

pumped out satisfactorily, although a 12-inch pump was installed. 

The mine was closed doyvn after a serious accident killed two of the · 

1niners. No ore is reported to have been shipped :from the mine at 

this time. In 1917 a shaft was sunk near the old shaft to a depth of 

100 feet by Messrs. Hancock and Bondron, and a drift was run to 

the old workings. No high-grade ore was found, although 21 tons of 

low-grade ore was shipped which analyzed 33 percent Mn, 3.6 percent 

Fe, and 31.8 percent Si02 • Presumably this was cherty ore of the 

type occurring on the dump; quartzite and wad are also present on 

the dump. Two old pits about 10 feet deep (loc. 2, pl. 2) are located 

a fifth of a mile to the northeast. Rotten quartzite is exposed in the 

pits, and some chert with nodular manganese oxides is scattered on 

the dumps. An old water-filled shaft (lpc. 1, pl. 2) is located twofifths of a mile farther northeast; the dump is composed of white to 

gray dolomitic marble,' but no manganese ore is visible. 

CABELL 

The Cabell mine (loc. 4, pl. 2) lies southwest of the Piedmont mine, 

about 1% miles northwest of vVarminster, on property owned by A. R. 

Holladay. It appears to have been the first manganese mine operated 

in the .James River district. During the years 1868-1869, about 5,000 

long tons of washed ore is reported to have been shipped from the 

Cabell mine to England; the mine was closed in 1871 (Weeks, 1886, 

p. 312). All of this ore presumably came from a large open-cut, 

about 250 feet long, 130 feet wide, and 30 feet deep (pl. 3). A. C. 

Horsley, of Manteo, states (oral communication) that in 1917 he 

shipped four carloads of screenings from the old dumps to the 

Bethlehem Steel Co. In .1942 the Cabell deposit was explored by the 

Bureau of Mines by means of trenches, test pits, and a short adit 

or tunnel. 

Much of the manganese ore at the Cabell mine seems to have been 

contained in a surficial layer of red clay. It is one of the few deposits of this type in the district in which the surficial concentration of 

manganese oxides was large enough to be mineable. The country rock 

is quartzite, now thoroughly weathered to loose micaeous sand, that 

encloses several lenses of chert and clay containing manganese oxide 

11odules. Two manganiferous chert seams, 3 to 6 feet thick, dip 30 to 

40 degrees southeast, and are separated by about 35 feet of quartzite 

(pl. 3 and "fig. 5). Some manganese oxides occur in quartzite in a thin 

layer just beneath the western chert seam. A short distance east of the 

open-cut is a caved shaft with considerable manganiferous chert on its 

dump; the shaft evidently cut one of the cherty seams in depth. On 
88 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

N.70°W. Residual concentration of manganese 

oxide nodu soil and red cloy 

S.700E. 

surface 

50 0 100 Feet 

FIGURE 5.-Cross section through open-cut of the Cabell mine (about at right angles to the strike). 

the northeast side of the pit, a manganiferous clay seam was followed 

in the Bureau of Mines adit for a distance of 90 feet. This clay seam, 

eontaining scattered nodules of manganese oxides, is 3 to 6 feet thick 

and has an irregular northeasterly strike with a dip of 35 to 55 degrees 

southeast. The footwall of the sea.m is quartzite, now thoroughly 

rotted, and the hanging wali is a breccia of quartzite blocks in clay; the 

breccia probably resulted from slumping caused by decomposition of 

ealcareous layers. 

Along the eastern side of the pit, a layer of red clay, 8 to 12 feet 

thick, containing many lumps of hard manganese oxides and blocks of 

quartzite and vein quartz, rests on decomposed quartzite. This layer 

of manganiferous red clay extends beyond the open-cut, and has been 

found in prospect pits and trenches in the vicinity to have a thickness 

of 1 to 2 feet. The manganese oxide nodules now present in the surficial red clay, as well as the blocks of quartzite and quartz, evidently 

were released by erosion of the underlying country rock and manganiferous chert and clay seams and accumulated in the surficial red clay 

mantle. Thus, the manganese oxide nodules originally were deposited 

by ground waters in the rock residuum, and during erosion of the deposit have accumulated in the surface cover by reason of their high 

specific gravity and chemical stability. 

The account given by Mills (1871)-the first person to work the deposits-coincides with the independent conclusion of the writer that 

before the start of mining operations the area of the open-cut was covered by a mantle of red clay containing a high concentration of manganese oxide nodules. He says, "Lying on the upper side of the bed 

proper was a layer of stiff red clay from one to ten or· more feet thick, 

and imbedded in it were large quantities of the ore, some of which was 

among the best yielded." The supposed conditions before the start of 

mining are shown in figure 5. If all of the 5,000 tons of washed ore reported to have been produced from the Cabell deposit came from the 
MANGANE.SE MINES AND PROSPEOTS 89 

open-cut, it is evident that the amount of manganese nodules contained 

in the material extracted from the pit must have been ~ather large. A 

rough calculation of the volume of the pit indicates tha(it .would be 

necessary for the mined material to contain about 20.percent manganese oxide nodules by volume in order to yield 5,000 tons of shipping 

product. This material in the pit was composed· 'o{ manga:riiferous 

red clay at the surface, and barren qua:rtzite and manganiferous 'jello~ 

clay, chert, and quartzite in depth. Present .~xposures in ·the· pit of 

manganiferous layers in clay, chert, and quartzite indicate that the 

aJnount of manganese nodules mined from these layers must have been 

a rather minor portion of the total material recovered. The probable 

leanness of the manganiferous layers in the rock residuum is further 

indicated by the fact that little underground mining d·f these layers 

was done by the early miners. Hence, it is concluded that most of the 

ore was produced from the surficial red clay layer, which must have 

contained over 20 percent manganese oxide :hodules·by volume. If this 

interpretation is correct, the Cabell deposit, and probably the Bugley 

deposit, represent unusual cases in this district of exceptionally large 

accumulations of manganese nodules in the surficial Clay and soil. The 

Cabell deposit appears to be nearly mined out now, although the surficial clay layer on the east side of the pit and the manganiferous seams 

in the bedrock contain minor amounts of ore that could be recovered by 

small operations. 

The area southwest of the open-cut has been prospected for a distance of about 1,000 feet by shallow pits and trenches. Scattered oc,. 

currences of manganese oxides were found in the suficial clay and in 

quartzite; the surficial clay layer averages 1 to 2 feet thick southwest 

of the open-cut. Less prospecting has been done to the northeast of the 

open-cut, probably because no float of manganese ore has been found 

to encourage test pitting. 

BUG LEY 

The Bugley mine (loc. 5, pl. 2) is located about half a mile southwest 

of the Cabell mine on land owned by A. R. ·Holladay (pl. 3). It was 

operated at about the same time as the Cabell mine and is reported by 

Weeks ( 1886, p. 312) to have produced about 2,000 tons of ore. This 

ore presumably came from the small open-cuts and underground workings (now caved) that lie several hundred yards northwest of the Holladay residence. The Bugley deposit was prospected by trenches and 

~hallow pits by the Bureau of Mines in 1942. Only sporadic showings 

of nodules of manganese ore in the surficial clay were found. 

Manganiferous chert is present in the dumps from the old workings, 

but it is not exposed in the open-cuts at the present ti~e. The workings appear to have been rather shallow, and it is 'possible that much 

283201-54--7 
90 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

of the ore produced from the deposit was contained in the surficial 

clays, as in the Cabell deposit. 

The Bugley deposit is in the same quartzite bed as the Cabell and 

Piedmont deposits. Mica schist is exposed to the northwest and 

southeast of the quartzite outcrops. Because of the few exposures, 

the width of the quartzite cannot be determined accurately, but it 

probably is about 300 or 400 feet wide. The presence of soluble calcareous layers in the quartzite is suggested by the strongly flowing 

spring northeast of the mine. 

SIMPSON 

The Simpson, or Belmont, mine (locs. 6, 7, 8, 9; pl. 2) is roughly 

2~ miles northwest of Midway Mills, and about 1.1,4 miles southwest 

of the Bugley mine. The mine was first worked in 1882 and is said by 

Weeks (1886, p. 312) to have yielded about 1,200 tons of ore, all 

of which was shipped to Liverpool, England. Weeks also mentions 

the Davis mine inN elson County, which is said to have produced about 

1,000 tons of ore. The following quotation from a short-lived mining 

journal (Anonymous, 1882, p. 104) of the eighties indicates that the 

Davis mine was the same as the Simpson: 

The same company [James B. White and Co. of Pittsburgh, Penn., operators 

of the Crimora mine] in connection with John Stambaugh of Pittsburgh, has purchased the mineral rights of the Davis mine on the Simpson farm, 2 miles from 

Midway Mills, Nelson Co., on line of Richmond and Alleghany Railway, where 

they have already mined some 500 tons and have the very promising mine there 

in condition for raising some 10 tons daily. 

It is not know whether the 1,000 tons of ore reported from the Davis 

mine is included in the 1,200 tons produced by the Simpson mine. 

In 1919 the mine was operated for a short period by the National 

Paint and Manganese Co. of Lynchburg, and 41 tons of ore was produced. During 1941 and 1942, the deposit was being prospected by 

the Virginia Manganese Corp. of Richmond, under the direction of 

L. M. Lee. 

During the eighties, a shaft was sunk to a depth of 165 feet (loc. 7~ 

pl. 2) and is reported by Weeks (1886, p. 312) to have encountered a 

heavy flow of water. The shaft is now caved and inaccessible; two 

shallow pits lie nearby (fig. 6). The dumps from these workings are 

composed mostly of waddy material with small slabby pieces of manganese oxides. A tunnel, now caved, was driven southwest toward 

the shaft, probably for drainage purposes. In some shallow workings 

(loc. 6, pl. 2) to the northeast of the shaft, nodules of siliceous manganese oxides were found. At the head of a gully about 100 yards south 

of the shaft, an inclined tunnel was reopened and some drifting was 

done by the Virginia Manganese Corp. in 1941-42. Folded, sheared 

quartzite that is now thoroughly rotted is exposed at the tunnel mouth 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 91 

~ ,{t 

~ 

~ ~ 

~ lnfe;red position of manganiferous //.? seorn at surface "''l/ 

Prospect ~ ,_.'l~oved tunnel, probably 

pits ..,/ ..,:/ connected to shaft 

\X /' tJIIIIIt"~ 

/X u••:.':Jt}~ OVMP 

,/SHAFT ~Jf / Caved :.: :z/ Brown mongoniferous cloy at B,__ __ _ 

"::;- tunnellevel,3 feet 

~1i,i:.;'~:'"' '""'' 

!'(Mouth of tunnel 

~ " 

DRIFT 

... \:~:~~/"" '\,~-

/ Brown manganiferous cloy, 

2-3 feet 

100 0 

II 

II 

,, 

,, 

II 

II 

II 

·II II , __ !.lJ3~~L~G.!!'!!'!! _______ B' 

u ·------------------~ 

500 Feet 

FIGURE 6.-Sketch map and vertical projections of the Simpson mine, Nelson County, Va. 

and encloses two seams of dark brown, micaceous waddy clay that 

strike northeast and dip about 65 degrees southeast. Slabby lenticles 

of manganese oxides, several inches thick, occur in the westernmost 

clay seam. The tunnel extends in a northerly direction through about 

200 feet of barren, rotten quartzite that is conglomeratic in places. A 

seam of yellow clay at the face of the tunnel has been followed northeast for about 25 feet. This seam has an average thickness of about 

3 feet and dips 60 degrees to the southeast. The clay is of the same 

type that commonly contains nodular manganese oxides at other 

mines, but no manganese minerals were seen in this layer. 

From-the evidence it appears that the Simpson deposit differs from 

the deposits farther northeast in the same quartzite beds in the following respects: ( 1) waddy clay with slab by pieces of hard manganese 

oxide is more· abundant at the Simpson deposit, (2) yellow manganiferous chert seems to be absent from the Simpson deposit, and ( 3) there 

seems to have been very little accumulation of manganese ore in the 

surficial red clay at the Simpson deposit. 

Within a quarter of a mile southwest of the main Simpson shaft 

several old prospect pits (loc. 8, pl. 2) have dumps containing scattered pieces of manganese oxides. About a mile southwest along the 

quartzite ridge from the shaft, and within a distance of 200 yards 

northeast of U. S. Highway 56, is a group of old caved pits and 

trenches where manganese oxide minerals occur as thin fracture fill-
92 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

ings in quartzite and as nodules. The quartzite is conglomeratic and 

weathered to loose sand. 

A little prospecting has been done along the quartzite ridge 3,4 of a 

mile southwest of U.S. Highway 56, but no manganese minerals are 

on the dumps. Manganese is not known to occur in the quartzite southwest of the highway. · 

OTHER PROSPECTS 

Two abandoned shallow prospects occur in the southern part of 

Nelson County. One prospect is an old pit on the quartzite ridge 

about hal£ a mile southwest of Greenw~y (loc.10, pl. 2); siliceous manganese ore is present on the dump. The other prospect is hal£ a mile 

north of Allen Creek, on the southeast flank of Buck Mountain (loc. 

11, pl. 2) ; several shallow pits revealed chert containing manganese 

oxide nodules. 

AMHERS'l' COUNTY 

Although the quartzite member of the Mount Athos formation is 

rather well-distributed in several belts along the James River in Amherst County (pl. 2) , very little manganese ore has been discovered 

in the county and no production has been recorded. On the other 

hand, hematitic iron ore was mined from numerous places in the quartzite belts in Amherst County and southern Nelson County during the 

iron boom of the eighti~. 

CHRISTIAN PROSPECT AND VICINITY 

On the Christian property, about 2 miles northwest of Walker Ford, 

is a shaft (loc. 12, pl. 2) which is said to have been sunk to a depth of 

about 60 feet in the late eighties. The shaft caved while being sunk, 

and a tunnel was started from the gully to the east in order to intersect it; however, local residents state that the tunnel did not reach the 

shaft. Rotten quartzite is exposed in the road bank near the shaft, but 

the only signs of manganese oxides consist of pieces of manganiferous 

brown chert on the dump. Hal£ a mile southwest of the Christian 

prospect, and on a different quartzite bed about 1,000 feet west of 

Route 622 (loc. 13, pl. 2), is an old shallow pit with a few scattered 

pieces of nodular manganese ore. 

PROSPECT NEAR GALTS MILLS 

On the quartzite ridge, about a mile north of Gaits Mills and a 

mile southwest of Round Top (loc. 14, pl. 2), is a small pit containing 

pieces of nodular manganese ore and chert. Numerous prospects for 

specular hematite have been dug in the vicinity. 

STAPLETON AREA 

Weeks (1886, p. 311) mentions the presence of n1angani£erous iron 

ore at Stapleton Mills which gave the following analysis, in percent: 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 

~anganese (~n>---~------------------------------------- 34.56 

Iron (Fe)----------------------------------------------- 22.57 

Phosphorus (P)------------------------------------------ 0.08 

93 

The location of this ore was not discovered during the present study. 

This type of ore would be more likely to be associated with the limonitic iron ores than with the specular hematite ores that have been 

mined in the neighborhood. About 2 miles northeast of Stapleton on 

a hill known locally as "Pudding Hill" (loc. 152, pl. 2), are several old 

opencuts from which limonite was mined. The ore mentioned by 

Weeks may have come from this locality, although it is not certain that 

this limonite is manganiferous. 

BUCKINGHAM COUNTY 

No manganese deposits were recognized during an investigation of 

the small part of Buckingham County that lies in the James River 

manganese district; however, manganese ore has been reported to be 

on the farm of Mrs. W. H. Whalen,6 1 mile down the river from 

Norwood. Watson (1907b, p. 239) mentions the presence of manganese near Willis and Spiers (Spear n Mountains, which lie to the 

east of the James River manganese district area shown on plate 1; the 

nature of these occurrences is not known. A deposit of manganese 

oxideS, said to have been worked in the eighties or nineties, is reported 

near Curdsville,7 about 20 miles east of the area shown in plate 1. 

APPOMATTOX COUNTY 

Manganese deposits occur at various places in the quartzite and 

marble members of the Mount Athos formation that lie in a belt about 

3 miles wide, a short distance east of the James River (pl. 2). Considerable prospecting has been done along this belt, but production 

amounts to only 327long tons of washed ore, most of which came from 

the Stonewall mine during the period 1937-41. Float of nodular 

manganese oxides and manganiferous chert was discovered in the 

course of geologic mapping at a number of places in the northern part 

of the belt where there has been little or no prospecting. 

MOORE 

The Moore prospect (loc. 15, pl. 2) lies on the east flank of the 

prominent quartzite ridge known locally as Gowans Hill, about hal£ 

a mile southwest of the mouth of Wreck Island Creek, on the property 

of Marvin Moore. Two small prospect pits have been dug in the 

hillside; the pits are caved and no rock or ore is now visible. A few 

pieces of nodular manganese ore and numerous large boulders of 

brown chert containing nodules of manganese oxides are scattered 

nearby._ Mr. Moore (oral communi~ation) states that he hns found 

0 Whalen, Mrs. W. H., letter to the Geological Survey, Sept. 14, 1918. 7 Meadows, B. J., two letters to the Geological Survey, 1933. 
94 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

float of nodular manganese ore near a bend in Wreck Island Creek, 

about 2,000 feet northeast of this prospect. 

MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE VICINITY OF BECKHAM AND GOWANS HILL 

Float of nodular manganese ores and brown manganiferous chert 

were found associated with quartzite at a number of places in the 

vicinity of Beckham and Gowans Hill. Practically no prospecting 

has been done in the region. 

The westernmost occurrence is on the Nutall estate at the south end 

of Gowans Hill, where a ledge of quartzite, partly replaced by soft, 

bluish manganese oxides, is exposed in the bank of a small stream 

(loc. 16, pl. 2). Some limonitic iron ore was mined nearby years ago, 

hut it is not known whether manganese ore was ever mined.8 

About a quarter of a mile southeast of Gowans Hill is another belt 

of quartzite along which float of manganese oxides and chert were 

found at a number of places in a mile and a half interval between 

Routes 605 and 623 (locs. 17, 20, and 21; pl. 2). These areas, also on 

the Nutall estate, have not been prospected. Siliceous manganese 

oxides are exposed in this same quartzite belt in the bank of Route 

623. On the Button property, within a quarter of a mile southwest of 

Route 623, large pieces of siliceous, nodular manganese oxides and 

blocks of brown chert are scattered over the ground surface along the 

same quartzite belt (loc. 22, pl. 2) . 

Three-quarters of a mile farther southwest along this quartzite 

ridge, float of nodular manganese ores and ledges of manganiferous 

chert occur abundantly in the gap cutting through the ridge (fig. 7). 

The float of nodular ore appears to be confined to an area several 

hundred feet in diameter on the north side of the gap; no prospecting 

has been done here (loc. 23, pl. 2). This deposit is said to be on land 

owned by the N utall estate. Across the gully to the south is a ledge 

of yellow-brown chert about 15 feet long and 5 feet wide that contains 

nodular manganese oxides and fragments of vein quartz (loc. 24, 

pl. 2). Several shallow pits have been sunk near the chert ledge by 

Aaron Moore. About 400 feet southwest of this ledge are outcrops of 

similar manganiferous chert on the nose of the quartzite ridge south of 

the gap. All these chert outcrops line up in a direction trending 

N. 75° E. and thus appear to trend across the structure of the quartzite 

beds, which strike about N. 30° E. at this point. Exposures are insufficient to reveal the structural environment of the chert; it may 

occur in a fracture cutting across the quartzite beds or it may be in a 

tight drag fold. 

1 It is understood from D. G. Myers and J. Carson Adkerson that some prospecting was 

rlone in 1953 on the Nutall property, probably at locality 16, pl. 2. It is believed that 

some manganese ore was shipped from these workings. 
MANGANESE ~NES AND PROSPECTS 

EXPLANATION 

Quartzite 

Approxima1e contact 

Limit of outcrop 

--E2 

Strike and dip of foliation 

, ..... / / . . . 1 ··Float of · · 

95 

Manganiferous chert 

I . 

1 nodular · Location 23 

1 manganese · 

I 

........ '; 1 oxides • 

~/ 

"'; 

.c,o / -~"' ~' -...."' 

~~~& d/i~G 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

/ ~., I ~,. 

100 0 500 Feet I •• I I I 

~'IGURE 7.-Sketch map of deposit of nodular manganese ore and maganiferous chert on Nutall and Aaron Moore properties, Appomattox County, Va. 

In the quartzite belt to the east of the one just discussed, float of 

nodular manganese ore and brown manganiferous chert were found 

several hundred yards west of the intersection of Routes 605 and 683 

(locs. 18 and 19, pl. 2). No prospecting has been done here. About 

half a mile southwest of this road intersection are a number of old 

pits whose dumps have specular hematite and sn1all amounts of man-

~aniferous chert. 

SCHOOLHOUSE MINE AND NEARBY PROSPECTS 

The Schoolhouse mine ( loc. 27, pl. 2) is located at the bend of 

Route 605, about 800 feet southwest of the intersections of Routes 605 

and 667. Three shallow shafts, 20 to 30 feet deep, were sunk at 150-

foot intervals along the strike by J. M. Mays during 1938 and 1939. 

A carload of washed ore (about 35 tons) was shipped, most of which 

came from the two northernmost shafts. The central shaft is about 

20 feet deep, with two short drifts at the bottom, running 2 feet to 

the· southwest and 8 feet to the northeast. Manganese ore occurs as 

hard, slabby nodules in a zone 1 foot thick at the footwall of a 

yellow clay seam that is 4 to 5 feet thick and dips steeply southeast. 
96 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Rotten quartzite forms the hanging wall of the clay seam, and soft, 

silvery-green quartz mica-schist, which strikes N. 50° E. and dips 60° 

SE., lies in the footwall. 

An old opencut, 10 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter, occurs about 

1,500 feet northeast of the Schoolhouse mine on the next quartzite 

belt to the west (loc. 25, pl. 2). Rotten, coarse quartzite and mica 

schist, striking N. 45° E. and dipping 65° SE., and a seam of yellow 

clay with nodules of siliceous manganese ore a.re exposed in the pit. 

Half a mile northwest of the Schoolhouse mine are two old shallow 

prospect pits on either side of Route 605 (loc. 26, pl. 2). Pieces of 

nodular manganese ores and limonite are scattered around the pits. 

This qeposit is in the same belt of quartzite as the Stonewall mine, 

which lies 3 miles to the southwest. 

STONEWALL 

The Stonewall mine (loc. 30, pl. 2) is on the quartzite ridge half 

a mile northwest of Stonewall Creek on property owned by Kern Mays. 

It is one of the most recently productive mines of the district and was 

first worked for manganese by J. M. Mays in 1937. The VirginiaWisconf?in Manganese Co. operated the mine during 1938, and in 1939 

mining was continued by J. M. Mays. During 1940 and part of 1941 

the mine was worked by the Stonewall Mining Co., Inc. of Lynchburg, 

under the direction of C. W. Ryan. The ore was treated by log 

washing, screening, and jigging, in a small mill that was erected on 

Stonewall Creek half a mile from the mine. Mining was stopped 

and the mill dismantled in the latter part of 1941. The amount of 

washed ore shipped from the Stonewall mine (including approximately 35 tons shipped by J. M. Mays from the Schoolhouse mine) is 

listed below : 

Washed ore Year Shipper (long tons) 

1937 __________ J. li. liays____________________________________ 30 

1938 __________ Virginia-Wisconsin lianganese Co_______________ 41 

1939 __________ J. li. liays____________________________________ 75 

1940-41 ------ StonelValJ liiningCo-------------------------~- 150 

Total _________________________________________________ _ 296 

Manganese ore at the Stonewall mine occurs as ha.rd nodules in two 

seams of yellow clay that strike N. 30° to 40° E. and dip about 70° SE. 

The principal, or hanging-wall, ore body has been followed by an inclined shaft to a depth of 135 feet below the surface (pl. 4). This ore 

body has been la.rgely mined out between the surface and the 62 level 

and has been opened up by the shaft and by small stopes and drifts 

below the 62 level. The footwall ore body, which lies about 15 feet 

northwest of the northeast end of the hanging-wall ore body, is 

smaller and has been mined only above the 35 level. 
~GANESE ~NES AND PROSPECTS 97 

The hanging wall of the manganiferous clay seams that form the 

two ore bodies is porous, coarse quartzite (fig. 8), and the footwall is 

composed of soft, silvery -green mica schist and schistose quartzite. 

The clay is yellow to brown in color and contains abundant muscovite 

flakes. Thin stringers of vein quartz are common. The clay is inconspicuously banded by slight color variations and by thin micaceous 

seams. This layering dips steeply southeast . (conformable to the 

enclosing quartzite and mica schist) and is believed to represent the 

original bedding or a foliation of calcareous layers which has been 

decomposed by ground waters. However, no calcareous rocks are 

exposed in the mine workings. 

The manganese oxide nodules have an elongate or slabby shape and 

occur along the layering of the clay, generally being concentrated in 

specific layers, as shown in figure 8. Above the clay of the footwall 

Southeast Northwest 

FIGURE 8.-Sketch of southwest face of stope between 62 and 76 

levels o:ll the Stonewall mine, Appomattox County, Va. 

ore body is a seam of tan, micaceous chert that contains nodular 

manganese oxides in the same fashion as the clay. 

The manganiferous clay seam of the hanging-wall ore body has a 

length of about 150 feet on the 62 level (pl. 4). The seam ranges from 

3 to 5 feet thick for a distance of about 100 feet along its center and 

pinches down to a thickness of less than a foot at either end. The 

thickest part of the seam has the highest concentration of nodular ·· 

ore. 

The clay seams of the two ore bodies are thought to be on the same 

contact of quartzite and mica schist and to owe their present echelon 

position to tight folds plunging steeply south west; the interpretation 

of the structure is shown in plate 4. The features indicating this structure are as follows: The hanging-wall clay seam is underlain by mica 

schist near its southwestern end (as exposed in the 25-foot long crosscut on the 62 level), but at the northeastern end of the seam 15 feet of 

quartzite was found in its footwall by the crosscuts on the 35 and 62 
98 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

levels. The quartzite in these crosscuts appears to be crushed and 

tightly folded and has lineations plunging steeply southwest. Small 

tight drag folds in quartzite and schist on the 93 and 130 levels also 

plunge southwest. The stopes above the 93level rake to the southwest, 

and the thin northeastern edge of the hanging-wall ore body was 

found to be progressively farther southwest on successively deeper 

levels. These relationships are considered to be strong evidence that 

the two echelon clay seams represent a single calcareous layer, which 

was squeezed or sheared out on the limbs of a tight syncline and 

anticline. 

The quartzite-mica schist contact on which the clay seams are localized is probably not the lower contact of the Mount Athos formation, 

because quartzite is exposed on the surface about 75 feet west of the 

footwall ore body. The mica schist in the footwall of the ore bodies 

thus appears to be a schistose layer within the quartzite member of the 

Mount Athos formation. 

The quartzite in the hanging wall of the manganiferous zone has 

been strongly leached by ground waters; it is now very porous for a 

horizontal distance of 40 feet from the clay seam on the 62 level. 

On the 93 level, the clay just beneath the quartzite hanging wall contains blocks of thoroughly rotted quartzite; these quartzite blocks 

probably slumped into solution cavities and were enveloped by clay 

as the calcareous layer was decomposed. 

The average yield of jig concentrates (washed ore) from the mine 

dirt or manganiferous clay was found by the Stonewall Mining Co. 

(Ryan, C. W., personal com1nunication) to be approximately 1 cubic 

yard of jig concentrates to 15 cubic yards of manganiferous clay; this 

represents a weight ratio of about 1 to 12. One cubic foot of concentrates was found to weigh 125 pounds and to have a porosity of about 

50 percent, thus indicating the nodular ore to have a specific gravity 

of about 4. 

Average analyses of the manganese concentrates shipped from the 

mine are given below; it will be noted that the ore has a high BaO 

content. Some platy crystals of barite, light blue in color, were found 

. by one of the miners, but the mode of its occurrence in the deposit is 

not known. 

Analyses of concentrates skipped from the Stonewall mine 

~anganese (~n) ______________________________ _ 

Iron (Fe) _____________________________________ _ 

Silica (Si 02) ____ - - - _ - - - - - -- _ - -- __ - --- ----- ------ Phosphorus (P) _______________________________ _ 

~oisture (H20) --- _ - - - _--- __ -- __ - - - - ------ - - --- Barium oxide (BaO) _________________ ---- __ ---- _ 

Alumina (AhO,) ____ - ______ ~ _________ -- __ -------

Perunt 

42.0 

4. 80 

7.03 

0. 159 

4. 70 

8. 76 

3. 66 

Tonnage repre· 

aented by 

analyaia 

(lono tona) 

247 

142 

142 

101 

101 

51 

51 
MANGANESE NUNES AND PROSPECTS 99 

The quartzite ridge northeast of the Stonewall mine has been prospected for a distance of about 2,000 feet, by trenches· and pits dug by 

J. M. Mays. In the :four pits that were. sunk to depths ranging from 

10 to 50 :feet, yellow manganiferous clay with chert was :found in layers 

1 to 4 feet thick in decomposed quartzite and mica schist. A cross 

section of the deepest pit or shaft (loc. 29, pl. 2), 2,000 :feet northeast 

of the Stonewall mine, is shown in figure 9. The trenches were only 

NW. 

12-18 inches yellow, sandy } 

cloy and chert with nodules 

of manganese oxides 

10 0 

SE. 

Shaft walls coated 

with red. clay 

30 Feet 

FIGURE 9.-Cross section of prospect shaft (loc. 29, pl. 2) ~000 feet northeast of the 

Stonewall mine,. Appomattox County, va. 

a few feet deep and did not penetrate through the surficial red clay 

mantle. Small :fragments of hard manganese oxides :found in the 

surficial red clay and on th~ ground surface indicated that there has 

been some residual concentration of the hard, resistant manganese 

oxides at the surface through erosion. This residual concentration 

has spread the ore :fragments away from the steeply dipping manganiferous yellow clay and chert seams :from which the fragments 
100 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

were derived, but apparently it has not resulted in large concentration 

of manganese ore in the surficial clay, as is the case at the Cabell mine 

. in Nelson County. 

Several hundred yards southwest of the Stonewall mine manganiferous yellow-brown clay and chert have been found in open-cuts and 

short tunnels dug by J. M. Mays on either side of Route 613. The 

manganiferous clay occurs in two distinct zones lying about 200 feet 

apart (loc. 31, pl. 2) ; quartzite and biotite-muscovite schist crop out 

between the two zones. 

Limonitic iron ore was mined many years ago from three open-cuts 

on the contact between quartzite and the graphitic schist member of the 

Archer Creek formation that lies about 100 yards southeast of the 

Stonewall mine and the manganese occurrence just described along 

Route 613. · 

PROSPECTS SOUTHWEST OF THE STONEWALL 

The quartzite belt in which the Stonewall deposit occurs has been 

prospected for manganese and iron at several places for a distance of 

about a mile southwest of Route 613. The northernmost working is 

a shallow open -cut, 150 feet long and 6 feet wide, that was probably 

worked for its iron deposit many years ago (loc. 169, pl. 2). Blocks 

of micaceous limonite and some pieces of siliceous manganese oxides 

are scattered near the pit. 

A quarter of a mile farther southwest are three caved shafts in 

1 otten quartzite ( loc. 34, pl. 2) ; small piles of manganese ore and' 

quartzite partly replaced by manganese oxides are heaped on the surface. Farther southwest along the quartzite ridge are several other 

old shafts and tunnels in which wad and siliceous manganese oxides 

are exposed (loc. 36, pl. 2). It is not known whether manganese ore 

was ever shipped from any of these openings. 

PROSPECTS IN AND SOUTHWEST OF STONEWALL CREEK VALLEY 

The belt of quartzite along the east side of Stonewall Creek valley 

and the valley to the southwest has been prospected for manganese at1 

about half a dozen places in a distance of about a mile and a half. On 

the bank of Stonewall Creek, a short distance south of the former site 

of the Stonewall washing mill on Route 613, a shallow pit has exposed 

rotten quartzite with two seams of wad, 4 feet and 5 feet thick, and 

another zone, 4 feet thick, in which thin-bedded quartzite is veined and 

partly replaced along the cleavage and joints by a network of thin (oneeighth to half an inch in thickness) seams of soft, bluish manganese 

oxides (loc. 32, pl. 2). Another prospect pit has been sunk approximately 500 feet northeast of the road. The prospect pits along tlie 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS. 101 

valley southwest of Route 613 contained some hard manganese oxides 

and wad (locs. 35 and 37, pl. 2). ·No ore has been shipped from any 

of the prospects on this quartzite belt as far as can be determined by 

the writer. 

HANCOCK-FERGUSON 

The quartzite belt a quarter of a mile northwest of the Stonewall 

mine ridge forms the ridge known as Chestnut Mountain. The Hancock-Ferguson mine (loc. 33, pl. 2) is on this ridge about 2,000 feet 

southwest of Route 613. Two shallow shafts about 60 feet apart were 

sunk here in 1940 by L. C. Hancock of Lynchburg and W. Ferguson, 

and about 6 tons of washed ore was shipped. The southernmost sha:ft 

was sunk to a depth of about 45 feet through rotten quartzite and 

quartz-mica schist. In the east wall of the sha:ft the quartzite is 

greatly brecciated, which is probably due to slumping into solution 

cavities. Soft, bluish manganese oxides and clay form the matrix 

of the breccia rubble, and the quartzite blocks are partly veined and · 

replaced by manganese oxide seams. A trench dug about 800 feet 

southwest of the shaft exposed red clay and rotten quartzite with some 

narrow seams of manganese oxides. 

CHESTNUT MOUNTAIN 

About 1930 some prospecting was done farther southwest along 

Chestnut Mountain by John W. Woodson of Lynchburg. Two shafts 

were sunk, one on the knob (loc. 39, pl. 2) and the other on the saddle 

northeast of the knob; one of the shafts is estimated to be about 90 feet 

deep. Porous quart21ite, with soft, bluish manganese oxides, ·abundantly disseminated throughout, and some wad were discovered in these 

shafts. This type of siliceous manganese ore or manganiferous quartzite evidently represents replacement of quartzite by manganese oxides. 

Considerable float of the siliceous manganese ore is scattered along the 

east face of the knob. Two shallow pits, which were found to contain 

soft, bluish manganese oxides, were dug about half a mile southwest 

along the ridge from the knob ( loc. 40, pl. 2) . An opencut near the 

southwestern end of Chestnut Mountain, dug years ago for iron ore, 

exposed siliceous specular hematite. 

Analyses of selected samples of manganese ore from the Woodson 

prospects are quoted by Furcron (1935, p. 107) from an unpublished 

report by E. E. Barnard and C. W. Ryan, of I.Aynchburg, in regard to an 

examination of the property irt 1930. These analyses (Nos.l to 3) are 

repeated below, together with a new analysis of the siliceous ore 

(No.4): 
102 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA.. 

Analyses of m.anga;nese ore, in percent, from Woodson prospects, Ohest'YI/Ut 

Mountain, Appomattox County, Va. 

2 3 4 

Manganese (Mn) ___ ----------------------------------- 42.05 11.63 21.29 21.0 

Iron (Fe)-··--------------------------------------------- 1. 44 29. 31 4. 35 3. 8 

Phosphorus (P>---------------------------------------- . 254 . 214 .122 ------------ Silica (Si02) ___ ----------------------------------------- 8. 00 29. 04 41. 80 ------------ Insoluble (Si02, etc.>------------------------------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ 55.7 

1. A picked sample of high grade ore from vein near surface. W. W. Cash, Jr. (LavinoJFurnace, Lynch- burg), Analyst. · 2. A typical sample of wad from the footwall of the vein. W. W. Cash, Jr. (Lavino Furnace& Lynchburg), Analyst. 

3. An average sample of the replaced quartz-mica wall. W. W. Cash, Jr. (Lavino Furnace, Lynchburg), Analyst. 4. Sample of siliceous ore (similar to number 3) collected by G. H. Espenshade and R. A. Lindblom, 

Analyzed by Bureau of Mines. 

BILL FERGUSON 

The Bill Ferguson mine (loc. 28, pl. 2) is on the quartzite ridge west 

of Chestnut Mountain and bordering on the James River, about a mile 

north of the Stonewall mine. The deposit was opened with shallow 

workings in 1941 and about 25 tons of washed ore is said to have been 

shipped. Two shafts, about 30 feet apart, were sunk to depths of 30 

feet and the ground between the shafts was partly mined. Nodular 

manganese oxides occur in a seam of yellow clay that is 2 to 3 feet 

thick and is bordered on the northwest by a layer of rotten mica schist 

2 feet thick. 

The clay and schist seams are enclosed on both walls by rotten quartzite, whose cleavage strikes N. 35° E., dips nearly vertically, and has a 

strong lineation that plunges 45 o SW. Surficial red clay with pieces 

of hard manganese oxides is exposed in the upper part of the workings. 

Wad and soft, bluish manganese oxides were found in two shallow pits 

dug in the same quartzite belt about 1,500 feet to the northeast. Two 

old pits are located several hundred feet southwest of the Bill Ferguson 

mine; considerable limonite and brown chert are scattered nearby. 

G. CABELL :PRO:PERTY 

A mile and a half southwest of the Bill Ferguson mine, float of hard 

manganese oxides is found in the same quartzite belt on the G. Cabell 

property ( loc. 38, pl. 2). 

CAMPBELL COUNTY 

The belt of manganese deposits extends southwestward through 

Campbell County for a distance of about 30 miles from the Appomattox County line east of Lynchburg to Altavista and Leesville on the 

Roanoke River. Manganese mining and prospecting has been far 

more active in Campbell County than elsewhere in the district. The 

first recorded production in the county was from the Leets mine, near 

Mount Athos, in 1880 (Weeks, 1886, p. 310-311). The Campbell 
~GANESE ~ES AND PROSPECTS 103 

County mines have produced over 40,000 long tons o£ washed ore, or 

n1ore than 80 percent o£ the total production o£ the district. About 

30,000 tons was shipped £rom the Piedmont mine; other large producers have been the Saunders mine and the Loots mine. The rest o£ the 

county's production has been £rom a dozen or so smaller mines, o£ 

which only £our-the Theresa, Mortimer, Bishop, and Lucas-are 

known to have shipped over 500 tons o£ ore. There was considerable 

prospecting activity in the county just be£ore and during World War 

II; the operation o£ the Otter River Mining Co. on a group o£ properties near Lynch was one o£ the more ambitious enterprises. During 

1942-1943, the Piedmont, Bell, Mortimer, Russell Den Hollow, and 

Saunders mines were explored by the Bureau o£ Mines. 

Two o£ the Campbell County mines have the distinction o£ being the 

deepest mines in the district; the Leets mine reached a depth o£ 312 

£eet be£ore it was closed in 1935, and the Piedmont mine workings extended to about 240 £eet below the sur£ace when shut down in 1918. 

The ore extracted from the other mines came £rom workings at 13hallow 

depths; £ew were more than 100 £eet deep. 

J'OSHUA CREEK 

The quartzite belt extending southwest £rom Chestnut Mountain was 

prospected many years ago on either side o£ Joshua Creek (loc. 42, pl. 

2). On the northeastern side o£ the creek can be seen an open-cut and 

a tunnel with dumps containing slabby pieces o£ manganese ore and 

quartzite that is veined and partly replaced by manganese oxides; no 

nodular ores were seen. The dumps were partly reworked by screening in 1941, and about a carload o£ ore was shipped. The other prospect, a caved sha£t, is on the ridge 1,000 £eet southwest o£ Joshua 

Creek; a £ew pieces o£ manganese ore are scattered nearby. 

ltOUNT ATHOS 

Two caved sha£ts, about 100 £eet apart, are located on the crest o£ 

Mount Athos midway between Joshua Creek and Slippery Creek (loo. 

43, pl. 2). Thin stringers o£ soft, bluish manganese oxides occur in a 

zone about 10 £eet thick o£ red clay and rotten quartzite. Blocks o£ 

yellow-brown chert with nodular manganese oxides are present on the 

dumps. 

PRO~ECTS BETWEEN J'OSHUA CREEK KINE AND OLD TAVERH :rROSPECT 

A small amount o£ shallow prospecting has been done on the two 

quartzite belts between the Joshua Creek mine and the Old Tavern 

prospect, located 2 miles to the south (locs. 44 and 46, pl. 2'). Wad 

and a small amount o£ nodular ore were £ound at the northern prospect; wad appears to be the principal manganese mineral at the 

southern prospect. 
104 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MA_NGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

OLD TAVERN 

Two shafts, now caved, were sunk about 1915 near the old tavern at 

the bend in the old Richmond-Lynchburg stagecoach road (loc. 48, 

pl. 2). Rotten quartzite, red clay, and micaceous wad occur on the 

dumps, and quartzite is exposed in one of the shafts. There is no· 

record that any ore was ever shipped. The same quartzite ridge has 

been prospected at two places (loes. 45 and 47, pl. 2) between the Old 

Tavern mine and the county line, about a mile to the northeast. The 

two large open-cuts near the county line are said to have been dug 

about 1900. Wad is the predominant manganese mineral present at 

all these prospects. · 

RYAN 

Some prospecting for manganese was done in 1930 and 1931 by J.D. 

Ryan at a point about half a mile south of the Old Tavern prospect 

and half a mile northeast of Archer Creek (loc. 49, pl. 2). Three 

shafts had been put down many years before in a search for iron ore. 

Ryan sank his southernmost shaft to a depth of 85 feet in a clay seam 

with quartzite walls. Bluish, siliceous manganese oxides, quartzite, 

yellow-brown chert, and specular hematite, are present on the dumps. 

Manganese minerals were encountered in the clay at a depth of 40 

feet according to Mr. Ryan's son (oral communication) ; the ore shoot 

appeared to plunge southwest, and was followed by an incline for 25 

feet. The other shaft sunk by Ryan is about 100 yards to the northeast 

and is said to have reached a depth of 65 feet; siliceous manganese ore 

also occurs on the dump of this shaft. 

LEETS 

The Leets mine (also known as the Whitman, Mount Athos, or 

Smithson mine) is located on the nose of a hill overlooking Archer 

Creek, about 114 miles upstream from· its mouth (loc. 50, pl. 2). The 

property is owned by J. B. Trent of Lynchburg. The mine was worked 

as early as 1880, and may possibly have been worked before that date. 

Britton ( 1881) described operations at a manganese mine "three or 

four hundred yards south of the Norfolk and Western R.R." near 

Mount Athos; this description very probably refers to the Leets mine~ 

The mine was being worked by two drifts in the hillside at that time. 

The recorded production from 1880 to 1888 was 1,216 tons, but the total 

production at this time may have been larger because Wee~s (1885, 

p. 310) states: " ... next to the Crimora mine {which had produced 

some 50,000 tons of ore up to 1885) this Mount Athos mine yielded 

the largest amount. of high-grade manganese of any mine in the country." Operations at the mine were apparently discontinued during 

the late eighties or early nineties. The Leets mine seems to have 

been idle until 1933 when it was reopened by Mr. Smithson of the 
~NGANESE ruaNES AND PROSPECTS 105 

Southern Mines and Metals Co., Inc. and operated until 1935, when 

the shafts and buildings were destroyed by fire. A shaft was sunk 

to a depth of 312 feet, about 185 feet below the elevation of Archer 

Creek mine, or about 120 feet below the level of the James River 

(fig. 10). 

Most of the ore mined by Smithson was taken out between 200 and 

230 feet below the surface. The recorded production d:uring this 

period of operation is 975 long tons of washed ore. 

Analyses of some of the ore shipped from the Leets mine by the 

Southern Mines and Metal Co. to the National Paint and Manganese 

Co. of Lynchburg are given below: 

Analyses of manganese ore shipped from Leel3 mine, 1933-35 

Tonnage represented by 

analysis 

Percent (long tons) 

Manganese (Mn)___________ __________________ 45.2 412 

Iron (Fe)____________________________________ 5. 0 370 

Silica (Si02)---------------------------------- 11.8 370 

The mine workings are now caved and inaccessible and little can be 

seen of the mode of occurrence of the ore. On the northwest wall of 

the open-cut by the main shaft, coarse quartzite is exposed with a 

rolling structure that strikes N. 30°-60° E. and dips vertically 

(fig. 10). 

The Leets mine was visited several times by D. F. Hewett of the 

Geological Survey during its operation by Smithson. Hewett observed that manganese oxide nodules occurred in seams of micaceous 

clay enclosed in quartzite in the lower part of the mine. The following description and map (fig. 11) of the geology on the lowest level, 

the 300-foot level, are taken from Hewett's field notes ( 1934). 

The country rock on the 300-foot level is feldspathic quartzite with 

zones of chlorite schist 1 foot thick. The quartzite strikes N. 20°-

300 E., and dips 80°-90° SE. It has a persistent parting and breaks 

into slabs 3 to 12 inches thick. On the lower levels it is coherent but 

breaks into sand after exposure in the mine workings. No marble was 

found in the mine, although blue marble is exposed in Archer Creek 

about 500 feet northwest and 400 feet southeast of the tunnel mouth. 

On the 300-foot level there are four ore zones in which manganese 

oxides occur as streaks and slabs in micaceous clay. The main ore 

zone, 15 to 20 feet thick, is the farthest to the southeast. This zone 

yielded the ore in the upper part of the mine and was explored to a 

depth of 230 feet. The middle two zones are thin seams of clay and 

sand and contain little ore. The northwestern zone was in timbered 

ground at the time of Hewett's visit, and he was unable to verify the 

mine operator's report that it contained manganese oxides. The main 

283201-54-8 
106 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA . 

. EXPLANATION 

EE3 

Quartzite and quartz-mica schist 

Mica ~ schist 

Contact .··· 

Limit of-.o~tcrop -+-

Strike of vertical foliation 

FJ 

Wad and cloy 

0 

Manganese oxide nodules 

0~ Open cuts 

fl 

Shaft 

X 

Prospect pit 

>--< Prospect trench 

Tunnel 

100 0 

Geology and topography by pace 

and compass,t~nd barometer. 

G. H. Espenshade • 1940 

800 Feet 

Contour interval 20 feel 

Ootum approximately mean sea level 

FIGURE 10.-Geologic map of the Leets mine area, Campbell County, Va. 
~GANESE ruGNES AND PROSPECTS 107 

Northwest ore 

zone,4 -6ft wid 

EXPLANATION 

Country rock is quartzite 

with thin schist seams 

85 

-AStrike and dip of foliation 

Ore zone 

~ Bottom of shaft 

~'-, Caved wOrkings 

25 

I 

0 

I 

Clay zone with ore, 

l- 2ft wide 

Clay zone with ore, 

3-4ft wide 

Main ore 

zone 

50 Feet 

I 

Mopped by D. F. Hewett, 1934 

FIGURE 11.-Map of the 300-foot level of the Leets mine, Campbell County, Va. 
108 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

ore zone and the fractured quartzite yielded a strong flow of water. 

The ground was very heavy and required close timbering. 

The manganese ore on the 300-foot level of the Leets mine, 120 feet 

below the level of the ,James River, is .the deepest occurrence of manganese oxides known in the district. Because it is believed that the 

ground-water table at the time the ore deposit was formed was considerably higher relative to the present outcrop of the deposit than is 

the present table, it appears that ground water solutions must have 

descended along permeable channelways to depths of several hundred 

feet below the table (Hewett, 1935). 

The quartzite containing the Leets deposit cannot be traced to the 

northeast of Archer Creek, and it is probable that this quartzite bed is 

cut out to the northeast by faulting (pl. 1). A few shallow prospects 

have been dug on the ridge between the main shaft and the Mt. Athos 

schoolhouse to the southwest (fig. 10). In the road cut near the schoolhouse, several zones of red clay and wad in rotten quartzite and quartzite conglomerate are exposed. Four old caved shafts and an open-cut 

(loc. 51, pl. 2) are located several hundred feet southwest of the road. 

Rotten quartzite is exposed in two of the shafts, and some. pieces of 

nodular manganese oxides are scattered on the dump. Considerable 

work was done here in former years, but it is not known whether any 

ore was produced. In the gully to the northwest, a tunnel has been 

driven southeast toward the ridge, and another tunnel driven northwest from the gully on the southeastern side of the ridge. Neither 

of these tunnels seems to have cut the ore zone. During 1941 a shaft 

was sunk by J. B. Trent to a depth of about 40 feet just south of the 

schoolhouse road. Yellow, micaceous clay with some nodular manganese oxides was found, but the manganese content appears to have 

been small. 

A shallow prospect pit on the same belt of quartzite, about 2,000 feet 

southwest of these diggings and just north of U.S. Highway 460 (loc. 

54, pl. 2) has exposed brecciated quartzite and vein quartz cemented 

by manganese oxides. The quartzite ridge, lying 1,000 feet to the e~st 

of the Leets mine, has also been prospected for manganese by shallow 

pits at several places (locs. 52 and 53, pl. 2), and some manganese 

oxides and limonite have been discovered. 

DRINKARD AND NEARBY PROSPECTS 

The Drinkard (Hebert) prospect (loc. 60, pl. 2) lies _on the same 

quartzite belt as the Leets deposit, about 3A, of a mile southwest of U. S. 

Highway 460, on property owned by L. W. Drinkard. It was prospected during 1940-41 by J.D. Hebert of Roanoke, Virginia, who sank 

a shaft to a depth of 43 :feet and dug several shallow trenches. The 

shaft opened up a seam about 5 feet thick o:f yellow and red clay con-
~GANESE ~NES AND PROSPECTS 109 

taining hard manganese oxides, wad, and limonite. The clay seam 

strikes N. 30° E., dips 85° SE., and is enclosed in decomposed, micaceous quartzite. 

About 200 yards southwest of the Hebert shaft is a group of three 

old prospects pits showing quartzite partly replaced by manganese 

oxides. In an old shallow digging 2,000 feet northeast of the Hebert 

shaft porous quartzite containing brown manganese oxides is exposed 

(loc. 59, pl. 2). On the next belt of quartzite to the east, several shallow shafts dug many years ago exposed quartzite partly replaced by 

manganese oxides,· and brecciated vein quartz cemented by iron and 

manganese oxides (loc. 61, pl. 2). Two caved pits are located about 

34 of a mile west of the Hebert shaft in the belt of quartzite that forms 

the Mount Athos ridge (loc. 58, pl. 2); no manganese minerals are 

visible on the dumps. 

PIEDMONT 

The Piedmont mine (loc. 57, pl. 3), also called the Lerner or Myers 

mine, is on the flanks of a low hill between Little Beaver Creek and 

U. S. Highway 460, about 10 miles east of Lynchburg. Iron ore was 

mined from a number of pits near here during the 19th century and 

was smelted at the old Oxford iron furnace on Beaver Creek about half 

a mile north of the mine. The mining and prospecting for iron ore 

apparently led to the discovery of the manganese deposits, which were 

mined from about 1890 to 1918. D. F. Hewett (1916, p. 49-54) examined the mine in 1914 and 1915 and gives the following account of 

the history of operations : 

Manganese was first mined here in the early nineties by the Lerner Mining 

Co. from pits near the Josephine shaft. From 1902 to 1912, under the ownership 

of the Piedmont Manganese Co., ore was drawn from the Josephine shaft to a 

depth of 105 feet, but the most vigorous development took place from 1912 to 

1914. During this period the lessee, the Piedmont Manganese Corporation of 

New York, built a narrow-gage tramway from the mill to the Chesapeake & Ohio 

Railway, extracted ore to a depth of 150 feet from the Josephine shaft, and sank 

the new Oxford shaft 190 feet deep. The Oxford Mining and Manganese Co. 

sank the Oxford shaft to 208 feet in 1915 and mined ore to that level. The present owner is sinking the same shaft with the intention of mining the deeper ores. 

It is reported that the total yield from the Josephine shaft between the 105- and 

190-foot levels was 5,052 tons, and the total production from all workings on the 

hill about 30,000 tons of washed ore. 

Several other shafts and tunnels had been dug in the manganiferous 

zone to the northeast of the main ore body prior to Hewett's examination (pl. 5). . 

Since then, the main ore body has been mined to a depth of 10 or 15 

feet below the 208level. D. G. Myers, present owner of the property, 

reports that a winze was sunk 25 feet below this mined portion and 

was still in ore. A shaft was also sunk 1,500 feet northeast of ~he Ox-
110 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

ford shaft from which some pyrolusite is said to have been mined (loc. 

56, pl. 2). In 1918 the property was explored by diamond drilling by 

the Bethlehem Steel Co. Mining operations were suspended the same 

year as a result of decline in the price of manganese, and the mine was 

inactive from then until1945 or 1946 when the Myers Chemical Co. 

started mining wad (probably from near loc. 56) for the manufacture 

of manganese sulfate to be used in fertilizer. The main workings are 

now caved and inaccessible. The Bureau of Mines explored the property by diamond drilling, trenching, and test-pitting in the spring of 

1942, and again by several diamond-drill holes in late 1943. 

The Piedmont has been the most productive mine in the district 

with a yield of about 60 percent of the total production. Although 

the main deposit was relatively small in size, it was favored with an 

unusually nigh manganesn content because the yield of washed ore 

was between one-third and two-thirds of the weight of mined material. 

Mining and exploratory work at the Piedmont mine have shown 

that the manganiferous zone containing the main ore body and other 

deposits to the northeast is along the contact of quartzite (which forms 

the hanging wall of the ore zone) and marble. Rock exposures in 

the vicinity of the Oxford and Josephine shafts are few and consist 

of isolated outcrops of quartzite and tough muscovite schists containing garnet and magnetite (pl. 5). Marble does not crop out near 

the shafts, but it is well exposed with thin beds of quartzite in Little 

Beaver Creek, 700 feet southwest of the Josephine shaft. The mine 

workings and exploratory drilling have given considerable information on the distribution of quartzite and marble, which has provided 

the basis for locating the approximate positions of formation contacts 

on the surface (pl. 5). The general strike is about N. 30° E., with 

apparently minor local deviations from this trend. The formations 

dip to the northwest at 60° to 80° as a rule. Near the surface, the 

widths of both the quartzite and marble seem to vary, from 30 to 60 

feet for the quartzite, and from 70 to 90 feet for the marble. 

The main ore body is an elongate lens with its longest dimension 

(more than 200 feet) down the dip, and a strike length of about 125 

feet. Maximum thickness of the lens is 25 to 30 feet. The deposit 

strikes' about N. 20° E. and dips from 70° NW. to nearly vertically 

beneath the quartzite hanging wall. Marble forms the footwall of the 

ore body and extends fron1 the Oxford shaft to the ore body on the 

208 level. The deposit appears to have changed very little, either in 

shape or in ore content, from ·the surface to the bottom of mining 

(pl. 6). 

The Piedmont mine was visited by Harder (1910, p. 38--40) in 1909 

when it was being operated on the SO-foot level of the Josephine 

shaft. . He gives the following account of the occurrence of the ore: 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 111 

The ore occurs in kidneys or large masses and is mainly in the form of 

granular pyrolusite, either massive or with concentric structure. Crystalline 

pyrolusite and amorphous steel-blue psilomelane are associated with it but are 

much less abundant. Lenses of quartz, fragments of unaltered rock, and cavities 

lined with botryoidal surfaces likewise occur in the ore masses. The ore locally 

may compose 85 or 90 percent of the ore-bearing clay, forming a nearly solid body 

with interestices filled with clay, while elsewhere more than half the layer may 

be clay in which the ore is embedded in lumps. The micaceous clay footwall is 

light brown, dark brown, or gray, by layers, and is residual from mica schist. 

The layers and schistosity have the same strike and dip as the ore-bearing layer. 

The footwall clay is similar to the clay associated with the ore and grades 

imperceptibly into it. 

Harder wrongly identified the hanging wall quartzite as granite; 

the true character of this formation was recognized by Hewett during 

his examinations. The nature and occurrence of the ore as observed 

by Hewett (1916, p. 52) are described below: 

In addition to sporadic pockets northeast of the mill, the southern belt contains 

two considerable masses of ore. The more southwestern and larger has been 

mined through the Josephine and Oxford shafts, and the other through shafts 

marked 5 and 6 [pl. 5]. These two masses are separated by an area of unaltered 

barren mica schist. Masses of soft manganese-bearing clay and wad were 

found in the tunnels at the point marked 4, but these tunnels have not yet 

disclosed much hard ore. The writer's observations of the larger deposit were 

confined to a part of the 208-foot level of the Oxford shaft, the Josephine shaft 

having been abandoned in 1913. The map showing the extent of the workings 

from these two shafts [fig. 6 of Hewett's, simplified in pl. 6, A of this report] 

is based on surveys by the company. The explorations from these shafts to a 

depth of 208 feet and for a horizontal distance of 175 feet show that manganese 

ore and clay formed a well-defined lens that pitched steeply to the southwest 

along the planes of schistosity. The maximum width of successively lower levels 

has ranged from 22 to 30 feet, and according to the maps of the several levels 

ore has been mined for a distance of 125 feet and explored a short distance 

farther. All ·the material from the lens was mined, and the yield of washed 

ore ranged from one third to two thirds of the weight of mine dirt. The average 

yield is considerably higher than any other on record from mines west of the 

Blue Ridge. 

The diamond-drilling projects of the Bureau of Mines in 1942 (holes 

1, 2, and 3), and 1943 (holes 4, 5, and 5A), were directed to explore 

the extension of the main ore body beneath the old mine workings 

(pl. 6). Drillhole 1 cut the contact between quartzite and marble at 

a depth about 170 feet vertically below the 208 level or about 135 feet 

below the bottom of the winze sunk in ore by the Myers family (pl. 

6, B). No manganese oxides were found in this hole, arrd the quartzite and marble were found to be quite fresh and unaffected by ground 

water action; core recovery in this interval was practically complete. 

The n1anganiferous zone was cut in drill hole 3, between 18 arrd 34 

feet beneath the 208 level, and in drill hole 4, between 43 and 48 feet 

below the 208 level (pl. 6, B and D) . Core recovery in the ore zone in 
112 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

these holes was very poor ; only a few pieces of hard manganese oxides 

were recovered in drill hole 3, and not much information was obtained 

on the nature of. the ·ore body. Drill hole 2 penetrated old workings 

above the 208 level and the hole was stopped (pl. 6, C). Drill holes 

5 and 5A were drilled from the southeast side of the deposit to test 

the possibility that the dip of the ore body reversed below the 208 

level; these holes were entirely in footwall mica schist and marble 

(pl. 6, E). 

Although drilling did not succeed in providing information about 

the size and grade of the ore deposit below the 208 level, it showed 

that the ore deposit probably pinches out somewhere in the interval 

of about 125 feet vertically between the ore zone intersection of drill 

hole 4 and the quartzite-marble contact cut in drill hole 1 (pl. 6, B). 

These two drill holes also show that the quartzite-marble contact 

becmnes steeper in depth, perhaps dipping steeply to the southeast. 

Drill hole 3, on the other hand, indicated a. flattening of the ore zone 

below the 208 level to a dip of about 35°. This low dip is difficult 

to reconcile with the dip of 60° to 70° indicated within a short distance 

by drill hole 4; possibly the thick part of the ore zone penetrated by 

drill hole 3 may lie in a minor fold where dips are more gentle than 

normal. Drilling further indicated that the quartzite is considerably 

thinner in depth than is suggested by the few surface outcrops. In 

drill hole 1 only 10 feet of quartzite was intersected; this corresponds 

to a true thickness of about 5 feet. 

Smaller deposits have been prospected and mined to the northeast 

of the main ore body along the contact between quartzite and marble. 

D. G. Mye.rs (oral communication) stated to the writer that a crosscut 

to the north from the Oxford shaft at the 70-foot level went through 

about 40 feet of wad into sand spotted with pea-size pieces of soft, 

bluish manganese oxides. This occurrence would probably lie about 

100 feet to the northeast of the northeastern end of the main ore 

body. Ore was also mined about 400 feet farther northeast, from 

shafts 5 and 6 (pl. 5) , and has been found 1,500 feet northeast of the 

1nain deposit, beyond the limits of the area shown in plate 5. The 

manganiferous zone beyond the main deposit was also explored by 

the Bureau of Mines by trenches and by two test shafts. Test shaft 

1, 180 feet south of the deposit, was sunk to a depth of 16 feet, and 

a crosscut driven in both directions; wad with sparse pieces of 

hard manganese ore was found in the crosscut. Test shaft 2, 300 feet 

northeast of the main deposit, was put down to 45 feet; a crosscut at 

the bottom was in wad streaked with red clay. The crosscuts of both 

shafts had quartzite in their northwest faces and mica schist in the 

southeast faces. The wad zone cut in both crosscuts probably represents the full width of the marble beds at these two localities. 
~GANESE ~NES AND PROSPECTS 113 

The grade and extent of the main deposit beneath the old mine 

workings is conjectural and can be satisfactorily determined only by 

following the ore downward by mine workings, either by reopening 

the Oxford shaft or by sinking a new shaft nearby. Core drilling 

has not proved to be a successful method of exploring these deposits in 

which hard manganese oxide nodules and masses are irregularly distributed in soft clay. The manganiferous zone appears to have been 

fairly well explored on either side of the main deposit for a distance 

of 450 feet northeast of the Oxford shaft and 180 feet southwest of 

the Josephine shaft, and it is unlikely that an undiscovered deposit 

exists in this stretch of ground that is comparable in size to the main 

ore body. If exploration is undertaken in the future, it might best 

be directed toward the unexplored part of the manganiferous zone, 

lying northeast of the tunnels, marked 4, and southwest of the old 

shaft, marked 10, towardLittleBeaver Creek (pl. 5). The marble belt 

is wide and persistent here, and it is possible that deposits of wad, 

similar to those found in the crosscuts from the Bureau of Mines test 

shafts, may be found at other places along the marble belt. 

Hewett (1916, p. 54} has discussed the origin of the Piedmont 

deposit; he pointed out that it probably was formed in early Tertiary 

time and that this deposit of superficial origin persists to a depth 

of more than 130 feet below the nearby stream. He concluded that 

the deposit was formed by replacement of quartz-mica schist, and that 

the manganese was probably not derived from the adjacent wall 

rock, because they are fresh and their micas do not 'Contain manganese. 

The present study has shown, however, that the marble at the Piedmont mine has a low manganese content (see table 2), and it is now 

believed that the source of manganese was beds of marble and calcareous quartzite that have been completely weathered away. The 

manganiferous ground wa,ter solutions replaced clay that was probably 

residual from marble and quartz-mica schist. 

The lenticular shape of the main deposit (elongate down the dip) 

and the high manganese content suggest that the ground water solu- _ 

tions were confined to a rather restricted channel way in which circulation was deep while the deposit was being formed. This deep circulation along pronounced but restricted channels may be attributed partly 

to local stratigraphic (presence of calcareous quartzite) and structural 

conditions and partly to favorable surface drainage conditions during 

the period of origin. Evaluation of the relative effects of these different factors is impossible to determine, because the local drainage conditions of early Tertiary time are, of course, unknown, and the present 

geologic conditions are not known in sufficient detail. Although minor 

flexures appear to exist, and the quartzite is variable in thickness and 

perhaps in carbonate content as well, these features cannot be recogI 
114 GEOLOGY OF JAME8-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

nized from mapping of surface outcrops alone because of the very poor 

exposures. Hence, our knowledge of the Piedmont deposit provides 

very little specific information to guide the search for similar deposits 

elsewhere in the region. It may be possible that the marble and calcareous quartzite have a higher manganese content at this point than 

is usual for the calcareous beds of the Mount Athos, or that local 

ground water conditions were especially favorable during the period 

of manganese deposition. On these assumptions then, the quartzitemarble belt extending a mile or more to the southwest and northeast of 

the Piedmont mine might well be regarded as favorable prospecting 

ground. 

HARVEY 

The Harvey mine (loc. 63, pl. 2}, lying about 1% miles southwest of 

U. S. Highway 460, was opened between 1910 and 1915; it is reported 

that about 100 tons of ore was shipped. The mine was visited by 

IIewett (1915) in 1915 when a two-compartment shaft had been sunk 

to a depth of 80 feet. Several shallow diggings lie within a few 

hundred feet of the shaft, which is now caved and inaccessible. 

Quartzite is the most abundant material on the dump. Hard manganese oxides occur as disseminations in a coarse quartzite and chert, 

as fracture fillings in quartzite, and as botryoidal coatings about an 

eighth of an inch thick on quartzite and chert. The manganese oxides 

forming fracture fillings and surface coatings evidently were deposited 

in open spaces. 

About 2,000 feet ~outhwest of the Harvey shaft, on the same quartzite ridge, is an old pit, 15 feet deep, in quartzite and red clay (loc. 64, 

pl. 2). A small pile of hard, micaceous manganese oxides lies near the 

pit. Half a mile northeast of the Harvey shaft is an old digging that 

exposed sandy wad (loc. 62, pl. 2). Several thousand feet farther 

northeast, seams of impure wad are exposed in the same quartzite belt 

along the abandoned stretch of U. S. Highway 460. This quartzite 

belt was also prospected years ago to the north of the highway ( loc. 55, 

pl. 2} . The northernmost of these pits was cleaned out about 1940 

by J.D. Ryan, exposing a 10-foot thickness of red clay and micaceous 

sandy wad with irregular stringers of soft, bluish manganese oxides, 

lh- to ·%-inch thick. This locality is probably the one mentioned by 

Hewett (1916, p. 51-52} where a 40-foot shaft was sunk some years 

prior to 1915. Hewett noted that wad appeared to be the principal 

manganese mineral occuring at this particular locality. 

LINDSAY 

About 2 miles southwest of the Piedmont mine, the same quartzite 

belt has been prospected for iron and manganese on the W. T. Lindsay 

• 
~GANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 115 

property near the Norfolk and Western Railroad. Pieces of likely 

looking manganese ore are scattered around an old prospect pit 30 feet 

south of the tracks (loc. 66, pl. 2), but there are no exposures to reveal 

the nature of the deposit. Four old pits dug for iron ore (loc. 186, pl. 

2) are located several hundred feet east of the manganese prospect; 

siliceous limonite with lt prominent relict schistosity is present on the 

dumps. Several hundred yards northeast of these prospects are some 

old shallow trenches in which iron and manganese oxides associated 

with quartzite and chert were found. 

About 14 of a mile southwest of the railroad is another group of old 

shallow prospects that exposed limonite and manganese oxides (loc. 

67, pl. 2). Both white and blue marble are exposed downstream 

from these prospects; nearby is an abandoned marble quarry and a 

kiln where marble was burned for lime. Wad is well exposed across 

a width of 100 feet in the nearby road cut. Doubtless, the wad was 

formed from the decmnposition of white marble, and it is believed 

that a considerable thickness of white marble is p~esent here. Farther 

southwest along the strike, white and blue marble are exposed at 

numerous places along Beaver Creek Valley. About a mile southwest 

of the prospects described above, W. T. Lindsay (oral communication) 

reports that hard manganese oxides are frequently plowed up on the 

east side of the quartzite belt. Barite has been found in white marble 

at a number of places along Beaver Creek Valley; these occurrences 

are described under the Carson barite mine. 

A group of shallow pits has been dug half a mile northeast of the 

railroad on the extensions of the belt toward the Piedmont mine 

( loc. 65, pl. 2) . Wad was found in two of the pits, but the other pit 

was dug in mica schist in which manganese minerals appeared to be 

very scarce. 

NEIGHBOURS 

The Neighbours mine (loc. 70, pl. 2) is on the nose of a quartzite 

ridge about 31h miles north of Rustburg along the South Boston line 

of the Norfolk and Western Railroad. Some mining was done here 

in 1938 by L. R. Neighbours, owner of the property, and during 1940 

and 1941 by the Otter River Mining Co.; about 60 tons of ore is said 

to have been shipped. The or~ was mined from a shaft about 50 feet 

deep and from several tunnels near the crest of the ridge. Slabby 

nodules of manganese oxides occur in a seam of yellow clay that is 

enclosed in quartzite and dips 70° to the southeast. In an open-cut 

near the shaft, the following section across the strike of the manganiferous seams and the wall rocks is exposed : 
116 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Rock description 

(Northwest) __ Crumbly, white quartzite _____________________ _ 

Brown clay and rotten schist_ _________________ _ 

Crumbly, white quartzite __________ -_--_--_----

Streaked wad and yellow-brown clay ___ .. ____ - _ - -

Streaked yellow-brown clay with thin slabby nodof manganese oxides. 

(Southeast)__ Quartzite, partly replaced by manganese oxides_-

Thickness 

(feet) 

12 

6 

18 

6 

1~ 

1 to 2 

About 700 feet southwest of the shaft, an open-cut, 150 feet long, was 

dug on the east slope of the ridge. A highly contorted seam of 

streaked wad and yellow clay, 10 feet thick, is exposed in the cut. 

Thin seams of soft, bluish manganese oxides occur along the banding 

of the wad and clay. 

Barite has been found on the Neighbours property about SA, of a 

mile to the south. 

GREEN 

The Green prospect, owned by J. A. Green and adjoining the Neighbours mine on the northeast ( loc. 69, pl. 2), was prospected many years 

ago, and again in 1940 by a series of shallow trenches dug by the Otter 

River Mining Co. Slabby nodules of manganese oxides were found 

in red clay in several of the trenches. Exposures are poor, but it is 

probable that the mode of occurrence is similar to that of the Neighbours mine. ~ 

BETHEL 

The Bethel or Stevens prospect ( loc. 68, pl. 2) lies on another quartzite belt to the north of the Green prospect. This ridge was prospected 

many years ago by half a dozen pits and shafts between Highway 501 

and the Norfolk and Western Railroad. The pits are all caved now, 

and no exposures are visible; nodular ore and yellow clay lie on several 

of the d:umps. 

DODSON 

The Dodson prospect (loc. 72, pl. 2) is on a branch of Beaver Creek, 

about 1% miles southwest of the Neighbours mine. Several caved 

shafts near the stream show wad and brown clay, but no hard manganese oxides. On the edge ol the valley (about 800 feet to the west) 

is an open-cut (loc. 189, pl. 2), in which there are large blocks of 

botryoidal limonite that appear to be fi!.anganiferous . 

.JACK MOUNTAIN 

The prominent ridge of Jack Mountain is underlain by several broad 

belts of quartzite, in which manganese deposits appear to be very 

scarce. The only occurrence noted was just northeast of the peak, 

where a shallow pit (loc. 71, pl. 2) had been dug in quartzite partly 

replaced by manganese oxides. 
,MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 1:17 

BELL 

The Bell mine ( loc. 73, pl. 2) is. on the top of a prominent knob 

overlooking the headwaters of Flat Creek; about 6 miles south of 

Lynchburg and a mile west of U.S. Highway 29. The deposit was 

first mined in the winter of 1939 by R. K. Bell, owner of the property. 

Production to October 1941 amounted to 114 long tons of washed ore, 

which was washed by hand and sold to the National Paint and Manganese Co. of Lyn~hburg. The manganiferous zone was explored for 

about 100 yards by 3 shafts and 2 open-cuts. Nearly all of the ore 

was niined from the northwesterilmost shaft, 54 feet deep, and from 

an open-cut just north of the shaft (pl. 7). Each of the two shafts to 

the south were 17 feet deep, and the open-cut between them was about 

6 feet deep. In the spring of 1942 the property was explored by the 

Bureau of Mines by me.ans of bulldozer trenches. 

The manganiferous zone occurs in schistose quartzite just west of 

the contact between quartzite and greenish mica schists that carry 

disseminated martite and specular hematite. The strike of the zone 

generally is about N. 40° W. to the southeast of the main shaft, but it 

~eems to swing abruptly west and southwest to the northwest of th,e 

shaft; this change in strike is probably due to folding. Southeast of 

the shaft, the zone is roughly 15 feet wide and consists of schistose wad 

with a seam about 3 feet thick containing slabby pieces of hard, manganese oxides. The zone becomes 30 to 50 feet wide over a length of 

100 to 150 feet where the strike bends westerly near the main shaft and 

open-cut, and it appears to become much thinner farther west. The 

wide part of the zone is mostly wad with an irregular seam of yellow 

clay, 1 to 10 feet thick, containing nodular ore. The strike of the 

quartzite and the wad and clay seams here is variable, ranging from 

N. 40° E. toN. 40° W.; these irregular strikes are probably due to drag 

folding (as interpreted on pl. 7), but they may result in part from 

slumping during weathering. 

Some fairly large lumps of ore, weighing as much as 300 pounds, 

were taken from the open-cut and shaft, according to Mr. Bell (oral 

communication). The ore from the Bell mine seems to have a somewhat higher manganese content than the average ore shipped from 

the district. A lot of 6.97 tons contained 50.2 ·percent Mn, whereas 

much of the ore shipped from other mines in the district contained 

between 40 and 45 percent Mn; a lot of 2.19 tons of the Bell ore contained 7.2 percent Si02 and 1.9 percent Fe. 

The. Bell deposit is believed to lie approximately on the axis of a 

large tight fold, which is one of the series of close folds that appear 

to underlie this quartzite ridge (pl. 1.) The axial planes of the· folds 

strike northwest, and probably dip nearly vertically; the fold axes 
118 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

plunge southeast. If the stratigraphic sequence of the region has 

been determined correctly, the B_ell deposit lies along the trough of a 

tight syncline that plunges southeasterly beneath the greenstone south 

of the mountain. Small drag folds subsidiary to the main fold probably exist and complicate the local structure of the deposit. 

The Bell deposit crops out at an altitude of 1,060 feet, which is 

several hundred feet higher than other productive manganese mines 

in the district. At the time the deposit was formed, the quartzite belt 

may have formed a hill standing above the general level of the early 

Tertiary peneplain. Thus, deep circulation of ground waters in the 

quartzite would have resulted. The combination of these circumstances of close, plunging folds and deep ground water circulation 

would be particularly favorable for the formation of the Bell 

manganese deposits and the two other known deposits on the ridge. 

PROSPECT SOUTH OF THE BELL 

At the base of a quartzite spur 2,000 feet south of the Bell mine, 

yellow clay with thin seams of wad is exposed in a shallow prospect 

pit (loc. 75, pl. 2). This manganese showing appears to be nearly 

on the crest of a plunging anticline. 

XADDOX 

The Maddox mine ( loc. 7 4, pl. 2) is on a spur on the north side of 

the quartzite ridge, half a mile west of the Bell mine. The property, 

owned by 0. F. Maddox of Lawyer, was worked briefly in 1939 by 

Robert Adams and about 10 tons of ore was shipped. A shaft -was 

sunk to a depth of 30 feet and four shallow trenches dug within 100 

feet of the shaft. A seam of yellow clay, 3 to 4 feet thick, contains 

rather siliceous, hard manganese ore. Quartzite, striking N. 15° W. 

and dipping 70° SW., forms the walls of the clay seam. The Maddox deposit appears to be on the flank of a southeasterly plunging 

syncline. 

On the spur about 1,000 feet southwest of the Maddox mine, dark 

brown, manganiferous soil and float of brecciated quartzite cemented 

by manganese oxides are found in an orchard. This locality had not 

been prospected at the time it was examined. 

McGEHEE 

The McGehee or Arthur mine (loc. 77, pl. 2) is about 1¥2 miles 

southeast of Lawyer on a quartzite knoll overlooking Smith Branch. 

The property was owned in 1941 by G. C. McGehee of Lynchburg. 

Manganese ore was mined here by a Mr. Hancock about 1916 from 

an open-cut and shallow underground workings, ·and it is reported 

that 3 or 4 carloads of ore were shipped. In 1941, McGehee dug several trenches and three shafts to depths of 20, 25, and 35 feet with 
,MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 119 

short crosscuts from the bottoms; a small quantity of ore was shipped. 

A crosscut from the 25-foot shaft driven underneath the old open-cut 

located· quartzite enclosing a seam of wad and a yellow clay seam 

with nodular manganese ore. Micaceous wad with streaks of white 

and yellow clay was found in prospects on the hill slopes above Smith 

Branch, several hundred feet north of the open-cut; brecciated 

quartzite cemented by manganese oxides occurs east of the open-cut. 

Marble crops out in Smith Branch just north of the mine and also 

in the valley a short distance southwest of the mine, where white and 

pink micaceous marble is exposed at intervals of approximately 500 

feet across the strike. The marble is manganiferous, as determined 

by blowpipe test, and yields a chocolate-covered, loamy soil. 

Large blocks of manganiferous limonite are scattered around some 

old, shallow iron diggings on the gentle valley slope about 3,000 feet 

northeast of the mine (loc. 190, pl. 2). A sample of this limonite 

collected by G. C. McGehee had the following analysis: 

Percentage analysis of manganiferous limonite from McGehee p•roperty 

[A. K. Crabill, analyst, E. J. Lavino and Co., Reusens, Va.] 

]danganese (]dn) ____________________________________________ 12.43 

Iron (Fe)--------------------------------------------------- 41.50 

Silica (Si02)------------------------------------------------ 8.46 

Phosphorus (P)--------------------------------------------- 0.771 

About a mile up Smith Branch from this last locality, chert is exposed intermittently for about 1,000 feet in ledges as much as 20 to 30 

feet wide. The chert is composed of brown, red, or gray small fragments and irregular chunks; it has the appearance of a deposition 

breccia. Blobs of white to yellow clay and stringers of bluish-white 

opalescent silica are present. Irregular streaks of hard, black manganese oxide are present in the chert near the northeastern limits of the 

outcrops (loc. 76, pl. 2). A little chalcopyrite and malachite were 

also found in the chert. This occurrence of chert is the most extensive 

one discovered in the district. This brownish variety of chert re-

. sembles the brown chert that is so common in many of the manganese 

deposits in the district, but the brecciated appearance and variable 

color of some of the fragments are unique. The association of chert 

with quartzite (an association similar to the occurrence of chert elsewhere in the region) suggests that the chert along Smith Branch may 

also have originated in some way from the decomposition of calcareous 

quartzite or marble. 

MORTIMER 

The Mortimer or Wood mine (loc. 83, pl. 2) is south of a westerly 

bend in Flat Creek, about 3 miles northeast of Evington. Some work 
120 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

was done here prior to 1907, but the major period of activity was in 

1918 when the Mortimer mine and the Pribble mine, 2,500 feet farther 

southwest, were operated by the Virginia Ores Corp. Duri~g th;;tt 

period 525 tons of ore was shipped from the two mines. Prospecting 

was also carried on many years ago at various places north west and 

north of the Mortimer shaft. Some of these localities were again prospected in early 1942 by the Columbia Manganese Co., and by th~ 

Buerau of Mines between August 1942 and February 1943. 

The Mortimer mine was visited by D. F. Hewett (1918) in 1918; 

at that time the shaft had been sunk to a depth of 165 feet. It was 

reported that water had been encountered at a depth of 140 feet. 

Hewett nvted that ore was found in the shaft at the following depth 

intervals: 40 to 80 feet, 95 to 123 feet, 135 to 165 feet. Wad is the 

predominant manganese mineral on the dump and must have been 

abundant underground. In 1942 a shaft was sunk about 100 feet 

northeast of the main shaft by the Bureau of Mines to a depth of 38 

feet, and although a crosscut was driven toward the southeast, the 

ore zone of the main shaft was not found (Montgomery, 1949). Some 

pits, located a few hundred feet farther northeast, are said to have 

been dug for iron ore in the eighties or nineties; limonite is present 

on the dumps. 

Along the road west and northwest of the deep shaft, two groups of 

prospects (locs. 81 and 82, pl. 2) were explored many years ago and 

again in 1942 by the Columbia Manganese Co. and by the Bureau of 

Mines. Most of the work was done at the northern group (loc. 81, 

pl. 2), where four shafts were sunk to depths of ~1, 31, 34, and 46 

feet respectively; crosscuts and drifts were driven from the bottom of 

the shafts (Montgomery, 1949). Some nodular ore in clay, manganese 

oxides in quartzite, and abundant wad were found. A small mill was 

erected by the Columbia Manganese Co. in Flat Creek valley to the 

north, and some material from the old dumps was treated by washing 

and screening; 2 tons of the hand-picked screened material was sold 

to the National Paint and Manganese Co., Lynchburg. 

In the gully about 500 yards southwest of the locality just described, 

seams of wad in mica schist and quartzite are exposed in the stream· 

bed. About a mile north of the ~fortimer shaft, on the north side of 

Flat Creek, two old shafts (loc. 79, pl. 2) were dug in coarse micaceous 

quartzite; soft, bluish manganese oxides and limonite are scattered 

on the dump. One of these shafts probably is the one described by 

Hewett ( 1918) as being 35 feet deep in which 2112 to 3 ·feet of hard 

manganese ore was found. About 1,000 feet west of these diggings, 

several shallow prospects (loc. 80, pl. 2) contained thin stringers of 

friable manganese oxides in a seam of yellow clay and wad, 1 foot 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 121 

thick, near the contact of mica schist and quartzite. The two localities 

described above were trenched by the Bureau of Mines in 1942 

(Montgomery, 1949). 

North of Yell ow Branch, and about a mile northeast of the Mortimer 

mine, several shallow pits (loc. 78, pl. 2), sunk about 1940, exposed 

quartzite partly replaced by soft manganese oxides. 

PRIBBLE 

The Pribble mine (loc. 84, pl. 2), about half a mile southwest of the 

main shaft of the Mortimer mine, apparently is on the same manganiferous zone. It also was explored by the Virginia Ores Corporation 

in 1918, and ore was mined from an open-cut about 80 feet long, 20 

feet wide, and 20 feet deep (Hewett, 1918). About 150 feet southwest 

of the open -cut, a shaft was sunk to a depth of 30 feet. The actual 

amount of ore shipped from the Pribble property in 1918 is not recorded because it was included with the production of the Mortimer 

mine; however, the two mines together are said to have shipped 525 

tons of ore. 

In the spring of 1941 the property was operated by Leghorn and 

l\!itchell. The old open-cut was enlarged by dragline excavation to a 

length of 500 feet (extending northeasterly along the ·strike) , and to a 

width of 60 feet and depths of 20 to 40 feet. About 200 feet southwest 

of this cut, a second open-cut was dug to a length of about 200 feet in a 

southwesterly direction. It is said that about 20 tons of ore was 

shipped. 

In the main open-cut, extending N. 25° E. nearly on the local 'Structural trend, a wide zone of clay with thin wad stringers was exposed 

along the western half of the pit, and wad seams and rotten quartzite 

with friable, bluish manganese oxides and clay seams were exposed 

along the eastern side of the pit. A section across the open-cut, about 

midway between the ends of the cut, is shown in figure 12. The principal manganese oxide minerals are wad, and soft, powdery, bluish 

n1anganese oxides occurring as stringers and seams in wad and quartzite; nodular ores are very scarce. Limonite is present in the clay seams 

along the eastern side of the pit. 

The dump of the old shaft, about 50 feet east of the cut and near its 

southern end, contains coarse, white marble with half-inch seams of 

brown carbonate; a sample of the white carbonate contained 0.85 percent MnO and a sample of the brown carbonate contained 0.47 percent 

MnO (table 2). The relationship of the marble to the quartzite and 

manganiferous zone is unknown, for marble is not exposed on the surface; it is probable that the clay and wad zones in the pit are underlain 

by calcareous beds. The streaked clay in the pit is contorted (perhaps 

283201-54-9 
N. 65°W. 

8 - I 0 ft of r·otten yeU ow 

S. 65° E. 

f ~ quo.rtzite and cloy with 

J 

1 limonite seams -----

. ~ 

1

11

1

1

1 

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11 

I I I { \ \ (\ (J I I I I \ 'I ' ,, . f I 

\ l I ( \f 11/ r \1 \ ' 

J \ II 

30-40 ft of cloy with stringers and seams 

of wad; thin quartzite beds 

6- 10 ft of rotten block quartzite 

ond wad with seams of harder 

manganese oxides 

10 o· 30feet 

FIGURE 12.-Section through northern open-cut of the Pribble mine, Campbell County, Ya. 

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MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 123 

in part relict from folded bedding in calcareous rocks) and is slickensided (probably a result of slumping during weathering). 

A seam of wad and clay, 10 to 15 feet wide, in the southern open-cut 

iR exposed for a length of about 200 feet. Quartzite predominates 

about 50 feet to the west of the wad and clay seam. The quartzite is 

folded into minor drag folds that plunge steeply southwest and are 

cut by irregular quartz veins. Both the quartzite and quartz veins 

are crushed, cemented and partly replaced by friable, bluish manganese 

oxides. 

PHILLIPS 

The Phillips manganese mine (loc. 87, pl. 2) is on the southeastern 

slope of a wooded hill, 2% miles east of Evington. The property.· is 

owned by R. Bass Phillips, who states (oral communication) that the 

first work was done in the eighties or nineties when a shaft was sunk 

to 105 ·feet, and several carloads of ore was shipped. About 1916 the 

Phillips brothers sank a shaft 43 feet deep at a point 100 feet northeast . 

of the old shaft and shipped 13 wagon-loads of ore. In 1938 a shaft 

was put down between these two shafts to a depth of 25 feet by Holland 

and Sargent, and about 5 tons of ore was shipped. Some work was 

done in 1941 by Mitchell and in 1942 by J. L. Latellier. 

The manganiferous zone is 4 to 6 feet thick and consists of seam.s of 

yellow clay, 4 to 18 inches thick, containing nodular ore separated by 

layers of barren schist, 3 to 8 inches thick. The nodular ore on the 

western side of the zone is very siliceous and appears to be a replacement of quartzite or quartz-mica schist. 

In 1941 a shallow pit and trench ( loc. 86, pl. 2), 1,500 feet east of 

these workings, were sunk by Mitchell and Leghorn. Nodular ore in 

yellow clay and chert and seams of soft, bluish manganese oxides in 

quartzite were found. Halfway between this locality and the Pribble 

mine, on the same quartzite belt, some prospecting was done many yeay;s 

ago (loc. 85, pl. 2) ; wad appears to have been the principal manganese 

mineral found. 

HALL 

The Hall prospect (loc. 101, pl. 2) is 2 niiles southwest of the Phillips 

property, on the edge of Route 696. A 20-foot shaft put down in 1941 

by John Hall, of Evington, disclosed a 3-foot seam of wad with 

scattered pieces of hard ore. The quartzite wall rock is the southern 

continuation of the easternmost quartzite belt on the Phillips property .. 

'Vhite marble is exposed in this quartzite on the· Arthur farm, three 

quarters of a mile northeast of the Hall prospect. Barite has been 

mined from the same quartzite belt at the Phillips barite mine (loc. 

214, pl. 2) southwest of the Hall prospect, and also at the Saunders 

barite mine (loc. 215, pl. 2) on a quartzite belt east of the Arthur 

farm. 
124 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

TROUBLESOME CREEK 

On the easternmost quartzite belt in this part of the region, small 

pieces of hard manganese oxides can be found along a path at a point 

(loc. 100, pl. 2) on the western side of Trol)blesome Creek and a mile 

northeast of the Hall prospect. John Hall, of Evington states, (oral 

communication) that he prospected here many years ago, but his work 

was not seen. The soil is dark brown and probably was formed from 

manganiferous marble; no marble is exposed along this quartzite belt. 

HADEN 

The Haden prospects (locs. 103 and 104, pl. 2) are about 3 miles 

southeast of Evington, on the east side of Flat Creek and just north of 

Otter River. The property was prospected during 1940 and 1941 by 

the Otter River Mining Co. by means of 24 trenches and two shallow 

shafts. 

Two manganiferous zones were discovered by trenching. Wad is 

the principal manganese mineral in the western zone, where most of the 

trenching was done; the wad was found with quartzite and dark-brown 

loamy soil (typical of the soil derived from marble) over a distance 

of ~ of a mile. Chert and hard manganese oxides have also been 

found in the same zone nearly a mile northeast of this explored interval (loc. 102, pl. 2). White marble is exposed at intervals for 200 

yards across the strike immediately north of the prospect. In the 

zone several hundred yards to the east, ferruginous manganese oxides 

were found in two shallow shafts, and small pieces of hard manganese 

oxide in the surficial red clay were found in trenches southwest of 

these shafts. 

PROSPECTS NORTHEAST OF EVINGTON 

The quartzite belt about a mile east of Evington has been prospected 

and mined for manganese at many places for a distance of about 5 

miles north of Otter River. Most of the manganese production has 

come from the Saunders and Russell Den Hollow workings, which are 

described in succeeding sections. The quartzite belt has been prospected at several places for about 1¥2 miles northeast of the Russell 

Den Hollow mine by adits, pits, and open-cuts (locs. 88 and 89, pl. 2). 

It is not known whether any production of consequence has come from 

these workings. Slabby pieces of manganese oxides, manganiferous 

quartzite, wad, and chert are found on the various dumps. Two 

parallel manganiferous seams are present in the quartzite near the 

northern end of the belt. 

RUSS·ELL DEN HOLLOW 

The principal workings of the Russell Den Hollow mine (loc. 90, 

pl. 2) lie on both sides of a ravine cutting across the quartzite belt 

about half a mile northeast of State Highway 24. The property is 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 125 

owned by the Saunders family of Evington. Mining was in progress 

at various periods between 1890 and 1918 by different operators, some 

of whom also worked the Saunders mine to the southwest. The last 

extensive operation seems to have been under the direction of the 

American Ores Co. in 1916. The production of manganese ore from 

the Russell Den Hollow workings is unknown, because it has not been 

recorded separately from that of the Saunders mine. It is probable, 

however, that the Russell Den Hollow production does not amount to 

more than 10 percent of the total production of the two mines, which 

is believed to be between 8,000 and 9,000 tons. 

The principal workings on either side of the ravine consist of a 

number of tunnels and shafts, now caved, and several open-cuts. The 

ore occurrences are not exposed now, but it is evident from the distribution of the diggings in a belt about 200 feet wide across the strike 

of the quartzite that there must be several parallel manganiferous 

seams. .Abundant micaceous wad and small slabby pieces of soft 

manganese oxide are present on the various dumps. 

Several hundred yards southwest of these workings is another group 

of prospect tunnels and pits. This part of the quartzite belt was prospected by means of three bulldozer trenches and a test pit by the 

Bureau of Mines in 1942 (pl. 8). The middle trench (No.6) exposed 

eight manganiferous seams in the quartzite, which consisted of cla.y 

with manganese oxide nodules, wad, and siliceous manganese oxides 

and ranged in thickness from 6 inches to 4 feet. The easternmost manganiferous zone in trench 6, apparently along the main contact between 

quartzite and mica schist, was explored by test shaft 3 (pl. 9), which 

exposed a thin seam of yellow clay with manganese oxide nodules 

underlying barren yellow clay and mixed wad and clay. In trench 

5, to the southwest, considerable ferruginous mica schist was found in 

the quartzite, which suggested that the structure might be complicated 

by folding or faulting. 

The quartzite belt is fairly well exposed farther southwest in the 

road cut of State Highway 24 (pl. 8). A seam of manganiferous clay 

about 12 inches thick is exposed just below the contact of quartzite 

and mica schist. 

SAUNDERS 

The Saunders mine (locs. 92 and 93, pl. 2), also known as the Spring 

Hill, Evington, or Flat Creek mine, is about a mile east of Evington 

on property owned by the Saunders family. The first mining operation seems to have been in the eighties by Robert Wood, who did 

considerable prospecting and mining in this part of the district.9 The 

o Most of the information on the history of the Saunders mine and the nature of the 

ore deposit underground comes from Fleming Saunders, one of the owners, and John Hall, 

who has conducted! small leasing operations at the mlne for man~ years. 

283201--54----10 
126 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Saunders family worked the mine from about 1900 to 1903 or 1904, 

when it was leased to the National Paint and Manganese Co. and 

worked under the direction of a Mr. Cuthbert. This company worked. 

the mine very actively until1907; the washed ore was shipped to its 

mill in Lynchburg where it was ground for use as a pigment in paint, 

ceramic materials, and other processes. After 1907, the mine was 

again operated by the Saunders family for about a year and a half. 

The property has been worked fairly continuously since then in a small 

way by a number of local lessees, principally members of the Hall, 

Logwood, and Ould families; the washed ore has been shipped to the 

National Paint and Manganese Co., Lynchburg, and to the Lavino 

furnaces at Reusens, V a. 

The total recorded production of the Saunders mine and nearby 

properties amounts to 4,075 long tons of washed ore. This figure,. 

however, is apparently incomplete, because production of the Saunders 

mine up to 1906 was 6,000 to 7,000 tons, according to Watson ( 1907 

b, p. 241). About 2,000 tons of washed ore is reported to have been 

shipped since 1906; this figure includes production of the Russell Den 

Hollow mine and possibly some production from other mines in the 

vi~inity. The total production for the Saunders and other mines 

appears to. be between 8,000 and 9,000 tons. 

In 1942. the Saunders property was explored by the Bureau of Mines 

by means of bulldozer trenches, test pits, and diamond-drill holes. 

The manganese Z<?nes, or "leads" as they are locally called, at the 

Saunders mine lie along the contact of quartzite and mica shist, and 

in quartzite just west of the contact (pl. 8). In general, the contact 

strikes N. 35° to 45° E. and dips 60° to 70° SE. Some rather abrupt 

deviatiops from these trends are interpreted to be caused by close 

folding. · 

The principal ore body consists of two nearly parallel seams of 

yellow clay containing nodular manganese oxides. This ore body 

was mined mostly from two tunnels driven southwest from the northeastern end of the ridge (pl. 8) . It is reported that the tunnels were 

900 to 950 feet long and that ore· was mined throughout this length 

except for a barren interval that extended from about 200 to 300 feet 

southwest of the tunnel mouth. The original tunnel on the ore body 

was driven from an elevation of about 635 feet. When operations 

were resumed by the Saunders family in 1907, a second tunnel was 

driven s·outhwest along the ore body at a level about 15 feet lower 

than the first tunnel. The general relationships of the mine workings. 

are shown diagrammatically in figure 13. In the northern part of the 

tunnels, the ore body consisted of a single manganiferous seam with 

quartzite in the footwall and mica schist in the hanging wall. Farther 

southwest, two ma.nganiferou~ clay seams (separated by 6 to· 8 feet 
S.3a•w. 

Efevation above 

sea level 110· foot shaft; 

800' 

700' 

6001 

7 carloads of concentrates from 

workings of unknown extent 

@ 

6 

EXPLANATION 

0 

D.D.H.4 

Intersection of diamond-drill 

hole with hanging wall of ore zone · 

95-foot shaft; 

Approximate 

-

extent of . mining 250 0 SOOfut 

N.38°E. 

lriGVR» i3, , Lon~tudal projectipn showblg prineipal mfne. wor.klrigs and. drlll hole intersections, Saunders mine, Campbell Co.~ Va. 

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128 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

of quartzite) were mined. The seams are said to have averaged about 

5 feet thick and to have consisted in places of nearly massive manganese oxides. In the southwestern face of the workings, the ore ap· 

peared to have been cut off by a structure that dipped or plunged 

toward the southwest. Supporting pillars of ore left near the surface 

have been mined out since abandonment of the tunnel workings, and 

the ore body is now essentially mined out above the lower tunnel 

level (fig. 13). Attempts were made to open the ore body below 

the lower tunnel by a two-compartm.ent shaft sunk near the tunnel 

mouth to a depth of 65 feet in the hanging-wall schist and by another 

shaft ( 450 feet southwest) sunk 95 feet in the hanging-wall schist. 

Evidently, neither of these shafts reached the ore body. 

Southwest of the tunnel face, ore has been mined near the surface 

by numerous shallow workings for a distance of nearly 1,000 feet to 

the .boundary line with the Wood property. Most of the mining 

was done about two hundred yards southwest of.the tunnel face from 

an open-cut and underground workings of a shaft 110 feet deep (pl. 

8). About seven carloads of ore (about 300 tons) are said to have 

been produced from this shaft. Southwest of these workings, the 

contact between quartzite and mica schist seems to curve convexly 

toward the west, and at several places the outcrops have strikes that 

deviate from the nol1Ilal trend; ·these features are probably caused by 

close folding. 

The exploration program of the Bureau of Mines in 1942 was laid 

out to explore the ground beneath the tunnels that had yielded most 

of the ore in the past and also to explore the ground southwest and 

northeast of the tunnels. According to Fleming Saunders (personal 

communication), about 450 tons of washed ore was produced from 

the lower .tunnel and the pillar (10 to 12 feet thick) between the lower 

and upper tunnel. In other words, a block of ground about 950 foot 

long, 15 to 20 feet high, and 5 to 10 feet thick, yielded about 450 tons 

of washed ore. Because the ore body had never been mined below the 

]ower tunnel, it seemed reasonable to assume that the ground beneath 

this tunnel might contain several thousand tons of recoverable manganese concentrates. Accordingly, four diamond-drill holes were put 

down; three of the holes (pl. 10) explored beneath the level of the 

lower tunneL Each of the drill holes penetrated the manganiferous 

zone at the contact between mica schist and quartzite, but core recovery in this zone was negligible and little could be learned from the 

drilling sludge in regard to the nature of the zone. Several small 

fragments of manganese oxides were recovered in drill hole 7, which 

indicated that the manganiferous zone probably extends at least 150 

feet northeast of the mouth of the· lower tunnel. 
~GANESE ~NES AND PROSPECTS 1.29 

The bulldozer trenches and test pits southwest of the tunnel face 

exposed manganiferous clay and wad seams in quartzite, some of 

which might yield small tonnages of washed ore if worked by the hand 

methods that are practiced by the local lessees. Although the exploration program did not succeed in discovering workable ore bodies 

of consequence, the drilling results cannot be regarded as conclusive 

because of the very poor core r~overy in the manganiferous zone. 

Exploration and development of the ground below the lower tunnel 

could probably be done best· by shafts and drifts; it is very likely that 

considerable water would be encountered. 

The four diamond -drill holes yielded some interesting information 

on the distribution and characteristics of the formations (pl. 10). 

A ferruginous mica schist, containing specular hematite and martite, 

had been determined by surface examination to lie immediately in 

the hanging wall of the quartzite and to occur as layers within the 

quartzite. This ferruginous schist was discovered in all the drill 

holes to lie just above the manganiferous zone and beneath tan muscovite schist containing biotite porphyroblasts partly altered to 

chlorite. Quartzite was found beneath the manganiferous zone in all 

the holes, and tan, micaceous marble was found in quartzite at the 

bottom of drill hole 6. This is the only known occurrence of marble 

at the Saunders mine; no marble was reported from the old tunnel 

workings. The biotite-muscovite schist resembles the schist member 

of the Mount Athos formation that normally lies stratigraphically 

below the quartzite member. If these relations prevail at the Saunders 

mine, the biotite-muscovite schist is older than the structurally unde.rlying quartzite, and the formations are overturned. 

WOOD 

The Wood mine ( loc. 94, pl. 2), owned by Arnie Wood, of Sweetwater, Tenn., adjoins the Saunders property on the southwest. This 

mine has been prospected and mined intermittently through the years, 

and the efforts have resulted in numerous shafts, pits, and tunnels~ 

The following account of the history of its operations has been furnished principally by John Hall, of Evington (oral communication). 

About 1916 a shaft was sunk to a depth of 127 feet near the WoodSaunders property line by a Mr. Hancock~ More water was encountered than the pump could handle and the shaft was abandoned. 

The National Paint and Manganese Company, of Lynchburg, sank 

a shaft about 35 feet deep in 1923. Since then, the Hall family has 

mined from several places on the property, and in 1941 they sunk a 

shaft 58 feet deep near the northern boundary line. Also in 1941, 

a Mr. Mitchell did some shallow open-cut work by means of a dragline and dug some shallow prospect pits. There is no record of the 
130 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

amount of ore shipped from the Wood property, because its production apparently has been grouped with that of the Saunders mine. 

The quartzite and manganiferous zones extend southwest from the 

Saunders property, and at least two zones, or "leads," have been mined 

on the Wood property. The easternmost zone consists largely of wad, 

about 15 feet wide, that carries stringers of soft, manganese oxides. 

To the west of the wad zone are two seams of manganiferous yellow 

clay. Several underground crosscuts by the Halls have shown a 20-

foot seam of yellow clay carrying scattered manganese oxide nodules. 

About 50 feet southwest of the crosscuts, nearly massive manganese 

oxide nodules were found over a width of 3 to 4 feet in yellow clay. 

BURTON 

The Burton property (locs. 95 and 96, pl. 2) is just south of the 

Wood tract, about 1% miles southeast of Evington. The property 

was prospected in 1923 by the National Paint and Manganese Co. 

with an 80-foot shaft, and the Otter River Mining Co. prospected 

between 1939 and 1941 with about 35 trenches and several test pits. 

It is not known whether any manganese ore was ever shipped from 

the Burton property. 

Two beds of manganiferous quartzite cross the Burton land in a 

southwesterly direction. The westernmost of these quartzite belts 

is the extension of the same manganiferous quartzite that has been 

mined on the Saunders and Wood properties. Within this belt are 

at least two manganiferous zones that are about 70 feet apart and 

extend for a distance of nearly 1,000 feet. The eastern zone consists 

of yellow clay with nodular manganese oxides and has a thickness 

of about 5 feet. The western zone is mostly wad with some red clay 

and pieces of slab by manganese oxides; its thickness is also about 

5 feet. 

The manganiferous zone in the eastern quartzite belt is about half 

a mile south (loc. 96, pl. 2) of the above occurrences. This zone was 

explored with a series of trenches by the Otter River Mining Co. and 

was traced for a distance of about 800 feet south of Route 694. Two 

leads of manganese ore were found, lying about 300 feet apart. In 

the western lead, considerable sandy wad is present in the northern 

part, and some nodular manganese oxides occur in the southern part. 

¥ ellow clay and chert with nodular manganese oxides predominate 

in the eastern lead, although wad is also present. 

Barite occurs in the eastern quartzite belt and has been mined very 

extensively at the Hewitt barite mine, % of a mile to the southwest, 

where considerable white marble accompanies the quartzite. Barite 

was also found in an old prospect shaft located approximately on the 

continuation of the easternmost manganese zone, a short distance north 

of Route 694. 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 131 

LANGHORNE 

Manganese ore has been found at several places on the property 

of J. S. Langhorne, to the south and west of the Burton property. 

Apparently, no manganese ore has ever been shipped from here. 

The manganiferous quartzite that crosses the Saunders, Wood, and 

Burton properties also extends across the Langhorne property. 

About lA of a mile south of Route 694, siliceous manganese oxide and 

chert were discovered in a 15-foot shaft (loc. 98, pl. 2). Just north 

of the Otter River, a short tunnel, driven about 1915 (loc. 99, pl. 2), 

exposed two thin seams of wad containing small slabby pieces of 

manganese oxides; micaceous limonite has also been found in this 

quartzite belt, which is a short distance south of Route 694 (loc. 198, 

pl. 2). 

Part of the southern manganese zone of the Burton property is 

on the Langhorne tract and was prospected some years ago by Mr. 

Langhorne's father by means of a tunnel and shallow shaft (loc. 97, 

pl. 2). 

TEATES 

The Teates mine (loc. 91, pl. 2) is in the village of Evington, a 

short distance west of the crossing of Route 682 and State· Highway 

24. Manganese ore was mined here from a small open-cut by W. W· 

Teates about 1905, and it is reported that two carloads of ore was 

shipped. Wad, siliceous manganese oxide, and chert are found on the 

dump. Siliceous manganese ore in yellow clay was found several 

hundred feet northeast of the open-cut in a shallow shaft sunk about 

1920 by C. D. Maddox. 

ANTHONY 

Manganese ore has been found in several shallow pits on the Anthony 

property (loc. 105, pl. 2) a short distance south of Otter River on 

the extension of the we~ternmost quartzite belt of the Langhorne 

property. White marble occurs in the quartzite and is exposed over a 

width of 10 to 15 feet in a small quarry on the south bank of the river. 

Dark brown, manganiferous soil of the type derived from white 

marble extends southward from these exposures. 

THERESA 

The Theresa mine (loc. 106, pl. 2), also known as the Halsey or 

Otter River mine, lies at the northwest foot of Scott Mountain about 

half a mile south of the Otter River. The mine was worked as early 

as 1908. In 1917 and 1918 it was operated by J. B. Guernsey, and it 

is reported that 702 tons of ore was shipped at that time. Most 

of the ore appears to have been mined from a tunnel located near 

the mouth of a gully emptying into Tardy Branch. According to 

W. F. Tweedy (oral communication) a shaft was sunk to a depth 
132 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

of 9 feet, and a drift was run 168 feet southwest from the shaft. 

The ore zone is reported to have been continuous along the drift 

with an average width of 4 feet. Some ore was mined above. the 

. drift but none was mined below. Quartzite with seams of soft, bluish 

manganese oxides, 1 to 6 inches thick, is exposed in a small open-cut 

around the shaft. Wad, friable manganese oxides, and manganiferous 

limonite and chert are present on the dump. The quartzite in the 

open-cut strikes about N. 40° E. and dips 30° SE. Such low-'angle 

dips are characteristic of the broad area of quartzite underlying 

Scott Mountain and appear to be associated with gentle, open folds 

rather than with the tight folds that are typical of the region. 

On the hilltop 300 feet southwest of the tunnel is an old shaft, 

said to be about 100 feet deep, that apparently did not intersect the 

ore zone. Several hundred yards farther southwest, on land owned 

by W. F. Tweedy, are a number of shallow shafts, and pits that found 

wad and manganiferous limonite (loc. 200, pl. 2). 

TARDY AND FRAZIER 

The Tardy and Frazier workings (loc. 107, pl2) are on the western 

flank of .Scott Mountain, about 3,000 feet southwest of the Theresa 

mine. Manganese ore was found in a shaft sunk about 1917, and 

two carloads of ore are said to have been shipped at that time. The 

Otter River Mining Co. prospected the two properties between 1939 

and 1941 by means of trenches and a shallow shaft sunk near the old 

shaft. 

Occurrence of manganese ore appears to be restricted to the vicinity 

of the old shaft on the Tardy property, but the deposit is no longer 

exposed and its nature is not evident. Decomposed quartzite, nodular 

manganese oxides, and brecciated quartzite with a limonitic matrix 

are present on the dump. In the open fields south of this locality, 

extensive trenching found greenstone; there was no sign of quartzite 

or manganese ore. The contact between quartzite and greenstone 

trends southeasterly; the greenstone apparently overlies the quartzite 

(pl. 1). 

GRASTY 

The Grasty mine (locs. 110-113, pl. 2) is one of six adjoining properties (the Grasty, Mayhew, Bishop, Merritt, Dews, and Arthur properties) lying about 1% miles northwest of Lynch that were owned or 

]eased by the Otter River Mining Co. Some mining and prospecting 

were done at several places on these properties toward the end of the 

last century. The Otter River Mining Co. began exploration of the 

Grasty and adjoining tracts about 1938 and continued work until1942 

under the direction of W. F. Maginnis ; operations ceased in 1943. 

The area covered by these six properties has been prospected more 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 133 

extensively than any other comparable area in the district. About 

17,000 feet of trenches were dug (mostly by a ditch-digging machine), 

14 shafts were sunk, some exploratory drifts and crosscuts were driven, 

and numerous shallow pits were dug by the Otter River Mining Co. 

It is believed that the total amount of washed ore shipped from 

these properties between 1938 and 1943 did not exceed 200 tons. 

In the spring of 1940, a detailed geologic and topographic map was 

made by the writer and W. R. Wagner of an area of about 2 square 

miles covering the six properties (pl. 11), and the more important 

underground openings were mapped. Additional information was 

obtained during a reexamination of the area in the fall of 1941. 

The Grasty mine is the easternmost of the six properties and has 

been prospected and developed by seven shafts and numerous trenches 

and pits (pl. 11). The principal manganiferous zone occurs in a 

gully near the northern end of a lenticular quartzite belt. Three 

shafts were sunk with connecting underground workings that explored 

the zone to a depth of 93 feet and for a distance of nearly 400 feet 

along the strike (pl. 12). These workings were flooded and partly 

caved during very heavy rains in August 1940. 

Two disconnected manganiferous lenses were discovered that apparently occur at the same general stratigraphic position along the 

contact of quartzite and mica schist. The southwestern lens is about 

120 feet long and has an average thickness of 4 to 5 feet; it has a 

local thickness of as much as 10 feet. The lens is composed of sandy 

clay with rather siliceous nodular ore. It strikes about N. 30° E., and 

dips 70° SE. beneath a quartzite hanging wall. The maximum vertical extent of ore appears to be about 60 feet, because no ore was found 

on the lowest mine level (pl. 12) . The northeastern lens is separated · 

:from the southwestern one by 50 feet of barren ground and is considerably smaller in size. Nodular ore occurs in three seams, 1 to 4 

feet thick, enclosed in clay and sand between quartzite hanging wall 

and micaceous wad footwall. · 

The quartzite and schist country rock are now thoroughly decomposed to rotten blocks of quartzite, sand, and n1icaceous clay. Lenticular blocks of marble several feet thick, that doubtless are residual 

from marble beds which have been largely dissolved by ground waters, 

are present both above and below the manganese zone. The marble 

is white to gray in color with a coarsely crystalline texture and contains disseminated pyrite and chalcopyrite. Beds in the hangingwall quartzite above the main manganiferous zone are a breccia of 

angular blocks of rotten quartzite in a clayey matrix. The brecciation is evidently the result of slumping caused by ground water leaching of soluble constituents. 
134 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

To the southwest of these workings, manganese ore has been found 

in lesser amounts in shafts 4, 5, and 6 near the eastern contact of the 

quartzite lens. Thin zones of wad, as much as 3 feet thick, were 

discovered by trenching along the western contact of the qua.rtzite to 

the west of the main workings. Wad and mica schist were also found 

in shaft 11, several hundred yards farther west. About 2,500 feet 

southwest of shaft 11, a zone of micaceous wad has been prospected 

by a group of trenches and by shaft 7 (just across the boundary line 

of the Mayhew property). Although the abundance of dark brown 

soil suggests the presence of marble, none is exposed. 

Barite is present along the eastern contact of the main quartzite 

lens on the Grasty property at points about 100 yards southwest of 

shaft 4 and about 400 yards southwest of shaft 5. Many years ago 

barite was mined from a group of workings about 1,000 yards northeast of shaft 1. 

MAYHEW 

The principal occurrence of manganese on the Mayhew property is 

the zone of micaceous wad prospected in shaft 7, sixty-five feet deep, 

and its underground workings (pl. 11, see discussion of Grasty property above) ; some thin seams of soft, manganese oxides, several inches 

thick, occur in the wad. About 200 yards southeast of shaft 7, another 

zone of wad with slabby manganese oxides has been opened by trenches 

on the southern end of the main quartzite belt that extends southwest 

from the Grasty tract. The westernmost manganese lead on the 

Mayhew property is on the quartzite ridge, 400 to 500 yards west of 

shaft 7, where hard manganese oxides have been found in several 

trenches and pits as fissure fillings and as the matrix of brecciated 

quartzite and vein quartz. 

BISHOP 

The Bishop property (locs. 119-122, pl. 2) adjoins the Mayhew 

property on the southwest .and west and lies at the southwestern edge 

of the area shown in plate 11. The Bishop mine is one of the earliest 

manganese mines in this part of the district; Watson ( 1907b, p. 241) 

states that 13 tons of manganese ore was shipped to England in 1885, 

and that about 700 tons was shipped in 1893. Copper is also reported 

to have been mined in former years, but production probably was 

negligible. Exploration by the Otter River Mining Co. consisted of 

over a dozen trenches and shaft 8 ( 35 feet deep). 

Two manganiferous zones were prospected by the Otter River Mining Co., and manganese ore has been found at several other places by 

older prospects. The easternmost zone has been thoroughly prospected 

by trenches and by shaft 8. Considerable wad was found over a 

length of 800 feet, and seams of soft manganese oxides ( 1 to 3 feet 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 135 

thick, enclosed in quartzite) were found over a length of about 100 

yards. The abundant chocolate-colored soil exposed in the trenches 

is interpreted to indicate the presence of white marble in this quartzite 

belt, although none is exposed. A lens of white marble crops out in 

the bed of Pocket Creek, however, about 200 yards to the west; a 

sample of this white marble analyzed 0.31 per.~nt MnO (table 2). 

An old tunnel prospect for copper lies midway between these localities. This copper prospect is particularly noteworthy because it yields 

crystalline turquoise; it is the only known occurrence in. the world 

(Schaller, 1912; Robinson, 1942). This mineral can be found now 

only as scarce, small fragments in the loose dump material. 

The western manganese lead on the Bishop tract is on the same 

quartzite ridge as the western Mayhew lead. Manganese oxides also 

occur here as fracture fillings and as breccia matrix in quartzite and 

vein quartz. 

:MERRITT 

The Merritt property (locs. 108 and 109, pl. 2) is in the northern 

part of the area shown in plate 11. Three manganese leads were di& 

covered and prospected rather extensively by the Otter River Mining 

Co. On the easternmost lead, nodular ore was discovered in several 

trenches about 300 yards northeast of shaft 11, but it could not be 

determined whether the ore was in place or wheth&r it was float. 

Specular hematite was found in quartzite in older prospects at a point 

a few hundred feet to the south. 

The middle manganese zone was prospected by shafts 9 and 10, a 

short tunnel, and more than 20 trenches. This lead was found to be a 

narrow layer of wad containing thin slabby pieces of manganese 

oxides. Its average thickness is only about 10 inches; however, it 

persists for 1,800 feet along the strike. Thin seams of barite were 

found about 100 yards northeast of shaft 10. Dark brown soil along 

much of this quartzite belt indicates that calcareous beds are present, 

although no marble is exposed. 

The westernmost manganese lead is associated with a narrow, persistent bed of schistose quartzite. Extensive trenching revealed only 

thin stringers and small nodules of hard ore with several seams of wad, 

1 to 2 feet thick. 

DEWS 

The Dews tract, southwest of the Merritt property, has been explored by trenches and by two shafts (loc. 117, pl. 2) with connecting 

underground workings at a depth of 35 feet (fig.14). A zone of wad 

was discovered that was about 20 to 30 feet thick in the underground openings and 50 feet thick in one of the trenches. Seams of 

soft manganese oxide, 1 to 2 feet thick, are present in the wad and in 
136 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

% 

~ % 

0 li z 0 u z - .., ti ~· 3tc ,a 

0 100 Feet 

Tape and compass survey by 

G. H. Espenshade and W. R. Wagner, 1940 

.EXPLANATION 

! 

--

- Mica schist 

Mostly laminated -micaceous 

cloy, representing 

decomposed mica schist 

Breccia 

Mostly slumped blocks of 

decomposed mica schist, 

with some quartzite 

~ 

Strike and dip of foliation 

46. -- ~~"K~=- Micaceous wad, showing 

residual foliation and dip 

I 

Hard manganese 

ore and cloy 

FIGURE 14:.-Map of the 85-foot level, Dews mine, Campbell County, Va. 

rotten quartzite; some brown chert also occurs. Soft, decomposed 

mica schist forms the hanging wall and footwall of the manganiferous 

zone. Breccia fragments of decomposed mica schist are distributed 

through the ore zone and are most abundant near the walls of the 

zone; this appears to be a slump breccia caused by ground water 

leaching. 

The strike of the ore zone is about N. 80° E., which is more easterly 

than that of any of the other manganese "leads" in the vicinity. 

Cross folding, or faulting, may be the reason for this unusual structural trend. Geologic relationships are impossible to <letermine, 

however, because of the scarcity of outcrops. A large area, located 
MANGANESE MINES AND PROSPECTS 137 

on the drainage divide to the north and east of the Dews deposit, is 

completely devoid of exposures (pl. ~). 

ARTHU 

On the Arthur property ( loc. 118, pl. 2), southwest of the Dews 

tract, a zone of manganese oxides has been traced in a belt of quartzite 

and mica schist for a length of 1,600 feet. Wad is the predominant 

manganese mineral and is most abundant in the southern two-thirds 

of the belt where it occurs as layers of nearly pure wad as much as 10 

feet thick and as layers of impure wad mixed with sand and clay as 

much as 40 feet thick. Shaft 14, near the southern end of the belt, is 

30 feet d~ep. 

BRAGG 

The Bragg prospect is about 3 miles northeast of Leesville, which is 

located just north of the Roanoke River. The prospect was not seen 

by the writer and does not appear on plate 2; it is believed to lie 

northeast of the Bragg barite mine (loc. 221, pl. 2). The property 

was under lease to the Otter River Mining Co. during the period 

1940-1941, and it is reported that manganese occurs on the property. 

Quartzite and white marble are exposed at the south end of the property along State Highway 43. 

LUCAS 

The Lucas, or Leesville, mine (loc. 125, pl. 2) is about a mile north 

of the village of Leesville on property owned by H. S. Lucas. Manganese was first mined about 1885, when 30 tons of ore was shipped, 

according to Watson (1907b, p. 241). Mr. Lucas (oral communication) states that the mine was operated by Robert Wood, who also 

worked the Saunders and other manganese deposits in the region in 

the late 19th century, and that ore was shipped to the National Paint 

and Manganese Co. in Lynchburg. Some mining was done about 

1911 by Mr. Lucas, and about 30 tons 'i>f ore was shipped. During 

these periods, it is probable that most of the mining was done in a 

large open-cut and in underground workings from a shaft said to be 

80 feet deep. In the summer of 1942, the property was prospected 

by H. B. Hash of Roanoke, Va. 

The manganese zone occurs near the contact of quartzite and mica 

schist; no exposures are now visible. Micaceous wad and friable 

manganese oxides are present on the dump. Many blocks of streaked 

pink and white marble are located several hundred feet southwest of 

the open-cut on the dump of a tunnel driven westward toward ·the 

manganese zone. A. sample of the pink carbonate analyzed 0.36 

percent MnO (table 2). 

About three fourths of a mile southwest of the Lucas mine are a 

tunnel and several shafts in the same quartzite belt (loc. 126, pl. 2) . 
138 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Wad and friable manganese oxides occur on the dumps of these workings. A similar deposit in a quartzite belt about a mile east of Lees- · 

ville (loc. 124, pl. 2) has been prospected by shallow diggings. 

PERROW 

The Perrow mine (loc. 127, pl. 2) is 3 miles southwest of Leesville, 

approximately on the boundary between Bedford and Campbell 

County. A shaft about 80 feet deep was sunk many years ago, perhaps in the eighties, and ·some ore is said to have been shipped. Between 1912 and 1915, H. S. Lucas (oral communication) states that 

he sunk another shaft 78 feet deep close to the old shaft for a Mr. 

Smithson and shipped about 50 tons of ore. Other pits and shafts, 

now caved, were put down in the vicinity. 

The geology of the region south of Leesville to the Perrow mine 

was not mapped. It seems probable that the Perrow deposit is in an 

extension of the quartzite belt in which the Lucas deposit occurs. The 

manganese zone of the Perrow mine also is near the contact of quartz-. 

ite and mica schist, and wad and friable manganese oxides are found 

on all the dumps of the Perrow mine. · 

IRON MINES AND PROSPECTS 

HISTORY AND PRODUCTION 

Iron ore was mined at numerous places in the district duru1g a. 

period of more than a hundred years (apparently beginning about the 

time of the Revolutionary War and ceasing about 1882). A good 

account of the mining operations and a description of the iron deposits, 

based to a considerable extent on old reports and records not generally 

~vailable now, has been given by Furcron (1935, p. 81-104). The 

important features of his historical account are summarized below. 

The earliest record of iron manufacture in the region appears in a 

statement by Jefferson in 1781 to the effect that 1,600 tons of pig iron 

was being produced annually from local limonite ores at the Ross or 

Oxford· furnace near Little Beaver Creek, Campbell County. In the 

early nineteenth century limonite ores were worked at various places, 

principally along a belt extending from near Mount A.thos northeast 

to near the mouth of Stonewall Creek, and were smelted in local 

charcoal furnaces. The William Ross, or Lagrange furnace on 

Stonewall Creek in Appomattox County was shut down in 1843, and 

the nearby Stonewall furnace was abandoned in 1845. The Elk Creek 

furnace, on .Allen Creek in Nelson County, also operated on limonite 

ores during this period and was finally shut down in 1850. Apparently, the Ross or Oxford furnace was last operated during the 

Civil War. Probably most of the limonite ore mined during this era 

was smelted in the local furnaces, but some ore is said to have been 
IRON ~NES AND PROSPECTS 139 

shipped to the old Westham furnace (later known as the Powhatan 

IronWorks), which was located 10 miles from Richmond. 

Iron mining in the district was revived in 1879 with extensive development of specular hematite deposits in a belt extending along the 

western side of the James River for about 17 miles from Gaits Mills 

to near Greenway. Mining activity expanded very rapidly, and by 

June 1880, nineteen iron mines were being worked along the river between Lynchburg and Greenway. By that time, more than $600,000 

had been spent in purchasing and developing these properties, and 

over 500 men were working in the mines. The district attracted much 

attention and financial speculation for a brief period, but apparently 

by 1882 operations had ceased altogether. Closing of the mines, after 

this short flurry of activity, was doubtless due mainly to the high costs 

entailed in working small, rather low-grade deposits and to overcapitalization of the mining enterprises. Competition with the higher 

grade ores from the deposits being developed in the Lake Superior 

iron ranges was also probably a decisive factor. Production records 

for this period are incomplete; it is reported that 57,124 tons of ore 

was produced from Campbell, Amherst, and Nelson Counties during 

1880, but this figure has been said to be too low. Some ore was 

smelted locally in Lynchburg, but much of it was shipped to Pittsburgh and to other northern furnaces. Magnetite ore has been mined 

in more recent years in Pittsylvania County, which is southwest of 

the James River belt (Watson 1907b, p. 472--474). 

DESCRIPTION 

Because of the few exposures and caved conditions of the mine 

workings, studies of these deposits at the present time yield little information beyond a knowledge of the distribution of the deposits (pls. 

1 and 2), and the character of the ore and country rock as shown by 

the material on mine dumps. The major geologic features (as ob. 

served by the writer) and the highlights of the mining operations 

(as summarized by Furcron [1935, p. 81-104] from the records of 

Frazer, Campbell, and others) are presented below. 

NELSON AND AMHERST. OOUNTIES 

The specular hematite-magnetite deposits in the Mount Athos 

formation are more abundant than limonite deposits along the western 

side of the James River in Nelson and Ainherst Counties and were 

worked extensively in the short-lived mining boom of the eighties. 

Most of the mining in these counties was done in the neighborhood 

of Greenway, Riverville, Stapleton, and Gaits Mills. The quartzite 

member of the Mount Athos formation appears to have unusually 

large outcrop widths at these localities, and at several places it 'ap-
140 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

pears to be folded into rather complex, tight folds (pl.1). The plunging nature of some ore lenses, as described by Frazer ( 1883), may bear 

some relation to these folds. 

Mining operations in the eighties were conducted by Adams Scott 

and Company, and Dover Mining Company, and the Central Virginia 

Iron Co. The steeply dipping specular hematite deposits were worked 

mostly by underground methods; the earlier operations on limonite 

deposits were open-cuts. At the Greenway, or DeWitt, mines (locs. 

133-135, pl. 2) over a dozen openings were made along a low quartzite 

ridge northwest of Greenway. Several thousand tons of ore were 

shipped to the Westham furnace prior to 1880, and in March 1880, 

production was at the rate of 50 to 75 tons daily. In June 1881, the 

principal mine (on what was called the No. 16 vein) was opened to a 

depth of 170 feet by several shafts and had been stoped along a strike 

length of 450 feet, according to a longitudinal section of the mine 

workings in Frazer's report (1883). 

Mining activity at Riverville was confined mostly to two belts of 

quartzite west of the village; more than 50 mine workings can be 

found within 11h miles of Riverville (locs. 141-149, pl. 2; fig. 4). The 

No. 1 shaft on this belt was 157 feet deep to the lowest level, which 

had a drift length of 400 feet, according to Frazer. An attempt was 

made to open these deposits at greater depths by driving a tunnel at 

canal level from the bend of the river, but this canal crosscut seems 

to have been advanced only 300 feet. Production from the Riverville 

mines in 1880 was at the rate of 50 to 75 tons daily; most of the ore 

went to a furnace in Lynchburg. 

At Riverville, the westernmost belt of iron deposits is in quartzite 

that may be locally calcareous, because marble is present on one of the 

dumps, and the quartzite fragments on the dumps commonly have the 

brown porous appearance indicative of leached calcareous quartzite. 

A very persistent quartz-tourmaline vein, which can be traced for 

about 2,000 feet by float, occurs in schist in the Riverville area near 

the iron deposits; it is not believed to have any genetic relationship to 

the iron deposits. 

Near Stapleton, specular hematite was mined in the eighties by 

Thomas Dunlap at the Maud mines (locs. 153-155, pl. 2), 1% miles 

up Partridge (Porridge) Creek from the river. Mining was mainly 

:from several tunnels driven into the hillside at different elevations. 

The principal iron deposit was said to have been 1 to 2 feet thick, and 

Frazer ( 1883, p. 205) notes that it was terminated by a barren quartz 

body that plunged to the southwest. This structural feature is probably related to the tight folding that causes the quartzite to be exposed 

-for nearly half a mile across the strike (pl. 1). The quartzite is 
IRON ~NES AND PROSPECTS 141 

similarly folded at Round Top, several miles to the southwest, where 

the workings of the Round Top and Lone Pine mines (locs. 156-160, 

pl. 2) are located. A small amount of lean ore is said to have been 

shipped from the Lone Pine mine in 1881. 

Limonite deposits on the north side of the river were worked mainly 

in the vicinity of Allen Creek and supplied the old Elk Creek furnace, 

which was abandoned in 1850. 

APPOMATTOX AND CAMPBELL COUNTIES 

Most of the iron mining in Appomattox County seems to have been 

near Stonewall Creek (locs. 164, 165, 168, 169, pl. 2), where limonite 

deposits were mined at numerous places in a belt several miles long 

early in the 19th century. The principal deposits are in graphitic 

schist that carries pyrite (from which the iron in the limonite may 

have been derived). The ore was smelted in the two charcoal furnaces 

on Stonewall Creek, and the blue marble that forms the valley of 

Stonewall Creek was used as the flux. Limonite deposits on the Nutall 

property (loc. 161, pl. 2) near Beckham also provided some ore. 

Specular hematite and magnetite deposits were mined on the Ferguson 

and Isbell properties (locs. 166, 167, pl. 2) and on the south end of 

Chestnut Mountain (loc. 171, pl. 2). Magnetite was found in marble 

at the copper prospect (loc. 224, pl. 2) on Wreck Island Creek; specular hematite occurs nearby as thin stringers in white marble in the 

quarry now operated by the State of Virginia for agricultural lime. 

In Campbell County, limonite ores were worked extensively at the 

Oxford and Piedmont mines (locs. 181-183, pl. 2), near Little Beaver 

Creek, and were smelted in the old Oxford or Ross furnace. These 

deposits also occur in graphitic schists and were mined from several 

open-cuts in a belt nearly half a mile long. The accumulations of 

limonite ore appear to have been among the largest in the region. 

Their proximity to the Piedmont manganese mine, the largest manganese deposit known in the district, suggests that conditions may have 

been especially favorable in this locality either for the formation of 

limonite and manganese deposits, or for their subsequent preservation 

from erosion. Limonite deposits were mined at several places to the 

northeast, between the Oxford mine and the Stonewall Creek deposits. 

Numerous limonite deposits were mined and prospected farther southwest to the Roanoke River in Campbell County. Considerable limonite 

occurs at the Oliver mine (loc. 202, pl. 2) and at several places in the 

vicinity of Scott mountain, a short distance south of Otter River. 

Specular hematite ore was mined by the Birmingham Iron Co. during 

the eighties in Campbell County near Archers Creek, at the south 

end of Mount Athos, and on the Merritt property near Lynch in the 

southwest corner of the county. 

283201--54----11 
142 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE .RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

BARITE MINES AND PROSPECTS 

HISTORY AND PRODUCTION 

Most of the information given here on barite mining operations in 

the district is summarized from the accounts of Watson (1907a) and 

Edmundson (1938). Barite was apparently first produced in 1874 

from the Hewitt mine, which was worked almost continuously from 

then until 1904; it was reopened later (date unknown) and mined 

until it was abandoned in 1933. The Hewitt mine has been the principal source of barite in the district, and according to Edmundson 

(1938, p. 33), this mine was the most important producer in the state. 

Other productive barite mines in this area are the Mattox1 Phillips, 

Haden, and Bragg. The most recent a_ctivity in the district seems to 

have been the prospecting of the Carson deposit in 1937. 

Barite has also been mined for many years in Pittsylvania County, 

southwest of this district. After abandonment of the Hewitt mine, 

the Barium Mining Corp. (last operators of the mine) moved the 

plant equipment to Pittsylvania County and worked a group of 

deposits near Toshes. 

According to records in the files of the Virginia Geological Survey, 

production of barite from Campbell County during the period 1911-

1935, inclusive, amounted to 102, 917 short tons of barite; ore was 

produced each year except during 1921 and 1922. The quantity of 

barite produced from 187 4 through 1910 is unknown, but it must have 

been substantial. No barite production is recorded from the county 

since 1935. Probably 90 percent or more of the total production of 

Campbell County came from the Hewitt mine. 

DESCRIPTION 

The dozen or so barite mines and prospects in the district are in 

the southern part of the area. Several deposits are located along the 

valley of Beaver Creek and one of its tributaries near Rustburg; the 

other deposits occur farther southwest, between Evington and the 

Roanoke River (pls. 1 and 2). At all of these localities, barite occurs 

in the white marble member of the Mount Athos formation and in 

the overlying surficial and residual clays. 

Because the exposures are sparse, little can be added to the description of the barite mines and prospects given by Edmundson ( 1938, 

p. 30-36). The deposits near Rustburg, on the Lindsay (loc. 206, 

pl. 2), Carson (locs. 207,208, pl. 2), and Neighbours (loc. 209, pl. 2) 

properties, were prospected by shallow pits and tunnels. Thin veins 

of barite, a few inches thick, were found in marble; Edmundson 

states that at least two veins of greater thickness were found at the 
' BARITE MINES AND PROSPECTS 143 

Carson 1nine. Production from this group of deposits seems to have 

been negligible. 

In the vicinity of Evington and north of Otter River, barite deposits 

have been worked in five different belts of the Mount Athos formation, 

from west to east across the strike as follows : ( 1) Haden mine (loc. 

210, pl. 2), (2) Hewitt (loc. 212, pl. 2) and Burton (loc. 211, pl. 2) 

mines, (3) an unnamed (Phillips n prospect (loc. 213, pl. 2) east of 

Flat Creek, (4) Phillips mine (loc. 214, pl. 2), and (5) Saunders mine 

(loc. 215, pl. 2). Operations at the Hewitt mine were the most extensive. It was mined by underground workings to a depth of 160 feet 

from 1874 until1904, when excessive water resulted in closure of the 

mine. After reopening at· an unknown later date, the mine was 

worked as an open-cut, which was 1,800 feet long, 200-300 feet wide 

at the top, and 100 feet wide at the bottom when work was stopped 

in 1933. Total production is unrecorded, but it was probably about 

100,000 short tons of barite. Quartzite is exposed in the western wall 

of the cut, marble veined by barite in the bottom of the pit, and mica 

schist on the eastern wall. Evidently, a large portion of the material 

that was mined consisted of loose pieces and blocks of barite in black 

clay, or "umber'' residual from marble, although some barite veins 

in marble were probably mined also. Edmundson (1938, p. 33) says 

that a lens of barite, about 20 feet thick, yielded over 200 tons in 1932, 

but he does not make clear whether the lens was in marble or in residual 

clay. He states further, "Since the last mining at the Hewitt encountered consolidated bedrock containing no commercial quantities of 

barite, it is most probable that the reserves are largely exhausted." 

The other productive deposits north of Otter River near the Hewitt 

mine are the Phillips, from which four carloads of ore was shipped 

in 1931, and the Haden, which is said to have yielded over 2,500 tons 

of barite. The Phillips mine was worked in 1930 and 1931 by means 

of several shafts to a maximum depth of 60 feet and by an open-cut 

12 feet deep. The Haden mine was worked as an open-cut 200 feet 

long and 30 feet wide. Edmundson (1938, p. 33-34) says that barite 

from the Phillips mine is reported to have had a relatively high iron 

content, but that ore from the Haden mine was exceptionally high 

grade. 

Barite mines and prospects in Campbell County, south of Otter 

River, are the Mattox (locs. 216, 217, pl. 2), Grasty (locs. 218, 219, 

pl. 2), Wood (loc. 220, pl..2), Bragg (loc. 221, pl. 2) and Cundiff (the 

latter is not shown on pis. 1 and 2). Edmundson ( 1938, p. 35-36) 

says that large quantities of barite are reported to have been produced 

from the Mattox and Bragg mines. Pratt (1902, p. 915-916) stated 

in 1901 that the Mattocks mine (probably the Mattox) had not been 

worked in recent years because of water interference. 
l44 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

COPPER MINES .AND PROSPECTS 

HISTORY AND PRODUCTION 

Furcron (1935, p. 109-111) states that copper was mined in the 

Glades, Amherst County, and along Wreck Island Creek, Appomattox 

County, before the Revolutionary War. The ore from the Glades 

mines (locs. 222, 223, pl. 2) was ground and shipped to England, 

according to Rogers ( 1884, p. 88) ; the copper ore from the Wreck 

Island Creek mine (loc. 224, pl. 2) is said to have been smelted locally. 

Some work was done in the Glades area about 1880, in 1917-18, and 

again about 1945. Copper ores are said to have been mined many 

years ago at the old Bishop mine (Joe. 225, pl. 2) in southern Campbell 

County. The recorded production of copper ore from the district 

amounts to only 15 tons, which was shipped from the Glades mine 

in 1880 ; in all probability, the unrecorded production was negligible. 

DESCRIPTION 

The copper deposits in the Glades along the west foot of Buffalo 

Ridge have been prospected at several places for a distance of 2 miles 

along the strike. The deposits were first mined before the Revolutionary War by a Colonel Chissel, according to Rogers ( 1884, p. 88) . 

The locality was known as the "Folly" at the time of Rogers' visit, but 

he doesn't state whether this derisive name refers to the mining enterprise or not. Some work was done here in 1880, by Thomas Dunlap, 

during the iron mining boom, and 15 tons of copper ore was shipped 

at that time. During 1917-18, the main shaft, said to be 30Q feet 

deep, was cleaned out by the Buffalo Ridge Development Co., but no 

ore was shipped. Some prospecting is also said to have been done 

here about 1945. The nature of the deposits is now evident only 

from the material on the dumps of the different shafts. The altered 

peridotite, or soapstone, that forms extensive belts west of Buffalo 

Ridge is the country rock of the copper deposits. Bornite and chalco· 

pyrite occur as stringers and small lenses with tremolite. Furcron 

believed that the copper occurrences were either in Lynchburg gneiss, 

or at the contact of gneiss and greenstone, but all of the country rock 

examined by the writer appears to be peridotite, serpentine, or soapstone. 

Copper is also said to have been mined along Wreck Island Creek, 

about 2 miles above its mouth, and smelted nearby before the Revolutionary War. Campbell (1882, p. 42, 119) states that magnetite 

was discovered in the eighties during a search for copper. According to Furcron, mineralization consists of stringers and disseminations of pyrite, hematite, and chalcopyrite in marble; he observed 

bornite and chrysocolla in a specimen of oxidized ore. No copper 

minerals were visible here at the time of the writer's visit, but in the 
STONE QUARRIES 145 

marble quarry about 0.8 of a mile to the southwest, chalcopyrite and 

sphalerite are disseminated through narrow zones in the marble, and 

thin lenses of specular hematite are also present. 

Chalcopyrite and pyrite are disseminated through white marble in 

very minor amounts at other localities in the region. At the Bishop 

manganese mine in southern Campbell County, attempts were made 

many years ago to mine what is probably a deposit of this type. The 

locality is noted as having the only known occurrence of crystalline 

turquoise (Schaller, 1912; Robinson, 1942), which is present as small 

aggregates of minute radiating crystals; very little of the mineral 

now remains scattered through the dump material. 

In the area of Triassic sedimentary rocks that extends southwest 

from Rockfish River, copper has been found on the Dolan property 

(not shown on pl. 2) as malachite and small grains of bornite with 

small, irregular lenses of quartz and calcite. 

STONE QUARRIES 

White marble and quartzite beds in the Mount Athos formation, 

blue marble, greenstone, and the Lynchburg gneiss have boon quarried 

for various purposes at numerous places in the area, as shown on 

plate 2. The larger quarries are along and near the James River east 

of Lynchburg, at the northern end of Jack Mountain, 11h miles northwest of Evington, and along the Roanoke River west of Altavista. 

Two quarries were being operated in the area in 1942 by the State of 

Virginia, one produced white marble from along Wreck Island Creek 

for agricultural limestone, and the other produced quartzite from 

near the mouth of Slippery Creek for use as road metal. White and 

blue marble have been used mostly for making agricultural lime, as 

flux in the old iron furnaces, and in masonry construction; the other 

kinds of rock were quarried largely for railroad and highway ballast. 

The occurrences of marble are described in detail by Furcron (1935, 

p. 60-81). The marbles vary widely in physical and chemical characteristics. The blue marble is usually fine-grained and may contain such impurities as micaceous and graphitic seams, quartzitic beds, 

disseminated pyrite, and irregular lenses of vein quartz ; some beds 

are gradational to limy schist. Furcron cites analyses of blue marble 

by Britton in which CaCOs ranges from 65.10 to 82.45 percent, MgCOs. 

from 2.10 to 6.02 percent, and Si02 from 10.98 to 26.90 percent. The 

white marble is usually coarsely crystalline and commonly contains 

schistose and quartzitic beds, and disseminated chalcopyrite and pyrite. Some white marble beds in the northern part of the area are 

dolomitic; Furcron gives an analysis of dolomitic marble from near 

Warminster that contains 54.83 percent CaCOs, 33.52 percent MgCOs, 

and 5.50 percent Si02• . 
146 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA . 

. FUTURE OUTLOOK FOR MINING 

MANGANESE 

An appraisal o:f the district's reserves o:f manganese ore must be 

based largely upon the geologic characteristics o:f the deposits and 

upon past prospecting and mining experience, because the amount of 

ore actually blocked out is not significant. The mode o:f origin of 

the deposits is of :fundamental importance in this connection. As 

the manganese oxide minerals in this district seem to have been 

deposited by ground waters during an earlier erosion cycle, it :follows 

that their depth below the present surface depends on their original 

depth below the old peneplain sur:face and the amount of subsequent 

erosion. It seems likely that minable amounts of manganese oxides 

do not persist to depths greater than about 350 :feet; some deposits 

may be bottomed at much shallower depths, where ground water 

circulation was shallow or where the deposit has been considerably 

eroded since its formation. It must be realized, therefore, that below 

depths of several hundred feet the amount of ore will diminish and 

mining costs will increase, largely because of the need for greater 

ground support and additional pumping. 

Other pertinent geologic characteristics are the lateral extent of 

the deposits, and the grade or content of manganese oxide nodules 

in the mine dirt. Only a few deposits have been found to be more 

than 6 feet in thickness or more than several hundred feet long; 

many deposits have smaller dimensions. The average grade is one 

part by weight of manganese oxides recoverable by washing, to 10 

or 15 parts of mine dirt; in a few deposits, as in the Piedmont and 

Saunders, the grade was found to be higher. 

Although there are numerous deposits of manganese oxides in the 

district, many of them are small and of relatively low grade. Half 

a dozen deposits of exceptional size or grade have yielded about 90 

percent of the district production. The average yield of the remaining productive deposits has been only a few hundred tons of washed 

ore. 

From available information on all of the individual deposits, it is 

concluded that the total reserves of hard manganese oxide ore in the 

district are probably not more than 10,000 long tons of washed ore. 

~These reserves are distributed in about 30 deposits and are estimated 

to a depth of 100 feet beneath the surface-except for the Piedmont 

(Campbell County) and Saunders mines, where ore is known to extend 

below present mine workings. Under normal economic conditions, 

probably not much of this ore could be mined at a profit; production 

would be small and erratic, as it has been since 1920. 
FUTURE OUTLOOK FOR NUNING 147 

If exploration and mining in the district were stimulated by very 

high prices for manganese ores during a national emergency (prices 

considerably higher than during World War II) production from 

the district probably would increase, and new discoveries might be 

made that would increase estimates of the ore reserves. Even under 

the most favorable conditions, however, it is unlikely that the district 

could produce more than several thousand tons of washed ore annually 

for more than a few years. 

If suitable methods are developed for beneficiating the wad ores, 

these ores may at some future time be considered as a source of 

manganese. Little information is available on the size or grade of 

these deposits. They appear to have a larger lateral extent, but to 

be much shallower, than the deposits of hard manganese oxides. Individual deposits probably range in size from 10,000 to 30,000 tons and 

have an average grade of 5 to 10 percent manganese. Probably, at 

least a doz,en wad deposits of this size exist in the district. Thus, the 

total reserves of manganese contained in such ores may be several 

times the amount of manganese in the nodular ores. Exploration 

and sampling would be necessary to determine the reserves of wad 

ores in the district. 

A few generalizations may be made about the localit1es that seem to 

be most favorable for future exploration for hard oxides and wad ores. 

In the region of Beckham and Gowans Hill, Appomattox County, 

float of hard manganese oxides is found in approximately a dozen 

places, but scarcely any prospecting has been done. On the premise 

that the larger and better grade deposits were formed under the most 

favorable geologic conditions, the search for these deposits might best 

be emphasized in the vicinity (within a mile or two) of such deposits 

as the Leets, Piedmont (Campbell County), Saunders, and others. 

Wad deposits seem to be directly associated with the larger bodies of 

white marble. Deposits, known or considered to have large amounts 

of wad, are the Simpson, Old Tavern, Piedmont (Campbell County), 

Lindsay, Bell, McGehee, Mortimer, Pribble, Russell Den Hollow, 

Bishop, Dews, Arthur, Lucas, and Perrow mines. 

IRON 

T:he reserves of iron ore in the district are small. The limonite 

deposits, formed by circulating ground waters, are shallow and do not 

persist in depth; the larger limonite deposits have essentially been 

mined out. The specular hematite deposits are interbedded with 

quartzite and schist and can be expected to persist in depth with little 

change in size or grade. However, these deposits are small in size, 

and the ore is highly siliceous. 
148 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

BARITE 

An appraisal of the future possibilities for barite mining in the 

district is difficult because of the scanty information on the geologic 

characteristics, the size and grade of the deposits, and the past production of individual deposits. Although most of the deposits seem to be 

small, the Hewitt mine yielded about 100,000 tons of barite. Possibly 

the Hewitt deposit was the only one of large size, or there may be 

others awaiting discovery. Any exploration program probably should 

be conducted on a modest scale in the vicinity of known deposits, and 

a special effort should be made to ascertain the geologic characteristics 

of the deposits, as well as their size and grade. It must be borne in 

mind that barite occurs both as fragments in the surficial and residual 

clays derived from the weathering of calcareous rocks and as veins in 

marble. The overlying clays should first be trenched and test-pitted 

to sample and delineate the near-surface accumulation of barite. If 

indications of good-sized veins are found, they can be explored by 

deeper test pits, and later by drilling, should such a program seem to 

be warranted. 

COPPER 

The reserves of copper ore in the district are judged to be insignificant. 

STONE 

Quartzite, greenstone, and marble are abundant in the region and 

could be quarried more extensively than in the past. ·Both white and 

blue marble are of widespread occurrence and are particularly abundant along both sides of the James River. A number of good quarry 

sites can be found with marble beds at least 100 feet thick, favorable 

topographic conditions, and adequate transportation facilities. 

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Barker, Alfred, 1932, Metamorphism: Methuen and Co., Ltd., London, 360 p. 

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--- 1916, Some manganese mines in Virginia and Maryland: U. S. Geol. 

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-· -- 1918, Field notes on the Mortimer and Pribble mines ·in files of the 

U. S. Geol. Survey. 

--- 1932, Manganese in sediments, in Treatise on Sedimentation (Twenhofel, W. B.): The Williams and Wilkins Oo., Baltimore, p. 562-581. 

--- 1934, Field notes on the Leets mine in files of the U. S. Geol. Survey. 
150 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

Hewett, D. F.-Continued 

--- 1935, Manganese oxides and the circulation o:f ground water (abstract) : 

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Johnson, D. W., 1931, Stream sculpture on the Atlantic slope, a study in the 

evolution of Appalachian rivers: Columbia Univ. Press, N. Y., 142 p. 

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--- 1929, Structure of the metamorphic belt of the central Appalachians : 

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Virginia: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 237, p. 575-593. 

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--- 1949b, The base of the Cambrian in the southern Appalachians : Am. 

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REFERENCE CITED 151 

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152 GEOLOGY OF JAMES-ROANOKE RIVERS MANGANESE DISTRICT, VA. 

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INDEX 

P~e Page 

AbstracL---------------···-···--------------- 1-4 Diabase _________________________ ------------- 27-28 

Accessibility of area·------------------------- 4 Do.ver Mining Company_-------------------- 140 

Acknowledgments---------------------------- 7-8 

Adams Scott and Company__________________ 140 

Alluvial deposits ••• -------------------------- 28 

Altavista----·------------------------- 1, 4-6, flg. 1 

American Ores Company_____________________ 125 

Archer Creek formation _______ 1,16-17,33,63, 73,100 

Barite deposits, location and description _____ 75-78, 

116, 123, 130, 134 origin ______________________ ------------ ___ 75-78 

Barite mines and prospects, Bragg___________ 142 

Burton ___ ---------------------------_____ 143 

Carson •• -------- __ ---------- ____ --- ____ 142-143 

Cundiff _____ ----------------______________ 143 

description •• _------------------ ___ ----- 142-143 

future outlook for mining_________________ 148 

Grasty •••• ---- ___________ ----_----------- 143 

Haden ___________________ --------------- 142-143 

Hewitt--------------------------- 4,142-143,148 

history----------------------------------- 142 

Lindsay---------------------------------- 142 

MattoX---·----------------------------- 142,143 Neighbours .••• __ •• __ • _______ ._. ___ • _____ • 142 

Phillips.------------------------------- 142-143 

production of----------------------------- 142 

Saunders--------------------------------- 143 

Wood.----------------------- ___ --------- 143 Barium content of country rock ______________ 63,77 

Barium Mining Corporation_________________ 142 

Biotite-garnet schists, age of__________________ 24 

location and description of________________ 1, 21 

Birmingham Iron Company__________________ 141 

Buffalo Ridge Development Company_______ 144 

Candler formation, location and description of. 1, 

14-16, 34-35 

metamorphism--------------------------- 39 Catoctin-Blue Ridge anticlinorium ___________ 13,24 

Central Virginia Iron Company______________ 140 

Chert •• __ ._-------------------- ______________ 54-55 

Clark, W. B., and Miller, B. L., quoted______ 47 

Climate ___________ ---- ____ -----------------__ 6 

Columbia Manganese Company______________ 120 

Copper deposits, location and description •• 4, 78-79 

Copper mines and prospects, Bishop__________ 145 

description. __ ---------------------- ____ 144-145 

Dolan. _______ ------------------•--------- 145 

"Folly"---------------------------------- 144 future outlook for mining_________________ 148 

Glades.---------------------------------- 144 

history.---------------------------------- 144 production •• _____________________________ 144 

Edmundson, R. S., quoted __________________ 77,143 

Evington group, age __________________________ 22,23 

conditions of deposition----------~-------- 20-21 correlation problems ______________________ 25-27 

description ________________ 1, 2, 9, 10,12, 13, 15,34 

formations________________________________ 20-21 

stratigraphic sequence _________________ 15,22-23 

See al8o Candler, Archer Creek, Mount 

Athos, and Greenstone formations. 

Field work.-----------------_--- __ -_------ __ _ 6-7 

Fleischer, Michael, and Richmond, W. E., 

quoted.----------------------- __ _ 52 

General geology, principal features___________ 9-11 

Greenstone, age ______________________________ 22-23 

location and description _________ 11,12,13,19-20 

Harder, E. C., quoted ______________________ llG-111 

Hewett, D. F., quoted ____________ 69-70,71,109, 111 

Howardsville •••• ____ -- _____ ---_______________ 1 

Industries _________ ------ ____________________ _ 

Introduction ________________________ --- _____ _ 6 

4-9 • 

Iron deposits, analyses of ores. ____________ 73, 74,119 

location and description oL ____________ 4, 72-75 

Iron mines and prospects, Amherst County. 139-141 

Appomattox County_____________________ 141 

Campbell County________________________ 141 

Chestnut Mountain______________________ 141 

description of ____________ --------------- 139-142 

DeWitt. •• __ ------ ______________ ----_---- 140 

Ferguson. _______ ------------------------- 141 

future outlook for mining.________________ 147 

Greenway-----------------------_-------- 140 !listory _________________________________ 138-139 

Isbell __________________ ------------------- 141 

Lone Pine________________________________ 141 

·Maud •• __ --- ____ --- _____ ---------- _____ 14o-141 

Merritt __________ ------------------------- 141 

Nelson CountY------------------------- 139-141 NutalL ••• ---- _________________ -__ _ _ _ _ _ ___ 141 

Oliver ___ ---- ____ -- _________ -------_______ 141 

Oxford ••• -------------------------------· 141 Piedmont •• __________________ ------------ 141 

production._. ______ ------ _____ --- ___ --- 138-139 Riverville. ____________________________ 140, flg. 4 

Round TOP------------------------------ 141 

Stonewall Creek-------------------------- 141 

Wreck Island Creek______________________ 144 James River.·------------------------------ 6.10, 45 

Cryptomelane________________________________ 53 John B. Guernsey and Company, Inc........ 82 

1 
154 INDEX 

Page 

Lerner Mining Company_____________________ 109 

Limonite. See Iron deposits. Location __________________________________ 4, 9, fig. 1 

Lynchburg _____________________________ 1, 4-6, fig. 1 

Lynchburg gneiss, age________________________ 22 

correlation problems ______________________ 24-25 

location and description_----------------- 1, 

2, 9, 10, 11, 12-14, 34, 35 

metamorphism of_________________________ 39 

Manganese content of country rock, graphitic 

schist member of Archer Creek 

formation _________________________ 16,63 

marble member of Mount Athos formation __ ---------------------- 19, 55, 62-64 

Manganese deposits, analyses of ore ____ ---- 68-59, 

93, 98, 102, 105 

description ______ --- __ ---------_- ___ ------ 51-52 

distribution __ ---------------------------- 55 

gangue minerals-------------------------- 54-55 grade of ore _______________________________ 68-59 

mineralogy------------------------------- bl-55 

origin _______ ---- ______ ----------------_--- 59-72 

asso~iation with Mount Athos formation __ ---------------------------- 62-65 

conditions of ground-water circulation __ 6fr67 

general._----------_--- ___ --- ___ -------_ 59-60 

occurrence of oxides in rock residuum ___ 60-62 

relations to upland surface and persistence in depth--------------------- 67-71 

r~um6_ -------------------------------- 72 

oxides_-------------------------- 51-54,61,70,71 structural features ____________ . ____________ 55-58 

types of ore _________________________ 52-03, 58-59 

Manganese mines and prospects, Aaron 

Moore ______________________ 94-95, fig. 7 

Amherst CountY------------------------- 92-93 

Anthony_-------------------------------- 131 

Appomattox County ____________________ 93-102 

Arthur _______________________________ 137, pl. 11 

Arthur (McGehee>-------------- 59,118-119,147 

Beckham and Gowans Hill deposits _____ 94-95, 

fig.7 

Ben _______________ 7, 67, 82,103,117-118,147, pl. 7 

Belmont _________ --------------- ____ ------ 90-92 

BetheL ______________ --------------------- 116 

Bill Ferguson_____________________________ 102 

BishoP------------- 81, 83, pl. 11,103,134-135,147 

Bragg __ ---------------------------------- 137 

Bucl<ingham County--------------------- 93 

Bugley ___ -------- 3, 7, 8, 58, 81, 83, 85,89-90, pl. 3 

Burton ____ -------------------_----------- 130 

Cabell ______ 3, 7, 8, 58, 81, 83, 8li, 87-89, fig. 5, pl. 3 

Campbell CountY---------------------- 102-138 

Chestnut Mountain ______________ 57, 59,101-102 

Christian ______________________ ---- ___ ---- 92 

Davis __ ------------------------------- 81, 9o-92 

descriptions oL------------------------- 86-138 

Dews ___________ 57, 59, 135-137,147, fig. 14, pl. 11 

Dodson ___________________ ---------_------ 116 

Drinkard ____________ ------ ____ - __ -----_ 108-109 

Evington_______________________________ 125-129 

Flat Creek __ --------------------------- 125-129 

Frazier_---------------------------------- 132 

future outlook for mlning _______________ 146-147 

Gaits Mills_______________________________ 92 

Page 

Manganese mines and prospects-Continued 

G. CabelL-------------------------------- 102 

Grasty ___________________ 132-134, Pls.ll and 12 

Green __ ------------_--------------------- 116 

Haden _______________ --------------------- 124 

Hall _______________ -----------------------_ 123 

Halsey_-------------------------------- 131-132 

Hancock-Ferguson _______ ----------------_ 101 

Harvey-------------- __ ----------------___ 114 

history_------------------------------ 3, 4, 81-84 

Jack Mountain___________________________ 116 

Joshua Creek_____________________________ 103 

Langhorne ___ ---------------------------- 131 

Laynesville __________ -------------------- _ 86-87 

Leesville.------------------------------ 137-138 

Leets __________ 44, 57, 67. 71, 81, 83, 85,103,104-108 

Lerner_- ___ ---------------------------- 109-114 Lindsay _________________________ 59,114-115,147 

Lucas __ ------------------ 64, 81,103,137-138,147 

Maddox __ ----------------------_--------- 118 Mayhew ____________________________ 134, pl. 11 

Mays _________________________________ 59, fig. 9 

Merritt ______________________________ 135, pl. 11 

milllng methods __________________________ 85-86 

mining methods __________________________ 84-85 

Moore _____ ------------------------------- 93-94 

Mortimer ___ ---------- 59, 81, 82,103,119-121,147 

Mount Athos_____________________________ 103 

Mount Athos (Leets) ___________________ 104-108 

Myers ___________________ -- _____________ 109-114 

McGehee ________________________ 59,118-119,147 

Neighbours _____________________________ 115-116 

Nelson CountY---------------------------~ 

Nutall ___________ ---------- ________ ------- 94-95 

Old Tavern.-------------------~------- 104,147 Otter River _____________________________ 131-132 

PerroW------------------------------ 81,138,147 

Phillips.-------------------------------- 81,123 

Piedmont (Campbell County) __ 7, 56-57, 58-59, 

61, 63-64, 67, 71, 81, 83, 85, 103, 109-

114, 146, 147, pis. 5 and 6. 

Piedmont (Nelson County) ___________ 81,86-87 

Pribble--~----- 59, 64, 82, 85, 121-123, 147, fig. 12 

production._----------------------------- 81-84 

prospecting methods _____ ---------------- 84-85 

Russell Den Hollow--- 103, 124-125, 147, pis_. 8, 9 

Ryan ___________________________ ---------- 104 

Saunders __ 7, 57, 81, 83, 103, 125-129, 146, 147, 

fig. 13, pis. 8, 9, and 10 

Schoolhouse ___________________ ----------- 95-96 

Simpson ___________________ 47, 81, 83,90-92, fig. 6 

Smlttoson _________ ----- __________ ------- 104-108 

Sprlng Hill----------------------------- 125-129 Stapleton area ____________________________ 92-93 

StonewalL ____ 58, 59, 85. 93,96-100, figs. 8, 9, pl. 4 

Tardy--------------------________________ 132 

Teates ______ ---------- __ -------------- __ __ 131 

Theresa------------------- 57, 81, 83,103,131-132 

Troublesome Creek_______________________ 124 

vicinity of Stonewall mine ______________ 1G0-101 

Whitman _______________________________ 104-108 

Wood __ -------------- ___ --------------- 129-130 

Wood (Mortimer) ______________________ 119-121 

Woodson_______________________________ 101-102 

Wright_·--------------------------------- 59 
INDEX 155 

Page Page 

Marble_----------- __ 1, 3, 4, 9,14, 16, 17, 20, 21, 39, 55, Riverville_ ------------------------------- 79, fig. 4 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,119, 133,135, 145, 148. Roanoke River _______________________________ 6, 45 

Metamorphic rocks, location and description Rock types _________________________________ 9, ll-20 

of _______________ ------------------ 11-12 

See al&o Evington group, Lynchburg gneiss, 

and Biotite-garnet schist. 

Soapstone. See Lynchburg gneiss. 

Metamorphism, contact type _________________ 42-43 

progressive or retrogressive._------------- 41-42 regional characteristics ____________________ 38-41 

Mineral deposits, types and distribution ______ 50-51 

See al&o particular mineral& and formation&. 

Mount Athos formatbn, description .. _ 1, 3,17-19,98 

metamorphism of _______ 39, 40, 41, 55, 59, 60,62-65 

National Paint and Manganese Company____ 82, 

Saprolite._----------------------------------- 43-44 

Southern Mines and Metals Company, Inc __ 82, 105 

Specular hematite. See Iron deposits. 

Stone quarries, description___________________ 145 

future outlook____________________________ 148 

Stonewall Mining Company ______________ 85, 96, 98 

Structural geology, bedding, cleavage, and 

joints ______ ----------------------- 29-31 folds and faults ___________________________ 32-37 

lineation ____________ -------- ____ ---------- 31-32 

regional .• _.-------------------- __ -------- 37-38 

90,126,129-130 TopographY-----------·---------------------- 6 

Tourmaline-quartz veins. __ ------------------ 79-81 

Otter River---------------------------------- 6• 45 Triassic sediments __________________ .--------- 27 Otter River Mining Company _______________ 82,85, T . tall" 

103, 115-116, 124,130, 132-133,134-135 urqum.se, crys me ___________________ ---- 79, 1 5 4 

Oxford Mining and Manganese Company____ 109 Unmetamorphosed rocks _____________________ 27_

28 

Physiography, description offeatures. ________ 43-45 Vegetation.------------------·--------------- 6 

history_---------------- ____________ 45-50, 7G-72 

Piedmont Mining Company_________________ 109 Virginia Manganese Corporation_____________ 90 

Previous work________________________________ 8-9 Virginia Ores Corporation _______________ 82, 12o-121 

Virginia-Wisconsin Manganese Company ____ 85,96 

Psilomelane. ___ ---- ____ ---------------------- 54 

Psilomelane type _____________________________ 52-53 Wad •• ------------------------------------ 52-53, 59 

Pyrolusite____________________________________ 54 Weathering, Archer Creek formation_________ 17 

Candler formation________________________ 15 

Quartz veins .. _------------------------------ 79--81 characteristics .•... ___ -------------------- 43-44 

Greenstone __ ------------------------.-.__ 20 

References cited. ___________________________ 14&-152 Mount Athos formation __________________ 18-19 

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