DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

FRANKLIN K. LANE, Secretary 

UNITED STATES GEOLo"GICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE 0Trs SMITH, Director 

Bulletin 666 

OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES 

~· D. McCASKEY AND E. F. BURCHARD 

GEOLOGISTS IN CHARGE 

WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1919 
ADDITIONAL COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FlWM 

THE SUPERINTENDENT 01!' DOCUM:EN'l'S 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

WASIIING'l'ON, D. C. 

AT 

20 CENTS PER COPY 
CONTENTS. 

[The letters prefixed to the titles are those used to designate the chapters fer advance publication. The 

dates of publication are given in parentheses.] 

Introduction by H. D. McCl}skey and E. F. Burchard ..................... . 

A. Chromite, by J. S. Diller (Apr. 13, 1917) ................................ . 

B. Stllphur, by P. S. Smith (Apr. 13, 1917) ................................ . 

C. Manganese, by D. F. Hewett (Apr. 18, 1917) ............................. . 

D. Platinum, by J. M. Hill (Apr. 18, 1917) ................................. . 

E. Gypsum, by R. W. Stone (May 17; 1917) ................................. . 

F. Salt, bromine, and calcium chloride, by R. W. Stone (Apr. 30, 1917) ...... . 

G. Sand and gravel, by R. \V. Stone (Apr. 30, 1917) ..............•••......... 

H. Asbestos, by J. S.-Diller (Apr. 30, 1917) •.••............•................. 

I. Talc and soapstone, by J. S. Diller (Apr. 30, 1917) ....................... .. 

J. Phosphate rock, by R. W. Stone (May 1, 1917) ............................ . 

K. Grinding and polishing matedals, by F. J. Katz (May 17, 1917) .......... . 

L. Graphite, by H. G. Ferguson (May 24, 1917) ............................ . 

\. ~· Coal, by C. E. Lesher (May 1, 1917) ............................... " ... .. 

~. Potash, by H. S. Gale (May 9, 1917) .................................... . 

0. Bauxite and aluminum, by J. M. Hill (May 28, 1917) .................... . 

P. Alaska's mineral supplies, by A. H. Brooks (June 28, 1917) ................ . 

Q. Copper, by B. S. Butler (Aug. 1, 1917) .................................. . 

R. Limestone and lime, by G. F. Loughlin (July 27, 1917) ................... . 

S. Portland cement, by E. F. Burchard (Aug. 10, 1917) ...................... . 

T. Clay and clay pr~ducts, by Jefferson Middleton (June 18, 1917) ........... . 

U. The rarer metals, by F. L. Hess (July 2, 1917) ........................... . 

V. Iron, by E. F. Burchard (Aug. 13, 1917) ................................. . 

W. Barium and strontium, by J. M. Hill (June 18, 1917) ..................... . 

X. Mica, monazite, and lithium minerals, by W. T. Schaller (July 6, 1917) ... . 

Y. Zinc, by C. E. Siebenthal (July 5, 1917) ............................... .. 

Z. Nitrates, by H. S. Gale (July 30, 1917) ................................. .. 

AA. Lead, by C. E. Siebenthal (July 30, 1917) ............................ .. 

BB. Magnesite, by H~ S. Gale (Aug. 20, 1917) ............................... . 

CO. Fluorspar, by E. F. Blll'chard (Oct. 2, 1917) ............................ . 

DD. Petroleum, by J.D. Northrop (Sept. 10, 1917) .......................... . 

EE. Manganiferous iron ores, by E. C. Harder (Nov. 9, 1917) ................. . 

FF. Quicksilver, by F. L. Ransome (Mar. 20, 1919) ......................... .. 

GG. Bibliography, compiled under the direction of G. M. Wood (June 30, 1919) 

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ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 

PLATE I. Ctirves showing principal features of· copper industry, 1907-19~6... .. 104 

FIGURE 1. Diagram showing the production of Bessemer and op~n-hearth steel 

4 

and the combined production anci imports qf spiegeleise:ri_ ?-n~ .. 

ferromanganese, 1901-1915 ....... ; .............. :.: ......... ·... 23 

2. 'Diagram slicr\ving prices of ferromanganese. and manganese ore, 

'1910...:1917 .... ~:::. : .. . · .. ·.·::. :~ .: .... ·.· ................ : .. . ·:.... 29 

· 3. Domestic production and consumption of Portland cement, 1911-

1916.......................................................... 117 

4. Domestic production and consumption of iron ore ~nd pig .iron,· 

1911-1916 ........................... · ..... ~-~ ........... ~ ....... · 143 

5. Domestic. production and consumption of fluorspat·~ 1911-191'6. ~... 181 

6. Graph sho\Ving the total quantity of petroleum marketed annually in· 

the United States from 1859 to 1916 and .thetotal quantity produced annually in all other countries of the worl~ from 1857 to 

1916 ..•......•...................... ~ •............•..•.••.. :. 184 
OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

INTRODUCTION. 

By I-I. D. McCASKEY and E. F. :SURcHARD. 

In September, 1914, soon ·after the beginning of the war in 

Europe, the Director of the United States Geological Survey sum.-

nlarized the mineral reserves of the United States and made certain 

suggestions as to moaking America industrially independent. 1 At 

that time, two and one-half years before the United States became involved in the war, it was clearly recognized that this country would 

soon have to face unusual conditions resulting from the depletion or 

exhaustion of her stocks of imported minerals. Many of these minerals 

had been imported from choice rather than from necessity, or at least 

they had been imported when their cost was less than the cost of 

domestic materials, or because their quality was presumably more 

desirable, or because their ports of importation were more. convenient to the consumers, or for other commercial reasons, and consequently for such minerals it required only the development of an 

American 'industry to render our potential supplies available. 

In keeping up the supply of minerals that areoadmittedly lacking 

or are found in inadequate quantities in the United States a more 

difficult problem had to be solved. As the war in Europe progressed 

and ocean commerce became more and more unsettled the difficulty 

of obtaining supplies of certain minerals increased, and the Geological 

Survey was called upon by the public and by other Government 

bureaus for an ever-increasing amount of information and advice 

concerning these minerals, and also concerning the commercial situation with regard to other more plentiful minerals and their 

derivatives. . 

In order to meet this demand with published information a series 

of papers was prepared by the membets of the Survey staff who were 

most familiar with the minerals required. These papers, collectively 

entitled "Our mineral supplies," were issued separately in the order 

I Smith, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 599,48 pp., 1!)14. 

5 
6 OUR MINERAL S"GPPLIES. 

of their completion. The first one, on chromite, appeared on April 

13, 1917, one week after the United States entered the war. All 

but two of the chapters were available in 1917. The chapter on 

quicksilver was delayed owing to other demands on the. author to 

whom it was first assigned, although the essential data were given 

to the war boards informally and served their purpose. In order to 

complete the series for publication the preparation of this chapter 

was assigned to Mr. Ransome in September, 1918. The b!bliography, 

compiled under the direction of the Survey editor, affords a convenient check list of the Survey publications on the minerals considered in this volume. 

In so far as practicable each chapter contains a discussion of the 

source of supply of the mineral considered, its uses, both in peace and 

in war, and the normal demand, and for some of the minerals the 

probable demand under war conditions. is indicated. The table of 

contents (p. 3) shows the chapters prepared for this bulletin, their 

authors, and the dates of publication .. 

The importance of national independence. in mineral supplies 

both in peace and in war needs no demonstration here. In times 

of peace industrial independence for the United States requires 

domestic control of such resources as. coal, iron ore, and petroleu1n. 

Other commodities may in part be imported advantageously because 

of cheaper sources of foreign supply or superiority of foreign grades, 

and still others may be almost wholly imported because of lack of 

known or developed domestic sources of supply. ~In war times, 

however, with foreign supplies cut off through hostilities between 

nations· and also by hindrances to commerce, the importance of 

independence, potential at least, in minerals of all classes becomes 

most impressive. 0 The. lesson that has been pointed out by recent 

events is that the __ discovery and development for war purposes of 

mineral supplies in which the United States is deficient should he 

undertaken by the Federal Government. 

As shown in the several chapters the domestic supplies of minerals 

may he divided into three classes-(1) mineral supplies that are 

adequate to all probable peace and war needs of the United States; 

(2) mineral supplies that are. sufficient for a large part of these needs; 

(3) mineral supplies that are inadequate in quantity or quality, or 

both, the lack of which must he offset hy imports, use of substitutes, or curtailment of use. Among the materials to be grouped in 

the :firs.t class are arsenic, barytes, bauxite, bismuth, ·bromine, 

calcium chloride, cement, clay, coal, copper, corundum and emery, 

diatomaceous earth, feldspar, fluorspar, garnet, gravel, grindstones, 

gypsum, iron ore, lead, lime, lithium 1ninerals, magnesite, manganiferous ores (low grade), molybdenum., petroleum, phosphate rock, 

pulpstones, salt, silica, talc and soapstone, sulphur, tripoli, volcanic 
INTRODUCTION. 7 

ash,. and zinc;. in the second class are antimony, mercury (quicksilver), mica, pyrite, strontium, tungsten, and vanadium; and in 

the third class are asbestos, chromite, graphite, manganese ore (high 

grade), monazite, nickel, nitrates, platinum, potash, and tin. 

As all the chapters. except that on quicksilver were prepared in 

the spring. of 1917, their authors had only the statistics of 1916 available for comparison. Developments during 1917 and· 1918 furnish a 

better indication of the needs~ of the United States under war conditions than those of earlier years, .and inasmuch as the delay in 

completing the series of chapters permits this introduction to be 

brought up to a later date a comparison is possible between the 

quantity of supplies available in a normal pre-war year,. such as 

1913, and a war year, such as 1917. 

The following tables of commodities, by classes 1, 2, and 3 as 

defined above, show for most of the important commodities in 1913 

and 1917 the domestic production, the imports, and the exports, 

from which may be deduced the approximate quantity available for 

domestic consumption. The figures for a few commodities are eonfidential and. may not be published. 
8 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

CLASS 1.-Domestic·mineral supplies adequate to all probable peace and 'War needs of the 

United States. 

Production. Imports. Exports. Quantity available for 

consumption. 

Arsenica (short tons) .••............ n~g 2, 513 1, 519 ~ None. { 4,032 

6, 151 1, 178 7,329 r, 45,298 35,840 None reported. { 81,138 Bnrytes (short tons) .............. -. 1917 206,888 6 206,894 . . 1913 210,241 21,456 N otseparately Bauxite ·············· (long tons) .............•.. 1917 568,690 

reported. 

7,691 b 21,791 554,590 . . . {1913 157,300 117,747 } None reported. B1smuth (pounds) ................. 1917 (c) . 69,250 {_ ... --~~~·- ~~~ BrolDlne . (pounds) .................. { 1913 1917 572,400 I 572,400 895,499 }Not,pecificall' Not specifically 895,499 

Calcium chloride (,ho•• to"''···· ···r:l 19,611 shown. · shown. 19,611 

30,503 30,503 Cement, hydraulic (barrels of 376 1913 92,949,102 85,470 2, 964,358 90,070,214 

pounds net). 1917 93,453,658 2,323 2,586, 215 90,869,766 1913 2, 647,989 338, 123 Not available. 2, 986,112 Clay (short tons) .................. · 1917 3, 113,844 268,036 83,217 3, 298,663 

Coal (short tons) ................... m~ 569, 960, 219 1, 612, 550 d 24, 798, 080 546, 774, 689 651,402,374 1,460, 983 d 29,846,863 623, 016, 494 

Copper, new (refined) (pounds) ••. 1913 1;236, 823, 913 378,·243, 869 · e 817,911,424 · 797, 156,358 1917 1,873, 546, 171 555, 000, 000 f' 126,875,368 1, 301,670,803 

Emery and conmdum (short tons). 1913 g957 h 20,426 Values only re- 1917 17,135 h2, 287 corded. {::: ~ :::: ·~ .: :::: 

Feldspar (short tons) •.. · ............ 1913 120,955 }Notspecifically Not specifically . ............. 1917 141,924 shown. shown. 

Fluorspar (short tons) .............. 1913 115,580 22,682 }None reported. 

.••••• i38," 262 1917 218,828 13,616 232,444 

Garnet, abrasive (short tons) •...... 1913 5,308 }Not reported Not reported . ............... 1917 . 4,995 separately. · separately . ........................ 

Gravel (short tons) ••............... 1913 40,861,694 } Values only Values only . .................. 1917 35,573,819 recorded. recorded. .............. Grindstones and pulpstones (short 1913 Values only. i 7, 726 }Values only .................. tons). 1917 j 54,432 i3, 012 recorded. .. ............ Gypsum, crude (short tons) ........ 1913 2,599, 508 447,383 }Not recorded. . ............. 1917 2,696, 226 240,269 

e913 61,980,437 2,594, 770 1, 042, 151 • • • 63; 533; o56 Iron ore (long tons) .............•.. 1917 75,288,8.:\1 971,663 1, 132,313 75,128,201 

I r, 411,878 11,980 None. 423,858 Lead, refined (short ons) .......... 1917 548,450 6,887 56,209 499,128 

Lime (short tons) .................. ~5g 3, 595,390 4,139 29,475 3, 570,054 

3, 786,364 7,35.3 18, 794 3,774, 923 

Lithium minerals (short tons) ...... ~5g 5.30 }Not reported Not reported. 

2,062 separately. separately. {::::::::~:::: r913 9,632 13,240 Not recorded, 22,872 Magnesite, crude (short tons) ....... negligible. 1917 316,838 30,277 Not recorded. 347,115 

Manganiferous orek (long tons) ..... ~~g 59,403 yncluded un- } None. 

~ 59,403 

860,944 der iron ore. 860,944 

Molybdenum (pounds) ••........... 1913 None. 156,000 }Noncrecorded. 156,000 1917 350,200 None recorded. 350,200 

Petroleum (barrels of 42 gallons) .... 1913 248, 446, 230. 17,809,058 l4,630, 229 261,625,059 1917 335, 315, 601 30,162,583 z 4, 098, 124 361, 380, 060 

Phosphate rock (long tons) ......... 1913 3, 152,208 } Negligible. { 1,366, 508 1, 785,700 1917 2, 851,886 166,358 2,685,528 

Salt (short tons) .................... 1913 4,815, 902 154,765 70,289 4, 900,378 1917 6,978,177 64,922 113,993 6, 929,106 

Silica (short tons) •................. 1913 204,759 }None reported. None reported. { 204,759 1917 675,127 675,127 

{1913 491,080 22,605 89,221 424,464 Sulphur (long tons) ................ 1917 1,134,412 1,015 152,833 982,594 

Talc and soapstone: ,, 

Talc (,0,, ton,,. . .. ······rll 149,271 13,770 } None reported. 

L)f1~~ 198,613 18,.609 

Soapstone (short tons) ......... ~5g 26,562 rot "pamtely Not separately 

20,235 reported. · reported. Tripoli and diatomaceous earth m 1913 27,383 Values only. Not recorded. {··••••••oo••• (short tons). 1917 29,102 . tma 337, 2ii2 n 19,597 7, 783 ...... 349,"066 Zmc (short tons) ................ ··· 1917 584,59? · n 72,731 . 153,796 503,532 

a White arsenic, As20a. b Includes bauxite concentrates. c Only two producers and Survey not at liberty to publish figures. a Exclusive of bunker coal. 

/Quantity .represents grindston~ only, as pulp- stones were not reported by we1ght. k Containing 5 to 35 per cent of manganese. . lExports of refined products are not included nor are shipments of crude petroleum to Alaska, e Exclusive of manufactured copper, as pipes and Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. 

tubes, plates and sheets, and wire. 

!Exports of pigs, ingots, bars, rods, pipes, and 

tubes, plates and sheets, and wire. g Emery only. No corundum produced. h Grains, ore, and rock. i Represents grindstones only. 

m Includes rottenstone, but excludes, in 1917, con- siderable production of diatomaceous earth for 

special uses upon which the Survey is not at liberty to report. n Zinc content of ore plus blocks or pigs. . 
INTRODUCTION. 9 

CLASS 2.-Domestic mineral supplies su.fficient for a large part of peace and war needs of 

the United States. . 

Antimony (short tons) ............ ·{1913 

1917 

M1ca . . 11913 (short tons)................... 1917 

P . 1913 yr1tes (long tons) ................. V917 

Quicksilver (flasks of 75 pounds) . -H~g 

. {1913 Strontmm ore (short tons) ......... 1

917 

Tungsten e {1913 (short tons) ............ 1917 

Vanadium (short tons) .. ·.·.~ ....... {l~~~ 

Production. 

N ot'recorded. 

258 

6,172 

4,067 

341,338 

462,662 

20,213 

36,159 

No record. 

4,035 

1,537 

6,144 

432 

484 

Imports. Exports. Quaintity 

available for 

consumption. 

a 8, 250 None. a17,914 None ......... i8;i72 

}

Quantity not { 149 ............. . reported. b 6 ............. . 

~~~;~~~} Nonereported. { ~;!~A;ggg 2, 289 1,140 21,362 

5, 207 10, 778 30,588 

No record. }None reported {-- .. ··· .. ·· .: d1,700 l • 5,735 

2,114 ............................. . 4,878. 2,420 8,.602 

}Nonereported. Nonereported. { ~~ 

a Antimony content of ore plus metallic antimony, and antimony sulphide. b For six months, January to Juno. Not separately classified after June. c Pyrites containing more than 25 per cent of sulphur. d Imports of English celestite. c These figures represent ore carrying 60 per cent tungsten trioxide. 

CLASS 3.-Domestic mineral supplies chiefly inadequate in quantity or quality, or both 

·for peace and war needs of United States. 

Production. Imports. Exports. Quantitt available or consumption. 

. . . r913 1,100 97,145 Notseparately ............... Asbestos (short tons) ............... recorded. 

1917. 1,683 134,108 708 135,083 . }1913 255 65,180 None. 6S,435 Chrom1te (long tons) .......... ·.--·· l1917 43,725 72,063 None. 115,788 

. a rl3 4, 775 28,879 2,692 30,962 Graphite (short tons) ............. 1917 13,593 42,577 2,573 53,597 

Manganese ore b (lang tons) ... · ...•. ~~g 4,048 345,090 ................... 349,138 

129,405 629,972 

};.;~~~-;~~~~~~~: 759,377 

ldonn,ito sand (pounds) ...... ·····ri:l None. 817,810 (C) . 5,828,270 {.. .... ~~~:~~? . . 1913 d241 t23, 723 /14,587 9,377 N1ckel (short tons) ................ · 1917 d402 t 37,7H3 /10,996 27,169 

Nitrates, sodium and potassium 1913 None; 691,230 ......................... 691,230 

(short tons). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1917 None. 1, 732,996 toi~ei;aiat'ci . . {1913 f .... :·.~'·-~ g 1,034 h 118,661 

Platmum (troy ounces) ............ 1917 g 7,384 h 30,207 recorde 

values only. 

. {1913 .................. k 1,092,588 .......... ni525' n 1,092,588 Potash salt_s ~ (short tons) •......... 1917 i 126,961 l25, 287 1l 151,723 

Tin, metallic (short tons) ........... {~~~~ 50 .'52,329 rnsignificant } 52,379 and notre· 110 72,166 corded. 72, 27f 

a Unmanufactured graphite. _ . b Containing 35 per cent or more of manganese. · c Only one producer and Survey not at liberty to publish figures. d Nickel content of nickel salts and metallic nickel produced as a by-product in the electrolytic refining ofcopper. . e Nickel, nickel oro and matte, nickel oxide, alloys of nickel with copper, etc., imported for consumption. 1 Nickel and nickel oxide. g Refined new metals· of the platinum group of domestic origin. h Ore, unmanufactured, ingots, bars, sheets, wire. i Gross weight. - J Available potash (K20 ), 32,573 short tons. · k Potash ( K20) content, 270,720 short tons. l Potash ( K20) content; 8,100 short tons. · · m Domestic potash salts, potash ( K20) content, 200 short tons. n Potash (K20). con~ent: 1913; 270,720short tons; 1917,40,473 short tons. 

... -· 
10 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

The reaction of the war upon the demand for the several com~ 

modities is of interest. In abrasives, chemical materials, fertilizers, 

fuels, metals, and refractories, with few exceptions, domestic production was- greater in 19!7 than in 1913, whereas the output of 

structural materials was generally less. The classes of materials 

whose domestic production increased· were all directly or indirectly 

. contributory to the conduct of the ·war; the civil consumption of cer~ 

tain materials was less than normal because of governmental restrictions in use and because of high prices, but the military uses more 

than made up the deficiency. Inspection of the table shmvs also that 

of a few comn1odities the quantity available for consumption in 1917 

was less than in 1913 on account of curtailment of imports, notwithstanding conside~·able increases in domestic production. 

Jn any consideration of mineral supplies the actual consumption is 

all-important. The last column of each table shows the quantities 

available for consumption as calculated by adding production and 

imports and subtracting exports. These quantities may be very 

different, especially in war times, from the quantities actually consumedJ because stocks accumulated in a former year may be heavily 

drawn upon. More complete data on stocks and on actual consumption of materials, even in peace times, are needed. As estimates 

of military needs alone and of shipping available have varied greatly 

and have been revised from time to tin1e· during the war, it is evident 

that consumption must vary, and a consideration of all factors shows 

that circumstances may at any time lead to the transfer of mineral 

commodities from one classification to another. For example, data 

originally :made available to the war boards by consumers, com~ 

bined with other data at hand, indicated at one time a serious shortage in supplies of chromite. Production was encouraged, imports 

were permitted to a certain extent, and conservation in consumption 

of the chromite available was attained, but· these. measures combined 

led to an actual oversupply and corresponding distress to the pro .. 

ducers who were operating under· war-time costs and who failed, at 

least in part, to receive the expected corresponding war-time prices. 

Similarly, quality is often a factor as important as quantity in 

reckoning our independence of foreign supplies. For example, it 

was found necessary to import certain quantities of graphite, mica, 

asbestos, and several other minerals because for some uses the quality 

of the domestic material, no matter what the quantity, was not 

adapted to particular needs, whether of war or of peace. 

On the whole, the severe test of war has shown that the United 

States possesses a larger degree of independence in mineral supplies 

than any other nation, especially in times when cost of production 

has been relegated to the rear. In peace times cost is of course a 
INTRODUCTION. 11 

detern1ining factor, and a number of. 1nineral industries that have 

thrived under war conditions are already declining under the pinch 

of foreign competition and decreased demand. 

It is to be regretted that data on consumption and on cost of production have never been available in any Government organization 

in such completeness as the data on production compiled in the 

Geological Survey and the data on imports and exports compiled in. 

the Bqreau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. It is to be hoped 

that n1eans may be found to remedy these deficiencies and to improve 

r~lated data already provided for, in order that 1nore exact knowl .. 

edge may be available for better preparedness in the future. 

The cost of the war has been great, in blood and in treasure. The 

tuition fees that must be paid for the lessons that have been taught 

by national unpreparedness are so heavy that they must be borne 

in part by future generations. It will be unfortunate indeed if these 

lessons are not fully learned and applied in practice. 
• 
CHROMITE. 

By J. s. DILLER. 

The importance of chromite as a war supply in the manufacture of 

armor plate., armor-piercing projectiles, stellite for high-speed tools, 

and automobile and other special steels can scarcely be overestimated. 

Fortunately for users of chromite the foreign deposits, which at 

the beginning of the European war were the chief source of the 

world's supply, are not wholly within the war arena, so that production of chromite has not only continued but has expanded without interruption to Ineet the demands superimposed by the war. 

The chief sources of supply for the United States during the last 

few years ha.ve been Rhodesia, New Caledonia, Turkey, and Greece. 

Embargoes were placed on the shipment of chrome ore from some 

of the principal sources, and it was feared by some that the supply 

for the United States would be cut off, but after the producers received a guaranty that the ore would not be reshipped to enemy 

belligerents the imports, as shown in the following table, greatly 

inCl;eased, especially those frmn Rhodesia, New Caledonia, and 

Canada, though those from Greece have declined slightly and those 

from Turkey have entirely ceased. 

Chrondc ·i.ron ·imported into the Unitc(l St(ttes, 19.13-1916, in long tons.a 

1913 1914 1915 1916 

--------------------1-------------

Cuba......................................................................................... 34 

~1¥.:~~::: :::::: ~: ~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::: :::::: ;;; .... •: ~- ... ·:;~ ..... :~: ~ French Oceania..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 620 30, 860 28, 031 b 30, 950 

~~j~~~~~~outhAr~ica.':: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::-::::::::::::: :::::::::: :::::::::: ... 22;soo· cbJ:8~ PortugueseAfrica.............................................. 29,000 23,200 11,230 c38,850 Turkey in Asia................................................. 13,830 11, 880 ................... . 

49,772 74,686 76,455 114,655 

a Statistics furnished by the Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 

bE. J. Lavino & Co., importers, credit New Caledonia with all that listed above under French Oceania 

and Australia, amounting to 33,936 long tons. · c E. J. Lavino & Co., importers, credit Rhodesia with all that listed above under British South Africa . and Portuguese Africa, amounting to 61,850 long tons. 

13 
14 OUR. MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Chro'lll'ic ·iron pro(l1lCC(l ancl sola ·in the Un-itc(l States, 19J3-19.16, in long tons. 

1913 1914 1915 1916 

-------------------1------------

United States ................................................. . 255 591 3,281 a40,000 

a The preliminary estimate was 35,000 long tons, but later information indicates that the total amount sold was not less than •JO,OOO long tons. A considerable amount of ore mined but not yet sold is not included 

in this estimate. 

The greatly increased trade, especially in steel, and the consequently larger demand for chromite have stimulated the search for it 

in the United States, as shown by the tenfold increase in production. 

On the Atlantic coast and in VVyoming there has been only a small 

production, but in the Pacific Coast States, especially California; 

the advance in the output has been remarkable. Maryland and 'Vyo. 

ming, with one producer in each State, made with Oregon an aggre· 

gate output of more than 3,000 long tons in 1916; in California the 

production was not less than 40,000 tons. 

It is evident that for some time to come California will furnish the 

chief domestic supply. With a lively demand and good prices bodies 

of ore farther from lines of transportation will be worked.- The 

production from some deposits in 1917 is expected to exceed that of 

1916, but that the total output of the State will be increased is not 

certain. It is possible, however, that some counties-Del Norte, fol.~ 

instance-,vhich produced no chromite in 1916, will produce n1uch. 

in 1917 on account of better transportation facilities, both by land 

and sea. · · · 

There were t'vo main belts of production in California-one in the 

IGan1ath Mountains and Coast Range from Siskiyou County to San 

Luis Obispo County and the other in the Sierra Nevada from Plumas 

County to Tulare County. The larger output has come from the 

Irlamath Mountains, because the ore bodies there are larger and railroad transportation is more convenient, features which will continue 

to make it for years an important producing region. 

The production in Oregon is increasing in both the IClamath and 

Blue n1ountains. The ores west of Riddle are the richest yet 1ninecl 

in the State; in some places they run as high as 55 per cent· chrmnic 

oxide, and much of the ore contains about 50 per cent. Most of 

the Oregon ore, however, like that of California, averages about 

40 per cent of chromic oxide, and ore of that grade is commonly 

the basis of sale. The ore generally contains 38 to 45 per cent 

chromic oxide, 6 to 8 per cent silica, and 17 to 25 per cent alumina. 

The largest ore body and producing mine thus far developed in 

Oregon is owned and operated by Collard & Moore near I-Iolland, 

about 20 miles southeast of I\:erby, in Josephine County. l\iuch 

of the ore may be improved by concentration, and a plant of 90-ton 

capacity for that purpose is nearly completed. It is clai1ned that 

the ore can be concentrated to a content of 55 per cent chromic 
CHROl\UTE. 15 

oxide. I£ this can be done successfully, it vvill mean much for the 

chrome industry of the Pacific coast and lrill enlarge its possibilities 

to meet war demands. The dift1culty with n1uch of the chrome ore 

of the Pacific coast has been its low grade and its great distance 

from the principal 1narkets. The low-grade ore, running 38 to 45 

per cent chromic oxide, may be used to advantage chiefly for metallurgic purposes, such as grow out o£ "\rar demands-for furnace 

lining and in the 1nanufacture of chrome brick and chrome steel, 

for example-and by far the greater part o£ the California output 

is being so used. For chemical purposes, however, ore of higher 

grades is desirable, if not essential. The concentration of the ore 

would give it a wider 1narket and increase its value and the demand 

for it. Without concentration the Pacific coast deposits can not 

furnish a dependable supply of high-grade chrome ore, but with 

successful concentration industries based on high-grade ore may 

be attracted to the coast. The Sawyer Tanning Co., "\vhose plant 

was recently established on tidewater at Napa, Cal., has had great 

difficulty in obtaining suft1cient high-grade ore for its own use. 

T. vV. Gruetter has recently established at I\:erby, Oreg., a custom 

plant for concentrating black sand to win its gold and platinum. 

The black sand of the IClamath l\{ountains usually contains a considerable amount o£ chromite, and it is believed that by adding 

n1agnetic separators to Gruetter's plant to remoYe the other minera Is 

£r01n the tailings sufficient chromite may be obtained from the black 

sand in chromiferous serpentine areas to n1ake the operation financially successful. The process will evidently yield a high grade o£ 

chrome ore, which may be suitable f01~ special uses. 

The relation of these experiments in concentration to the whole 

problem of obtaining high-grade chrome ore on the Pacific coast will 

be better understood when attention is called to the fact that by the 

disintegration and "\vashing away of the weathered serpentine (an 

intrusive igneous rock in which practically all the chromite deposits 

occur) the heavy grains of chromite are left behind, and, consequently, the soil or surface wash in the watercourses o£ serpentine 

areas becomes enriched by the accun1nlation of residual chromite. 

Chromite boulders and sand are therefore, as a rule, 1nore abundant 

in the surface soil than :in the solid serpentine beneath. Many l)rospectors who find boulders of chromite on the surface feel confident 

that there is a large body o£ chromite beneath, but a few shallow 

prospect holes usually prove that the occurrence. consists simply of 

surface soil enriched by residual chromite, and disappointment 

results. 

The prices of cl1romite in California on the basis o£ 40 per c.ent 

chromic oxide ranged in 1916 fron1 $14 a ton £. o. b. early in the 

season to $20 toward the end of the year. To this must be added 
16 OUR, MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

for the eastern buyer a freight rate for carload lots ranging from 

$10 a ton to Chicago to $14.86 a ton to the eastern seaboard, thus 

making the California 40 per cent ore cost on the eastern seaboard 

from $28.86 to $34.96 a ton.: 

Chromite is now '9eing produced in. eastern Oregon and also in 

In yo County, Cal., at points east of the Pacific n1ountain belt and 

nearer the consumer than those in the mountains near the coast. 

The output from these two localities inay ultimately prove to be 

large, and the shortening of the haul would materially reduce the 

cost of transportation. 

The long haul acr:oss the continent is one of the chief difficulties 

in supplying the 've~tern chromite to the consumer, and this difficulty would be augmented in time of war by the other demands of 

transcontinental traffic. If, howe.ver, a greater production could be 

developed on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, as near Glen~ 

rock, Wyo., where railroads are more numerous and transportation 

available on lines that are not transcontinental, the war supply of 

chron1ite would be n1ore conveniently enlarged. There is good reason 

to believe that the serpentine of the Laramie and Big Horn mountains may contain considerable bodies of chromite. 

In the Atlantic States, 'vhere 1nost of the chron1ite produced in 

this country is used, the only production is in the vicinity of Balti~ 

more, where the chrome industry of the United States was started 

by the Tysons many years ago. At first bodies of chromite were 

quarried from the serpentine areas about Baltimore and northeastward into Pennsylvania, but as the supply of known ore bodies 

became exhausted the chromiferous residual deposits of the soil and 

the strean1 gravel of the small valleys within the serpentine areas 

were ·washed for chrome sand. A small output of chrome sand is 

now obtained at Soldiers Delight, nea·r Baltimore. The washing is 

done during low water iri sumi.nei; by means of a sort of sluice box 

locally called a " huddle." The sand is commonly passed through 

the huddle five times to reach the .desired concentration, when it 

may contain as much as 55 ·per ·cent chromic oxide. Formerly the 

product was all exported for use in manufacturing special colors, 

but lately some of it has been used in the United States in making 

chrome steel, and the demand for it is increasing. This enterprise 

suggests the possibility of considerable expansion in the utilization 

of chromite sand in Maryland and Pennsylvania. 

The only other Atlantic Coast State in which there are known 

deposits of chromite that may be workable is North Carolina. The 

deposits occur in five counties in the. western part of the State and 

are described by Pratt and Lewis.1 No large deposits of chromite 

1 Pratt, J. H., and Lewis, J. V., Corundum and the peridotites of western North 

Carolina: North Carolina Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1905. 
CHROMITE. 17 

have yet been found in North Carolina, but the prospects already 

opened show that extensive deposits may exist in that region. Railroads traverse Yancey County, where chromite deposits should be 

diligently sought. 

There is considerable chromite in Cuba, but scarcely anything is 

known of its occurrence in ~1exico or Central and South America. 

Ferrochrome, the alloy usecl:ln making chrome steel, is now manufactured in the United States by electro-metallurgic methods, almost 

wl~olly in the East, at the plants of the Electro l\1etallurgical Co. at 

Niagara Falls and elsewhere. It is reported, however, that the Noble 

Electric Steel Co. has three furnaces at I-Ieroult, Cal., operating to 

their full capacity in producing manganese, chrome, and silica steels. 

Prospecting for chromite may disclose other supplies, and the most 

profitable deposits \Vill be those in serpentine areas that are adjacent 

to cheap rail or water transportation or connected with it by good 

roads. Cheap concentration Inay in places improve the grade of the 

ore available for profitable mining. 

'V'ith the known supplies of chromite and others whose discovery 

within the limit of practicable transportation throughout the United 

States is confidently expected, there is good reason to believe that 

the domestic output of chromite could be so increased as to go far 

toward supplying the demand if in the event of war our imports, 

except those fr:om Canada, were cut off. 

Vogt and others have made extensive researches concerning the 

genesis of chromite. The distinction between primary and secondary 

ores and their relation to geotectonic features that determine the 

distribution of chromite in the field are geologic problems of great 

importance. 

The metallurgy of chromite has apparently been so developed in 

the hydro-electric process as to utilize to advantage relatively lowgrade ores such as are most abundant in the United States, and the 

further development of that process on the Pacific coast, where water 

power abounds, would greatly diminish the handicap of long transportation. 

127972°-19--2 

.SULPHUR. 

By PHILIP S. SnnTH. 

Practicaily . every industry requires the use of sulphur in some 

form, and the United States, to be industrially independent, must 

therefore have an ·adequate supply. That this country has enough 

sulphur to support its present industries, even under the requir~~ 

111ents ilnposed by the drain of a vast foreign den1ancl, see1ns to have 

been demonstrated by the rBcord ·Of the last three years. 

The two main sources of the element sulphur are the native mineral 

and the sulphides. Each year at least 300,000 long tons of nati \

7 0 

sulphur and $1,250,000 long tons of sulphides are used, n1ostly for the 

manufacture of sulphuric acid. In 1916 about 25 cmnpanies wete 

producing sulphur and about 100 companies were 1nining sulphides 

mainly for their sulphur content. 

NATIVE SULPHUR. 

1\iore than 98 per cent of the native sulphur produced in the United 

States at this time comes fr01n deposits in Louisiana and Texas, but 

deposits that have been or might be productive are known in Wyo~ 

n1ing, Nevada, Utah, California, Colorado, Oregon, and Alaska. 

Louisiana .and ·Texas apparently produce enough sulphur to sup~ 

ply even an extraordinary den1a-nd, for the con1bined output of these 

two States, although the production has not been vigorously pushed, 

has so greatly exceeded the a1nount sold that large stocks of sulphut' 

have been accun1ulated. Even tinder the ·conditions that now prevail this country exports much more sulphur than it imports. The 

excess in 1916 amounted, in round figures, to 107,000 long tons, 

valued at $2,100,000; in 1915 .to 11,000 tons, valued at $250,000; 

in 1914 to 72,()00 tons, valued at $1;300,000; and in 1913 to 66,000 

tons, valued at $1,100,000. ·The great falling off of exports in 1915 

may have been due in part to the incnea;sed use of sulphur in industries in this country. In part, however, probably in large part, the 

decrease was due to the difficulties and dangers o£ transportation 

to foreign ports. At first sight this explanation does not seem to 

19 
20 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

be borne out by statistics regarding imports of either sulphur or 

pyrite, for the quantities imported in 1913, 1914, and 1915 show no 

uppreciable change. This con1parison, however, is not pertinent, for 

whereas practically all the sulphur and pyrite imported by the. 

United States c01nes from and passes through regions that are cOinparatively peaceful, most of the sulphur exported by the United 

States goes to or through regions now in the 1nidst of war. That 

··the falling off of exports in 1915 was due to a cause other than 

dearth of raw material in the United States is clearly sho~n by the 

·record for 1916. 

Large reserves of sulphur have already been accmnulated, so that 

-considerable increase in demand could be supplied :for some time by 

.. drawing against these reserves even if only a nonnal production was 

maintained. Without these reserves and easily worked deposits this 

country would have extreme difficulty in supplying enough sulphur 

to meet its n1ost urgent normal needs. As a preparedness ·1neasure, 

· therefore, the other deposits that are now idle should be· thoroughly 

developed,· search should be made for new deposits in areas where 

the geologic conditions are similar to those in the vicinity of the 

known deposits, and the deposits of sulphide ores should be intensively developed. 

SULPHIDES. 

The United States in 1913 produced about 350,000 long tons of 

pyrite and imported about 850,000 tons. If these figures represent 

the norn1al condition of the indu.stry, it is evident that ordinarily the 

U nit'ed States uses each year about 850,000 tons n1ore pyrite than it 

produces. The imported pyr~tic ore has an average ·sulphur content 

of approximately 45 per· cent, so that 380,000 tons of native sulphur 

would be required to make up this deficiency i£ the importation of 

pyrite were cut off. In 1916 we exported 107,000 tons of sulphur 

.more. than .. we imported. If the exportation of sulphur were prohibited, as it doubtless would be if imports of sulphides were cut off, · 

this excess amount would therefore be available and at the 1916 rate 

would make up nearly one-third of the deficiency that would be 

created by the shutting out of in1ported pyrite. The deficiency could 

be reduced still more by drawing on 'the reserves of sulphur already 

mentioned, but doubtless it would be far better not to use the highgrade native sulphur :for many. of the purposes for which pyrite 

may be used, but rather to save more of the sulphur :from the sulphide 

ores and to hunt for and deyelop additional deposits of sulphides. 

Scores if not hundreds of deposits of sulphides situated in 1nany 

States in the Union are mined. 1\:fost ·o£ these· deposits owe their 

main value at the present time to their content o£ gold, copper, 

zinc, or n1etals other than sulphur. At most of the s1nelters that 
SULPHUR. 2i 

treat these ores the sulphur is neglected and allo,vecl to escape, 

thus not only causing a direct loss but in some localities ruining 

the adjacent country by the fumes, which are highly injurious to 

Yegetation. Processes for the recovery o£ the sulphur from these 

gases have been so periectecl that even under normal conditions they 

will ordinarily pay well for their installation, and when a national 

·demand for sulphur arises their adoption will become imperative. 

By this means a large volume o:f sulphur now worse than waste.d 

· would be made availabJe. 

vVith a greater demand for the metals doubtless most o£ these 

deposits would be much more actively mined for their copper, lead, 

or zinc content, so that the treatment of the ores would furnish an 

increasing amount of fumes available for sulphur recovery. Under 

these circumstances a considerable volume of sulphur would be producecl' and could make up a large share of the deficiency caused by 

cutting off the importation of sulphides. 

I£ these two measures, however, still did not provide enough sui-

. phur, recourse should be had to the opening and development of 

many o£ the now inactive sulphide deposits that are widely distributed throughout the country. Little doubt is felt that i£ cost 

should cease to be the controlling factor, or if prices should sufficiently advance, an adequate supply of sulphur fr01n these sulphides 

could be obtained. Moreover, if the metallurgic problems cm1nected 

with the recovery of sulphur from low-grade ores o£ mixed sulphides were successfully solved, many deposits of sulphides now unsuitable for commercial purposes could be developed, and therefore 

inventive genius should be directed at once toward this encl. 

SULPHURIC ACID. 

According to preliminary estimates the United States in 1916 

produced about 4,500,000 tons o£ sulphuric acid of a strength o£ 50° 

Bamne and nearly 1,000,000 tons of acid of strength higher than 66° 

Baume. This amount exceeds the amount o£ similar acids produced 

in 1913 by more than 950,000 tons of 50° Baume acid and by more 

than 900,000 tons of acid of strengths higher than 66° Baume .. 

Almost no sulphuric acid is imported into the United States, and 

but a relatively smal-l amount is exported, even under the conditions 

now prevailing. The reports of the Bureau o£ Foreign and Domestic 

Commerce show that in 1916 a little over 600 tons of acid was imported and about 33,000 tons was exported. 

Sulphuric acid for the production of munitions o£ war, for refining petroleum derivatives, and for the manufacture o£ superphosphates and artificial manures for use in agriculture is required in 

- i.ncreasing ·quantities. Means for augmenting the supply o£ part of 
OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

the raw n1aterial for .these purposes have already ;been discussed, but 

o.th~r resources must be available before a greatly increa-sed amount 

of acid can be produced. It is important to realize that ordinary 

concentra-tion plants for making .acid of the strongest grades frmn 

weaker acid can be built in a relatively short time, but it will .take. 

much longer to build plants designed for the production of the acid 

itself. 

·About 200 pht:nts, widely distributed throughout the United States, 

are now engaged in the manufacture of sulphuric a.cid. Most of 

these plants are in the -neighborhood of the larger cities, and numy 

of those in the East are .on navigable waterways, as well as -on 

railroads. 
MANGANESE. 

By D. F. HEWETT. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Manganese is an essential element in the steel industry. Prior to 

1870 the iron used was largely in the form of cast and wrought iron 

and crucible steel, to which no manganese is added. The develop-

~ 

s % "' 

Q 

·t; 

::> 

~ 

I. 

\ I <~oo,ooo.J---l--+--+---lf----I--+--,-J--t--+----ir--""ft---t-1\rl-,:r-t 

i 'LL 

/ 

I 

\. ,.,• . 

..-1--- / "\. I ~..... / ioo,ooo-k------t--~--l--+/_,...:~-.J--+~t+f.\-+--+--+---.::.t==r'-':,::-.__,-tLL-··r-t, 

Ferroman~a ese 

otalj roduc ion -~ 1<-Marl<jeted_c utput 

1 ... 

1901 i905. 1~10 1915, 

FtGURE 1.-Diagram showing the production of Bessemer and open-hearth stce and the combined production and imports ofspiegcleisen and ferromanganese, 1901-1915. 

ment of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes of making steel 

about 1870 created a demand for manganese alloys, .. and during 

rec,ent years about 14 pounds of manganese in the form of ferronuinganese or spiegeleisen is added to every ton of steel produced by 

these processes. Ferromanganese contains from 77 to 80 per cent of 

manganese and is largely used in making open-hearth steel. Spiegeleisen contains 12 to 33 per cent of manganese and is largely used in 

making Bessemer steel. ~1anganese also forms a large part of certain 

alloys that are almost essential to modern industry and are used 

especially in the manufacture of grinding and crushing n1achinery. 

23 
24 OUR. MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

In addition, certain grades of 1nanganese ore are needed for the 

inanufacture of dry batteries. 

As most of the manganese in Bessemer steel is added in the form of 

the low-grade manganese alloy spiegeleisen, and as the higher-grade 

ferromanganese is used in making . open-hearth steel, it should be 

expected that the sum of the production and imports of these alloys 

should show a close relation to the production of Bessemer and openhearth steels, respectively. This relation is shown in figure 1, which 

shows also the general decline in the production of Bessemer steel in 

the United States during recent years and the great advance in the 

production of open-hearth steel. The extent to which this displacement of one variety of steel by the other is due to factors of cost, on 

the one hand, and qualities of product, on the other, is probably a 

matter concerning which only steei metallurgists are competent 

judges. The same may be said concerning the possibility. of using 

spiegeleisen .instead of ferromanganese in the open-hearth process. 

There can be no doubt, however, that if imports of ferromanganese, 

as well as of the high-grade ores needed to make it, were shut off, 

considerable readjustment"· in either practice or plants 'vould be 

necessary to maintain the present rate of production. 

At present most ferromanganese is made by smelting in the com- . 

mon type of iron blast furnace a mixture of high-grade manganese ore 

with enough iron ore to make a product containing about 80 per cent 

of manganese and 15 per cent of iron. Recently a small tonnage of 

ferromanganese has been made in the electric furnace, but information at present available indicates that the electric process can compete with the blast-~urnace process only where there are exceptionally 

favorable local conditions, such as the proximity of sources of ore to. 

sources of cheap electric pow.er. . In both processes the losses of manganese in slag and flue dust and by volatilization are large.. For 

both processes ore containing at least 40 per cent of manganese, less 

than 8 per cent 9f silica, and less than 0.2 per cent of phosphorus is 

desired. 

Spiegeleisen is made in the blast furnace, and at.present more than 

half of the amount produced is obtained by_ smelting manganiferou_s· 

zinc residuum, which contains about 40 per cent of iron and 14 per 

cent of manganese. Spiegeleisen may be made from mixtures of 

high-grade manganese ore and iron ore, from manganiferous iron ore, 

and from manganiferous silver ore. 

GENERAL. CONDITIONS. 

MANGANESE AND MANGANIFEROUS ORES. 

For convenience in presenting s.tatistics the United States Geological Survey recognizes f.our classes of materials that contain manganese; (1) :Manganese ore, most of which contains more than 40 
MANGANESE. 25 

per cent of manganese, is used in making ferromanganese and dry 

batteries. (2) Manganiferous iron ore, most of which contains from 

12 to 25 per cent of manganese, 1s largely used in making spiegeleisen,. 

but some is mi.-xed with high-grade imported manganese ore to make~ 

low-grade -ferromanganese and some is used to make high-manganese 

pig iron. (3) Manganiferous silver ore, whose composition closely 

resembles that of manganiferous iron ore, is largely used as a flux by 

lead smelters, but fron1 time to time large quantities are smelted to 

spiegeleisen. (4)' Manganiferous zinc residuum is similar in compo-· 

sition to manganiferous iron ore and is smelted to spiegeleisen. 

The following table shows the number of operators of mangan~se 

mines that reported to the Survey for 1912 to 1915 and the number 

that shipped ore during those years: · 

Operators of manganese mines in the United States, 1912-1915. 

l---1-9...,.12---l----- ~~,3---~---1-0~~ ---___ 1_9_1_

5 

--

Reported. Shipped. Reported. /Shipped. Reported._ Shipped. Reported. Shipped 

----------1----j----

Alabama............. 1 0 1 0 1 0 3 1 

Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 1 0 1 0 3 1 

Arkans3s ...... ,...... 3 0 3 0 3 0 10 7 California. . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2 8 0 22 2 26 6· Colorado............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 1 0 7 1 

Georgia. _ .. .. .. .. .. . . 5 0 5 o 5 0 

Maine .. .. . . . .. .. .. . . 1 0 1 0 1 0 

8 4 

I 0 

Maryland................................ ........... ......... 1 0_ 

Montana............. · 1 0 · 1 0 1 0 

1 0 

2 0 

8~:~~~~~;: :':::::: : : : ::: :: : :: : : : ::: ::: J:::: :: :::: : :::: :::: : : ~:: ::::: ~: ::: : ::: ~: South Carolina....... 1 1 1 0 1 1 

I 0 I 0 

1 0 I 0 

Tennessee. .. . .. .. .. .. 4 0 3 0 4 o 7 ITexas. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 2 o I 0 I 0 I I 

Utah................. 2 0 2 0 2 o 6 2 

Virginia.. . .. .. .. .. .. . 3I 5 · 27 4 28 7 

~~~~C~a:::::::: ::::::::::: ::::::::: ......... ~ ........ ~. ~ g 

36 7 6 0 

1---1---

60 I 81 - 55 · 4 iv 10 I21 31 · Oreshipped, long tons ... _........ I, 664 . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 048 . . . . .. . . . .. 2, 635 .. .. .. .. .. . 9, 709: 

The la-rgest domestic production of n1angancse ore for a single year 

was but 34,524 tons in 1887, and since that year, except for several 

brief periods, the d01nestic production has declined rather steadily.· 

The average annual production from 1880 to 1915 was 10,645 tons. 

Although one mine is reported to have produced about 250,000 

tons n1ost of the product has _con1e from 111any small n1ines worked 

intermittently. Infonnation concCinii1g many of the deposits indicates 

that they were for1ned by the accun1ulation near the surface of manganese originally disseminated in 1ninute quantities through the adjacent rocks. In order to obtain a marketable product from most of 

these mines, the raw ore must be washed and concentrated. On account 

of the nature ·of the deposits and conditions i:ri the ·industry, little ore 

is developed in advance of mining, so that the extent of the individual 

deposits is not accurately known. 
26 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

·- In contrast with the domestic production, the imports of manganese 

ore, largely fr01n India, Brazil, and Russia, have rather stea.dily risen 

in proportion to the production of .steel. The extensive deposits of 

these countries are rich enough to permit the shipment of large quantities of ore without concentration. The subjoined table shows the 

relation of the production and imports of manganese ores and alloys 

to the production of steel in the United States. The ta.ble a.lso shows 

tha.t whereas Russia, India, and Brazil commonly contribute to the 

imports into the United States, ea.ch country in turn has supplied the 

largest quantity for short periods. · 

Manganese alloys and ore produced in the United States and imported from important · foreign sources, 1?90-1916, in long tons. . _ 

Steel. Ferromanganese. S piegeleisen. Manganese ore. 

. Year. Imports from-,-

Production. Produc- Imports. Produc- Imports. Produc- Total 

tion. tion. tion. imports. Russia. India. Brazil, 

---------------------- 1890 .•••. 4,277,071 .............. .............. ......... . .............. 19,287 34,154 .. ............ ········· .............. 1891.. •.. 3, 904,240 .............. .............. ............ ............. 22, 4S2 28 825 .............. .. ............. ........... 1892 ..... 4, 927,S81 ............... ........... . .............. . ........... 13,613 58;'572 -d36;o7o· ...(b)--· ......... ~893 ..... 4,019, 995 .. ............. ............. ......... . .......... 7, 718 68,113 ···(cf-· 1894 ..... 4, 412,032 ................ .............. ............. ............... 6,308 44,655 a2g 300 .. .......... 1895 ..... 6,114,834 ............... ............ ............. ............... 9,547 86,111 ass: 987 . .............. .. ~ ............ 1896 .•.. - 5, 281,689 .............. ............. ................ ............. 10,088 31,489 a3 600 . ............... ............. 1897 .... - 7, 1S6, 957 ................. ................ ................. . ........... 11,108 119,961 38:910 17,400 12,083 1898 ..... 8, 932,857 ................ ............. . .............. . ............. 1S, 9S7 114,885 46,396 5, 944 17,031 

1899 ..... 10,639,857 '"(d)'"" . .............. .................. ............... 9, 935 188,349 73,397 17, 9SO 28,115 1900 ..... 10,188 .• 329 (e) (d) (e) 11, 771 256,252 132.121 10,650 54,451 

1901. .. -- 13,473,595 59,639 20, 7SO 231,822 2{),827 11,995 165,722 32,600 11,000 48,029 

1902.---. 14,947,250 44,526 50,388 138,408 68,813 7,477 23S,S76 3,338 64, 170 102,SSO 1903 ..... 14,534,978 35,961 41, S19 156,700 122,015 2,825 146,056 5,S76 3S, 960 76,910 1904 ..... 13,859,887 57,076 21,813 162,370 4,623 3,146 108, S19 

~~·~ 10,200 66,875 

1905. -·-- 20,023,947 62,186 52,841 227,797 55, 4S7 4,118 2S7, 033 101,030 114,670 

1906 ..... 23,398,136 55,520 84,3S9 244,980 103,268 6, 921 221. 260 13' 805 1S4, 180 30,260 

1907 .. --- 23,362,594 55,918 87,400 ffl· j~~ 48,994 5,604 209",021 1

1

000 95,300 52,922 

1908 .. --· 14,023,247 40,642 44,624 4,S79 6,144 178,20.3 '2SO 143,813 17, 1SO 1909 ..... 23,955,021 82,209 88,934 142' 8."31 16,921 1,544 212,765 14,486 145, 140 35,600 

1910.-- .. 26,094,919 71,376 114,228 153;055 25 383 12,258 242,348 33,120 140,005 53 750 

1911..-.- 23,676,106 !74, 602 80,263 /104,013 20; 970 /2,457 17H, 852 19, 103 103,S80 41; 600 

1912.---. 31,251,303 /125,378 99,137 /102,.561 1,01S 11,664 300,661 83,334 128, 64S 81,S80 1913 .. - .. 31,300,874 /119,495 128,070 1106,980 77 /4,048 345,090 124,337 141,587 70,200 

1914.- ... 23,S13,030 /100,731 82,997 I 76,625 2,~bg !2,635 283,294 52,681. 103,S83 113, 92·1 191S ..... 32,151,036 /144,260 55,263 /114,5S6 !9, 709 313,985 ............. 36 450 268,786 1916.- ... (o) h221,532 00,928 hl94,002 ............. i33,000 576,321 .. .............. 51:960 471,837 

a Drake, Frank, 'fhe manganese ore industry of the Caucasus: Am. lust. Min. Eng. 'l'rans., vol. 28, p. 

191, 1898. 

b First shipment made from India. c First shipments made from Brazil. d Figures for ferromanganese and spiegeleisen com billed prior to 1901. e Figures for fiscal years only available prior to 1901. 

I Marketed Production. o Figures not yet available. h American Iron and Steel Institute. i Estimated. 

Deposits of manganiferous iron ores have been worked in several 

States.. With the exception of those in the Lake Superior region, the 

ores from most of which contain less than 5 per cent of manganese 

and are therefore smelted to pig iron, most deposits of manganiferous 

· iron ore in the United States ha.ve a geographic distribution simila.r 

to those of manganese ore. 1fany. deposits yield material of both 
MANGANESE. 27 

classes. The following table shows the rfumber of operators of man .. 

ganiferous iron and silver mines that reported to the Survey for 1912 

to 1915 and the number that shipped ore during those years. The 

operators of those deposits in Marquette County, Mich., and Iron 

County, Wis., whose product is smelted to pig iron are not included 

in the table: 

Operato1's of manganiferous iron and silver mines in the United States, 19.12-1915. 

1912 1913 1914 1915 

Reported. Shipped. Reported. Shipped. Reported. Shipped. Reported. Shipped. 

Arizona a·······''···· .. :......................................................... 1 1 

Arkansas... . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 3 2 2 2 3 2 

Colorado a. . . . . . . . . . . 20 20 24 24 23 23 52 52 

M!~i~~a~-~::~~:::::: :::::::::~: :::::::~: :::::::::~:~~:::::::~: :::::::::~: :::::::~: 1~ ~ \'ermont............. 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 

Virginia.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 3 0 '.1 4 6 6 

25 23 331 2i ··-·--33-!---3-1 !---7-5·!---66 

Ore shipped, long tons . . .. . . . . . . . 51,517 ........... 

1 

85,603 . . . . . . . . . . . 98,265 . . . . . . . . . . . 185,238 

a Manganiferous silver ore. 

Manganiferous silver ore is derived largely from the Lead\'ille district, Colo., where the weathered parts of lead-silver deposits contain. 

sufficient manganese, iron, and silver to warrant shipment to lead 

smelters for use in fluxing. From tin1e to time the Colorado Fuel & 

Iron Co. manufactures spiegeleisen from these ores. The manganiferous silver ore may be regarded as a by-product of the mining of the 

lead-silver ore of the district, for if the mines were. not operated for 

that purpose it would not pay to extract the manganiferous ore. 

Manganiferous zinc residuum is a by-product of the smelting of 

manganiferous zinc ore fron1 mines near Franklin Furnace, N. J. 

Aftei· the zinc is extracted the residue is smelted to spiegeleisen. As 

zinc is the most valuable product, the output of the mines varies with 

the demand for zinc and zinc oxide. 

As the approximate composition of each of these varieties of ore has 

been submitted by the shippers, it is possible to calculate approximately the amounts of metallic manganese which they contained. 

The sum of these amounts, which are shown in the table below, less 

the losses in reduction, which range from 15 to 50 per cent, gives a 

figure that represents approximately the amount of metallic ma.nga .. 

nese which would have been available if all the current dOinest.io 

supply of ore had been converted to manganese alloys. Most of the 

Colorado and· Nevada manganiferous silver ore was not smelted to 

manganese alloys, how~ver, but was used as flux in smelting lead ore. 

A part of the manganese ore and Inanganiferous iron ore was used 

directly to make dry batteries and other articles. 
28 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

·· On the last line of the taole are given the percentages of the total 

manganese needed by the domestic steel industry as alloys that could 

have been supplied by domestic deposits if all the ore had been reduced. According to this calculation, domestic deposits could have 

supplied during 1915 at most only one-fifth of the demand for manganese in alloys . 

.Manganese recoverable from ore produced in the United States, 1912-1915, in long tons. 

1912 1\l13 l\l1·1 1\l15 

Source. 

Ore. Man- Ore. Man- Oro. Man- Ore. Manganese. ganese. ganese. ganese 

Manganese ore ... 1,664 79\l 4,048 1,943 2,635 1,205 9,709 4,660 

Manganiferous 

iron ores a .•.... 2,899 580 35,850 6,646 58,384 10,732 48,193 9,040 

Manganiferous 

silver ores ...... 48,618 7,293 49,753 5,070 39,881 G,i80 137,045 17,504 

Manganiferous· 

zinc residuum .. 104,670 13,701 102,239 13,996 100,198 14,438 159,318 23,053 

--- 22,373 28,555 .............. 33,215 ·········· 54,257 

Manganese re- coverable as alloys ............ ·········· Percentage of to- 15,023 ............. 19,096 ............ 22,312 . ........... 36,792 

tal manganese needed ......... ............ 7. 5 .. ............ 8.8 13.8 ............. .21. 0 

a Exclusive of Marquette County, Mich., and Iron County, Minn. 

FERROMANGANESE AND SPIEGELEISEN. 

· The ferromanganese needed for the An1erican steel industry has 

been supplied in part by imports of the alloy itself and in part by 

domestic manufacture fro1n imported ore. It is evident that the 

domestic manganese ore is the source of little ferromanganese. The 

available data forspiegeleisen, however, show that prior to 1914 about 

half of the domestic product was made from domestic ore. During 

recent years the imports of spiegeleisen have been negligible. The 

available supply of these manganese alloys for 1912 to ·1915 and the 

approximate content in manganese is shown in the table on page 7. 

From these results, it has been calculated that for the four-year period 

an average of 14 pounds of manganese has been· consun1ed for each 

ton of steel produced. 

The number of makers of ferromanganese increased from 2 in 1912 

to 5 at the end of 1914, and of spiegeleisen from 3 to 6 . 

.Makers of manganese alloys, 1912-1915. 

1912 1913 1914 1915 

-------------------1-------------

§;.r~~!fe?s~~~s~- ·. ·.::::::::::: :::::: ::::::::: :: :::: : : : :::::: :: :: 2 

3 2 

4 5 

6 8 7 
1\IANGAXESE. 29 

Available supply of manganese alloys in the United Stoles, 1.912-1915, in long tons. 

1!}12 1913 1914 1915 

1\fanga- llfanga- I Mango· Manga- Quantity. nese Quantity. nese Quantity. ncse Quantity. nese. content. content. content. content. 

Imports: 

Ferromanganese ..... 99,137 a 79,310 128,0~~ 11102,456 82,997 a 66,398 55,263 a 42,210 Spiegeleisen .. 1,015 a 183 a 14 2,870 a 417 200 a36 Domestic pro- duction: 

Ferromanganese ..... 125,378 l> 98,430 119,495 l> 94,342 100,731 b 79,408 144,260 b 110,134 Spiegeleiscn .. 102,561 b 19, GIS 106,980 b 20,790 76,625 b 15,288 114,556 b 22,808 

.............. 197,541 ··········! 217,6021·······--·1 1G1,511 !--·····--· 175,189 

a Percentage of manganese estimated. b Percentages of manganese submitted by makers. 

PRICES. 

The rna.rket price of fer-ron1anganese in the United States appears 

to depend upon several factors. As about half of our supply of 

this alloy is imported from 

England, where it is made frorn 

imported ore, and as most of 

the remainder is made in the 

United States from imported 

ore, the price of ferromanga-

~lese depends in part on economic conditions in the countries which are the sources of 

ore and in England and on the 

demands of the steel inclustry 

in the United States. 

Figure 2 shows the range in 

price. per unit of 49 per cent 

manganese ore and of standard 

ferromanganese. (7 5 to 80 per 

cent manganese) for prompt delivery from 1910 to 1917. Such 

a diagram can not show accurately the prices at which these 

n1aterials aresold, because there 

':00: ffi 300 

~ 

~ 

1-" 

Q, 

::E 

0 

IX: 

Q, 250 IX: 

~ 

w 

:iJ 

z 

<I 

Cl 

~ 2CO ::;; 

0 

a: 

~ 1-

ffi 

v 150 

a: 

~-

~ 

a: 

~ 

z roo 0 

1--

a: 

... 

Q, 

~ 50 

8 

' 

-

&0 

... . IX: 

0 

~50 

z 

l3 

z 

~ 

::;; 

~ 40 

ti 

IX: 

~ 

"' ... 

a: 

f? 30 

1-

z 49 pe cent rr ::I Car egie a: 

~ ;,te \.,Q. 

1/) 

~ zo .v 

ferro 

10 

--- -- I 

. I 

I 

~! r·· 

,. : 

II: 

.. : 

i: 

11: 

li 1: 

11: 

!: 

I •: 

I ·-i 

I 

I i 

I 

~ 

I ll' 

' angan se ore 

I 

•• 

il L 

:r I 

I I 

ranga ese :it I' j 

,' ' I 

I i 

is no established market for ·-~·o 1915 as171 

them, as there is for SeVera} FIGURE 2.-Diagram showing prices of ferromanganese 

and manganese ore, 1910-1917. other metals. The diagram 

shows that the price offered for 49 per cent ore from 1910 to 1914 

ranged from 26 to 23 cents a unit, and for ferromanganese from $40 

to $70 a ton. 
au OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

CONDITIONS SINCE 1914. 

MANGANESE AND MANGANIFEROUS ORES. 

The first effect of the war in E-qrope was to reduce imports of ore 

from Russia and India. This reduction continued through 1915, 

but although Russian ore is no longer obtainable, i1nports frmn 

India were much larger in 1916 than in 1915. 

In the United States the shortage of manganese ore did not greatly 

stimulate mining until '!915. For that year the number of shippers 

and the marketed producticm were three times those of 1914. At 

present there is a likelihood that the number of shippers and the 

marketed production for 1916 will be about three times those 

of 1915. Most of the increase in production for both these years 

was derived from d·eposits previously known. R·ecently discovered 

deposits in Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, Virginia, 

and Washington have been sources of production since 1914, but 

several of th-ese deposits would probably have been exploited even 

had the war not developed ·a shortage. Little is known -concerning most of the new -deposits, except that seve~al have shipped 

considerable ore. Many other discoveries are reported, but as the 

superficial exposures of n1anganese deposits are likely to be deceptive 

to casual observers, it would not be advisable to ·assume without 

further investigation that these new deposits will become sources of 

production. No manganese ore has been received from Russia since 

1914, and imports from India are considerably below the normal. 

On the other hand, imports frmn Brazil and Cuba hav-e greatly 

increased and more than make up for the loss of suppli-es fro1n Russia 

and India. 

'The number of shippers of manganiferous iron ores was also 

greater in 1915 than in 1914, but the marketed production decreased. It is a coincidence that war should have "Come in Europe 

and a shortage of manganese ores have developed· ·at a tilne when 

atten1pts were being made to exploit the n1anganiferous iron ores of 

the Cuyuna range, Minn. If the 1nanganiferous zinc residuum of New 

Jersey is omitted, the shipments of these ores in 1914 contained :more 

metallic manganese than all other :shipments in the United States. 

As a result of the operations of a number of mines, large an1ounts ofore 

carrying from 10 to 20 per cent of manganese have been proved a.s 

reserves. This activity is obviously -due to the high prices offered for 

manganese alloys and 1nay cease if prices drop, but there is good reason 

forpelieving that sufficient ore from which spiegeleisen and low-grade 

ferrmnanganese can be made is available in case of need. 

The shipments of manganiferous residuum during 1915 increased 

greatly over the average of previous rec·ent years. The production 
MANGANESE. 31 

of this material is dependent upon the output of zinc ore, and the. 

reserves may not be readily available. 

One direct result of the shortage of manganese ore has been the 

stimulus to miners of manganiferous silver ores to select portions of 

the ore rioh enough in 1nanganese to be more valuable for this metal 

than for their small gold and silver content. Thus, one mine in the 

Ton1bstone district, Ariz., is treating a fairly large quantity of theraw ore in mills and producing a concentrate rich enough in manganese to be used in making dry batteries and ferron1anganese, 

while the tailing is shipped to smelters as a flux. In the Philipsburg 

district, Mont., high-grade manganese ore is being mined and shipped 

from the oxidized zones of gold and silver bearing veins that have 

never l;>efore been sources of manganese ore. In addition to the 

Leadville district, Colo., the Pioche district, Nev., has recently been 

the source of large shipments of manganiferous silver ore, which is 

largely used as a flux by lead smelters. There is little doubt that if 

the price of spiegeleisen were double that now offered a large part 

of the product of both districts would be used to make this alloy. 

FERROMANGANESE AND SPIEGELEISEN. 

As the war has made heavy demands on the steel industry of 

England, it is natural that her exports of products like ferromanganese should be curtailed. In fact, from November, 1914, to March, 

1915, there was an embargo on the shipment of ferromanganese 

fron1 Engl~nd. The resulting shortage in the United States has 

been met by an increase in domestic production.. So. far as information is available, it appears that the increase has been accomplished 

by the entrance of new makers into the field, rather than by increase 

in the output of those already in it. The number of makers of 

ferromanganese in 1915 was eight, and there were several additional 

in 1916. The production of spiegeleisen has increased slightly, and 

several new makers entered the field in 1916. 

PRICES. 

The prevailing price of manganese ore has steadily risen since 

1914, but the increases have lagged behind those in ferromanganese. 

For 15 years prior to 1914 the price per unit of 49 per cent ore in the 

United States ranged from 23 to 30 cents, but during 1916 it rose 

first to 45 cents and later to 65 cents. The price of 65 cents was 

maintained through the e9Jrly months of 1917. 

Soon after the war broke out the price of ferromanganese i·ose suddenly from $40 to $120 a ton for a brief period, then ranged from $70 

to $115 for more than a year. During 1916 prices ranged from $115 

to $175 a ton, except for u, short time in April, ·when $400 a ton was 
32 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

recorded. This great rise was probably caused by Germany's decla:ra-· 

tion of a blockade of England. In February, 1917, the price reached 

$250 a ton. 

The price offered for standard 18 to 22 per cent spiegeleisen has also 

increased fron1 about $25 a ton in 1914 to $50 in 1916 and $65 in 1917. 

SUMMARY. 

· The preceding review of the trend of production, imports, and 

prices of manganese ore and alloys during the last three years of extraordinary demands, when several regular sources have been lal;'gely 

eliminated, leads to several conclusions. First, it is reassuring to 

know that even if Russian and Indian ores are largely eliminated, 

Brazil can supply the enormous quantity of high-grade ore that. has 

been required. On the other hand, the meager response of domestic 

manganese mines to prices that are three times nonnal, though not 

wholly unsuspected, is a source of apprehension. Some new deposits 

have been found, but there is no assurance that they are larger than 

those previously known. There can, be little doubt that if conditions 

demanded the maintenance of the 1916 output of steel and if imports 

of manga:nese ore and ferromanganese were shut off, the deposits of 

manganese ore now developed in the United States could not meet 

the demands, and much readjustment in the steel industry would be 

necessary. 

In any industry shortage of n1aterial may develop either through 

actual deficiency of supplies or because it ceases to be profitable to 

produce the grades of raw ·material hitherto considered acceptable. 

In the case of manganese it appears that the United States faces the 

second situation. The supply of high-grade manganese ore is deficient~ 

but there is reason for expecting that if the lower-grade. manganiferous 

iron ore and materials of similar composition can be more widely 

utilized, an adequate supply of raw material can be obtained fQr 

several years at least. It is not clear what increase in price of manganese alloys would be necessary to bring forth the required supp1y, 

but it seems certain that the needs could be met by the combined 

output of manganiferous iron ore, n1anganiferous silver 9re,· and 

manganiferous zinc residuum. 

There can be little doubt that, under necessity, the manganese and 

manganiferous iron deposits of Virginia, Georgia, ·Tennessee, and 

Arkansas can be made with little additional equipment to yield 

twice or three times the present output for several years. Undoubtedly, however, the deposits of the Cuyuna range, ~1inn., offer a greater 

supply in a smaller area, and as a number of mines are reported to be 

exploring that range in advance of production only small additions to 

equipment should be necessary to make large tonnages available. 
MANGANESE. 33 

The recent increase in prices of alloys has diverted for the n1anu-

.facture of spiegeleisen large quantities of manganiferous silver ores 

that previously had been used only as flux. Mines at Leadville, Colo., 

and Pioche, Nev., have shipped a large aggregate quantity and will 

probably continue to ship, but in such districts explorations are rarely 

carried on greatly in advance of production. The ratios of iron, Inanganese, and siliceous matter in the manganiferous siderite from which 

the oxidized. ores of Leadville appear to have been formed closely 

resemble those in other materials that are now s1nelted to spiegeleisen. 

Systematic investigation in Pioche, Leadville, and elsewhere may 

show that these districts contain large quantities of manganiferous 

siderite which may be smelted to spiegeleisen. Although manganiferous silver ore is being shipped by other districts, such as Tombstone, 

Ariz., Silver City, N. Mex., and Philipsburg, Mont., there is no prospect that they are capable of shipping as much as Leadville and 

Pioche. The most recent information from Eureka, ·Nev., and 

Tintic, Utah, does not encourage the hope for production from those 

districts. 

The l~rgest resources of manganiferous materials in the United 

States are those from which only spiegeleisen may be made by processes now in use. It would be well to inquire whether there is a prospect of 1naking from such materials, by milling methods or preliminary smelting, a product rich enough in manganese to be smelted to 

ferromanganese. Most of the manganese ore now produced in the 

United States is subjected to washing and other processes of concentration, and son1e of the manganiferous silver ores of Tombstone, 

Ariz., yield by concentration a high-grade manganese ore. According 

to press reports, experiments are being made with ores from the 

Cuyuna range, Minn., with the hope of extracting a part of the iron 

minerals and thereby raising the manganese content of the remainder. 

The suggestion has been made recently that ~tis possible to s1nelt 

n1anganiferous iron ores in such a way that most of the iron is reduced 

to metal and the 1nanganese thereby concentrated in a slag from 

which ferromanganese n1ight be smelted. It is possible that so1ne 

ores might be treated in this n1anner, but as the silica of the ore 

would also be concentrated in the slag and the losses of manganese would reach a maximum wh~n it is reduced from n1aterial with 

high silica content, it is doubtful whether such a process could be 

used profitably to make ferromanganese from n1ost of the ores now 

available. 

The possibility of using this or si1nilar processes to make ferromanganese fr01n materials not available by present methods must be 

weighed against the alternative of extending the uses of spiegeleisen 

to the 1nanuf acture of all kinds of steel, rather than to that of steel 

12i972°--19----3 
34 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

made by the Bessemer process alone. These questions require investigation by competent metallurgists, but it may serve a purpose 

to call attention to them. The problem of adequate manganese 

supply resolves itself into two parts-production, on the one hand, 

and utilization, on the other. IVIost manufacturers of steel are 

aware of the conditions that affect the current supplies of manganese 

ores and alloys, but it is possible that they have not adequately 

considered the prospect of utilizing other manganiferous ores. Of 

course, the need for using these ores will not arise until imports of 

high-grade ores have been stopped, but it is evident that experiments 

should be made now and that the steel makers are best equipped to 

undertake then1. 

In order to insure the 1naximum production of ores of all grades, 

the cooperation of competent economic geologists, n1ining engineers, 

and owners of 1nanganese deposits is suggested. As the manganese 

deposits of the United States have not yet been able to supply large 

quantities of ore in c01npetition with several foreign sources, the 

operation of most doruestic manganese mines has ceased to be 

profitable, and 1nuch of ·the annual output is derived from brief 

can1paigns of operation by optimistic investors who know little about 

the business and its risks. The mining of manganese ores therefore 

does not appear to attract the able engineers a11d workmen who 

make a success of mining. iron ore and coal in the same or near-by 

regions. It is not impossible that the production of high-grade 

manganese ore might be made profitable and be increased three or 

even six times if the owners of the mines had the benefit of competent 

technical advice and supervision. It would be worth while to consider the advisability of procw·ing for the owners of properties n1ore 

or less developed the cooperation of 1nembers of the Geological 

Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and the American Institute of Mining 

Engineers. Geologic reconnaissance of a number of new deposits by 

the Geological Survey and prospecting by individuals may also extend 

the known occurrences. 
\' 

PLATINUM. 

By JAMES M. HILL. 

USES. 

Platinum has become a metal of war importance. Many ar~ apt 

to think of tllis rare metal a3 preeminently adapted to settings for 

precious stones, and at present 50 per cent or more of the platinum 

used in this country is consumed in the jewelry trade. But the metal 

is of vital need to many industries upon which success or fa.ilure in 

war 1nay depend. 

Dishes and utensils of platinum are absolutely necessary in all 

chmnicallaboratories, and upon their laboratories all great industries 

are dependent for guidance. Several alloys of cheaper metals and 

china, glass, nickel, or gold can be used to replace some of the platinum 

for this purpose, but not all the platinum utensils can be replaced 

by substitutes. 

Alloys have been developed for some parts of the ignition systems 

of internal-combustion engines, but no substitute for platinum has 

been found for certain delicate parts of the ignition systems, and to 

insure the proper operation of the automobiles, motor boats, and 

airplanes called into national service a large quantity of platinun1 

n1ust be available 'for this use. 

Platinum or allied rare metals have wide application in many 

instruments of precision u~ed in the physical testing of all kinds of 

materials. 

Probably the use of platinum most closely connected with war is 

in the contact process of n1aking concentrated sulphuric acid, an 

essential commodity to a great number of industries aside from the 

manufacture of munitions. An inquiry made by the United States 

Geological Survey showed that in 1915 a total of 43,888 ounces of 

platinum was in use in the contact chambers of domestic sulphuricacid works, and it is probable that this amount was considerably 

increased during 1916 and will of necessity be further increased. 

35 
36 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

SUPPLY. 

The world's supply of plat.inun1 is li1nited. Russia has furnished 

about 95 per cent of all the platinun1 produced, and Colombia has 

stood second. 

As will be seen fron1 the following table, the world's production 

of crude platinurn has been diminishing since 1912. 

Estimated 1.vorld's production of crude platintm~, 1909-191G, in troy ounces. 

Country. I 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1!)14 I 1915 1916 

-------------------- Borneo and Sumatra .. 500 200 ....... 3o· 200 (a) (a) (a) 

Canada ............... 30 30 30 50 30 100 60 

Colombia ............. 6,000 10,000 12,000 12,000 15,000 17,500 18,000 25,000 

New South Wales and 

'l'asmania ........... 440 332 470 778 1,500 1, 248 303 (a) 

Russia ................ 264,~~g 275,000 300,000 300,000 250 000 241,~~~ 124,~~g 57,~~g United States ......... 390 628 721 1

483 

2il, 6421 285,952 ---

313,128 313,5291 267,233 260, 5481 143, 1451 83,670 

a No basis for estimate.' 

It will be noted that the normal annual addition of crude platinum 

to the wo~ld's supply has varied between 260,000 and 313,000 ounces. 

This supply is augmented by the platinum produced by refiners of 

copper matte and gold bullion. United States refiners of gold and 

copper produce annually about 1,500 ounces of refined platinum as 

by-products, chiefly from copper ore, o{ both foreign and domestic 

origin. 

That the supply of new platinun1 has not be01i su:qicient to meet the 

requirements is indicated by .the very extensive tracl'e in scrap or used 

n1etal. Figures are not available for· such trade in foreign countries, 

but in the United States the yearly sales of secondary platinum normally a1nount to about 40,000 ounces; in 1916 theyinc1~eased to 49,400 

ounces. 

Owing to scarcity of supplies and labor due to the war and to the 

derangement of the platinum market in Russia, her production during 

1916 was much below normal. It seems probable that production 

after the war will not be materially increased over the normal rate, 

and it may even not come lip to normal for some time. Duparc, an 

authority on Russian platinum deposits, has recently made the asscr-

. tion that at the n1te of production before the war b~gan the known 

platinum deposits of Russia would hecome exhausted in.12 ·years . 

.. Although the platinurn deposits of Colombia have been yielding for 

many years, they have not been developed by engineering methods 

until recently. Prior to 1914 most of Colombia's ph1tinum output 

was won by native miners with bateas (wooden pans), but at present 

a stl;ong company controlled by Americans is developing its holdings 

with dredges, and the output for the future seems assured. Most of 
PLATINUM . . -37 

. the platinum heretofore produced has come from the San Juan River 

·draina.go basin, but it is ~nown that platinum occurs ii1 tho upper 

part· .of the Atrato River basin, and it would seem that systematic 

·prospecting of· the whole western slope of the Andes· in Colombia 

should be undertaken with a view of increasing the world's ·supply. 

The platinum production of the Australian provi.J:ces and of Borneo 

has been small. The deposits, to judge from reports, are nearly if not 

quite exhausted and do not hold much promise of great additions to 

the supply. 

In North America platinun1 is produced fron1 placers in British 

Columbia and from the copper ores of Sudbury, Ontario. - There is a 

possibility that new placer deposits may be discovered among the 

western 1nountains, ·and reports have reached the Survey of phitiniferous gravels as far north as The Pas, in Manitoba. 

In the United States inost of the small annual output of crude platinuin has been won from the weU-known placer deposits in California 

and southwestern Oregon, but a little has come from a gold-platinumpalladium lode in Nevada and a copper mine in Wyoming. The 

dredges in the foothills of the Mother Lode country have been the 

largest producers, but so far none of the stream placers in the serpentme belt that feed the dredge ground have been found to carry platinum in sufficient quantity to be economically important. In the 

auriferous gravels of Trinity, Salmon, and Klan1ath rivers, in northwestern California, and Illinois and Rogue rivers, in Oregon, platinum is more or less abundant. Much of this country has been prospected thoroughly for gold, but there is a possibilit:r of :finding strean1s 

in which the platinum has been overlooked. The beach placers on the 

Oregon and California coasts have also yielded platinum, and it may 

be possible to further develop this source of supply. Discoveries of 

platinum in the placer gravels of certain streams in Alaska have been 

reported from time to time, and in 1916 some platinum was shipped 

from the Territory. 

POSITION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The United States at present is not supplying 10 per cent of 

its platinum requirements, and while there is some assurance that 

by systematic geologic investigation, already planned, new placer 

deposits that will yield platinum may be found and that by a study 

of the methods of saving platinum a greater yield from all deposits 

may be had, yet the issue must be squarely faced that in all probability the domestic supply can not be made adequate to meet the 

requirements of norn1al times. 

An abnormal situation now exists, and it should be considered what 

steps are to be taken to assure an adequate stock of platinun1 for the 

essential uses of the Government. Early in the war England and 
38 OUR :MINEHAL SUPPLIES. 

France commandeered all stocks of platinum for Government use, 

and all dealings in this metal in those countries have been closely con ... 

trolled by the respective Governments. In the United States it has 

so far proved almost impossible to collect accurate statistics of sup.. 

plies or production of this metal. It may prove necessary for the 

Government to commandeer supplies, but it should be possible to 

count on the patriotism of domestic platinum dealers and refiners to 

inform the Government fully of all available reserves of this metal. 

Fifty per cent or more of the platinum used in the United States has 

been made into jewelry, the larger part of which is now in private 

possession. It may be hoped that the whims of fashion will yield 

to national needs and that purchasers of jewelry will demand gold 

and silver or a white alloy and so release platinum for its highest 

use. 

Steps should be taken immediately to ascertain the quantity of 

platinum in the United States that could be considered as an available 

supply, and to adopt some measures for obtaining an adequate reserve 

of the metal to meet the Nation's needs forwarpurposes. The needs 

of munition makers are at present probably supplied from reserves 

accumulated during the last two years, but the futw·e demands of a 

the country are inadequately provided for. 
GYPSUM. 

By R. w. STONE. 

CONDITION OF THE INDUSTRY. 

The three years 1913-1915 saw no marked fluctuation in the 

gypsum industry. For some time the annual output has been near 

2,500,000 tons of raw material. In l913 the production was about 

2,600,000 tons, and in each of the two following years there was a 

slight decrease, amounting in all to about 150,000 tons, a decline of 

less than 0.06 per cent. This decrease was due largely to a falling 

off in the ·demand for gypsum wall plaster occasioned by a reduction in the number of buildings constructed. Statistics of building 

operations in the leading cities of the United States show that 2,500 

fewer permits were issued in 1915 .than in 1914. This decline was 

probably due to the increase in cost of supplies and of labor reflected 

in the same statistics, which show that although the number of operations was less, the cost increased $22,000,000, or 3.55 per cent. 

Figures .are not yet available (April, 1917)for the gypsum industry 

in 1916, but it is believed that the year was one of increased production. Prices of all supplies have increased, but bigger business requires and can pay for more buildi:r..g, and this condition has been 

favorable to the gypsum industry. 

This particular industry could not suffer from restraint o£ ccean 

traffic, because the imports, which come wholly fron1 New Brunswick 

and Nova Scotia, are normally only about one-fifteenth as 1nuch as the 

domestic production, and gypsmn is so abundant and widespread in 

.the United States that the nation is easily industrially independent 

in this respect. 

Gypsum is produced in 18 States and Alaska. 1\fost of the deposits are west o£ l\1ississippi River, but considerable quantities 

occur in New York, Virginia, Ohio, and Michigan. New York, in 

fuct, is the largest producer, yielding 500,000 tons annually, or onefifth of the country's total. Iowa ranks second and Michigan third. 

The most extensive deposits are in 'Vyoming, Utah, Texas, and 

New Mexico, where thick beds of high-grade gypsum crop out for 

39 
40 OUR MTNEHAL SUPPLIES. 

hundreds of miles. In vVyoming alone gypsmn beds fr01n 6 to 20 

feet thick are exposed for a thousand miles and constitute a reserve 

that the world's den1ands would not exhaust in many decades. 

In 1915 there were 77 active n1ines or quarries which supplied 69 

gypsun1 plants. A number of plants are standing idle. In case of 

greatly increased demand for gypsmn products the idle plants could 

quickly be put into commission, and the active plants that are working only one or two shifts could be put on a 24-hour schedule, thus 

making a large increase in the output.· The production of gypsum 

boards probably could not be so quickly increased as that of other 

products, because they are made on machines 'vhich are not on the 

market. 

As the deposits of high-grade gypsmn in the United States are 

"-idespread, practically inexhaustible, and in n1any places close to 

present lines of transportation, and as the n1illing part of the industry. can easily be made to increase its output, the outlook for this 

popular structural material is fair even in times of worldwide unrest. 

USES OF GYPSUM. 

The principal uses of gypsum are as structural material and as 

an ingredient in Portland cement. Gypsmn wall plaster is in common use, and gypsmn boards, blocks, and tile are fast- making a. 

market because of their light weight, convenience, and fire-resistant 

qualities. Because of the rapidity Yvith which the plaster sets, permitting carpenters to follow the plasterers ·within a few hours, and 

because of the size and shu pe of the gy'psurn block, tile, and board 

units, which favor quick construction, these materials are e_specially 

adapted to the hurried emergency building operations occasioned by 

great industrial activity. 

At such times as the present, when 1nany Inanufacturing firins, 

particularly those engaged in 1naking n1unitions, are called upon to 

expa.nd their plants in the shortest possible tin1e, and when high 

fire-resistant qualities a.re dema.nded in the new buildings, gypsum 

products are used extensively, according to inforn1ation of the 

United States Geological Survey. For quickly constructed one-story 

buildings which shall be warn1 in winter, cool in summer, and noninflammable a light steel frame with inner walls, roof deck, and 

partitions of gypsum block and slabs should be satisfactory. Gypsum should not be used for exterior construction in a moist climate 

but. has been so used successfully in some of the ariel portions of the 

United States. In steel-fra.1ne buildings several stories high the use 

of gypsmn blocks for partitions and for fillers in concrete floors not 

only gives fire-resistant quality to the building and hastens construction but decreases appreciably the strength required in the 

:frame. Furthermore, because gypsum dries rapidly, a building 
GYPSUM. 41 

plastered with it can be occupied very soon after plastering is completed. In a number of buildings recently constructed at our navy 

yards gypsum slabs have been used for the roo£ decks because of 

their light weight and noncondensing quality. 

Other uses of gypsum in time of war may be 1nentioned briefly. 

Gypsmn is a constituent of the Portland cement used in the foundations and fra.mes of buildings, in the construction of bridges, in 

fortifications, in the emplacen1cnt of heavy artillery, and for numerous other purposes in the maintenance and operation of the Army 

nncl Navy. It is suggested that for light-artillery emplacements a 

hard-setting gypsmn plaster might be used. Gypsum is used adYantageously a.s a fertilizer on some soils and with some crops and 

doubtless will be used in greater quantity under the present stress 

for a large yield from our farms. Calcined gypsmn in the form of 

plaster of Paris is used £or making casts around broken lin1bs and so 

has an importa.nt function in the surgical wards of hospitals, especially during war. Bandages for orthopedic surgery, used very 

extensively in hospitals, are made of gauze filled with plaster of 

Paris. 

SALT, BROIVIINE, AND CALCIUM CI-ILORIDE. 

By R. vv. SToNE. 

SALT. 

The United States furnishes prructically all the salt consu.med by 

its people. In 1916 more than 99 per cent of all the salt used in this 

country \vas made her,e, and the value of the salt e'xported was n1ore 

than twice: as great as that of the salt imported. The total quantity 

o£ salt produced has increased steadily for Inany years. The imports 

have taken a sharp slump in the last four years, and the exports have 

increased about 50 per cent in the five years preceding 1916. The 

imports and exports, hmvever, form a very .minor part of the industry. The madmted domestic production of salt in the United 

States has increused :from 20,000,000 to nearly 40,000,000 barrels in 

15 years and is now increasing at a n111Ch more rapid rate. The war 

in Europe has stimulated industries in this country that require salt 

:for chemical or Inetallurgic ptu·poses, with the result that the natural 

growth in den1and due to increased population is augmented to a 

marke(l degree by industrial needs. 

The production in 1916 is estimated at 43,000,000 barrels o:f 280 

pounds, or nearly half a barrel for each individual in the country, 

compared with 38,000,000 barrels in 1915. For many years the mines 

and manufacturing plants have not been producing anything like 

their capacity, and the 5,000,000-barrel increase in 1916 is only an 

indication of what cun be done if a demand arises for enlarged output. Most of the plants can largely increase their present yield. 

The rock-salt mines are capable of extension and already are so developed that only additional labor and machinery would be needed 

to double· their output. Most of the solar e,vaporators could increase 

their acreage and consequently their production. 

Prices o:f salt are, increasing and may continue to increase so long 

as the present unsettled conditions continue. Some grades of salt 

have doubled in value since 1915; others have increased 50 per cent~ 

This increase is chargeable not only to increased demands of labor 

and cost of supplies but also to the larger margin of profit to which 

43 
44 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES • 

. producers feel entitled under present circumstances. I-lea vy charges 

against the cost of production are wages and fuel. Labor is demand~ 

ing and receiving higher pay, and coal at some salt works has been 

hard to get and expensive. One producer reports coal increased in 

cost from 80 cents to $5.50 a ton. 

The production of salt must continue, as for many years past, to in~ 

crease. The use of salt in food for men and animals naturally demands 

enlarged ·output to keep pace with increased population; its use 

as a source of chlorine and hydrochloric acid and in many chemical 

and metallurgic industries that are rapidly developing also demands 

larger output, though some of these industries may be much less 

active after present hostilities cease. Attention to sanitation is 

spreading in great waves, even to re1note .districts, and carries with 

it a de~nand for glazes and enamel on pottery and hardware, and for 

refrigeration and preserving foodstuffs, all of which take large 

quantities of com1i1on salt. 

Fourteen States reported production in 1915. Salt of all grades is 

made frmn the lump salt used in salting cattle to the finest table 

an<J dairy salt. Rock salt is mined in New York, Michigan, l(ansas, 

Louisiana, and Utah. Salt is produced frmn natural and artificial 

br!nes obtained fron~ 'veils in several States and from the waters of 

Great Salt Lake and of the Pacific Ocean. It is also obtained from 

deposits in playas in Nevada, Texas, and New Mexico. New York, 

Ohio, and :M:ichigan are the main source of salt for the Eastern 

States, l(ansas and Oklahoma for the Central States, Louisiana and 

I Texas for the South, and Utah and California for the 'Vest. In 

each of these general localities the supply is apparently inexhaustible. 

lIn New York, for example, an area of 2,000 square miles in the 

·central counties from Oneida Lake to Lake Erie is underlain with 

a rock-salt deposit whose· thickness ranges between 8 feet .and 318 

feet. This deposit alone would supply the whole United States for 

thousands of years. The present production, both by mining and 

:fron1 artificial brines, is negligible in comparison with the latent 

ll)Ossibilities. . 

In l{ansas a deep well struck rock salt at 690 feet below the surface 

t and penetrated 600 feet of rock salt in beds from 5 to 60 feet thick. 

I A large area in this State is underlain by salt, which is mined by I . 

. many shafts and obtained by pumping brine. Drilling for oil in 

1 

Texas and Louisiana has·· revealed the presence of trmnendously 

·thick deposits of rock salt at a depth. of a few hundred feet. Thicknesses of 2,000 feet are common, and one drill hole passed throi1gh 

more than 3,000 feet of rock salt. I\1ost of th£ ·salt made in Utah 

·is produced by evaporating the water of Great Salt Lake, and in 

, California by evaporating sea water .. These sources are inexhausti-
SALT, BROMINE, AND CALCIUM CHLORIDE. 45 

ble, and the limit of production by solar evaporation will therefore 

never be reached. 

BROMINE. 

· Bromine is 1nade in connection with the 1nanufacture of salt in 

~1ichigan at Moun~ Pleasant, Isabella County; at l\1idlanc1, Midland 

County; near "Saginaw and at St. Charles, Saginaw· County; and 

at Bay City, Bay County; in Ohio at Pomeroy, l\1eigs County; in 

vVest Virginia at Mason and Jiartiord, Mason County; and in the 

ICanawha Valley at J\tlalden, ICanawha County. In l\1ichigan the 

bromine has been n1arketed in the form of fine chemicals, but the 

great inctease in demand brought on by the war has caused a great 

deal of the bromine to be marketed as such. Along 04io River, where 

there is cheap transportation by rail and water and cheap coal and 

gas and where salt and bromine occur naturally, bromine has been 

produced for export for many years to be made into fine chemicals. 

IIere is an opportunity which the American chemist should not 

neglect. 

The element bromine does not occur·in native form but is derived 

jn huge quantities fron1 natural brines. It is nsecl as an· oxidizer in 

many chemical reactions instead of chlorine and for dissolving gold 

and separating it from platinum and silver; also in disinfectants and 

bromine salts and in making aniline colors. Recently it has been 

extensively used in making the asphyxiating gases employed in the 

European war. 

In 1915 there was a significant increase over the production of the 

previous year, the total output in the United States being 855,857 

pounds, valued at $856,307, or about $1 a pound. Th~ comparatively 

low price- indic~ted by the total figures is due to the fact that considerable bromine was sold at prices specified in contracts made 

before the demand increased and to the further fact that the figures 

indicate prices at point of produ~tion ·and hence do not include 

the cost of freight. The price of bromine during the first hal£ of 

1916 ranged from $4.75 to $6.50 a pound in New York, as a result, 

at least in part, of the unprecedented demand fron1 abroad. In 

~iarch, 1917, it had fallen to $1.30 a pound. 

As the quantity of bromine marketed in 1915 was an increase of 

nearly 50 per cent over the production of each of the two preceding 

years, and as the number of wells is few where there might be many, 

it is assumed that this quick response to a sudden demand is only a 

suggestion of what may be done in case of continued and increased 

demand. The statistics of production for 1916 are not yet available 

(April, 1917); it is believed that there was a very ·considerable 

decrease in the quantity of bromine made from natural brine but an 

increase in the total value of the product. 
46 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

CALCIUM CHLORIDE. 

Calcium chloride is made frmn natural brines at Mount Pleasant 

and Saginaw, Mich.; Pomeroy, Ohio; and Mason, Hartford, and 

Malden, W. Va. As the san1e brines yield salt and bron1ine, practically every constituent in them is turned to profit. Calcium chloride 

is used as the circulating fluid in refrigerating plants, in ce1nent 

concrete, and in aut01nobile gas-engine water jackets to preYent 

freezing, and, on account of its power of absorbing moisture, for 

laying dust on roads, drying gases, vegetables, and fruits, and dehydrating organic liquids. Calciun1 chloride in solution is especially 

valuable in automatic sprinkler systems and in fire buckets. 

The quantity of calcium chloride produced from natural brines 

and sold in the United States has recently been about 20,000 short 

tons a year, valued at $6 to $6.50 a ton. This does not include the 

output obtained in the manufacture of soda, as calcium chloride so 

obtained is not an original constituent of brine. Large quantities 

made in the manufacture of soda have been wasted, and it is hoped 

that new uses may be found for this by-product. 

Since the first half of 1916 there has been a demand for this 

material which has raised the price. In l\1arch, 1917, 70 to 75 per 

cent fused calcium chloride was quoted in the New York 111arket at 

$26 to $30 a ton, and granulated calcimn chloride has recently been 

quoted as high as $40 a ton. Fused lump ca.lcimn chloride that used 

to retail for 15 cents a. pound was quoted in April, 1917, at 90 cents. 

It is believed that the supply can easily be kept ahead of the den1and. 
SAND AND GRAVEL. 

By R. "\V. STONE. 

ROAD MATERIAL. 

1\iilitary preparedness includes in time o£ peace the construction 

o£ permanent trunk highways and in time o£ ·war the hasty improvement o£ roads that lead fr01n military bases to the line o£ action. 

Improven1ent o£ roads under war conditions would in most places 

mean surfacing with a mixture of sand and clay or of sand, Clay, 

and gravel. This material is abundant; in fact, there . are few areas 

in the United States where a good supply can not be had within a 

reasonable distance. The United States Geological Survey is in 

touch with thousands o£ producers of sand and gravel, and many of 

its detailed geologic maps show the distribution of the deposits. 

GLASS SAND. 

The glass-making industry is in no way dependent on foreign 

supplies for its sand, salt cake, soda ash, and liinestone. Our resources in these materials are ample. Most of the output o£ glass 

sand comes from a belt of States extending fron1 New Jersey to Missouri. Illinois, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia a.re the largest 

producers, and Illinois leads, producing well over 500,000 tons, 

largely by disintegration of the friable St. Peter sandstone. California is the only State 'vest of Oklahoma that produced glass sand 

in 1915. 

Glass sand has formerly been brought to this country in ballast 

from European ports, but the present conflict cut off this small importation. The war, by unsettling general business conditions, for 

a number of months put a damper on the glass industry in this 

country. Later, however, business has increased, building operations 

nre active, demanding large quantities of windo~ glass, and furthermore glassware is now being exported in quantity to Europe and to 

the countries which the ~uropean glass industry formerly supplied. 

Consequently the glass industry is booming, and as a corollary the 

production of glass sand has increased, The output in 1916 approxi47 
48 OUR lV.IJNERAL SUPPLIES. 

Inated 2,000,000 tons and was thus larger than it has ever been. On 

account of the higher 'vages and the increased cost of Inachinery and 

of all supplies, particularly coal, the price of glass sand, which has 

been decreasing in the last few years, showed an npward tendency 

in 1016. 

The glass-sand deposits in this country are very extensive and are 

found in 1nany States. JHany deposits of high-grade material a!'e 

undeveloped. Quartz sand suitable for 1naking cheap. glass occurs 

in great quantity in the white dunes on the coast of California and 

along the shores of the Gulf of lVIexico and ,in the white ·quartzite 

and sandstone in 1nany parts of the country. J\tlost of the glass factories in this country are located with relation to large supplies of 

the cheap fuel-natural gas-so that vVest Virginia, Pennsylvania, 

and the Ohio Valley contain most of them. 

·MOLDING SAND. 

The new requirements of armament and n1unitions have caused 

foundries and machine shops to increase their output, and this activity 

is in turn reflected in the molding-sand industry. The total production in 1915 was 3,500,000 tons, n1ore than two-thirds of which came 

from New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. This was 

750,000 tons more than the output of 1914. The statistics for 1916 

are not yet available (April, 1917), but it is confidently expected that 

they ''ill show 4,500,000 tons produced in that year. This country 

has unknown quantities of molding sand of different kinds, such as 

that required for light and heavy iron and steel castings. The developed deposits are very largely in the Eastern States, because that is 

'v here 1nost of the foundries are situated. As freight rates practically prohibit long-distance shipping of this heavy and cheap 

cominodity, little search has been ml:'vde for deposits in the vVestern 

States, where the clmnand for molding sand is sn1all. 

Up to 1914 n1olding sand was annually imported from France for 

use in casting bronze. The French sand is used for facing the molds, 

and as n1ost of the casting done in it is art work, the curtailment 

would not seen1 to be serious in a tiine of national stress. In response 

to requests fr01n importers of the. French sand and from bronze molders the United States Geological Survey has sought for a domestic 

substitute and is now able to announce that sands which on preliminary tests prove to be satisfactory substitutes for the French molding 

sand have been fo\1nd near Albany, N. Y., and Zanesville, Ohio. 

Bronze and brass castings IJ.1ade at Government arsenals and navy 

yards for many years have been poured in sand from the. Albany district; commercial foundries and manufacturers use sand fron1 Albany, 

N. Y.~ \Vindsor Locks, Conn., and several localities in Ohio for fac-
SAND AND GRAVEL. 49 

ing molds for brass and bronze castings that do not require the extrmnely fine finish of art work. The supply at these places is abundant, and the country seems able to meet any requirement in quality 

and quantity of molding sand. 

ABRASIVE SAND. 

Sand suitable for grinding and polishing, ranging from small 

graYel for use in sand-blast work on heavy castings to the fine material used for giving a polish, is abundant, and the country produces 

about 1,000,000 tons annually. Pennsylvania is the leading producer 

and in son1e years furnishes one-half of the output. The present activity in the production of armament will call for an increased production of this material, for it is the practice in large foundries to 

clean castings by sand-blast. 

GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

The sand industry in all its branches grows normally with increase 

of population. Severe business depression decreases the production 

of building sand more than that of sand for some. other uses, such as 

engine sand, which is used wherever trains and trolley cars run. 

Business acceleration increases the output and use of all kinds of 

sand. The value of all the sand and gravel produced in 1915 of 

which the United States Geological Survey has a record was over 

$23,000,000. The statistics for 1916 are not yet available (April, 1917). 

AID BY GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

An important part that the United States Geological Survey plays 

in the sand and gravel industry, aside from collecting and publishing statistical data, consists in answering questions regarding the 

usefulness of samples submitted for examination and directing inquirers to a source of supply of sands for special use. For example, 

within a few days after- this country declared its participation in the 

war the Geological Survey directed an important laboratory to 

sources of glass sand for optical purposes, for which it was specified 

that the sand must contain less than 0.05 per cent of iron and over 

99 per cent of silica; an importer of bronze molding sand was inforn1ed of localities in this country that can furnish a satisfactory 

substitute; and a maker of egg-boiling timers who can no longer procure the customary foreign sand was furnished with samples made by 

the Survey from domestic sand which fill the specifications calling 

for round grains passing 150 mesh. 

1279i2°--19----4 

ASBESTOS. 

By J. s. DILLER. 

PRODUCTION AND PRICES. 

The United States is one of the largest manufacturers of objects 

made fronl asbestos, but it is not a large producer of crude asbestos. 

· The supply of asbestos of all grades ip. Quebec, Canada, is so large 

and so conveniently obtained and the quality of the Canadian asbestos i~-so excellent as to delay the development of asbestos deposits 

in the United States. The demand for high-grade asbestos has 

always been active, but recently, under the stimulus of war conditions 

·abroad, it has become still greater, and the available supply, although 

larger than before, is frequently not equal to the demand. In 1916 

the total output of asbestos in the United States was 1,479 short tons. 

The in1ports during the same time, almost wholly from Canada, 

amounted to 116,162 short tons, making a total supply available for 

manufacture in the United States of 117,641 tons. 

Asbestos impo1·tell into the United Stcttes in 1916. 

[Figures furnished by Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Co:rr..merce, Department of Commerce.] 

CoWl try. 

1915 1916 

Unmanufactured. Unmanufactured. 

1----c----1 Manufae- 1---~---1 ManufacQuantity 

(short 

tons). 

Value. 

tured turcd 

(value). Quantity (value). (short Value. 

tons). 

Austria-Hungary............. . ........... . ........... 510,502 ................................... . British South Africa .................. ~ ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . ........... 112 $10,625 ........... . Canada....................... 93,565 $1,980,749 1,867 114,978 3,069,617 $1,841 

Colombia. .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. • • • . • . • • • . . • • • • • . . .. . . . • • . . .. . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • • 109 

Cuba................................................. 538 ................................... . Denmark............................................. 49 ................................... . England .............. ~··--·--........................ 106,412 1,072 223,228 119,!23 France........................ . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . • . • • • . • . . 139 . . • • • • . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . 10, 162 

r~r::~~:_: _: ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~: ~::::::: ::::::::: ~: ::::::: :S: ---- -~~:;i- :::::::::::: ::::::: :~: :: _______ .. _ ~1 Scotland.............................................. 879 ............ ............ 293 

. 93,566 1,981,483 137,317 116,1621 3,303,470 135,064 

51 
52 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Five States now produce asbestos-Arizona, California, Idaho, 

Georgia, and Virginia. Arizona and Georgia are the largest producers-Arizona of high-grade fiber, and Georgia of fiber below the 

spinning grade. · 

The prices for asbestos produced in the United States during 1916 

are said to have ranged, according to grade, from $15 to $1,000 a ton. 

In 1915 normal prices ranged from $10 to $400 a ton. 

ARIZONA. 

The asbestos of Arizona is chrysotile and occurs in serpentine associated with limestone altered by intrusions of diabase. As the-strata 

are nearly horizontal, they are for the 1nost part best exposed on 

the sides of canyons throughout the State. The cross-fiber veins of 

chrysotile are commonly parallel to the bedding of the limestone 

but are very irregular in their distribution, a fact which results from 

the irregularity of the contact between the limestone and the intruding diabase. The asbestos has to be won by tunneling into the canyon 

wall. As the amount of asbestos at any one place is small, thus 

limiting the production, the cost of production is increased, but in 

obtaining the best grade a considerable an1ount of valuable short 

fiber is accumulated on the dump and is available for future milling. 

The asbestos of the Arizona mjnes is of two grades; one is very fine, 

soft, silky fiber of first-class textile quality, and the other is not suitable for textile manufacture. Although the second grade may have 

great length, it is h~rsh and when put through textile processes creates a good deal of "splint," which. 1nakes a rough~ looking yarn 

altogether unsuited for higher textile uses. Both grades may occur 

in the same mine. The lower grade appears to be the Inore abundant, 

and the available quantity of first-class textile fiber is thus-limited. 

The small percentage of iron contained in the best grade of Arizona 

fiber compared with Canadian fiber renders that of Arizona especially useful for its electric insulating qualities. As the whole mass 

of available good fiber is sn1all, it should be mined with particular 

care to avoid waste. The limit of the asbestos field of Arizona is not 

yet known. The output will probably never be large compared with 

that of Canada, but under proper management the deposits may 

yield say 1,000 tons of valuable fiber anntially for years to come. 

CALIFORNIA. 

The l{lamath Mountains, Coast Range, and Sierra Nevada, in 

Cal!fornia, are rich in serpentine, and in places this rock contains 

considerable asbestos. The only ·producing point in 1916 was on 

Mears Creek, near Sims, in Shasta County, from which 3 carloads 

were shipped to an asbestos factory in Oakland. There is no fiber 

of spinnin·g-·grade at this locality, and 'as the deinand for the fiber 

n1ined is small the mining operations have not been extensive. The 
ASBESTOS. 53 

mine is within a few n1iles of the Southern Pacific Co.'s main line, 

and good water power for milling the fiber is available in Mears 

Creek. The serpentine is cut by a variety of dikes in the vicinity of 

the asbestos deposits. Cross-fiber veins of asbestos half an inch or 

less in thickness are common, and a prominent vein of slip fiber oc-

. curs on the same slope. There is considerable asbestos near the 

head of Mears Creek, and if there were a large demand for the lower 

grades of fiber a mill on this stream could do much ~oward meeting it. 

Other prospects of asbestos in California that have attracted attention occur in Napa County near Canyon station on the stage road 

from Napa to 1\1ontieello, in Placer County, near Towle and Iowa 

Hill, and in Calaveras County near Valley Spring. 

IDAHO. 

In the vicinity of l{amiah, Lewis County, Idaho, there are rocks 

made up wholly of asbestos arranged in fibrous bundles. The fibers 

are short and brittle and are consequently far below spinning grade 

and suited only for use as a filler in the manufacture of heat-resisting or fireproofing covers, cements, or paints. There is only one 

producer at present. The demand is slight, but the supply of asbestos is large and the material is easily quarried, as it constitutes the 

whole mass of the rock. It occurs within a dozen miles of a railroad, 186 miles southeast of Spokane, Wash. 

GEOH.GIA. 

The asbestos mine near SalllVIountain, Ga., with a mill at Gainesville, has for years been the largest producer of asbestos in the United 

States. The asbestos, like that of 1\:amiah, Idaho, is of the massfiber type of anthophyllite, which forms fibrous bundles and constitutes the whole mass of the rock. Only the surface portion of the 

rock mass, which has been softened by weathering, is milled for 

fiber. The solid, unweathered portion of the rock is too hard for successful milling, and unless some way can be found to treat this portion successfully this limitation will greatly reduce the reserve for 

future needs. Georgi~t is far south of the glacier-swept region, and 

the mantle of residual softened rock is unusually deep, so that there 

still seems to be a fairly good supply for the near futur3. 

VIRGINIA. 

Rocks similar to those that furnish the asbestos in Georgia are 

common in the 1nountain region of North Carolina and Virginia, 

and in the latter State there is a very small production of asbestos 

used in manufacturing a dental product. 

VERMONT. 

The country rocks of the asbestos deposits in Quebec, Canada., 

extend southwestward into Vermont, ~vhere tl~ey contain eonsiderable 
54 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

bodies of chrysotile that was mined n1ore or less successfully a few 

years ago. The Vermont area contains very little spinning fib~r 

but a considerable quantity of good 1nilling fiber, and it is now attracting n1uch attention. No production has yet been made. Although in the production of chrysotile asbestos Vermont can not compete successfully with Canada, the n1aterial in Vermont should be 

regarded as a valuable reserve if the Canadian deposits were not 

available. 

WYOMING. 

The asbestos deposits of Wyoming are largely .chrysotile, b,ut they 

contain only a trace here and there of fair spinning fiber. They 

have attracted n1uch attention for years, especially fr01n a speculator's 

point of view, but have not yielded a production. The possibilities 

of the region are not yet fully known. They should be tested and 

developed by an experienced manufacturer of asbestos who needs 

raw material. There is no doubt that a large amount of good-grade 

mill fiber occurs in that part of the country, including the Laramie, 

Wind River, and Big Horn mountains, which is so situated with 

reference to transcontinental as well as Great Lakes and Gulf t1~affic 

as to be readily accessible. 

CONCLUSION. 

With a view to increasing the available supply of asbestos, especially the spinning grades, which are so n1uch in demand, all areas 

of peridotite and pyroxenite rocks n1ore or less altered to serpentine 

should be prospected for cross-fiber veins of asbestos in which the 

fibers are three-fourths of an inch or more in length. The content 

of such fiber necessary to yield a profit n1ay be less than 1 per cent 

of the· whole rock quarried, and in obtaining it a much larger percentage of mill fiber will most probably be taken out. 

Although the Arizona 9hrysotile fiber is excellent for certain purposes and finds a ready sale to those ·who need it for electric insula·-

tion, its n1ode of occurrence necessitates expensive operation and 

small production, and it should be 1nined with especial reference to 

avoiding waste and obtaining ::!ll within reach. 

The origin of asbestos, especially that of Arizona, is not well 

understood, and much field investigation is needed to discover the 

causes determining its distribution and the best methods of mining 

so as to utilize as far as possible ·an the available grades of fiber. 

The United States, being the largest manufacturer of asbestos and 

having only a meager domestic supply, has to depend very largely 

upon imported asbestos, but fortunately the chief source, which is 

Canada, is close at hand. Under increased demand the output of 

the United States is likely to be greatly augmented, although it 

Cttn hardly be expected ever to supply all the asbestos needed for 

increasing manufacture. 
TALC AND SOAPSTONE. 

By J. s .. DILLER. 

TALC. 

The commercial deposits of talc are those of the relatively pure 

mineral. The massive rock composed chiefly of talc is considered 

under " Soapstone." 

The United States is by far the largest producer and consumer of 

talc in the world. The softness, absorptive ca.pacity, difficult fusibility and solubility, and electric resistance of talc make it one of the 

most generally useful of all minerals in the arts and industries. Its 

principal military use is in the ground form as an aid to the prevention o£ sore feet in marching under service conditions. For this pur-· 

pose it should be pure. 

Talc sold in. the tn-oclucing States in 1915 and 1916. 

1915 1!)16 

State. · Quantity Quantity ~short Value. ~short Value. 

ons). ons). 

88,214 $864,843 93,236 $961,510 

61,997 406,652 73,-215 501,175 

7,989 56,466 8,222 59,331 

3,036 18,579 8,798 73,622 

2,934 25,971 6,921 111,686 

1,454 21,501 1, 787 41,824 

712 7,185 1,130 13,694 

1. New York .......................................... . 2. Vennont ........................................... . 3. P~m~s~lvania and New Jersey ...................... . 4. Vtrgtnta ............................................ . 5. Georgia and Massachusetts ......................... . 6. North Carolina ..................................... . 7. California and Maryland •............................ 

166,336 1, 401,197 193,3091 1, 762,842 

Grouncl or mamtfact1l'ted talc im1wrtea into the U1~ited States, 19.15 a·nd .l!J1(i. 

[Figures furnished by the United States Department of Commerce.) 

Country. 

1915 

Quantity 

(short 

tons). 

Value. 

1916 

Quantity 

(short 

tons). 

Value. 

~~~~~~fo~lf~~frica: ~: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ........ ~~~- .. ·--~~·-~~~- · · · · · · · · · io· · · · · · · · ·$ii4 

Canada................................................ 4, 797 57,961 5,964 75,029 

England. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . 1 38 

France................................................. 3, 734 19,2.53 3, 570 20,791 

Germany.............................................. . 8 1, 888 ••••••.••..••••••....... nair................................................... 7, 268 104, 403 7, 105 121, 254 

~~~3cti:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::: :::::::::::: M ~~ 

15, 945 186, 5241 16, 6831 218, 180 

55 
56 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

The total don1estic production is nearly twelve times the total 

imports, over one-third of which came frmn Canada. The talc of 

New York is an especially good paper filler and is largely used for 

that purpose, although 1nuch goes into paints. The output of Vermont is used for the same purpose and also for foundry facing, 

rubber goods, and coating walls. A small an1ount is used for crayons. 

Talc for pencils, crayons, burners, and · insula tors con1es almost 

"·holly from North Carolina and Georgia and is cut in Chattanooga. 

The demand £or talc of the highest grade is greater than the supply. 

~Iuch of the material for toilet powders is imported. "'\Vith the exception of compact 1naterial for pencils, burners, and insulators and 

the best grade for toilet powders the United States has a large resen·e in nearly all the producing States. It is believed that by more 

searching field investigations the domestic output even of pencil and 

gas-burner talc as well as the best toilet-powder grades may be 

greatly increased. The "foot-ease" grade of ground talc, now so 

extensively used in .the Army, may be fully supplied in this country. 

Although the war has greatly stimulated production it has not 

greatly increased the price except in emergencies. 

Some good specimens of more or less schistose white talc have been 

sent from Brazil to the United States Department of Commerce. 

The best grade appears to be suitable for making toilet powder and 

is said to come from a locality near Rezende, 75 miles by rail northwest of Rio de Janeiro. 

SOAPSTONE. 

Soapstone is a massive rock so rich in talc as to have a soapy feel. 

It is more extensively quarried and used in the United States than 

in any other country. Its principal use, which is due to its resistance 

to heat, acids, and electric conductivity, is in the n1anufacture of 

laundry tubs, laboratory table tops, tanks, sinks, fun1e hoods, switchboards, and general· insulation. It also has mtil.ny smaller uses growing out of its slow radiation of heat. In 1916 there was a small production of soapstone in California, but almost the entire output of 

the United States came fr01n Virginia, where there were four producing quarries. The total yield, including that of California, was 

19,652 short tons. 

The rock from which the soapstone in Virginia is obtained forms 

a large belt of intrusive rocks extending northeastward through 

Nelson, Albemarle, and Orange counties. This large intrusive mass 

"·ill afford an abundant supply for many years to come. It is near 

several railroads and James River and within easy reach of Chesapeake Bay and therefore has the advantage of adequate facilities 

for transportation. 

The United States has large reserves of soapstone and can, if necessary, greatly increase its output. 
PHOSPHATE ROCK. 

By R. vv. SToNE. 

Prior to 1914 the United States ·was producing annually close to 

3,000,000 tons of phosphate rock, of which over 99 per cent came 

from Florida, Tennessee, and South Carolina. Florida produced 

more than 75 per ce~t of the total output, including the great bulk 

of the material exported, which was OYer 40 per cent of the total. 

'Vith the beginning of the war the facilities for shipping phosphate 

rock to Europe were greatly decreased. ~1any Florida plants were 

shut down, and they have not resumed ·operations. 

The proportion of exports to total production dropped from about 

42 per cent in 1912 and 1913 to 35 per cent· in 1914 and less than 

14 per cent in 1915. In 1915 the total production was only 60 per 

cent of that in 1913. In 1916 the industry was in some areas practically demoralized, but there was n~vertheless a gain over 1915. Th~ 

total output in 1916 was 1,980,000 tons,. valued at $5,897,000. 

Percentage ot z1hOS1Jhate 1·oclu v·roducca, lly States, .19.12-.1916. 

State. H.J12 1101:3 1314 101s I 1016 ·, 

-----------------1---r------------

Florida ....................................................... · 81.0 82.0 78. 0 74. 0 I 76.0 

Tennessee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14. 2 1-1. 5 IS. 0 21. 0 21.0 . South Carolina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 4 3. 5 3. 9 4. 5 2. 7 . 

Other States................................................ . 4 . 2 .1 . 5 .. .3 

---wo.o 100.0 lCO:() lOci:Oi 100.0 

As shown by the table, Tennessee, in spite of decreased production, has produced a larger proportion of the country's output 

since the war began than in time of peace. . It would semn as if 

the Tennessee industry, which has not been bound up so much in 1 

the export trade and which is equipped in part with modern machinery for mining by modern n1ethocls, should develop while the 

European trade is restricted and while the industry in Florida and 

South Carolina is more or less dormant. 

The deposits of phosphate rock in the United States are confined 

very definitely to the southeastern part o£ the country and to the 

57. 
58 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Rocky Mountain· region frmn the latitude of Salt Lake City, Utah, 

to that of Helena, Mont. Although by far the largest deposits are 

in the 'Vestern States, the production from that region is less than 

1 per cent of the whole, owing to the lack of a large n1arket in the 

region at present and to high· freight rates on the crude rock. The 

western rock-phosphate deposits are so extensive that, even if the 

entire world depended on them for its supply of phosphate, they 

would not be exhausted in many generations. 

The Florida phosphate deposits comprise three classes of phosphate-hard rock, land pebble, and river pebble. The hard rock is 

the highest grade, the land pebble is produced in the largest quantity, and the river pebble is not mined at present. The area of hardrock deposits forms a nar.row strip along the western part of the 

Florida Peninsula frmn Suwannee County to Pasco County, a distance of approximately 100 miles. The land-pebble phosphate area 

lies just east of Tampa and is about 30 miles long from north to 

south and 10 miles wide. The sales of Florida phosphate have decreased greatly since 1913. In that year 2,500,000 tons was sold for 

$9,500,000; in 1915 the production was 1,350,000 tons, valued at 

$3,700,000. In 1916 the industry began to recover, and the output 

was over 1,500,000 tons, valued at $4,170,000. 

The South Carolina output consists of land-rock phosphate mined 

in the vicinity of Charleston. River-pebble phosphate occurs in the 

same area but is not mined. Some of the South Carolina output 

has been exported annually. The sales have decreased from 169,000 

tons in 1911 to 53,000 tons in 1916, and the value from $673,000 to 

$211,000. 

The Tennessee deposits of rock phosphate are in the west-central 

part and extreme northeast corner of the State. The latter have not 

been mined. Three types are recognized and lmown by their colors 

as brown, blue, and white rock. The white- rock has not been mined 

recently. The brown rock comes from Maury, Giles, Hickman, 

Lewis, and Sumner counties and is sold under a guaranty of 70 to 80 

per cent tricalciun1 phosphate. The blue rock is mined in Lewis 

and Maury counties and varies considerably in its phosphatic content. The sales of Tennessee phosphate dropped from 483,000 tons, 

valued at $1,823,000, in 1914 to 390,000 tons, valued at $1,328,000, 

in 1915. In 1916 there was a partial recovery, the output being 

nearly 412,000 tons, valued at ·$1,510,000. 

The phosphate deposits of Kentucky lie between Frankfort and 

Lexington, and considerable quantities of rock have been mined near. 

Wallace, but the State has been an insignificant producec of phosphate rock in recent years. 

Phosphate deposits occur more or less interruptedly for. a distance 

of 80 miles in the north-central part of Arkansas, and a small quantity ~s produced at Anderson, Independence County. 
PHOSPHATE llOCK. 59 

Four of the V\Testern States possess vast deposits of high-grade 

rock phosphate, but the western production amounts to only 3,000 

to 5,000 tons a year. In 1916 it was only 1,700 tons. Idaho, Utali; 

and "lVyoming are the producers. Montana is not yet a producer, 

although at Elliston, Garrison, Philipsburg, and Melrose there ar~ 

very extensive deposits easy of access and close to rail transportao~ 

tion. The Sinall local demand for fertilizer and lack of cheap tran~­

portation will for some years retard the development of these western deposits. 

In the southeastern part of Idaho an extensive supply of higl~ .. 

grade phosphate occurs along both sides o£ Blackfoot River, in For~ 

I-Iall Indian Reservation, near Montpelier, and north of Bear Lak~" 

A small quantity is mined in Bear Lake County. 

The Utah deposits are east of Great Salt Lake, in the 'Vasatc~ 

and Uinta ranges, and east of Bear Lake. These deposits are ex:~ 

tensive, but the material is leaner than the general run of IdahQ 

phosphate, averaging nearer 60 per cent than 80 per cent tricalciu~ 

phosphate. 

Western V.Vyoming also is rich in rock phosphate. The deposit~ 

are mostly in the Owl Creek, "\Vind River, Gros Ventre, and Sal6 

River ranges. Some of them are thick beds carrying 80 per cent 

tricalcium phosphate and extending for many miles, and they consti.-

tute a reserve supply that is almost inexhaustible. 

An estimate of the quantity of rock phosphate available in the. 

United States was made in 1915 by the United States Geological Sur~ 

vey and need not be revised to account for that 1nined in the meantime. It is repeated here. 

Esti'm.ated quantity of phosphate rock avctila·ble in the United States.1 

Eastern States: Florida _____________________________________ _ 

Tennessee __________________________________ _ 

South Carolina ____________________ :_ ________ _ 

Kentucky ---------~-------------------------

Arkansas------------------------------------

'Vestern States (1\Iontana, Idaho, Utah, and "T~roLong tons. 

227,000,000 

88,000,000 

9,000,000 

1,000,000 

20,000,000 

345,000,000 

Ining) _________________________________________ 5,367,000,000 

5,712,000,000 

Although the total reserves as shown by this estimate are very 

large, the supply of high-grade rock isp much less and should not be 

considered inexhaustible. Lands remaining in Government owner1 Phalen, W. C., Phosphate rock in 1915: U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1915, 

pt. 2, p. 238, 1916. 
60 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

ship that are known or believed to contain valuable phosphate de.-

posits have bee.n te1nporarily withdrawn £ron1 entry. The outstanding withdrawals are about 2,500,000 acres in the "\Vestern States and 

120,000 acres in Florida. The work o:f surveying the western phos-

})hate lands is still going on. 

Any state1nent as to probable develop1nents in the phosphate industry 'crhen peace is declared is largely conjecture. So long as the war 

continues phosphate rock ca.n not be sent to the large consumer, 

Germany, and high ocean :freight rates greatly restrict and practi--

cally ·stop shipments to other European countries. Furthermore, the 

demand :for st!lphuric acid :for use in making munitions has raised 

the prices o£ acid so high that manufacturers o£ acid phosphate have 

been obliged to curtail production. This has reduced the quantity 

o£ rock phosphate used by manufacturers o£ :fertilizers and increased 

· the quantity o£ rock ground :for direct application to the soil. 

It seems reasonable to believe that at the. end o£ the war European 

nations will want increased quantities o£ phosphate, :for their stores 

o£ :foodstuffs will be low and intensive cultivation of the soil will 

be necessary. The demand will again :fall largely on· the Florida 

and South Carolina deposits, which are close to the seacoast, and 

the phosphate industry in those States may then look :for marked 

improvement. 
GRINDING AND POLISHING MATERIALS. 

By F. J. ICATZ. 

Investigations by the United States Geological Survey show that 

dmnestic resources can adequately supply domestic demands for all 

1naterials used for grinding and polishing except diamond dust and 

bort. The American industries requiring millstones, grindstones, 

pulpstones, oil stones, whetstones, scythestones, corundum, garnet, 

silica, feldspar, diatomaceous earth, and tripoli have long been independent of foreign supplies, and the developed dmnestic sources of 

supply are capable· of greatly increased production. The imports 

of these materials have been small in comparison with domestic production and have very probably been fostered only by a natural 

preference and conservatisrn in favor of articles that had long been 

used before the American supplies came into the market.· This conse.rvatism will be forcibly broken clown in the event of further difficulty of intercourse with Europe, and the domestic· or Canadian 

n~9-terials ·will be satisfactory in quality and ample in quantity to 

~upply all our needs. 

On the other hand, American emery seems to be inferior to and 

unable to supplant the emery fron1 N axos, Greece, imports of which 

have been very largely shut out. Artificial carbide and aluminum 

oxide abrasives can be substituted, but some manufacturers, particularly lens grinders, seem to be reluctant to make a change, probably 

because it would involve changes in technique. Necessity must overcome such reluctance. 

Corundun1 for a number of years has been supplanted by the artificial abrasives. Very recently, however, there has been a small reYival in corundum minjng. In the southern Appalachian and Piedmont provinces and elsewhere there are deposits of natural corunclun1 which are well known and abundant,t and these may be worked 

whenever conditions warrant. It seem's that about 3 to 5 per cent of 

the bauxite produced in the United States has been used in the manufacture of abrasive materials. A heavy increase in the demand for 

metallic aluminum may divert to aluminum extraction the bauxite 

1 See Pratt, J. H., Corundum and its occurrence and Oistribution in the United 

States: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 269, 190G. 

61 
62 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

ores that have been used in the manufacture of artificial abrasives. 

However, bauxite ores of lower grade than those in use are available 

for excess dmnands, and it does not seem proba.ble that the manufacture of artificial almninum oxide abrasives would be inhibited by an 

unusual demand for 1netallic aluminum. If it is, dependence ·will 

have to be placed on natural corundum for a very large proportion 

of the abrasive materials used in the metal trades, and such dependence will undoubtedly involve increased costs and difficulties of 

readjustment. 

No domestic source of satisfactory lump pumice has been exploited 

commercially. Deposits of such material are known in Utah and 

southern California and in the Crater Lake region of Oregon. Probably there are many others in the Western States, but no information 

is at hand concerning the quantity and quality of such materia·!,. 

and doubtless much of it is far from transportation routes~ Fortunately little of the imported pumice is used in the lun1p form. The · 

ground or powdered material is chiefly in demand, and this can be 

satisfactorily and wholly supplied by the pumice dust or so-called 

volcanic ash that is extraordinarily abundant in the central part of 

the United States. This pumice dust has been adequately meeting th~ 

situation created by interference with shipping from Mediterranean 

ports. 

The country remains dependent on foreign sources for diamond 

dust and bort, imports of which in the last three years have been 

about 25 per cent less than the average during the previous three () 

years. 

Up to 1914 the United States had been dependent on Europe, 

chiefly Denmark and France, for its supply of flint pebbles, which 

were used in grinding 1nills and were also crushed and ground for use 

in the body of ceramic i'vares. "Flint" blocks cut to specified dimensions for USe in lining tube n1ills had also been supplied to American 

trade from foreign sources only. Late in 1914 and in 1915 the prices 

of these imported materials advanced in anticipation of difficulty in 

obtaining adequate supplies. This condition stimulated search for 

American flints or flint substitutes and led to suggestions by the 

United States Geological Survey as to possible sources of domestic 

supply.1 Since 1914 domestic substitutes for flint pebbles have been 

introduced, and there is at present every promise of complete independence of European supplies. The pottery industry doeS' not need 

ground flint, inasmuch as pure silica from other sources is equally 

satisiactory and has long been used by American potters. .American 

sources o:f silica, such as clean sands, sandstones, quartzites, and vein 

and pegmatite quartz, are practically unlimited and widely distributed, so that they are readily available in all n1arkets. The pottery 

1 Our mineral reserves : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 599, pp. 38-40, 1914. . . 
GRINDING AND POLISHING MATERIALS. 63 

industry, however, is in need of siliceous pebbles for grinding quartz 

and feldspar in tube mills. Substitutes that contain even small quan~ 

• tities of iron can not be used. This need may be supplied from the 

gravel deposits that are particularly abundant in the Gulf States and 

Arkansas. Gravel c01nposed of flint or chert pebbles has been noted 

in many places, and some of the gravel deposits in Arkansas contain 

abundant novaculite pebbles, which will be. satisfactory substitutes 

for the imported flint pebbles. No effort has been made, however, 

to develop. these deposits, partly because the imports of Danish or 

French pebbles have not yet been short enough or the foreign pebbles 

have not yet increased enough in price to force the development of 

domestic supplies. " 

1.\-Ieta.llurgic plants and cement mills have used a far larger quan~ 

tity of flint pebbles than the pottery industry. The pure silica pebble 

is not required for them, the only essentials being toughness and 

· hardness. For these purposes there are large quantities of suitable 

granite and porphyry pebbles in many localitieS' along the New Eng~ 

land cQast which have not yet been drawn upon. During 1916 approximately 6,000 tons of pebbles were shipped fron1 the coast of 

San Diego County, Cal., to metallurgic. plants and cement mills, 

where they have proved to be entirely satisfactory and have cost far 

less than imported flint pebbles. Some grinding plants are using. 

lumps of hard ore or other rock to supplant either in part or wholly · 

the pebbles formerly used. . Some of the Nevada gold mills are being supplied with artificially rounded blocks of chalcedonized rhyolite. Finally the use of steel and steel alloy balls, instead of pebbles, 

is on the increase. It is thus evident that American cement and 

1netallurgic industries could do entirely without a supply of foreign 

flint pebbles. 

Dimension blocks cut from quartzites in Florida., Tennessee, and 

Iowa have appeared on the market during the last two years and 

seem to 1>e satisfactorily supplanting foreign flint lining. 

GRAPHITE. 

By HENRY G. FEltGUSON. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Nntural graphite n1ay be either crystalline or mnorphous. Crystalline or flake graphite is commonly understood to mean graphite 

in crystals of sufficient size to be visible to the naked eye; m ucb of 

the so-called amorphous graphite shows a crystalline structure under 

the microscope. Crystalline graphite occurs either in veins, as in the 

Ceylon deposits, or as flakes disseminated through the country rock, 

as in many of the deposits in the United, States. 

1\ifost deposits of amorphous graphite are the result of the alteration 

of coal beds by the intrusion of igneous rocks. Amorphous graphite 

s also made artificially by means of the electric furnace. 

The peculiar physical properties of graphite-infusibility, chemical 

inertness, high conductivity, extreme softness, and low specific gravity-fit it for a large number of uses, such as the manufacture of crucibles and other refractory products, lubricants, "lead" pencils, paint, 

oundry facings, as a preparation to loosen boiler scale, as a polish for 

gunpowder, and in various types of electrical work. Of these uses 

the manufacture of crucibles ta,kes by far the greatest share of the 

total output. 

CHYSTALLINE GRAPHITE. 

GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

For most purposes an1orphous graphite, either natural or artificial, 

may be used with ils good effect as the crystalline variety, but for the 

manufacture of crucibles it is essential that the flakes be of sufficient 

size to add to the binding power of the clay with which the graphite 

is mixed. Graphite for crucibles should can·y a considerable proportion of flakes 1 millimeter or more in dirimeter. The great increase in 

the manufacture of brass and crucible steel since the outbreak of the 

NoTE.-Much of the material in this article is derived from the Geological Survey reports on graphite 

by Edson S. Bastin, particularly tho report for 1913 (Mineral Resources, 1913, pt. 2, pp. 181-251, 1914) anCI 

"Geology of the graphite deposits of the United States" (Bull. 679, in preparation). 

127972°-19--5 65 
66 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

war has resulted in a tremendous increase in the demand for crystalline graphite. This demand has been met for the most part by 

largely increased imports, particularly from Ceylon, and only in 

minor part by. expansion of the domestic graphite industry. The 

following table shows the imports and domestic output of crystalline 

graphite for the last six years: 

Crystalline graphite i1nported and produced in the United States, 1911-1916. 

Quantity (short tons). 

1911 1912 I 1913 1914 1915 1916 

Imports: a 

Ceylon .................... Other countries ........... 13,119 

2,384 

16,791 

2;819 

16,996 

2;382 

8, 755 ·2,328 

14,491 

4,504 

24,984 

7,122 

Domestic production .......... i 

15,503 

2,395 

19,610 

1,772 

19,378 

2,532 ' 11,083 

2;610 

18,995 

3,537 

32,106 

5,468 

Total available supp~ .. : 17,898 21,382 . 21,910 13,693 22,532 37,627 

Per cent represented by o- mestfc production ........... : 13.4 8.3 11.6 19.1 15.7 . 14.68 

Value. 

c 

Imports: a ' 

Ceylon .................... $1,132,678 $1~379,587 $1,674, 764 . $962;593 $1,746,153 $6,013,366 

Other countries. ~ ......... 83,124 127,347 160, 7GG . 144,599 . 303,639 920,3G9 

Domestic production ........... 1, 215,002 2.56;.050 

1,506,934 

187,689 . 1, 735,530 254,328 

1,006;292 

285,368 

2,049, 792 

417,273 

6,933, 731 914,748 

Per cent represented by do- : 1:,471-,852.: 1,694,623 : 1,989,858 . 1,291,.660 2,467,065 7,848,479 

mestic production ...•........ · 1,7.5 . 11.1 12.8 22 .. 1 : 1G.9 11.7 

a From records of the Department of Commerce. 

During 1914 and. 1915 the imports from Ceylon were less than 

normal, owing chiefly to the· high freight rates and scarcity of ships. 

The sharp increase, in the value of the Ceylon graphite imported. in 

1916· is due largely to the fact that because of the conditions menioned only the rugher-grade material was imported. 

Domestic flake graphite· of a grade suitable for crucible use has 

increased greatly in prj ce during the last two years. The prices paid 

at the mines for the highest-grade product, in cents a pound, have 

been as follows:. 1911 and 1912, 6 to 7;. 1913, 6. to 8; 1914, 6~. to 8; 

1915, 7 to 10.; 1916,. 10· to· 16." 

Average prices of crystalline graphite: of all grades, including d~st · 

as well as :flake, have: been as follows: . 

Prices of crystalline graphite,. 1911'-1916, in cent's a pound. 

: Ceylon. ·Domestic. · Ceylon. Domestic. 

: ~~g:::·:·:::::~:·::::: 

1913 •••.••.••. -·--

4.3 

4.1 

4.9· 

5 •. 3. 5.3 

5.0 

1914 ..•••.•.•.•••.• _ 4.5 

1915' ••.......•.... 6.4 1916 •••... -....... 12. 0 

5.5 

5.9 

SA 
.GRAPHITE. 67 

DOMESTIC SUPPLIES. 

In the United States crystalline. graphite is mined in Alabama, 

California, Montana, New York, Pennsylvania, and· Texas, and 

deposits are known in Alaska, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 

New Jersey, North Carolina, Vermont, Virginia, and Washington. 

Alabama.-'fhe Alabama mines contribute about half the total 

domestic output. The graphite is found in lenses of graphitic schist, 

which occur in a broad belt stretching southwestward across Clay, 

Coosa, and Chilton counties. Where mined the schist contains an 

average of about 3 or 4 per cent of graphitic carbon. The deposits 

are weathered to depths of 50 to 65 feet, and mining is confined to the 

weathered material. Weathering has lessened the coherence between 

the graphite and other minerals, and consequently the material is 

1nore easily mined and milled than unweathered material. The 

unweathered graphite schist, the "blue rock" of the miners, may 

eventually be worked, but its treatment will probably involve added 

expense and some n1odifications of the present 1nethods of n1illing. 

Should conditions a.rise that would compel the United States to 

depend on its own supplies of graphite, this "blue rock" may become 

a valuable resource. . 

During 1916 seven co1npanies n1ined graphite in Alabama, three 

of which were new producers; several 1nore companies have begun 

operations since January 1, 1917, and others are planning to sta.rt in 

the near future. Mining and milling methods have been much 

improved in recent years, and costs have been so far reduced that it 

will be possible for the more efficiently managed c01npanies to continue in operation even under peace conditions. Recent articles by 

Prouty 1 give interesting descriptions of the Alabama deposits. 

New Yorlc.-Nearly all the New York deposits of graphite that 

have been worked are in the eastern and southeastern Adirondack 

region, in Essex, Warren, and Saratoga counties and the northern 

part of Washington County. West of the Adirondacks so1ne pros .. 

pecting and development work has been done in St. Lawrence County. 

The graphite occurs as disse1ninated flakes in metamorphic rocks, 

crystalline limestone, schist, and gneiss, and the graphite content of 

the material mined averages rather higher than in the Alabama 

deposits. The deep zone of soft weathered rock which favors cheap 

mining of the Alaban1a deposits is, however, lacking in this northern 

region. Near Ticonderoga graphite also occurs in stnall veins. 

Pcnnsylvania.-Chester County hns for many years been the center 

of the graphite industry of Pennsylvania and within the last 10 years 

1 Prouty, W. F., Flake graphite in Alalxnna; its location, its history, and its value to the State: Birming. 

ham Age-Herald, Jan. 28, 1917; Extent and development of flake graphitcr esources of Alabama: ManU· 

facturers' Record, Apr. 19, 1917, pp. GG-67. 
68 OUR. 1\HNERA.L SUPPLIES. 

has been the sole productive district in the State. The rocks mined 

for graphite are graphitic quartz-mica schists and 1ninor amounts of 

.graphitic limestone. The graphite deposits of Pennsylvap.ia have 

been described in a special report by Miller.1 This report may be 

·procured by addressing Richard R. Rice, State geologist, Beaver, Pa., 

and to it the reader· is referred for fuller details. 

Texas.-The graphite deposits of Texas are similar to those of 

Alabama and occur in the vicinity of Burnet and Llano, in the central part of the State. The year 1916 marks the beginning of the 

Texas production. 

Oalifornia.-Deposits of graphitic schist have been mined in southern California, in Los Angeles and San Diego counties. These deposits resemble the characteristic deposits of New York, Pennsylvania~ and Alabama in that the gr~phite occurs as flakes disseminated through a schist. The flakes in the California schists, however, 

are much smaller than those in the eastern deposits, most of them 

not exceeding 0.25 millimeter in diameter, and therefore the material 

is not adapted for use in the manufacture of crucibles. On the other 

hand, the percentage of graphite in the California deposits appears 

to be nearly twice that of n1ost of the eastern deposits of similar type. 2 

Montana.-A deposit of crystalline graphite is being mined near 

Dillon, ~.!ont., and is of particular interest because the graphite occurs 

in veins, like that of the Ceylon deposits. One mine has reached the 

producing stage and has made shipments to the eastern markets. 

Nonproductive areas.--Extensive deposits of graphite-bearing schists 

occur in Alaska on both the northern and southern slopes of the 

Kigluaik Mountains, in the southern part of Seward Peninsula. Two 

companies are developing these deposits but have not yet produced 

commercial quantities. 

Some development work ha.s been done recently on graphite properties on the eastern slope of the Cascade Range in Chelan County, 

Wash. 

Graphite occurs in many places in the crystalline rocks of the 

Atlantic States but except inN ew York, Pennsylvania, and Alabama 

has not been mined successfully. It is present at several localities 

in Maine, 3 and in 1905 an unsuccessful attempt was made to mine it 

near Madrid, in Franklin County. Graphite also occurs in the crys~ 

talline rocks at many. places in Vermont and New Hampshire but 

has never been successfully mined. In Massachusetts a graphite 

deposit near Sturbridge, not far from the.Connecticut boundary, wasworked as early as 1.658, and the mine is therefore one of the oldest 

1 Miller, B. L., Graphite deposits of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Top. and Gcol. Survey Comm. Rcpt. 

6, Hl12. . 

2 U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources 1915, pt. 2, p. 87, 1916. 

a Smith, G. 0., Graphite in Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 285,pp. 48G--483, 1906. 
GRAPHITE. 69 

·in the United States. Little work has been done here in recent years, 

·however. 

Graphite is found in disseminated flakes in the crystalline rocks of 

the highlands of northern New Jersey at a number of localities. 

·several attempts to mine and concentrate the material have been 

made in the past but have riot proved successful, and the State is not 

now a graphite producer. 

Although graphite is not now produced in Virginia it occurs at a 

number of .localities in the Piedmont region, east of the Blue Ridge. 

Some development work was done in 1915 in the northern part of 

'Albemarle County. 

Graphite has been found at many places within the area of- crys-

. talline rocks in the central and western parts of North Carolina. 

The principal graphite deposits of this State have been briefly described by Pratt/ and copies of his report ma.y be obtained from the 

State geologist, Chapel I-Iill, N. C. 

PROSPECTS OF INCREASING THE DOl\IESTIC OUTPUT. 

From the short descriptions given above it will be seen that the 

United States possesses a considerable reserve of crystalline graphite, 

for the most part suitable for crucible manufacture. At the ordinary 

·price of graphite, however, it is possible to mine only the most favorably situated deposits. Cheap labor and large and easily mined 

deposits 1nake n1ining costs in Ceylon much lower than in America 

and offset the freight charges. 

The graphitic schists fron1 which An1erican flake graphite is derived 

require crushing and concentration. The developing of milling methods especially adapted to the treat1nent of graphite has not yet 

reached any degree of standardization, and the quantity saved is 

rarely over 60 per cent of the graphite content of the ore. Recenc 

· i1nportant developments have been the adttptation of electrostatit 

separation to graphite concentration and the use of oil flotation. 

Each improvement in graphite treatment results in a larger proportion of clean concentrates of the best grades. Continued improven1ent in methods of treatment will probably result in a better situation for American flake graphite after the war. Many tnanufacturers 

who before t.he war used imported graphite exclusively have perforce 

turned to the American product and, finding the graphite of the 

better grades suitable for their purposes, have used it mixed with 

Ceylon graphite, and they will continue to use it unless Ceylon graphite of good grade can be put on the market at greatly reduced prices. 

It can not be expected, however, that the present prices of flake 

graphite will continue after the war, for there will be no longer the 

1 Pratt, J. H., 'rhe mining industry in North Carolina during 1901: North Carolina Gcol. Survey Econ. 

Paper 6, pp. 69-72, 1902. 
70 OUR. MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

tren1endous demand for graphite as an adjunct to munition rnanufacture, and graphite from Ceylon and other foreign countries will 

again enter the market under normal conditions. Those contemplating the development of graphite deposits ~hould estimate the 

probable costs very carefully and be sure that the deposit is one that 

shows good promise of being profitably ruined at nonnal prices. 

AMORPHOUS GRAPHITE. 

An1orphous graphite is suitable for all purposes for which graphite 

is used except the manufacture of crucibles. As it does not enter to 

any large degree into the manufacture of munitions, the war has not 

greatly affected either price or production. Moreover, artificial graphite and crystalline graphite in particles too srnall for crucible manufacture are adapted to practically all uses to which natural amorphous 

graphite can be put, and the reserves of arnorphous graphite are 

therefore less important. The uses of amorphous graphite vary 

greatly with the purity of the ~ubstance mined. For paint and foundry facings a high degree of purity is not essential, but for lubricants, 

pencils, and electric purposes high-grade material is necessary. The 

better grades of amorphous graphite are imported from Mexico and 

Chosen, and the imports, like those of crystalline graphite, greatly 

exceed the d01nestic output. The sharp decrease in importation in 

1915 shown in the following table was clue chiefly to the disturbed 

conditions in Mexico, but also to decreased imports fron1 Chosen 

owing to high freight rates and scarcity of ships. 

Amorphous graphite imported and produced in the United States, 1911-1916. 

Quantity (short tons). 

1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 

------------1·------------------ Imports................................... 5, 199 6, 031 9, 501 10,917 41 080 10, 837 

Domestic production...................... 1, 223 2, 063 2, 243 1, 725 1, 181 2, 622 

Per cent represented by domestic producTotal available supply ............ ~. ----o,422 ----s;Q94 ~ . 12, 64215;2611. 13,458 

tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19. o 25. 6 19. 1 13. 6 21. 9 19. 5 

Value. 

Imports .••................................ $279,927 $202,403 $270,217 $290,9691 $111', 286 $345,732 

Domestic production ...•.................. 32,415 32,894 39,428 38, 750 12,358 20, 7?.3 

Total. ............................... 312,342 235,297 309,645 329, 7191123,64< 366,455 

Per cent represented by domestic produc- tion ..................................... 10.4 14.0 12.7 .11.8 10.0 5. 7 

ARTIFICIAL GRAPHITE. 

Graphite in large quantities is manufactured at Niagara Falls, N.Y., 

by the International Acheson Graphite Co., which utilizes electric 

power generated at the Falls. The bulk graphite produced by this 
GRAPHITE. 71 

con1pany in 1915 wa.s reported as 2,542 short tons, and in 1916 as 

4,199 tons. This represents only the graphite that would come into 

competition with natural graphite and does not include graphitized 

products that do not compete with natural graphite. The material, 

most of which is made either from antlu·acite or from petroleum coke, 

con1es from the furna.ce in an earthy, incoherent condition and is 

utilized mainly in lubricants and paints and for .foundry facings, 

boiler-scale preventivea, and battery fillers. 

Besides the graphite products that enter into competition with 

natural gra.phite, there are a large number of graphite products for 

which artificial graphite is especially adapted. Chief among these are 

gra.phite electrodes, the demand for which has greatly increased 

during the last two years on account of the remarkable growth in 

certain electrochemical industries. The extent of this growth is 

indicated by the sta.tement 1 that during 1915 the number of electric 

steel furnaces in operation in this country increased 78 per cent. 

POSSIBLE INCREASE OF SUPPLY. 

The domesdc production of amorphous grt~Jphite is of minor importance both in amount and grade compared to the imports, and an expansion of the artificial graphite industry could supply any demand for 

this material. An increase in the production of crystalline graphite, 

hmvever, is very important. This n1ay be accomplished by bringing 

new areas into active production and by increasing the efficiency of 

1nilling operations. Increased efficiency would in turn make it 

profitable to mine deposits now considered unworkable. At present 

in Alabama, where the deposits are cheaply mined, material containing 3 per cent of graphite by weight is the poorest that can be successfully mined. The· problem of concentrating the lightest material 

in an ore, rather than the heaviest, is one that demands further 

intensive study. Many of the graphite deposits of the present non· 

productive areas might be mined if processes of treatment could be 

in1proved, and further study of these deposits would determine which 

district shows the best promise of future development. Prospecting 

is proceeding vigorously but is largely confined to areas in the neigh· 

borhood of tho present productive mines. 

11ron Age, Jan. 6, 1916, p. 95. 

COAL. 

By c. E. LESHER. 

PRESENT CONDITIONS. 

It is perhaps difficult for n1any to understand why, in view of the 

facts that nearly 600,000,000 tons. of coal was mined and used last 

yea.r and an unlimited supply is yet unmined, there should have 

been any trouble in getting fuel in the winter of 1916-17, or to 

believe that there may be trouble again next winter. A public fully 

informed on this 1natter and ready to cooperate in preventive meas~ 

nres will be the best 1neans of averting serious conditions later. 

Those who haYe been keeping in touch ·with conditions in the 

bituminous~coal industry foresaw and forecast the recent great 

increase in prices 1nonths alwad, but no one "·as so bold a year ago 

as to predict that in the near future prices would reach and stay at 

so high a level. These high prices, in conjunCtion with a serious 

dloDtage of coal at consuming centers, turned the thoughts of users 

throughout the United States to the subject of fuel and furnished a 

motive for many investigations, Federal, State, and municipal. 

\Vhat has happened to the coal industry since the European war 

began is intimately and intricately tied up with the extraordinary 

things that have happened to all n1achinery of domestic production, 

including labor and transportation, and all these things are in one 

way or another related to the great war. The consumer in the United 

States has not had to confront the cutting off of imports of coal, for 

this country, above all, is self~containecl in its coal supply and imports 

but trivial amounts. The warring nations in Europe have not called 

for coal as they have for foodstuffs and metal products, and coal 

exports to neutral countries-for instance, to South America-al~ 

though increasing somewhat, haYe fallen far below expectations in 

1914. Exports of bituminous coal were but 1,100,000 net tons greater 

in 1916 than in 1913, an increase of 5 per cent, and the total exports 

represented only 4 per cent of the production in 1916. 

WHERE THE COAL GOES. 

Any attempt to review the conditions that haYe resulted in so large 

an increase in output and at the same time such hjgh prices must take 

73 
74 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

account first of the larger uses for which bituminous coal is miEed. 

The· United States Geological Survey has shown that the railroads 

in 1915 used 122,000;000 tons of bituminous coal and 6,000,000 tons 

of anthracite, or 24 per cent of the combined total production; the 

coke ovens required nearly 62,000,000 tons of bituminous coal; and 

n1anufacturing and power plants burned approximately 180,000,000 

tons of bituminous coal and anthracite, or about 28 per cent of the 

output. The stimulation of any of these industries at any time increases the demand for coal; intense activity in transportation, iron 

business, and general manufacturing, such as began in 1915 and continues to-day, inevitably results in great activity in the coal market. 

A direct measure of this activity is afforded by the figures indicating 

production. The output of bituminous coal in the United States in 

1914 was 422,000,000 tons. In 1915 it was 442,000,000 tons, an increase of 20,000,000 tons, and the output in 1916 is estimated at 

509,000,000 tons, or 67,000,000 tons more than in 1915. This increase 

has been largely taken by the railroads, the coke ovens, and the manufacturing plants. The production of anthracite, about 88,000,000 

net tons in 1916, has not varied greatly in recent years. 

The quantity of coal for locomotive fuel re<:fuired to InoYe this 

additional output to market was in itself, of _course, no inconsiderable item, and the extraordinary movement of other heavy freight 

to both seaboards in 1915 and 1916 called for a larger amount of 

engine fuel than was ever before needed. The quantity used by locomotives in 1916 exceeded that used in 1915 by 13,200,000 tons of bitu-. 

minous coal and 400,000 tons of anthracite, an inci·ease of 10 per cent. 

The activity of the iron and steel business in 1915 and 1916, due 

largely to the over-sea demand for our products, stimulated coke 

production, and in 1916 the output of coke broke all records. 

To produce a ton of pig iron from the ore requires an almost equal 

'Yeight of coke, or about 1! tons of coal, and to convert the pig iron 

to steel and then to fabricate the steel into the :fonn in which the 

greater part of it is exported requires still more fuel. The quantity 

of bituminous coal mined in 1916 for export dir:eetly as coal and coke 

and indirectly as iron and steel products was around 40,000,000 net 

tons. From this it is seen that the increase in output of bituminous 

coal has been in large measure due to the stimulus of foreign war· 

markets for the products of the United States. 

NO STORAGE AT THE SOFT COAL MINES. 

The producers of Pennsylvania anthracite are able to equalize 

production somewhat throughout periods of unequal demand by 

storing a part of their coal; except at the head of the Great Lakes 

the producers of bituminous coal have no storage facilities. Bituminous coal n1ust. therefore be .marketed as soon as it· is 1nined, and it 
COAL. 75 

is mined only as there is demand for it and as facilities are available 

for transporting it to mnrket. The need or demand, then, sets a 

practical limit on production. For instance, in the summer the consumers of bituminous coal have minimum requirements and times are 

dull about the mines. In winter their requirements for fuel reach a 

ma.ximum, the railroads, industrial plants, and public utilities all 

contributing to incre·ase the load on the producers. 

SCARCITY OF MEN AND CARS CAUSES SHORTAGE OF COAL. 

That the shortage o£ coal in the winter o£ 1916-17 was not due to 

lack of coal in the ground nor to scarcity of mines, but to shortage of 

labor and insufficient transportation facilities has previously been 

pointed out by the Geological Survey. , 

The capacity of the equipped and developed bituminous coal mines 

in the United States is sufficient to furnish more coal than has ever 

been demanded and the opening and improvement of new 1nines is 

more than keeping pace with the needs of the counti.·y. To mine the 

coal requires an industrial army (734,000 men in 1915) and a shortage of labor involves an immediate reduction in the output of coal. 

The greater part of the coal (and beehive coke) produced must be 

transported considerable distances to reach the consumers. Any 

failure of the railroads to supply sufficient ca.rs to the mines for loading or to move the loads promptly to their destination checks th~ 

production and consumption of coal. 

The shortage of labor and the lack of adequate railroad service 

are recognized as prime causes of the coal shortage, and the reasons 

for these difficulties are now pretty well understood. Decreased 

immigration, exodus of foreign-born labor, and rapid expansion of 

the manufacturing industries that supply all manner of products 

for home consumption as well as to the warring nations, which 

called for greater numbers of all classes of skilled' and unskilled 

laborers and offered them high wages, were factors that if not 

actually reducing the number of men employed in mining coal and 

in railroading certainly prevented such increases in the number 

o£ workers as the grea.ter demands of these industries required~ 

The lack of men has perhaps affected the production of anthracite 

more than the shortage of cars, but the opposite is true of bituminous. 

coal. 

The railroads failed to deliver the service asked of them in the fall 

and winter of 1916. Their failure in this period and to a less extent 

earlier in the year, a.s well as in the fall of 1915, has been a matter 

of grave concern to the country. The circumstances and conditions. 

that in combination almost paralyzed rail transportation were many, 

varied, and complex; the events are still too recent to warrant conclusions as to the responsibility. liad the supply of cars been un-
76 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

limited, there ·would have been a shortage of locomotives; had the 

:railroads been able to furnish and move all the cars for which there 

·was an apparent demand, yardsy switches, and even n1ain-line tracks 

would have becmne congested. In other words, the railroads were not 

prepared to handle the unprecedented quantity of freight the industries were offering. 

There is 1nore to the transportation problem than Inoving freight · 

from origin to destination with dispatch. Shipper and receiver of 

goods both play important parts. When shippers were sending ~ 

trainloads of goods to the seaboard with no prospect of ships to receive them, when n1annfacturers were receiving carloads of coal for 

which they had no storage rooni, and when dealers, jobbers, and 

speculators were using cars :for warehouses, they ·were contributing 

to the general confusion and helping to accentuate the shortage of 

cars. 

SHORTAGE NEXT ¥liNTER FEARED. 

Nothing is more certain than that the country will, next winter, 

witness a shortage of coal perha.ps more serious than in the winter 

just passed unless unusual efforts are made between now and next 

fall to prevent it. This is the opinion of the G~ological Survey, 

shared by other competent observers. The entrance of the United 

States into the war has keyed all industries to a still higher pitch ancl 

has put this country on her mettle to outdo the remarkable record of 

the last 18 months in the production of the implements and acces-

. sories of war and in the export of goods and foodstuffs to Europe .. 

The need of coal and coke to run the manufacturing plants and iron 

furnaces will be no less in the next 12 months than in the last, and 

probably will be even greater. The greatly increased activities of 

our naval forces means larger coal consumption, and the demands on 

the railroads for the transportation of troops and supplies will also 

increase the use of coal for railroad fuel. 

The mines that Inust meet this extra demand for coal will have, 

fewer men, for some will join the military and naval forces or go to 

other industries for higher wages. The railroads that move the. 

coal from n1ine to consumer will have fewer men and but .few additional cars and locomotives. The shortage of coal last winter was 

serious, even though the operators, spu.rred on by high prices, were 

putting forth every effort to meet the demand. The combined efforts 

of the Interstate Commerce Commission and the railroad managers 

did not suffice to relieve the car shortage, and· at times they found 

it necessary to clear the tracks and give coal the· right of way to. 

keep such cities as Chicago from a fuel famine. 

vVith the price of coal at a higher level than ever before, the· 

coal-mine operator may be counted on to do his utmost to meet the: 
COAL. -77 

· demand, but he ca.n do only as 1nuch as the 1nen at his command 

can do for him. On the days when no railroad cars are pushed under 

his tipple his mine must be idle, for he has no way to store -coal; 

once mined. With th.e experience of the last six or seven months 

behind them, the officials of the railroads·. are fully alive to the situation and will be better able, next winter, to handle the problem 

:of getting the empties to the 1nines and the loads to market, but 

with no great increase in equipment and motive power, possibly 

·with fewer men, and certainly with more freight to handle, there is 

little hope that they can effect sufficient improvement in distribution 

. to prevent congestion dnri11g the coming winter. 

APPEAL TO THE CONSUMERS OF COAL. 

The consumers of coal are those who suffer most when there is a 

shortage of fuel and prices mount to high levels. The producing 

and transporting ends of the business are ready and willing to do 

their utmost to help and yet are unable to accomplish all that is 

necessary; it is the duty of the consumer to lend his. aid. The 

demand for coal is seasonal-greatest in the. winter and least in the 

summer. It has repeatedly been shown that if some way were 

devised to equalize this demand, the difficulties in furnishing coal 

would be reduced to a minimum. Had the comparatiYely few .million 

tons of coal the unsatisfied den1and for which caused panic prices 

last winter been ordered during the preceding sunm1er the n1ines 

could have produced it and the railroads moved it without difficulty, 

and much of the trouble would have been averted. The remedy is 

simple and well known to all fa.miliar with the industry-coal1nust 

be stored in the sum1ner in excess of summer requirements and at 

the point of consumption. 

The largest individual consumers of coal are the railroads and the 

industrial plants. Many of these consumers have learned the necessity of storing coal and realize that in the end the cost is more than 

repaid. Some of the railroads have had at different times several 

hundred thousand tons of bituminous coal in stock piles along their 

·routes, and the Pennsylvania System is reported to have had at 

times a reserve of a 1nillion tons or n1ore. The railroads used up 

nearly all their stored coal last winter, but they are already beginning again to accumulate a stock. By the time snow flies, millions 

of t<?ns of soft coal will be in their storage piles. 

Many of the manufacturing plants and other industrial works 

have storage facil~ties, but in general ~hese plants, particularly the 

smaller ones, have no storage space or means of taking care of any 

but current fuel requirements. They have not in the past prepared 

to stole coal, because they were under no necessity for doing so, but 
78 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

it is evident that they should prepare now. Should one-half of the 

larger users of steam and gas coal-that is, the industrial and publicutility companies-uni:forn1ly throughout the country have on hand 

by November 1 a three months' supply of coal, a big load will be taken 

off the railroads next winter and the coal situation will be less strenuous. It is physically impossible !or many concerns to store any such 

quantity of coal on their premises, but every consumer should do his 

utmost. 

S1nall consumers, mainly households, hotels, and schools, use an· \' 

nually about 100,000,000 tons of bituminous coal and anthracite, a 

large part of which is distributed by the city and town retail dealers. 

Every·extra ton these dealers store this summer will help relieve the 

tension next winter; every ton the householder puts in his cellar 

before October will help the country. The proof of this statement is 

found in the experience of the Pennsylvania anthracite operators, 

who since 1902 have offered reductions in price on the domestic sizes 

during the summer and have thus encouraged and educated the 

. householder and others to store all or part of their winter's supply of 

:fuel. The result has been that the shipments of anthracite from the 

mines in the summer are nearly as great as in the winter. 

No one should hesitate to store coal now in the belief that the 

price will fall next winter. It is the present disposition of the sellers 

of soft coal to contract or otherwise obligate themselves to deliver 

no more than half of their expected output in the next 12 months, 

whereas in the year just closed their contracts covered more than 

three-fourths of their expected output. The operators have taken 

this stand partly because of the uncertainty as to the quantity they 

will be able to deliver, but doubtless largely because they expect the 

market prices of coal to be high and they wish to have sufficient tonnage free so that they can share in these high prices. Because of 

the falling off in demand, the wholesale price of bituminous coai 

usually drops in the summer, but if the consumers buy larger quantities than ordinarily for storage, prices will not drop as much as 

usual during the summer, and with the winter demand lessened to 

the extent to which surplus coal was stored in the summer the· price 

next winter will not rise to so high a level. In other words, production and prices will be somewhat equalized. 

The larger anthracite operators have recently offered the usual 

April reduction of 50 cents a ton on the prepared sizes, and a reduction of 10 cents less each month until the fall and winter price is 

reached in September. 

All users of coal should take full advantage of the summer prices. 

It will pay them to store coal now, whether they use bituminous or 

anthracite. 
COAL. 79 

Unifonn working time at the mines and unifonn pr:ces for coal 

throughout the year represent the millenium toward which the coalmine operator, the shipper, and the responsible retail dealer have 

been looking. It is confidently expected that those engaged in the 

coal trade will give every aid and assistance to their customers and 

to the country in general in endeavoring to avert next winter a repetition of the coal shortag~ just experienced. The producer of coal 

will evidently profit 1nore if he ships steadily throughout the summer than if the price later reaches unheard-of figures and he can 

not get his product to market. 

The appeal to the consumer that he buy and store coal against the 

needs of next winter, and thereby personally save trouble and expense, may appear a strange call to patriotic d11ty, but when every 

consumer of coal realizes that every car of coal unloaded this summer for use next winter will release a car £or other important and, 

perhaps, imperative needs at a. time when the need is greatest, there 

will be no question of the wisdom of the call. 

POTASH. 

By HoYT S. GALE. 

The greater part of the potash consun1ed in this country is used 

as fertilizer. Of the elements essential to plant growth potassium is. 

one of the three or four that ordinarily become deficient or exhausted 

in cultivated soils. Its use under proper conditions has a stimulating effect on plant growth, and for. certain crops a special applica-

. tion of it has come to be regarded as almost essential, as is illustrated by the present demand, even at abnormally high prices, for 

potash for agricultural use. Much of the present small output in 

this country is being used in fertilizers, and the need of potash for 

particular crops is indicated by the fact that the scarcity and den1and 

·in the United States have not prevented considerable shipments of 

our o'vn product to Cuba for agricultural use, presumably for tobacco. 

The need of potash in certain industries is aeute. It is essential 

in the manufacture of the best liquid soap and some higher-grade 

cake soaps and of son1e finer gra.des of glass. It is absolutely necessary in the n1anufacture of certain explosives, although the great 

bulk of modern explosives are made without potash. Potash now 

.enters largely into the manufacture of matches. The several potash 

.salts find many particular uses in industries so varie-d as tanning, 

dyeing, metallurgy, electr.oplating, and photography. They are 

also used in medicine and for miscellaneous chemical purposes. On 

the whole, the chemical requirements, though minor as regards actual 

quantities consumed, are the most urgent of the demands for potash 

and in case of an abnormal restriction of the supply are the first to 

~be provided for. 

The output of potash salts and potash products in the United 

States during 1916 has been reported to the an1ount of 35,739 short 

tons, having a mean potash content of about 27 per cent K20 and a 

total potash content of 9, 720 short tons· of K20. This is almost 

exactly 10 times the production reported for 1915, although it is still 

perhaps less than 5 per cent of the normal potash consumption. In 

1913 the only potash known to have been pro.duced within this 

country was made from wood ashes. 

' 127972°-19-6 81 
82 OUR. MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Practically all the possibilities predicted in the many recent publications of the United States Geological Survey discussing potash 

sources found some fulfillment in the production. of 1916. The 

almost entire stoppage of supplies from nbroad and the meager stocks 

on hand with which to meet the requirements have at times carried 

the price of potash from a normal figure of 50 to 75 cents to $5 or $6 

a unit (1 per cent of potash per ton of material). 

The forms in which potash has been produced and n1arketed are so 

diverse that it is difficult to n1ake a su1nmation of actual tonnage that 

will have any real significance. Therefore the tonnage reports of 

all forms have been reduced to ter1ns of available or water-soluble 

potash (K20) contained in the product, which is the standard conlmercial unit by which the potash value of these materials is usually 

expressed. 

Summary of potash production in 1916. 

Source. I 

Available . Value at potash point of 

(K20) shipment. (short tons). 

3, !l94 $1, 937, 600 

1, 850 715,000 

I, 556 781,100 

412 270,000 

1, 845 500,900 63 38,130 

Natural salts or brines ......................................................... . Alunite and silicate rocks, including recoveries through furnace dust ........... . Kelp ........................................................................... . Wood ashes (potasbes, pcarlash) ............................................... . Distillery waste (molasses) ..................................................... . Miscellaneous organic sources ................................................... . 

9, 720 1 4, 242, 730 

The foregoing list does not include many fertilizer n1aterials pre~ 

viously on the market, such as cottonseed meal and tobacco stems, 

some of which are largely or chiefly valued for their potash content 

and whose price has accordingly risen in the present market. These 

materials, being by-products of other industries; are not produced 

primarily because of their content of potash. The total given therefore represents the marketed production of potash salts and products 

manufactured especially or chiefly for their potash value. 

The largest output of potash has come from the alkali lakes in 

western Nebraska, which have afforded the most readily available 

supply of 1noderately high grade potash salts, obtained by direct 

drying of the raw material with perhaps as few technical complications as could be involved in any chemical operation. The great 

deposit at Searles Lake, Cal., is only just being brought to the producing stage, the enterprise having suffered many reverses, technical 

and otherwise. The production of potash from alunite has been 

fairly regular, without much expansion. Some progress has been 

made in extracting potash from silicate rocks,· at le~st, one plant 

having successfully produced glassmaker's potassium carffonate fro1n 

greensand. Some feldspar has been mined, ground, and so treated 

that a small percentage of its potash was rendered soluble and thus 
POi' ASH. .83 

available for use in fertilizers, but no ·account ·of this material is included in the figures for 19H>, .as 'little of it was 'lnarketed within that 

y~ar. So far as has been ascertained none of ~the leucite, mica schist, 

se:dcite schist, or similar rocks high in potash have yet yielded any 

commercial quantity of water-soluble salts. · 

The production ·of potash from. organic materials has be€n at-

.tempted in various forms.. Much publicity has been given to the 

efforts to obtain potash,and potash fertilizers fro1n kelp, and :a great 

de·al of develol_)mtmt work .hf:ls been done in that ~onnection. The 

manufacture of high,grade potash fertilizer salts frmn molasses distillery waste has also been developed and bids fair to be a -permanent 

industry; in 1916 the output ·so obtained -exceeded the produc-tion 

from k~lp. The manufacture of potash from wood ashes by the oldthne methods continues with a small but significant contribution .to 

the total tonnage. 

It must be recognized that much if not most of the present pro·duetion of pot:ash is maintained on ,the basis of war prices, and .there is no 

doubt that a large part of it can not he continued after these prices 

drop~ Some of the developments have promise of ]_)(lrmanence, but 

unfortunately these are as yet on a small scale. The only exception, 

perhaps, is the Searles Lake -project, which now bids fair to yield 

enough potash to take the .edge off the market by supplying the absolute necessities for home consumption in the chemical industries, but 

this project is as yet hardly under way. So far as can now be predicted there is no domestio source .adequate to supply more than a 

small percentage of the domesti~ .consumption. This statement does 

not by any means preclude all hope of future success. 

The activity of private initiative in the search for .sources of potash is increas.ing. .Some very wide fields in t.he possibility of recovering potash as a by-product-for example, from. cement-m.ill and 

blast-furnace flue dusts-are now being opened. Although the 

prospects seem bright for some of these attempts, it can not be said 

that knowledge has proceeded far enough to insure success on tho 

extensive scale needed to make the country independent of foreign 

supplies. Perhaps, too, the real hope for a solution of the problem 

lies in the possibility of discovering, in association with some of the 

very extensive and little-known domestic deposits of rock salt, a 

supply of potash that may compete with the foreign sources on equal 

terms. Valuable potash deposits exist in the Permian in central 

Germany, the Oligocene (Tertiary) in Alsace, the lower Miocene 

(Tertiary) in Galicia, the supposed Eocene or Oligocene (Tertiary) 

in northeastern Spain, and beds of undetermined geologic age in 

India-everywhere in conjunction with deposits of common salt, 

dolomite, ap.d gypsum-and it would be strange if occurrences of 

this sort were confined entirely to the salt deposits of Europe and 

Asia. 
84 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Governmental agencies have served and are still serving a useful 

purpose in aiding development. They have led the search for possible sources of raw materials of all kinds. By publicity they have 

stimulated a healthy interest which has undoubtedly led to good 

results. 

As is well known, practically all the potash normally used in this 

country has formerly come from Germany. In addition to the potash materials used as ingredients of fertilizers, such as kainite and 

1nanure salts, almost the entire supply of the basic salts potassium 

r.hloride (muriate) and potassium sulphate was received direct from 

German ports until 1914, a small amount finding its way through 

Belgium and the Netherlands. In 1914 this importation was greatly 

reduced, and at the end of January, 1915, it was practically ended 

by the promulgation of an embargo on the export of potash from 

Germany. The large imports from Germany during 1915 were 

doubtless composed of shipments· made during January, before the 

embargo went into effect, and of cargoes gathered up on the way or 

taken from storage in other parts of the world. ·Odd lots of potash 

came late in 1915 from many sources in Europe, North and South 

America, and even from Asia and Mrica. The same condition prevailed in 1916, except.that the imports from Germany were ml.tirely 

shut off, and odd lots seem to have been derived .from still more 

remote sources. · 

The present situation of this country concerning potash, with a 

view to possible emergency requirements, though not oiuinous, 

requires most careful consideration. It n1ay be assumed that the 

stocks of high-grade salts of German origin remaining in the United 

States and, indeed, throughout the world except in the central allied 

countries are now practically exhausted. The actualdomestic production of high-grade salts, moreover, is still very small and is limited 

to a very few sources, and the difficulties in the way of refining the 

large bulk of low-grade potash materials would probably be great. 
BAUXITE AND ALUMINUM. 

By JAMES M:. HILL. 

USES. 

Bauxite, the ore of the widely useful metal aluminum, has also 

an in1portant use in the manufacture of artificial abrasives, which are 

of wide application in all metal industries, at present particularly 

in the :finishing of guns, cartridge cases, and motor parts. Bauxite 

is also the basis of an extensive chemical industry, being the crude 

material from which alum, ahuninum sulphate, and several other 

chemicals used particularly in water purification, dyeing, and tanning 

are made. Owing to the gTeatly enhanced price of aluminum 

slliphate, several municipal and industrial waterworks have recently 

installed small plants to make it for use in purifying their water 

supplies. A use for bauxite that is expanding at a rapid rate is in the 

· n1anufacture of bauxite brick, more properly called, according to 

the United States Geological Sm·vey, high-alumina refractories. 

For fmnace linings, these refractories are reported to be replacing 

· the more expensive magnesite and other refractory materials. 

Tho uses of aluminum are myriad, but P~s some are more essential 

than others, it is likely that the minor articles formerly made from 

alunlinum will for the present be made in smaller quantity, because 

the available supply of aluminum will probably be diverted to more 

urgen. t uses. 

PRODUCTION. 

In statistics for years prior to 1916 published by the United 

States Geological Survey the output of ~luminum abrasives has been 

included with that of other artificial abrasives and can not now be 

separated, but the domestic production in 1916 amounted to 30,708 

short tons, having a value of $2,139,230. The following table shows 

the steady growth of the industries that consume the greater part 

of the crude bauxite produced in the United States. No figures are 

available concerning the quantity of high-alununa refractories 

manufactured. 

85 
86 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Bauxite p1'oducts in the United States, 1905-1916. 

Aluminum salts produced. 

Unmanu- Imports. a 

factmed Alum. Aluminum sulphate. Year. aluminum 

consumed 

Quantity] (pounds). Quantity Quantity (short Value. (short Value. (short Value. 

tons). tons). tons). 

---

1905 .................... 11,347,000 H), 114 $289,716 93,917 $1,660,515 1,282 $26,242 

1900 .................... 14,910,000 15,613 450,125 89,246 1, 613,050 1,183 23,193 

1907 ......... ··•·· ...... 17,211,000 10,404 361,900 106,821 2,008,046 1,562 35,191 

1908 .................... 11,152,000 7,700 236,710 97,255 1,835,213 1,407 24,929 

1909 .. ·······•······· ... 34,210,000 9,237 295,682 115,366 2, 214,122 1,459 29,061 

1910 .................... 47,734,000 9,090 300,763 126,792 2,447, 552 2,127 53,671 

1911. .· ...•.............. 46,125,000 10,468 329,686 134,077 2, 743,336 2,283 56,833 

1912 .................... 65,607,000 9,246 293,995 150,427 2,909,495 3,342 84,606 

1913 ......... · ........... 72,379,000 9,605 312,822 157,749 2,977, 708 2,702 66,549 

1914 .................... 79,129,000 18,238 565,989 164,954 2,942, 572 2,891 73,028 

1915 .................... 99,806,000 24,915 699,256 169,153 3, 224,495 1,408 . 34,320 

1916 ••.................. 123, 708, 000 27,257 1,177,881 153,860 4, 410,741 1,247 68,660 

a Includes alumina, aluminum hydrate, or refined bauxite, alum, alum cake, aluminum sulphate; aluminous cake, and alum in crystals or grotmd. . 

The growth of the American aluminum industry has been steady 

heretofore, but it is probable that the production in 1917 will show a 

pronounced increase, owing to the operation of the new plant at Badin, 

N.C., which is practically completed and which made a small output 

in 1916. This project, started by French capital/ was taken over 

by American interests in 1915 and pushed to completion. 

CONSUMPTION. 

The consumption of bauxite in the United States has increased 

steadily because of increase both in the consumption of aluminum 

and in the output of other products made from bauxite. It is 

particularly gratifyilig to know that although the consumption of 

bauxite in the United States in 1916 amounted to 425,130 long tons, 

an increase of 41 per cent over the consumption in 1915 and of 74 

per cent over the consumption in 1914, practically all domestic 

requirements were met by the American producers. This bears out 

the forecast made by the Geological Survey in 1914,2 that the domestio 

deposits would be more actively developed to supply the demand 

formerly met by French bauxite. 

1 Smith, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 599, p. 26, 1914. 

2 Idem, p. 27. 
BAUXITE. AND ALUMINUM. 87 

Bauxite consumed in the United States, 1905-1916. 

I Domestic i 

production. Imports. Consumption. 

Year. Georf!ll Arkansas Total 

and value. Quan- Quan;. an· TCilllCS• tity tity Alabama Value. Value. 

(long see (long (long 

tons). (long tons). tons). tons). 

------ 1905 .• ····••·················· 15,173 32,956 $240,292 11,726 $46,517 59,855 $286,809 1906 .......................... 25,065 50,267 368,311 17,809 63,221 93,141 431,532 1907 ....•...............•..... 34,271 63,505 480,330 25,066 93,208 122,842 573,538 1908 ...••...•.•........•...... 14,464 37,703 263,968 21,679 87,823 73,846 351,791 1909 •....•...........•........ 22,227 106,874 679 447 18,688 83,956 147,789 763,403 1910 ••••..•..•................ 33,096 115,836 716:258 15,669 65,743 164,601 782,001 1911 .••.•..................... 30,170 125,448 750,649 43,222 164,301 198,840 914,950 

1912 .......................... 33,760 126,105 768,932 26,214 95,431 186,079 864,363 1913 .........•................ 27,409 182 832 997,698 21,456 85, 74() 231,697 1,083,444 1914 .....•.................... 18,547 2oo; 771 1,069, 194. 24,844 96,500 244,162 1, 165,694 

1915 ..........•..•............ 25,008 272,033 1, 514,834 3,420 17,107 300,461 1, 531,941 

1916 ••••..•...•......•........ 46,151 378,949 2,296,400 30 87 425,130 2,296,487 

BAUXITE DEPOSITS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Deposits of bauxite in Pulaski and Saline counties, Ark., have 

yielded the larger part of the domestic output. The deposits in 

the bauxite field of northern Georgia and Alabama have contributed 

a considerable quantity, and in recent years the fields in central 

Georgia and Tennessee have made additions to the output. · 

Bauxite was first mined from the Georgia-Alabama field in 1889, 

and the Arkansas deposits were discovered in 1891 but apparently 

were not extensively developed till 1899. Small deposits of bauxite 

are known in southwestern New Mexico and Texas but have not 

been put on a producing basis. The central Georgia field has been 

under development since 1907; the fields near Chattanooga, Tenn., 

since 1906; and the deposits in Carter County, Tenn., since 1912. 

The Georgia-Alabama field, centered about Rome and Cave Springs, 

Ga., an<il Rock Run and Piedmont, Ala., has been studied geologically, 

and the location of bauxite bodies in this field can be predicted with a 

fair degree of certainty. The Arkansas deposits are also well understood, and the reserves in this field have been estimated with considerable exactness. The central Georgia field has been recently 

studied in detail by the State Geological Survey, and the results of 

this investigation will soon be published. It is r'elt that further 

detailed examination, based on a thorough understanding of the 

geology of· these deposits, which are in all places associated with 

kaolin deposits of Cretaceous or younger age, will result in greatly 

increasing the known reserves. The examination should not only 

include the· well-known areas in Wilkinson, Meriwether, and Sumter 

counties but should be extended along the ·belt of Cretaceous and 

Tertiary sediments northeastward into North and South Carolina 

and westward into Ala.bama. 
88 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

OTHER SOURCES OF ALUMINA. 

The extent to which alumina will be recovered in the treatment of 

alunite for potash can not now be predicted. So far as known to 

the United States Geological Survey, none .of the many proposed 

methods for treating ordinary clays and kaolins to produce aluminum salt~ have been proved successful on a commercial scale, but 

this problem may yet be solved. 
ALASKA'S MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

By ALFRED H. BROOKS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The principal industrial uses of minerals that are now in special 

de1nand or that may be in special den1and during the war are described in the other papers of this series, which also treat of the 

reserves of these minerals within the United States proper. It is 

the purpose of this article to describe the available mineral reserves 

of .Alaska. The Territory ~s now producing copper, gold, and silver 

in large quantities and making a smaller output of antimony, tungsten, tin, lead, petroleun1; coal, etc. The output of some of these 

minerals could be increased without great delay. There is a possibility also that platinum, chromite, molybdenite, and other undeveloped n1ineral deposits known in Alaska may be able to furnish a 

supply during the present emergency. 

For the purpose of the present paper Alaska's mineral reserves 

n1ay be roughly divided into three groups. One group includes 

those so inaccessible at the present time as not to for1n a part of the 

available supply. This group includes a considerable part of the 

Ininera.I wealth of the Territory hut needs no discussion here. A 

second group includes the n1ineral reserves which, though now 

inaccessible and undeveloped, could be n1ade available by one or 

tvm years of preparatory work. Tins group includes much of the 

eoal and oil and a part of the copper, gold, and other metalliferous 

deposits. In general, most of the mineral depoists that are far from 

tidewater fall in this category, though exception must be made of 

some tributary to the existing raih·oads. Undeveloped deposits, 

even though they are located close to the seaboard, also belong to 

this group in so far as they require extensive n1ine equipment before 

productive operations can be begun. The third group, constituting 

the most available but much the smallest part of Alaska's mineral 

wealth, includes developed deposits lying on or near established 

transportation routes. In this group fall not only the deposits on 

tidewater and railroads but also those in inland districts that are 

accessible .for a part of the year by river transportation. 

89 
90 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

TRAL~SPORTATION. 

As the availability of Alaska's mineral wealth depends on trans-

. portation, a brief consideration of this subject is necessary. The 

entire Pacific seaboard of the Territory, with the exception of the 

upper part' of Cook Inlet, is accessible to shipping throughout the 

year. Mineral deposits that lie on the Pacific seaboard can be 1nade 

available to transportation without great delay. These include the 

copper deposits of Ketchikan and Prince William Sound and the 

gold and silver deposits of Juneau and other coastal districts. However, none of Alaska's mineral wealth is available to industry unless 

shipping is provided and the paths of commerce are kept open. 

The lower Copper River basin is accessible by a railroad which 

skirts the southern margin of the Kotsina-Chitina copper belt. 

Unfortunately this railroad has no branches and there are but few 

wagon roads tributary to it. Therefore the utilization of the copper 

deposits that do not lie close to the line is dependent on construction, some of which would require much time. 

The Government railroad extending inland from Seward is n.t 

present in two unconnected sections. Qne leads from Sewa.rd to 

Turnagain Arm, and the other northward from Anchorage to the 

Matanuska coal field. The port of Anchorage is closed by ice for 

several months annually. The work of connecting these two sections is under way but can probably not be completed in much less 

than a year. Therefore the Anchorage section is now availa.ble for 

transportation only during a part of the year. 

The conditions in the rest of Alaska are still less favorable to 

rapid development. Seward Peninsula is accessible to ocean boats 

from about June to October, and the inland. mining districts depend 

for transportation on the navigaticn of Yukon and Kuskokwim 

rivers and their tributaries. These waterways are open to steamers 

from about June to October. The Fairbanks district is, however, 

also accessible by wagon roads leading from the Pacific seaboard at 

Valdez and from the Copper River Railroad at Chitina. In case of 

emergency some of its minerals could be sledded out during the 

period of closed navigation. In the winter of 1915-16 considerable 

tungsten ore (scheelite) was brought out by sleds. 

The transportation conditions involve heavy freight charges, and 

therefore certain minerals-for example, antimony-can be produeed 

and shipped out only during a period of great demand and attendant 

high priees. The ·high eost of transportation also n1a.kes for high 

operating eost, whieh is likewise a controlling factor in produetion. 

On the other hand, mining along the Pacific sea.board does not 

neeessarily involve higher operating costs than in the States-in 

fact, the eosts are less than in many mining distriets of the Cordilleran region. 
ALASKA's MINERAL SUPPLIES. 91 

In 1916 1nining operations in Alaska were much hampered by the 

lack of shipping. This was especially true of the copper-mining 

industry. Had there been ships to transport the ore and smelters 

and refiners to reduce it, the copper output from Ketchikan and 

Prince William Sound would have been very much larger than it was. 

GOLD AND SILVER. 

A large increase in Alaska's gold production under present conclitions is hardly to be expected. The present high prices affect gold 

mining more adversely than any other industry, for they involve a. 

relative decrease in the vahie of the product. The constantly in-. 

creased cost of equipment, supplies, and labor maintained during the· 

war make gold-mining ventures less attractive to capital than under. 

ordinary conditions. The most promising field for an immediate increased production of gold is in the placer districts. Yet most of 

these lie far from the poast or in regions difficult of access. Moreover, 

the great reserves of auriferous gravels on which the future ·of the 

industry::depencls have a low gold tenor, and their profitable exploitation depends on the installation of machinery-a matter that involves 

much time and capital. l-Ienee, even public-spirited operators who 

might be willing, for the sake of. increasing the gold output, to operate 

at the. lesser profit which war-time conditions involve could hardly 

bring an enterprise to a -productive basis in less than two years. It 

is not intended by this statement to imply that the production of 

placer gold will f::tll off while the present economic conditions prevail, 

but only to point out that a greatly increased output can hardly be 

expected. There are, however, a number of large placer-mining 

plants that have been under construction for a year or more, and some· 

of them may yield gold this year to help swell the·total. ~ioreover,. 

in many Alaska districts there are rich deposits that are being mined 

by simple methods and will continue, as in the past, to be the source 

of a large part of Alaska's placer-gold output. In 1916 the value of 

the placer gold produced in Ala.ska was $11,140,000; in 1915, 

$10,480,000. It is not possible to forecast what the output of 1917 

will be, but there is no reason to believe that it will materially decline. 

The conditions described above as affecting gold-placer mining are 

still more potent in gold-lode mining. The mining of siliceous auriferous ores had been on the increase for a number of years until 1916. 

The value of the gold output from this source was $5,912,736 in 1016 

and $6,069,023 in 1915. Of the total output in 1916 over $4,500,000 

came from the large low-grade mines of the Juneau district. These 

great enterprises, which depend for their economic success on the 

handling of a large tonnage at a small margin of profit, will be 

more directly affected by the present adverse econon1ic conditions 

than the smaller mines working on ores of high value. The recent 
·92 OUR MIN·ERAL SUPPLIES. 

senous accident to the great Treadwell group of mines, details of 

'\\~hich are lacking at this writing, may reduce the gold output of the 

Juneau district. It is probable that there will be an increased gold 

output from the small mines of the Willow Creek and Prince William 

Sound districts, but this will for the present not be sufficient to 

offset the decrease in the Juneau output. Therefore the present out-

_look indicates that the production of lode gold in Alaska will be less· 

in 1917 than it was in 1916. 

· Alaska's silver output, which in 1916 an1ounted to 11379,261 otmces, 

valued at $907,554, has practically all been won incidentally to the 

1n!ning of gold and ·copper. Though the Territory contains some 

argentiferous galena deposits, referred to below, these are almost 

undeveloped. Of the silver produced in 1916 over 1,200,000 ounces 

can1e from the copper lodes. With the expected increase of copper 

mining during 1917 the output of silver will also increase. 

COPPER. 

The increase in the output of copper due to high prices for that 

metal is the n1ost striking feature of Alaska's recent mining history. 

In 1914 the copper output from Alaska n1ines was 21,450,000 pounds; 

in 1915, 86,500,000 pounds; and in 1916, 119,600,000pounds. In 1916 

eighteen copper mines were operated in Alaska, lJut much the larger 

part of the output came from three large mines-two in the Copper 

River region and one on Prince William Sound. It is unfortunate 

that the maintenance of a large copper output from the Territory is 

so greatly dependent on the continued operation of two large and 

yery rich 1nines in a single district, for if, by any accident to n1ining 

or to transportation, operations and shipments from this district 

·should be interrupted, there would be a tremendous curtailment of 

the annual copper yield. The n1aintenance of Alaska's copper output is of in1portance under present conditions, and every encourageInent should be given to the development of other deposits, especially 

those of the Pacific seaboard. A large number of n1ines, especially 

on tidewater, would give far greater assurance of a steady production 

of copper than the present conditions. The small copper producers 

of Prince William Sound and the Ketchikan district met with n1ost 

discouraging conditions in 1917. In spite of the high price of copper 

they were tmable to obtain either su:ffident transportation for their 

ore or any assurance that the sn1elters would handle it if it could be 

shipped. 

The two large 1nines in the Chitina belt are probably now being 

worked to the limit of their capacity. The full development of the 

only other productive n1ine in this district is hampered by lack of 

transportation; up to the present time its shipments have been made 

only in the winter. 'l~here are in this general region other properties 
ALASKA's. MINERAL SUPPLIES. .93 

which, if cmmected with the Copper River Railroad by aerial trams 

and spurs, would ship ore. Most of these have not yet been deyeloped sufficiently to reveal any very large tonnage of ore. Any census 

of Alaska copper reserves that might be made available during the 

next two years, however, must take these into account. The best 

hope of an immediate increase of the copper output is in the development of the lodes along the Pacific seaboard. In 1916 there were 

nine productive copper mines in the Ketchikan district and six oii 

Prince William Sound. In these two districts there are at least a 

dozen other copper properties which have been sufficiently developed 

to justify the hope that they could be brought to a produ,ctive basis 

within the present year. These properties, together with the fifteen 

that made an output in 1916, if developed to their full capacity, 

would pi:obably increase their output of 1916 by 10,000,000 to 

12,000,000 pounds in 1917. Such an increase ean be brought about 

only, first, if copper remains at a high price, and, second, if shipping 

for transporting the ore and smelters for reducing it are available. 

To sum up the copper-mining situation, there is good reason to 

believe that if the hjgh price is maintained the Alaska copper output 

in 1917 will be larger than that in 1916. The best hope for an ilnmediate and considerable increase is by providing be.tter shipping and 

smelting facilities for the mines of the Pacific seaboard. Should 

the war make larger demands for Alaska copper, it is probable that 

within two years a still greater increase in the copper output could 

be brought about by providing means of trans.portation from such 

deposits of the Kotsina-Chitina district as are now unproductive. 

TIN. 

Placer tin has been mined in the York district of Seward Peninsula 

since 1902. The total tin output of Alaska up to the end of 1916 was 

767 tons of metallic tin. This total includes a small output of lode 

tin from the York district and also some placer tin fron1 the I-Iot 

Springs district, in the Tanana Valley. In the Hot Springs district 

the tin has been won incidentally to th~ placer mining of gold, and 

the first shipment of stream tin from this district was made in 1911. 

Alaska produced 139 tons of metallic tin in 1916 and 102 tons in 1915. 

The present urgent demand and consequent high price of tin will 

undoubtedly lead to a greater output in 1917. Most of the tin now 

produced in the York district is the product of two· dredges. There 

a.re a number of tin-bearing placers in this field, but even at present 

prices they can probably not be profitably exploited except by the 

use of dredges. As it would take a year to install a dredge, there is 

no hope of making a notable increase this year in the production of 

placer tin from the York district. There are a number of tin lode 

prospects in the York district, from two of which some production 
94 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

has been made. In 1917 a mill was installed at one of these mines,· 

and its output should help to swell the tin produCtion during 1917. 

The York tin mines are worked only during the summer, and the 

shipping season is limited from about June to October. The uncertainty of the present means of ocean- transportation for this field ~s 

shown by the fact that a large percentage of the tin produced there 

in 1916 failed to reach the market and can not now reach it until 

midsummer of 1917. 

Stream tin is rather widely distributed in the Hot Springs district, 

but as yet few of the placer miners make any effort to save it. If 

they could be induced to save and ship their strea1n tin it might 

materially increase the total output from the Territory. Placer 

mining in the Hot Springs district can be carried on for about three 

months in summer. Transportation is afforded by river, and the 

open season of navigation is from June to October. 

It is probably safe to state that the Alaska tin production of 1916 

could be doubled in 1917-that is, it could be brough~t up to nearly 

300 tons of metallic tin. In view of the great need of tin in the 

United States it is hoped that the Alaska miners will make every 

effort to increase their output. 

TUNGSTEN .. 

Though scheelite has long been known to occur in the placers of 

the Fairbanks, Iditarod, and N orne districts, it has only recently 

been found in lodes. In 1915 a scheelite-bearing lode was opened 

near Fairbanks, and some shipments of ore were made by parcel post 

brought to the coast by the winter mail. Ot~er scheelite-bearing 

deposits were developed in Fairbanks and also in the N orne district 

during 1916. Meanwhile some of the operators of dredges in the 

N orne and Iditarod districts began to save scheelite from the concentrates. 

Wolframite and scheelite occur in some of the tin ores· of the York 

district, Seward Peninsula, but these deposits have been.only slightly 

developed. Wolframite has also been found in association with some 

of the gold placers of the Yukon-Tanana region. In 1916 a little 

wolframite won from the placers was shipped from the Birch Creek 

district. · 

In all, about 4 7 tons of tungsten-bearing 1njneral concentrates, 

chiefly scheelite, carrying from 60 to 65 per cent of W03, were shipped 

from Alaska in 1916, about 30 tons of which came from Seward 

Peninsula. All of this output came from districts that are open to 

transportation during only a part of the year. The scheelite lode deposits that have been opened could probably double their production 

in 1917 if high prices are.maintai~ed and if there is assurance of a 

market for the product_. To the lode production could be added the 
ALASKA's MINERAL SUPPLIES. 95 

scheelite obtained from placer 1nining, notably from dredging, if 

operators will save the concentrates. It is probable, therefore, that 

the summer mining operations of 1917 could be counted on for 130 

tons of scheelite concentrates. 

ANTIMONY. 

Stibnite, as has long been lmown, is very widely distributed in 

Alaska, but it is only the stimulation of war prices and demand of 

the last two years that has caused any of this ore to be mined. In 

1915 the output of stibnite ore was 833 tons; in 1916 it was 1,458 

tons. Most of this ore can1e from the Fairbanks district, where half 

a dozen mines have been developed on a small scale. Some ore has 

also been shipped fr01n two mines in the N on1e district. Transporta~ 

tion from both these districts is limited to the open season. 

The most accessible of Alaska's antimony lodes is one located in 

the Ketchikan district, where a little development work has been 

done. Some stibnite-bearing lodes are known on Prince William 

Sound, on Kenai Peninsula, and in the Nizina district, but so far as 

has been ascertained none of these have been sufficiently developed 

to determine whether the ore occurs in commercial quantities. If the 

demand for antimony ore continues, these deposits are worthy of care~ 

ful prospecting, for they are accessible to transportation throughout 

the year. · 

In an emergency demand for antimony and with the attendant 

high prices the stibnite mines of Fairbanks and N orne should be able 

to increase their annual output at once to, say, 4,000 tons. This ore, 

however, could be shipped only during the summer .. The output 

might be very greatly increased if some of the stibnite deposits on or 

near the Pacific seaboard were found to be large enough for profitable 

exploitation. 

LEAD. 

The total lead output of Alaska mines is 2,080 tons, of which 820 

tons was produced in 1916, 437 tons in 1915, and 28 tons in 1914. 

:h1ost of the lead has been recovered ·from gold ores.• The large 

increase in output in the last two years is due to the development of 

the large lode mines of the Juneau mainland belt, which carry considerable galena. Some lead was also recovered from galena ores 

shipped from several localities in Alaska. Galena-bearing lodes 

occur in the Ketchikan and Wrangell districts of southeastern 

Alaska, and these afford a possible field for comparatively rapid 

development. A test shipment of galena was made in 1916 from the 

Fairbanks district. The ore also occurs in the Fish River basin of 

Seward Peninsula and has been reported in the Broad Pass region, 

in the Mentasta Pass region, in the Koyukuk district, and at numerous 

other localities. Few if any of these occurrences ar~ near enough to 
96 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

transportation to justify the hope that they could be 1nade to contribute to the lead supply, even if the ore bodies are large enough to 

justify development. Galena ores rich in silver would, of course, 

bear heavy transportation charges. At best, however, they would 

not be expected to contribute enough lead to increase Alaska's total 

output materially. Therefore the continuation or increase of Alaska's 

present lead output is dependent on the operations of the low-grade 

auriferous lode mines of the Juneau district. It is not unlikely that 

similar deposits 1nay be discovered in other parts of southeastern 

Alaska, but it will require ma1iy years of develop1nent work to bring 

them to a productive basis. 

PLATINUM. 

Sn1all quantities of platinum have been found in a number of 

placer districts in Alaska, and traces of this metal occur in t~e copper 

ore of the Goodro mine, in the Ketchikan district. In 1916 the 

Alaska placer miners began to pay attention to the finding of platinum, 

and as a result about 10 or 12 ounces was recovered, chiefly from the 

placers of the newly developed Koyuk district, in the sou the astern 

part of Seward Peninsula, also from ·Bear Creek, in the Fairhaven 

district of Seward Peninsula, and from Slate Creek, in the Chistochina district of the upper Copper River basin. It is not known 

that there are in any of the~e districts placers which could be profitably 

worked for their platinum content alone. The present high price of 

the metal will stimulate the prospectors to give special heed to the 

platinum concentrates, and undoubtedly there will be a larger productiou in 1917 than there was in.1916. 

Platinum has also been found on Boob Creek, in the Tolstoi region 

of the Innoko district. Prof. Herschel C. Parker reports considerable 

platinum in the gravels of Kahiltna River. His information is based 

on drilling of gold placer ground with a view to installing dredges. 

Small quantities of platinum are also reported in the beach placers 

of Lituya Bay and of Red River, Kodiak Island. Less definite 

information has been received of the presence of platinu1n in some of 

the creeks of I{enai Peninsula. 

Those of the deposits above reported that occur in shallow placers, 

perhaps all except the one on Kahiltna River, can be developed 

rapidly by use of the ordinary n1anual n1ethods of n1ining. The 

Kahiltna River deposit will require the .installation of a dredge, 

which Prof. Parker reports he is proposing to put in but which can 

not be ready for operation until the summer of 1918. 

The outlook for some platinum production fron1 Alaska chuing the 

next two years is hopeful, though as yet there is not a single mine 

in the Territory that has ·produced n1ore than a few ounces. More 

definite information about the occurrences m.entioned will be available in the fall of 1917, after certain field investigations are completed. 
ALASKA's MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

CHROMITE. 

It has long been known that son1e chron1ite deposits occur on the 

southwest end of Kenai Peninsula. Two localities of this mineral are 

known, one near Port Chatham dnd the other about 7 miles inland 

from Seldovia. It is not ]mown whether these deposits are of commercial size, but they are to be examined this smnmer. 'fheir association with ultrabasjc rocks suggests that they might also cr~rry 

platinun1. Some small veins carrying chron1ite have been found in 

the Tolovana district of the Yukon-Tanana region. The above 

meager facts indicate that there is no certainty that Alaska deposits 

c0uld be depended upon 1or chro~~ite in the immediate future. 

NICKEL AND COBALT. 

A copper lode recently discovered near Pinta Cove, on the west 

side of Chichagof Island, in the Sitka district of southeastern Alaska, 

is reported to carry nickel and a little cobalt. A specimen of ore 

which carries considerable nickel has been received frolU George R. 

Goshaw, who reports that it was taken fron1 a lode not far from 

Spirit Mountain, in the lowei; basin of Copper River, but the exact 

locality has not been learned. Some years ago a copper-bearing lode 

which was reported to carry.nickel was found near Canyon Creek, in 

this san1e general region. This locality is about 12 miles from Spirit 

Mountain and may be the one frmn which the specin1en sent by 

~!Ir. Goshaw was obtained. Little is ]mown about the geology of 

these localities where nickel has been reported or the extent of the 

deposits. They are to be investigated this summer. Both are accessible throughout the year, one being on tidewater and the other 

probably not over 10 n1iles frmn the railroad. 

QUICKSILVER. 

Quick3ilver-bearing lodes occur in the lo"\ver Kuskokwin1 region 

and in the adjacent parts of the Yukon basin. The most accessible 

of these deposits and the only ones that have been prospected are on 

or close to Kuskokwi1u River. "The best known of these prospects is 

the Parks property, on the west bank of the ICuskokwim about 330 

miles fro1n its mouth. I-Iere some cinnabar ore has been retorted, 

and the quicksilver thus produced was sold to the placer 1niners of 

Seward Peninsula. There has been some prospecting of other quicksilver deposits in this general region, but so far as known no properties 

have been sufficiently developed to give assurance of a definite output. The deposits could be made productive with little equipment, 

but there is no information on which to base an estimate of- their 

possible quicksilver yield~ 

127972°--19----7 
98: OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

The lower Kuskokwin1 Valley is readily accessible during the summer. Small ocean vessels can ascend the Kuskokwim as far as Bethel, 

and river steamers fully 500 1niles farther. 

MOLYBDENITE AND BISl\UJTH. 

Molybdenite-bearing lodes are· reported to have been found near 

Skagway and on Lemesurier Island, in southeast.ern Alaska; on 

Canyon Creek, a tributary to the upper Chitina River, which flows 

~nto Copper River; and in the Willow Creek district. It is not lmown 

whether any of these lodes are large enough to perrnit comn1ercial 

developn1ent. The molybdenite deposits of southeastern Alaska and 

of the Willow Creek district are readily accessible throughout the 

year. No molybdenite has been produced in Alaska.· 

A small bis1nuth-bearing vein has been found on Charley Creek, in 

the Nome district, but is undeveloped. Bismuth has been found in 

gold prospects at two localities in the Tanana Valley-on Eva Creek, 

a tributary to Totatlanika Creek, and on 1\Ielba Creek, in the Fairbanks district-but nothing is known of the extent of these deposits. 

There has been no production of bismuth in Alaska. 

IRON. 

Iron ores are rather widely distributed in Alaska. :JYiagnetite 

occurs in association ·with some of the eopper deposits of the Ketchikan and Iliamna districts and also in a deposit near Haines, in southeastern .Alaska. In the Lake Clark district there is a vein of specular 

he1natite carrying son1e copper. Considerable bodies of iron ore have 

been found in the N01ne district. Most of these deposits are undeveloped. If there were a demand for iron on the Pacific coast, some 

of the iron ores could be 1nade available in a comparatively short time. 

COAL 

By G. C. MARTH;. 

The coal of Alaska, which occurs in many parts of the Territory 

and which includes many grades ranging from lignite to anthracite, 

should be grouped in a consideration of possible development into the 

fields that are or can be made immediately accessible and the fields 

that are remote or inaccessible. A further grouping should be made 

on the basis of the adaptability of the coal for special uses. 

The coal fields that are now or can soon be made accessible include 

those of the Pacific seaboard and the Nenana field, which will be 

accessible both to the coast and to the placer camps of t,he Tanana 

Valley when the Government railroad is completed. The other coal 

fields of the interior and northern part of Alaska can be developed in 

the near future only for minor locd use. The accessible coal :fields 

of the Pacific seaboard include the Matanuska field, ,Vi.th high-grade 

steam and coking coal and low-grade bituminous coal, which is now 
ALASKA's MINERAL SUPPLIES. 99 

accessible by the 1viatanuska branch of the Government railroad; 

the Bering River field, with high-grade steam, smithing, and possibly 

coking coal, as well as anthracite (n1ostly crushed), which can be 

made accessible by the completion of a short railroad, now under 

construction; 1 the Cook Inlet field, with lignite, which is situated on 

tidewater and is therefore now accessible; and several s1nall fields in 

southwestern Alaska, with coal of various grades ranging fron1 lignite 

to bituminous, possibly including some coking coal, s.ome of which 

are on tidewater and now accessible and the rest of which could be 

made accessible by the construction of short railroads. · Of these coast 

fields only Matanuska and Bering River contain large amounts of 

coal of the quality for which there is likely to be an imn1ediate demand. 

The Nenana field, in the interior, although containing coal- of lower 

grade (lignite), will probably soon be developed· on a small scale 

because of urgent local demand. 

The possible ·immediate n1a.rkets for Alaska coal are indicated 

below: 

Eastern Matanuska (Chickaloon) field: 

·Coke for Alaska smelters. 

Coke for Puget Sound (if relative costs permit competition). 

Bunker coal (Alaska steamers). 

Navy coal (if relative costs permit competition with coal from Bering River and 

Chesapeake Bay). 

Smithing coal (local and export). 

Western Matanuska (Moose and ·Eska Creek) field: 

Locomotive fuel 2 (Chickaloon to Seward). 

Local power (Willow Creek mines). 

Domestic fuel in Anchorage, Seward, Valdez (?), and Cordova(?). 

Locomotive fuel on Copper River Railroad (if Bering River branch is not built). 

Nenana field: 

Locomotive fuel (Matanuska Junction 3 to Fairbanks). 

Power and thawing (mines in Tanana Valley). 

Domestic fuel (Tanana Valley). 

River-boat fuel. 

Bering River field: 

· Locomotive fuel (Controller Bay Railroad). 

Lo9omotive fuel on Copper River Railroad (if Bering River branch is built). 

Coke for Alaska smelters (if competition with Matanuska coke permits). 

Bunker coal (Alaska steamers). 

Navy coal (if competition·with coal from Chesapeake Bay permits). 

Smithing coal (local and export). 

Domestic fuel in Cordova and Valdez (if Bering River branch is built). 

1 The railroad that is now under construction from Controller' Bay will, according to present information, 

reach only the patented coal claim in the eastern part of the Bering River field and will not furnish access 

to the high-grade steam and coking(?) coal in the central and western parts of the field. There would be 

no difficulty, however, in extending the railroad into those areas. 

s The lower-grade coal from the western part of the field should be used for locomotive and power-plant 

fuel because the high-grade (Chickaloon) coal is too valuable for this purpose. 

a Nenana coal should be used on the greater part of the railroad (rather than the better and nearer Mata. 

nuska coal) because the heavy freight traffic will be northbound, leaving southbomul empties available 

for hauling eoal. 
-100 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

None of the uses indicated above calls for a large quantity of coal, 

and there will probably be no physical difficulty in developing the 

mines, within a few months after the time when transportation is 

is available, to a sufficient extent to supply the present deniands. 

In fact, it is probable that the most serious difficulty will be that of 

finding a sufficient market to justify the opening of the mines on 

a scale large enough to permit the coal being mined and shipped at 

a profit. 

It is public policy rather thai1 any reasonable hope of even moderate private profit that calls for the development of the Alaska coal 

fields on a large scale. The reasons for the p1~esent urgent need of 

developing the coal fields are as follows: 

1. To provide fuel for the Alaska rail ways. 

2. To furnish the Alaska -railways with the freight without which 

they can not be operated save at a loss. . 

3. To furnish cheap fuel for the Alaska 1nines and to·wns in order 

that the production of_ other necessities may be encouraged. 

4. To furnish bunker coal for Alaska steamers, so that they may 

not be compelled to use cargo space in carrying fuel for the return 

voyage (on the assumption that other demands for California oil 

Vlill be so great that the Alaska steamers can advantageously use 

local coal rather than California oil). 

5. To provide coke for local smelters so that ·cargo space may be 

saved by shipping metal rather than ore and that the development 

of new metalliferous mines may be encouraged. · 

6. To provide a quickly aecessible reserve of high-grade fuel for 

the Navy or for other urgent need. 

In conclusion, although there are no d.i:fficulties (given transporta-

, tion and a market) that will prevent the quick development of the 

few small mines that can supply the demands that can be for~seen 

at present, the opening of the coal fields on a large scale is quite a 

different problem. The development of a large coal mine requires 

considerable time, even under favorable circumstanees. In Alaska 

it is not merely a. simple matter·of expanding.the workings to a point 

where there is room for enough miners to produee the required tonnage. This must be done, but first there must be a slow process 

of prospecting, drilling, and experimental mining in order to determine Where the coal for a large 1nine is to be found and What the 

method of working the mi~e is to be. These problems have not yet 

been solved in the Alaska 'coal fields, and consequently there is no 

. assurance that a large tonnage of high-grade coal could be quickly 

obtained for the Navy or for other emergency use. This condition, 

in the writer's opinion, requires not only that the small mines which 

can supply the present demand should be opened at once, but that 

every possible encouragement s"4ould be given for the development 

of the Alaska coal industry. 
ALASKA's MINERAL SUPPLIES. 101 

PETROLEUM. 

Petroleum has been found in four districts along the Pacific seaboard. These are the Yakataga field, which is comparatively inaccessible on account of the lack .of a harbor; the Katalla field, which 

is the only one that is producing oil and which can be n1ade tributary 

to Coutroller Bay ~vithout great expense for construction and .without great loss of time or can be reached by an easily constructed 60-

rnile branch from the Copper River Railroad; the Iniskin Bay field, 

on Cook Inlet; and the Cold Bay field, on the Alaska Peninsula. The 

·last two are tributary to harbors that are free ·of ice throughout the 

year. 

Drilling has not been sufficient in the partly developed field at 

Katalla to determine the presence of any considerable pools. The 

rather wide distribution of seepages and the results of the drilling of 

son1e 25 holes indicate that oil might be obtained in this field in a 

1nuch larger quantity than that now yielded by the five or six wells 

that are being pumped. The petroleum from this :field, like that 

frmn other Alaska fields, is a high-grade refining oil with a paraffin 

base. As oil of this grade is now in great demand for the manufacture of gasoline, and as the supply under war conditions may not 

rneet the needs, every encouragement should be given to those who 

are ·willing to spend th.e money necessary for the drilling. Unless a 

large pool is struck early in the operations, which is not believed 

probable, it will take at least a year to drill a sufficient number of 

holes to assure any considerable production. This statement is based 

on the records of the existing wells. The producing wells are shallow 

and the oil has to be pumped. To meet the present emergency it will 

probably be best to drill a large number of shallow wells rather than 

to attempt to test the ultimate possibilities of the field by sinking 

deep holes. The above statement of conditions and possibilities in 

the Katalla field probably holds, in general, for the Iniskin and Cold 

Bay fields. In these fields, however, there has been very little drilling and no production. The geologic structure of these fields, so far 

as known, is siinpler than that of the Katalla field, and it is therefore 

easier to direct operators to the rrwst probable locations of possible 

pools. 

The Alaska oil lands were withdrawn frorn entry in 1910. A srnall 

area of oil land has been patented in the Katalla field, and other 

claims are still pending. If the Alaska oil fields are to be regarded 

as a possible source for refining oil during the present emergency, 

immediate action should be tak€m by which operators can obtain 

freehold or leasehold titles to sufficient areas to justify the large expenditures necessary for drilling. 
102 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

MISCELLANEOUS MINERALS. 

There is one gypsum mine on the east side of Chichagof Island, in 

southeastern Alaska, but no information is at hand as to the size of 

this deposit, and no other gypsum h~s been fom1d in the territory. 

Graphite deposits of commercial quality and extent occur on the· 

north side of the Kigluaik Motmtains, in Seward .Peninsula. Two of 

these deposits have been opened and have yielded son1e graphite, 

though none has been shipped. Graphite from these deposits can be 

shipped only during the open season. 

Two barite deposits are known in Alaska, one in the vVrangell district and one in the Ketchikan district. Both are on tidewater, 

accessible throughout the year, and are capable of rapid development. 

Some small shipments have been rnade from one of these deposits. 

Sulphur is known to occur on Makushin Volcano, Un·alaska Island, 

at the east end of the A.leutian chain. This deposit has been but 

little prospected, and its extent is unknown. Makushin Volca.no is 

about 5, 700 feet high, and its summit lies about 6 n1iles from Makushin Bay, the nearest harbor. Unalaska Island is unforested, and all 

timber for use in construction would have to be brought fron1 a 

distance. This sulphur, even if it proves to be present in commercial 

quantities, could not be rnade available without much preparation 

for mining. Sulphur deposits. are also reported on other volcanoes 

of the Aleutian chain, notably on Akutan Island. The above facts 

indicate that Alaska sulphur could not be made available for any 

imrriedia te demand. 
CO·PPER.1 

By B. s. BUTJ .. ER. 

After the war broke out it was generally believed that the copper 

industry would suffer seriously from the stopping of export trade to 

COlmtries that had taken a considerable part of the American production and fr()m decrease in the use of copper for ordinary purposes 

elsewhere. This belie.£ found expression in the immediate curtailment by the larger producers of 30 to 50 per cent, nnd some small 

producers ceased operations entirely. 

By the beginning of 1915 it was becoming apparent that the early 

fears of a disastrous effect of the war on the copper industry of this 

country were without foundation. There was a steadily increasing 

demand for copper, with a corresponding increase in price which7 

with slight fluctuations, has continued through the years 1915 and 

1916 and into 1917. 

As soon as it became apparent that the demands could not be supplied by the existing plants, steps were taken to increase the producing capacity. ~1any mines were able to respond quickly to the 

new demands, but the response of metallurgic plants was not so 

rapid. 'J:'he· flotation process,. which was. just being introduced in 

many concentration plantsr served a double purpose by increasing 

the capacity of mills without the necessity of greatly enlarging the 

general plants and by producing a concentrate of higher grade, thus 

adding to the capacity of the smelters. Several of the large smelters 

had recently been rebuilt or were in process of reconstruction, so that 

the· smelting plants of the country were unusually well prepared to 

n1eet exceptional demands.. It was possible to make enlarge1nents 

rapidly enough to furnish all the copper that could be treated by 

refineries. The refineries have been the slowest to respond but in 

1917 will probably be able .to refine all the copper required, though in 

May, 1917, enlargements of plants were still being made. 

The changes in the copper industry during the last decade ·are 

shown in the accompanying table, compiled by the Geological Survey, 

and are graphically set forth in the diagram (PL. I). 

t For a more detailecl.discussion of the copper industry o.nd the copper districts the reader is referred to 

tJ. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 191~, pt. I, pp. 65(}-.'722, 1916. 

103 
104 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Principal features of copper industry, 1907-1916. 

Year. 

1907 •............................... 1908 ............................... . 1!)09 .•...•.......................... 1910 ................... : ........... . 1911. .............................. . 1912 ............................... . 1913 ............................... . 1914 ............. ' ................. . 1915 ............................... . 19Hi. .............................. . 

Average ..................... . 

Year. 

1907 ............................... . 1908 ............................... . 1909 ............................... . 1910 .......................... -· ... . 1911 ............................... . 1912 ............................... . 1913 ............................... . 1914 ............................... . 1915 ............................... . 1916 ............................... . 

Average .................... . 

Refined copper, 

primary. 

Pounds. 

1, 032, 500, 00(, 

1, 137, 900,000 

1, 391,000,000 

1, 422,000,000 

1, 433.800,000 

1, 568, 100,000 

1, 615,000,000 

1,533, 700,000 

1, 634,200,000 

2, 259, 000, 000 

1, 502, 750, ooo 1 

ExRorts of me- ta lie copper. 

Pounds. 

508,900,000 

661,800,000 

682,800,000 

708, 000, 000 

786, 500, 000 

775, 000, 000 

926, 000, 000 

840,000,000 

681,900,000 

784, 000, 000 

735,500,000 

a Preliminary figures, subject to correction. 

Secondary 

copper. 

Po·unrll!. 

214, 000, 000 

275, 000, 000 

273,000,000 

255, 700, 000 

392,200,000 

a 662, 000, 000 

345, 000, 000 

Domestic con- sumption. 

Pounds. 

487, 700,000 

479,900,000 

688,500,000 

732, 000, 000 

681,700,000 

755,900,000 

812, 000, 000 

620, 000, 000 

1, 043,000,000 

1, 430, 000, 000 

773,000,000 

Smelter production, rlomcstic 

orcs. 

Pound,~. 

868, !lOO, 000 

\}42, 500, 000 

1, 092,900,000 

1' 080,000,000 

1, 097,000,000 

l, 243, 000, 000 

1, 224,000,000 

1, 150.000,000 

l. 388, 000, 000 

1, !l28, 000, 000 

1, 201, 400, ooo 1 

Average 

Imports. 

Pou.nds. 

252,600,000 

218, 700, 000 

321,800.000 

344,000.000 

334,600,000 

110,000,000 

408, 700, 000 

:306' 000' 000 ~U5, 600, 000 

462, 000,000 

337, 400, 000 

y_carly World's producpncc por tion. 

pound. 

i --- Pou.nrl.s. 

$0.200 1, 589,000,000 

.132 1, 683,000,000 

.130 1, 875, 000. 000 

.127 1, 903, 000, ()()() 

.125 1, 958,000,000 

.165 2. 259, 000,000 

.155 2, 198. 000,000 

.133 b 2, 036, 000,000 

.175 b 2, 339,000,000 

.246 b 3, 07~, 000, 000 

.163 2, 092, 000, 000 

b From Engineering and Mining Journal. 

The Survey reports a rather steady increase in the production fron1 

dmnestic ores up to the beginning of the war, which was followed hy a 

sharp decline for a few months, and this in turn by a very rapid 

increase that has continued into 1917. The enlarge1nent of_ existing 

plants and the addition of plants in eonstruction during 1916 will 

permit a eontinued increase for 1917 if the stilnulus of high prices also 

continues. The steady increase in the mnount of copper recovered 

from scrap is an important factor in the supply. 

Imports of copper as ore and blister copper for troat1nent had, like 

dmnestic production, been steadily increasing before the war and also 

suffered a decline when the \var began, followed by an increase. 

There is likely to be a more rapid increase for the next few years, 

owing to the added production in South A1neriea, Cuba, and some 

other countries, though this n1ay be offset to so1ne extent by tho 

refining in Canada of s~me blister copper frmn producers whose output has previously been refined in this eountry. 

Exports of n1etallic copper had showed a rather steady increase 

until the beginning of tho war, after which they declined rapidly, 

owing to the cutting off of exports to the central powers. There has 

been some recovery, but for 1916 the exports were still below those of 

the period immediately preceding the war. The exports of copper in 
U. S. HEOLOGICAL .SURVEY BULLETIN 666. l'IJA'l.'E 1 

PRICE IN POUNDS CENTS 

30 .-f-------.---.......... ·--·--,--:.........;.;;··-....· ................. ·:....· t-' _..._ ............................ -,-.-...... ........................... --r------,r--------,------,-----. 3,500,000,000 

25 

:-

fff1-

f- " 

-

-

~/­ ., 

~ ~'" J ~0 k-~-.,-,-... ----·+-------+------+___;_-...:.._ __ +-----+-----+------+------+-.,-,-:;,-.L--;--1~=_- 3,000,000,000 

1- ', per ......... 1- '~ \ce ..... -------- P ~' ~---'~-+------4-------1------~---~~ .... -~~----~~~~~nd--~~~~~--~---r-~ 

15 t ....... --------- --~..:!:~g-=- ___ y.:~r:.!z:_.................. ---- ....... I 

2! 000,000,000 

1=,_;-----1--------4-----!-----+---------+----+----!----:--j-------t--;r-----~- 2,500,000,000 / ( / 

,' 

~ction / .~"\1 _I I ~ ~',' • 

POUNDS ~ flj<l.~/ /./- 1- .... , Cl ,' 

2,ooo.ooo,ooo ~-----~-----+------4------~~~~~----r------t-----~------i~~~ _v / c::Y . f\t'\\f'~/ .,4:&· _/ . * Electro I yt,_,.____ ·c re -·--- < ~'/ • 0 1------------1 r;..?/ / 

sources (do and_/ / 0 _ 

·11\ar'/_.-.-·- -·-. .!!!estic ·-·-· pr;_.- ·- -· o 

10 

-

-

1,500,000,000 1------+---- 1,500,000,000 d copper fro~.-· / 

_s.•!!.;'!...- -·-·-·- ' •"'/ /' 

f rorr.. domestic'·· / /· .;,..- -o-o- --o Ores ~o \Of' _..-o ...__o __ ~ ~ 

- o 2.'Jl..:.!.. t :!:,_. o.l?.!:.~~c:....-o , / 1- -·--·-- _....... 1,000,000,000 t.::-:::.:.:·:__ __ --l-_..-~.~ .. ~~=--+------l------+-----t-------lr------t----/~~·-'r------j 1,000,000,000 

1-_0 __ 0_ -ta \\ \_C:--- 1---~-9-e.e e r :+: -

£._~_e_ol_r_~:> _____ c;f ____ ~;..:::x-f ~~ ------ -----/ -----------"·.-·-_..., ----- )( I • 0 P -.-_ ~ < ·-- -• --~ t-~"'---- x.:=-=.0-x-n-x _____ "_n s urn P. t Ion ,.. irn -......-%'........_ oe, ---- ...... -------- ......... om est; c co C!J,..,.--.... <r• 1- __ ........ ....,.-.,. f .Y cP ~·o_...-1! 

------ ...,.....,. ~ ..... 600,000,000 )f'l:.::=~lil=-=)l=:::-b..,et:.:::_ ___ +-------+---------t-1---------t--;::-::-:::----:-=-:di------+-----j---._,.,.C~---j 500,000,000 ' 

1- I ·'·tS as or~ an met I ~.-·o·-· ·~ ...... L------t-----m~p!:....:.otr_..., o·-·o·-· ·-·o·-·o·-·o.-.f-·o·-·o·-~-o.---.e..---:~ro-.__..,s:;. __ ...,_. -

,-·•·secondlY coppe~ 

0 L_ ______ -L--------~------~--------~------~~-------L--------~------~~~--~.--~0 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 .1913 1914 1915 1916 . 

-

·-

-

1-

1-

1-

1-

*From Engineering and Mining Journal_ 

CURVES SHOWING PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF COPPER INDUSTRY, 1907-1916. 
COPPER. 105· 

Ina.nufactured fonn, however, were notably larger. Exports of metallic copper in 1917 have thus far been much larger than those for 

any equal period in 1916. During the war the exports of copper 

in raw or manufactured fonn are likely to continue at the present 

rate and possibly to increase. Don1estic consumption during the 

last two years has greatly increased over that preceding the war, 

though much of the· copper consumed was exported in n1anufactured 

foru1. 

rhe price of copper has varied greatly during the last 10 years. 

At the beginning of that period it was exceptionally high, as it has 

also been in the last two years. The a Yerages of the yearly average price of electrolytic copper for the 10 years preceding the war, 

1004 to 1913, as given by the Engineering and Mining Journal and by 

the American Metal Market and Daily Iron and Steel Report, were, 

respectively, 15.060 cents and 15.550 cents a pound. For the five 

years preceding the war, 1909 to 1913, the averages were 13.941 and 

1t1.300 cents. From a date early in 1915 to the end of 1916 there 

was a general upward trend in the price, interrupted by declines for 

short periods. In the early n1onths of 1917 the upward tendency 

apparently ceased, and there has been a slight decline that seems 

likely to persist, owing to the fact that refinery production· now seems 

to equal the den1and. 

It has not been possible for the Survey to compile data showing 

the average cost of aU the copper produced. For several years before 

the war a large proportion of the copper was produced at a cost of 

less than 10 cents a pound, and it was the general belief that the 

average cost ·of the production d~d not exceed lO cents. The curtaihnent of production at the beginning of the war doubtless caused 

an increase in average cost, even with the lowering of wages. The 

great increase in production that followed gave opportunity to operate plants to t.heir fu.ll capacity, and in spite of increase in cost of 

labor and material Inany companies showed a decrease in cost of. 

copper in 1915 over previous years. More copper was doubtless produced at a cost of 10 cents or less a pound in 1916 than in any previous 

year, though the increase in the amount of copper produced from 

mines that are not operated at normal prices, together with some 

increase in the cost of much of the copper, possibly resulted in a. 

slight increase in the average cost of the output for 1916 as compared with the average before the war. 

The known supply of copper ore in the United States has been 

greatly increased. during the last few years. This gain has been due 

in part to the development of deposits but even more to the improvement in mining and metallurgic methods. It is doubtless safe to 

say that for several years Inining and metallurgic improvements have 

added to the reserves mo~e copper in material that. was previously 
106 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

below commercial grade than has been extracted during the same 

period. The copper that is being made available in the tailings of 

earlier operations would in some districts doubtless go ·far toward 

equaling the current production. 

There is much difference of opinion regarding the future demand for 

copper produced in the United States. Some factors regarding this 

demand seem to be fairly certain. As long as the war continues 

there will doubless be a large if not increasing demand. At the end 

of the war there will be a large need of metals· for reconstruction. 

When normal conditions are restored there will have been a very 

large increase in the copper-producing capacity of conntries outside 

of the United States, including South America,· Africa, British Columbia, Japan, Russia, and other countries, as well as in that of this 

country, and unless the increased consumption continues the competition in the copper market will be keener than before the war. 

The consumption will doubtless be largely influenced by the price, 

and the continuance of the industry on the present scale will probably 

necessitate a· very great reduction in the price. 
LIMESTONE AND I.JIME. 

By G. F. LouGHLIN. 

DISTRIBUTION AND QUALITY. 

Limestone, including high-magnesium limestone or dolomite, has 

been demonstrated by work of the United States Geological Survey 

to be so widely distributed anfi so abundant in the United States 

that there is no doubt whatever of an adequate supply to meet all 

unprecedented demands, even though it is realized that stone sufficiently pure to yield lime of the highest grades forms but. a small 

fraction of the whole. Limestone is quarried and lime is manufactured in 43 of the 4:8 States, and large deposits are favorably situated with respect to industrial centers, especially in the Central and 

Eastern States. 

The northeasternmost deposits worked are in the Rockland district of southern }.iaine and include both high-calcium and magnesian limestone of excellent quality. Although these deposits are 

small compared to the vast supplies of the Middle Atlantic and East 

Central States, their position near tidewater has made Maine one of 

the foremost of the lime-producing States, with principal markets 

in eastern New England and New York. 

Limestones and dolomites are present in both eastern and western 

Vermo:nt. The western belt, which includes the famous marble 

deposits, is by far the more valuable. It extends southward through 

western Massachusetts and Connecticut and eastern New York. The 

larger part of the rock in this belt is of dolomitic character, but the 

great extent of the high-calcium rock in it may be realized when it 

is remembered that practically all the enormous output of marble, 

as well as of lime, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. is 

high-calcium rock of excellent quality. 

Limestones in northern New York are prevailingly high in calcium but include considerable dolomite. They extend in a nearly 

continuous semicircular belt along the west shore of :Lake Cham· 

plain, southwestward to the vicinity of Saratoga Springs, then westward and northwestward to the east end of Lake Ontario. Another 

belt extends eastward from Buffalo through the large cities of central 

107 
108 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

New York to Albany, then southward to Kingston, and southwestward into New Jersey and Pennsylvania. 

In eastern Pennsylvania this main belt is flanked on the southeast 

by areas of high-calcium and high-magnesium limestones, which supply high-grade material to the region around Philadelphia, Pa., and 

Wilmington, Del., and include some of the largest lime plants in the 

country. The n1ain belt, which also includes high-calcium and h.ighmagnesiuin rock, extends continuously from Easton, Pa., south-· 

westward across Maryland, along the great valley region of Virginia 

and eastern Tennessee, across the northwest corner of Georgia, and 

into Alabama as far a.s the Birmingham district. Other belts, relatively narrow, extend in sinuous courses through western and central 

Pennsylvania, western l\1aryland, and eastern West Virginia, joining 

the main belt in southwestern Virginia. These immense supplies of 

limestone consist prevailingly of relatively impure rock, some of which 

is adapted for manufacturing natural cement or, when mixed with 

shale from neighboring deposits, for manufacturing Portland cement; 

but the quantity of high-grade rock present is not only sufficiently 

extensive for all commercial demands but also well situated with 

respect to markets, as is shown by the fact that Virginia and West 

Virginia are among the first six and Tennessee and Alabama among 

the first fifteen of the lime-producing States. The great quantities of furnace flux used in the Birmingham district, Ala., are of 

high-grade dolomite from this extensive belt. Published analyses 

of high-grade dolomite in this belt are few, but the deposits they 

represent are so distributed as to indicate that workable beds are 

present throughout the length of the belt. 

. In the Carolinas limestones occur principally in small beds which 

are too poorly situated and in which the rock is too impure to be of 

more than local interest. 1-'he deposits at Boilstone; N. C., and 

·O"affney, S. C., however, yield or have yielded high-calcium lime of 

good quality. 

The limestone deposits in the Coastal Plain region of the Southern 

States include for the most part 1narls and soft limestones, too impure 

to be of more than local interest for the production of lime. The 

only lime-producing center of importance is Ocala, Fla. I-Iigh-grade 

material is known to be present at severalother places, but very few 

of these are near industrial centers. 

The broadest and most continuous limestone area in the country 

extends through parts of all the Central States. Its northern li1nit 

in the United States is along Lake Huron, in northern Michigan. 

From this region it extends in a belt of prevailingly magnesian limestone through eastern Wisconsin to northern Illinois, where it divides 

into an eastern and a western branch. The eastern branch extends 
LIMESTONE AND LIME. 109 

from the Chicago district into Indiana and Ohio, both States containing im1nense quantities of high-calcium and high-1nagnesium 

stone of great commercial importance. The belt continues southward through Kentucky and middle Tennessee to northern Alabama 

but has been relatively unproductive .in these States, although some 

of its beds contain high-calcium stone of excellent quality. Dolomitic limestone occurs near Louis'Ville, Ky. 

The west branch of the great dolomitic belt in northern Illinois 

extends into Iowa and southern Minnesota. In Iowa it is continuous 

with high-calcium limestone that extends southward into Missouri, 

where it divides into two branches, one following Mississippi River 

to Cape Girardeau and connecting across southern Illinois with the 

deposits in Kentucky, the other extending westward and southwestward into Arkansas and Oklahoma and the southeast corner of 

l{ansas. These two branches nearly surround a great area of dolomitic li1nestone in the south-central part of Missouri and the northern 

part of Arkansas. 

Besides these vast and commercially iinportant deposits, there are 

several beds of high-calcium limestone in Kansas, Oklahom.a, Texas, 

Colorado, Wyoming, and South Dakota. In and across the Rocky 

Mountains extensive deposits of limestone and dolomite are prese~t 

in every State. The small production of the majority of these States 

is quite in contrast with the extent of the deposits, which have been 

systematically developed only where they are sufficiently accessible 

to large cities. 

PRODUCTION, IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS. 

PRODUCTION. 

The importance of limestone in the mineral industry is shown by 

the quantity and value of limestone and lime sold in the United 

States from 1911 to 1915, the latest year for which complete statistics 

are available. 

Limestone and lime nw1·lceted in the United States, 1911-1916. 

Lime. 

Limestone 1----;------,----

(value). Quantity 

(short tons). Value. 

~gg:::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~~: ~~~: ~~ ~; ~~~; ~~3 $~~; ~~~: ~r! 1913 .................................................... 38,745,429 3, 595,390 14,648,362 

i~lt:::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: g~: ~(~; ~~g b t~~; 8~g bH;~~~; !~g 

a Figures not yet available. b Estimated. 

Average 

price 

per ton. 

$4.03 

3.96 

4.07 

3.92 

3.99 

b 4.30 
110 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Of the total value of lin1estone recorded,, which does not include 

that used for Portland ce1nent, about two-thirds represents crushed 

stone and building stone of different grades. The remaining third 

represents stone used for fUl·nace flux and in chemical industries, the 

most important of which are alkali works, carbonic acid plants, glass 

factories, and paper mills. About one-third of the· total lime is used 

in the building industry. The remainder is used mainly in agriculture, chemical works, paper mills,. tanneries, and sugar factories. 

The foregoing table shows decreases for both limestone· and lin1e 

in 1914, when the ea:rly stages of the European war caused a general 

industrial depression. Thls depression, especially in the building 

trades, lasted until late in 1915, and the recovery in production for 

that year is due principally to a revival of metallurgic and chemical 

industries which overshadowed continued decrease in the production 

of crushed stone and n1ost kinds of structural stone. The marked 

increase in production in 1916 may be inferred from the great gain 

in estimated sales of lime, which was accomplished in spite of shortage of labor and cars and large increase in cost of production. In 

fact, the quantity of lime that can be produced in the United States 

to meet unprecedented demands is limited by the capacity of limekilns, the supply of labor and fuel, and adequacy of transportation 

facilities rather than by the quantity of available stone. 

IMPORTS. 

Imports of limestone and lime represent only an insignificant part 

of the total quantity consumed annually in the United States, 

amounting in 1915 to 2,224 tons, valued at $21,7.07. By far the 

greater part of these imports comes from Canada, whlch in 1915 

supplied 1,727 tons, valued at $15,290. This quantity should be 

affected at present only by conditions of labor, fuel supply, and 

transportation. Even if the Canadian imports were for any reason 

completely cut off, domestic stone or lime could be readily shipped 

to any of the markets affected. Imports of lime fron1 other countries 

comprise specially prepared materials adapted for certain uses and in 

1915· were recorded as follows by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic 

Commerce, Department of Commerce: Germany, 604,000 pounds, 

valued at $5,54 7; Mexico, 227,800 pounds, valued at $723; England, 2,300 pounds, valued at $134; Japan, 1,000 pounds, valued at 

$11; Hongkong·, 200 .pounds, valued at $2. There is no apparent 

reason why these small quantities can not, if necessary, be displaced 

by domestic lime; in fact, the place of at least one European magnesian lime (W~enerkalk, or Vienna lime) is already said to have been 

taken by domestic lime. 
LIMESTONE AND LIME. 111 

EXPOI~TS. 

Exports of lime have gone mainly to Canada, 148,458 barrels of 

200 pounds, valued at $82,258, being shipped in 1915. The total 

exports for tliat year were 162,229 barrels, valued at $106,312, and 

included small quantities, ranging from 2 to 5,201 barrels, sent to 

Mexico, countries in Central and South America, the West Indies, 

England, Australia, New Zealand, and French Oceania. Increase in 

exports of lin1e, like that in domestic sales, is governed by the demand 

a.nd facilities of production and marketing, as the supply of limestone is practically inexhnustible. 

MILITARY IMPORTANCE OF LIMESTONE AND LIME. 

All industries, of course, are affected directly or indirectly by the 

war, but some, owing to the nature of their products, have attracted 

particular attention. Such, for example, are operations in the iron , 

and steel industry, including the location of armor-plate plants; the 

n1anufacture of nitrates and related products; and intensive agriculture. Other industries that would be affected by cutting off 

of supplies include glass manufacture, especially for optical work, 

and paper manufacture, for which wood pulp has been imported. 

Special problems caused by armies in the field, such as purification 

of water supply and of sewage, fifty also be mentioned. In all of. 

these, ~s well as many more, limestone is used, and most of then1 

1·equire high-calcium stone of high grade (containing 95 per cent or 

n1ore of ca:rbonate). For example, limestone for optical glass must 

be practically free from iron and aluminum; Dme for nitrate manufacture must be as free as possible from silica, alumina, iron, and 

magnesia. Although rock of so high a grade forms only a small 

fraction of the limestone deposits of the country, it is nevertheless 

sufficiently abundant and accessible to industrial centers. 

For some uses, however, dolomite or high-magnesium lime is preferred or required. These materials are especially available for 

blast-furnace flux, being preferable to limestone for this purpose in 

some localities; for dead-burned dolomite in the basic open-hearth 

process of steel manufacture, where it takes the place of Austrian 

magnesite; for the manufacture of magnesium and magnesium salts, 

an industry supplied in the Pacific coast region from deposits of 

magnesite but made possible in the East by the cutting off of European imports; also for special grades of magnesian li1ne to replace 

material that had been imported prior to the war. Dolomite is also 

required in the sulphite process of paper manufacture and in certain 

branches of the tanning industry. 
112 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

For the last two as well as ·certain·other uses of dolomite, or nlagnesian limeston.e, freedom from more than 2 or 3 per cent of in1purities 

is required; and one inquiry has been received by the United States 

Geological Survey for a dolomite containing not more than 0.05 per 

cent of iron. Available analyses of limestone and dolomite in which 

impurities, especially iron and alumina, are separately and accu~ 

rately determined are relatively scarce, and it is urged that the 

own!3rs of limestone and dolomite deposits hereafter have more 

accurate analyses of their storie and burned lin1e made. Even for \ 

uses where impure stone may be suitable or even required, as in 

sintered dolomite, the quantity of the different impurities doubtless 

has a direct bearing on the quality of the burned n1aterial. 

There is, furthermore, a tendency on the part of some producers 

of building lime to investigate the influence of impurities on the 

workability of the lime and its strength after setting. The need 

of greater accuracy in limestone analyses is therefore becoming 

a 1natter of general interest to lime producers, as weU as of vital 

importance to certain industries affected by the present abnormal 

conditions. 

Limestone and lime for agriculture need not necessarily be of very 

high grade. Although insoluble im.purities tend to lessen the percentage of lime available for improving the soil, they are not acti'Vely 

injurious to plant growth, and it may be more economical to use a 

local lime than to go to the expense of purchasing a higher-grade 

li1ne in a distant market. Both calcium and magnesium limestones 

or limes are suitable for counteracting acidity of the soil, although 

their use should depend on the kind of crops to be raised. The 

supply of limestone available for agriculture is therefore unlimited, 

and its widespread occurrence and low cost are important factors in 

the intensive cultivation during war time of land that, in recent 

years at least, has not been prepared for the growing of crops. From 

the fact that limestone and lime, by reacting with minerals of the 

soil, render ·such constituents as potash and phosphorus more available and also aid in the growth of the bacteria that render nitrogen 

available, it is obvious that lime will not only serve to counteract 

acidity of soils but in some soils will serve as a substitute for fertilizers whose price may be expected to rise with a marked increase in 

demand. 
PORTLAND CEMENTo 

By ERNEST F. BURCHARD. 

RAW MATERIALS. 

Portland cement, a product obtained by finely pulverizing clinker 

produced by calcining to incipient fusion a properly proportioned 

n1Lxture of calcareous and argillaceous materials, is now manufactured in 28 States, those not yet having active plants for making 

this important structural material being th.e six New England Stat~s, 

Delaware, the Carolinas, Florida, l\1ississippi, Wisconsin, Arkansas, 

-Louisiana, the Dakotas, Wyoming, New Mexico, Idaho, and Nevada. · 

The most com1non raw n1aterials required for the manufacture of 

Portland cement are high-calcium limestone, marl, "cement rock" 

(an argillaceous limestone), clay, shale, blast-furnace slag, and boiler 

ashes of the proper composition. Combinations of two or more of 

these ingredients are generally ·used in order to supply the necessary 

lime, silica, and alumina. Coal, cr1.1de petroleum, or natural gas· are 

.the fuels used in burning cement in the kilns. 

DISTRIBUTION OF PORTLAND CEMENT MILLS. 

The natural raw materials ·for cement are widely distributed, as 

has -been shown by field work dqne by the United States Geological 

Survey, and there are few States that do not contain them in sufficient quantity for the manufacture of Portland cement. The distribution of Portland cement mills, however, ha.g been controlled for 

.the most part by markets and transportation facilities, considered in 

connection with adequate supplies of suitable raw materials and fuel. 

The large an1ount of capital required for the construction and operation of a cement mill-ranging from $500,000 for a small plant to 

five or six ti1nes that amount for one of the larger plants-has necessarily restricted the distribution of honestly promoted plants to 

localities in which the chances for success are greatest. In late years 

competition in the cement-manufacturing business has been ·very 

great, and this has further restricted the establishment of new plants. 

. If the distribution of cement mills is considered with reference to 

national defense, a glance' at a map showing location of all the mills 

127972°--19----8 113 
114 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

in the United States 1 brings out the fact that they are for the 1nost 

part ideally situated for quickly supplying cement to seacoast cities 

·and yet are generally remote enough from the coast to be imn1une 

from direct attack by sea forces. The New England coast points 

can be advantageously supplied with ce1nent by mills in the Hudson 

-River district of New York; the New York, New Jersey, and Delaware coasts can obtain cement quickly from plants in the I-Iudson 

River district and in the Lehigh district of eastern Pennsylvania and 

western New Jersey; the Maryland and Virginia coasts from plants in 

those States, one of which is situated near Norfolk, Va.; the Carolina, 

Georgia, and Florida coasts from plants just west of the Appalachian 

front in Tennes~?ee, Georgia, and Alabama. Gulf of Mexico points ., 

can be supplied by plants in Alabama, Oklahoma, and Texas, only 

one of which (at Houston, Tex.), is near th~.Gulf. The Pacific coast. 

is supplied from groups of 1nills in southern California, around San 

Francisco Bay, near Portland, Oreg~, and near Puget Sound. Cities 

on the Great Lakes can get ce1nent frmn many mills in northern New 

York, western Pennsylvania, northern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, 

the southern peninsula of Michigan, and the mill at Duluth, Minn. 

Along the Mexican border there are long stretches that are remote 

from supplies of Portland ce1nent, but mills in southern Caliiornia, 

near Phoenix, Ariz., and at El Paso and San Antonio, Tex., should 

be abl~ to deliver what is needed. 

MILITARY IMPORTANC:E OF PORTLAND CEMENT. 0 

Portland cmnent is used mostly as an ingredient in concrete, a mLxtl.lre of cmnent, sand, and gravel, broken stone, or slag, and to a 

smaller extent in mortar and plaster, where it is mixed with sand 

alone. The cement usually constitutes about one-ninth to oneseventh by volume of the mixture .. When sufficient water is added 

the ce1nent, which is the 1nost finely divided of. these materials and 

consequently most intimately Inixed with the others, takes up water 

of crystallization, forming complex silicates of calciun1 and ahuninum. 

This crystallization is termed "setting" of the cement, and through 

its action the sand and gravel or broken stone are botm.d together 

and for1n a rocklike mass. The "setting" of Portland cen1ent takes 

place as well under water as in the air, and consequently ce1nent is 

of great value for construction work that is partly submerged. Concrete is en1ployecl in the massive forn1 and also reinforced with steel 

rods, wire, and mesh, thus making possible its use in taller, lighter 

structures than could be built of solid concrete. Reinforced concrete has been found to offer greater resistance to fire, earthquake, 

and shock of explosions than other forms of structural 1naterials. 

1 Burchard, E. F., Cement in 1914: U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1914, pt. 2, pp. 221-259, 

1915; Cement in 191G: Idem, 1916, pt. 2, pp. 341-375, 1918. 

.l 

\ 
.PORTLAND CEMENT .. 115 

Concrete possesses .great. adaptability to a wide variety of uses, :besides ·being cheap, easily and quickly handled, sanitary, and durable, 

and .these characteristics taken ·together r~nder it of great militu.ry 

importance . 

... Among the military uses to which concrete is put ·are the construe ... 

tion of armories, barracks, roads, bridges, coast and interior fortifications, gun emplacements, trench linings, b.on1bproof shelters, maga-

.zines for explosives, tunnels, retaining walls, sea walls, wharves, d~y 

docks, water reservoirs, aqueducts, sewers, sewage-treatn1ent works, 

incinerators, stables, floors, roofs, munition-factory buildings, warehouses, fuel-oil tanks, barges, and ev{}n in the. interior .of battleships. 

INDEPENDENCE OF THE CEMENT INDUSTRY. 

The United Sta-tes produces· more Portland cement than is .. consumed within. the country, and the raw materials are here in :abundance. The absolute independence of .the industry is assured by the 

fact that everytbing.needed by a fully equipped cement 1nill ;may be 

obtained in the pnited States, including pulverizing inachinery, peb,.. 

bles fo.r grinding, and refractory n1aterials for kih1 linil~g. The 

further possibility of obtaining potash as a by-product at 1nany of 

the cement n1ills lends encouragement to the production of ce1nent 

at such mills1 even in times when the pro:fi ts fro1n .cem-ent alone are 

SDlall. 

CONDIT10NS IN 1914 AND LATER. 

The year 1914 witnessed the first recorded decrease in annual production of Portland cement in the United .States. The industry had 

experienced a remarkable growth .during the pr{}ceding 10 years, and 

it was but natural that a slight check should come :at this tim.e. The 

average price per barrel in. bulk at mills decreased 7.8 cents in 1914, 

and the beginning .of the wa:r in Europe may be said to have marked 

a period of depression in the American cementjndustry, from -\vhich 

recovery was slow at first. 

The Portland cement industry showed no noteworthy developInents during 1915, notwithstanding th~ greater activity in the 1netal 

u1dustries. In view of the experiences of 1914 manufacturers exercised considerable caution, the result of which was a. slight increase in 

the volume of shipments, a small .decrease in the quantity of cement 

manufactured, and a considerable decrease in the stocks of cement on 

hand, all indicating a correction of the tendency toward overproduction that has manifested itself at times during the last fe·w years. 

Prices in 1915 decre.ased 6.7 cents a barrel below those of 1914, and 

the estimated consumption of Portland cement per· capita in the 

United States was 0.76 barrel, con1pared viith 0.77 barrel in 1914. 

The total pToduction in 1914.and 1915 represented fron1 about 69 per 
116 OUR.· MINERAL SUPPLIES, 

0 cent to 76 per cent ·of the apparent actualomanufacturing capacity, 

·according to figures reported to the Geological Survey, but it is now 

believed that the actual capacity was greater than was reported. 

In 1916 the conditions were much more satisfactory. At the begin-

. ning of the year the industry was already feeling the effects of the 

gradual revival of activity in construction work, and throughout the 

year 1nills in all parts of the United States were busy n1anufacturing 

and shipping cement at a rate greater than at any other ti1ne since 

1913, although labor troubles and lack of freigh~ cars operated as a 

handicap on production and shipments. Higher prices prevailed, and 

Eix new plants reported their first production in 1916, one each in 

California, Minnesota, New· York, Oklahoma, Oregon, and Texas. 

The plants in Oregon and Texas are close to tidewater, and the one 

in Texas is unique in using oyster shells as the calcareous ingredient 

of its raw mix. 

As a result of increased business in 1916 stocks of Portland cement 

we·re reduced below norn1al, yet the reserve of 1nore than 8,250,000 

barrels on hand at the beginning of 1917 see'ms sufficient for emergencies. This reserve, however, should be maintained and, if possible1 even increased. · 

rrhe present cement-clinker lnanufacturing capacity of the mills in 

the United States is possibly from 30 to 40 per cent greater than 

the nor1nal consun1ption, and this surplus capacity seems likely to be 

maintained through the building of new 1nills and the enlargement of 

existing mills. In its bearing on the present situation this condition is 

encouraging, for there are likely to be large increases in the de1nand for 

cement for military purposes for use by the United States as well as 

by her allies. The utilization of the increased manufacturing capacity 

is likely also to prove an incentive for gaining new trade in the West 

Indies, South America, and the Orient if shipping is available. 

PRODUCTION, IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS. 

The production of Portland cement in the United States from 1912 

to 1916 has ranged between 82,000,000 barrels and 92,000,000 barrels 

·annually, an output far exceeding that of any other country. Average prices have been relatively low, ranging between 80 cents and 

$1.10 a· barrel in bulk at the mills, yielding only small profits, but 

much higher prices are reported to have prevailed in the early months 

of 1917. 

The imports of hydraulic cements into the United States are normally very small, but in ° 1916 they were· almost negligible, having 

dropped to 1,836 barrels, compared with 42,218 barrels in1915. 

The exports have never been great, the largest quantity-that in 

1912-having been only 4,215,532 barrels. In 1914, 1915, and 1916 

the exports were respectively 2,140,197, 2,565,031, and 2,563,976 barrels. These quantities represent less than 3 per cent of the total pro-
PORTLAND CEMENT, 117 

duction of hydraulic cen1ents in the United States during those years. 

As recent increases have been due largely to greater exportation to South 

American countries and the West Inrues, it appears that the cement 

trade is slowly expanding in the direction of greatest promise. The 

opportunities in these fields were· pointed out recently by the Director 

of the United States Geological Survey.1 Figure 3 shows graphically 

the relation between domestic production and consumption of Portland ceInent in th~ United States 

in the last ·six years. 

NEEDS OF THE CEMENT 

INDUSTRY. 

Among the present needs 

of the cement industry is 

more comprehensive and 

accurate information with 

regard to the distribution 

of materials suitable for 

conerete aggregates-especially for concrete roadsBarrels 

,95,000,000 

90,000,000 

85,000,000 

such as good clean sand, ·. 80,000,000 gravel, and stone available 

for crushing. This information can perhaps.best be 

assen1blecl through cooperation by the United States 

Geological Survey, the Bu- :?5-;-i>oo~ooo 

reau of Standards, and the 

Office of Public Roads 

and Rural Engineering. If 

I u/ 

"&! 

81 Ol o, 

I 

I 

I 

/ .!;! 

~ 

(/} 

(}) 

£ 

0 

Q 

1/ 

~; \ I -~; 

(;'l ', b~j \ ,f (.0 ' o../ " I I " . 

. " I ", . 

()~; ~ 

I " ~ . 

I 

funds were available the '

7o,ooo,ooo 

Survey could make the field · _1911 1912 1913. 1914 1915. 19I6J 

examinations, collect sam- FIGURE 3.-Domestic production and consumption of Portland cement, 1911-1910. 

ples of materials for test, 

and prepare maps and descriptions of the nature of t.he deposits, and 

the other bureaus could make the requisite laboratory studies of both 

raw materials and Inanufactured products. 

1 Smith, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 599, p. 31, 1914' 

CLAY AND CLAY PRODUCTS. 

By JEFFERSON MIDDLETON. 

CLAY. 

The clay resources of the United States are almost illimitable and 

have hardly been touched, though billions of dollars' worth of wares 

have been made from them. Nor have the clays of the United States 

.been put to many uses to which they are adapted. . Except for 

kaolin or china clay and some of the most highly refractory clays, 

we are now practically independent of foreign supplies. 'fhe principal 

indictment against dmnestic white-burning clays has been the lack of 

purity .and uniformity in the marketed raw material. Laboratory 

studies by the Bureau of Mines and the Bureau of Standards have 

shown that by proper treatn1ent or by blending the An1erican clays 

n1ay be used for n1any purposes for which they have heretofore been 

thought unsuitable and they can be profHably used as a substitute 

for the imported clays. 

The principal recent concern of the American rnanufacturers has 

been to find a substitute for the high-grade fire clays formerly in1-

ported from Germany and used in the n1anufacture of glasshouse 

supplies, crucibles, lead pencils, emery wheels, etc. At. the beginning 

of the war the users of these clays were apparently well supplied with 

thern. As stocks became depleted, with no prospects for a resumption 

of imports, the manufacturers of high-grade· refractory products 

turned to the United States Geological Survey and othm· Governrnent 

bureaus for in.Iorn1ation as to sources of domestic clays suitable for 

these uses. Such clays have been reported to the Geological Survey 

fron1 Arkansas, California, Delaware, Illinois, Kentucky, Mississippi, 

:Missouri, North Dakota, Ohio, and Pennsyhrania, and lists of n1iners 

of these clays have been supplied to n1any inquirers. Bleininger and 

Schurecht/ of the Bureau of Standards, have shown the feasibility 

of substituting don1estic for foreign clays and corum.ent as foUows on 

the situation: 

'l'he question of replacing the plastic clays imported from Europe in considerable 

quantities up to the outbreak of the European war has been of importance to the industries concerned. The materials which are chiefly concerned are the Gross Almerode 

day for the glass and the Klingenberg clay for the graphite crucible and allied industries. 

1 Blciningcr, A. V., :mel Schurecht, H. G., Properties of some European plastic fue clays: Bur. Standards Tech. Paper 79, 1916. 

]19 
120 OUR. MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Some of the users of such materials have sought to replace these clays by individual 

American clays. There is no reason to believe that such clays can not be found in 

the United States; in fact, materials have been tested in this laboratory which approach 

the foreign clays·in quality. It would be far better, however, to depend upon a 

mixture of two ot more clays, representing both clays of the open and more refractory 

and of the dense and vitrifying variety; to secure the desired condition. Since su.ch · 

clays as those from the St. Louis, Mo., district have been. used for years with good 

success in glass-pot mixtmes, in conjunction with the Emopean clays, it would not 

be difficult to supplement their qualities by means of materials vitrifying at lower 

temperatures and not subjectto overturning within a considerable temperature range. 

Such clays, it is true, are not common, but may be found among the ball clays or semiball clays of Tennessee and Kentucky and in some of the plastic No. 2 fire clays, as 

those from Pennsylvania and Ohio. ·. 

The de1nand for ·clays to be used in the place of the English china 

. and ball clays has not been so sharp, because the supply. has not 

been so greatly curtailed as that of the Gern1an fire clays. Never~ 

theless there has been some falling off in the impo:rts of kaolin or 

china clay and more or less demand for a substitute for the imported 

kaolin. Sproat,t of the Bureau· of :Mines, has shown that if the 

Georgia and South Carolina clays are tren,ted with caustic soda and 

sulphuric acid, at a cost of less than 50 cents a ton, they can be substituted for the ball clay and 50 per cent of the English· china clay, 

and that whiter and stronger tile can be .made from these clays in 

their purified form with domestic feldspar than can be n1ada from 

in1ported china clay and Cornwall stone. From these results, and 

the possibility of the successful treatment of other clays heretofore 

deemed unsuitable for use in the white-ware industries, together 

with the fac.t that large deposits of white-burning clays in this coun-

'- try are at present undeveloped, it seems probable that the United 

States will become entirely independent of foreign clays. 

CLAY PRODUCTS. 

The direct use of clay products in war is of n1inor importance compared with the use of refractory products in the iron and steel and 

glass1naking industries and the use of clay wares in the chemical 

industries, which are of vital importance to military operations. 

The clays of the United States fonn the basis of great industries. 

In value of annual output these products stand next to the two 

n1etals and two fuels that rank highest-iron and copper, coal and 

petroleunl. Every State has its workable deposits of clay, and every-· 

variety of ware, fr01n the commonest product-co1n1non brick-to 

the highest grade of china or porcelain, is made from domestic clay 

within our borders. The in1ports of these wares are now exceedingly 

small c01npared :with donwstic production, being valued in 1915 at. 

only 4 per cent of the total output. Of the i1nports, 97 per cent 

consisted of pottery arid 3 per cent of brick, firebrick, and tile. · 

1 Sproat, I. E., Refining and uti:ization of Georgia kaolins, with a preface by C. L. Parsons: Bur. Mines 

Bull. 12s; 1916. 
·CLAY AND CLAY PRODUCTS 12t 

The value at the point of shipn1ent of the pottery consun1ed. 

annually in the United States "is about $50,000,000. The proportion 

of domestic production to consumption has been gradually increasingsince 1907, reaching its ma:x:imum--over 90 percent-in 1916. This. 

increasing market for domestic pottery is due no doubt to the improvenlent in the texture, finish, color, and decoration of the American. 

produet and in prevention of crazing, some of the higher grades of 

A1nerican pottery equaling if not surpassing some of the best imported wares. The value of the pottery produced in 1916 was the 

greatest ever recorded, the potteries during most of the year havingbeen rushed to the lirr1it. The output was somewhat curtailed, howeYer, by the inability to procure r~LW materials Oll aCCOUnt of the. 

transportation and labor conditions and the shortage of fuel. · 

The imports of pottery, whieh were in general declining even. 

before the war began, have since shown even greater deerease, the, 

value of pottery in1ported in 1916 being considerably less than one"'.·. 

half of that in 1907, the year of maxi1num value. ·· 

I' 

THE RARER METALSo 

By FRANKL. HESS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Gre~t gold placer fields, now mere wastes of overturned gravels; 

worked-out coal fields; exhausted gold, silver, and other mines, with 

their sterile dumps, gaunt head frames, and 'decaying shaft houses 

and mills, testify that, unlike manufactures and agricultural products, mineral deposits are diminishing assets, and the fact that a large 

production of some n1ineral has been made in one year does not 

necessarily imply that it can be repeated under the i1~petus of great 

need. In estimating the possible production of any mineral for 

any period, a proper weighing of the attending circumstances, the 

statistics of production of preceding years, and a know ledge of the 

deposits themselves are all necessary, and these statements probably 

apply n1ore forcibly to the metals used in alloy steels than to others, 

for these metals occur in vastly less quantities tha.n coal, iron, copper, 

or the other common n1eta.ls, and the individual deposits are smaller· 

and much less widely distributed and, unlike those of copper or iron, 

are in very few places concentrated from lean into richer del~)()sits. 

Comparatively restricted markets and lack of knowledge concern-· 

ing these metals themselves and of the minerals in which they occur 

have prevented prospecting for them until within the last few years, 

so that as a rule developments of such deposits are small. 

The subjects briefly discussed here with reference to their avail-' 

ability as war supplies are treated more fully in :Mineral Resources 

and other publications of the. United States Geological SurYey, especially those for recent years. 

ANTIMONY. 

Owing to its brittleness and softness antimony has corr1paratively 

few uses. Its principal use is in the hardening of lead, which it also 

prevents :from contracting on solidifying frmn a molten condition. 

In peace its chie:f uses are for bearing metals and type metals. In 

the manufacture of munitions the n1etal is alloyed with lead for 

123 
124 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

shrapnel bullets. The higher specific gravity of the lead is necessary to give the bullets the required weight, and the antimony is 

used to give the bullets a· hardness that will prevent deformation 

when the shell explodes. 

The United States has ·never been a large producer o.f antimony 

ores as such, but. for several years its sn1elters have turned out between 2,000 and 3,000 tons 1 of anti1nony in antimonial lead-a 

forn1 qt1ite as useful as if· the metals had been smelted separately 

and then alloyed.· The production of antimony ores in the United 

States in 1915, under the spur of very high prices, was 5,000 tons of 

ore, mined and shipped, carrying about 2,100_tons of antimony, estiJnated to be worth $425,000. The figures for antimony in ore take 

no account of the loss in smelting, probably amounting to 20 per 

cent. Of the ore produced in 1915, 735 tons of stibnite, carrying 

58 per cent of anti1nany, was mined in the vicinity of Fairbanks, 

,dAlaska, and 148 tons, with a.n unknown metallic content, near Nome. 2 

.. In 1916 the ore shipped from Alaska amounted to 1,390 tons, carrying about 57 per cent of antimony. 2 The Alaskan deposits are new 

and had not been drawn on before 1915. In the main body of the. 

1Jnited States antimony ores were taken chiefly from deposits which 

had been known for a long time but which, owing to their isolation, 

the lack of transportation, or their small size or low tenor had been 

worked only during periods of high prices. Such deposits were 

worked in Inyo, l(ern, and San Benito counties, Cal.; in Hu.mboldt 

and Elko counties, N ev·. ; and at points in Arkansas, Idaho, Montana, 

-Oregon, Utah, and vVashington. 

After the war demand became n1a.rked smelters began by demanding ores carrying about 60 per cent of antimony (Sb), but before 

the end of 1915 they were taking ores carrying 2.0 per cent and were 

glad to obta.in impure ores from South America. Figures for the 

(nltput during 1916 are incomplete, but the prodt1ction of antimony 

l.n ores mined and the imports increased over those of 1915. 

. In 1915 the antimony supplies of the .United States approximated 

_18,600 tons, mn.de up as follows: 

Tons. 

Antimony contained in domestic ores _____________________ 2, 100 

Antimony contninecl in antimonial lead of domestic origin __ 2, 800 

Antimony contained in antimonial lead of foreign origin____ 464 

Antimony recovered (in alloys). from_ old alloys, scrap, and 

dross----------~------------------~------------------- 3,102 

Antimony in imported matte and metaL _______ ~:_ _________ 8, 500 

·Antimony in imported ore __________________ .:_ ___ ·---~------ 1, 687 

Probably the first four items, a"ccount.ing for nearly half of 

the extraordinary supplies of 1915, could be duplicated under any 

great public emergency.· Of the remainder, consisting of imported 

1 The short ton of 2,000 pounds is the unit used in this paper. 

2 Figures compiled by Alfred H. Brool.:s. 
· THE RARBR l\1BTALS. 125 

metal and ore, the great bulk, ·about 8,500 tons, is of Chinese origin, 

and practically all the rest is from South America and Mexico. 

On account of our friendly relations with these countries and their 

accessibility they n1ay properly be relied on as sources of supply and 

can probably repeat the production of 1915 under similar inducements. 

Alaska holds possibilities of antimony production which ha,ve 

been d~scussed by Brooks.1 

The antimony-smelting capacity of the United States includes the 

following plants: 

1\Iagnolia 1\Ietal Co., Matawan, N. J. 

Western 1\letals Co., I .. os Angeles, Cal. 

Chapman Smelting Co., 409 Battery Street, San Francisco, Cal. 

Antimony Smelting & Refining Co., Seattle, 'Vash. 

Besides these the A1nerican Star Antimony Co., Gilham, Ark., has 

rJ plant for the electrolytic reduction of antimony, and the following 

firms smelt antimony and lead ores to make antimonial lead: 

l\letals Refining Co., Hammond, Incl. 

Hoyt l\Ietal Co., St. Louis, 1\:Io. 

International Lead Refining Co., East Chicago, Incl. 

Great Western Smelting & Refining Co., Chicago, Ill. 

Pennsylvania Smelting Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Balbach Smelting & Refining Co., Newark, N. J. 

Unitecl States l\Ietals R.efining Co., Grasselli, Ind. 

It must be adn1itted that the United States can not produce antimony in quantities equal to those now used, but it is probable that. 

satisfactory substitutes for hardening lead may be found in using: 

calcium, barium, strontium, magnesium, and copper. 

ARSENIC. 

Arsenic finds its greatest uses in insecticides, in glass making, and; 

for dyeing, and Sinaller quantities are used as a weed killer, in dis--

jnfectants, in bearing metals, and for killing vermin. 

So far as is known, only the \vhite oxide is produced in this country, and very little has been made directly from arsenic minerals, because great quantities are available as a by-product in the smelting· 

of copper, gold, silver, and lead ores. . 

In 1915 the United States produced, as a by-product, 5,498 tons of 

white arsenic, Yaluecl at $302,116. Imports a1nounted to 1,~1:00 tons, 

of white arsenic and·1,783 tons of "arsenic and sulphide of, or orpiment." The elemental arsenic amounted to probably less than 5(} 

tons. The production in 1916 was 5,986 short tons, valued at $555,186. 

In1ports in 1916 were 1,071 tons of white arsenic and 1,092 tons of-

" n1~senic and sulphide of, or orpiment," valued at $232,694. 

1 Brooks, A. H., Antimony deposits of Alas!w : U. S. Gcol. Survey Bnll. 649, .67 pp.,, 

1916; Alaska's minernl supplies: U. S. Geol. Suncy Bull. GGG-P, Hl17. 
126 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Considerable quantities of arsenic can ~asily be produced in the 

United States by saving 1nore white arsenic as a by-product and 

manufacturing the elen1ent and the sulphide fron1 it. · Owing to the 

long distance of the smelters fron1 the eastern n1arkets, a 1ninimun1 

price of 4 cents a pound in New York is probably n~cessary for the 

plants to recover arsenic at even· a small profit. 

BISMUTH. 

Bismuth, like antimony and arsenic, owing to its brittleness and 

softness, has very slight use alone. It is used as a cmnponent of 

alloys having low melting points, and as it expands on solidifying 

from the n1olten state it is used in some type and bearing 1netals. ·A 

· nun1ber of bismuth compounds are used in treating wounds, and it is 

therefore of importance in time of war. 

Practically all the bismuth produced in. this country 1s obtained 

as a by-product in smelting copper, lead, gold, and silver ores. 

The lead-silver mines at Leadville, Colo., contain pockets of ore 

that are comparatively rich in bismuth, but the deposits are erratic. 

VVhen such ores are obtained the American Smelting & Refining Co. 

smelts them separately to obtain a bismuth-rich lead which is refined by the Betts electrolytic process at Omaha, Nebr. 

The dusts saved by the Cottrell precipitation process at the copper 

s1nelter at Garfield, Utah, contain a considerable quantity of bismuth, 

and this is also extracted at the Omaha refinery, at 'vhich very complicated processes have been developed for the recovery of such byproducts. · 

The United States Metals Refining Co. also recovers bismuth fr01n 

]ead refined by the Betts process at Grasselli,. Ind. The bismuth 

comes la'rgely from ores 1nined at Tjntic, Utah. The ores are not 

themselves rich enough to work for bisn1uth, but the 1netal is left in 

the anode residues after the removal of the lead and is then sufficiently concentrated to be .an asset. 

A little bismuth ore has been produced in the Deep Creek Mountains, ·utah, and near Rico and Ouray, Colo. Bismuth 1ninerals ai'e 

reported to occur in small quantities 'vith practically all copper ores 

mined, especially in the deposits now being exploited in the Organ 

~1ountains, N. Mex.; and should Cottrell precipitation apparatus be 

put on the stacks of all the smelters the needs of the United States 

for bismuth in time of war could probably be 1net with comparative 

ease. No bismuth is now saved a.t the· Anaconda smelter, yet pub~ 

lished figures show that 800 pounds or more passes into the air each 

day. It would not be cheap nor easy .to save the bisn1uth now lost, 

but jt could probably be done if necessity arose. 
) 

j 

} 

THE RARER METALS. 127 

NICKEL. 

Nickel is now conside.red an essential for all good steels, except 

some of the special steels, such as " high -speed " steel, and it is espe· 

cially useful in making armor plate. The alloy of nickel and copper 

known as " Monel 1netal," obtained by smelting the Sudbury ores 

without separation of the two metals, has been found very useful for 

Yalves and fittings for high-pressure stea1n systems, such as those 

used on ·war vessels. 

Although the manufacture of metallic or practically pure nickel 

was de.veloped in this country by Joseph vVharton in the seventies, 

the discovery and developn1ent of deposits larger than any in the 

United States, first in New Caledonia and then at Sudbury, Ontario, 

1noved the center of production out of this country. However, the 

smelting and refining of nickel had been carried to so great a degree 

of perfection and the plants that hnd been erected "\vere so large that 

up to this time the United States has remained the largest refiner. 

No direct production of nickel from American nickel ores is knmvn 

to have been n1ade in this country since 1909, when the American 

Lead Co. operated a smelter at Fredericktown, Mo., for a short 

period; but in the electrolytic refining of copper the nickel, which 

is found in small quantity in practically all blister or other copper 

that has not been previously electrolytically refined, goes into solution in the electrolyte. The electrolyte must be watched in order 

that not more than 1 per cent of nickel shall accumulate, for a 

greater quantity is said to interfere with the smooth deposition of 

the copper and thus to cause short-citcuiting and other troubles. 

From the electrolyte the nickel is saved as nickel sulphate. Formerly a large quantity of nickel-ammonium sulphate was also made, 

but none is now reported. The other companies sell the nick:el sulphate, which is used for nickel plating, but the American Smelting 

& Refining Co. reduces the salts saved in its refineries to metal. All 

other salts saved could be reduced to metallic riickel by electrolysis, 

with little trouble. 

The first nickel known to have been recovered in this country as a 

by-product in the electrolytic refining o:f copper was obtained 1n 

1908. During the six years 1911-1916 the saYing 1vas as follows: 

N·icl<,cl content of salts and metallic nickel prod'l.tced a~ a. bu-procl·uct in the 

electrolyt·ic 1·ejin·ing .of copper, 1911-1916. 

Year. 

' 

1911 .......................... . 1912 .......................... . 1913 .......................... . 

Year. 

Quantity I 

(short Value. I 

tons). 

445 $127,000 1914 .......................... . 328 93, 600 1915 ......................... .. 241 79,393 1916 ......................... .. 

I Quantity 

(short Vahle. 

tons). 

423 $313, 000 

822 533,222 

918 6il, 192 
128 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

The imports of nickel as metal, in ore, matte, oxide, and alloys during 1915 an1ounted to 28,300 tons, and the exports to 13,209 tons, so 

that the domestic consumption for that year apparently a;mounted to 

nearly 16,000 tons. The 822 tons saved from electrolytic copper refining in 1915 therefore amounted to a little more than 5 per cent 

of the consumption. 

The imports of nickel as metal in ore, matte, oxide,· and alloys 

during 1916 amounted to 36,325 short tons, valued at $9·,901,887. 

The exports were 16,702 tons, so that the domestic consmnption for 

that year apparently amounted to 20,540 tons. The 918 tons saved 

frmn electrolytic copper refining in 1916 therefore amounted to a 

little more than 4.4 per cent o£ the constunption. 

In case o£ urgent necessity, nickel plating and other uses o£ 

nickel; except for armor plate and other war appliances, could be 

soniovvhat curtailed, and although arn1or plate o£ good quality can 

/ 1be 'made without nickel, it is so valuable in this connection that com-

. 'mon sense would· seen1 · to demand the utilizatio:p. of all possible 

·'sources in the United States until eYery war need has been met. 

The principal nickel deposits in this country as now known are 

apparently the deposits worked in the past by vVharton and others 

·at Gap, Pa.; sulphide of nickel and cobalt (linnaeite) with lead, 

copper, and iron sulphides in dolomite near Fredericktown, ~1o.;. 

nickel-bearing veins on the east side o£ the Stillwater Range, 45 

1niles southeast o£ Lovelock, Nev.; sulphide-bearing amphibolite 

·dikes near I\:ey 'Vest, Nev. ; genthite deposits in Nickel l\1ountain, 

3i miles "-est o£ Riddles, Oreg.; and a deposit 4 miles south o£ Julian, 

San Diego County, Cal., in connection with an amphibolite dike. A 

complete digest o£ the known £acts concerning these and other nickel 

deposits in the United States has been published.1 

. How much could be produced £rom these deposits ·in an emergency can only be guessed at now, but were strong efforts 111ade to-

'Yard production alone probably 2,000 or 3,000 tons of nickel in 

ore could be obtained. For its conversi.on copper smelters already 

built could probably be used, the excess- sulphur in the sulphide 

ores being used to sulphidize the silicate ores. 

· A source o£ nickel which, though not domestic in origin o£ ore, 

is nevertheless available is in the iron ores imported into this 

country £rom. Mayari, Cuba. These· ores carry not far £ron1 1 per 

cent o£ combined nickel and cobalt, n1ostly nickel. The· two metals 

'go into the iron, and i£ this iron is used as a basis £or steel, then 

so much less nickel will have to be added to give the desired result. 

During 1915, 337,004 tons o£ such ore was imported. No analyses 

are at hand showing how much of the nickel is' lost in the smelting 

1 U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1015, pt. 1, pp. 743-766, 1917. 

.\ 

1 

l 

\ 
THE RARER METALS. 129 

operation, but the pucentage in the pig ii.·on should· not be less 

than in the ore. 

The main source of the nickel now imported by the United States 

is Sudbury, Ontario. A very much smaller part comes from New 

Caledonia. Both of these localities are in countries with which the 

United States now holds the most friendly relations. 

TUNGSTEN. 

The almost indispensable place that tungsten now occupies 111 

the making of high-speed tool steels is indicated by the price to 

which tungsten ores rose when, after the beginning of the European 

war, the full demand for lathe tool steels was felt. The highest 

price recorded before the war was about $15 a unit (1 per cent 

per ton), but in the spring of 1916 the price rose above $90 a unit, 

ores selling in the Boulder field, Colo., for $93.50 a unit, and in New 

York prices of $100 or more were-said to be asked. The quantities 

produced increased almost as much in proportion. A. slump in 

1914 had brought the production for. the year down to an equivalent of 990 tons of concentrates carrying 60 per cent wo3; in 1915 

the output··increased to 2,332 tons, and it is probable that in 1916 

it amounted to 5,200 tons. Imports during 1916 were 3,973 tons. 

·of ore, presumably carryjng about 60 per cent vV03, valued at 

·$7,353,691, and 43 tons. of :ferrotungsten, valued at $157,711. Not 

only were the prices, production, and imports very high, but the 

st~ndards of purity were. temporarily lowered. Tungsten ores cont~ining phosphorus, sulphur, bismuth, tin, and copper, which· at 

other times would have received little consideration from most 

buyers, were taken readily . 

. After the middle of 1916, ho,Yev~r, prices dropped considerably 

and by the early part of 1917 had reached $17.50 a unit for concen~ 

h·ates carrying 60 per cent 'V03• This price would have been considered high before the beginning of the war, but those whose easily 

'vorked ore bodies have been exhausted or who have poor deposits 

find the price low and are asking for a tariff that will raise it still 

higher. 

Until the beginning of the war the United States had been able to 

supply its own needs of tungsten, :for though at times ores, ferrotungsten, and metal were imported, the exports probably balanced 

or. overweighed the imports. 

The great demand for tool steel to cut enormous quantities of 

shells, rifle barrels, and other war steel overran the producing ca.: 

pacity of the mines, and every available known source of tungsten 

was drawn upon. The effect upon American deposits was far from 

uniform. Companies were formed whose basis for stock sellin~ was 

127972°--19----9 
130 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

:merely a n1ore or less shadowy title to some tract of land in the 

neighborhood of paying mines; son1e persons held claims on which 

they did no work, refusing large prices in the hope ·of receiving entirely unreasonable sums; but many deposits were worked in a businesslike manner. In a considerable ntm1ber of mines, particularly 

in the Boulder field: the principal known ore shoots were worked out 

to meet the demand_, and in these mines the cost of production from 

remaining ore bodies 'vas n1aterially increased. 

On the other hand, some operators discovered shoots fr01n which 

.the ore could be removed profitably at a price as low as $6 a unit. 

This figure, however, does not allow expense to be put into exploratory work for otheT ore shoots. Creek beds ·and residual material 

near .outcrops ·of veins were worked over by men and boys, and lowg:rade material from old dumps ·carrying ore too lean to be worked 

under low prices was crushed and jigged or otherwise concentrated. 

These sources contributed a consiqerable portion o£ Boulder County's 

recent production and o£ course yield but te1nporary supplies. The 

Boulder field produced an equivalent of about 2,260 tons of concentrates carrying 60 per cent vvo3. 

A number of prospectors in other fields found deposits too late 

to mine ores that could be sold at the very high prices prevailing in 

the first half of 1916 and have done little with them. The contactn1-etamorphic ·deposits at Toulon, Humboldt County, Nev., and near 

Bishop, Inyo County, Cal.., did not come into active production be~ 

:fore the close of 1916. 

In the Atolia district of California the production rose beyond that 

of any former year, though not quite equal to thut of the Boulder 

field, and more than 2,000 tons was shipped. A quantity of scheelite 

concentrates was taken from the strea.m and .residual gravels, and it 

is probable that this part 0f tl1e production can .not be duplicated, but 

the production frmn veins, forming very much the larger part, can 

probably be repeated under an impetus of high prices and the possible 

need of the country. 

Very little .tungsten ore was produced from the deposits in the 

State of Washington, but it is reported on good authority tb.at one 

or more deposits should be productive, especially under the high 

prices that have prevailed. Data are not yet at hand to show the 

probabilities of future production in Arizona, South Dakota, and 

Missouri. Field investigation by the Geological Survey is now 

being made. "It seems likely .that the .production from New Mexico 

might be increased. Alaska became an in1portant producer, with 

250 tons of ore, and can probably repeat the output. 

High-water mark in the production of tungsten ores in this 

.country may have been reached, but it is not impossible that under 

the incentive of prices reaching, say, $35 a unit, and the added zes~ 
/ 

THE RARER METALS. . 131 

of patriotism, the figures for 1916 might be exceeded. It may be 

found ·advisable, however, to operate many properties under Government supervision, particularly isolated deposits held by men of 

little means, suitable provision being made for the payment of the 

owners, and it might be desirable to extend such supervision to at 

-least son1e of the larger mines. It is probable that under such operations sdme unproductive properties held only to be unloaded on 

some one with n1ore means or energy, usually at prices far from 

reasonable, 1night thus be made to contribute at least a small quantity of ores which might be greatly needed. 

It is not likely that so much high-speed tool steel will be needed 

again at one time as was needed at the beginning of 1916. I-Iuge 

quantities of lathes and other metal-cutting machinery were erected 

in the shortest possible tin1e, and all these had to be equipped with 

tools. It may not be necessary to erect many more, and those in 

place are probably fairly well equipped. The flow of scrap back 

to the steel works will be large and will correspondingly decrease 

the demand for new metal, so that the future draft on ores 1nay not 

be as heavy as it has been recently. 

The source of imported tungsten ores is of great interest. The 

largest part of the imported ore came from South America-Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, and possibly a lit~le from Chile-and consider-

·:tble quantities came from J\1exico, Japan, Chosen, and the East In-

.dies. In the present war it seems impracticable for an enemy to 

shut out these supplies. 

When the great de1nand can1e in 1916 American manufacturers 

were called upon to supply munitions to England, France, Italy, 

and Russia. For our own needs our own supplies of tungsten ore 

would probably be ample, but should the United States further help 

other powers with war steel it might be necessary to call on the other 

nations for some tungsten supplies. 

· Plants now in existence for the reduction of tungsten ores to metal 

or ferrotungsten will probably be sufficient to handle all the ore sup-

·plied. In the main the processes are simple, and little complicated 

or· expensive machinery is required, though ores carTying low pereentages of tungsten require more careful treatment than the highgrade ores. 

MOLYBDENUM. 

The consumption of molybdenum in the United States and, in 

:fact, in the world, is much Slnaller than that of gold, if by conf3Ulnption is understood the absorption into the channels of trade or 

the holding in stock, which may be described as a passive use. lioweYer, in 1915, the latest year for which statistics are complete, the 

United States was the largest producer of molybdenum ore, although 

it ha~ not be~n a large use.r. 
132 OUR MINERAL S.UPPLIES • 

. EsUmatecl worlcl's proclttct1on of molybclemtm o1·cs in 1915.a 

Country. Ore mineral. 

Qmmtity 

(short 

tons). 

Esti- W eigbt mated 

percent- of molyb- ageof denum 

molyb- (short 

denum. tons). 

-------------1---------i--:---------

Canada .................................... :Molybdenite ............... . New South 'Vales ..............................• do .••................... 

¥~::.~:: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::: :~~:::::::::::::::::::::: 

~~i~.s~~~-~::: :::::: ::::::::::::::: :::::::: · "'ii~~llite::: ::::: ::::: :::::: 

United States .............................. Molybdenite and wulfenite •. 

U-3 

35.;) 

87.0 

3.0 

109.0 

~9.0 

3, 498.0 

• 50 

ii-\ 

45 

49 

54 

20 

2.6 

a Hess, F. L., ~folyhdenum: U. S. Geol. Eurvey Mineral Resources, 1915, pt. 1, p. 810, 1917. 

7.2 

19.2 

39.1 

1.5 

58.8 

5.8 

91.0 

222.6 

There seems to have .been a 1narked growth in the demand for 

ferromolybdenum during the present year, and steel1nakers who have 

not been users are now making inquiry for it. 

The United States contains many deposits of molybdenite, some of 

which seen1 to be capable of supplying the country's needs in full 

under all discernible prospective circun1stances. The large deposits 

are, however, of low grade-from 0.7 to 2.5 per cent.1 

The principal deposits of molybdenmn ores known are on Chalk 

and Bartlett 1nountains and Quandary Peak, in Summit County_, and 

near Empire, on the east side of Red Mountain, Colo.; in Copper 

Canyon, on the east slope of the Hualpai Mountains, ]\1ohave County, 

at the old Yuma mine, Pima County, and at the l\1ammoth and Collins n1ines, Pinal County, Ariz.; and near Emigrant and at other 

places in Montana. -· Many smaller deposits, or deposits on which less 

development work has been done, occur in practically all the Rocky 

l\1ountain and Pacific slope States. 

Some of the deposits, such as the wulfenite-bearing veins at the 

Yuma, Mammoth, and Collins mines and the molybdenite deposits 

in Copper Canyon, Ariz., are now (1917) being actively exploited. 

The deposit on Red Mountain was r:ather extensively worked in 1915, 

but the owners later abandoned operations, assigning as a reason 

that they did not pay. . 

A large amount of experimental work has been clone on the deposits 

in Summit County, Colo., and the owners are sanguine as to the outlook for profitable exploitation. 

Should the United States Government require n1olybdenmn in 

considerable quantity it might be necessary, as with tungsten deposits, to have some part of the operations carried on under the 

supervision of Government agents, in order to insure a supply of 

ore at the time needed. 

1 Horton, F. W., Molybd~nt~m; its ores and their concentratiqn, with a discussion ~f 

market, prices, and uses: U. S, Bur. Mines Bull. 111, 132 p~;,_l916. · 

\ 
THE RARER METALS~ 

Some of the ores carry copper, vanadium, tungsten, and other undesirable constituents, and 1neans for the elimination of these impurities or for their avoidance in mining would have to be taken. 

!\1uch of the ore could be mined comparatively free fr01n them, however, and there is little doubt that all the molybdenun1 ore necessary 

could be obtained within the borders of the country. 

The reduction of the ore is not difficult and could be accomplished 

in plants already built, or, if desirable, new plants could be quickly 

erected. 

VANADIUM. 

Vanaclimn is probably to be classed as one of the highly desirable 

but not absolutely necessary constituents of high-speed and other 

tool steels, spring, gun, aut01nobile, and machine steels. All are _apparently improved by it, but all have been made of good quality 

without it. 

The world's supply of vanadiun1 is practically controllecl by 

American firms, thot1gh the largest known deposit lies in Peru, at 

~1inasragras. The second largest source, considered as a ·whole, is 

in the vicinity of Placerville and Vanadium, San Miguel County, 

Colo. There are n1any s1naller deposits in the mines .that contain 

carnotite (hydrous potassimn-uraniu1n vanadate) in southwestern 

Colorado and southeastern Utah and vanadinite (lead chlorvanadate) in New Mexico and Arizona. 

The AlUerican Vanadium Co., which controls the Peruvian deposits, usually keeps large stocks of material on hand in this country, 

so that even should the unexpected happen and that source of supply be cuf off there would probably be a considerable stock of these 

ores to draw on. The Peruvian ore is different from any found in 

this country, being a vanadimn sulphide carrying an excess of 

sulphur. It is roasted before shipping and then carries about 25 

per cent vanadimn. Considerable quantities of ferrovanadium made 

frmn this ore are exported. · 

The ore found in the Placerville-Vanadium area, Colorado, is a 

light-green sandstone, the grains of which a.re partly. cemented by 

roscoelite, a vanadium-bearing mica. The sandstone contains certain thin, flat veins one-half to three-fourths of an inch thick, whicli 

look like shale and have been so called and which are composed 

almost wholly of roscoelite and carry about 8 per cent of vanadium 

From these veins the roscoelite has app~rently spread into the sandstone, which may carry a maximmn of 4 per cent vanadium but as 

1nined probably carries 1 to 1.5 per cent. The Primos Chemical Co., 

the only con1pa.ny operating on these deposits, has a plant at Vanadium for the reduction of the ore to hydrous ferric vanadate. This 

product is then shipped to the East for further treatment. · ~fuch 
. 134 

smaller .quantities :are ·:sav..ed as :a ~y-p,t·.oduct in .the treatment of 

carnotite or.es f-or r.adiu.m.. It is .estin1ated .that in 1915 .about .627 

tons :o£ v:a11adium was pr-oduced from these two sources. 

The :extent ·of the vanadinite .. deposits . is :uncer.tain. The v:anadiRite {:>CClil.!'S 0n~y in the .oxidi:oed pads of :some lead-beaTing veins, 

especially in New l\i.exic0 and Arizona. If ,effor,ts :were mrude toward 

its rec-ov.e.ry, peThaps 50 tons or 1nor.e of vanadium ;~:n.igh:t be .re00ver.ed fr.om this s0urce, but _great efitorts would have to be macle. 

It is possible that approximately 30,000 tons o:f high-speed steels 

were produced in this country in 1916. About 0.6 per cent o:f 

vanadium is used in some of the best steels, and at this rate, onethir.GJ. being aliowed. f.or waste, about :300 t0ns of vanadium would be 

required, -so that i£ the production 0£ this la;rge t0nnage o:f :steel 

should be repeated the Un~..te.d .Stattes would still have .one-.third o:f 

its production to use in oth:er steels. 

I:f all outside supplies o:f vanadium were shut off, the worst that 

e0uld be said is .that .the country w~oukl be incooyenienced-it would 

n0t .suffer. 

TIN. 

Among the v:n:garies o£ ore ·deposi·ts which ·seem to ·show a nonhom~genous ·ear.th, as pointed -o.ut many years .ago by Becker, is :the 

erratic ·distribution o:f the metals. 

The United States is immense~y rich in iron, ·copper, gold, siiv.e·r, 

lea.d, zinc, .and tungsten -and, ·compared with ~other countries, has 

lai:ge ·deposits ·of s0me ·other metals, ·such as mercury, 1nolybdenum, 

titaraiu:m, va:nadium., u•ranium, ·and ·radium, but of a few metals it has, 

from present knowledg-e, .a sear-city, and particular~y does it lack 

nickel, .cobalt, .and tin. 

In ~the United States pro;p.er ~the known tin .deposits ·are .almost 

n~gl~gible. .A little -tin is minecil .spasn1oGlieaUy in N 0rth and South 

Carolina, 'Texas, ·and .South D.akota. Alaska produces 100 or 200 

tons a year (the yield of metallic tin was 140 tons :from Alaska 

in 1916), but when it is noted that :the United Stat~s :annuaUy uses 

·between 40,000 and 50,000 tons ·of tin :th.e inadequacy of our output 

is ;appar.ent. Moreover, the output is not likely to be greatly increa:sed from known deposits. 

·Our chief ·source 'Ot ·supply has been the Ma~-ay Peninsula, controlled J~y Great Bri~ain. The on~y :Source of :supp:J.y on th.e Western 

Continent is from ·the min-es ·of Bolivia, whose !output of about. 

.30,@00 tons is equal :to :about .two-thirds of ·our in1ports. The Bolivian 

supply i£oil'merly w.ent to Europe, mostly to Germany, !for ·smelting. 

Since the beginning of the war .efforts hav.e :been made, ·with :Some 

success, ·to di ;vert :this ore to the U ni.ted Sta<tes, :and the American 

Smelting & Refining Co. has ~erected :a .combin.ed :sme'lting :and 

\ 
,. 

J 

( 

} 

THE R.AR.ER. METALS. 135 

electrolytic refinir.tg plant at ~1aurer, N. J., with estimated capacity 

by July 1, 1917, of 18,000 tons of tin annually, for the treatment of 

Bolivian and other tin ores. It is reported that another smelting 

company will erect a plant in this country 'vith capadty, when in 

full operation, of 20,000 tons of tin a .year, for s1nelting Bolivian o~es. 

At the same time, all other supplies have been in the hands of 

friendly nations, so that our needs have been amply met. 

However, if all outside supplies should be cut off the United 

States would be forced to turn to substitutes, such as glass and 

aluminum as food containers; sherardizing and galvanizing in place 

of tin plating for many articles; zinc, lead, or aluminum sheet in 

place of tin plate £or many other articles; and tight folding and 

crimping in place of soldering. The country would frequently be 

jnconvenienced, but it could supply the lack. 
\ 

\ 
IRON. 

By ERNEST F. BURCHARD. 

In view of the extraordinary developments of the iron mining and 

manufacturing industries in the United States since the beginning of 

the war in Europe, and in view of the inevitable further increase in 

demand for iron and steel as a consequence of the entrance of the 

United States into. the war, it is of interest to review these developlnents briefly and to consider how fully it may be possible to meet 

these increased demands. 

CONDITIONS I,N 1914 AND LATER. 

Prior to the beginning of the war-indeed, during nearly the whole 

of the year 1914-the iron industry was in a state of stagnation. 

Prices were low, there was but little domestic or foreign demand for 

iron and steel, and that little den1and.:was easily met by the operation 

of mines and furnaces at a greatly reduced rate of output compared 

with that of the two preceding years. In fact, many companies that 

could have saved money by closing their mines and furnaces generously kept the1n in operation to an extent sufficient to support part 

of the army of people dependent on the wages earned in normal times. 

The first effect of the European war on the financial situation in· 

the United States was such as still further to discourage the buying of 

iron and steel products and to depress prices. This condition, of 

course, could not well be other than temporary, for, as was pointed 

out by the Director of the Geological Survey in Bulletin 599, published 

in the autumn of 1914, the interference of war with industries in the 

belligerent countries could not fail to reduce the. output of their 

mines and furnaces and to enlarge the demand for American iron and 

steel. It also seemed probable that domestic markets on the Pacific 

coast, formerly supplied in large part by manufacturers in England, 

Belgium, and Germany, would become open to American manufacturersJ as well as markets in Canada, South America, and Japan. 

Such trade revivals and readjustments require time fm; their accomplishment, even under the impetus of war conditions, and it was not 

137 
138 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

until the middle of 1915, or until the war ~ad been in progress nearly 

a year, that the demand for iron ores and metals had become general 

throughout the United States. Not until June or July, 1915, qid the 

price of pig iron begin to rise, and although the year closed with 

prices $1 to $1.25 a ton higher than at the beginning of the year, the 

average price at blast furnaces of all grades of pig iron for 1915 was 21 

cents lower than the average for 1914. 

As soon as the demand for iron ore became heavy, about the n1iddle 

of 1915, it met with a ready re~ponse, particularly in the La.ke Superior .t 

district, where there was an increase in shipments of nearly 45 per l. 

cent in 1915, compared with an aggregate increase of about 12 per 

cent in the other iron-mining districts of the United States. In 1916 

the heavy movem.ent of ore began as soon as navigation opened, 

with the result that more than 66,500,000 gross tons was shipped 

from the Lake district, an increase of nearly 41 per cent. The total 

shipments for the United States in 1916 amounted to 77,870,553 

tons, an increase for the whole country of about 40 per cent. The 

increase in districts other than Lake Superior was about 41 per cent, 

The quantities n1ined, which are given in the table ·On page 4, differ 

slightly from the shipments just mentioned. 

At the beginning of 1916 extraordinary activity prevailed in the· 

iron and steel industries, and this activity wa.s maintained with com· 

paratively little variation throughout the year, as is indicated by the 

record of pig-iron production by months, which ranged between 

3,000,000 tons and slightly over 3,500,000 tons. The total produc· 

tion in 1916 .amounted to 39,434,797 gross tons, compared with 

29,916,213 tons in 1915/ an increase of 32 per cent, following a 28 per 

cent increase in 1915. In the first six months of 1917 the output 

of coke and anthracite pig iron 2 was 19,069,892 gross tons, compared 

with 19,410,453 tons in the corresponding period of 1916, a decrease 

of about 1.7 per cent. 

The general average prices of iron ore per ton at the mines for the 

whole United States were $1.81 in 1914, $1.83 in 1915, and $2.34 in 

1916. At lower Lake ports ore prices were advanced 70 to 75 cents 

a ton for the season of 1916, after having remained stationary since 

1914. For the season of 1917 there was a general advance of $1.50 

a ton, or 2. 7 to 2.9 cents a unit of iron. The 1916 and 1917 ad· 

vances range between 15 and 21 per cent and 25 and 30 per cent 

respectively. Compared with these modest advances prices of pig 

iron rose greatly during 1916. Southern foundry No. 2, at Birming· 

ham, rose from $13 to .$22 a ton, an increase of 69 per cent. Southern 

Ohio No. 2, at Ironton, seems to hold the record with an increase 

from $14 to $30, or 114 per cent, and the higher grades of iron also 

held up well, as indicated by the rise in Bessemer iron at Pittsburgh 

1 Iron and Steel Institute. 2 Iron Age, July 5, 1917, p. 35. 
( 

IRON. 139 

from $20 to $36, or SO ·per cent. In the ·middle of July, 1917, the 

price of basic pig iron at western Pennsylvania valley furnaces and 

of Besseiner pig iron .at Pittsburgh reached $53 and $57 .. 95 a ton, 

respectively, 1 the highest points since the Civil War. 

With regard to the iron-ore situation, which is, of course, of flmdamental importance, it was stated by the Geological Survey at the 

beginning of the war that the iron-ore reserves in the United States 

are so huge that mining operations (so far as the available ore is concernBd) can readily respond to an increased demand for ore. The 

great increase in ore output during 1915 and 1916 and the fact that 

there was only a very moderate rise in the price of ore compared with 

· the extraordinary rise in the price of pig iron indicate the accuracy of the p1~ediction. At present the chief limitations to output of 

iron ore in the Lake Superior region are those imposed by shortage 

of labor and of transportation facilities. Notwithstanding the great 

drain on the iron-ore reserves new discoveries of ore have practically 

kept pace with production, so that there is as much ore known to be 

available .as at the beginning of the war. This enlargement of known 

reserves is due largely to exploration work on the Cuyuna range, in 

:Minnesota. In the summer of 1916, when the season for open-pit 

mining and shipping of iron ore was at its height, strikes muong mine 

and dock hiborers threatened seriously to cuTtail output and shipments, but a fu·m hold on the situation by the mining con1panies, 

coupled with a disposition to share profits with employees, averted 

serious or protracted trouble and made possible a record output of 

iron ore. The Lake transportation situation was further aided by 

high water and generally favorable weather, and there was good team 

work between the Lake fleet and the railroads at both ends of the 

chain. It has been freely predicted, however, that the present railway equipment and vessel tonnage can not greatly increase the movement of Lake Superior ore. 

In other iron-ore districts, such as the Adirondack region, southeastern New York and northern New Jersey, and the Birmingham 

district, there was also much activity. These districts are relatively 

small, and their output could not have been increased in so large a 

proportion fron1 existing mines, which are largely underground, had 

·not the output of 1915 been only abDut normal or less than normal. 

In these and other ·small ·districts many long inactive mines were 

reopened; in fact, almost every mine that contained available ore of 

present commercial :grade was draWn. upon, and if an iron-ore mine 

. can not be made to pay under present conditions there seems little 

hope for its immediate future. 

·Blast furnaces on the Atlantic .seaboard, when possible, .draw 

. their supplies of ·ore, in part, from Cuba, Sweden, Spain, Canada, and 

1 Iron Age, July 19, 1917, p. 149, 
140 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Chile. The resumption of traffic through the Panama Canal n1ade 

possible the i1nportation of Chilean ore and also the transportation 

of iron and steel products to the Pacific coast of North and South \ 

America, to the flawaiian and Philippine islands, and to Japan. 

The shortage of vessels, however, has seriously handicapped this 

trade. 

IRON MINING BY DISTRICTS. 

The bulk of the iron ore mined in the United States is produced 

i"n certain well-defined districts, and statistics of production by 

these units are of interest in showing how each has responded to 

the quickened demand for ore since 1914. The Lake Superior district mined nearly 85 per cent of the total ore in 1916, and the Birmingham district about 7.9 per cent, or less than one-tenth as much 

as the Lake district. The ~dirondack is the only other individual 

district that mined as much as 1,000,000 tons. The increase in 

production in the Lake· Superior district approximated 40 per cent 

~n 1915 and 36 per cent in 1916; the other districts showed increases 

anging between 6 and 55 per cent in 1916. 

!ton ore mined in the United States, 1913-1916, in gross tons. 

v 

1914 1915 

1913 Increase Ir.crease 

Quautity. or de- Quantity. or de- Quantity. Increase crease crease (percent). (percent). (percent). 

------

Lake Superior (Minn.,. Mich., Wis.) .......... 52,377,362 33,540,403 -36 46,944,254 +40 63,735,088 . 36 Birmingharp., Ala ....... 4,602, 573 4,282,556 - 7 4, 748,929 +11 5, 976,018 26 Chattanooga (Tenn., Ala., Ga., N.C.) ...... 708,619 432,006 -39 539,024 +25 836,623 55 Adirondack, N. Y ...... 1, 214,704 544,724 -55 699,213 +28 1,077,638 54 

Northern New Jersey and southeastern 

New York ............ 451,453 541,084 +20 644,493 +19 683,150 6 Other districts (south, 

central, and western). 2, 625,726 2,098, 988 -20 1, 950,577 - 7 2,859, 11)5 47 

61,980,437 41, 439, 761 1 -33 I 55,526,490 I . +34,75, 167,6721 35 

FOREIGN TRADE. 

Comparatively little iron ore is imported into the United Statesonly 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 tons a year, or about 2 to 3 per cent of 

the quantity annually n1ined. :Moreover, the exports of iron ore 

nearly offset the imports, so that the United States is at present selfsufficient so far as the supply of iron ore is concerned. Such ore ~,s 

has been in1ported. in recent normal years has come 1nainly frow. 

Cuba, Newfoundland, Canada, Spain, and Chile. Supplies from the 

United Kingdom, Gern1any, the Netherlands, and Belgium were 

almost wholly interrupted in 1915 and 1916, and it is probab~e that 
IRON. 141 

the imports from Newfouncliand, which din1inished greatly in 1914 

and ceased altogether in 1915, have been diverted to England or 

used at home. Supplies from Canada, however, arrived in increased 

volu1ne in 1915 and 1916, la.rgely fr01n the Canadia.n ranges in 

the Lake Superior district. 

It· is possible to import high-grade iron ores such as are received 

from foreign countries for use along the Atlantic s~aboard, if there is 

no interference with shipping and when ocean freights are low and 

there is no tariff on the ore. Even under these favorable conditions, 

however, foreign ore rarely gets beyond the tidewater furnaces. 

Although the United States possesses supplies of iron ore sufficient 

for nonnal demands and for many years of war needs, both European 

and American, present economic conditions render it practicable to 

import ore, especially from Cuba and South America. Iron ore 

forms the basis of the largest manufacturing industry in the United 

States. The profits to both capital and labor .are derived from the 

manufacture and sale of iron and steel products rather than from 

iron-ore mining; therefore, so long as the United States can utilize 

cheap ores from Latin America and export to those countries, as 

well as to Europe and the Orient, fabricated iron and steel goods, 

there is reason to favor continued importing of iro~ ore. Moreover, 

as little good coal is known to occur near the largest deposits of iron 

ore in South America it may never be feasible to establish the manufacture of iron on a large scale on that continent. South American 

iron ore will thus find a market either in Europe or in the United 

States, and whatever part of it is c01nmercially available to the 

United States should serve two in1portant purposes if sold here; 

i1amely, in increasing trade between the United States and South 

America and in conserving the ore supplies of the United States. 

The. quantity of iron ore exported from the United States in recent 

years has only slightly exceeded 1,000,000 tons in any year, and ~he 

largest imports have been only a little ov:er Z,500,000 tons. 

A comparison between the quantities of iron ore mined in the 

United States and those imported and exported in the last five years 

is given in the following table: 

Iron ore m,ined, imported, and exported in the United States, 1912-1916, in gross tons. 

Year. 

1912 •••• ··--- ·- -- ---·----- --------------- -·- -- ---· -·-·-- ------- -·- 1913 •••• ·--·- ·-·- ·- ·---. --- ·--- --- -----· --· ·----·------ ----- ·-. --- 1914 •••• ··- ·-·-· -·-.- ·-· -·- ·-- -·-- ··-··-·-'····--·· -·-· ------------ 1915 •••• ·------- -·-·- ---- --·-·-- ---------- ·-·- -·-·--- ·-- ---------- 1916 ••••••.. -·-···-. ---.- ·-·-- ---· ---. -· ·---·· ·-· ··-··-. -·- ·-- -··-

Mined. Imports. 

55,150,147 2, 104,576 

61,980, 437 2, 594, 770 

41,439,761 1,350,588 

55,526,490 1,341,281 

75, Hl7, G7.2 1, 325,736 

Exports. 

1, 195,742 . 1,042,151 

551,618 

707,641 

1,183,952 
142 . OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

· The imports of manufactured iron and steel (not including ferroalloys) into the United States in the last three years have not varied 

greatly and are small in comparison with the exports, which have 

increased enormously,· as shown in the following table: 

Value of iron and steel products imported and exported in 1914, 1915, and 1916.a 

Imports. Exports. 

1914............................................................................ $11,703,491 $65,988,280 

1915 ....................................................... ~.................... 9, 122, 108 15:~, 626,753 

1916............................................................................ 11,098,607 362,524,715 

a Compileu from records of Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department or Commerce. 

A graphic comparison of domestic production and consumption of 

both iron ore and pig iron is shown in figure 4. 

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF IRON-ORE DEPOSITS. 

The major features of the distribution of iron-ore deposits in the 

United States are now well known, and most of the ore-bearing districts that are advantageously situated with respect to transportation 

facilities, fuel supplies, manufacturing centers, and markets have been 

studied in more or less detail by the United States Geological Survey 

or by State organizations, including tax commissions, so that estimates of ore tonnage are available. Future general work in the less 

well-known areas and more detailed work in the better-known areas 

by both public and private agencies will probably increase rather 

than decrease the tonnage apparently available. 

The locations of the principal deposits of iron ore in the United 

States are too well known to need extended description here. Twentyeight States are regular producers of iron ore, and several others contain deposits of value. The States in which commercially important 

deposits of iron ore occur may conveniently be grouped into six 

geographic divisions, as shown in the following list, in which the 

varieties of ore found in each are also indicated: 

1. Northeastern States: Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Je1·sey, and 

Pennsylvania. Magnetite, hematite, and limonite. · 

2. Southeastern States: Maryland, the Virginias, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Hematite, limonite, and magnetite. 

3. Lake Sup.erior States: Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Hematite, limonite, and magnetite. 

4. Mississippi Valley States: Ohio, Kentucky~ Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern 

Texas. Limonite, hematite, and siderite. 

5. Rocky Mountain States: Idaho, Montana, vVyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, 

Utah, and Nevada. Hematite and magnetite. 

6. Pacific States: Washington and California. Magnetite and hematite. 
I 

IRON. · 148l 

The Lake Superior region is by far the most productive of these' 

. divisions and is followed in order by the southeastern and north-' 

GROSS 

TONS 

1911 

80,000,000 

1912 1913 11}14 1915 1916 

75,000,000 Hf-t-t-l--+-+-+-+--+--4--+--+-+-+-+--l-.J-.J-!--1-l--J.--+--l-_IJI/ 

,y 

1.'/. 

701000,000 J-H-+-+-+-+-l--1--l--l--+--t-+--l--1--1--+-~i---jf-+--\.-\-l-ljll-l 

1/· 

I 

65,000,000 H-t-t--+-t--+-+-+-+-+-+-H-+-1--l--!--l--1---1--l---kr/1-+--+--l 

I RON OR I 

.....-~~ r~ II I 6!),000,000 1-1---i--t-+-+-+-+, .....--:::::>t:v7'.l-f-\\,\r+--l--+-+-+--l-.J-t-1-il-ll--+--+--+---l 

/ " / I' 

1\\ 1// 

5 0,000,000 .1-t---11-i,;fl-+-+-+--1-+-t--.f-li---4' --\\--''+-+-+-+--?! ~"'fli§+-+--+--~~----4 HH¥4-+-+-+~--+-~~~-~-~~~--l--+-1~~~~~4-+-~~ Hr/~~+-+-+-1~~~~-+-4~~-+-+--.otw. .. ~f·-+-+~~~~~ 

'ft ~ ~~ 

45,000,000 h/H!---1-+-+-+-+-.J-t--~~-+-+~\-+--l/Hlf\q,<~-t--+-+-+-+--+--+-....:J 'I : I~ ~~~ 

\\I// 1" 

\fJ 

4a;ooo,ooo r-:H-t-l--+-+-1-++-+-+-+++-+-+-.J-+-1-hl-t--1--t--1 

/ 

35.,ooo,ooo H-t-t--+-+1 -t--+--+--+-+-t-+-+-+-+-+--+-+-f---l~--1-_,,~,(/a:I':.-+-J 

P1G IRON 1/ 

' ..--1-' 0 17. 

I 

FIGURE 4.-Domestic production and consumption of iron ore tmd pig iron, 1911-1916. 

eastern divisions; the Mississippi Valley and western divisions are at 

present of minor importance, although it is probable that Texas, C.ali ... 

fornia. and Utah are destined to become large producers of iron ore. 
OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

IRON-ORE RESERVES. 

The following data on estimated tonnages of iron ore in the United 

States and in other countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean have for 

'the most part been published by Eckel, 1 although arranged some1 what diffetently here: · · 

Estimated tonnages of iron ore. 

Minimum. 

UNITED STATES. 

Northeastern States..................................................... 300,000,000 

Southeastern States..................................................... 2, 000,000,000 

Lake Superior States ........................... ,........................ 2, 000,000,000 

Mississippi Valley States ...... ~ ........................... :............. 600,000,000 

Ro~y Mountain States~ ............................... -... ·.·.·········· } 300,000, 000 Pacific States .................................................. : ....... . 

5, 200, 000, 000 FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 

Maximum. 

600, 000, 000 2, 750,000,000 

2, 500, 000, 000 1;000, 000, 000 

700, 000, 000 

7, 550,000,000 

Newfoundland, Canada, Mexico, and C'uba.... ...... ....... ............. ... ... .......... 7,000,000,000 

South Americ·a .......................... ·................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 000,000, 000 

Europe................................................................................. 12,000,000,000 

1----~---~-~------

Total tonnage on three continents bordering Atlantic Ocean .. ·:... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,550,000,000 

' ' 

These recent estimates credit to the United States between· 

5,000,000,000 and 7,'500,000,000 tons of iron ore of present-day commercial grade, .of which about one-third is in the Lake Superior district. It thus appears that the United States possesses more than 

one-:-fifth of the available supply on three continents bordering the 

Atla;ntic Oce~~: _. .. · . 

Immense a~ ~;his quantity may seem at first glance, it is not sufficient to prolong prod-l1ction for many decades if the nite of increase 

in consumption of ore that has prevailed thus far is maintained. The 

draft on t_he ore reserves of the Lake Superior district is relatively 

n1uch heavier than on those of the· other districts, on accol.mt of the 

. possibility of .open~pit mining on the Mesabi and Cuyuna ranges 

and the low cost of transporting the ore to coal fields. The Lake 

district normally produces over four-fifths of the iron ore mined in 

the United States, and it has been estimated that if this proportion 

and present rate of increase are both maintained the known ore reserves of present commercial grade in the United States portion of 

the La.ke· Superior district can not last much beyond the year 1930.2 

There are certain factors, however, that indicate the possibility of a 

considerable prolongation of the life of the Lake Superior iron-ore 

suppli~s, as well as o~ those of the whole United States. If ore consumption . ~hould 90ntinue at . the pres~nt rate, with no .further 

increase, the estimat~d reserves· of present commercial g1~ade in the 

United States would probably be sufficient for 150 years. -

1 Eckel, E. C., Iron ores, pp. 381-397, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1914. 

s Idem,_ p. 355. 
IRON. 145 

IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVING IRON ORE. 

The conservation of the iron-ore supplies of the United States, the 

discovery of new supplies, and the development of methods for rendering supplies of low-grade ore available are vital to the maintenance of the industrial independence and supremacy of this country, 

·notwithstanding the apparent abundance of the supplies fl.t present 

available, for, as has been pointed out, the reserves of high-grade 

·iron ore now convenient of access are rapidly becoming depleted. 

Certain important factors that will aid in prolonging the life of 

the iron-ore reserves of the United States n1ay be summarized as 

follows: 

1. The steady accretion to the permanent supply of metal and the 

consequent reduction in rate of increase of production (waste of war 

not taken into consideration). 

2. The adoption of methods of conservation of ore and metal. 

3. The increase in imports of ore from Cuba and South America, 

whose deposits must logically be regarded as a portion of the immediately available reserve, as such ores can be used most profitably 

·and economically in the United States. 

4. The further discovery of iron-ore deposits in the Western I-Iemisphere. 

5. The possibility of n1etallurgic improvements that may enable 

pig iron to be derived econon1ically from low-grade ores, and the 

solution of n1etallurgic problems, including that involving the utilization of titaniferous iron ores, of which there a.re large deposits not now 

available 

6. The increase in the price of pig iron, which will bring lower 

grades of iron ore into the market, thus vastly increasing the tonnage 

of reserves available. · · · 

IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE. 

Any discussion of the ability of the Unit~d States to continue to 

furnish iron and steel to her allies in Europe at the same or a greater 

rate than was maintained in 1916 and at the same time to meet the 

superimposed demands of war on the part of this Nation itself must 

take into consideration ma:Q,y factors bearing on the iron and steel 

making capacity of the country. At. the outbreak of the war the 

iron and steel industry '"~as operating on a subnormal scale, and consequently the manufacturing capacity was in excess of requirements. 

Some of this excess capacity was, of course, represented by antiquated equipment that could not be put into shape for resumption of 

operations on short notice. The excess capacity at the opening of 

the war was greater in blast furnaces than in steel furnaces, so that 

one of the :fu:st effects of the war was to stimulate the building of 

12797~ --19----10 
146 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

' 

new steel furnaces. According to the Iron Trade Review, 1 the 

steel-making capacity at the beginning of 1915 was estimated at 

37,500,000 tons, at the beginning of 1916 at 39,000,000 tons, and 

on January 1, 1917, at 43,000,000 tons, and it is expected that by 

January 1, 1918, it will amount to 48,000,000 tons. Thus there 

will have been an increase in three years of 10,500,000 tons, or 

28 per cent, in steel-making capacity. The increase in capacity 

for basic-process steel is estimated to be about one-third greater 

than that for the acid process. The pig-iron capacity is estimated to 

have been more than 39,000,000 tons at the beginning of 1916 and 

to have been brought up to 40,000,000 tons at the beginning of 1917, 

but the prospective increase in blast-furnace capacity for 1917 is 

larger than for several years and will tend to close the gap between 

steel-making and pig-iron producing capacity, which has been 

becoming too wide. 

The iron and steel making capacity at the end of 1917 will be 

none too large, judged by present and prospective demands, and 

probably it will not be large enough to fill orders pron1ptly. The 

present excessively high prices are sufficient indication that the 

manufacturing capacity of the country is wholly absorbed. As to 

still further expansion there are of course limitations other than the 

demands for iron and steel. The capital involved in the iron and 

steel industry is so vast. that ordinarily the future has to be taken 

seriously into consideration in planning new plants pr additions to 

old plants. Wartime demands and prices, however, have upset 

many precedents and have encouraged many increases in plant 

capacity irrespective of the consideration whether or not they might 

prove excessive after the war. This has been particularly true of 

concerns whose profits have been great enough to pay off b~ck 

indebtedness and pay for the additions to their plants within a year 

or two of their con~truction. In looking to the future the optimist has 

seen a demand heavier than normal after the war. Several factors 

in the domestic situation have appeared encouraging, such as the 

needs of the railways, of building construction, of the automobile 

industry, and of shipbuilding. Railway and general building and 

improvement work, except where urgently needed, is usually postponed in times of high prices and uncertain deliveries, but the longer 

these industries are deprived of supplies through such conditions 

the greater the flood of orders that will be released when conditions 

once m~re approach normal. Foreign trade with South America 

and the Orient is expected to grow, and European trade in the 

necessities of peace is expected to be augmented after the end of 

the war. The entry of the United States into the war and the 

1 Have we too many steel furnaces? Iron Trade Rev., Jan. 4, 1917, p. 47. 
!BON. 147 

den1ands of this Government for iron and steel of course once more 

raise the question whether further increases in capacity will be 

absolutely needed on that account. Certain large steel makers 

have patriotically assured the United States Goverrrn1ent that they 

.would furnish the steel needed for the war at prices very n1uch below 

those current in the spring of 1917. This fact in itself 1nay deter 

further increase in capacity, inasmuch as profits frmn such work 

sUfficient to pay for the increase within a few n1onths will not be in 

sight. It is probable also that the Government orders will be placed 

slowly and will not exert a sudden strain on 1nanufacturing capacity. 

There are also certain factors which will affect the nutnufacturing 

capacity just as vitally as insufficient equip1nent. An1ong these are 

lin1itation of supplies of coke and other fuel and of ore, due to insufficiency of transportation facilities and of labor, as well as shortage 

of labor at the steel mills. Son1e observers of the situation feel that 

the capacity for making crude metals will probably prove sufficient, 

but that the real proble1n lies in the ability to fabricate the special 

articles U8ed in warfare, as well as in the industries expanded by war 

de~nands. 

ESSENTIAL GEOLOGIC AND METALLURGIC STUDIES. 

Interest in the question of the duration of iron-ore reserves has 

already been awakened. Estin1ates of such reserves based upon 

incmnplete field work of the United States Geological Survey shc:;w 

that, though relatively great, the reserves are not unlimited, and 

statistical canvasses extending back for many decades show the 

iinmense increases in consumption of ore, so that data are available 

from which calculations may be made with reference to the probable 

life of the deposits. Much may yet be done to further the work of 

iron-ore conservation and efficient utilization. The United States 

Geological Survey should continue both reconnaissance and detailed 

geologic work on the deposits of iron ore and manganiferous iron 

ore within the country and also keep more closely in touch with 

com1nercial develop1nents, both prospecting and minii1g, so that at 

any ti1ne up to date iiuormation may be readily available concerning 

the status of the iron-ore reserves. Statistical data should be 

gathered fron1 year to year that will show accurately the variation 

in the metallic content of the ore as n1ined, the quantities of ore of 

different grades that are mined, and thus the general tr~nd during 

a series of years. Technologic studies sho.uld be made, both under 

Government auspices and by mining companies, bearing upon the 

decrease of wastage in iron-ore 1nining, upon the possibility of increasing the percentage of extraction in mining, and upon the problen1s 

of beneficiating iron ore, through processes by which enormous 
148 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

supplies of ore of grades too low to be utilized under present conditions 1nay be 1nade available. Here also is an opportunity for the 

invention or improven1ent of metallurgic processes by which pig 

iron may be made commercially from ores of lower grade than at 

present used and fr01n titauiferous ores, and by which ores may be 

s1nelted electrically in regions where cheap water power i~ available 

but good coal is scarce. 
BAlliUM AND STRONTIUM. 

By JAMES M. HILL. 

BARIUM. 

USES. 

Barytes (barite oi· barium sulphn.te) is used chiefly in making 

mixed paints, in which white, ground, and water-floated barite is 

employed as a pigment. Ground barite is also used in the rubber 

industry and to some extent by the makers of heavy glazed paper 

and ink. Lithopone, a chemically prepared white pigment consisting of about 70 per cent barium sulphate and 30 per cent zinc sulphide, is oone of the chief constituents of the "flat" wall pain.ts so 

extensively used in office buildings and hospitals, replacing the less 

desirable paper and calcimine wall finishes. 

Since the beginning of the war a barium chemical industry has 

been established in the United States to supply barium carbonate, 

nitrate, chloride, chlorate, hydrate, and binoxide, which were formerly imported largely from Germany. In 1915 this industry 0 consumed 10 per cent of the output of domestic barite, but the consumption in 1916 was apparently somewhat larger. The barium 

ch01nicals have a wide variety of applications, perhaps the most important of which are the use of barium binoxide in the preparation 

of hydrogen peroxide, that of barium chloride as a water softener, 

and that of various salts in the manufacture of optical glass. 

SUPPI.Y. 

0 Barytes (or, as it is called in Missouri, tiff), as shown by a recent 

report of the United States Geological Survey( is mined prinCipally 

in the Southeastern States, particularly southeastern Missouri, northwestern Georgia, east-central Tennessee, central and western Kentucky, northeastern Alabama, southwestern North Carolina, northwestern South Carolina, and southwestern Virginia. Th~ production of 108,54 7 short tons in 1915 was over twice as large as that of 

I Hill, J. :M:., U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1915, pt. 2, ppo 161-187, 1916. 

149 
150 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

1914, and in 1916 the output was again doubled. The value of the 

1916 output was over $1,000,000-a figure never attained before. 

It is interesting to note that whereas Missouri has usually made a 

larger production than any other State, in 1916 Georgia mines produced nearly twice as much as Missouri mines. There are known 

deposits of barite in several of the Western States, and some of these 

deposits-notably in Colorado, Ne;vada, California, and Alaskawere mined ·during 1915 and 1916. 

Prior to the war a considerable· part of the crude barite used on 

the Atlantic sea.board was imported from Germany, chiefly because 

of the cheap~r water transportation, with which the American producers could not compete. Since this supply has been shut off, 

although the domestic requirements have more than trebled, the 

domestic mines have supplied all the demands and appear to be 

capable of meeting all future requirements. 

The only commercial deposit of witherite (barium carbonate) 

known to the Geological Survey in the United States is near El 

Portal, Mariposa County, Cal. 

STRONTIUM. 

USES. 

Strontium salts, chiefly the nitrate, are employed to make "red 

fire," which is of wide use at this time not only for signal lights on 

battle fronts but for railway signals to promote the safe handling of 

trains at night. It is estimated that prior to 1914 about 2,000 tons 

of strontium nitrate was used annually in the manufacture of such 

"flares" or "Costen" and "Bengal" lights and fireworks. Since 

1915 the demand has increased considerably. 

SUPPLIES. 

Before the war celestite (strontium sulphate) and strontianite 

(strontium carbonate) were imported from Germany, England, and 

Sicily. During 1914 and 1915 English celestite was obtained by 

manufacturers, but late in 1915 the exportation of strontium ores 

was embargoed by England. Strontium ores are known in the 

United States, the principal commercial deposits being in southei'n 

California, Arizona, Washington, and Texas. The Texas and Washington ores can be mined so as to produce high-grade celestite, and 

some of the Arizona and California celestite is of excellent grade. 

Some of the deposits in Arizona and California, however, are mixed 

with barite and calcite, which detract from their value. One deposit 

in southern California, now being worked, consists of good-grade 

strontianite, which is particularly desirable, as it is directly soluble 
BARIUM AND STRONTIUM. 151 

in acid, whereas the sulphate must be roasted to sulphide before it is 

soluble. 

Apparently United States manufacturers are now using domestic 

ores containing only 85 per cent of strontium sulpha.te, though they 

prefer not to use materials of lower grade than 92 per cent. 

The United States Geological Survey has been instrumental in 

investigating and calling attention to available supplies and in bringing together, through correspondence and published information, the 

producers and consumers of barium and strontium ores. 

MICA, MONAZITE, AND LITHIUM MINERALS. 

By WALDEMAR T. ScHALLER. 

MICA. 

}fica is valuable on account of its cleavage, flexibility, elasticity, and 

Iionconductivity of heat and ·electricity, a combination of properties in 

which it is unsurpassed by any other abundant mineral. The extensive mnployment of mica in electric appliances requires a large quantity in the aggregate, although the quantity used in a lamp socket, 

for example, is extren1ely small. 

:Much mica is ground for use in decoration and for insulation. 

About 90 per cent of the 1nica produced in the United States is scrap, 

which is eventually ground into powder, but the remaining 10 per 

cent is sheet mica, 'vorth from five to seven times as much as the 

scrap. Sheet n1ica has bef'.ome a necessity in everyday life, and much 

of the ground scrap mica is, in a way, a by-product of the n1anufacture 

of sheet mica, consisting largely of the trimmings resulting from the 

cutting of the sheet n1ica into regular forms. 

Sheet n1ica is found in many countries. It has been produced in 

tho United States, Canada, Brazil, Argentina, German East Mrica, 

Transvaal, British Nyassaland, Natal, Madagascar, India, Ceylon, 

Australia, China, and Japan. SmaH quantities are also mined in 

Mexico, Guaten1ala, Norway, Russia, southwestern Africa, and 

Chosen, but at least 97 per cent of the annual output of sheet mica 

is n1ined in the United States, Canada, and India. The United States 

produces about 60 per cent and India about 30 per cent. The India 

1nica, ·which has to be transported a considerable distance and is 

therefore well selected and trimmed before shipping, 'is of greater 

value, weight for weight, than the Alnerican mica. Tho value of 

the annual output in India is about 60 per cent of the total value of 

the world's production; that of the ou~ut in the United States is 

about 20 per cent. 

The imports of sheet mica exceed the domestic output in both 

quantity and value. In 1916 n1ore than $1,000,000 worth of sheet 

mica, unmanufactured and manufactured, was imported More n1ica 

153 

. .... 
.... 

154 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

is ilnported from Canada than from India, but the value of the India 

:mica is greater. The mica fron1 India comes both direct and through 

England. 

The dmnand for mica in 1915 was brisk, and in the united States 

the average price of sheet mica, rough trimmed and cut, was 68 cents 

a pound, the highest since 1900. Since 1915 simila.r or slightly higher 

prices have prevailed. 

The relation of imported to domestic n1ica is sho·wn in the follmYing 

tables: 

Mica const~med in the United States, 1912-1916. 

Year. 

1912 .............................. . 1913 .............................. . 

1914 .............................. . 

1915 ................•.....•........ 

1916 ........................ , ...... . 

•' 

Domestic 

production (short 

tons). 

3,650 

6,172 

4,008 

4,236 

4,866 

Quantity. 

Imports 

(short 

tons). 

1,166 

at,265 

a611 

a613 

a856 

a Estimated. 

76 

83 

87 

87 

85 

$331,896 

436,060 

329,956 

428,769 

594,391 

Value. 

$755,584 

947,783 

629,484 

692,269 

1,071,356 

Percentage of 

domestic. 

31 

32 

34 

38 

36 

Until 1916 there was a slight, steady increase in the percentage of 

the total produced by the United States. The decline in the percentage 

for 1916, is, however, slight. 

Sheet mica consumed in the United States, 1912-1916. 

Year. 

1912 .............................. . 1913 .............................. . 1914 .... '.......................... . 1915 .............................. . 

1916 ..•.....................•...... 

Domestic 

production (short 

tons). 

423 

850 

278 

277 

433 

Quantity. 

Imports 

(short 

tons). 

995 a 1,120 

a409 

a 441 

a675 

a Estimated. 

Value. 

Percentage of Domestic 

domes- production. Imports. 

tic. 1 

30 

43 

40 

39 

39 

$282,823 

353,517 

278,540 

378,259 

524,485 

$748 973 

943:018 

625,396 

688,411 

1,067,936 

Percentage of 

domestic. 

27 

27 

31 

35 

33 

Beginning with 1914, there was a considerable decrease in the 

amount and value of unmanufactured 1nica hnported, but a considerable increase in the imports of cut or n1anufactured mica. 

The mica obtained in this country a.nd from India is muscovite; 

that from Canada is phlogopite. For certain pieces of electric 

n1achinery phlogopite is preferable to muscovite, and deposits of 

phlogopite in New York a.nd New Jersey are now being examined. 

The mica from these two deposits is of good quality and it is hoped 

that they will become commercial sources. · 
MICA, MONAZITE, AND LITHI"Gl\I :\'IIXERALS. 155 

Is the dependence of the United States on foreign countries for 

sheet mica due to an .ll1herent deficiency .ll1 tho don1estic supply of 

mica or to economic conditions that n1ay have no direct bearing on 

the amount of 1nica available in this country~ In other words, if 

the United States had to depend on its own resources for nlica, 

could it supply the demnnd, irrespective of cost~. 

In the report on the production of mica in 1912 Sterrett 1 says: 

"The mica mines of the United Stntes are capable of a large annual 

production and could be made to supply all but that small part of the 

domestic demand which calls for the softer Canadian amber mica.'' 

He states further: "The quality of the best domestic mica as to 

transparency, color, cleavage, and fleXibility is equal to that of the 

same variety produced in India and other countries." The condi .. 

tions outlined for 1912 are the same to-day. The amount of mica 

produced could be very materially increased. However, the cost of 

operating minea in the United States is very large in compari,son with 

the cost in India, where labor is cheap. · 

Much of the mica mined iri the United States is obtained from 

deposits operated entirely by hand, and, especially in North Carolina, 

a good part of the output is obtained by farmers who work their 

deposits intermittently when the crops do not require their attention. 

Were a clem~nd for mica to become imperative, and were the mica 

mined 'economically and with care (a valuable bunch of sheet mica 

can be easily n1ined by careless use of a drill or pick), then the 

United States, already producing 60 per cent of the world's output 

of sheet mica, could easily produce enough to meet all its own 

demands. Possibly the further exploitation and development of the 

phlogopite deposits in New York and New Jersey will show that this 

country could become independent of the world with respect to mica. 

It is understood that sheet mica has come to be of importance 

as a war mineral through its use abroad in making windows of masks 

worn for defense against asphyxiatil1g gases, and for other uses where 

·a transparent, noninflammable, nonshattering material is necessary, 

as in automobile goggles and in windows for annorecl cars. 

MONAZITE. 

The milleral monazite contail1s a variable but small percentage of 

thoria, which is extracted and sold in the trade as thorium nitrate. 

Upon ignition this nitrate is changed to the oxide or thoria, which 

glows intensely when heated and is used in the manufacture of ulCandescent mantles for gas lights. Monazite occurs throughout the 

world but forms only a very small fraction of 1 per cent of the rock 

containing it. On decomposition of this rock the monazite and 

1 Sterrett, D. B., U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1912, pt. 2, p. 1085, 1913. 
156 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

other resistant 1ninerals are not attacked chemically but remain 

tmaltered and, being much heavier than the products of decomposition, are gradually but slowly ·concentrated in the residue from the 

broken-down rock. If the ocean

1 encroaches on an area of such decomposed rock, the selective action of the sea waves will still further 

concentrate the heavier minerals along the beaches. River waters 

will likewise effect a concentration of the heavy minerals. 

In both North Carolina and South Carolina such river deposits 

were first worked about 1887 and soon yielded large quantities of 

mona~ite sand, the production in 1895 exceeding 1,500,000 pounds. 

At this time monazite from the rich coastal deposits of Brazil entered 

the market, and the domestic production fell to almost nothing, that 

for the two years 1896 and 1897 being worth only $3,480. The price 

of thorium nitrate, which was about $200 a pound in 1895, when the 

production in the Carolinas reached its maximum,· was rapidly 

lowered to about $7 a pound in Europe in 1900. During the next 

new years it rose to _about $11 a pound, and the increase in price 

together with a world-wide search for additional deposits of monazite 

sand, served to revive the industry, until in 1905 over 1,000,000 

pounds of monazite sand was again produced in the Carolinas. 

Much of this output was exported to Germany. In 1906 and again 

in 1910 the price of thorium nitrate was considerably reduced, and in 

1913 it was selling in this country at $2.60 a pound. At this low 

price it became unprofitable to mine monazite sand wherever the 

cost of mining was high. After 1905 the domestic production gradually decreased, and since 1911 it has been inappreciable. 

In 1909 monazite sand was~discovered in Travancore, India, and 

soon large amounts were produced. The Carolina sand has had to 

compete with these deposits and others in Brazil, which could be 

mined very cheaply. Most of the Brazilian sand and all of the 

India sand '\_Vas exported to Germany until the beginning of the 

European war. Since then most of the sand has been sent to this 

country, which imported nearly 2,500)000 pounds of monazite sand 

in 1916. With this increase in imports of monazite sand there has 

been a steady decline in imports of thorium nitrate, from 119,044 

pounds in 19.13 to 909 pounds in 1916. In other words, the United 

States is manufacturing its own thorium nitrate, chiefly from sand 

imported from Brazil and India. The price of thorium nitrate has 

gradually increased since the war and now is about $8 a pound, or 

tlnee times as much as in 1913. This advance In price has again 

stimulated the domestic production of monazite sand, and small 

a1nounts were produced in 1915 ~md1916. 

There is still an abundance of monazite sand in the Carolinas, but 

the Carolina deposits can not be worked extensively in competition 

with foreign sand. As the United Stat,es consumes about one-fourth 
MICA, MONAZITE, AND LITHIUM MINEBALS. 157 

of the thorium nitrate used in the world, it requ~res a yearly production of about 2,000,000 pounds of monazite sand (90 per cent 

monazite containing 5 per c~nt thoria. Even in its most prosperous 

times the domestic output did not reach that figure. Whether such 

.a domestic production could be sustained year by year if all imports 

were cut off can not be told.. The Carolinas, however, could produce 

enough monazite sand to make this country independent of other 

sources for several years at least, and if the ashes of broken mantles 

were conserved by consumers, enough thorium nitrate could be 

obtained from domestic sources to serve for some time. 

The factors that have prevented a thorough test of the extent of the 

domestic deposits in recent years are the bett_er quality and cheapness 

of the imported foreign sands. Both the Brazilian sand and that of 

India. contain a higher natural concentration of monazite and a 

· higher conte:p.t of thorium oxide than the American sand, the sand 

from BrazH averaging about 6 per cent thoria and that from ll).clia 

about 9 per ·cent. The cheapness of labor and transportation in 

these foreign countries has also deterred domestic exploitation. 

The market price of thorium nitrate is a good indicator for domestic 

production of monazite sand, for only at a high price for this manufactured salt can the domestic sands be profitably worked. The 

importation of large quantities of foreign sand rich in thoria prevents 

a very high price being paid for thorium nitrate. 

LITHIUM MINERALS. 

The chemical products derived from lithium minerals can not be 

considered necessary for every-day life. Such products, however,· 

find several applications, ~specially -in military uses, in which they 

serve a useful purpose. Lithium minerals are produced in this country in varying amounts up to 1,000 tons a year. · · 

The United States has ·been the largest continuous producer of 

lithiu1n minerals (spodumene, lepidolite, and mnblygonite) and has 

in the past exported a considerable quantity of the yearly output. 

Lithium minerals have also been mined in Germany, Austria, Sweden, 

France, Australia, and Spain, but the amount producedin this coun:-

try is probably larger than that in the other countries combined. 

As the domestio production has been ample to satisfy the needs of 

this country, and the crude minerals have been also treated here, 

the European war has not induced special efforts for larger development of the deposits, and there has been practically no change in 

the production of lithium minerals since 1913. 

California and South Dakota have furnished all the lithium minerals produced in this country. Such minerals have been found 
158 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

abundantly in Massachusetts and in Maine, but at present prices the 

deposits in these· two States have not been exploited. The amount 

of lithium minerals still available is very large, and if an increased 

demand were to arise, the United States could supply many times 

the present output for a long time to come. 

'· . 

I .-
ZINC. 

By C. E. SrEBENTHAL. 

Early in the European war the larger part of the zinc-smelting 

capacity of Europe was either destroyed or in the hands of the Teutonic belligerents. About 75 per cent of the spelter output of Europe 

in 1913 was produced by Belgium, Germany, and Austria. Both the 

zinc smelters and the zinc deposits of Germany are in the RhenishWestphalian and Silesian districts. The Belgian smelters were soon 

captured by the Teutonic allies. Under these circumstances the 

entente allies had to depend for spelter ahnost wholly upon the zinc 

smelters of the United States. 

For some ti1ne before the war zinc-smelting capacity in t1"l.e United 

States had been increasing faster than the consumption, as shown by 

the increase in spelter stocks at smelters, there being 40,659 tons in 

stock at the beginning of 1914 and 64,039 tons at the middle of the 

year, just before the war began. ~rhese stocks and the excess smelting capacity were immediately available to supply foreign demands, 

and at once the smelters began large exports of spelter and sheet zinc 

to Europe. 

Except for a short flurry after the declaration of war the price 

of spelter during the remainder of 1914 was not much higher than it 

had been during the first half. As a consequence there was little 

increase in production or smelting capacity, the number of retorts 

being 111,458 at the end of 1913 and 115,114 at the end of 1914, with 

10,192 retorts in process of building or contemplated. During the 

first half of 1915 the spelter stocks at smelters.became exhausted and, 

the demand· exceeding the production, the scarcity was manifested 

in rising prices, which culminated June 5 at 26.5 cents for prime 

western spelter and a correspondingly higher price for high-grade 

spelter. Then began a period of feverish activity in smelter building 

and renovating. Small, old, abandoned, coal-frred zinc smelters in 

Missouri and Kansas were rebuilt and fired up, and several gas 

s1nelters in Kansas, practically abandoned from lack of fuel, obtained 

small wann-weather supplies of gas ~nd started smelting. New gas 

159 
160 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

smelters were built in record time in Oklahon1a, new producer-gas 

smelters were rapidly constructed in Pennsylvania and Illinois, and 

additions were made to smelters already in existence. The number of 

retorts at the end of 1915 was 156,568, besides 49,612 under construction or contemplated, and in addition a daily" capacity of approximately 200 tons for electrolytic spelter was in operation, under construction, or planned .. By the middle of 1915 the spelter capacity of 

the country had been developed to ~point where it supplied current 

needs and allowed the accumultttion of what the entente allies considered to be ample supplies of munitions for the military operations 

of that year. This condition, together with the coordination of 

purchasing agencies for the allies whereby they no longer competed 

with one another in the purchase of spelter, caused a great decline in 

the price, which dropped from 26 cents to less than 12 cents in one 

month. 

The experience of 1915 showed, however, that the reserves of 

munitions were nowhere near sufficient-in fact, it is reported that 

the principal offensive operation was cut short by their exhaustion. 

Preparations were therefore begun to lay in an adequate supply for 

the drive of 1916 and for reserves along the extended battle line. 

Meantime, many less advantageously situated plants found spelter 

making ·unprofitable at 12 cents under war conditions and were 

closed wholly or in part. Under these circumstances the price of 

spelter gradually rose again and in February, 1916, reached 21 cents. 

This rise stimulated more smelter building and by the middle of 1916 

the total number of retorts had risen to 196,640, besides 24,812 retorts under construction or contemplated. In the meantime other 

countries had been increasing their zinc-smelting capacity, notably 

England and Japan. Early in 1916 the price of spelter began to 

weaken, and between the middle of April and the middle of July it 

had fallen from around 19 cents to about 9 cents. Through the last half 

of 1916 and the first five months of 1917 the price of spelter ranged 

between 8 and 13 cents. In spite of the decline in prices smelter 

building kept up, and the number of retorts at the end of 1916 was 

219,418, and about 18,000 additional retorts were in process of 

building or contemplated. 

The following table shows the increase in spelter production and in 

exports of zinc and brass and their manufactures by six-month periods 

during the war. The first war demands were for spelter and sheet 

zinc:, the exports of which averaged between -10,000 and 13,000 tons 

a month up to the middle of 1916. During the last half of 1916 and 

the first three months of 1917 the exports were nearly doubled, 

averaging over 21,000 tons monthly. The exports of brass grew 

rapidly, being four times as large in the last six months as they were 
ZINC. 161 

in the first six months of 1915, and almost doubling the monthly rate, 

in the first three months of 1917. The exports of manufactures of 

zinc and brass and also of cartridges grew rapidly, being riow about 

seven times as great as in the first six months of 1915. The startling 

quantities of muri..itions exported in recent months were doubtless 

required in preparation for the offensive now in progress. It is 

reported that relatively three or four times as much heavy ammunition is being used on the western front this year as was used in the 

Somme offensive in 1916. The fact that this great consumption of 

munitions has had no more effect on the price of spelter than to raise 

it to 13 cents for a short time in November and December, 1916, 

seems to indicate that the zinc-smelting capacity has been brought 

up to the point where it is able to meet every demand. In fact, it 

has been suggested that .there has been some overproduction of 

spelter and that stocks have probably accumulated. Be that as it 

may, it is not likely that there can, under present conditions, be any 

further material decline in the price of spelter, for that would probably so reduce the output of sphalerite concentrates from the sheet 

ground of the Joplin region as to react upon the price of spelter, 

causing it to rise again. 

Speller produced in United States and zinc and brass exported, 1914-1917. 

Exports. 

--

Spelter Spelter Value of produced and sheets, Total Zinc Old manufac- (short domestic, dross Brass brass tures of zinc value of 

tons). foreign, and (short (short (short and brass, exports o.f 

drawback tons). zinc and 

(short tons). tons). including brass. 

tons). cartridges. 

--- 1914. January-Juno .......... 175,058 2,878 286 1,542 6, 774 $3,841,237 $6,337,416 

July-December ......... 177,991 72,490 2,24~ 2,015 3,552 6, 712,225 17,162,383 

1915. January-Juno .......... 216,532 70,326 2,932 18,126 4,331 25,070,587 44,088,252 

July-Decembe1· .....•... 272,987 61,306 1,235 15,010 456 43,154,056 70,479,204 

1916. January-June ...•...... 316,452 78,204 28 51 543 1,284 123, 135, 226 177,343,769 

July-December ......... 351,004 128,163 20 70; 723 2,194 174,210,117 253, 456' 204 

1917. January-March ......... .............. 64,049 1,909 63,464 1, 252 83,821,780 138, 670, 854 

Soon. after the beginning of the war the United States Geological 

Survey made the statement 1 that the United States would have" the 

opportunity to furnish the major part of 222,000 tons of spelter a year 

as long as the war lasts." Though part of the zinc exported has been 

in the form of brass, the total exports of zinc in all forms for the :first 

three years of the war will be found to average about 220,000 tons a 

1 U. S. Geol. Survey Press Bull. 181, August, 1914. 

127972°-19--11 
162 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

year. This quantity is exclusive of the zinc in manufactures of zinc 

and brass, including cartridges, which in value have averaged nearly 

$200,000,000 a year but whose zinc· content is not known. At the 

rate of increase shown in the last half of 1916 and since maintained 

the exports for the· remainder of the war promise to be much larger. 

The zinc reserves of the country have shown themselves to be 

equal to all demands made upon them. In fact, the production of 

zinc ore has. been so large that further decline in ·ore prices with 

resultant demoralization of the domestic zinc-mining industry can 

be prevented only hy a material increase in the. demands for spelter 

or by a lessened supply of foreign ore. .1\n increase in· ~e demand 

.for spelter seems probable, as has been indicated above·, and imports 

of zinc ore may decrease also, if shipments from Spain and Australia 

are interfered with by submarines, or if the Australian concentrates 

are diverted elsewhere, or if shipments of zinc ore from :Mexico are 

prevented. The zinc content of zinc ore imported in 1915 amounted 

to 57,669- short tons and in 1916 to 148,147 tons. Mexico and 

Australia each furnished about one-third of the imports. The 

.r imports of zinc ore for the first four months of 1917 indicate a falling 

off of 40 per cent from the average monthly imports in 1916. 

The chief zinc-producing regions in the United States are the 

Joplin district· of Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, furnishing about 

one-fourth of the country's zinc output; the Franldin Furnace 

district of New Jersey, and the Butte district of Montana, each 

yielding· about one-fifth of the total supply; the upper Mississippi 

Valley district of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois; the Leadville 

district of Colorado, and the Coeur· d'Alene district of Idaho, each 

produ~ing between one-tenth and one-twentieth of the total. 
NITRATES. 

By HoYT S. GALE. 

Nitrogen for use in manufactures and in agriculture is supplied 

principally in the· form of nitrates, and as these salts, or the nitric 

acid derived from them, constitute the basis of practically all explosives, they are absolutely essential also to warfare. As they are 

among the chief salts used in chemical fertilizers· an adequate supply 

of them affects directly the quantity and the quality of the food 

supply. 

Nearly all the sodium nitrate marketed is obtained from extensive 

deposits in the desert region of northern CJ::tile. Commonly a few 

thousand tons of potassium nitrate is imported annually from India, 

where it is artificially produced in "saltpeter plantations." Calcium 

nitrate obtained in Norway by ~rtificial fixation of the nitrogen of 

the atmosphere has also been listed among the fertilizer materials 

marketed in this country. The United States has been the largest 

purchaser of Chilean nitrate since the German market has been cut 

off. Just. after the outbreak of the European war the Chilean nitrate 

industry experienced a severe depression, which has, however, been 

followed by gradual recovery. The cost of production at the mines 

has risen considerably, owing largely to the increased cost of labor 

and the· scarcity and high price of fuel. The coal used for refining 

the nitrate has been obtained principally from Wales as return cargo 

in the nitrate vessels. Fuel oi) from California is also used. 

At present the dearth of shipping facilities and high freight rates 

have considerably increased the price of the nitrate in the countries 

to which it is exported. 

Nitrate of soda exported from Chile, calendar years 1912-1915, in short tons.a 

1912 ........................ 2, 748,124,1914 ........................ 2, 035,707 

1913 ........................ 3, 018, 469 1915 ........................ 2, 230, 054 

A general idea of the importance of nitrates in this country may be 

obtained fr01n the statistics of imports, which practically represent 

the domestic consumption, there having been ·no domestic production 

a The figures for 1012-1914 are from Anuario estadistico de la Republica de Chile, Minera y metalurgta, 

Yol. 7, 1914, p. 67, Santiago de Chile, 1915. '£hose for 1915 are from Supplement to Commerce Repts., Ann. 

Ser., No. 4lb, p. 5, Nov.lO, 1916. 

163 
164 OUR ::.\HXERAL SUPPLIES. 

of consequence. The rated values given with import returns, which 

perhaps represent co$t exclusive of freight, are 'lower than the usual 

market quotations. For instance, the nonnal New York quotations 

for sodium nitrate, 95 per cent pure, ranged from $44 to $52 a short 

ton in 1912 and from $44.40 to $52.40 in 1913. At the end of 1916 or 

early in the spring of 1917 sodium nitrate was quoted at $75 a ton in 

Atlantic ports. 

Nitrate salts "entered for coiMwnption" in the United States, 1912-1916.a 

Calendar year. 

1912 ................................................... . 1913 ...............................................•.... 1914 ••....................................•........•.... 1915 ............•....................................... 1916 ...............•...•................................ 

Sodium nitrate. 

Quantity Approxi- (short mate rated 

tons). value per ton. 

545,192 

686,404 

611,218 

863,103 

1, 365,962 

$30.00 

31.50 

25.00 

26.50 

28.00 

a Figured from statistics of the Department of Commerce. 

Potassium nitrate. 

Quantity ApprOJd- (short mate rated 

tons). value per ton. 

3,256 

4,826 

1,115 

3 

5, 769 

$62 

54 

67 

117 

263 

The import figures show a war-time stimulus, the normal 'annual 

domestic consumption of about 600,000 tons of sodium nitrate 

increasing to more than double this amount in 1916. Of this large 

increase between 100,000 and 200,000 tons is believed to be in 

storage as a reserve for the time when access to a foreign supply may 

be cut ·off. The remainder of the increase, probably 600,000 tons, 

may be assumed to have gone into munition manufactu_re, chiefly 

for export. 

The amount of nitrates consumed in fertilizers is not known 

exactly, but about 280,000 short tons (250,000 long tons) of sodium 

nitrate w~s used in 1916 for direct application to the soil as fertilizer. 

It is said to be applied chiefly as a top dressing, by itself, to promote 

or hasten growth at certain seasons, usually in the spring, after the 

crop has made. a start. · 

A very important use for sodium nitrate is in the manufacture of 

sulphuric acid by the chamber process. In this p.rocess, by which 

the greater part of the acid of low gravities produced in this country 

is made, the nitric acid is required for the oxidation of the sulphurous 

gases to sulphuric form. The weight of sodium nitrate used in this 

way is estimated to be about 5 per ceiit of the weight of the sulphur 

consumed to make the sulphuric acid. The production in .1916 of 

4,50e,ooo tons of sulphuric acid of strengths less than 66° Baume 

therefore required 75,000 long tons. (nearly 85,000 short tons) of 

sodium nitrate. 

There are many other industrial uses of nitrates for which,- at 

present, accurate statistics are not available. The following estimated summary is therefore given in general terms: -
NITRATES. 165 

Sodium nitrate consumed in the United States in 1916. 

~:Rl?i~:r~~·::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

Manufacture of sulphuric acid .................................................. . Miscellaneous, including stocks in storage ....•.................................. 

Quantity 

(short 

tons). 

600,000 

280,000 

85,000 

400,000 

Approximate percentage, 

45 

20 

5 

30 

1, 3(;5, 000 100 

Unfortunately there is in the United States no natural source of 

nitrate salts that seems to promise an important supply. Small 

deposits yielding remarkably rich specimens have been found in many 

places throughout the country, and during former war times saltpeter 

for use in making gunpowder was obtained by crude leaching methods 

fron11ninor deposits in caves. The total amount obtained in this way 

was probably not very large, and in comparison with the greatly 

increased rate of consumption in explosives and industrial uses the 

supply obtainable from such sources would be at best an almost negligible contribution for present needs, even on the assumption that 

these small deposits would be worth working again as they were in the 

past, an assumption which is probably not warranted. This subject 

has been carefully studied by the United States Geological Survey in 

the hope of finding some source of sufficient promise to justify exploitation, if only as a war-time emergency, but the conclusions have been 

essentially negative. 

There are in several of theW estern States considerable deposits of 

nitrate-bearing earths or clays which have been found to contain in 

places from 2 to perhaps 5 or 6 per cent of sodium nitrate, in conjunction with sodiu1n sulphate and chloride, and it is conceivable that 

these deposits might be worked by leaching and some method of 

crystallization to separate the salts. These deposits are of very 

doubtful importance, however, on account of the difficulty in recovering a small percentage of nitrates by methods now in use or known. 

On the whole there is within the United States no known natural 

source of nitrates that can be counted on to furnish any considerable 

supply of the refined nitrate salts. This statement does not refer to 

the bacterial development of nitrates in soils through processes connected with cultivation and cropping, which is of course an important 

aid to agriculture but does not come within the scope of the present 

account of extractable nitrate salts. 

The importance of the nitrate supply is recognized by an act of 

Congress approved June 3, 1916, which appropriated $20,000,000 to 

enable the President to make an investigation of the best, cheapest, 

and most available means for the "production of nitrates and other 

products for n1unitions of war and useful in the manufacture of fertilizers," by water power or any other means, and which authorized 

the President to construct, maintain, and operate the plants and 
166 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

equipment necessary to produce these materials. The product is to 

be used for military and naval purposes so far as it is needed, and any 

surplus may be sold for other uses. 

The· processes for fixation of atmospheric nitrogen that have been 

develope·d in a practical way may be classified as the arc processes, 

the Haber process, and the cyanamid process. The arc processes 

involve direct oxidation by means of the electri~ arc to form nitric 

acid and nitrates. These are fundamentally the simplest but are 

limited in application by the great amount of electric power required. 

Norway, with abundant water power, has been able to employ these 

processes successfully, but it seems doubtful if the power available 

in this country could_ be spared for use in this way. The Haber and 

cyanamid processes form other compounds of nitrogen, which, however, can be· converted into nitrates by a further process. The Haber 

process consists in forcing gaseous nitrogen and hydrogen to combine 

under high pressure, a reaction being effected with the aid of a catalytic agent. This process yields ammonia which would have to be 

converted to nitric acid, at least in part, to supply munition requirements, but which could be used in agriculture by conversion into 

ammonfum phosphate or sulphate. This process, together with one 

for obtaining ammonia from cyanamid, is used at present in the production of nitric acid for munition supplies and inorganic nitrogen 

fertilizer salts in Germany, and these industries are believed to have 

been developed to such a degree as to render that country entirely 

independent of outside sources of nitrates when the war requirements cease. The cyanamid process consists in the. production of a 

compound of lime, nitrogen; and carbon, known as calcium cyanamid. 

It involves two main steps, each based on electric-furnace treatment 

but requiring only about one-fifth the power expenditure of the arc 

process. It is said that calcium cyanamid must be converted into 

ammonium salts to meet the requirements of nitrogen-carrying 

mixed fertilizer. An additional step would be necessary to convert 

the product to a nitric· form. 

By-product ammonia, deriv~d from the production of coke and of 

illuminating gas, is an important source of combined nitrogen and is 

an available source for the production of nitric acid or nitrates. Such 

ammonia can be practically oxidized to nitrates, and the supply of 

this material is therefore available to relieve emergency requirements 

should other sources fail. 

Thus it appears that measlires are now being taken to insure the 

country a nitrate supply. As not all these measures would be immediately effective in case of unforeseen emergency, it is assumed 

that reserves have been accumulated which will tide over any temporary emergency that may arise. 
LEAD. 

By c. E. SIEBENTHAL. 

WAH PRICES. 

When the European war began lead was selling at slightly less 

than 4 cents a pound. A month or so later 1 the observation was 

made that "The effect of the war on the lead situation is as yet 

uncertain. One month of war has not . disturbed the already low 

price of lead in the United States, but it would seem that the conflict must ultimately enhance the price." In October lead sold at 

3! cents, but a little later the price began to rise slowly, and the 

increase continued well on into 1915, presumably owing to purchases 

by the allies in preparation for operations in that year. The stocks 

of lead at the beginning of the war may have been large, for the 

refined lead produced in 1914 exceeded that in 1913 by 80,000 tons. 

Possibly because of the exhaustion of these stocks, the price in May 

and June of 1915 rose to 7 cents, coincident with the high point for 

spelter in that year, but soon dropped to 4! cents. Then came the 

accumulation of munitions in preparation for the operations of 1916, 

and the price of lead gradually rose until in April, 1916, it reached 8 

cents. This was followed by the usual decline, the price reaching 

6 cents in August, and this in turn was succeeded by a rise in anticipation of operations in 1917, bringing lead to 12 cents at the present 

writing (June 18, 1917). 

LEAD SUPPLIES. 

The effect of the high prices has been to push production to the 

utmost. In the accompanying table the productio11- of lead in this 

country from foreign ore and bullion is shown to have decreased 

materially from the quantity obtained in 1912 and previous years. 

Tlus reduction is due to the internal dissension i.ri Mexico, from 

which most of the foreign lead ore and bullion is imported, and has 

thrown a heavier burden upon the lead mines of the United States. 

This burden was partly met by an increase of 25 per cent in domestic 

production in 1914 and a further increase of 10 per cent in 1916, but 

Smith, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: U. S. Gaol. Survey Bull. 599, p. 22, 1914. 

167 
168 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

that supplies are not yet adequate seen1s to be indicated by the constantly rising prices. If, however, we are just now on the peak of 

one of these periods of high prices which seem to be synchronous 

with the periods of activity in mili~ary operations, it may be that a 

decline in prices will ensue, followed by a period of lower prices, 

thus indicating that the supply is in reality equal to the demand. 

That is a matter which can be determined only by the future trend 

of prices. Just at present, so far as prices are an indication, lead 

seems to be on a par with copper, aluminum, tin, iron, and manganese, the demand for all of which seems to be in, excess of the readily 

available supply. 

The lead-smelting furnace capacity of the Vnited States has for 

several years exceeded the requirements and has in part been idle. 

When the war demands came on, this surplus furnace capacity was 

renovated and blown in. Two modern smelters were constructedthe plant of the Northport Smelting & Refining Co., at Northport, 

Wash., started in 1916 with four blast furnaces, and the Bunker Hill 

& Sullivan smelter at Kellogg, Idaho, with three blast furnaces which 

will be blown in soon. In addition the Empire Smelting & Refining 

Co. has rebuilt the plant of the old Luna Lead Co. at Deming, N. 

Mex., and has started with two lead blast furnaces. Any lack in 

lead supply is apparently not due to lack of smelting capacity. 

Details of smelter output and lists of the lead-smelting plants in 

North America, together with the statistics of imports and exports 

and other data relating to the lead industry, will be found in the 

chapter on lead in the annual volume Mineral Resources of the 

United States, published by the United States Geological Survey. 

The greatest gains in the production of refined lead have been 

made from ores derived from Idaho, Utah, and Missouri. Idaho has 

averaged 46,000 tons more of refined lead a year during the war than 

in the four years preceding it; Utah has averaged over 40,000 tons 

more, and Missouri 38,000 tons more. It is to these States that we 

must look for the larger increase during the remainder of the war, . 

although gains will undoubtedly be made by all the lead-producing 

States under the stimulus of the present unprecedented high prices 

for lead. Added incentives to production are the high prices of 

silver and zinc and the improved metallurgic practice by which the 

zinc content of complex ores can be paid for instead of being penalized. Many old silver-lead mines in the Western States, which had 

been abandoned on account of the decline in the price of silver or on 

account of an increase in the amount of zinc in the ore taken out, 

are being reopened. Largely for these reasons .Arizona made a good 

increase in lead output in 1916. The very productive mines in northeastern Oklahoma increased the output of lead from that State in 

1916 and promise a. much larger gain in 1917. 
LEAD. 169 

Moreover, the prospects just now seem good for increased imports 

from Mexico. The smelters at Matehuala and San Luis Potosi, in 

the State of San Luis Potosi, are reported to have started operations, 

and others will do so soon if conditions continue reasonably quiet in 

Mexico. 

The annual progress and developments in the lead-mining industry 

are shown in the mine reports for the several producing States published in Mineral Resources of the United States. Detailed reports 

on the ore deposits of many lead-producing districts have also been 

published by the United States Geological Survey. 

EXPORTS. 

Large quantities oi refined lead produced in the United States from 

foreign ores or bullion have annually been exported from bonded 

smelters, but there have been no exports of domestic lead until the 

recent din1inution of imports of lead ore and bullion from Mexico 

made it necessary to supplement the exports of foreign lead with 

exports of domestic lead. These began in March, 1914, and have 

grown larger each year since, more than -making up the deficiency of 

lead of foreign origin. 

The increase in the total value of lead exports has been due largely 

to the increased value of the pig lead exported. 

Refined lead produced in· the United States and lead exported, 1911-1917. 

Production. Exports 

--- ------·--· -,---- Pigs and bars. Lead 

used in 

articles Value of 

From From ex- Total lead 

domestic foreign ported value of manufac- ores orcs Domestic Foreign with turcs, 

(short (short benefit lead domestic (short (short exports. tons). tons). tons). tons). of draw- and 

back foreign. 

(short 

tons). 

!!!t:::::: :::::::::::::::::::::I 

--------- 391, !)!)5 94,984 ................ 113,307 ........... ........... ! ........... 392,517 88,377 ............... 76,226 ........... .. ................................ 411,878 50,582 ................ 54,301 ............ . ............... ............. 1914: I 

{ January-June .............. i} 20,162 8,834 3, 798 83,071,835 $1,266,725 512 794 29,328 July-Dceember ............. j ' 38,560 12,711 5,640 4, 720,112 1,298,306 

1915: 

January-June .............. !} 507 026 43,02!) { 57,952 17,218 3,020 6, !J73,877 732,906 

101luly-Decomb<"-····· ....... 

1 

' 30,354 21,400 963 6,357,348 1,578,103 

January-Juno .............. } 552 228 18,906 { 46,617 4, 744 4, 745 8, 379,457 1,116,567 

July-December............. ' 53,883 5,136 426 9,438,261 1,392,252 

Hl17: 

January-March ............. I' ......... 14,970 1, 733 (a) b2, 941,954 542,197 

------- a Statistics not yet available. · 11 Does not include value of lead used in articles exported with benefit of drawback. 

MAGNESITE. 

By HoYT S. GALE. 

The production of. magnesite in the United States in 1916 far 

exceeded that of any preceding year. The increase was due to the 

larger demand for refractory magnesite products and to the decline 

in imports. 'fhough more magnesite was used in the United States 

in 1916 tha.n in 1915, the consumption was less than that of any of 

the three years preceding 1915, and the use of the mineral has now 

been greatly curtailed by its relative scarcity and high cost. 

It is estimated that normally about 6 pounds of magnesite was 

formerly used for every ton of steel .made by the basic open-hearth 

process, but not more than half a pound for every ton is now being 

used, and at some steel plants cheaper and less satisfactory refractories have been substituted for magnesite. Owing to its use in the 

steel and copper industries magnesite is an important though a 

minor war commodity, and the need for it in these industries is,_so 

great that its lack has at times been viewed with serious apprehension. 

Magnesite produced in and impo1·ted into the United States, 1912-1916, in short tons. 

-------------.-..,--------,.--------

1 t "f ti .,I 

Year. 

1912 .••....•.................................... 1913 .•.•••..•................................... 1914 ........................................... . 1015 .••••....................................•.. 1916 .••••........................................ · 

Domestic 

production, raw. 

10.512 

9,632 

11,293 

30,499 

158,759 

mpor s or consump on: Total con· · sumption calculated as Raw. Calcined. calcined. 

17,905 

13,240 

13,354 

49,765 

75,345 

125,252 

167,094 

121,817 

26,574 

9,270 

139,460 

178,530 

134,140 

66,706 

126,322 

The properties that made the largest production in 1916 are in 

Tulare County, Cal., though considerable quantities were produced 

also in Santa Clara, Sonoma, Napa, Kern, and Fresno counties, 

Cal., and from deposits recently opened in Stevens County, in eastern Washington. 

The data given above show that 1914 was the last year in which 

the imports were approximately normal. About 90 per cent of 

these imports were received from Austria and Hungary, and almost 

171 
172 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

all the rest e.ame directly or indirectly from Qreece. The European 

war at first cut off the shipments from the Austrian and Hungarian 

deposits, so that for a time the imports of the purer Grecian magnesite 

greatly increased. Later the lack of boats and the dangers of navigation cut off a large part of the_ Grecian supplies and stimulated 

the development of the domestic deposits. In 1915 only 11,000 ., 

·tons of Austrian magnesite was imported, but the shortage of the 

supply from Austria was in part replaced by Grecian material and 

by 2,500 tons of calcined .magnesite obtained from Canada. In 

1916 the larger part of the imported calcined magnesite came from 

Greece, although about 2,000 tons was received·from Canada. Most 

of the i~ported magnesite has come through the port of Philadelphia, 

but some has come by way of New York and New Orleans. 

The most important development of the year 1916 is the ·opening 

. in eastern Washington of large deposits of a coarsely crystalline magnesite that is like marble or dolomite in texture but is essentially 

magnesite in composition. This material is now being shipped at 

the rate of several hundred tons a day, and calcining furnaces are 

in course of erection to prepare magnesia for use in making refractory 

material and, it is said, also for use in cement mixtures. Coming 

at a tin1e when the sources of supplies abroad are cut off, the discovery of these deposits appears to be most fortunate. Apparently 

authentic reports indicate that the deposits are large and that they 

will afford a supply ofuniform character by relatively cheap methods 

of mining. It is perhaps too soon to say just how well the material 

is suited for refractory or .other uses, but the present indications are 

that it may be adapted to some of these uses. 

The other large deposits in this country are in California, and the 

material is of the purer type, like the Grecian, which has ordinarily 

not been favored for use in furnaces. The cost of mining and of 

transportation from the Western States to the East, where most of 

the refractory materials are handled and used, is greater than the cost 

of mining and of shipping by water from abroad, and this has been 

the principal fact prohibiting the production of domestic magnesite 

other than the sn1all quantity used on the west coast, chiefly in the 

manufacture of paper. Now the higher price offered for magnesite 

has induced the develop1nent of n1any properties that have hitherto 

been little worked. 

The prices paid in California for the raw ore at the 1nine or shipping point ranged fr01n $8 to $10 a ton, but though much was shipped 

raw, a part of the product was calcined at the mine. The eastern 

users bad to pay, in addition to the original price, the relatively 

heavy charges for transportation, amounting to about $10 a ton. 

Thus raw magnesite cost the eastern users not less than $18 to $20 

a ton, and the added expense of calcining and the resulting loss of 

Yfeight made the minimum cost, even to large users, very much 
MAGNESITE. 173 

higher than formerly. However, even at these high prices the 

demand for magnesite is very great. 

Most of the refractory magnesite that has been in general use has 

peculiar and distinctive properties that are not found in the magnesite deposits of the common type.. The value of this refractory 

material depends not only on its resistance to the corrosive action of 

heat and metallic slags, but also on the permanence of the forms in 

which it is put into the £urnace. This permanence is due to a natural 

bonding which tends to make the loose crushed material cling together 

under furnace heat and thus makes brick forms molded from it more 

durable. Bricks and granular furnace bottoms made of magnesite 

that lacks this bond break, and the magnesite floats off on the fluid 

molten metal and is lost in the slag. Thus, though magnesite that 

contains a small percentage of iron may be somewhat less resistant 

to extreme heat than a purer form, the slight fusibility given to the 

~aterial by the iron tends to hold it in place. For this reason, in 

part, a type of magnesite so far found only in Austria and Hung~ry 

has been the principal source of the refractory magnesia used in this 

country. The purer magnesite from Greece, California, and elsewhere is used in making plaster or cement or material for other 

relatively minor uses. 

Magnesite is reduced to rnagnesia either in "dead-burned" or 

sintered form, or in what is known as "caustic calcined" form, 

Dead-burned or sintered magnesite has been so strongly heated that 

essentially all its carbon dioxide and moisture have been driven off 

and most of the shrinkage taken up. In this condition it is chemically very inert-that is, it is not subject to attack or disintegration 

even under extre1ne heat. The caustic form is not so thoroughly 

calcined; it still retains 1 or 2 per cent of carbon dioxide and is 

thus a product more like ordinary caustic lime in its properties. 

although not quite so active chemically. Caustic magnesite "slacks" 

when exposed to the air, recombining with moisture and carbon 

dioxide. Combined with calcium chloride it forms a distinctive 

cement known as Sorel or· oxychloride cement, which is much favored 

by builders for floors and other places where tile or special finish is 

desired. This is probably the most important use to which pure 

caustic calcined magnesite is put, although it is used also for making 

liquors in which wood pulp is digested to make paper, as well as for 

other purposes. 

It is difficult to determine just how much magnesite was· formerly 

used in laying cement flooring, in making paper, and for other purposes. The magnesite-cement flooring trade in the United States, 

however, is now very large, though the high price of caustic calcined 

magnesite and the uncertain quality of the material supplied from 

some sources have undoubtedly greatly restricted its use in cements. 

FLUORSPAR. 

By ERNEST F. BlJRCHARD. 

Fluorspar is one of the nonmetallic minerals of moderate intrinsic 

value the demand for which has increased greatly since the beginning 

of the European war, on account of its usefulness in the metallurgic, 

ceramic, and chemical industries, especially in the manufacture of 

open-hearth steel, enameled ware, and hydrofluoric acid. 

CHARACTER AND OCCURRENCE. 

Fluorspar, or fluorite, chemically cnlcium fluoride (CaF2), consists 

of calcium and fluorine in the proportions of 51.1 to 48.9. The 

mineral is only slightly harder than calcite and consequently crushes 

easily, but it may be distinguished from calcite by its failure to 

effervesce with dilute hydrochloric acid. It crystallizes in the 

isometric system and is often found in cubical crystals. In color 

the spar ranges, according to purity, from a clear, colorless, or 

slightly bluish glasslike substance through various brilliant shades, 

and much of it is white and opaque. The mineral is usually very 

pure, some of the material marketed running 98 to 99 per cent of 

calcium fluoride. It commonly occurs in -veins cutting both sedimentary and igneous rocks. 

Fluorspar, associated with other minerals, has a broad distribution 

geographically and a wide range geologically. The deposits thus far 

exploited in the' United States are, however, confined to Arizona, 

Colorado, illinois, Kentucky, New Hampshire, New J\1exico, and 

Tennessee. 

The Arizona output has come mainly from the Castle Dome 

district, Yuma County, but during recent years there has been little 

production. Fluorspar has been reported also in Cochise, Maricopa, 

Mohave, Pima, ,Pinal, and Yavapai counties. 

In Colorado fluorspar has been mined in Boulder, Jefferson, and 

Custer counties, along the Front Range, and in Mineral County at 

Wagon Wheel Gap, and it occurs in many other counties. 

The chief deposits in Illinois and Kentucky occur in adjoining 

portions of the two States, Hardin and Pope counties in Illinois being 

175 
176 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

separated fr01n the Kentucky counties, Crittenden, Livingston, and 

Caldwell, by Ohio River. The great· size and the purity of the 

fluorspar deposits of the Illinois-Kentucky district indicate that for 

many years they will continue the main source of domestic production. Prospecting with favorable results has been reported from 

Mercer County, in central Kentucky. Other Kentucky counties in 

which fluorspar is reported are Fayette, Jessamine, Trigg, and 

Woodford. 

The deposit thus far· develop~d in New IIampshire is near Westnloreland, Cheshire County. 

In New l\1exico fluorspar has been mined from several veins 

10 miles northeast of Deming, Luna County, and in the Burro 

Mountain district, Grant County, and is reported also in Bernalillo, 

Sandoval, and Socon~o counties. . .. 

The Tennessee production has come from Smith, Trousdale,· and 

Wilson counties, and fluorspar is reported to occur in Carter County. 

A possible addition to the list of producing States is California, as 

fluorspar has been reported in Inyo, Los Angeles, l\1ono, San Bernardino, and San Diego counties. 

Fluorspar is reported to have been separated in the concentration 

of lead and zinc ores in Albemarle County, Va.; of gold tellurides 

at Cripple Creek, Colo., and at a number of localities in other States 

in quantities too small for use at present. Practically, wherever 

it has been mined, fluorspar occurs as a vein material, although under 

widely different conditions. In the Kentucky-Illinois district it is 

the chief mineral of value in the veins, lead and zinc being of 

secondary importance and, in many places, not valuable even as 

by-products, but in the Castle Dome district of Arizona jig concentrates of fluorspar have been made incidentally to concentrating 

the lead-silver ores. Some lump spar has also been saved in this 

district. In 1916 a small tonnage of spar was reported to have been 

mined, but not shipped, in Ferry County, Wash. 

In England fluorspar occurs abundantly in the Carboniferous 

limestone and associated shale, limestone, and sandstone of the 

Yoredale. group, where it is found as the gangue of metalliferous 

veins. It is usually but not invariably associated with calcite, 

quartz, and barytes. The principal producing localities are in Durham and Derbyshire. A large proportion of the fluorspar produced 

in England has been obtained by screening from waste dumps of old 

lead mines, but it is reported that these sources of supply are 

approaching exhaustion. 1 

In Canada there are deposits of fluorspar, but little has been 

published concerning them. A small production has been reported 

from time to time. 

I Strahan, A., Great Britain Geol. Survey Mem., vo1. 4, p. ii, 1916. 
FLUORSPAR. 177 

PREPARATION AND USES. 

The uses of flliorspar depend on its chemical composition, fluxing 

properties, and phosphorescence when heated and on its optical and 

gemlike properties. Its preparation involves separation from other 

minerals with which it is associated, the treatment including such 

processes as hand-sorting, crushing, washing, ~creening, jigging, and 

flotation, depending on the nature of the ore and the extent to which 

concentration is practicable. 1 Part of the high-grade ore is ground 

and shipped in barrels and sacks; the rest is sold in lump form. 

Where fluorspar is associated with sphalerite, or zinc blende, complete separation of the two minei'als has been difficult on account of 

their nearness in specific gravity. Although fluorspar is useful in 

smelting iron ores it is harmful to zinc, and the sulphur in the 

sphalerite can not be permitted in the iron and steel furnaces, therefore zinc-fluorspar concentrates are of little value unless the fluorite 

and sphalerite can be cleanly separated. A process for separating 

these minerals by means of flotation in a dilute solution of aluminum 

sulphate has been developed, it is reported, at Marion, Ky:, the 

flotation being performed in shallow pans, in which mechanical 

stirrers are opera ted. 

The three principal industries in which fluorspar is utilized are, in 

order of importance, (1) metallurgic work, (2) the manufacture of 

opalescent glass and sanitary and enameled ware, and (3) chemical 

manufacture. The highest grade, "American lump No. 1," which 

runs less than 1 per cent silica and is white or clear pale blue or green, 

is sold either ground or in lumps for use in the glass, enameling, and 

chemical industries, including the manufacture of hydrofluoric acid .. 

Grinding of the pure, clear spar is unnecessary for some purposes, as 

the lumps readily decrepitate to a powder when heated. The second 

grade, "American lump No. 2," is used in blast furnaces in the 

production of ferrosilicon and ferromanganese and in basic openhearth steel furnaces to give fluidity to the slag without increasing its 

temperature and to reduce the contents of phosphorus and sulphur. 

This grade includes colored spar and may run as high as ·4 per cent 

silica, though most of it is sold with a 3 per cent guaranty. The lowest 

grade," gravel spar," including all that contai~s more than 4 pe~ cent 

silica as well as spar mixed with calcite, is also largely used in basic 

open-hearth steel furnaces, where it is added to fluxing limestone, and 

ill iron and brass foundries, ·where it is of value in making the metal 

more fluid, in permitting the use of greater quantities of lower grades 

and scrap, and because it tends to carry phosphorus, sulphur, and 

other impurities into the slag. It is estimated that about 80 per cent 

of the domestic output of fluorspar, mainly in the form of gravel spar, 

1 Burchard, E. F., Fluorspar mining and milling at Rosiclare, Ill.: Eng. and Min. Jour., Dec. 2, 1911, 

pp. 1088-1090; Iron Trade Rev., Dec. 16, 1911, pp. 1046-1051. 

127972°--19----12 
178 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

and practically all the imp,orted spar is now consumed as a flux in 

the basic open-hearth steel furnaces. In the Bessemer process it has 

been used in the form. of artificial fluorides of iron and manganese. 

Fluorspar possesses a conside~rably higher quantitative efficiency as 

a flux than limestone, especially in smelting refractory ores; but in aU 

metallurgic operations the proportions of the spar that can be used 

are limited, as its favorable effects do not increase indefinitely as the 

quantity is increased. In England and on the Continent the metallurgic use of fluorspar has heretofore been more common than in 

America, probably because its value has been better understood by 

European metallurgists. Other minor metallurgic uses of fluorspar 

are in the extraction of aluminum from bauxite, in smelting gold, 

silver, and copper ores, in refining copper, in the electrolytic refining 

of antimony and lead, and in refining lead bullion. In the last-named 

process the spar is first converted into hydrofluoric acid. In the extraction of aluminum fluorspar is reported to be fused with bauxite 

and soda ash into a product resembling an artificial,cryolite (sodiumaluminum fluoride), to which more bauxite is added, and from this 

mixture aluminum is extracted in the electric furnace.· :Miscellaneous 

uses that have been reported are as a bond for constituents of emery 

wheels, for carbon electrodes to increase their lighting efficiency while 

also decreasing the amount of current required, in the extraction of 

potash from feldspar, an4 in the manufacture of Portland cement. 

Fluorspar for iron and steel making should carry at least 85 per 

cent calcium fluoride and preferably more, and it should be free from 

sulphides and sulphates. For most other chemical uses it should 

contain 95 to 98 per cent or more of calcium fluoride. . 

The following analyses of gravel fluorspar, most of them made in 

laboratories of steel works, show the character of commercial shipments of spar. The spar from Colorado and New Mexico has not 

been washed; that from Illinois and Kentucky has been subjected 

to mechanical treatment, including washiJ.?.g. 

Analyses of gravel fluorspar from Colorado, New :Mexico, Illinois, and Kentuclcy. 

Locality. 

Colorado: 

Jamestown ........................••.. Jefferson .............................. ~ 

Morrison .............................. . Rosita ................................ . Wagon Wheel Gap ................... . New Mexico: 

N eab~~~~~~::: : :::::::::::: : : :: ::::::I 

Illinois: . ) 

:~:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::; Do ••.............................. Kentucky: i 

Marion ............................... . Do ••••••................. c •••••••• 1 

Calcium 

fluoride 

(CaF2). 

82.16 

68.34 

72.21 

86.75 

90.08 

92.31 

88.94 

87.64 

90.41 

88.85 

87.07 

87.8 

90.02 .. 

Silica 

(Si02). 

Oxides, 

mostly iron Calcium 

(Fe20a) and carbonate 

alumina (CaCOa). 

(AbOs). 

Barium 

sulphate 

(BaS04). 

10.G4 4.27 2.26 ..••.••••••• 28.33 1.69 1.34 ........... . 21.93 3.08 2.78 ......... , .• 9.3 4.2 ...................... .. 2. 21 2.14 1.17 3. 22-ti. ()() 

5.28 

8.35 

1.07 

1.20 

1.19 ........... . 1.34 ........... . 

4.15 1.58 6.41 ........... . 3.35 1.03 4.33 ........... . 3.4 1.45 ....................... . 3.12 ............ S.\JG •••••••••••• 

3.10 2.06 .......................• 

4. 72 1.5· ............ ········•••• 
FLUOHSPAR. 179 

The following notes 1 on the use and requirements of fluorspar 

for optical purposes have been published by the Kentueky Geological Survey: 

An apochromatic lens is one that shows objects viewed or magnified through it 

more nearly free from color rings than is obtainable with any other kind of lens. For 

this purpose certain transparent minerals crystallizing in the isometric system (cubes, 

octahedrons, etc.) come nearest fulfilling the required conditions, because they do not 

show objects viewed through them double (double refractions). The. diamond is 

suitable when found completely transparent, but owing to its high refractive power and 

reflection from two faces rarely occurs in this condition, not to mention its prohibitive 

high cost and difficulty of grinding. 

Fluorspar has low refractive and dispersive powers and hence is especially adapted 

to the production of such lenses, as was pointed out by Abbe. It is much sought after 

by European optical makers where perfect lenses are necessary for the highest class 

of such instruments as spectroscopes, etc. Such lenses show very low differences because of refraction. For the three hydrogen lines Ha, Ht~, and H·r the differences in 

refractive indices are nt~-na=0.00455 and n,.-nt1=0.00255. (Dana, New systemof 

mine1·alogy, ~901, p. 1034.) It is of spe~ial value for certain work in ultraviolet light. 

Fluorite pellucid (water-clear) enough for this purpose is, however, extremely rare. 

It is to be found in simple crystals of fluorspar groups which are either colorless or very 

light yellow, green, blue, etc. As the crystal faces are usually dull or have a satin 

luster, it is necessary to cut off (truncate) the corners of the cubes along cleavage 

planes, to determine whether it contains any sufficiently clear and flawless. The 

clearest portion usually occurs in the center of the triangular face exposed by truncation. A peculiar property of fluorite of this quality is its conchoidal (irregularly 

curved) fractures and less facile cleavage. Twinned crystals usually show flaws due 

to striae along twinning planes, hence do not contain optical fluorite. Pieces as small 

as one-quarter inch across may serve for lenses, though, of course, larger ones are 

more valuable. Prices range according to size and quality of pieces. 

As indicated above, fluorspar suitable for optical purposes is very 

rare and difficult to obtain.. At present there is no reported domestic 

production of it. Some absolutely clear fluorspar has been imported 

from Japan and has been valued at about $30 an ounce. Such fluorspar 

has been used as part of the lens in a telescope in order to correct certain color effects, and pieces only a few millimeters thick 'vill suffice. 

There is an abundance of crystalline fluorspar in southern Illinois, 

western Kentucky, southwestern New Hampshire, and at many 

places in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona, but most of the material is eolored faint to deep shades of purple or green. In the hope 

of finding a domestic supply of fluorspar suitable for optical purposes 

the United States Geological Survey has already communicated 

with the fluorspar producers of the country, earnestly requesting 

them to watch carefully for any crystals that may appear exceptionally clear and free from flaws or fractures, and to notify the 

Survey if anything is discovered that may be thought to be of value 

for the purposes mentioned in order that arrangements may be 

made for testing the n1aterial. In response to the letters of the 

Survey several promiSing sa1nples had been received from don1estic 

sources up to July 15, 1917. 

1 Fobs, F. J., Fluorspar deposits of Kentucky: Kentucky Geol. Survey Bull. 9, pp.178-179, 1907. 
180 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

INDUSTRY PRECEDING AND DURING THE WAR. 

Prior to 1905 the production of fluorspar was less than 50,000 short 

tons annually; up to 1908 it fluctuated considerably, but in 1909 it 

began to increase rapidly, owing to the more general recognition of 

the value of fluorspar in the manufacture of open-hearth steel and 

to the expansions in facilities for 1uining and n1illing the mineral in 

·illinois and Kentucky. There was a steady increase in production 

from 1908 to 1912, but in 1913 and 1914 there were decreases coincident with depression in the steel industry. In 1915 and 1916 the 

production largely increased, owing to the revival of the steel and 

chemical industries, the output for both of these years exceeding 

all previous records. During the period 1910 to 1916, for which 

complete records are available, there has been aln1ost steady decrease 

in imports, but the considerable falling off during the war years 

may be attributed to the interruption to comiuerce as well as to 

depression in the 1nining industry in England caused by the scarcity 

of available miners. 

Fluorspar produced and irnported before and during the war, in short tons. 

Year. 

~1911. .. -.-- ................................................................... . 1912 .•••..............................................................•........ 1913 ................................................................. -- ....... . 

1914 •.•••••.•••....••.. ····•·•······· ···•·······•. ·········•···········•····•·• 1915 .......................................................................... . 1916 .......................................................................... . 

l'roduction. 

87,048 

116,545 

115,580 

95,116 

136,941 

155,735 

Imports. 

32,764 

26,176 

22,682 

10,205 

7,167 

12,323 

From this table it is apparent that American fluorspar deposits 

have proved ample to supply more than the additional fluorspar 

needed to make up for the decrease in iinports. There are no considerable exports of fluorspar at present, so that the consumption is 

represented practically by the domestic production plus the imports. 

This is shown graphically in figure 5. 

The average price of domestic fluorspar at mines or local shipping 

points, for all localities and all grades of spar, has ranged between 

$5.50 and $6.50 a short ton during the last four years. The price 

decreased from 1913 to 1915 but increased more than 50 cents a ton 

in 1916. Ground spar has commanded the highest price-from 

$10.75 to $13.15 in recent years; lump spar has brought from $6.90 

to $13, and gravel spar fr01n $4.85 to $10 a. ton, the price depending 

on quality, locality, and condition of the market. 

Practically all the fluorspar imported in recent years has been a 

medium-grade gravel spar, brought over either as ballast or at a 

very low ocean freight rate, and, having been recovered fr01n old 

mine dumps, it can be sold at a low figure on the American market. 

The highest average valuation assigned to such spar in the last six 

years is $4.38 a ton in 1916, and the lowest is $2.46 in 1911. These 

values do not include the duty, which, together with freight charges, 

must be added to the declared value in order to arrive at an average 

approximation of cost to the consumer. A tariff of $3 a ton was 

imposed on. imported fluorspar by ·the- Payne-Aldrich· bill in August, 

1909. Prior to that time the mineral had been imported duty free. 
FLUORSPAR. 181 

SHORT TONS 

170,000r---------~r----------,----------~-----------r----------~ 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

160,000r-------------~----------~~----------~-------------+--------~/--~ I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I I ~0~00~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,,4,:,-,-,/,+ ~~~~ 

/ ..................... 

! ............... 

140,000 r----------~-/+l~------~~,,-,-,~.------------4------------!~1;1'--~--------~ 

I \\ /;· I I "I 

130,000 r-----~~~------~------------4---'~--------4-------~'--+-+-----------~ 

Ill \, ff,/11 .§ I \ o..: tf / \ £/ ;::, 

1 \ m 8 

1 ' m ~ 120,000f-------------r--------~--4-------~\----~--~U~'--~---4------------~ 

110,000 t---------r-r------------4-4----~--J..-i--4:__----+--------~ 

~~--~ \IJ I \\ v; 

100,000 I \I 

90,000 1/ 

/80,000_~----------~---------~----------~-----------L----------~ 

1911 1912 19~3 1~14 1915 I~ICi 

FIGURE 5 . ..-..Domestic production nnd consumption of fluorspar, 1911-1016. 
182 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

The Underwood bill reduced the duty to $1.50 a ton in October, 1913. 

Gravel spar from England has always competed~ ,,;rith the domestic 

product at the steel furnaces on or near the Atlantic seaboard and 

at times as far west as Pittsburgh and has practically fLxed the price 

in that territory, but since imports have been curtailed the d01nestic 

product has been in greater demand and has sold at better prices in 

the eastern n1arket. 

SUPPLIES. 

No attempt has ever been made to estimate the fluorspar reserves 

in the United States. Field work by the United States Geological 

Survey and the ICentucky Geological Survey has shown conclusively, 

however, that the deposits in Illinois and Kentucky are of sufficient 

extent to supply for many years demands much greater than at 

present. Reconnaissance by the Federal Survey indicates that 

Colorado, New Mexico, and New- Hampshire possess deposits that 

may be drawn upon to supplement the supply from the larger deposits for a considerable period. Moreover, the deposits reported 

to have been discovered in numerous other States promise to yield 

commercial quantities of spar from time to time as transportation 

facilities are developed. The geologic relations of the known deposits indicate that many more of similar grade and extent should 

be discovered as prospecting progresses in mining regions in the 

Central and Western States. If the demand should ever greatly exceed the supply from the present principal domestic sources a considerable quantity might be obtained by saving the concentrates at 

metalliferous mines, although this would involve in most places the 

separation of fluorspar from other gangue minerals, and the price 

would have to be much higher than at present to render this procedure profitable. 

It is probable that little dependence can be placed on a steady 

supply of :fluorspar from England during war years. In normal 

years more than 50 per cent of the English production has been 

shipped to the United States. Probably _this was a surplus, but it 

is doubtful whether in the next five years there will be any such 

surplus available, as the demands in Great Britain are certain to be 

heavier than before the war. Furthermore the foreign spar is of 

lower grade than the mechanically treated spar from Illinois and 

Kentucky and the high-grade vein material of New Hampshire, 

Colorado, and New Mexico, and as :fluorspar is of value chiefly 

according to its purity, purchasers find that the American product 

is more efficient and consequently cheaper in the end. At any 

rate, there should be no necessity for the United States to experience a shortage of :fluorspar except through lack of miners, labor 

troubles, or scarcity of boats and cars to move the product. The 

largest mines are partly dependent on Ohio River for transportation 

of fluorspar to railroad shipping points. 
PETROLEUM. 

By JoHN D. NoRTHROP. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Among the mineral substances that contribute to the successful 

conduct of modern warfare petroleum occupies a position of great 

importance. In its crude or semirefined state petroleull}. is the most 

efficient and economical fuel available for the propulsion of battleships, torpedo boats, transports, and merchant vessels and has been 

adopted for this purpose by the great navies of the world. Behind 

the first line of defense oil is the principal fuel of many large industrial plants and of many railroads of strategic importance whose lines 

traverse sections of the country that are devoid of other fuel resources. 

Of even greater industrial importance than petroleum itself are 

the products derived from it. Gasoline is the principal fuel of 

internal-combustion engines and. as such is an essential requirement 

ior the operation of automobiles, motorcycles, nutotrucks, airplanes, 

armored cars, and motor boats. Mineral lubricants are required 

wherev~r machinery is operated. Kerosene is utilized as a fuel in 

the camp kitchen and as a source of light where other illuminants 

are not available. Engine distillate is a necessary fuel for engines 

of the Diesel and semi-Diesel type utilized on undersea and surface 

craft. Paraffin wax is becoming increasingly important as a surgical 

dressing, and in the realm of therapeutics the places of cymogene, 

rhigolene, and petrolatum, both solid and liquid, have long been fixed. 

Even a casual review of these principu.l applications of petroleum 

in modern warfare is sufficient to· indicate the vital necessity to a 

warring nation of an abundant supply.· 

POSITION OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. 

The position of the United States with respect to petroleum resources is most enviable. Its annual output constitutes two-thirds 

of the world's current supply and in 1916 amounted to 300,767,158 

barrels of 42 gallons each. From 1859, when the petroleum industry 

began in the United States, to the end of 1916 this country produced 

183 
184 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

approximately 4,000,000,000 barrels of crude oil, or more than 60 

per cent of the total quantity produced in the entire wor~d in this 

period. The accompanying diagram (fig. 6) shows· graphically the 

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annual output of crude petroleum in the United States since 1859 

and the relative importance of the ·United States as a contributor to 

the world's supply of this mineral. 
PETROLEUM:. 185 

SOURCES OF DOMESTIC SUPPLY. 

Crude petroleum is produced in commercial quantities in 18 States 

and in the Territory of Alaska and is reported to have been discovered 

recently in the Department of Mindanao, P. I. The relative importance of these sources as contributors to the petroleum supply of 

this country is shown in the following table, which includes statistics 

for 1916 and cumulative totals of the quantity produced since the 

beginning of the petroleum industry in each State: 

Crude petroleum 1narketed in the United States in 191.5 and since 1859. 

[In barrels of 42 gallons each.) 

State. 191G 1859-1916 

Alaska, Michigan, Missouri, and New Mexico .............................. . California .................................................................. . Colorado ................................................................... . Illinois ......•............................................................... Indiana .................................................................... . l~ansas ............................... , ..................................... . 

~~~~i~~~~K.~~~ ::~~~-~s_s_e_~·- ~::::: ~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: New ·York .................................. : .............................. . Ohio ....................................................................... . 

p,;~~~~~:nia::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

'rexas ...................................................................... . 'Vest Virginia .... : ........................................................ . 'Vyollling and Montana .................................................... . 

7 I 705 941 682 

90,9.51,936 918,817,030 

197,231> ll,Ob4,853 

17,714,235 269,082,546 

769,036 104,468,594 

8, 738, 077 40, 108,638 

1,203,246 10,736,490 

15, 2'18, 138 123( 335, 110 

874,087 a) 

i, 744,511 448,331,841 

107,071, 7lli ()()0,820,434 

71 592,394 a 711,373,177 

27' 044, 605 256,386, f>87 

8, 731,184 278,228,797 

6, 279,054 18,489 523 

300,767,158,3,917,328,402 

a New York included in Pennsylvania. 

The areas in which crude petroleun1 is produced in the United 

States are assigned to ten n1ajor fields. This division, though 

mainly geographic, incidentally expresses to a considerable degree 

diff('rences in the characteristics of the oil produced. . 

1. The Appalachian field _includes alf areas of oil production in 

southwestern New York, western Pe1u1sylvania, eastern Ohio, West 

Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The crude oils produced in 

this field range in gravity frmn 25° to 50° Baume, are in the main 

of paraffin base, are free from asphalt and objectionable sulphur, 

and yield by ordinary refining n1ethods relatively high percentages 

of gasoline and illun1inating oils. Near Franklin, Pa., Volcano, W. 

Va., and Mecca, Ohio, small quantities of high-grade petroleum suitable in the crude state for lubrication are produced. The Appalachian 

field has been under development for more than 50 years, and though 

its annual production i.s still in excess of 20,000,000 barrels, its output of petroleun1 is declining steadily at an average rate of 5 per 

cent a year. Its productive areas are practically all developed with 

the exception of the south end, where considerable undeveloped 

territory of pron1ise has in the last year been proved to exist in 

Kentucky and Ttnmessee. 

-
186 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

2. The Lima-Indiana field embraces the areas of petroleu1n production in western Ohio and in Indiana. The product of this field 

ranges in gravity from 30° to 35° Baume and is of paraffin base, 

though containing a small proportion of asphalt. Objectionable 

sulphur compounds that require special refinery treatment for their 

removal are also present. This field has been under development 

since 1885. Its annual production has declined steadily since 1904 

and in 1916 was less than 4,000,000 barrels. Well-directed effort 

over a period of many years has failed to disclose any evidence that 

the productive area of this field can be materially increased, though 

its present limits are acknowledged to include considerable territory 

that is not completely drilled. In such territory operations have 

been retarded by a scarcity 'Of cheap fuel. In western Indiana the 

discovery and developmcn t of small isolated pools of oil is expected 

to extend the date of ultimate exhaustion of the Lima-Indiana field 

many years into the futu1:e. 

3. The Illinois field includes the principal area of oil production 

in the southeastern part of Illinois, as well as a number of scattered 

pools of small individual extent in the central and western parts of 

the State. The oil in this field ranges in gravity from 28° to 40° 

Baume and. contains varying proportions of both asphalt and paraffin. 

Sulphur is generally present but rarely in such form as to necessitate 

special treatment for its removal. Illinois has been an important 

contributor to the petroleum supply of the United States since 1906, 

its output in 1908 reaching a maximum of nearly 34,000,000 barrels. 

Since 1908 its production has declined at a moderate rate, and in 

1916 it amounted to only 17,714,235 barrels. Aside from minor 

pools that may be discovered from time to time in the western part 

, of the State,. the productive oil territory in this field is believed to 

be now under development. A steady though gradual decline in 

production of petroleum is predicted for the Illinois field. 

4. The Mid-Continent field includes all areas in which petroleu1n 

is produced in Kansas and· Oklahoma. The field has been a large 

contributor to the petroleum supply of the United States since 1904, 

and in the last two years it has furnished more than 35 per cent of 

the petroleum produced in the entire country. The oils of this 

field vary in composition within wide limits, ranging from asphaltic 

varieties that are lean in gasoline and illuminants to high-grade 

paraffin oils that yield a large percentage of the lighter products of 

distillation. The range in gravity is between 27° and 42° Baume. 

Sulphur is present in varying quantities in the lower-grade oils, in 

certain of which-the Healdton grade, for example-it exists in a 

form that necessitates special treatment for its elimination. Although 

this field is believed to have attained its maximum annual production, amounting to 115,809;792 barrels, in 1916, it is destined to remain 
PETROLEUM. 187 

the principal contributor to the petroleum supply of the country for 

many years, as its productive districts are only ptJ.rtly drilled, and 

its boundaries embrace large areas of untested and apparently not 

unfavorable territory. 

5. The north Texas field includes a number of detached areas of 

oil production in the northern and east-central parts of Texas. The 

oils produced are in general similar to those of the Mid-Continent 

field, with the exception of that obtained in the Powell pool, Navarro 

County, which has a gravity of about 23° Baume and is of little 

commercial value except as a fuel. Aside from the Navarro County 

district, including the Corsicana and Powell pools, which have produced 

petroleum since the early nineties, the north Texas field has been an 

important source of oil only since the develop1nent of the Wichita 

district, including the Electra and Burkburnett pools, in 1912. 

Since that year its yield has been in excess of 9,000,000 barrels 

annually. Considerable undrilled territory of proJI.lise is included in 

this field, the development of which should serve to maintain production at the present rate for two or three years at least. 

6. The north Louisiana field includes the areas of petroleum production in Caddo, De So·to, Bossier, Red River, and Sabine parishes. 

The oils of this field range in gravity from 22° to 42° Baume and 

are of paraffin base, though containing ordinarily small percentages 

of asphalt. Sulphur is present in the oils of lower gravity. 'rhe 

north Louisiana :field becan1e important as a source of petroleum in 

1910 and attained its record production of 15,082,034 barrels in 

1915. Individual wells and pools in this field are not long lived, and 

although the productive area of the field has not been completely 

drilled and its boundaries have not been fully determined, there is 

little basis for believing that new territory will be developed. in the 

future with sufficient rapidity to 1nore than offset the decline in production of the old wells or to increase the output of the entire area 

beyond 12,000,000 barrels a year. 

7. The Gulf field includes a large number ·of detached oil pools 

associated with saline d01nes in southeastern Texas and. southern 

Louisiana. Oils from the Gulf field, though variable in composition, 

are characterized by relatively high -percentages of asphalt and low 

percentages of the lighter distillation products. In general they 

range in gravity between 15° and 28° Baume and contain considerable sulphur, much of which is in the form of sulphureted hydrogen 

and is easily removed by steam before the oil is utilized. 

The low-gravity olls from this field are used chiefly as fuel and for 

the manufacture of asphalt and asphalt products. The lighte1· grades 

are refined and yield lubricating oils of superior quality. The production of individual pools in this field has been remarkably large, 

but once the maximum yield is attained the output declines abruptly 
""· 

188 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

to a relatively low rate, which is, however, n1a .. ntaincd for n1any 

years. 0"'1.ng to the number of individual pools involved and to the 

peculiar mode of occurrence of the oil, the production in the Gulf 

field is extremely erratic. Between 1901 and 1905 the output increased from 3,500,000 to 36,500,000 barrels. In 1906 it was 

20,500,000 barrels; subsequent to that year it declined to as lo"\V as 

8,500,000 barrels in. 1912 and 1913 but increased with the discovery 

of deep sands in the IIumble pool, Harris County, to about 20,500,.000 

barrels in 1915 and 1916. The future. of the Gulf field is conjectural. 

The developed pools represent but a fraction of the vast area of the 

Gulf Coastal Plain, much of which has not been adequately tested 

by the drill. Recent discoveries of petroleum in c01nmercial quantities at Damon Mound, Brazoria County, Tex., at Big Hill, Matagorda County, Tex., and near Houma, New Iberia Parish, La., indicate that the petroleum output of the Gulf field will probably be 

maintained at the present rate for at least two years more, and that· 

the probabilities of the discovery of additional pools of oil in this 

area are high. Whether the new pools will be of sufficient capacity 

·or will be discovered rapidly enough to sustain or increase the present rate of production of the field as a whole is purely a matter of 

speculation. 

8. The Rocky" :Mountain field includes all areas of petroleum production in Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, as well as areas of 

prospective oil production in Utah and New· Mexico. Crude oils 

from this field are in the main of paraffin base and yield relatively 

.high ~rcentages of gasoline, illuminating oils, lubricants, and fuel 

distillates. The greater part of the oil produced ranges in gravity 

from 32° to 48° Baume and contains little or no· objectionable sulphur. Heavy asphaltic oils, ranging in gravity from 18° to 24° 

·Baume, suitable chiefly for fuel or for the manufactuTe of asphalt, 

are obtained in certain parts of this field. As a contributor to the 

petroleum. supply of the ·united States t4e Rocky Mountain field is 

in its infancy, its production prior to 1912 averaging considerably 

less than 1,000,000 barrels a year. Since 1912 its production has 

increased rapidly, amounting to about 6,500,000 barrels in 1916 as 

a consequence of active operations_ in Wyoming and southern Montana. 

In addition to large area.s of prospectively favorable but as yet 

untested oil territory, the Rocky Mountain field includes a vast 

acreage of easily accessible oil shale that averages in petroleum 

content between 15 and 60 gallons to the ton. It is estimated that 

in northwestern Colorado alone there are 39 townships (1,400 square 

·miles) underlain by an average thickness of 53 feet of shale in beds 

3 feet or more in thickness, which, according to field tests, will yield 

on distillation an average of 25 gallons of crude oil to the ton of 
PETROLEUM. 189 

rock. Crude oil frmu these shale beds will yield by ordinary refining 

·methods approxhnately ·9.5 per cent of gasoline, and by n1odern 

cracking proces:;;es a n1uch larger proportion. An equivalent or 

larger area of equally rich oil shale exists in northeastern Utah and 

southwestern Wyoming. · 

The net result of field investigations conducted by the United 

States Geological Survey is that these shale areas constitute a latent 

reserve of crude petrolewn, the possible yield of w·hich is much in 

excess· of the past and future supply of petroleum obtained and 

obtainable frmu '\Yells in the United States. The development of 

this vast reserve of crude petroleum must be undertaken in the near 

future if the growing .demand for petrolewn products· in the United 

States and elsewhere is to be supplied. The construction of a pipe 

line fron1 western Colorado to connect with the trunk lines in Kansas 

for the purpose of conveying shale oil to the re£neries of the Mid-

.Continent and Atlantic seaboards n1ay easily mark the dawn of the 

next great epoch in the petroleum industry of this country. 

The development of the petroleum industry in the Rocky Mountain 

field has been retarded by a lack of refining and transportation facili· 

ties. This lack is now being rapidly supplied, and production is 

steadily increasing. The area of prospective oil territory in Wyoming 

particularly is large, and proved districts are numerous and by no 

n1eans cmn pletely drilled. 

9. The California field en1braces all areas of oil production in that 

State. The oils of this field are in the n1ain of asphalt base and .. 

·range in gravity fron1 12° to 35° Bamne. Relatively small qu~ntities 

of paraffu1-base oils are found in certain localities. About 25 per 

cent of the petroleu1n produced in California is used for fuel or for 

the 1nanufacture of asphalt and asphalt products. The rmnainder 

is subjected to son1e forn1 of refinery treatment, its chief products 

·being fuel oils, lmnp oils, lubricants, road oils, and paving materials. 

The lighter-gTavity oils yield a fair percentage ot gasoline and naph-

.tha. As indicated in the table on page 3, California has yielded 

more oil than any other State. Its maxin1um annual production is 

believed to have been reached in 1914, when the output was about 

100,000,000 barrels. Its productive areas are considered to have been 

essentially outlined and their periods of flush yield to have been 

passed. Considerable undrilled acreage remains, however, within 

the areas outlined, the development of which, if not interrupted, 

would doubtless serve to maintain a relatively high rate of production 

for the next two or three years, after which an appreciable decrease 

appears certain. 

10. The Alaska field is at present unhnportant as a contributor 

to the petrolemn supply of the country. As now developed it consists of a. few producing wells near Katalla that yield a high""grade 
190 OUR. MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

paraffin-base oil ranging in gravity between 39° and 45.9° Baume. 

Further drilling is necessary to determine the presence or absence of 

a valuable pool of oil in this district. Seepages . of petroleum are 

known elsewhere . in Alaska, as near Yakataga and adjacent to 

Iniskin Bay and· Cold Bay, but their value as indicators of notable 

accumulations of petrolelml is as yet undemons_trated. 

INFLUENCE OF THE EUROPEAN 'V AR. 

Coming at the climax of a p.eriod of gross overproduction of crude 

petroleum in the United States, the unexpected outbreak of the 

European war in 1914 resulted in a demoralization of export facilities 

that reacted adversely on the entire petroleum industry of the country. The increased hazards of ocean traffic forced freight rates to 

unprecedented heights. A great number of bulk and case caniers 

of petroleum and its products were either tied up in foreign ports or 

promptly withdrawn from commercial service, and charters for foreign conveyance were difficult if not impossible to obtain. As a 

consequence refinery stocks of all petroleum products increased so 

rapidly that operations at many plants were temporarily suspended. 

This condition brought about an accmnulation of stocks of crude 

petroleum held by pipe-line companies and by oil producers that 

reacted unfavorably on an already depressed market for crude oil 

and resulted in a decided curtailment of drilling activity in all fields. 

Owing to the prompt action of 'the Entente powers in· securing 

· niastery of the seas, to the urgent need by the belligerent nations for 

gasoline, lubricants, and engine distillates, and to a remarkable increase in the demand for motor fuels and lubricants in the United 

States, the demoralization occasioned by this combination of depressing influences was of short duration. Before the end of 1914 

the export situation had improved materially. The shortage in 

bottoms was rendered less acute by the transfer to American registry 

of many oil carriers formerly operated under foreign flags, by the 

conversion of a few bulk carriers to case carriers, and by the employment of sailing vessels of all types for the conveyance of case oils. 

Emerging from this period of readjustment the American petroleum 

industry found the large foreign markets for illuminating oil of 

which it had been deprived by reason of the blockade declared 

against the ports of the Central powers replaced by larger and more 

attractive markets for other and similar products in the Entente and 

neutral countries. The destruction of the Galician oil fields early in 

the war,. together with the isolation of the Rumanian fields and the 

cessation of foreign exports from the Russian fields as a result of the 

closing of the Dardanelles, presented an opportunity for increased 

export trade in western Europe and elsewhere that American refiners 

and exporters were not slow to recognize. The steps tak~n to supply 
PETROLEUM. 191 

these markets as· well as the rapidly expanding home market for 

petroleum products resulted in a prompt stabilization of conditions 

throughout the industry. Shipyards were overtaxed with orders, 

pipe-line capacities were increased, new refineries were installed 

throughout the Mid-Continent region, and the vast field acculnulations of crude petroleum in this area were withdrawn from the open 

market, passing into the control of a few far-sighted companies that 

had the courage of their convictions and the capital with which to 

back them. The withdrawal of this storage oil·from the open market 

resulted in an increased demand for oil produced in other fields and 

was accompanied by advancing prices for all grades of crude oil. 

Before the end of 1915 activity in drilling had attained normal proportions in practically all fields and was spreading out from proved 

areas in quest of new territory. 

During the six-month period ending with January, 1915, the 

foreign trade of the United States in petroleum· and its liquid products 

decreased steadily·, the net loss being 10 per cent in gross quantity 

compared with the six-month period ending with January, 1914, and 

about 14 per cent compared with tho six-month period ending with 

July, 1914. Subsequent to January, 1915, foreign shipn1ents of 

petroleum and its liquid products increased notably in quantity, the 

gross exports in 1915 exceeding those in 1914 by more than 88,000,000 

gallons, or nearly 4 per cent. In 1916 the gain over 1915 was nearly 

11 per cent. 

·The following table, compiled from the records of the Bureau of 

Foreign and Domestic Commerce, shows the trend 0f the foreign 

trade of the United States in crude petroleum and its principal liquid 

products during the last four years: 

Mineral oils exportedjrom th6 United States, 1913-1916, in gallons. 

Kind. 1913 1914 1915 1916 

Crud£" petroleum ....................... 194:469,634 124,735.553 158,263,009 172, 027' 903 Gasoline and naphtha .................. 188,043,379 209,692,655 281,609,081 35.'>,870,283 

Illuminating oils ....................... 1,119, 441,2,13 1, 010,449,253 836, 91>8, 665 854,683, 40•l Lubricating oils ........................ 207,639,092 191,647,570 2.'39, 678,725 260,805,939 

Fuel!', including gas oils and residuum. 426,872,373 703,508,021 812,216,209 964,089,837 

2,136,465,721 2, 240,033,652 2,328,725, 749 2, G07,482,3G6 

The outstanding features of this tabulation are the enormous gain 

in foreign shipments of gasoline, liquid fuels, and lubricants and the 

diminished but now recovering demand abroad for illuminating 

oils and for crude petroleum. 

With regard to the importation of crude petroleum and its products by the United States, the influence of the war has been relatively slight. The bulk of the petroleum imported by the United 

States consists of crude oil from Mexican ports, imported for use a.s 
192 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

fuel and in the manufacture of asphalt. The normal increase in 

domestic demand for liquid fuels would readily account for the increase in the quantity of crude oil imported during the last four years," 

as shown in the following table, compiled from the records of the 

Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce: 

Crude petroleum, im,ported for consumption in the United States, 1913-19.16. 

[In barrels of 42 gallons each.] 

1913 ... "··················~······························· 17,809,058 

1914 ...................................................... 17, 247~ 483 

1915 ...................................................... 18, 140, 110 

1916 ...................................................... 20, 570, 075 , 

Among the minor products of petroleum imported in considerable 

quantities for consumption in the United States prior to the war is 

paraffin oil, principally liquid petrolatum, a carefully refined medicinal oil having about the consistency of light h~bricating oil, imported from Russia and utilized as a vehicle for protective sprays in 

nose and throat treatment but more especially for internal administration as a laxative. The development of the market for oil of 

this type, on the basis of the Russian product, was largely a· matter 

of convenience rather than necessity, inasmuch as oils of essentially 

the same characteristics can be refmed from certam grades of petroleum available from domestic sources. At the outbreak of the European war direct importations of this material abruptly ceased, 

though they ·Were resumed to some extent a few months later. 

Before such resumption, however, American refiners had seized the 

opportunity presented and had supplied the domestic market with 

American-made substitutes, with the success indicated in the following table, which shows the steady decrease since 1913 in importations of paraffin oil: 

Paraffin oil imported jo1· consumption in the United States, 1913-1916. 

[In barrels of 42 gallons each.] 

1913 ........................................................... 3, 676 

1914 ........................................................... 2, 481 

1915 ........................................................... 1, 707 

1916 ... :....................................................... 901 

The less direct influence of the European war on the petroleum 

industry of the United States has been manifest in a variety of 

ways. 

The impulse given to practically all_industries by increased foreign 

.demand for iron, steel, and agricultural products in particular resulted 

in general prosperity that reacted in a remarkable expansion in the 

automobile industry and in the utilization of power machinery on 

farms throughout the country. As a consequence, the domestic 
PETROLEUM. 193 

market for gasoline and lubricating oils increased so· greatly that 

petroleum refiners were forced to exert every effort to meet the current demand. This condition brought about the erection of a great 

number of new refineries, the enlargement of many already established, and a general effort to devise new methods and processes for 

increasing the percentage of gasoline recovered from crude petroleum. 

Thanks to the ability of the oil fields of the United States to 

respond to increased demands for crude petroleum, to the success of 

certain of the modern processes for increasing the relative proportion 

of gasoline that can be :t;nanufacturcd from petroleum (notably the 

Burton process), and to the development of efficient methods for the 

extraction of gasoline from natvral gas, the domestic and foreign 

demand for motor fuels has thus far been approximately met. 

'fhe curtailment of iinports of certain chemicals utilized in petroleum refining has resulted in an appreciable increase in the cost of 

refinery treatment of crude petroleum since July, 1914. The demand 

for iron and steel in wartime industries has resulted in a scarcity of 

structural steel, casing, pipe, and drilling supplies that has not only 

increased the cost of drilling and of petroleum transportation but 

has necessitated the repression of field operations and the delay or in· 

definite postponement of pipe-line and refinery betterments. 

INFLUENCE OF THE 'VORLD WAR. 

The entrance of the United States into the European conflict as a belligerent on the side of the Entente powers has given this struggle the 

status of a world war. The opportunity of supplying our allies with 

petroleum and its products has now become a duty that the petroleum industry of this country must exert itself to the utmost to 

. fulfill. ·To the task set before it this industry brings an equipment 

of oil-transporting and oil-refining facilities adequate to meet normal 

requirements and capable, if adequately supplied with iron and steel, 

of rapid expansion to any magnitude that may be justified by the 

quantity of crude petroleum available. The principal question is 

whether or not the sources of crude petroleunl in the country can meet 

the demands that must be made on them both at home and abroad. 

:'rheir capabilities in this regard have already been touched on in the 

foregoing discussion of individual fields. 

On the whole the outlook is not such as to encourage optimism in 

view of the fact that the present rates of oil production and of oil 

consumption in the United States are approximately equivalent 

and that the total reserves of crude petroleum held by pipe-line companies and large refineries were depleted to the extent· of nearly 

15,000,000 barrels in the last half of 1916. The total surface reserve 

of crude petroleum in the United States on January 1, 1917, is esti-

.mated at 175,000,000 barrels, a quantity none too large to stabilize 

127072°--1D----13 
194 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

conditions in an industry that requires 25,000,000 barrels of oil a 

month for current needs. 

If normal demands for petroleum products can barely be met by 

current production of crude <?il, supplemented as to gasoline supply 

by the contributions of the casing head gasoline industry, the abnormal demands occasioned by the entrance of the United States into the 

world war render imperative an immediate increase in production. 

From a review of the fields in which, it appears reasonable to believe, 

well-directed effort would result" in prompt and substantial gains 

in production, Kentucky, Oklahoma, the Gulf field, Wyoming1 and 

the shale area of western Colorado and eastern Utah ·stand forth as 

most promising. To effect the increase that seems possible in these 

areas, however, and in fact to maintain production at the present 

rate (July, 1917), it is necessary that the existing famine in pipe, 

casing, and drilling supplies be remedied at once. Proved areas, no 

matter how productive of oil, can not be developed without casing, 

nor can oil be marketed efficiently without pipe lines. This fact can 

not be too strongly emphasized. The potential yield of the Irvine 

pool, Estill County, Ky. 1 has been estimated as high as 4,500,000 

barrels a year. Petroleum is now being marketed from this pool 

at the rate of only 1,500,000 b~rrels a year because of a lack of pipeline facilities. 

Oklahoma is plentifully supplied with refining facilities and with 

ample pipe-line outlets to the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards and in- . 

eludes within its borders the Osage Indian Reservation, the unleased 

portion of which constitutes one of the prospectively richest sources 

of petroleum in the United States. Development in Oklahoma and 

Kansas is seriously retarded by the acute famine in well casing and 

other drilling supplies. The same condition prevails in Texas and 

Louisiana, where considerable territory, both proved and prospective, 

remains undrilled. In Wyoming field development and oil production are now in excess of transportation and refinery facilities, but 

this discrepancy is being remedied as rapidly as practicable by the 

construction of new pipe lines and by the enlargement of existing 

refineries. Betterments now in progress will result before the end 

of 1917 in placing the Wyoming and Colorado branches of the petroleum industry in a position to supply a larger proportion of the 

domestic requirements of petroleum products of the Middle West and 

Rocky Mountain regions than in the past and thus release for eastern 

consumption or export more of the output from Mid-Continent and 

Appalachian sources. 

Though representing a vast resource of petroleum, the oil shales of 

Colorado and Utah can not be considered an emergency source of oil. 

Methods of mining, crushing, and retorting the shale are yet to be 

developed. Pipe lines must be constructed to existing refineries or 
·. ' · . PETROLEUM. 195 

new plants erected near the sources of ·supply. Unknown difficulties 

must be overcome before the shnJe-oil industry can either supplement 

or supersede the crude-petroleum industry. 

In consideration of the steadily increasing demand for petroleum 

and its products both at home and abroad and of the primary dependence not only of this country but of its allies on the sources of 

petroleum in the United States for aid iri the successful conduct of 

the war, it is obvious that a serious shortage in the supply of motor 

fuel is imminent. This famine can be deferred by the exercise of 

strict economy in the utilization of the supply now available by every . 

operator of a motor vehicle in the country and by the curtailment of 

the use of gasoline-driven vehicles for pleasure and for such business 

purposes as can no·t be efficiently accorp.plished by the substitutjon 

of electrically propelled vehicles. It may be still further deferred 

by the substitution in. a multitude of small plants of one kind or 

another throughout the country of water, stea1n, or electric power 

for that now derived from gasoline. · 

No commercially practicable substitute for gasoline a.s a motor fuel 

has yet been discovered or devised, nor can it be expected that one 

·will be made available in time to assist the United States and its 

allies in winning the war. 

In the light of this fact, the conservation of existing gasoline supplies and the ,discovery and development of new sources of petroleum 

stand forth as opportunities for patriotic service that are presented 

to a surprisingly large proportion of the population of this country 

and that can not be ignored under penalty of an irreparable loss in 

the fighting efficiency of this Nation and of the nations with which 

it is leagued in the greatest conflict the world has ever known. 

MA.NGANIFEROUS IRON ORES. 

By E. c. HARDER. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The dependence of the United States on imported high-grade 

manganese ore and ferromanganese is well known to steel makers 

and other users of manganese. Normally the high-grade n1anganese 

ore produced in this country constitutes less than 2 per cent of the , 

total amount of manganese ore consumed, not including the ore 

represented by the manganese imported in the form of the alloys 

ferromanganese and spiegeleisen. During 1916 the domestic pro..: 

duction was about three times that of 1015, largely on account of 

the high prices paid for ore. 'rhe exploration for new deposits has 

also been stimulated, and many discoveries of 1nanganese ore are 

being reported. Even 'cvith this outlook for increased production, 

however, it is not unduly pessimistic to say that the deposits of 

high-grade n1anganese ore in the United States will probably never 

be able to supply the n1anganese consumed in domestic industries. 

If, therefore, the importation of high-grade Inanganese ore were 

discontinued, numerous industries would be vitally affected. Of 

these the steel industry consumes by far the largest quantity of 

manganese. 

Va.rious ways have been suggested in which this situation may be 

alleviated in time of need. Some investigators propose the use of 

substitutes for manganese in steel Inaking. Willcox 1 has recently 

suggested that aluminum, silicon, and titanium could be successfully 

used as deoxidizers in steel making to replace a large part of the 

ferromanganese. Willcox suggests also that by increased iinportation a reserve of high-grade manganese ore might be accumulated 

in this country sufficient to keep the steel industry in operation for 

perhaps a year should imports be stopped. The capital that would 

be tied up in such a 1:eserve, however, is very large, and other remedies 

Inay be considered more feasible. 

I Willcox, F. H., The significance of manganese in American steel metallurgy: Am. Inst. :Min. Eng. 

Dull., February, 1917, pp.19!)...207. 

197 
'198 OUR MINERAL S"UPPLIES. 

Newton, 1 who is at present engaged in a study of metallurgic 

problems concerning the use of manganese in the steel industry, 

proposes a modification of the basic open-hearth practice which would 

allow the extensive utilization of low-grade manganiferous iron 

ores. He suggests that instead of adding large quantities of ferromanganese or spiegeleisen to steel for deoxidizing at the end of the 

heat, a manganiferous pig iron containing about 3 or 4 per cent of 

manganese be used in the bath so that the deox~dation necessary 

at the end of a heat may be reduced to a minimum. It is believed 

that the presence of manganese in the bath throughout the heat 

will tend to prevent oxidation or the formation of ferrous oxide, 

and thus the addition of high-grade manganese alloys at the end 

of the heat would be economized. Various low-grade manganiferous 

ores could be used in the production of such high-manganese pig 

iron and the quantity of high-grade manganese ore required in the 

steel industry would be decreased. Newton suggests also that 

modifications might be made in steel-making practice which would 

permit the greater use of iron-manganese alloys containing manganese between the 20 per cent in spiegeleisen and the 80 per cent in 

ferromanganese, which are now considered essential.2 These alloys 

also could be produced from manganiferous ores with the addition 

of varying amounts of high-grade manganese ore for the higher 

alloys. 

With such .possibilities in view it is very important that the attention of mining men should be directed toward the development of 

the reserves of both low-grade and high-grade manganiferous ore, 

especially the large reserves of manganiferous iron ore in the Cuyuna 

district of Minnesota. 

Manganiferous ores of various kinds and grades are found in 

several parts of the United States. The Lake Superior iron-ore 

region contains extensive deposits of manganiferous iron ore, and in 

many mining districts of the West manganiferous silver ore is found 

in the upper oxidized portions of ore deposits containing precious 

and semiprecious metals. In the Lake Superior region the principal 

districts producing manganiferous iron ore are the Cuyuna, PenokeeGogebic, and Iron River; the Cuyuna is by far the most productive. 

In the Western States manganiferous silver ore is being mined at 

Leadville, Colo., Pioche, Nev., Tombstone, Ariz., Silver City, N.Mex., 

and Philipsburg, Mont. Manganiferous silver ore is found also in 

other western mining regions, such as Butte and Neihart, Mont., 

and Lake Valley, N. Mex.; and manganiferous iron ore is more or 

less c!osely associated' with the manganes(l ore of northern Arkansas 

I Wfllcox, F. H.,· op. cit.; discussion of paper by Edmund Newton: Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Bull., June 

]917, pp. 99~996. . 

t Newton, Edmund, personal communication. 
MANGANIFEROUS IRON ORES. 199 

and the Appalachian region. The manganiferous zinc residuum 

formed as a by-product in the smelting of New Jersey manganiferous 

and ferruginous zinc ores is also an important source of manganese. 

The principal use for manganiferous ores in the West has been for 

flux in lead smelting. In some of the districts, however, such as 

Leadville, Colo., Philipsburg, Mont., and Tombstone, Ariz., some 

high-grade ore has been mined for the production of iron-manganese 

alloys. Much of the manganiferous iron ore of the Cuyuna range 

has likewise been used in the manufacture of iron-manganese alloys, 

the ore usually being mixed with foreign high-grade manganese ore. 

The Cuyuna ore is generally either too high in phosphorus or too 

high in silica to be used in making spiegeleisen without the admixture 

of other ores. A. small tonnage, however, could probably be so used. 

CUYUNA DISTIUCT, MINN. 

The Cuyuna district is in central :Minnesota, about 90 miles west 

of Duluth. The productive area lies south of Mi.ssissippi River in 

Crow Wing County, but the ore-bearing formations are known to 

extend northeastward as far as the central part of Aitkin County and 

southwestward in Morrison and Todd counties. 

Most of the ore deposits in the district consisli of iron ore, the 

manganiferous iron ore bodies being confined mainly to the so-called 

north range, which forms the no1'thern portion of the district, in 

Crow Wing County. A. number of ore-bearing belts trend in a 

northeasterly direction through the north range, and bodies of iron 

ore and manganiferous iron ore are found at intervals along them, ·the 

former more abundantly in the southern part and the latter in the 

northern part. Iron ores and manganiferous iron ores are more or 

less closely .associated, however, and may occur together in a ~ingle 

ore body. The ore-bearing belts are separated by areas of barren 

rock such as schist and slate. 

The ore-bearing rocks consist of ferruginous chert and ferruginous 

slate near the surface and of cher~y and slaty iron carbonate rock 

at a greater depth. Locally all these rocks carry manganese. The 

iron-ore deposits are inclosed in ferruginous che~t and ferruginous 

slate near the bedrock surface and extend to depths depending upon 

the extent to which the rocks have been decomposed. They are 

generally very irregular in outline and grade into. the inclosing rocks. 

Relatively barren masses of the associated rocks are. common in the 

ore bodies. The deposits of manganiferous iron ore are similar in 

occurrence to the iron-ore deposits, but they are generally smaller 

and more irregular and do not extend as deep. The deepest manganiferous iron ore mine in the district has a depth of about 175 feet 

below the base of the glacial drift, and it will probably be found that 

most of the ore of these deposits is concentrated above this depth. 
200 OUR MINERAL. SUPPLIES. 

The productive deposits contain on an average between 200,000 and 

500,000 tons each, though some contain considerably over 1,000,000 

tons. The lower limit of workability of the ore bodies depends 

on a number of factors, such as grade and character of the ore~ shape 

of the ore bodies, presence of included rock masses, depth of overburden, and amount of water. Some ore bodies containing less than 

200,000 tons of ore can under favorable conditions be worked. 

The character and mode of occurrence of the manganiferous iron 

ore depend upon the nature of the rocks with which it is associated. 

In deposits associated with ferruginous chert the ore is generally 

found along definite but locally rather thin layers, but in those 

occurring in slate the ore is scattered through wide zones. ·In many 

places the ore associated with ferruginous chert is finely crystalline 

and locally shows pure manganese minerals such as pyrolusite, 

psilomelane, and manganite in drusy cavities and veins, whereas 

that in ferruginous slate is commonly amorphous, although locally 

veins of manganese minerals are f01.md. In deposits in ferruginous 

chert the entire beds are usually more or less impregnated with 

manganese and iron, although the· metallic content shows a wide 

range from place to place. The ore in ferruginous slate, on the 

other hand, occurs in scattered nodules and irregular masses separated 

by ferruginous slate or its decomposition product, ferruginous clay. 

There are two principal clr..£ses of manganiferous iron ore in the 

Cuyuna district-(1) low-phosphorus ores, which are usually high 

in silica, and (2) high-phosphorus ores, which are as a rule moderately 

low· in silica. Low-phosphorus ores are commonly associated with 

cherty iron-bearing rocks and high-phosphorus ores with slaty 

iron-bearing rocks. This association, however, is not universal, 

and in some places high and low phosphorus o_res occur together in 

the same series of rocks or even in the same deposit. Thus some 

mines produce only one class of ore, and in other mines ore bodies 

of both classes are closely associated. The ores of both classes show 

a great range in iron and manganese content, not only in different 

deposits but within short distances in the same deposit, especially 

across the strike of the formation. Layers low in manganese ~nd 

high in iron may alternate with layers or lenses very high in manganese 

and low in iron. There are also variations along the strike of the 

beds, however, resulting locally in changes along the same bed from 

high-grade manganiferous iron ore to low-grade manganiferous 

iron ore or even to iron ore containing little or no manganese. In 

many deposits irregular masses of iron ore or of lean iron and manganese bearing rock are inclosed. within manganiferous iron ore. 

These irregularities show that the grade of the ore varies from place 

to place and that it is difficult to maintain a uniform product from 

the mines. This difficulty is overcome in part by mixing ores from 
MANGANIFEROUS IRON ORES. 201 

different parts of an ore body and in part by marketing several 

distinct grades of ore. Some mines offer as many as four grades of 

manganiferous iron ore. 

The principal constituents of the ore are iron and manganese oxides, 

together with silica, which is found in the form of chert or quartz, 

and alumina, which occurs in clay and in several silicates. Iron and 

manganese carbonate are found locally in the ore, and iron silicates 

are co1n1non. Lime and magnesia occur in so1ne ores and are probably present largely as carbonates or silicates. The principal gangue 

material is the country rock, such as ferruginous chert, ferruginous 

slate, or clay. Quartz veins occur in many of the ore bodies. With 

increasing depth ore bodies and associated rock grade into unaltered 

iron-bearing formation. 

The content of manganese i.Q. the manganiferous iron ores ranges 

from 1 to 30 or 35 per cent, and the iron fro:m 20 to 50 per cent or 

more. The silica usually ranges between 8 and 16 per cent in the 

low-phosphorus ores but is lower jn the high-phosphorus ores. Phosphorus ranges generally from 0.06 to 0.10 per cent in the low-phosphorus ores and 0.15 to 0.25 per cent in the high-phosphorus orea. 

Water of hydration ranges from 6 to 12 per cent. 

Below are given average cargo analyses of Inanganiferous iron ore 

from certain mines in the Cuyuna district:1 

Average cargo analyses of manganiferous iron ore, dried at 212° F., frorn the rnines of the 

Cuyuna district, ~Afinn. 

Mine. 

tiOn. I 

: !· Lossby 

Fe. Mn. I P. SiOz. AhOa. CaO. MgO. S. i~ni-

---------1-----------·---------- Armour No.2 .............. . Cuyuna-Mille Lacs .....•.... 

Do ..................... . Do ..................... . Do ..................... . Ferro ....................... . Hillcrest .......•............ Algoma (Hoell) ..••.•....... Mahnomen .•................ Do ..................... . Do ..................... . Mangau No. 1 .............. . 

Meacharn ............. · ...... . Sultana .................... . Do ..................... . 

49.30 

37.71 

39.02 

37.39 

40.02 

29.29 

43.811 

32.26 

40.00 

46.00 

.'il.OO 

35.91 

46.58 

39.302 

37.74 

5. 28 0. 215 8. 90 21. 22 • 091 11. 46 17. 06 • ()96 13. 20 12. 91 • 079 19. 50 8. 96 . 051 22. 00 22.29 • 075 17.56 9. 880 • 230 6. 110 19. 50 • 090 16. 47 14.00 .15 10.00 8. 00 . 20 7. 55 4. 50 .19 6. 10 13. 51 • 099 22. 29 4. 42 • ao8 6. 52 13. 426 . 170 8. 536 14. 68 • 062 16. 44 

:~~ ···o:s2· ···o:47. ·i'raca:· :::::::: . 42 • 84 • 67 Trace. . .•••••• • 22 • 67 • 63 'I.' race. . •.••••• . 18 • 68 • 60 Trace. . .•.•••• 1. 47 ..•••••..••••..•........•.•••••• 

"""2:43" ::::::::1:::::::: :::::::: :::::::: 

3. 80 • 22 • 31 0. 015 7. 84 

3. 80 . 22 • 31 • 015 9. 84 3. 70 • 75 1. 24 • 029 9. 90 

2. 99 . 26 . 37 • 010 .•.••••• 4. 22 2. 08 . 55 12.02 3. 50 • 75 • 50' • 015 10. 00 

. ....... ········r··· .. ·· ········ ········ 

A total quantity of 363,334 gross tons of 1nanganiferous iron ore, 

containing more than 5 per cent o:f 1nanganese, has been shipped from 

the Cuyuna district to the end o:f 1916. The following table shows 

the annual shipn1ents fron1 the different mines: 

I Analyses of Lake Superior iron ores, season 1916, pp. 8-11, La1;:e Superior Iron Ore Association, 1917. 
OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Jfanganijerous iron ores shipped from the Cuyuna a~:strict, -~finn., 1918 to 1916, inclu.sive, 

by mines, in gross tons. 

Ore containing 15 to 40 per cent Ore containing 5 to 15 per 

manganese. cent manganese. 

Mine. Total. 

1913 1914 11!115 1916 1913 191411915 1916 

C-u-yu-na_M_ill_e_L_ac_s _____ -_-_ .-.. -.-.. -.. -.

1

a_2_6-,200- 55,000 . 35,221 .'= = =\= 90,000 200,421 

Ferro............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,710 . • . . • . . • . . • • . • • • • . • . . • . • . . . . 14, 710 

A~ma. (Roch).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 3, 036 23, 000 . . . • . . • . . . . • 4, 564 . . . . . . . . . 30, 792 .

Hillcrest ..................................••.... · ...........•...• 

1 

............ , ....... a 2, 712 2, 712 

r~=~~-:~:~~~:~::-:-:-:::::::: :::::::: :::::::~ ~:::ig~::::::::: :::::: ::::::~::::::: HJ~ ig;~g 26,200 155,192 38,409 1

37,710 1------ ······: 4,564 1201,259 1363,334 

a Percentage of manganese not stated. 

As shown by the above table the production is rapidly increasing. 

In 1917 probably 14 or 15 mines will produce manganiferous iron ore. 

The amount of manganirerous iron ore available in the district is 

only very imperfectly known. The following table shows estimated 

reserves of several grades of ore according to the Minnesota Ta."'< 

Commission :

1 

Estimated reserves of manganifero·us iron ore in the Ouyuna district, ~Minn. 

Mn (per Fe (per Fe and 

Mn P (per (per 'rons. cent). cent). cent). cent). 

---------

1. 22 54.65 55.87 0.179 123,771 1. 36 56.38 57.74 .159 3,122, 031 3.53 53.69 57.22 • 258 720,488 4. 98 50.85 55.83 .350 644,750 

5.90 49.15 55.05 .336 713,490 

9.19 47.27 56.46 .058 468,566 

10.99 46.46 57.45 • 236 948,802 11.30 42.57 53.87 '. 226 1,939,417 11.44 43.49 54.93 .045 620,897 15.45 39.27 54.72 .090 408,878 

15.96 43.26 59.22: .156 183,716 

21.93 30.82 52.75 .070 100,000 

9,994,806 

The estimates shown in the above table were made in 1913, before 

the possibilities of the extensive use of manganiferous iron ores were 

definitely realized. They include only ores whose metallic content 

is over 50 per cent. At the present time, however, the combined 

iron and manganese content of much of the ore that is shipped is 

less than 50 per cent. On the other hand, the estimates include a 

considerable quantity of material that is too low in manganese to 

constitute an important reserve of manganiferous ore. However, 

there has been much exploration work during the last three years, 

tAppleby, W. R., and Newton, E., Preliminary concentration tests on Cuyuna ores: Minnesota School 

of Mines Exper. Sta. Bull. 3, p. 52,1915. Minnesota Tax Commission Fourth Bienn.Rept.,pp. 75 et seq. 

1914. 
MANGANIFEROUS· IRON OR.ES. 203 

and the known quantity of Inanganiferous iron ore of all grades has 

been increased greatly. There is no doubt that the Cuyuna district 

constitutes one of the most important sources of manganiferous ore 

in the United States. 

OTHER LAKE SUPERIOR DISTRICTS. 

Manganiferous iron ores are found in several other Lake Superior 

iron-ore districts besides the Cuyuna. Ores containing 5 per cent or 

more of manganese are being produced in the Penokee-Gogebio 

district of Michigan and Wisconsin and in the Iron River district of 

Michigan. In general relation these ores are similar to the manganiferous iron ore of .the Cuyuna district, but their distribution is much 

more local and the quantity is comparatively small. 

Besides manganiferous iron ores these districts, as well as the :Marquette and Menominee districts of Michigan and the Mesabi district 

of Minnesota, produce considerable quantities of iron ore which contain between 1 and 3 per cent of manganese. Such ores can be used 

in the manufacture of high-manganese pig iron and should be reckoned 

among the sources of mangane~e. 

APPALACHIAN REGION. 

Small quantities of Inanganiferous iron ore have been produced 

intermittently at several localities along the Appalachian Valley from 

Vermont southward to Georgia. The manganiferous iron ore is 

generally associated with the brown iron ore or the high-grade manganese ore of the region, 1 and the conditions of occurrence and distribution are similar. The principal ~eposits are found along the west 

front of the Blue Ridge in Virginia, but many isolated deposits are 

known throughout the Appalachian Valley in Pennsylvania, Virginia, 

Tennessee, and Georgia. 

The general features of most deposits of manganiferous iron ore 

along the Blue Ridge in Virginia and its southward extension in Tennessee and Georgia are very similar to those of the "mountain" 

brown ores. The shapes of the deposits vary with their structural 

associations ;_some occur in troughs, whereas others are in fault zones. 

The ores contain nodules of psilomelane with some manganite and 

limonite, embedded in clay resulting from the decomposition of the 

limestone and shale near by. No ores are known to persist 300 feet 

below the surface. In some of the deposits masses of manganiferous 

iron ore 50 or 60 feet long are known. Some deposits consisting of 

groups of large and sJ,nall bodies or masses_ of manganiferous iron ore 

are many hundred feet in length and width. 

1 Harder, E. C., Mimganese deposits of the United States, with sections on foreign deposits, chemistry 

and uses: U.S. Gecil. Survey Bull. 427, pp. 27-102, 1910. 
204 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

:Manganiferous iron ore occurs also in association with the "valley" 

. brown ore in Virginia and Tennessee and with the "Oriskany" brown 

ore in Virginia. Some deposits or parts of deposits of these ores are 

highly manganiferous. As in the Blue Ridge deposits, the ores are 

embedded in residual clay. They have been formed by surface concentration and replacement and do not extend far below the surface. 

In northwestern Virginia, in the New River region of southwestern 

Virginia, and in Shady Valley, Tenn., many such deposits are found. 

Until recently the demand for the ores has been slight, and many 

deposits have been abandoned; There is little doubt that a large 

quantity of manganiferous iron ore is available in the Appalachian 

regwn. 

The iron and manganese oxides that make up the manganiferous· 

iron ore are clearly distinguishable in many of the deposits. Manganese oxides, such as psilomelane or pyrolusite, occur as irregular 

pockets in the iron ore or s1nalllenses of iron and manganese oxides 

may be found interlayered or irregularly intermixed. There are 

other deposits, however, in which the iron and manganese oxides are 

indistinguishable from each other, and the mixture forms a homogeneous black or brownish-black ore. 

Much of the Inanganiferous iron ore of the Appalachian regim;, such 

as that occurring along the Blue Ridge, is very siliceous. Some ship-

~ents, however, show a high content in metal. Analyses of some of 

the ores are given below. 

Analyses ojmanganijerous iron orefrom the Appalachian region. 

~In. Fe. P. Si02. 

------------ 8. 22 41.12 0. 260 14. 8.'3 

10.18 40.10 .536 1.0. 52 

25.09 29.17 .155 ........... 30.32 23.90 • 100 6.37 

36.48 15.83 .089 7. 56 ' 44.31 12.32 .101 5. 47 

The following table shows the production of n1anga.niferous iron 

ore in the eastern part of the United States/ including the Appalachian region: 
MANGANIFEROUS IRON ORES. 205 

}rfangamjerous iron ore produced in eastern United States, 1887-1917, in gross tons. 

Virginia. 

Other 

Eastern 

States. 

Other 

Virginia. Eastern 

States. 

1S87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 025 a 726 ! 1909. • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 305 

liHHH:HE/: ::;;r:~ <-:T~- · !f[HEEEEH Iii :::::~:~ 1901.......................... .......... C20 11916.. ........................ 37,729 h5,065 

~~~5:::::::::::·::::::::::::::: ~:g~g ::::::::::: 55,505 --;,463 1908.... ................ ... ... 274 .......... 1 1!117 (estimated).............. 45,000 750 , I 

a Geor~io. Maine, and Vermont. b North Carolina, South Carolina, 'rennessee, and Vermont. c North Carolina. · dVermont. 

e Pennsylvania. 

J South Carolina. g Georgia and Tennessee. h Georgia, Pennsylvania, and 'l'ennessee. 

NORTHEHN ARKANSAS. 

During the past 12 years several thousand tons of manganiferous 

iron ore have been produced annually in northern Arkansas. Practically all this ore has come from one mine in the southern part of the 

district north of Batesville. The ore is found in horizontal strata, 

known as the Cason shale, which lie unconformably upon the next 

lower formation, the unconformity representing a long period . of 

erosion. The strata consist of dark-red sandy shale 10 to 15 feet 

thick, containing a few layers of dark quartzite. In places the entire 

formation is heavily impregnated with iron and manganese oxides, 

and the shaly layers contain an abundance of small flattened buttons 

of manganiferous iron ore lying parallel to the stratification. The 

buttons range from half an inch to 2 inches in the longer diameter and 

are from a quarter to half an inch thick. Locally they merge into 

one another and for1n thin horizontal layers. The buttons are 

closely grouped, and generally make up more than half of the rock 

mass. They are more abundant in the upper part of the bed than in 

the lower part. "Where 1nany are present they constitute a low grade 

manganiferous iron ore. 

The part of the Cason shale which contains manganiferous iron ore 

occupies a considerable area in the southern part of the Batesville 

district, and doubtless large quantities of this low grade material are 

available. As the ore has the nature of an original sediment and is 

not secondarily concentrated by surface weathering, it may occur in 

the Cason shale underneath the hills as well as along the outcrop. In 

the northern part of the Batesville district this bed carries high grade 

In anganese ores .

1 

1 Harder, E. C., Manganese deposits of the United States, with sections on foreign deposits, chemistry, 

and uses: U. S. Gcol. Suryey null. 427, pp. 102-US, 1910. 
206· OUR -MINERAL SUPPLIES.· · 

The following analyses show the composition of the northern Ar-

-kansas manganiferous iron ore: . 

Analyses of northern Arkansas manganiferous iron ore. 

~ ~ _P_. --~-~i0 • Moisture. 

4.88 34.64 o. 580 25.65 ............ 8.45 38.30 • 380 ........... ............ 10.75 41.08 • 467 ........... 12.50 43.12 • 339 1. 54 

15.70 · · · i6: ao· · 35.40 . 735 4. 35 

18.80 33.21 .194 6.05 15.10 

21.63 24.31 . 252 14.82 ... i9:oo·· 23.40 29.57 .452 5.10 

Below is given the total production of manganiferous iron ore in 

Arkansas. 

Manganiferous iron ore produced in Arkansas, 1893-1916, in gross tons. 

1893. -·--········· 1904 ............. . 

1905 ............ .. 

1906 ............ .. 

1907- ............ . 

1908 .... -........ . 

160 

600 

3,321 

8,900 

4, 133 

4,066 

1909 ............. . 

1910 ............ .. 

1911. ............ . 

1912 ............ .. 

1913 ............ .. 

1914 ............ .. 

3, 325 I 1915 ............ .. 

5, 030 1916 ............ .. 

2, 177 

1,332 

9,650 

1,970 

WESTERN UNITED STATES. 

3,355 

3, 869 

51,888 

The manganiferous ores associated with precious and semiprecious 

metal deposits in the mining regions of the western United States 

are principally of two kinds-those containing a large proportion of 

both manganese and iron oxides and those containing manganese 

oxides, with little or no iron oxide. Ores of the first class are by 

far the n1ost abundant and include those of Leadville, Colo.; Pioche, 

Nev.; and Silver City, N. Mex. Manganiferous ores containing 

little or no iron are found at Philipsburg and Butte, Mont., and at 

Tombstone, Ariz. Nearly all the ores contain small amounts of 

other metals, such as silver, gold, lead, zinc, and copper. 

The manganese content of the manganiferous ores shows a great· 

range. Where the proportion of the combined n1anganese and iron 

oxides is fairly high the ore may be used in the manufacture of 

spiegeleisen. Elsewhere, however, such impurities as silica, alumina, 

and lime are present in large quantities. Most of the ores that 

contain little or no iron contain a large proportion of the impurities 

mentioned above. Locally, however, as at Philipsburg, some ore 

that is fairly high in 1nanganese is found. Thus, in the Western 

States, all gradations from manganese ore to low-grade manganiferous material are known. If silica and other impurities could be 

removed from such ores by cheap and efficient methods of concentration, large quantities would become available at Philipsburg, 
MANGANIFEROUS IRON ORES. 207 

Butte, and other localities. ·The concentration would yield a highgrade manganese product, such as could not be produced from 

manganiferous ores containing iron. 

Of the manganiferous ores containing both manganese and iron, 

those of Leadville, Silver City, and Pioche are of considerable value. 

The Leadville ores have for many years been mined in large quantities for use as flux and in· smaller quantities for the manufacture 

of spiegeleisen. Those of Silver City and Pioche have also been 

used largely for flux in past years, but at the present time considerable ore is being mined at Silver City for use in the manufacture 

of spiegeleisen. The Leadville and Silver City ores are smelted at 

Pueblo, Colo. . 

The manganiferous ores are found in the upper oxidized portions 

of deposits containing _silver, lead, gold, copper, zinc, and other 

metals. With increasing depth the oxides grade into unaltered 

manganese or iron carbonates or silicates, which form the gangue 

minerals associated with the sulphides of the other metals. Only 

the oxidized parts of deposits have been used for their iron or manganese content, as the unaltered gangue minerals are usually of too 

low grade. The depth of the oxidized zone varies fron1 place to 

place. 

A few average analyses of manganiferous ore from Leadville and 

Silver City are given below. 

Analyses of mangamferous ore from Leadville, Colo., and_ Silver City, N. Jfex. 

Locality. Fe. Mn. 

-------------(--------------

Leadville..................................... 17.05 33. 14 o. 061 7. 97 1. 32 1.18 14.80 

Do....................................... 22.75 Zl. 30 • 115 6. 50 1. 53 1. 84 14.10 

Do....................................... 26.99 23.52 • 060 4. 31 1. 21 1. 55 14.96 Do. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29. 70 19. 60 • 052 10. 60 2. 25 1. 84 14. 28 

SilverCity ................................... 37.00 17.00 .015 9.00 ....... . 5.00 .......• 
208 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

The following table shows the production of manganiferou ores 

in the western part of the United States as far as ha$ been recorded: 

Manganiferous ores produced in the u:estern United States, 1885-1916, in gross tons.a 

Colorado. 

· Year. Usedinthe 

t:~~~~g~- Used for 

manganese flux. 

alloys. 

1S85 .......................... ; ......... . 1886............. ............ c60,000 

1887............. . . . . . . .. . . . . c 60, 000 

1888............. . .. .. . . ... . . c60,000 

1889............. .. . . . . . . . . . . 64,987 

1890............. 6, 397 51,840 

1891............. 964 79, 511 

1892............. 2, 942 62,309 

1893.. . .. . . . . . . . . 5, 766 55, 962 

1894............. 7, 022 31,687 

1895............. 13,464 54,163 

1896............. 9, 072 138.079 

1897.... ..• .. . . . . . 16, 519 149, 502 

1898............. 18,848 99,651 

1899............. 29,355 79,855 

1900............. 43,303 188,509 

1901.. . . . . . .. .. . . 62, 385 228, 187 

Other 

States. 

b 4, 263 

Year. 

Colorado. 

Used in the 

manufacture of ironmanganese alloys. 

Used for 

flux. 

1902............. 13, 275 194, 132 

1903............. 14,856 179,205 

1904............. 17,074 105,278 

1905............. 45, 837 81, 738 

'1906............. 32,400 (d) 

1907............. 67, 514 32, 197 

1908............. 15,973 35, 581 

1909 .... -........ 12, 9()5 52,119 

1910............. .. . .. . . . . . .. 55, 770 

1911............. . .. . . .. . . . . . 41, 753 

1912............. . .. .. .. .. . .. 48, 618 

Hl13............. . . . .. .. . . . . . 49,753 

Other 

States. 

e7,00:> 

1914............. 2,100 37,781 ....... .. 1915............. 15,956 14,965 f 106,005 

1916........... .. 16,263 90,850 0150,642 

1-------:--------1-----

4 70, 190 1 2, 483, 982 267.910 

a Hewett, D. F., Manganese and manganiferous ores: U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1914, pt. 1, 

p. 175, 1916, and corresponding chapter for 1916 (in preparation). b 1\fontana. 

c Contains some Montana ore. d Not recorded. e New 1\fexico. 

I Arizona, Nevada, and Utah. g Arizona, California, 1\fontana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Washington. 

Besides the districts which have been mentioned there are doubtless in many parts of the West areas containing appreciable quantities of manganiferous ores. Many such localities have been reported 

during the last few years, and some of them have been investigated 

by the United States Geological Survey in the summer of 1917. 

There are probably others that have thus far escaped observation. 

SUMMARY. 

There are in the United States large quantities of manganiferous 

ores containing varying amounts of manganese. A very small proportion of these can be used in the production of high-grade ironmanganese alloys, but a large proportion can be used for lower-grade 

alloys, and nearly all can be used in making high-manganese pig 

iron. Compared with the manganiferous ores, the reserves of highgrade manganese ores in this country are insignificant. Hence, 

.although a search for manganese ore is desirable, a more promising 

solution of the manganese problem would seem to lie in the direction 

of the utilization of low-grade manganiferous ores. Up to the present time the use of these ores has been very slight. Until a few years 

ago they were considered to have little value and were mined only 

incidentally. In the West manganiferous ores would not be mined 

were it not for their association with ores of other metals. 
· MANGANIFEROUS IRON ORES. 209 

There are several ways in which the utilization of n1anganiferous 

ores n1ay be brought about: (1) It has been suggested that by nlethods of concentration resulting in the elimination of iron, silica, or 

other constituents a product high in manganese might be derived 

fron1 them. Such concentration has been attempted locally but 

with very little success, owing mainly to the intimate mixture which 

· manganese generally forms with associated materials. (2) ·The steelmaking practice might be changed so that more spiegeleisen and less 

ferromanganese would be used for deoxidizing. By the addition of 

small quantities of high-grade manganese ore much of the manganiferous iron ore could be used in the manufacture of spiegeleisen. 

(3) The most effective solution, however, as has previously been 

suggested, seems to be to so change the practice in the manufacture 

of basic open-hearth steel as to make possible the use of high-manganese pig iron. Experimentation along this line is extremely desirable. The successful application of such a change would make large 

reserves of manganiferous iron ore commercially available and would 

greatly decrease the quantity of high-grade manganese ore consumed. 

127972°--19----14 

QUICKSILVER.1 

By F. L. RANSOME. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Mining for quicksilver 2 (n1ercury) in the United States began in 

California in 1848, and the total production to the end of 1917 is 

2,305,130 flasks, valued at $108,708,078. Large as this sum is it is 

only about one-ninth of the value of the lead produced in this country 

to the end of 1915, or about one-sixteenth of the value of the silver, 

one thirty-third of the value of the copper, or one thirty-fifth of the 

value of the gold mined prior to 1917. Thus quicksilver mining is a 

comparatively small industry in this country. 

Up to 1882 the mines of California supplied all the quicksilver produced in the United States. Texas, which began production in 

1899 with 1,000 flasks, .now ranks as the second quicksilver mining 

State in the Union, with an output of 10,791 flasks in 1917. Nevada, 

which now holds third place, began production in 1903, reached 

its acme with 2,550 flasks in 1912, and yielded 997 flasks in 1917. 

Oregon, with 388 flasks. in 1917, ranks fourth, and much smaller 

quantities are obtained from Arizona, Idaho, and Washington. 

Fr01n 1903 to 1907 considerable quicksilver was produced in Utah, 

the annual output from that State amounting to 1,133 flasks in 

1905, but Utah now produces no quicksilver. 

The world's production of quicksilver in 1917 is estimated at 

122,592 flasks, of which the United States produced 36,159 flasks, 

.Italy 29,300 flasks, Spain 25,133 flasks, and Austria-Hungary prob- , 

ably about 27,500 flasks. 

USES. 

As everybody knows, quicksilver is used in thermometers and 

barometers, but the quantity consumed annually in the United 

States in the manufacture of such instrun1ents is less than 2 per cent 

1 The chapter on quicksiiver for this bulletin was originally undertaken by Mr. H. D. McCaskey. Find· 

ing, however, that other duties were preventing its completion, he turned over the task to me in Septem· 

ber, 1918, with such notes as he had prepared for his manuscript.-F. L. R. 

2 "Quicksilver" and "mercury'' are two names for the same metal and to some extent are interchangeable. "Quicksilver," however, is the term commonly used in mining and commerce, while ''mercury'~ I 

belongs particularly to the language of science and especially of chemistry. In the industrial o.rts the two 

words have nearly equal currency. 211 
212 OUR .MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

of the total quantity produced. Mercury is a constituent of many 

drugs and chemicals, including calomel and corrosive sublimate, and 

mercuric oxide and mercury salts are used in the manufacture of 

certain chmnicals of which the mercury itself does not f01m a part. 

For example, in one process of producing glacial acetio acid acetylene 

is oxidized with n1ercurio oxide, the same lot of mercury being used 

repeatedly. l\'Iercury is used ~lso in making phthalic anhydride and 

phthalic acid, organic c01npounds whi9h q,re employed in the dye 

industry but which themselves contain· no mercury. The use of 

1nercury fulminate as a detonator has expanded enormously vvith the 

increase in the variety and efficiencJ of the high explosives now manufactured for industrial and military purposes, ~nd, although pri~ers 

have been made of other materials, especially for small arms, no 

substitute has found general acceptance. Quicksilver is now used· 

extensively in the manufacture of antifouling ship-bottom paint. 

The consumption of quicksilver in gold-dredging and other placer 

operations is still large. In gold-quartz mills, however, the amalganlation process has been largely supplanted by cyanidation. Among 

the varied uses to which quicksilver is put may be mentioned: also 

its employment in dental amalgams; in the manufacture of laboratory air pun1ps and other scientific instruments; in thermostats, gas 

governors, and similar appliances; in mercury-vapor electri~ lamps; 

in compounds for preventing scale in steam boilers; in cosmetics; 

in certain electrolytic processes for the manufacture of chlorine, 

caustic soda; and picric acid; in primary batteries, electrolyzers, 

rectifiers, and other electrical equipment; and in felt making. 

ORES. 

Most quicksilver ores are of rather simple mineral composition. 

About 25 mercurial minerals are known, but most of these are rare, 

and some of them contain quicksilver only as a minor constituent. 

Over 95 per cent of the quicksilver produced. in the United States 

comes from the bright cochineal-red sulphide of mercury, known 

in its natural form as the mineral cinnabar. Pure cinnabar contains 

86.2 per cent of quicksilver. :Minor sources of quicksilver include 

metacinnabar, which has the saine composition as cinnabar but is 

dark gray or black, and native quicksilver, which generally occurs in 

little globules but in some mines fills cavities of considerable size. 

The cinnabar in quicksilver ores is usually associated with pyrite or 

marcasite and less generally with the suli)hicle of antimony, stibnite. 

The commoner nonmetallic constituents of the ore are quartz, 

chalcedony, opal, ~alcite, mixed carbonates of calcium, magnesium, 

and iron; and barite. Many quicksilver ores contain also small quanti-

. ties of an oily or asphaltic hydrocarbon, and some carry free sulphur. 

No quicksilver ores that are mined on a large seal~ consist exclusively of pure cinnabar. The richest that are extensively worked 
i. 

· QUICKSILVER. ·213 

·are those at Almaden, Spain, where the average yield in 1917 was 

slightly less than 7 per cent. Probably the lowest. tenor in ores that 

are successfully mined is found on the Pacific coast of the United 

States. The average yield of the California ores during the last two 

years was 0.38 per cent. 

METALLURGY. 

The ores of quicksilver, unlike those of most metals that are won by 

smelting, .are without exception in this country treated at the mines, 

and the liquid metal is shipped as a finished commercial product 

in 'iron bottles or flasks containing 75 pounds each. A moderate 

heat, about ·360° C., is enough to vaporize and decompose cinnabar, 

and the quicksilver is obtained directly by condensation in suitable 

chambers through which the fumes from the furnace are conducted. 

There are two classes of reducing apparatus-furnaces and retorts. 

In most furnaces the ore is exposed to the direct action of the flame, 

the volatile products of combustion, with more or less dust, mingle 

with the vapors of sulphur and mercury driven from the ore, and a.Il 

. pass together through condensers. The operation is in general 

continuous. In retorts, on the other hand, the ore is heated in a 

dosed iron vessel, out of contact with the flame, and only those 

volatile constituents that are released from the ore pass into the 

condensing apparatus. In most retorts the operation is intern1ittent. 

FORM OF QUICKSILVER ORE BODIES. 

Quicksilver ore bo·dies are notoriously in·egular in form, and probably for no other group of metalliferous deposits is prediction or 

quantitative estimation more difficult. By far the greater nu1nber 

of quicksilver ore bodies that have been or are being worked in the 

United States are irregular lenses, pipes, or pocllike ~nasses 'vith few 

or no definite surfaces of demarcation separating them from the 

inclosing rocks. · Where several ore bodies occur they are usually 

arranged along a principal zone of fissuring and may have one 

distinct ·wall, generally marked by a seam of claylike material, or 

gouge, produced by the crushing and grinding of the rock along one 

of. the fissures. The ore n1asses may consist of porous rock through 

which the cinnabar or other quicksilver minerals are scattered in 

.small crystal particles, or n1ay' be 1nade up of rock that is traversed 

by many irregUlar veinlets or stringers, in which occur most or all of 

the valuable minerals, the rock between the stringers being barren. 

OCCURRENCE. 

The ores of quicksilver, like those of most other metals, show on the 

whole a close association with igneous rocks and· with zones of fissur:-

ing. Their deposition, more commonly than thnt of other metals, 

with the possible exc~ption of. antir~wny, was associated with vol-
214 OUR l\HNERATc. SUPPLIES. 

canism as opposed to plutonic igneous activity and. occurred comparatively near the surface. It follows that quicksilver deposits as a 

rule are found in regions of Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic activity 

which have not been subjected to long and deep erosion, that they are 

more likely to occur in the younger geologic formations than in the 

older ones, and that as a class· they do not extend to great depth. It 

must be noted, however, that there are some conspicuous exceptions 

to these generalizations. Although most quicksilver deposits are in 

regions of geologically late volcanic eruptions, it is probable that ores 

of quicksilver were deposited also during or soon after epochs of 

similar igneous activity in the older geologic periods but that many of 

the1n have been removed by erosion. Some of the deposits which 

are in the older rocks and which do not appear to be related to Tertiary 

or later volcanic eruptions may have had such earlier origin. 

It is entirely in accord with the general association of quicksilver 

ores with volcanic activity that the quicksilver deposits of the United 

States are found in the western part of the com1try, where the products 

of Tertiary and later vulcanicity abound and where numerous hot 

and thermal springs testify to the comparative recency of much of the 

igneous activity. 

In California the principal deposits occur in the Coast Ranges within 

a belt about 400 miles long that extends from Santa Barbara on the 

southeast to IDdah on the northwest. The n1aximurn width of this 

belt is about 75 miles. The known deposits within this area are 

·numerous. About 25 of these are at present productive, but it is 

estimated that at least three tin1es thnt number of mines which were 

productive in the past are now idle. A comparatively small nun1ber 

are prospects, from which no. production has yet been recorded .. 

With a few exceptions the deposits of the main quicksilver belt in 

California are in rocks of the Franciscan formation,· probably of 

.Jurassic age, or in the serpentine which is so abundant and characteristic an associate of thes·e rocks. Probably the greater number are 

in the serpentine. Others are in sandstone, . generally near the 

serpentine, and still o-thers are in thin-bedded siliceous rocks known 

as radiolarian chert. 

The most productive mine in California at present is the New 

Idria, in San Benito Co-unty, which in1917 yielded 11,000 flasks out of 

a total for the· State of 23,938 flasks and for the United States of 

36,159 flasks. The total production of California to the end of 1917 

is 2,210,852 flasks, valued at $102,851,913. 

In Oregon cinnabar is widely distributed, but only one deposit, a 

metallized fissure zone in andesite at Blackbutte: in Lane County, is 

·at present commercially productive. 

In Washington cinnabar has been fo1:1nd at a few localities in Chelan, 

Kittitas, and Lewis counties. None of the deposits has yet provecl to 

be of economic importance. 
QUICKSILYER. 215 

Nevada contains many widely scattered deposits of quicksilver ore, 

no one of which has yet been ·worked on an extensive scale, although 

a few of thmn have been fairly productive for short periods. The 

Nevada quicksilver ores occur in rhyolite of Tertia.ry a.ge and in limestones or associated sedimenta.ry beds of various ages from Paleozoic 

to Mesozoic. The production in 1916 was 2,198 flasks, valued at 

$276,706, and in 1917 it was 997 flasks, valued at $105,004. 

In Arizona most of the known quicksilv~r deposits occur in zones 

of fissuring or shearing in pre-Cambrian schist. 

In Texas the principal deposits are in the Terlingua district, in 

Brewster County, about 75 miles south of Alpine. The ore occurs 

along :fissure zones in Cretaceous limestones and shales, generally in 

proximity to bodies of intrusive rock. These mines yielded in 1917 

10,791 flasks of quicksilver, valued at $1,136,508, and in 1916 6,306 

flasks, valued at $793,862. The production of Texas from the beginning of operations to the end of 1917 is 76,200 flasks, valued at 

$4,680,295. 

STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION,· PRICES, IMPORTS, AND .EXPORTS. 

The tables which follow have been taken from the Geological Sur .. 

vey' s report on the production of quicksilver in 1917, which the 

reader should consult for more detailed information than can be 

presented in this summary. 

Quicksilver produced in the United States, 185Q-1917. 

[In flasks of 76.5 pounds to Jtme, 1904; subsequently in flasks of 75 pounds.] 

Year. Flasks. Price per 

flask. Value. Year. Flasks. Price per flask. Value. 

1850 .............. 7 723 $99.45 $768,052 1885 .............. 32,073 $30.75 $986,245 1851 .............. 27:779 66.93 1, 859,248 1886 .............. 29,981 35.50 1,064, 325 1852 .............. 20,000 58.33 1,166,600 1887 .............. 33,825 42.375 1,433,334 

1853 ..... ········. 22,28·1 55.45 1,235,648 1888 .... ·········. 33,250 42.50 1,370,625 

185,!. ............. 30,004 55.45 1,663, 722 1889 .............. 26,484 45.00 1,191, 780 

1855 ... ··········· 33,000 53.55 1, 767,150 1890 .............. 22,926 52.50 1, 203,615 1856 .............. 30,000 5L. 65 1,549,500 1891. ............. 22,904 45.25 1,036,406 1857 .............. 28,204 48.73 1,374,381 1892 ..•........... 27,993 40.71 1,139,595 1858 .............. 31,000 47.83 1,482, 730 1893 ............ -. 30,164 36.75 1,108, 527 1859 .............. 13,000 63.13 820,690 1894 .... ······· ... 30,416 30.70 933,771 1860 .............. 10,000 53.55 535,500 1895 .............. 36,067 37.04 1,335, 922 1861 .............. 35 000 42.05 1,471, 750 1896 .............. 30,765 34.96 1,075,544 1862 .............. 4z;ooo 36.35 1,526, 700 1897 .............. 26,691 37.28 995,0•10 1863 .............. 40,531 42.08 1, 705,544 1898 .•............ 31,092 38.23 1,188,647 1864 .............. 47,489 45.90 2, 179,745 1899 .............. 30,454 47.70 1,452,656 1865 .............. 53,000 45.90 2,432, 700 1900 .............. 28,317 44.94 1,272, 566 1866 .............. 46,550 53.13 2,473,202 1901 .............. 29,727 48.46 1,440,570 1867 .............. 47,000 45.90 2,157,300 1902 .............. 34,291 43.20 1,481,371 1868 .............• 47,728 41). 90 2,190, 715 1903 ..... ····· .. -. 35,634 45.29 1,613, 864 1869 .............. 33,811 45.90 1,551, 925 1904 .............. 35,315 43.50 1,536,203 

1870 ... ··········· 30,077 57.38 1, 725,818 1905 .............. 30,534 36.22 1,105, 941 1871 .............. 31,686 63.10 1,999,387 1906 .............. 26,083 39.50 1,030,279 1872 .............. 31,621 65.93 2,084, 773 1907 ....... ······· 21,554 39.60 853,538 1873 .............. 27,642 80.33 2,220,482 1908 ........... .' ... 19,752 44.17 872,446 187'1. ............. 27,756 105.18 2,919,376 1909 •............. 21,075 45.45 957,859 1875 .............. 50,250 84.15 4,228,538 1910 .............. 20,601 46.51 958,153 1876 .............. 72,716 44.00 3,199,504 1911 •............. 21,256 46.01 977, !?89 1877 .............. 79,395 37.30 2,961,434 1912 .............. 25,064 42.05 

1878 .............. 63,880 32.90 2,101,652 1913 .............. 20,213 40.23 '~t~;~it 1879 .............. 73,684 29.85 2,199,467 1914 .... -......... 16,M8 49.05 811,680 

188() •............. 59,926 31.00 1,857, 706 1915 .......... -... 21,033 85.80 1,804,631 

1881. ............. 60,851 29.83 1,815,185 1916 .............. 29,932 125.89 3, 7G8, 139 1882 ........... ~ .. 52,732 28.23 1,4!>8, 624 1917 ........ -..... 36,159 105.32 3,808,266 

1883 .............. 46,725 28.75 1,343,344 ------·---- 1884 .............. 31,913 30.50 973,347 12,305,130 ·········· 108, 708, 078 
216 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Q·uicksil,ver imported and entered for consuntpiion in the United States, 1908-91J7.a 

Year. 

1908 •. : .........•........ ·: .... . 

1909 ........ ················ .. . 1910 ......... : ................ . 1911 .......................... . 1912 .......................... . 

Quantity Value. 

(pounds). 

15, 113 

15,968 667 471,944 

·82,,706 

$8,216 

8,203 

381 

251,386 

39,920 

Year.· Quantity Val (pounds). ue. 

1913 ................ ; ... ; .... ·.·. 171,653 

1914 ................. ;......... 614,869 

1915 ............. ; .......... ; .. 421,884 

1916........................... 424,396 

1917........................... 390,494 

$75,361 

271,984 

282,752 

515,919 

449,032 

a Prepared by J. A. Dorsey from records ofthe Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce. · · 

Quicksilver exported from ihe United States, 1906-19J7.a 

Year. 

1908 .......................... . 1909 •••.•...................... 1910 ••••••.•................... 1911 ....•...................... 1912 •........................... 

Quantity 

(flasks oi· Value. 

75 

pounds). 

Year. 

2, 996 $124, 960 1913 ••. : .... · .................. . 6, 802 266,243 1914 .......................... . I, 923 91,077 1915 •... ~ ......... · ............ . 291 13,995 1916 .......................... . 310 13, 360 1917 .......................... . 

Quantity 

(fl~~s of Value. 

pounds). 

1,140 

1, 446 

3,372 

8,880 

10,778 

$43,574 

..,7Q, ?53 ... 2<>, <>09 

670,475 

998,470 

a Prepared by J. A. Dorsey from records of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce. 

Month. 

Pr{ces of do1nest·ic qwicksilur lLt San Francisco, 1915-1917·. 

[Per flask of 75 pounds.) 

1915 1916 I 1917 Month. 1915 1916 I --- January ............. $51.90 $222.00 $81.00 July ............... $95.00 $81.20 

February ........... 60.00 295.00 126.25 August ............. 93.75 74.50 

March .••.•.......... 78.00 219.00 113.75 September ......... 91.00 75.00 

~ril .•••............ 77.50 141.60 114. 50 October.: .......... 92.90 78.20 

75.00 90.00 104.00 November ......... 101.50 79.50 J.!Je·.::::: :.::::::::: 90.00 74.70 85:50 December ... : ...... 123.00 80.00 

1917 

---

$102.0Q 

115.00 

112.00 

102.00 

102.50 

117.42 

FUTURE OF THE QUICKSILVER-MINING INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED 

STATES. 

An appraisal of· the quicksilver resources of the United States 

based on ac~ual measurements and estimates of the quantity of ore 

available in individual deposits p~esents insuperable practical difficulties. The best that caii be done is to reach some rough conclusion 

from the history. of the industry and from general knowledge and 

impressions of its present status and of the condition of known 

deposits. It is also necessary t<? take into account the ·probability 

of the discovery of new deposits and of improvements in metallurgy. 

Records show that quicksilver mining in the United Sta.tes has 

generally declmed since 1877' when the domestic production reached 

its acme, with 79,395 flasks. The output sank in 1914 to· 16,548 

flasks. Although not Un.iformly retrogressive, the decline was on 

the whole fairly regular' and on this accouilt the more' ominous. 

The price has not declined at the san1e rate as the output.' In 1877, 

the year of maximum yield, quicksilver was worth' only. '$37 .30 a 

(t 

i 

) 
QUICKSILVER. · · 217 

flask. In 1890 it had risen to $52.50 a flask, and in 1914 it was · · 

$49.05 a flask. Production has failed t.o respond to the stim.ulation 

of lll.oderate increases in price, and the conclusion that the supply of 

ore has on the whole been decreasing in tenor and available quantity 

since 1877 appears to be warranted by the historical record. It is 

true that under the influence of unprecedented high prices during 

the recent war years the production rose to 36,159 flasks in 1917. 

This increase, however, \vas not accompanied by the discovery of any 

large new sources of supply, and that the domestic output of quicksilver must decline from the point reached in 1917 appears inevitable. 

A wide survey of the known quicksilver deposits of the country 

confirms the conclusion drawn from historical and statistical data. 

rrhe deposits, with few exceptions, fU'e not large, most of them 

probably do not extend to great depth, and many of them are 

decidedly of superficial character. Even if the ore at certain 

localities does continue to a depth of 1,000 feet or more, some of 

the deeper ore bodies, in consequence of their irregularity and lack 

of continuity, are likely to remain undiscovered. Some of the 

mines that are at present the m.ost productive have in all probability passed their period of greatest yield, although there is still 

a possibility that the discovery of new ore bodies 1nay restore them 

tmnporarily to something like their former activity. 

There are in California a large number of old quicksilver ntines 

which have been productive but which have lain idle for years and 

which even the unprecedented prices obtainable for quicksilver 

during the last three years failed to revivify. Some of these are 

probably exha~sted. Others contain ore bodies qr at least material 

that carries some quicksilver; and these mines will some day be 

reopened. For most of them, however, this is not likely to happen 

in the near future lm.cler any conditions that can now be foreseen. 

'fhey will probably remain undisturbed until the higher grade and 

more accessible deposits of the world are exhausted. 

During the last 20 years comparatively few new quicksilver 

deposits have been found, and only four or five of these have produced more thnn a few hundred flasks each. Of the total domestic 

production of 36,159 flasks in 1917 less than 600 flasks came from 

· new mines opened during the war period, and not one of these 

promises to develop a production of 1,000 flasks or more annually. 

rrhe exploitation of the Terlingua district represents a notable 

modern addition to the known quicksilver resources of the country. 

Other regions capable of as great or greater production may be 

awaiting discovery, but as years pass the possibility is diminishing, 

and it is now hardly probable that any other locality with the 

potential productivity of the Terlingua district will be discovered 

in the United States. 
218 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

It appears on the whole that quicksilver mining in the United 

States 1nust be regarded as a declining industry, in which, however, 

.there is still opportunity for individual success not only in working 

known deposits but in discovering and developing new ones. During the next 10 years the annual output may be expected to fall 

to 15,000 flasks or less~ Prices of course. will affect the output, 

but they can not change the physical conditions upon which production fundamentally depends. The high prices obtainable during the 

war nearly tripled the annual output, but the same or even higher 

prices could not again produce the same result. 

. The price of quicksilver in the United States during the next few 

years will depend upon so n1any uncertain factors that prediction is 

extremely hazardous. Among the determining conditions may be 

mentioned changes in the uses of quicksilver, the cost of labor and 

supplies, the quantity and price of foreign quicksilver available, and 

tariff legislation. The decline of our own production, of course, 

makes for higher prices. With the con1ing of peace there will be less 

quicksilver required for war purposes, although some of the modern 

applications that sprang from the exigencies of war are likely to 

persist. It is believed that the industrial consumption of quicksilver 

will be greater after the war than it was before and will continue to 

increase until diminishing supply and rising price force the extensive 

elllployment of substitutes. Quicksilver can undoubtedly be produced more cheaply abroad, especially in Spain, than in the United 

States, but it is doubtful whether this country will in the near future 

be deluged with foreign quieksilver to the extent feared by so1ne 

domestic producers. Self-interest alone on the part of importers and 

foreign dealers would seen1 to preclude an attempt to lower the price 

in this country to anything near the cost of production in Spain. 

The plan of attempting to 1naintain the quicksilver-n1ining industry in the United States by a high duty on imported .metal has n1any 

advocates among the quicksilver producers, whose representatives 

at a hearing held by the Tariff Commission in San Francisco in June, 

1918, asked for a duty of $35 a flask in addition to the present 10 per 

cent ad valoren1. Such a duty would increase the profits of some of 

the larger mines but would not transform a declining industry into 

a growing and self-supporting one. It is doubtftll whether there is 

any wisdon1 in attempting to foster quicksilver mining by a. high 

import duty whose effect would be to levy a tax on all users of quicksilver for the benefit of a sinall group of producers, and it is still more 

doubtful whether the people of the United States would sub1nit 

to this tax. It has been urged that as quicksilver is essential in 

warfare the mining of quicksilver should be stimulated by tariff 

protection. This might be an excellent argument were our quicksilver supplies without lin1it, but inas1nuch as they are in process of 
QUICKSILVEH. 219 

exhaustion it is difficult for one who looks at the question impartially:! 

to see why the Government should hasten the approach of that day 

when there shall be no more quicksilver ore to mine rather than 

purchase quicksilver where it can be bought cheaply, store it as an 

inunediately available reserve supply against the next war, which it 

is hoped may never come, and rely as a final resource upon those 

mines in which· some ore, that would have been taken out under 

sufficient governmental encouragement, may yet remain to be of 

service in a great emergency. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Cornpiled under the direction of G. M. W oon. 

MINERALS COVERED. 

_The following bibliography includes only publications issued by the 

United States Ge-ological Survey concerning deposits of the 1ninerals 

considered in this bulletin, a list of which is given below. It does 

not include purely statistical reports, which will be found in the 

Survey's annual volumes entitled "Mineral Resources of the United 

States." The entries are grouped under the headings given in the 

list, and those in each group are arranged prin1arily in alphabetic 

order by ·names of authors and secondarily, under each author, in 

chronologie order. 

Page. 

Alaska's mineral supplies......... 1 

Antimony. See Rarer metals. 

Arsenic. See Rarer metals. 

Asbestos......................... 8 

Barium and strontium............. 9 

Bauxite and aluminum............ 9 

Bismuth. See Rarer metals. 

Chromite......................... 10 

Clay and clay products............ 10 

Coal.............................. 12 

Copper........................... 23 

Fluorspa1·..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

Graphite .............. ~......... 27 

Grinding and polishing materials.. 28 

Gypsum.......................... 28 

Iron.............................. 30 

Lead............................ 33 

Limestone and lime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 

Magnesite......................... 37 

Manganese and manganiferous iron 

ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 

:Mica, monazite, and lithium minerals ......................... . 

Molybdenum. See Rarer metals. 

Nickel. See Rarer metals. 

Nitrates ........................ . 

Petroleum ...................... . 

Phosphate rock .................. . 

Platinum ........................ . 

Portland cement ................ . 

Potash ........................... . 

Quicksilver ...................... . 

Rarer metals .................... . 

Salt, bromine, and calcium chloride .......................... . 

Sand and graveL ............... .. 

Sulphur and pyrite ......... .' .... . 

Talc and soapstone ............. . 

'fin. See Rarer metals. 

Tungsten. See Rarer metals. 

Vanadium. See Rarer metals. 

Zinc ............................. . 

AJ. .. ASKA'S MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Page. 

38 

39 

39 

45 

47 

47 

48 

50 

50 

54 

55 

55 

56 

56 

ATwooD, W. W., Mineral resources of southwestern Alaska: Bull. 379, pp. 115-152, 

pls. 5-6, 1909. 

--Geology and mineral resources of parts of the Alaska Peninsula: Bull. 467, 

pp. 95-131, 1911. 

BECKER, G. F., Reconnaissance of the gold fields of southern Alaska: Eighteenth 

Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 60-86, 1897 .. 221 . 
222 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

BLACKWELDER, ELIOT, Reconnaissance on the Pacific coast from Yakutat to Alaska 

River: Bull. 31<1, pp. 82-88, 1907. 

BROOKS, A. H., A reconnaissance from Pyramid Harbor to Eagle City, Alaska, includ· 

ing a description of the copper deposits of the Upper White and Tanana rivers: 

Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 373-383, 1900. 

--An occurrence of stream tin in the York region, Alaska: Mineral Resources, 

1900, pp. 267-271, 1901. . 

--The coal resources of Alaska: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 515-571, 

1901. 

--Placer gold mining in Alaska in 1902: Bull. 213, pp. <11-48, 1903. 

--Stream tin in Alaska: Bull. 213, pp. 92-93, 1903. · 

--Placer mining in Alaska in 1903: Bull. 225, pp. 43-59, 1904. 

--Placer mining in Alaska in1904: Bull. 259, pp. 18-31, 1905. 

--The mining industry in 1905: Bull. 284, pp. 4-9, pl. 2, 1906. 

--The mining industry in 1906: Bull. 314, pp. 19-39, pl. i, 1907. 

--The Kougarok region: Bull. 314, pp. 164-181, 1907. 

--The Circle precinct: Bull. 314, pp. 187-204, 1907. 

--The distribution of mineral resources in Alaska: Bull. 345, pp. 18-29, pl. 1, 

1908. 

--The mining industry in 1907: Bull. 345, pp. 34--53, 1908. 

--The miD:ing industry in 1908: Bull. 379, pp. 28~62, 1909. 

--Mineral resources of Alaska: Bull. 394, pp. 172-203, pl. 12, 1909. 

--The mining industry in1909: Bull. 442, pp. 33-46, 1910. 

--· Alaska coal and its utilization: Bull. 442, pp. 47-100, pl. 1, 1910. 

--The mining industry in 1910: Bull. 480, .pp. 26-42, 1911. 

--Geologic.features of Alaskan metalliferous lodes: Bull. 480, pp. 43-93, pls. 1-6, 

1911. 

--The mining industry in 1911: Bull. 520, pp. 23-44, 1912. 

--Gold deposits near Valdez: Bull. 520, pp. 108-130, pl. 6, 1912. 

---The mining industry in 1912: Bull. 542, pp. 30-51, 1913. 

--[Placer mining on Seward Peninsula]: Water-Supply Paper 314, pp. 269-303, 

1913. 

--The mineral deposHs of Alaska and the Alaskan mining industry in 1913: Bull. 

592, pp. 18-74, pls. 1-2, 1914. 

--The Ohisana placer district, Alaska: Bull. 592, pp. 309-320, pls. 13-14, 1914. 

--The mining industry in 1914: Bull. 622, pp. 40-68, 1915. 

--The future of gold placer mining in Alaska: Bull. 622, pp. 69-79, 1915. 

--The Alaskan mining industry in 1915: Bull. 642, pp. 16-71, pl. 1, 1916. 

--Preliminary report on the Tolovana district: Bull. 642, pp. 205-209, pl. 9, 1916. 

--Antimony deposits of Alaska: Bull. 649, 67 pp., 1916. 

--The Alaskan mining industry in 1916: Bull. 662, pp. 1-62, pis. 1-4, 1917. 

BRooKs, A. H., and others, Reconnaissances in. the ·cape Nome and Norton Bay 

· regions, Alaska, in 1900: Special Publication B, pp. 70-154, 1901. 

BuRCHARD, E. F., A barite deposit near Wrangell: Bull. 592, pp. 109-117, 1914. 

CAPPS, S. R., Mineral resources of the Bonnifield region: Bull. 480, pp. 218-235, pt. 

10, 1911. 

--The Bonnifield region: Bull. 501, pp. 43-62, 1912. 

--Gold placers of the Yentna district: Bull. 520, pp. 174-200, pls. 8-9, 1912. 

--The Yentna district, Alaska: Bull. 533, pp. 64-136, 1913. 

--Gold lodes and placers of the Willow Creek district: Bull. 592, pp. 245-272, 

pl. 10, 1914. 

--Mineral l'esources of the Chisana-White River district: Bull. 622, pp. 189-

228, pl. 9, 1915. 

--.-The Willow Creek district: Bull. 607, pp. 49-83, 1915. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 223 

CAPPS, S. R., The Chisana-White River district, Ala.<Jka: Bull. 630, pp. 89-126, 1916. 

--The Turnagain-Knik region: Bull. 642, pp. 181-194, pls. 6-8, 1916. 

--Gold mining in the Willow Creek district: Bull. 642, pp. 195-200, 1916. 

--Mineral resources of the Kantishnaregion: Bull. 662, pp. 279-331,.pl. 15,1917. 

CAPPs, S. R., and JOHNSON, B. L., Mineral deposits of the Ellamar district: Bull. 

542, pp. 96-124, pl. 4, 1913. 

CHAPIN, THEODORE, The McKinley Lake district: Bull. 542, pp. 78-80, pl. 3, 1913. 

--Lode developments on Seward Peninsula: Bull. 592, pp. 397-407, pl. 17,1914. 

--Lode mining near Fairbanks: Bull. 592, pp. 321-355, pl. 15, 1914. 

--Placer mining in the Yukon-Tanana region: Bull. 592, pp. 357-362, 1914. 

--Placer mining on Seward Peninsula: Bull. 592, pp. 385-395, 1914. 

--Auriferous gravels of the Nelchina-Susitna region: Bull. 622, pp. 125-130, pl. 6, 

1915. 

--Mining developments in southeastern Alaska: Bull. 642, PP: 73-104, pis. 2-3, 

1916. 

--Mining developments in the Ketchikan and Wrangell mining districts: Bull. 

662, pp. 63-75, pl. 5, 1917. 

--The Nelchina-Susitna region, Alaska: Bull. 668, 67 pp., 10 pls., 1918. 

CoLLIER, A. J., The coal resources of the Yukon,. Alaska: Bull. 218, pp. 19-67, 1903. 

·--The Glenn Creek gold mining district, Alaska: Bull. 213, pp. 49-56, 1903. 

-.--Coal resources of the Yukon basin, Alaska: Bull. 213, pp. 276-283, 1903. 

--Tin deposits of the York region, Alaska: Bull. 225, pp .. 154-167, 1903. 

--Tin deposits of the York region, Alaska: Bull. 229,. 61 pp., 1904. 

--Auriferous quartz veins on Unalaska Island: Bull. 259, pp. 102-103, 1905. 

--Recent development of Alaskan tin deposits: Bull. 259, pp. 120--127, 1905. 

--Coal fields of the Cape Lisbmne region: Bull. 259, pp.l72-185, 1905. . 

--Geology and coal resources of the Cape I.isburne region, Alaska: Bull. 278, 

pp. 35-50, 1906. 

CoLLIER, A. J., and others, The gold placers of parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, 

including the Nome, Council, Kougal'ok, Port Clarence, and Goodhope precincts: 

Bull. 328, 343 pp., 1908. 

DALL, W. H., Report on coal and lignite of Alaska: Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt. 1, 

pp. 763-908, 1896. 

EAKIN, H. M., The Rampart and Hot Springs regions: BulL 520, pp. 271-286, pl. 13, 

1912. 

-- A geologic reconnaissance of a. part of the Rn.mpn.rt quadrangle, Alaska: Bull. 

535, pp .. 28-38, 1913. 

--Gold placers of the Ruby and Innoko-Iditarod districts: Bull. 542, pp. 288-

303, pl. 10·, 1913. 

--The Iditarod-Ruby region, Alaska.: Bull. 578, pp. 31-45, 1914. 

--· Placer mining in the Ruby district: Bull. 592, pp. 363-369, 19H. 

--Mineral resources of the Yukon-Koyukuk region: Bull. 592, pp. 371-384, 

. pl. 16, 1914. 

--Tin mining in Alaska: Bull. 622, pp. 81-94, pis. 2-3, 1915. 

--Mining in the Juneau region: Bull. 622, pp. 95-102, 1915. 

-- Mining in the Fairbanks districts: Bull. 622, pp. 229-238, 1915. 

--Mining in the Hot Spl'ings district: Bull. 622, pp. 239-245, 1915. 

--Iron-ore deposits near Nome: Bull. 622, pp. 361-365, 1915. 

-- Placer mining in Seward Peninsula: BulL 622, pp. 366-373, 1915. 

--Exploration in the Cosna-Nowitna region: Bull. 642, pp. 211-222, pl. 10, 1916. 

--Lode mining in the Juneau gold belt: Bull. 662,. pp. 77-92, pls. 6-7, 1917. 

-- Gold placer mining in the Porcupine district: Bull. 662, pp. 93-100, pl. 8, 

1917. . 

--The Cosna-Nowitna region, Alaska: Bull. 667, 54 pp., 8 pis., 1917. 
.224 OUR .l\11-IJ.~ERAL. -S"G·PPLIES • 

. ELDRIDGE, G .. H., A reconnajss·ance in. the Susitna basin-and adjacent territory, 

. Alaska, in.1898: Twentieth Ann. Rept., pt. 7, pp. 20-24, 1900. 

ELLSWORTH, C. E., Placer mining in the Yukon-Tanana region: Bull. 442, pp. 23o- . . '245, 1909. . . . 

-·· -- Placer mining in the Fa:U:banks and Circle districts: Bull. 520, pp. 240-245, 

1912. . . .. 

Er.;LSWORTH, C. E., and DAVENPORT, R. W., Placer niining in the Yukon-Tanana 

region: Bull. 542, pp. 203-222, 1913. 

ELLSWORTH, c~ E., and PARKER, a·. L., Placer mining in the Yukon-Tanana region: 

Bull. 480, pp. 153-172, 1911. · 

GRANT, u.s., Copper and other mineral resources of Prince William Sound: Bull. 

284, pp. 78-85, 1906. . . 

GRANT, U. S., and HIGGINS, D. F., jr., Notes on the geology and mineral prospects 

in the vicinity of Seward, Kenai Peninsula: Bull. 379,-pp. 98-107', 1909. 

--Copper mining and prospecting on Prince William Sound: Bull. 379, pp. 87-

97, pl. 4, 1909. . 

--Preliminary report on the mineral resources of the ·southern part of Kenai 

Peninsula: Bull. 442; pp. 16&-178, f>ls. 3-4, 1910. · 

.-.--Reconnaissance of the geology and mineral resources of Prince William Sound, 

Alaska: Bull. 443, pp. 52-79, 1910. · 

HARRINGTON, G. L., Gold placers of the Anvik-Andreafski region: Bull. ·662, pp. 340-

349, pl. 16, 1917. . . . 

HENSHAW, F. F., Mining in the Fairhaven precinct: Bull. 379, pp. 355~369, 1909. 

--Mining in Seward Peninsula: Bull. 442, pp. 353-371, 1909. 

HEss, F. L., The York tin region: Bull. 284, pp. 145-157, 1906. 

--Tin resources of Alaska: Bull. 520, pp. 8~92, 1912. · 

JOHNSON, B. L., Qold deposits of the Seward-Sunrise region, Kenai Peninsula: Bull. 

520, pp. 131-173, pl. 7, 1912. 

--The Port Wells gold-lode district:· Bull. 592, pp. 195-236, pl. 9, 1914. 

--Mining on Prince \Villiam Sound: Bull. 592, pp. 237-243, 1914. 

--·-The Ellamar district, Alaska: Bull. 605, pp. 50-121, 1915. 

--Mining on Prince William Sound: Bull. 622, pp. 131-139, pl. 7, 1915. 

--The gold and copper deposits of the Port Valdez district: Bull. 622, pp. 140-

188, pi. 8, 1915. 

--Mining on Prin<;e William Sound: Bull. 642, pp. 137-145, 1916. 

--Mining on Prince William Sotmd: Bull. 662, pp. 183-192, pl. 12, 1917. 

--Copper deposits of the Latouche and Knight Island districts, Prince William 

Sound: Bull. 662, pp. 193-22.0, 1917. 

KATz, F. J., Gold placers of the Mulchatna: Bull. 442, pp. 201-202, 1910. 

--A reconnaissance of the Willow Creek gold region: Bull. 480, pp. 139-152, 1911. 

KNoPF, ADOLPH, The Seward Peninsula tin deposits: Bull. 345, pp. 251-267, 1908. 

--The mineral deposits of the Lost River and Brooks Mountain region, Seward 

Penjnsula: Bull. 345, pp. 268-271, 1908. 

--Geology of the Seward Peninsula tin deposits, Alaska: Bull. 358, pp. 24-67, 

1908. 

--Geology of the Berners Ba,y region, Alaska: Bull. 446, pp. 29-48, 1910. 

--Mining in southeastern Alaska: Bull. 442, pp. 133-143, 1910. 

--Occurrence of iron ore near Haines: Bull. 442, pp. 144-146, 1910. 

--Mining in southeastern Alaska: Bull. 480, pp. 94-102, 1911 . 

. --The Eagle River region: Bull. 480, pp. 107-110, 1911. 

--'fhe Eagle River region, southeastern Alaska: Bull. 502, pp. 34-60, 1912. 

--The Sitka mining district, Alaska: Bull. 504, pp. 21-32, 1912. 

MADDREN, A. G., Gold placers of the Ruby Creek, Gold Hill, and Innoko districts: 

Bull. 379, pp. 229-266, pl. 9, 1909. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 225 

MADDREN, A. G., The Koyukuk-Chandalar gold region: Bull. 442, pp. 284-315, pl. 7; 

1909. 

--The Innoko gold-placer district, Ala,slm, with an account of the central Kuskokwim Valley and. the Huby Creek and Gold Hill placers: Bull. 410, pp. 61-83, 

1910. 

--Gold-placer mining developments in the Innoko-Iclitm·od region: Bull. 480, pp. 

236-270, pl. 11, 1911. 

--The Ruby placer district: Bull. 520, pp. 292-296, pl. 14, 1912. 

-·--The Koyukuk-ChanclaJar region, Ala.slm: Bull. 532, pp. 68-'"116, 1913. 

--Mineral deposits of the Yakataga district: Bull. 592, pp. 119-153, pl. 4, 1914. 

--Gold placers of the lower Kuskokwim, with a note on copper in the Russian 

Mountains: Bull. 622, pp·. 298-360, pl. 11, 1915. 

--Gold placers near the Nenana coal field: Bull. 662, pp. 363-402, 1917. 

MARTIN, G. C., Petroleum fields of Alaska and the Bering River coal fields: Bull. 225, 

pp. 365-382, 1903. 

--'fhe petroleum fields of the Pacifie coast of .A.laska, with an account of the 

Bering River coal deposits: Dull 250, pp. 22-59, 1905. 

--The .Cape ·Yaktag placers: Bull. 259, pp. 88-89, 1905. 

---Gold deposits of the Shumagin Islmids: Bull. 259, pp. lOG-101, 1905. 

--Notes on the petroleum fields of Alaslm: Bull. 259, pp. 128-139, 1905. 

--Dering River coaJ field: Bull. 259, pp. i40-150, 1905. 

--· 1\fnrkets for Alaska coal: Bull. 284, pp. 18-29, 1906. 

--Distribution and character of the Bering River coal: Bull. 284, pp. 65-77, pl. 12, 

1906. 

--Preliminary statement on the Mata,nuska coal field: Bull. 284, pp. 88-100, 1906. 

--A reconnaissance of the 1\Iatanuska coal field, Alaska: Bull. 289, pp. 18-32, 1906. 

--The Alaska coal fields: Bull. 314, pp. 40-46, pl. 2, 1907. 

--·Petroleum at Controller Ba,y: Bull. 314, pp. 89-103, 1907. 

--Geology and mineral resources of the Controller Bay region, Alaska: Bull. 335, 

pp. 65-130, 1908. 

--Preliminary report on a detailed survey of part of the :Matauuska coal fields: 

Bull. 480, pp. 128-138, pls. 8-9, 1911. 

--Mineral deposits of Kodiak and the neighboring islands: Bull. 542, pp. 131-136, 

pl. 5, 1913. 

MARTIN, G. C., and Ju:rz, F. J., Outline of the geology and mineral resources of the 

Iliamna and Clark lakes 1·egion: Bull. 442, pp. 179-200, pl. 5, 1910. 

--Geology and coal fields of the lower Matanuska Valley, Alaska: Bull. 500, pp. 

75-95, 1912. 

--A geologic reconnaissance of the Iliamna region, Alaska: Bull. 485, pp. 113-130, 

1912. 

MARTIN, G. C., and MERTIE, J. B., jr., Mineral resources of the upper l\Iatanuska and 

N elchina valleys: Bull. 592, pp. 273-282, pl. 11, 1914. 

MARTIN, G. C., JoHNSON, B. L., and GRANT, U.S., Geology and mineral resources of 

Kenai Peninsula, Alaska: Bull. 587, 243 pp., 38 pis., 1915. 

MENDENHAJ~L, W. C., The Chistochina gold field, Alaska: Bull. 213, pp. 71-75, 1903. 

--Geology of the central Copper River region, Alaska: Prof. Paper 41, pp. 90-

125, 1905. 

MENDENHALL, W. C., and ScHRADER, F. C., The mineral resources of the Mount 

Wrangell district, Alaska: Prof. Paper 15, pp. 16-68, 1903. 

--Copper deposits of the Mount Wmngell region, Alaska: Dull. 213, pp. 141-

148, 1903.. 

MER'flE, J. B., jr., The_gold placers of the Tolovana district: Bull. G62, pp. 221-277, 

pls. 13-14, 1917. 

127912°--lU----15 
226 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

MERTlE, J. B., jr., Lode mining in the Fairbanks district: Bull. 662, pp. 403-424, 

pl. 18, 1917. 

--Lode mining and prospecting on Seward Peninsula: Bull. 662, pp. 425-449, 

1917. 

--Placer mining on Seward Peninsula: Bull. 662, pp. 451-458, 1917 .. 

MERTIE,·J. B., jr., and HARRINGTON, G. L., Mineral resources of the Ru.by-Kusko· 

kwim region: Bull. 642, pp. 237-266, pl. 11, 1916. 

MoFFIT, F. H., The Kotzebue placer gold field of Seward Peninsula, Alaska: Bull. 

225, pp. 74-80, 1904. 

--Gold placers of Tumagain Arm, Cook Inlet: Bull. 259, pp. 90-99, 1905. 0 --Gold deposits of the Shumagin Islands: Bull. 259, pp. 100-101, 1905. 

--The Fairhaven gold placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska: Bull. 247, pp. 47-67, 

1905. 

-- Minerai resources of Kenai Peninsula, Alaska: Gold fields of the Turnagain 

Arm region: Bull. 277, pp. 7-53, 1906. 

--Gold mining ·on Seward Peninsula: Bull. 284, pp. 132-,144, pl. 14, 1906. · 

--The Nome region: Bull. 314, pp. 126-145, 1907. 

--Notes on copper prospect'3 of Prince William Sound: Bull. 345, pp. 176-178, · 

1908. I 

--Mi11ing in the Kotsina-Chitina, Chistochina, and Valdez Creek regions: Bull.·. 

379, pp. 153-160, 1909. 

--Mining in the Chitina district: Bull. 442, pp. 158-163, 1910. 

--The upper Susitna and Chistochina districts: Bull. 480, pp. 112-127, pl. 7, 1911. 

--Headwater regions of Gulkana and Susitna rivers, Alaska, with accounts of 

the Valdez Creek and Chistoch:ina placer districts: Bull. 498, pp. 53-80, 1912. 

--The 'l'aral and Bremner River districts: Bull. 520, pp. 93-104, pl. 5, 1912. 

--The Chitina copper district: Bull. 520, pp. 105-107, 1912. 

--Geology of the Nome and Grand Central quadrangles, Alaska: Bull. 533, pp. 

64-136, 1913. 

--Mining in Chitina Valley: Bull. 542, pp. 81-85, 1913. 

--Geology of the Hanagita-Bremner region, Alaska: Bull. 576, pp. 43-54, 1914. 

--Preliminary report on the B1·oad Pass region: Bull. 592, pp. 301-305, pl.l2, 1914. 

--Mining in the Valdez Creek placer district: Bull. 592, pp. 307-308, 1914. 

--Mineral deposits of the Kotsina-Kuskulana district, with notes on mining in 

Chitina Valley: Bull. 622, pp. 103-117, pls. 4-5, 1915. 

---Mineral resources of the upper Chitina Valley: Bull. 642, pp. 129-136, pl. 5, 

1916. 

--Mining in the lower Copper River basin: Bull. 662, pp. 155-182, pis. 10-11, 1917. 

--The upper Chitina Valley, Alaska, with a description of the igneous rocks by 

R. M. Overbeck: Bull. 675, 82 pp., 13 pls., 1918. 

MoFFIT, F. H., and CAPPS, S. R., Geology and mineral resources of the Nizina d:is:-

trict, Alaska, copper and gold: Bull. 448, pp. 75-108, 1911. 

MoFFIT, F. H., and KNOPF, ADOLPH, Mineral resources of the Nabesna-vVhite River 

district, Alaska: Bull. 379, pp. 161-180, pl. 7; Bull. 417, pp. 51-{)2, 1910. 

--Mineral resources of the upper Chitina Valley: Bull. 642, pp. 134-136, 1916. 

MoFFIT, F. H., and MADDREN, A. G., The mineral resources of the Kotsina and Chitina 

valleys, Copper River region: Bull. 345, pp. 127-175, pl. 3, 1908 . 

..__Mineral resources of the Kotsina"Chitina region: Bull. 374, pp. 42-100, 1909. 

OvERBECK, R. M., Lode deposits near the Nenana coal fields: Bull. 662, pp. 351-362, 

1917. 

PAIGE, SIDNEY, The He1·endeen Bay coal field: Bull. 284, pp. 101-108. 1906. 

PAIGE, SIDNEY, and KNOPF, ADOLPH, Reconnaissance in the Matanuska and Tal· 

keetna basins, with notes on the placers of the adjacent region: Bull.· 314, pp. 

104-125, 1907. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 227 

PAIGE, SIDNEY, and KNOPF, ADOLPH, Geologic reconnaissance in the Matanuska and 

rralkeetna basins, Alaska: Bull. 327, pp. L!0-68, 1907. 

PoRTER, E. A., Placer mining in the Fortymile, Eagle, and Seventymile River dis· 

tricts: Bull. 520, pp. 211-218, 1912 .. 

PRINDLE, L. M., Gold placers of the F'airbanks district, Alaska: Bull. 225, pp. 64-73~ 

1904. 

·--The gold placers of the Fortymile, Birch Creek, and Fairbanks regions, Alaska: 

Bull. 251, 89 pp., 16 pis., 1905. 

--Yukon placer fields: Bull. 284, pp. 109-127, pl. 13, 1906. 

--The Yukon-Tanana region, Alaska:· Bull. 295, pp. 20-27, 1906. 

--The Bonnifield and Kantishna regions: Bull. 314, pp. 205-226, pl. 4, 1907. 

-- Occurrence of gold in the Yukon-Tanana region: Bull. 345, pp. 179-186, 

pl. 4, 1907. 

--The Fortymile gold placer district: Bull. 345, pp. 187-199, 1907. 

--The Fairbanks and Rampart quadrangles, Yukon-Tanana region, Alaska: 

Bull. 337, pp. 29-98, 1908. 

--Sketch of the geology of the northeastern part of the Fairbanks quadrangle: 

Bull. 442, pp. 203-209, pl. 6, 1909. 

--Auriferous quartz veins in the Fairbanks district: Bull. 442, pp. 210-229, 1909. 

--A' geologic reconnaissance of the Circle quadrangle, Alaska: Bull. 538, pp. 

54-67' 1913. . 

PRINDLE, L. M., and HEss, F. L., Rampart placer region: Bull. 259, pp. 

104-119, 1905. 

PRINDLE, L. M., and KATZ, F. J., The Fairbanks gold-placer region: Bull. 379, pp. 

181-200, pl. 8, 1909. 

--A geologic reconnaissance of the Fail'banks quadrangle, Alaska: Bull. 525, 

pp. 77-153, 1913. 

PRINDLE, L. M., and MERTIE, J. B., jr., Gold placers between Woodchopper and 

Fourth of July creeks, upper Yukon River: Bull. 520, pp. 201-210, pl. 10, 1912. 

PURING'l'ON, C. W., Methods and costs of gravel and placer mining in Alaska: Bull. 

259, pp. 32--46, 1905. 

ScHRADER, F. C., A reconnaissance in northern Alaska across the Rocky Mountains, 

along Koyukuk, John, Anaktuvuk, and Colville rivers and the Arctic coas·t to 

Cape J.1isburne, in 1901: Prof. Paper 20, pp. 98-114, 1904. 

ScHRADER, F. C., and BRooKs, A.H., Preliminary report on the Cape Nome gold 

region, Alaska: Special Publication A, pp. 16-34, 1900. 

ScHRADER, F. C., and SPENCER, A. C., The geology and mineral resources of a portion of the Copper River district, Alaska: Special Publication C, pp. 79-92, 

1901. 

SIIUTH, P. S., Gold fields of the Solomon and Niukluk River basins: Bull. 314, pp. 

146-156, 1907. 

-. --Geology and mineral resources of Iron Creek: Bull. 314, pp. 157-163, 1907. 

-. --Investigations of the mineral deposits of Seward Peninsula: Bull. 345, pp. 206-

250, pl. 5, 1908. . . 

-. --Recent developments in southern Seward Peninsula: Bull. 379, pp. 267-301, 

1909. 

---The Iron Creek region: Bull. 379, pp. 302-354, pl. 10, 1909. 

--Geology and mineral res9urces of the Solomon and Casadepaga quadrangles, 

Seward Peninsula: Bull. 433, pp. 137-217, 1910. 

-- The Squirrel River placers: Bull. 480, pp. 306-319, pl. 13, 1911. 

--Notes on mining in Seward Peninsula: Bull. 520, pp. 339-344, 1912. 

--The Alatna-Noatak region: Bull. 520, pp. 332-338, pl. 15, 1912. 

--Lode mining near Fairbanks: Bull. 525, pp. 153-216, 19~3. 

--Lode mining near Fairbanks: Bull. 542, pp. 137-202, pl. 6, 1913. 
228 · OUR MINERAL SU~PLIES. 

SMITH, P. S., The Noatak-Kobuk region, Alaska: BulL 536, pp. 125-157, 1913. 

--Lode mining in the Ketchikan region: Bull. 592, pp. 75-94, 1914. 

--Mineral resources of the I.,ake Clark-Iditarod region: Bull. 622, pp. 252-271~ 

pl. 10, 1915. 

--The Lake Clark-central Kuskokwim region, Alaska: Bull. 655, pp. 127-156, 

1917. 

·SMITH, P. S., and EAKIN, H. M., MineroJ resources of the Nulato-Council region: 

Bull. 442, pp. 316-352, pl. 8, 1910. 

--A geologic reconnaissance in southeastern Seward Peninsula and the Norton 

Bay-Nulato region, Alaska: Bull. 449, pp. 100-141, 1911. 

--The Shungnak region, Kobuk Valley: Bull. 480, pp. 271-305, pl. 12, 1911. 

SMITH, P. S., and MADDREN, A. G., Q.uicksilver deposits of the Kuskokwim region: 

Bull. 622, pp. 274-291, 1915. 

SPENCER, A. C., The Juneau gold belt, Alaska: Bull. 225, pp. 28-42, 1904. 

--The Treadwell ore deposits, Douglas Island: Bull. 259, pp. 69-87, 1905. 

SPURR, J. E., Geology of the Yukon gold district: Eighteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 

317-382, 1898. 

--A reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in ·1898: Twentieth Ann. R.ept.~ 

pt. 7, pp. 259-264, 1900. 

STONE, R. W., Coal.resources of southwestern Alaska: Bull. 259, pp. 151-171, pls. 2-3, 

1905. 

--Coal fields of the Kachemak Bay region: Bull. 277, pp. 53-73, 1906. 

--Reconnaissance n·om Circle to Fort Hamlin: Bull. 284, pp. 128-131, 1906. 

TARR, R .. S., The Yakutat Bay region: Bull. 284, pp. 61-64, 1906. 

WRIGHT, C. W., The Porcupine placer district, Alaska: Bull. 236, pp. 19-31, 1904. 

--The Porcupine placer mining district, Alaska: Bull. 225, pp. 60-63, 1904. 

--Nonmetallic deposits of southeas~ern Alaska: Bull. 284, pp. 55-60, 1906. 

--A reconnaissance of Admiralty Island, Alaska: Bull. 287, pp. 147-154, 1906. 

--Lode mining in southeastern Alaska: Bull. 314, pp. 47-72, pl. 3, 1907. 

--Nonmetalliferous mineral resources of southeastern Alaska: Bull. 314, pp. 73-

81, 1907. 

--Lode mining in southeastern Alaska: Bull. 3"15, pp; 78-97, pl. 2, 1908. 

---Building stones and materials of southeastern Alaska: Bull. 345, pp. 116~ 

124-125, 1908. 

--Mining in southeastern Alaska: Bull. 379, pp. 67-86, pls. 2-3, 1909. 

--The geology and ore deposits of Copper Mountain and. Kasaan Peninsula: 

Prof. Paper 87, pp. 85-108, 1915. 

WRIGHT, C. W., and PAIGE, SIDNEY, Copper deposits on Kasaan Peninsula, Prince of 

'Vales Island: Bull. 345, pp. 98-115, 1908. 

WRIGHT, F. E., and WRIGHT, C. W., Economic developments in southeastern Alaska: 

Bull. 259, pp. 47-68, 1905. 

--Lode mining in southeastern Alaska: Bull. 284, pp. 30-54, pl. 11, 1906 .. 

·--The Ketchikan and Wrangell mining 4istricts, Alaska: Bull. 347, pp. 77-191, 

1908. 

ASBESTOS. 

BROOKs, A. H., Distribution of mineral resources in Alaska: Bull. 345, p. 25, .1908. 

DILLER, J. S., Asbestos: Mineral Resources for 1906, pp. 1123-1127, 1907. 

--Asbestos: Mineral Resources for 1908, pt. 2, pp. 697-706, 1909. 

--Asbestos: Mineral Resources for 1909, pt. 2, pp. 721-723, 726-729, 1911. 

--The types, modes of occurrence, and important deposits of asbestos_ in the 

United States: Bull. 470, pp. 505-524, 1911. . 

--Asbestos: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2; pp. 987-994, 1913. 

--.Asbestos: :Minel'al Resources for 1913, pt. 2, pp. 342-351, 1914. 

-·--Asbestos: Mineral Resources for 1914, pt. 2, pp. 96-1(>1, 1915. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

DILLER, J. S., Asbestos: Mineral Resources for 1015, pt. 2, pp. JA-16, 1916. 

--Asbestos: :Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 19-22, 1917. 

--Asbestos: Mineral Resources for 1017, pt. 2, pp. 197-202, 1918. 

229 

KEITH, ARTHUR, Geol. Atlas, Asheville [N. C.-Tenn.] folio (No. 116), p. 9, 1904. 

KEMP, J. F., Notes on the occurrence of asbestos in Lamoille and Orleans counties; 

Vt.: :Mineral Resources for 1900, pp. 862-866, 1901. 

PARKER, E. v-..r., Asbestos: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 6 (continued), pp. 561-564~ 

IDOL 

PRATT, J. H., Asbestos: l\lincral Resources for 1904, pp. 1125-1140, 1905. 

S111:rrn, G. 0., Asbestos: l\fineral Resources for 1905, pp. 1155-1156, 1906. 

· BARIUJ.\II AND STRONTIUl\1. 

BuRCHARD, E. F., Barytes: Mineral Resources for 1906, pp. 1109-1111, 1907. 

--Barytes: Mineral Resources for 1907, pt. 2, pp. 685-696, 1008. 

--Barytes and strontium; Mineral Resources for 1909, pt. 2, pp. 697-700, 19ll . 

.....___A barite deposit near Wrangell, Alaska: Bull. 592, pp. 109-ll.7, 1914. 

HAYES, C. W., and PHALEN, W. C., A commercial occurrence of barite near Cartersville, Ga.: Bull. 340, pp. 458-462, 1907 . 

. HILL, J. 1vf., Barytes and strontium in 1912: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2, pp. 

955-960, 1913. 

--The production of barytes in l!H3: Mineral Resources for 1913, pt. 2, pp. 168-

172,1914. 

--Barytes and strontium in 1915: Mineral Resources for 1915, pt. 2, pp. 161-189, 

1916. 

--Ba.rytes and barium products: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 246-254, 

1917. 

KEITH, ARTHUR, Geol. Atlas, Asheville [N. C.-Tenn.] folio (No. 116), p. 9, 1904. 

KNoPF, ADOLPH, Strontianite deposits near Barstow, Calif.: Bull. 660, pp. · 257-270, · 

1918. 

PHALE~, W. C., Celestite deposits in California and Arizona: Bull. 540, pp. 521-533, 

1914. 

PRATT, J. H., Strontium ores: Mineral Resources for 1901, pp. 955-958, 1902. 

--. Barytes: Mineral Resources for 1904, pp. 1095-1098, 1905. 

--Strontium: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 185-195, 1917. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 31-33, 42--45, 1914. 

STosE, G. W., Barite in southern Pennsylvania: BulL 225, pp. 515-517, 1904. 

BAUXITE AND ALUMINUM. 

BuRCHARD, E. F., Bauxite and aluminum: :Mineral Resources .for 1906, pp. 501-509, 

1907. 

Bu'l'LER, B.S., a.nd GALE, H. S., Alunite, a newly discovered deposit near Marysvale,· 

Utah: Bull. ·511, 64 pp., 1912. 

EMMONS, W. H., The enrichment of sulphide ores: Bull. 529, pp. 69, 151-155, 1913. 

--The enrichment of ore deposits: Bull. 625, pp. 475-480, 1917. 

HAYES, C. W., Bauxite: Mineral Resources for 1893, pp. 159-167, 1894. 

--Bauxite: Mineral Resources for 1894, pp. 547-597, 1895. 

--The Arkansas bauxite deposits: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 441-472, 

1901. 

--Bauxite: Geol. Atlas, Rome [Ga.-Ala.] folio (No. 78), p. 6, 1902. 

HILI ... , J. M., Bauxite and aluminum· Mineral Hesources for 1916, pt. 1, pp. 161-170, 

1917. 

--Bauxite and aluminum: Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 1., pp. 3-9, 1918. 

HuNT, A. E., Aluminum: Aluminum manufacture in Europe: Mineral Resources 

for 1895, pp. 245-2~~, .1~96,. 
230 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

LARSEN, E. S., Alunite in the San Cristobal quadrangle, Colo.: Bull. 530, pp. 179-

183, 1913. 

LouGHLIN, G. F., Recent alunite developments near Marysvale and Beaver, Utah: 

Bull. 620, pp. 237-270, 1916. 

PACKARD, R. L., Aluminum and bauxite: Mineral Resources for 1891, pp. 147-163, 

1892. 

--Aluminum: Mineral Resources for 1894, pp. 539-545, 1895. 

PHALEN, W. C., Bauxite and aluminum in 1911: Mineral Resources for 1911, pt. 1, 

pp. 924-932, 1912. 

--Bauxite and aluminum in 1912: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 1, pp. 951-955, 

1913. 

--Bauxite and aluminum in 1913: Mineral Resources for 1913, pt. 1, pp. 3-25, 

1914. 

--Bauxite and aluminum: Mineral Resources for 1914, pt. 1, pp. 188-199, 205-

207, 1915. 

--Bauxite an:d aluminum: Mineral Resources for 1915, pt. 1, pp. 163-173, 1916. 

ScHRADER, F. C., Alunite at Bovard, Nev.: Bull. 540, pp. 351-356, 1914. 

-- Alunite in granite porphyry near Patagonia, Ariz.: Bull. 540, pp. 347-350, 

1914. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 26-27, 1914. 

CHROMITE. 

DAY, D. T., Chromium; history of the chromium industry: Mineral Resources for 

1883-84, pp. 567-571, 1885. 

DILLER, J. S., Chromic iron ore in 1912: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 1, pp. 1050-

1054, 1913. 

--The production of chromic iron ore in 1913: Mineral Resources for 1913, pt. 1, 

pp. 32-38, 1914. 

--Chromic iron ore in North America: Mineral Resources for 1914, pt. 1, pp. 5-

15, 1915. 

--Chromite: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 1, pp. 21-36, 1917. 

--- Chromite: Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 1, pp. 37-38, 41-43, 1918. 

E~aiONS, W. H., The enrichment of ore deposits: Bull. 625, pp. 422-423, 1917. 

GARRISON, F. L., Chromium; alloys of iron and chromium: Mineral ResoUl'ces for 

1894, Sixteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 610-614, 1895. 

GLENN, WILLIAM, Chromic iron and its occurrence in Canada: Mineral Resources for 

1895, Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 261-273, 1896. 

HARDER, E. C., Chromic iron ore: :M;ineral Resources for 1908, pp. 751-770, 1909. 

--Some chromite deposits in western and central California: Bull. 430, pp. 167-

183, pl. 1' 1910. 

HEss, F. L., Nickel and cobalt; alloys of cobalt and chromium: Mineral Resources 

for 1910, pt. 1, pp. 755-757, 1911. 

--Stellite, a cobalt-chromium alloy; Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 1, pp. 965-

967, 1913. 

CLAY AND CLAY PRODUCTS. 

ADAMS, G. I., and HAWORTH, ERASMus: Economic geology of the lola quadrangle, 

Kans.: Bull. 238, pp. 69-74, 1904. 

ALDEN, W. C., Fuller's earth and brick days near Clinton, Mass.: Bull. 430, pp. 402-

404, 1910. 

AsHLEY, G. H., Notes on clays and shales in central Pennsylvania: Bull. 285, pp. 

442-444, 1906. 

AsHLEY, H. E., The colloid matter of clay and its measurement: Bull. 388, 65 pp., 

1909. 
• 

BIBI,TOGRAPHY. 231 

BASCOiYI, FLORENCE, and others: Geol. Atlas, Philadelphia [Pa.-N .. J.-Del.] folio 

(No. 162), p. 21, 1909. 

--Geol. Atlas, Trenton [N. J.-Pa.] folio (No. 167), pp. 22-23, 1909. 

BAsTIN, E. S., Clays of the Penobscot Bay region, Maine: Bull. 285, pp. 428-431, 1906. 

BA.UER, C. M,., Clay in northeastern Montana: Bull. 540, pp. 369-372, pl. 8, 1914. 

BAYLEY, W. S., KmrM:EL, H. B.,, and SALISBURY, R. D.: Geol. Atlas, Raritan (N.J.] 

folio (No. 191), p. 31, 191<1. 

BRANNER, J. C., The clays of Arkansas: Bull. 351, 247 pp., 1908. . 

BuTTS, CHARLES, Economic geology of the Kittanning and Rural Valley quadrangles, 

Pa.: Bull. 279, pp. 162-171, 190G. 

--Clays of the Birmingham district, Ala.: Bull. 315, pp. 291-295, 1907. 

CRIDER, A. F., Clays of western Kentucky and Tennessee: Bull. 285, pp. 417-427, 

pl. 13, 1906. 

DARTON, N. H., Geology and water resources of the northern portion of the Black 

Hills and adjoining regions in South Dakota and Wyoming: Prof. Paper 65, 

p. 96, 1909. 

--Economic geology of Richmond, Va., and vicinity: Bull. 483, pp. 36-43, 1911. 

DARTON, N.H., and others, Geol. Atlas, Passaic [N.J.-N.Y.] folio (No. 157), pp. 25-

26, 1908. 

DEUSSEN, ALEXANDER, Notes on s·ome clays from Texas: Bull. 470, pp. 302-352, 

· pis. 6-8, 1911. 

EcKEL, E. C., Stone'\vare and brick clays of western Tennessee and northwestern 

:M:ississippi: Bull. 213, pp. 382-391, 1903. 

--Clays of Garland County, Ark.: Bull. 285, pp. 407-411, 1906. 

EJ\IM:ONs, S. F., CRoss, WHITMAN, and ELDRIDGE, G. H., Geology of the Denver 

Basin in Colorado: Mon. 27, pp. 387-392, 1896. 

FENNEMAN, N. M., Clay resources ofthe St. Louis district, Mo.: Bull. 315, pp. 315-321, 

1907. 

---Geology and mineral resources of the St. Louis quadrangle, Mo.-Ill.: Bull. 

438, pp. 49-54, 1911. 

FISHER, C. A., The bentonite deposits of Wyoming: Bull. 260, pp. 559-563, 1905. 

---Clays in the Kootenai formation near Belt, Mont.: Bull. 340, pp. 417-423, 

pl. 5, 1908. 

FuLLER, M. L., Clays of Cape Cod, Mass.: Bull. 285, pp. 432-441, 1906. 

HANCE, J. H., Clay-working industries; notes on the occurrence of different varieties 

of clay: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2, pp. 609-618, 1913. 

---Clay-working industries; notes on the occurrence and use of flint clay: Min~ 

eral Resources for 1913, pt. 2, pp. 639-648, 1914. · 

HILL, R. T., Clay materials of the United States: Mineral Resources for 1891, pp. 

476-528, 1893; idem for 1892, pp. 712-738, 1893; idem for 1893, pp. 605-617, 1894. 

KATz; F. J., Clay in the Portland region, Me.: Bull. 530, pp. 202-206, 1913. 

LANDES, HENRY, The clay deposits of Washington: Bull. 260, pp. 550-558, 1905. 

LIN:ES, E. F., Clays and shales of the Clarion quadrangle, Clarion County, Pa.: Bull. 

315, pp. 335-343, HI07. 

MATSON, G. C., Notes on the clays of Florida: Bull. 380, pp. 346-356, 1909. 

---Notes on the clays of Delaware: Bull. 530, pp. 185-201, 1913. 

--Louisiana clays: Bull. 660, pp. 147-158, pl. 5, 1918. 

MuNN, M. J., Geol. Atlas, Sewickley [Pa.] folio (No. 176), pp .. 15-16, 1911. 

PHAI"EN, W. C., Clay resources of northwestern Kentucky: Bull. 285, pp. 412-416, 

1916. 

--Economic geology of the Kenova quadrangle, Kentucky, Ohio, and West 

Virginia: Bull. 349, pp. 112-122, 1908. 

PHAI,EN, W. C., and MARTIN, LAWRENCE, Clays and shales of southwestern Cambria 

County, Pa.: Bull. 315, pp. 344-354, 1907. 

--MineralresourcesofJohnstown, Pa., and vicinity: Bull. 447, pp.ll3-126, 1911. 
·232 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

RICHARDSo~, G. B., Geol. Atlas, Indiana [Pa.] folio (No. 102), pp. 6-7, 1904. 

---Clay near Calhan, El Paso County, Colo.: Bull. 470, pp. 293-296, 1911. · 

R.ms, HEINRICH, Technology of the clay industry: Sixteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 4, 

pp. 523-57~, 1895. 

---The pottery industry of the United States: Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt. 

3, pp. 842-880, 1896. 

--The ciay-working industry in 1896: Eighteenth Ann. Rept., pp. 1105-1168, 

1896. 

--Kaolins and fire clays of Europe: Nineteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 6 (continued), 

pp. 377-486, 1898. 

--The clay-working industry in 1897: Nineteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 6 (continued), 

pp. 469-486, 1898. 

--Clays and clay products at t~e Paris Exposition: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., 

pt. 6, pp. 365-392, 1901. 

--The clays of the United States east of the Mississippi River: Prof. Paper 11, 

298 pp., 9 pls., 1903. 

ScHRADER, F. C., and HAWORTH, ERASMus, Clay industries of the Independence 

quadrangle, Kans.: BulL 260, pp. 546-549, 1905. 

---Economic geology of the Independence quad1·augle, Kans.: Bull. '296, pp. 

58-61, 1906. 

SHALER, JI.L K., and GARDNER, J. H., Clay deposits of the western part of the DurangoGallup coal field of Colorado and New Mexico: Bull. 315, pp. 296-302, 1907. 

SHALER, N. S., WooDWORTH, J. B., and MARBUT, C. F., The glacial brick clays of 

Rhode Island and southeastern Massachusetts: Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt. 1, 

pp. 957-1004, 1896. 

SHAW, E. W., Clay resources of the Murphysboro quadra;ngle, Ill.: Bull. 470, pp. 

29'1-301, 1911. 

SHAW, E. W., and SAVAGE, T. E., Geol. Atlas, Murphysboro-Herrin [Ill.] folio (No. 

185), p. 15, 1913. 

SIEBEN"THAL; C. E., Bentonite of the Laramie Basin, Wyo.: Bull. 285, pp. 445-447, 

1906. 

SPROULL, H. S., Clay industries: Mineral Resources for 1885, pp. 414-423, 1886. 

STOSE, G. W., White clays of South Mountain, Pa.: Bull. 315, pp. 322-334, 1907. 

UooEN, J. A., Geology and mineral resources of the Peoria quadrangle, Ill.: Bull. 

506, pp. 89-90, 1912. 

VEATCH, OTTO, Kaolins and fire clays of centl;al Georgia: Bull. 315, pp. 303-314, 1907. 

WILBrm, F. A., Clays: Mineral resources for 1883-84, pp. 676-694, 1885. 

WooLSEY, L. H., Clays of the Ohio Valley in Pennsylvania: Bull. 225,pp. 463-480, 1904; 

--Economic geology of the Beaver quadrangle, Pa.: Bull. 286, pp. 55-71, 1906. 

--Geol. Atlas, Beaver [Pa.] folio (No. 134), pp. 12--13, 1905. 

COAL. 

An~ OLD, RALPH, Coal in Clallam County, Wash.: Bull. 260, pp. 413-421, 1905. 

--Coal in the Mount Diablo Range, Monterey County, Calif.: Bull. 285, pp. 223-

225, 1906. 

AsiiBURNER, C. A., Anthracite: :Mineral Resources for 1882, pp. 7-32, 1883. 

AsHLEY, G. H., The eastern interior coal field: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3, 

pp. 265-305, 1902. 

--Geol. Atlas, Ditney [Ind.] folio (No. 84), p. 7, 1902. 

--The Cumberland Gap coal field of Kentucky and Tennessee: Bull. 225, pp. 259..:. 

275, 1904. 

--Coal in the Nicholas quadrangle, W.Va.: Bull, 260, pp. ~22-428, 1905. 

--Clearfield coal field, Pa.: Bull. 285, pp. 271-:275, 1906. 

--Stratigraphy and coal beds of the Indiana coal field: Bull. 381, pp. 9-18, 1910. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY~ 

AsHLEY, G. H., Rhode Island anthracite: Bull. 541, pp. 155-162, pl. 8, 1914. 

---Rhode Island coal: Bull. 615, 62 pp., 1915. 

233 

---The Santo Tomas cannel coal, Webb County, Tex.: Bull. 691, pp. 251-·270; 

pis. 29-32, 1918. 

AsHLEY, G. H., and GLENN, L. C., Geology and mineral resources of the Cumberland 

Gap coal field, Ky.: Prof. Paper 49, 2:19 pp., 1906. 

ATwooD, \V. W., Mineral resources of southwestern Alaska: Bull. 379, pp. 116-145 

1909. 

--Geology and minera1 resources of parts of the Alaska Peninsula: Bull. 467, 

pp. 96-120, 1911. 

BAIN, H. F., The western interior coal field: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3,· 

pp. 333-366, 1902. 

BALL, l\f. W., The western part of the Little Snake River coal field, Wyo.: Bull. 341; 

pp. 243-255, pl. 13, 1909. 

BALL, M. W., and STEDINGER, EuGENE, The eastern }Xtrt of the Little Snake River 

coal field: Bull. 381, pp. 186-213, pl. 13, 1910. 

BAR~·mTT, V. H., Geology of the Hound Creek district of the Great Falls coal field; 

Cascade County, Mont.: Bull. 641, pp. 215-231, pl. 22, 1917. 

BAUER, C. M., Lignite in the vicinity of Plentywood and Scobey, Sheridan County; 

Mont.: Bull. 541, pp. 293-315, pls. 14-17, 1914. 

'BEEKLY, A. L., The Culbertson lignite field, Valley County, Mont.: Bull. 471; 

pp. 319-358, pls. 25-27, 1912. 

--Geology and coal resources of North Park, Colo.: Bull. 596; 121 pp., 12 pls., 1915. · 

BowE·N, C. F., The Baker lignite field, Custer County, Mont.: Bull. 471, pp. 20~ 

226, pls. 14-15, 1912. 

--Coal at Horseshoe Bend and Jerusalem Valley, Boise County, Idaho: Bull. 531; 

pp. 245-251, pl. 15, 1913. 

--Lignite in the Goose Creek district, Cassia, County, Ida,ho: Bull. 531, pp. 252...: 

262, pl. 16, 1913. . 

--Coal discoYered in a reconnaissance survey between Musselshell and Judith, 

Mont.:.Bull. 541, pp. 329-337, pl. 19, 1914. 

--The Cleveland coal field, Blaine County, Mont.: Bull. 541, pp. 338-355, pl. 20; 

1914. 

--The Big Sandy coal field, Chouteau County, Mont.: Bull. 541, pp. 356-378, 

pl. 21, 1914. 

BowNoCKER, J. A., The coal fields of-Ohio: Prof. Paper 100, pp. 35-96, 1917. 

BnooKs, A. H., The coal resources of Alaska: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3, 

pp. 515-571, 1902. 

--The Circle precinct [Alaska]: Bull. 314, pp. 201-204, 1907. 

--Alaska coal and its utilization: Bull. 442, pp. 47-100, 1910. 

--'fhe Mount McKinley region, Alaska: Prof. Paper 70, pp. 184-193, 1911. 

--The Alaska mining industry in 1913: Bull. 592, pp. 43-74, 1914. 

BnooKs, A. H., ap.d MARTIN, G. C., Mineral resources of Alaska: Coal and peat: Bull. 

. 394, pp. 174-188, 1909. 

BuRCHARD, E. F., Lignites of the middle and upper Missouri Valley: Bull. 225, 

pp. 276-288, 1904. 

BuncnARD, E. F., and Burrs, C., Iron ores, fuels, and fluxes of the Birmingham district, Ala.: Bull. 400, pp. 170-183, 1910. 

BuRnows, J. S., The Barnesboro-Patton coal field of central Pennsylvania: Bull. 225, 

pp. 295-310, 1~04. 

BuTTs, CHARLEs, The Warrior coal basin in the Brookwood quadrangle, Ala.: Bull. 260, 

pp. 357-381, 1905. 

--The Warrior coal basin in the Birmingham quadrangle, Ala.: Bull. 285, pp. 211-

222, 1906. 
234 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

Bu1'TS, CHARLES, Geol. Atlas, IGttanning [Pa.] folio (No. 115), pp. 12-13, 1904. 

--Geol. Atlas, Rural Valley [Pa.] folio (No. 125), pp. 7-10, 1905. 

--Geol. Atlae, Ebensburg [Pa.] folio (No. 133), pp. 7-9, 1905. 

--Economic geology of the Kittanning and Rural Valley quadrangles, Pa.: Bull. 

279, pp. 44-102, 1906. 

--The :northern part of the Cahaba coal field, Ala.: Bull. 316, pp. 76-115l pls. 5-6~ 

1907. 

--Geol. Atlas, Birmingham [Ala.] folio (No. 175), pp. 14-20, 1910. 

--The southern part of the Cahaba coal field, Ala.: Bull. 431, pp. 89-146, pl. 4, 

1911. 

--rrhe coal resources and general geology of the Pound quadrangle of Virginia and 

Kentucky: Bull. 541, pp. 165-221, pls. 9-11, 1914. 

--Coals in the area between Bon Air and Clifty, Tenn.: Bull. 641, pp. 307-310, 

1917. 

CALVERT, W. R., The Lewistown coal field, Mont.: Bull. 341, pp.108-122, pl. 7, 1909. 

--Geology of the Lewistown coal field, Mont.: Bull. 390, 83 pp., 1909. 

--Geology of certain lignite fields in eastern Montana: Bull. 471, pp. 187-201, 

1912. . 

--The Livingston and Trail Creek coal fields, Park, Gallatin, and Sweetgrass 

counties, Mont.: Bull. 471, pp. 384-405, pl. 29, 1912. 

--The Electric coal field, Park County, Mont.: Bull. 471, pp. 406-422, pl. 30, 1912. 

--Geology of the upper Stillwater Basin, Stillwater and Carbon counties, Mont.: 

Bull. 641, pp. 199-214, pls. 20-21, 1917. ·1 

CAMPBELL, M. R., Geology of the Big Stone coal field of Virginia and Kentucky: Bull. 1 

111, 106 pp., 1893. 

--Geol. Atlas, Estillville [Va.-Ky.-Tenn.] folio (No. 12), pp. 4-5, 1894. 

--Geol. Atlas, Pocahontas [Va.-W.Va.] folio (No. 26), pp. 4-5, 1896. 

--Geol. Atlas, Tazewell [Va.-W. Va.] folio (No. 44), pp. 4-5, 1897. 

--Geol. Atlas, London [Ky.] folio (No. 47), p. 3, 1898. 

--Geol. Atlas, Standingstone [Tenn.] folio (No. 53), pp. 3-4, 1899. 

--Geol. Atlas, Bristol [Va.-Tenn.] folio (No. 59), pp. 6-8, 1899. 

--Geol. Atlas, Huntington [W. Va.-Ohio] folio (No. 69), pp. 5-6, 1900. 

--Geol. Atlas, Danville [Ill.-Ind.] folio (No. 67), pp. 6-7, 1900. 

--Geol. Atlas, Charlestown [W. Va.] folio (No. 72), pp. 6-9, 1901. 

--Geol. Atlas, Raleigh [W.Va.] folio (No. 77), pp. 4-8, 1902. 

--Geol. Atlas, Masontown-Uniontown [Pa.] folio (No. 82), pp. 10-18, 1902. 

--Geol. Atlas, Brownsville-Connellsville [Pa.] folio (No. 94), pp. 11-17, 1903. 

--Recent work in the bituminous coal field of Pennsylvania: Bull. 213, pp. 270-

275, 1903. 

--The M:eadow Branch coal field of West Virginia: Bull. 225, pp. 330-344, 1904. 1 

--The Deer Creek coal field, Arjz.: Bull. 225, pp. 248-258, 1904. 

·~-Survey work on coal during 1905: Bull. 285, pp. 203-210, 1906. 

~-Coal of Stone Canyon, Monterey County, Calif.: Bull. 316, pp. 435-438, 1907.: 

~-The Una del Gato coal field, Sandoval County, N.Mex.: Bull. 316, pp. 427-430;. 

1907 . 

.---Coal in the vicinity of Fort Stanton Reservation, Lincoln County, N. Mex.: 

Bull. 316, pp. 431-434, 1907. 

·--Map showing coal fields of the United States: Mineral Resources for 1907, 1908.1 

--Coal fields of North Dakota and Montana; introduction: Bull. 341, pp. 5-14;: 

pl. 1, 1909. . 

-. --Coal in San Benito County, Calif.: Bull. 431, pp. 243-247, 1911. 

CAMPBELL, M. R., CLAPP, F. G., and BuTTs, CHARLES, Geol. Atlas, Barnesboro-Patton 

[Pa.] folio (No. 189), pp. 10-11, 1913. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 235 

CAMPBELL, l\f. R., and GREGORY, H. E., Tho Black Mesa coal field, Ariz.: Bull. 431, 

pp. 229-238, pl. 11, 1911. 

CAl\lPBELL, M. R., and PARKER, E. W., Coal fields of the United States: Bull. 394, 

pp. 7-26, pl. 1, 1900. 

CA.l\IPBELL, M. R., and WooDRUFP, E. G., The Powell Mountain coal field, Scott and 

Wise counties, Va.: Bull. 4:H, pp. 147-162, pl. 5, 1911. 

CAPPS, S. R., Mineral resources of the Bonnifield region [Alaska]: Bull. 480, pp. 231-

235, 1911. 

-- The Bonnifield region, Alaska: Bull. 501, pp. 54-62, 1912. 

CLAPP, F. G., Economic geology of the Amity quadrangle, eastern Washington 

County, Pa.: Bull. 300, pp. 88-117, 1907 .. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Amity [Pa.] folio (No. 144), pp. 12-1:3, 1907. 

CLARK, F. R., Coal near Thompson, Grand County, Utah: Bull. 541, pp. 453--477, pl. 28, 

1914. 

-- Coal near Wales, Sanpete County, Utah: Bull. 541, pp. 478-489, pl. 29, 1914. 

-- Geology of the Lost Creek coal field, :Morgan County, Utah: Bull. 691, pp. 311-

322, pl. 40, 1918. 

CoLLIER, A. J., Coal resources of the Yukon basin, Alaska: Bull. 213, pp. 276-283, 1903. 

-- The coal resources of the Yukon, Alaska: Bull. 218, 71 pp., 1903. 

-- Coal fields of the Cape Lisburne region [Alaska]: Bull. 259, pp. 172-185, 1005. 

-- Geology and coal resources of the Cape Lisburne region, Alaska: Bull. 278, 

54 pp., 1906. 

--- The Arkansas coal field: Bull. 316, pp. 137-160, pl. 9, 1907. 

-- The Arkansas coal field, with reports on the paleontology by David White and 

G. H. Girty: Bull. 326, 158 pp., 1907. 

--- Coal resources of Cowlitz River valley, Cowlitz and Lewis counties, Wash.: 

Bull. 531, pp. 323-330, pl. 24, 1913. 

--Coal south .of Mancos, Montezuma County, Colo.: Bull. 691, pp. 293-310, pis. 

34-39, 1918. 

CoLLIER, A. J., and SMITH, C. D., .The Miles City coal field, Mont.: Bull. 341, pp. 

36-6~, pl. 3, 1909. 

DALr,, W. H., Report on coal and lignite of Alaska: Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt, 1; 

pp. 772-834, 1896. 

DARTON, N.H., Geol. Atlas, Newcastle [Wyo.-S. Dale] folio (No. 107), pp. 8-9, 1904. 

--- Preliminary report on the geology and underground water resources of the 

central-Great Plains: Prof. Paper 32, pp. 372-379, 1905. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Sundance [Wyo.-S. Dak.] folio (No. 127), p. 12, 1905. 

--·- Mineral resources of the Bighorn Mountain region [Wyo.]: Bull. 2851 pp. 303-

310, 1906. 

-- Geology of the Bighorn :Mountains [Wyo.] Prof. Paper 51, pp. 62-67, 1906. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Bald Mountain-Dayton [Wyo.] folio (No. 141), .p. 14, 1906. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Cloud Peak-Fort McKinney {Wyo.] folio (No. 142), p. 15, 1906. 

-- Coals of Carbon County, .Mont.: Bull. 316, pp, 174-193, pl. 11, 1907. 

D.A.RTON, N.H., and SIEBENTFIAL, G. E., Geology and mineral resources of the Lara• 

mie Basin, Wyo.: Bull. 364, pp. 5:3-56, 1909. 

DARTON, N.H., and TAFF, J. A., Geol. Atlas, Piedmont [Md.-W. ·va.] folio (No. 28), 

p. 5, 1896. 

DAVIS, J. A., The Little Powder Rivet; coal field, Campbell County, Wyo.: Bull. 471~ 

pp. 423-440, pls. 31-34, 1912. 

DEWOLF, F. W., Coal investigation in the Saline-Gallatin field, Ill., and the adjoining 

area: Bull. 316, pp. 116-136, pis. 7-8, 1907 .. 

DILLim, J. S., A geologic reconnaissance in nOl'thweste.rn Oregon: Seventeenth Ann. 

Rept., pt. 1, pp. 491-508, 1S96. 
236 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

DILLER, J. S., The Coos Bay coal field, Oreg.: Nineteenth Ann. ·Rept., pt. 3, pp. 

309-376, 1899. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Coos Bay [Oreg.] folio (No. 73), pp. 4-5, 1901. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Port Orford [Oreg.] folio (No. 89), pp. 4-5, 1903. 

--Coal in Washington near Portland, Oreg.: Bull. 260, pp. 411-412, 1905. 

-- The Rogue River Valley coal field, Oreg.: Bull. 341, pp. 401-405, 1909. 

-- Mineral resources of southwestern Oregon: Bull. 546, pp. 130-140, '1914. 

DILLER, J. S., and PISHEL, M. A., Preliminary 1:eport on the Coos Bay coal field, 

Oreg.: Bull. 431, pp. 190-228, pis. 7-10, 1911. 

ELDRIDGE, G. H., Geol. Atlas, Anthracite-Crested Butte [Colo.] folio (No. 9), pp. 

9-10, 1894. 

-- Geology of the Denver Basin in Colorado: Mon. 27, pp. 317-387, 1896. 

FE~NEMAN, N. M., and GALE, H. S., The Yampa coal field, Routt County, Colo.: 

Bull. 285, pp. 226-239, pl. 6, 1906. 

FINLAY, G. I., Geol. Atlas, Colorado Springs [Colo.] folio (No. 203), p. 14, 1916. 

FISHER, C. A., Coal of the Big Horn Basin in northwest Wyoming: Bull. 225, pp. 

345-364, 1904. 

--Coal fields of the \\~ite :Mountain region, New Mexico: Bull. 225, pp. 293-294, 

1904. 

-- Mineral resources o£ the Big Horn Basin [Wyo.]: Bull. 285, pp. 311-315, 1906. 

- Geology and water resources of the Big Horn Basin, Wyo.: Prof. Paper 53, pp. 

46-56, 1906. 

-- Development of the Bear Creek coal field, Mont.: Bull. 285, pp. 269-270, 1906. 

-- The Great Falls coal field, Mont.: Bull. 316, pp. 161-173, pl. 10, 1907. 

--- Geology of the Great Falls coal field, Mont.: Bull. 356, 85 pp., 1909. 

-- The Pocket coal district, Va., in the Little Black Mountain coal field: Bull. 

341, pp. 409-418, 1909. 

FuLLER, :M. L., and AsHLEY, G. H., Recent work in the coal field o£ Indiana and 

Illinois: Bull. 213, pp. 284-293, 1903. 

GALE~ H. S., Coal fields of the Danforth Hills and Grand Hogback in northwestern 

Colorado: Bull. 316, pp. 264-301, pls. 15-17, 1907.· 

-- Coal fields of northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah: Bull. 341, pp. 

283-315, pis. 16-20, 1909. 

-- Coal fields of northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah: Bull. 415, 265 pp., 

22 pis., 1910. 

GALE, H. S., and WEGEMANN, C. H., The Buffalo coal field, Wyo.: Bull. 381, pp. 137-

169, pis. 9-11, 1910. 

GARDNER, J. H., The coal field between Gallina and Raton Spring, N.Mex., in the 

San Juan coal region: Bull. 341, pp. 335-351, pl. 22, 1909. 

--The coal field between Durango, Colo., and Monero, N.Mex.: Bull. 341, pp~ 

352-363, pl. 23, 1909. 

-The coal field between Gallup and San Mateo, N.Mex.: Bull. 341, pp. 364~ 

378, pl. 24, 1909 .. 

--Isolated coal fields in Santa Fe and San Miguel counties, N. Mex.: Bull. 381, pp. 

447-451, 1910. 

-- The coal field between San Mateo and Cuba, N. Mex.: Bull. 381, pp. 461-

473, pl. 22, 1910. 

--. The Carthage coal field, N.Mex.: Bull. 381, pp. 452-460, pl. 21, 1910. 

GoLDMAN, M. I., The Colorado Springs coal field, Colo.: Bull. 381, pp. 317-340, pl.l7, 

1910. . 

GREENE, F. C., The coal resources of a part of northeastern Missouri: Bull. 541, pp. 

223-242, pl. 12, 1914. 

GREGORY, H. E., Geology of the Navajo country-a reconnaissance of parts of Arizona, 

New Mexico, and Utah: Prof. Paper 93, pp. 143-145, 1917. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 237 

-GRISWOLD, W. T., Pittsburg coal in the Burgettstown quadrangle, Pa.: Bull. 260, 

pp. 402-410, pl. 3, 1905. 

HANCE, J. H., The Glendive lignite field, Dawson County, Mont.: Bull. 471, pp. 271-

283, pls. 19-20, 1912. · 

-- The Coaldale coal field, Esmeralda County, Nev.: Bull. 531, pp. 313-322, pl. 23, 

1912. 

HARRINGT6N, G. L., Gold placers of the Anvik-Andreafski region [Alaska]: Bull. 662, 

pp. 346-347, 1917. 

·HAYEs, C. W., Geol. Atlas, Ringgold [Ga.-Tenn.] folio (No. 2), p. 2, 1894. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Kingston [Tenn.] folio (No. 4), p. 3, 1894. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Chattanooga [Tenn.] folio (No. 6), p. 3, 1894. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Sewanee [Tenn.] folio (No.8), p. 3, 1894. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Stevenson [Ga.-Ala.-Tenn.] folio (No. 19), p. 3, 1895. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Pikeville [Tenn.] folio (No. 21), p. 3, 1895. 

-- Geol. Atlas, McMinnville [Tenn.] folio (No. 22), pp. 2-3, 1895. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Gadsden [Ala.] folio-(No. 35), p:· 3, 1896. 

--The coal fields of the United States: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 

7-24, 1902. 

--The southern Appalachian coal field: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt 3, pp . 

. 227-263, 1902. 

HAZELTINE, R. M., The bituminous coal field of Ohio: Twenty-second Ann. Rept.; 

pt. 3, pp. 215-226, 1902. 

HERAT"D, F. A., 'rhe Terry lignite field, Custer County, Mont.: Bull. 471, pp. 227-

• 270, pis. 16-18, 1912. 

--'rhe Williston lignite field, Williams County, N.Dak.: Bull. 531, pp. 91-157; 

pls. 9-10, 1913. 

HILLS, R. C., Coal .fields of Colorado: Mineral Resources for 1892, pp. 319-361, 1893. 

·--Geol. Atlas, Elmore [Colo.] folio (No. 58), pp. 3-4, 1899. 

--Geol. Atlas, Walsenburg [Colo.] folio (No. 68), pp. 4-5, 1900. 

'--- Geol. Atlas, Spanish Peaks [Colo.] folio (No. 71), pp. 4-6, 1901. 

HINDS, HENRY, and GnEENE, F. C., Geol. Atlas, Leavenworth-Smithville [Mo.-

Kana.] folio (No. 206), pp. 10-12, 1917. 

IDDINGS, J. P., and WEED, W. H., Geol. Atlas, Livingston [Mont.] folio (No. 1}, 

pp. 3-4, 1894. 

K;EITH, ART.HUI!, Geol. Atlas, Loudon [Tenn.] folio (No. 25), p. 5, 1896. 

--Geol. Atlas, Briceville [Tenn.] folio (No. 33), p. 4, 1896. 

--Geol. Atlas, Wartburg [Tenn.] folio (No. 40), p. 3, 1897. 

KEYEs, C. R., Sketch of the coal deposits of Iowa: Mineral Resources for 1892, pp. 

398-404, 1893. 

KNIGHT, W. C., Coals and coal measures of Wyoming: Sixteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 4, 

pp. 208-215, 1895. 

LANE, A. C., The northern interior coal :field: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt: 3, pp. 

307-331, 1902. 

J. .. EE, W. T., The Engle coal field, N. M:ex.: Bull. 285, p. 240, 1906. 

--The Iron County coal field, Utah: Bull. 316, pp. 359-374, pl. 21, 1907. 

--The Grand Mesa coal field, Colo.: Bull. 341, pp. 3Hi-334, pl. 21, 1909. 

--Coal fields of Grand Mesa and the West Elk Mountains, Colo.: Bull. 510, 237 

pp., 21 pis., 1912. 

-· -The Tijeras coal field, Bernalillo County, N·. Mex.: Bull. 471, pp. 575-578, pl. 

59, 1912. 

--The Cerrillos coal field, Santa Fe County, N.Mex.: Bull. 531, pp. 285-312, pls. · 

20-22. 1913. 

LEE, W. T., and KNOWLTON, F. H., Geology and paleontology of the Raton Mesa 

and other regions in Colorado and New Mexico: Prof. Paper 101, pp. 162-180, 1918. 
238 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

LEONARD, A. G., The North Dakota-Montana lignite area: Bull. 285, pp. 316-330,1906. 

-- The coal fields of parts of Dawson, Rosebud, and Custer counties, Mont.: 

Bull. 316, pp. 194-211, pl. 12, 1907. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Bismarck [N. Dak.] folio (No. 181), pp. 6-7, 1912. 

LEONARD, A. G., and SMITH, C. D., The Sentinel Butte lignite field, N. Dak.-Mont.: 

Bull. 341, pp. 15-35, pl. 2, 1909. 

LESHER, C. E., The Eden Ridge coal field, Coos County, Oreg.: Bull. 541, pp. 399-418, 

pls. 24-25, 1914. 

LINEs, E. F., Coals of the Clarion quadrangle, Clarion County, Pa.: Bull. 316, PP. 

13-19, pl. 1, 1907. 

LLOYD, E. R., The Cannonball River lignite field, N. Dak.: Bull. 541, pp. 243-291,. 

pl. 13, 1914. 

LuPTON, C. T., The eastem part of the Bull Mountain coal field, Mont.: Bull. 431, PP• 

163-189, pls. 6-7, 1911. 

-- The Deep Creek district of the Vernal coal field, Uinta County, Utah: Bull. 

471, pp. 579-594, pl. 60, 1912. 

--'fhe Blacktail (Tabby) Mountain coal field, Wasatch County, Utah: Bull. 

471, pp. 595-628, pls. 61-62, 1912. 

--The Orofino coal field, Clearwater, Lewis, and Idaho counties, Idaho: Bull. 

621, pp. 99-108, 1916. 

-- Geology and coal resources of Castle Valley, in Carbon, Emery, and Sevier 

counties, Utah: Bull. 628, 88 pp., 12 pls., 1916. 

McCREATH, A. S., and D'lNVILLIERs, E. V., The Clinch Valley coal fields [Va.]: 

Mineral Resources for 1892, pp. 521-528, 1893. 

MARTIN, G. C., Petroleum fields of Alaska and the Bering River coal fields: Bull. 

225, pp. 371-375, 1904. 

--The petroleum fields of the Pacific coast of Alaska, with an account of the 

Bering River coal deposits: Bull. 250, pp. 27-36, 1905. · 

--Bering R:iver coal field [Alaska]: Bull. 259, pp. 140-150, 1905. 

--Mark~ts for Alaska coal: Bull. 284, pp. 18-29, 1906. 

--Distribution and character of the Bering River [Alaska] coal: Bull. 284, pp. · 

65-77' 1906. 

--Preliminary statement on the Matanuska coal field [Alaska]: Bull. 284, pp. 

88-100, 1906. 

-. --A reconnaissance of the Matanuska coal field, Alaska: Bull. 289, 36 pp., 1906. · 

--The Alaska coal fields: Bull. 314, pp. 40-46, 1907. "' 

-- Geology and mineml resources of the Controller Bay region, Alaska: Bull.· 

335, pp. 65-112, 1908. 

--Geol. Atlas, Accident-Grantsville [Md.-Pa.-W. Va.] folio (No. 160), pp. 11-13, 

1908. 

-- Coal of the Denver Basin, Colo.: Bull. 381, pp. 297-306, 1910. 

--Preliminary repm't qn a detailed survey of part of the Matanuska coal fields 

[Alaska]: Bull. 480, pp. 128-138, 1911. 

MARTIN, G. C., and KATZ, F. J., Geology and coalfields of the lower Matanuska Valley,· 

Alaska: Bull. 500, 95 pp., 1912. 

MARTIN, G. C., JoHNSON, B. L., and GRANT, U.S., Geology and mineral resources of 

Kenai Peninsula, Alaska: Bull. 587, 243 pp., 38 pls., 1915. 

MARTIN, G. C., and MERTIE, J. B., jr., Mineral resources of the upper Matanuska and 

Nelchina valleys [Alaska]: Bull. 592, pp. 282-298, 1914. 

MENDENHALL, W. C., A coal prospect on Willow Creek, Morrow County, Oreg.: Bull. 1 

341, pp. 406-408, 1909. 

MuNN, M. J., Geol. Atlas, Sewickley [Pa.] folio (No. 176), pp. 14-15, 1911. 

--Geol. Atlas, Claysville [Pa.] folio (No. 180), pp. 12-13, 1912. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 239 

PAIGE, SIDNEY, The Herendeen Bay coal field [Alaska]: Bull. 284, pp. 101-108, 1906. 

PAIGE, SIDNEY, and KNOPF, ADOLPH, Geologic reconnaissance in the Matanuska and 

Talkeetna basins, Alaska: Bull. 327, pp. 40-63, 1907. 

--Reconnaissance in the Matanuska and rralkeetna ba.sins [Alaska], with notes 

on the placers of the adjacent reglon: Bull. 314, pp. 109-115, 1907. 

PARDEE, J. '1'., Coal in the Tertiary lake beds of southwestern Montana: Bull. 531, 

pp. 229-244, pl. 14, 1913. 

PARKER, E. W., Coal: Mineral Resources for 1910, pp. 98-225, pls. 1-14, 1911. 

PEcK, F. B., and AsHLEY, G. H., 1'he Punxsutawney and Glen Campbell coal fields 

of Indiana and Jefferson counties, Pa.: Bull. 285, pp. 276-279, 1906. 

PEPPERBERG, L. J., The Milk River coal field, Mont.: Bull. 381, pp. 82-107, pl. 6, 

1910. 

--·-1'he southern extension of the Milk River coal :field, Chouteau County, Mqnt.: 

Bull. 471, pp. 359-383, pl. 28, 1912. 

PHALEN, W. C., Coal resources of the Kenova quadrangle [Ky.-W. Va.-Ohio]: Bull. 

285, pp. 259-268, 1906. 

--Coal resources of Johnstown, Pa., and vicinity: Bull. 316, pp. 20-4l,,pl. 2, 

1907. 

--Economic geology of the Kenova quadrangle in Kentucky, Ohio, and West 

Virginia: Bull. 349, pp. 25-112, 1908. 

--· Geol. Atlas, Johnstown [Pa.] follo (No. 174), pp. 10-12, 1910. 

--Geol. Atlas, Kenova [Ky.-W. Va.-Ohio] folio (No. 184), pp. 8-14, 1912. 

PHALEN, W. C., and MARTIN, LAWRENCE, Mineral resources of Johnstown, Pa., and 

vicinity: Bull. 477, pp. 35-113, 1911. 

PrsHEL, M. A., Lignite in the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation, N. Dak., north of 

Missouri River: Bull. 471, pp. 170-186, pis. 12-13, 1912. 

PRINDLE, L. M .. , The Bonnifield and Kantishna regions [Alaska]: Bull. 314, pp. 221-

226, 1907. 

RICHARDs, R. W., The central part of the Bull Mountain coal field, Mont.: Bull. 381, 

" pp. 60-81, pls. 4-5, 1910. 

RICHARDSON, G. B., Coal in Sanpete COlmty, Utah: Bull. 285, pp. 280-284, pl. 8, 

1906. 

--The Book Cliffs coal field between Grand River, Colo., and Sunnyside, Utah: 

Bull. 316, pp. 302-320, pl. 18, 1907. 

--The Harmony, Colob, and Kanab coal fields, southem Utah: Bull. 341, pp. 

379-400, pl. 25, 1909. 

--Reconnaissance of the Book Cliffs coal field between Grand River, Colo., and 

Sunnyside, Utah: Bull. 371, 54 pp., 1909. · 

--The Trinidad coai field, Colo.: Bull. 381, pp. 379-446, pls. 19-20, 1910. 

RoGERS, G. S., The Little Sheep Mountain coal field, Dawson, Custer, and Rosebud 

counties, Mont.: Bull. 531, pp. 159-227, pls. 11-13, 1913. 

---Geology and coal resources of the area southwest of Custer, Yellowstone, and 

Big Hom counties, Mont.: Bull. 541, pp. 316-328, pl. 18, 1914. 

ScHRADER, F. C., A reconnaissance in rim'thern Alaska: Prof. Paper 20, pp. 106-114, 

1904. 

--The Durango-Gallup coal field of Colorado and New Mexico: Bull. 285, pp. 

241-258, pl. 7, 1906. 

ScHRADER, F. C., ·and HAWORTH, ERASMUs, Economic geology of the Independence 

quadrangle, Kans.: Bull. 296, pp. 48-52, 1906. 

ScHULTZ, A. R., Coal fields in a portion of central Uinta Colmty, Wyo.: Bull. 316, pp. 

212-,241, pl. 13, 1907. 

--The northem part of the Rock Springs coal field, Sweetwater County, Wyo.: 

Bull. 341, pp. ?56-282, pls. 14-15, 1909. 
240 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

ScHULTZ, A. R., The southern part of the Rock Springs coal field, Sweetwater County, 

Wyo.: Bull. 381, pp. 214-281, pls. 14-15, 1910. 

--Weathering of coal in the arid region of the Green River basin, Sweetwater 

County, Wyo.: Bull. 381, pp. 282-296, 1910. 

--A geologic reconnaissance for phosphate and coal in southeastern Idaho and 

western Wyoming: Bull. 680, pp. 64-79, 1918. 

---Geology and geography of a portion of Lincoln County, Wyo.: Bull. 543, 

pp. 90-115, 1914. 

SHALER, M. K., A reconmlissance survey of the western part of the Durango-Gallup 

coal field of Colorado and New Mexico: Bull. 316, pp. 375-426, pis. 22-23, 1907. 

SHALER, N. S., Geology of the Naragansett Basin [R. I.]: Mon. 33, pp. 79-88, 1899. 

SHALER, N. S., and WooDWORTH, J. B., Geology.of the Richmond Basin, Va.: Nineteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 511-515, 1899. 

SHAW, E. W., The Glenrock co:tl field, Wyo.: Bull. 341, pp. 151-164, pl. 9, 1909. 

SHAW, E. W., LINES, E. F., and MuNN, M. J., Geol. Atlas, Foxburg-Clarion [Va.] 

fol1o (No. 178), pp. 13-14, 1911. 

SHAW, E. W., and TVIUNN, M. J., Geol. Atlas, Burgettstown-Carnegie [Pa.] folio (No. 

177), pp. 10-11, 1911. 

---Coal, oil, and gas of the Foxburg quadrangle, Pa.: Bull. 454, pp. 40-66, 1911. 

SHAW, E. W., and SAVAGE, 'f. E., Geol. Atlas, Murphysboro-Herrin [Ill.] folio (No. 

185), pp. 13-15, 1913. 

--Geol. Atlas, Tallula-Springfield [Ill.] folio (No. 188), pp. 11-12, 1913. 

SIEBENTHAL, C. E., Coal of the Laramie Basin, Wyo.: Bull. 316, pp. 261-263, 1907. 

---Mineral resources of northeastern Oklahoma: Bull .. 340, pp. 213-217, 1908. 

SMITH, C. D., The Washburn lignite field, N.Dak.: Bull. 381, pp.19-29, pl. 1,1910. 

---The Fort Berthold Indian Reservation lignite field, N. Dak.: Bull. 381, pp. 

30-39, pl. 2, 1910. 

--The Fort Peck Indian Reservation lignite field: Bull. 381, pp. 40--59, pl. 3, 

1910. 

SMITH, E. A., The coal measures of Alabama: Mineral Resources for 1892, pp. 293-299, 

1893. 

SMITH, E. E., The eastern part of the Great Divide Basin coal field, Wyo.: Bull. 341, 

pp. 220-242, pl. 12, 1909. 

--Coals of the State of Washington: Bull. 474, 206 pp., 8 pls., 1911. 

SMITH, G. 0., The coal fields of the Pacific coast: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3, 

pp. 473-513, 1902. 

--Geol. Atlas, Mount Stuart [Wash.] folio (No. 106), pp. 9-1.0, 1.904. 

--Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 11-12, 1914. 

SMITH, G. 0., and CALKINS, F. C., Geol. Atlas, Snoqualmie [Wash.] folio (No. 139), 

p. 13, 1906. 

SMrrH, P. S., The Noatak-Kobuk region, Alaska: Bull. 536, pp. 1.51-153, 1913. 

SMITH, P. S., and EAKIN, H. M., A geologic reconnaissance in southeastern Seward 

Peninsula and theN oi'ton Bay-Nulato 1·egion, Alaska:. Bull. 449, pp. 136-140, 1911. 

SMITH, W. S. T., and SIEBENTHAL, C. E., Geol. Atlas, Joplin district [1\fo.-Kans.] folio 

(No. 148), pp. 19-20, 1907. 

SPURR, J. E., Coal deposits between Silver Peak and Candelaria, Esmeralda County, 

Nev.: Bull. 225, pp. 289-292, 1904. 

---Ore deposits of the Silver Peak quadrangle, Nev.: Prof. Paper 55, pp. 165-168, 

1906. 

STEBING ER, EuGENE, The Sidney lignite field, Dawson County, Mont.: Bull. 471, 

pp. 284-318, pls. 21-24, 1912. 

--Geology and coal resources of northern Teton County, Mont.: Bull. 621, pp. 

117-156, pls. 15-16, 1916. 

STOEK, H. H., The Pennsylvania anthracite coal field: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., 

pt. 3, pp. 5.5-117, 1902. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 241 

STONE, R. W., The Elders Ridge coal field, Pa.: Bull. 225, pp. ·311-324, 1004. 

--Mineral resources of the Elders Ridge qu~drangle, Pa.: Bull. 256, pp. 31-54, 

1905: 

--Geol. Atlas, Waynesburg [Pa.] folio (No. 121), pp. 0-10, 1905. 

--Geol. Atlas, ·Elders Ridge [Pa.] folio (No. 123), pp. 7-9, 1905. 

---Coal resources of southwestern Alaska: Bull. 259, pp. 151-171, 1905. 

--Mineral resources of the Kenai Peninsula: Coal fields of the Kachemak Bay 

region [Alaska]: Bull. 277, pp. 53-73, 1906. 

--- The Elkhorn coal field, Ky.: Bull. 316, pp. <J2-54, pl. 3, 1907. 

--The Russell Fork coal field, Va.: Bull. 316, pp. 55-67, pl. 4, 1907. 

--Coal resomces of the Russell Fork basin in Kentucky and Virginia: Bull. 348, 

127 .pp., 1908. 

-'--Coal near the Crazy Mountains, Mont.: Bull. 341, pp. 78-911 pl. 5, 1909. 

---Coal on Dan River, N. C.: Bull. 471, pp. 137-169, pl. 11, 1912. 

--·-Coal near the Black Hi.11s, Wyo.-S. Dak.: Bull. 499, 66 pp., 7 pls., 1912. 

STONE, R. W., and LuPTON, C. T ., The Powder River coal field, Wyo.: B:ull. 381, pp. 

115-'136, pl. 8, 1910. 

STORRS, L. S., The Rocky Motmtain coal fields: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3, 

pp. 415-471, 1902. 

TAFJo', J. A., Geology of the McAlester-Lehigh coal field, Ind. T.: Nineteenth Ann. 

Rept., pt. 3, pp. 423-456, 1899. 

----Preliminary report on the Camden coal field of so~IthwesterJ?. Arkansas: Twentyfirst Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 319-329, 1900. 

--Geol. Atlas, Coalgate [Okla.] folio (No. 74), p. 6, 1!>01. 

---The southwestern coal field: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. :1, pp. 367-413, 

1902. 

---Geol. Atlas, Atoka [Okla.] folio (No. 70), p. 7, 1902. . 

:--Progress of coal work in Indian 'l'erritory: Bull. 260, pp. 382-401, pis. 1-2, 1 905 .. 

·--Geol. Atlas, Muscogee_ [Okla.] folio (No. 132), p. 6, 1906. 

----Notes on the Weber River coal field, Utah: Bull. 285, PP,- 285-288, 1906. ., 

--Book Cliffs con.l field, Utah, west of Green River: Bull. 285, pp. 289-302, pl. 9, 

1906. 

---The Pleasant Valley coal district, Carbon and Emery cou~ties, Utah: Bull. 

316, pp. 338-358, pl. 20, 1907. 

--·The Dll!·ango coal district, Colo.: Bull. 3_1.6, pp. 321-337, pl. 19, 1907.· 

---The Sheridan coal field, Wyo.: Bull. 341, pp. 123-150, pl. 8, 1909. 

TAFl!,, J. A., and ADAMS, G. I., Geology of the eastern Choctaw coal field, Indian 

rrenitory: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 257-311, 1900. 

3.'AFF, J. A., and BROOKs, A. H., Geol. Atlas, Buckhannon [W. Va.] folio (No. 34), 

p. 3, 1896. . 

Unm~N, J. A., Geology and mineral resources of the Peoria quadrangle, Ill.: Bull. 

506, pp. 80-88, 1912. . 

UooEN, J. A., and SHAW, E. \V., Geol. Atlas, Belleville-Breese [Ill.] folio (No. 191?), 

pp. 10-12, 1915. 

VAUGHAN, T. w., Reconnaissance in the Rio Grande coal fields of Texas: Bull. 164, 

100 pp., 1900. 

VEATCH, A. C., Coal and oil in southern Uinta. County, Wyo.: Bull. 285, pp. 331-353, 

pis. 10-12, 1906. 

-- Coal fields of east-central Carbon County, Wyo.: Bull. 316, pp. 244-260, pl. 14, 

1907. 

--Geography and geology of a portion of southwestern Wyoming: Prof. Paper 

56, 178 pp., 1908. 

--Coal deposits near Pinedale, Navajo County, Ariz.: Bull. 431, pp. 239-242, 

pl. 12, 1911. 

127972°--19----16 
2:4-2 OUR MINERAL:. SUPPLIES. 

WASHRURNE.;. C. W., Coal fields of the nmtheast side· of. the. Big Horn Basin, Wyo..;: 

and. of Bridger,_ Mont.: BulL 341, pp. 165-199,. pL 10, 1909·. 

--The South Pa-rk coal' field, Colo.: Bull. 381, pp. 307-316, pl. 16, 1910. 

--The Canon: City eoal field,_ Colo.: Bull. 381~ pp. 341:--378,. pl. 18:,.1910. 

WEED, W. H., GeoL Atlas,. Fort Benton ~ont.] folio (No. 55), pp. 6-7, 1899. 

--Geol.. Atlas, Little Belt Mo:tmtains [~ont.] folio. (No. 56), p. 7, 1899. 

WEEKs, J. D., The· Potomac and Roaring Creek coal fields in. West Virginia: Folll'<' 

teenth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 567-590; 1894. 

WEGE~ANN, C. H., Notes on the coals of the-Custer National Forest,. Mont.: Bull. 381;_ 

pp. 108-114, pl. 7:, 19-10. 

--The Sussex. coal field. Johnson, Natrona,. and Converse counties, Wyo.: Bull, 

471, pp. 441-471, pls. 35-43, 1912. 

--The Barber coal field, Johnson County, Wyo.: Bull. 531, pp. 263.-284, pis.17-19, 

1913._ 

--Geology: and coal resources· of. the Sierra. Blancas coal field, Lincoln and Otero 

counties~ N. Mex.: Bull. 541, pp. 419-452, pls. 26-27, 1914. 

--The Coalville coal field, Utah: Bull. 581, pp. 161-184, pls. 6-11, 1915. 

WHITE, DAviD, The bituminous coal field of Maryland: Twenty-second Ann. Rept.; 

pt. 3, pp. 201-214, 1902. 

WHITE,- DAviD, and CAMPBELL, M. R., The bituminous coal field of Pennsylvania: 

Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 127-200, 1902. 

WHITE, DAviD, CAMPBELL, M. R., and HAZELTINE, R. M., The nmthern Appalachian 

coal field: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 119-226, 1902. 

WHITE, I. C., Stratigraphy of the bituminous coal field in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and 

West Virginia: Bull. 65, 205 pp.,. 1891. 

WrLDER, F·. A., The lignite of North Dakota and its relation to irrigation: Water-Supply 

Paper 117, 59 pp., 1905 .. 

WILLis, BAILEY, The lignites of the Great. Sioux Reservation; a report on the region 

between the Grand and Moreau rivers; Dak.: Bull. 21, 16 pp., 1885. 

--Some coal fields of Puget Sound [Wash.]: Eighteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 

393,---436, 1898. 

WILLIS, BAILEY, and SMITH, G. 0., Geol. Atlas, Tacoma [Wash.] folio (No. 54), pp. 

7-9,_ 1899. 

WINCHESTER, D. E., The Lost Spring coal field, Converse County, Wyo.: Bull. 471, 

pp. 471-515, pls. 44-48, 1912. 

WINCHESTER, D. E., HAREs, C. J., LLoYD, E. R., and PARKs, E. M., The ligni'te 

field of northwestern South Dakota: Bull. 627, 169 pp., 11 pis., 1916. 

WINSLOW, ARTHUR, The coa-l measures of.Missouri: Mineral Resourcesfor 1892, pp. 429--

436, 1893. 

WooDRUFF, E. G., The Red Lodge coal field [Mont.]: Bull. 341, pp. 92-107, pl. 6, 1909. 

--Coal fields of the southwest side of. the Big Hom Basin, Wyo.: Bull. 341, pp. 

200-219, 1909. 

--The coal fields.in the southeastern part of the Big Horn Basin, Wyo.: Bull. 

381, pp. 170-185, pl. 12, 1910. 

--The coal resources of. Gunnison Valley; Mesa and Delta counties, Colo.: Bull. 

471, pp. 565-573, pl. 58, 1912. 

--The Horseshoe Creek district of the Teton Basin: coal field, Fremont County, 

Idaho: Bull. 541, pp. 379-388, pl. 22, 1914. 

--The. Glacier coal field, Wha.tcom County, Wash.: Bull. 541, pp-.. 389-398, pl. 

23, 1914. 

WooDRUFF, E. G., and WINcHESTERr D. E:., Coal· fields of the Wind River region; 

Fremont and Natron~ counties, Wyo.: BulL 471, pp. 516-564, pis. 49-57, 1912. 

WooDWORTH, J. B., The Atlantic coast Triassic coal field: Twenty-second Ann. Rept.~ 

pt. 3, pp. 25-53, 1901. 
.BIBLIOGRAPHY., 2.43 

WooLSEY., L. II.,. Economic geology of. the Beaver quadrangle;. Pa .. : BulL 286, pp.-

26-55, 1906'. 

--The Bull Mountain coal field,. ·Mont.: Bull. 341, pp. 62-77, pl. 4, 1909. 

WooLSEY, L. H., RICHARDS, R. W., and LUPTON, C. T., The Bull Mountain. coal field, 

Musselshell and Yellowstone counties,. Mont.: Bull. 647, 218 pp., 36 pis., 1917. 

WRIGHT, C. W., A reconnaissance of Admiralty Island [Alaska]: Bull. 287, pp. 151-

154, 1906. 

NoTE.-Technologic repm·ts on coal-testing, data, and field work incidental to coal 

are found in Professional Paper 48 and in Bulletins 9, 2·7, 42, 55, 60; 64, 78, 90, 261, 

285, 290, 316, 323,. 325t 332, 333,, 334, 336, 339~. 34:3,. 362, 363, 366, 373,. 378, 382, 383, 

385, 394, 402, 403, 412, 416, 424, 425, 428, 471,, 531, 541,. 621. 

COPPER. 

BArN, H. F., and ULRICH,. E. 0., The copper deposits of 1\fissouri: Bull. 260, pp. 233-

235, 1905. 

--'l'he copper deposits of Missouri: Bull. 267, 52 pp., 1905. 

BALL, S. H., Copper deposita of the Hartville uplift,. Wyo.:. Bull. 315,. pp. 93-107, 

1907. 

BANCROF'r, HowLAND, Reconnaissance of the ore deposits in northern Yuma County 

Ariz.: Bull. 451, pp. 40-93,. 1911. 

--The ore deposits of northeastem Washington: Bull. 550, pp. 27-29·, 174-210, 

passim, 1914. 

BAsTIN, E. S., and HILL, J. M., Economic geology of Gilpin County and adjacent parts 

of Clear Creek and Boulder counties, Colo.: Prof. Paper 94, pp. 126.-129, 150-

151, 177:-367 passim, 1917. 

-- Preliminary report on the economic geology of Gilpin Cotmty, Colo.: Bull.' 

620, pp. 295-323, 1916. . 

BouTWELL, J. M.,. Ore deposits of Bingham, Utah: Bull. 213, pp. 105-122, 1903. 

--Ore deposits of Bingham, Utah: Bull. 260, pp. 236-241, 1905. 

-- Economic geology of the Bingham mining district, Utah: Prof. Paper 38, 

pp. 103-194 passim, 1905. 

BROOKS, A. IT., Geologic features of Alaskan metalliferous lodes: Bull. 480, pp. 43-93, 

1911. 

B;UTLER, B. S., Geology and ore deposits of the San Francisco and adjacent distTicts, 

Utah: Prof. Paper 80, pp. 92-172, 1913 . 

. --Notes on the Unaweep copper district, Colo.: Bull. 580, pp. 1~23, 1914. 

---Copper: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 1, pp. 626-631, 1918. 

BuTLER, B.S., and HEIKES, V. C., Notes· on the Promontory district, Utah: Bull. 

640, pp. 1-10, 1917. 

CAPPS, S. R.,. The Chisana-White River district [Alaska]: Bull. 630, pp. 89'-90, 119-

12~ 1916. . 

CAPPs, S. R., and JoHNSON, B. L., Mineral deposits of the Ellamar district [Alaska]: 

Bull. 542, pp. 86-124, 1913. . 

CoLLIER, A. J., Ore deposits in the St .. Joe River basin, Idaho: Bull. 285, pp. 129-139, 

pl. 4, 1906. 

DILLER, J. S., Copper deposits of the Redding region, Calif.: Bull. 213, pp. 123-132. 

1903. 

--Mining and mineral resources in the Redding district [Calif.] in 1908: Bull, 

225, pp. 169-179, 1904. 

--Minel'al resources of southwestern Oregon: Bull. 546, pp. 72-88, 1914. 

--Geol. Atlas, Redding [Calif.] folio (No. 138), pp. 11-12, 1906. 

EMMONS, S. F., Copper in the red beds of the Colorado Plateau region [Ariz.]:: Bull. 

260, pp. 221-232, 1905. 

--The Cactus copper mine, Utah: Bull. 260, pp. 242-248, 1905. 
244 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

EMr.IONS, S. F., ·and TowER, G; W., Geol. Atlas, Butte-special [Mont.] folio (No. 38), 

pp. 3-8, 1897. 

EMMONs, W. H., The Cashin mine, Montrose County, Colo.: Bull. 2S5, pp. 125-128, 

1906. 

-·--Some ore deposits of Maine and the Milan mine, N.H.: Bull. 432, pp. 15-47, 

1910. 

--The enrichment of sulphide ores: Bull. 529, pp. 98-113, 162-165, 1913. 

EMMONS, W. H., and LANEY, F. B., Preliminary report on the mineral deposits of 

Ducktown, Tenn.: Bull. 470, pp. 151-172, 1911. · 

GALE, H. S., Geology of the copper deposits near Montpelier, Bear Lake County, 

Idaho: Bull. 430, pp. 112-121, 1910. 

GRANT, U. S., Copper and other mineral resources of Prince William Sound: Bull. 

284, pp. 78-87, 1906, 

GRANT, U. S., and HIGGINS, D. F.,. jr., Copper mining and prospecting on Prince 

William Sound [Alaska]: Bull. 379, pp. 87-96, 1909. 

---Reconnaissance of the geology and mine.ral resources of Prince William Sound, 

Alaska: Bull. 443, pp. 52-70, 1910. 

GRATON, L. C., The occurrence of copper in Shasta County, Calif.: Bull. 430, pp. 

71-ll1, 1910. 

GREGORY, H. E., Geology of the Navajo country-a reconnaissance of parts of Arizona, 

New Mexico, and Utah: Prof. Paper 93, pp. 140-142, 1917. 

HrLL, J.l\L, Copper deposits of the \\Thite Mesa district, Ariz.: Bull. 540, pp. 159-163, 

1914. 

-·--The Grand Gulch mining region, Mohave ·county, Ariz.: Bull. 580, pp. 39-58, 

1905. 

IRVING, J. D., and BANCROFT, H., Geology and ore deposits near Lake City, Colo.: 

Bull. 478, pp. 52-64, 1911. 

IRVING, R. D., The copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior: Mon. 5, 464 pp., 1883. 

---The copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior: Third Ann. Rept., pp. 89-188, 

1883. . 

JoHNSON, B. L., The gold and copper deposits of the Port Valdez district [Alaska]: 

Bull. 622, pp. 140-188, 1915. 

---Copper deposits of the Latouche and Knight Island districts, Prince William 

Sound [Alaska]: Bull. 662, pp.193-220, 1917. 

JoNES, E. L., jr., A reconnaissance in the Kofa Mountains, Ariz.: Bull. 620, pp. 

1133-164, 1916. 

KIRCHHOFF, CHARLEs, Copper: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 6, pp. 17'7-188, 1901. 

KNOPI!', ADOLPH, Geology and ore deposits of the Yerington district, Nev.: Prof. 

Paper 114, pp. 31-66, 1918. 

LAFORGE, LAURENCE, and PHALEN, \V. C., Geol. Atlas, Ellijay [Ga.-N. C.-Tenn.] 

folio (No. 187), p. 13, 1913. 

hNDGREN, WALDEl\IAR, The copper deposits of the Seven Devils [Idaho]: Twentieth 

Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp_. 249-253, 1900. 

--. - Copper deposits [in eastern Oregon]: Twenty-second Al:m. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 

629-634, 1901. . 

--Copper deposits at Clifton, Ariz.: Bull. 213, pp. 133-140, 1903. 

--Copper deposits of Bisbee, Adz.: Bull. 213, pp. 149-157, 1903. 

--Geol. Atlas, Clifton [Ariz.] folio (No. 129), pp. 11-13, 1905. 

-'-- The copper deposits of the Clifton-Morenci distr~ct, Ariz.: Prof. Paper 43, 

375 pp., 1905. 

---Notes on copper deposits in Chaffee, Fremont, and Jefferson counties, Colo.: 

Bull. 340, pp. 157-174, 1908: 

-· --· Resources of the United States in gold, silver, copper, lead, and ·zinc: Bull. 

394, pp. 133-143, pl. 9, 190f). 

---The mining districts of the western United States: Bull. 507, pp. 5-43 passim, 

1912. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY~ ·245 

l.INDGREN, WALDEMAR, GnATON, L. C., and GoRDON, .c. H., 'l'he ore deposits of 

New Mexico: Prof. Paper 68, pp. 17-78, 1910. 

J_,JNDGREN, WALDEllfAR, and LouGHLIN, G. F., Geology and ore deposits of the Tintic 

mining district, Utah: Prof. Paper 107, pp. 139-140, 144-147, 163-165, 1919. 

J_,ouGHLIN, G. F., A reconnaissance in the Canyon Range, west-central Utah: Prof. 

Paper 90, pp. 51-60, 1905. 

--Zinc carbonate and reh.tted copper carbonate ores at Ophir, Utah: Bull. 690, 

pp. 1-14, 1918. 

MADDREN, A. G., Gold placers of the lower Kuskokwim, with a note on copper in 

the Russian Mountains [Alaska]: Bull. 622, pp. 358-360, 1915. 

MENDENHALL, W. c:, Geology of the central Copper River region, Alaska: Prof. 

Paper 41, pp. 91-107, 1905. 

MENDENHALL, W. C., and ScHRADER, F. C., Copper deposits of the Mount Wrangell 

region, Alaska: Bull. 21:3, pp. 141-148, 1903. 

--The mineral resources of the Mount Wrangell district, Alaska: Prof. Paper 

15, pp. 13-41, 1903. 

Mm'FIT, F. II., Notes on copper prospects of Prince William Sound [Alaska]: Bull. 

345, pp. 176-178, 1908. 

--Mining in the Kotsina-Chitina, Chistochina, and Valder- Creek regions [Alaska]: 

Bull. 379, pp. 153-lGO, 1909. 

--Mining in the Chitina djstrkt [Alaska]: Bull. 442, pp. 159--165, 1910. 

--'l'he Chitina copper district [Alaska]: Bull. 520; pp. 105-107, 1912. 

---Mining in Chitina Valley [Alaska]: Bull. 542, pp. 81-85, 1913. 

--Geology of the Hanagita-Bremner region, Alaska: Bull. 57G, pp. 51-53, 1914. 

-- Mining in the lower Copper River basin: Bull. 662, pp. 155-182, 1917. 

Mmn~IT, F. H., and CArrs, S. R., Geology a.nd mineral resources of the Nizina district, Alaska, copper and gold: Bull. 448, pp. 77-97, 1911. 

MoFFIT, F. H., and MADDR.EN, A. G., Mineral resources of the Kotsina-Chitina region, 

Alaska: Bull. 374, pp. 44-92, 1909. 

N onr.E, L. F., The Shinumo quadrangle, Grand Canyon. district, Ari1..: Bull. 549, 

pp. 93-96, 1914. 

PAI~E, SIDNEY, Metalliferous ore deposits near the Burro Mountains, Grant County, 

N.Mex.: Bull. 470, pp. 131-150, pl. 4, 1911. 

--Geol. Atlas, Silver City [N.Mex.] folio (No. 199), pp. 14-17, 1916. 

PH.UEN, W. C., Copper deposits near Luray, Va.: Bull. 285, pp. 140-:-143, 1906. 

--Copper deposits of Bisbee, Ariz.: Bull. 213, pp. 149-157, 1903. · 

RANSOME, F. L.,. The Globe copper district, Ariz.: Prof. Paper 12, pp.- 117-129, 

1904. 

-- Geology and ore deposits of the Bisbee quadrangle, Ariz.: ·Prof. Paper 21, 

pp. 109-123, 1904. 

--Geol. Atlas, Globe [Arir-.] folio (No. 111), pp; 14-16, 190·1. · 

.:....__ Geol. Atlas, Bisbee [Arir-.] folio (No. 112), pp. 13-15, 1904. 

--'fhe Yerington copper district, Nev.: Bull. 380, pp. 99-119, 1909. 

--The Turquoise copper-mining district, Adz.: Bull. 530, pp. 125-134, 1913. 

--Copper deposits near Superior, Ariz.: Bull. 540, pp. 139-158, 1914. · 

RANSOME, F. L., and CALKINS, F. C., 'l'he geology and ore deposits of the Coeur 

d'Alene district, Idaho: Prof. Paper 62, pp. 83-95, 150-153, 1908. 

RICHARDS, R. W., Notes on lead and copper deposits in the Bear River Range, Idaho 

and Utah: Bull. 470, pp. 177-187, 1911. 

ScHRADER, F. C., A reconnaissance of the Jarbidge, Contact, and Elk Mountain 

mining districts, Elko County, Nev.: Bull. 497, pp. 112-ll3, 1912. 

-- Mineral deposits of the Santa Rita and Patagonia mountains, Ariz.: Bull. 

582, pp. 27-30,284,318-320,1915. 

SMITH, G. 0., Ou.r mineral reserves: Bull .. 599, ·pp. 25-26, 1914. 
OUR MINERAL· SUPPLIES. 

SPENCER, A. 0., Mineral t'esources of the Encan11pment copper region, Wyo.:. Bulh 

213, pp. 158-162, 1903. 

--Reconnaissance. examinatiem of the eopper deposits at Pearl, Colo.: Bull. 213,. 

p.p; .. 163.--16!}, 1903 .. 

--Copper. deposits of the Encampment district,. Wyo .. : Prof. Paper 25,. 107 p.p., 

1904. 

--Geology. and 0re deposits of Ely, Nev.: Prof. Paper 96,. pp. 100-127 passim,·. 

1917. 

STosE, G. W., The copper deposits of South Mountain,. in. southern Penlli!ylvania:· 

Hull. 430, pp. 122-131,.1910. 

TowER, G. W., jr., and Sl\UTH~. G .. 0 .. , Geology and mining industry of the Tintic·dis· 

trict, Utah: Nineteenth Ann. Rept., pp. 601-767, 1898. 

--Geol. Atlas,. Tintic·special [Utah] folio. (No .. 65), pp. 6-7, 1900 .. 

TuRNER, H. W., Geol. Atlas, Jackson [Calif..] folio (No .. ll), p. 6, 1894 .. 

U:MPLEBY, J. B., A preliminary account of the ore· deposits ofthe Loon Creek district, 

Idaho: Bull. 530, pp. 66-74, 1911. 

--Geology and ore deposits of Lemhi Oounty,.Iclaho: Bull. 528,,pp. 13-'16 passim, 

1913. 

---Some ore deposits in northwestern Ouster County, Idaho·: Bull.. 539, PP• 35--97,_ 

1913. 

--Geology a.nd ore deposits of the Mackay region, Idaho: Prof.. Pa.per· 97 pp, 

83-94, 1917:. 

VAN RisE, C. R., and LEL'l'H,.G .. K., The geology of the Lake· Superior region: M0n. 52, 

pp. 513-592, 1911. 

WATSON, T. L., Notes on the Seminole copper deposits of. Georgia: Bull. 225·, p:Jt, 182 • 

186,.1904. 

WEED, W. H., Ore deposits at Butte, Mont .. : BulL 213,. pp .. 17.0-180; 1903. 

--OoppeF deposits of the Appalachian States: BulL 213, pp• .. 181-185, 1903 .. 

--Copper deposits in Georgia: Bull. 225, pp. 180~181, 1903 .. 

--The Griggstown; N.J.,. copper deposit:. Bull. 225, pp. 187-189;,, 1903. 

--Notes on the copper mines of Vermont: Bull. 225, pp. 190-199, 1903. 

--The copper mines of the United States in 1905: Bull. 285, pp. 98-124,. pl. 3,.1906. 

--Copper deposits of the Appalachian States: Bull .. 455, 166 pp-. 7 1911. 

--Geology and. ore deposits of the Butte district, Mont.: Prof. Paper 74, pp. 

67-70, 113-239, 1912. 

WEED, W. H., EMM0Ns-, S. F·., and T0WER·,.G. W~, Geol. Atlas, Buttespecial [Mont.] 

folio (No. 38), pp. 4-7, 1896 ... 

WEED, W. H., and PmssoN, L. V., Geology of the Castle Mountain mining district, 

Mont.: Bull. 139, pp. 156-1577 1896 .. 

WEEKS, F. B., and HEIKES, V. C., Notes on the Fort Hall mining district, Idaho: 

Bull. 340, pp. 175-183, 1908. 

WRIGHT, 0. W., Geology and ore deposits of. Copper Mountain and Kasaan Peninsula, 

Alaska: Prof. Paper 87, pp .. 44-65,. 85-10&,.1915. 

--Mining-in southeastern Alaska: Bull... 379, p. 152, 1909. 

WruGHT, C. W.,, and PAIGE1. SIDNEY, Copper deposits·on- Kasaan Peninsula,. Prince of 

Wales, Island. [Alaska].: Bull .. 345,, pp. 98:...115, 1908. 

FLUORSPAR •. 

BAIN, H. F., Fluorspar deposits of southern illinois·: BulL 225, pp·. 505-511, 1904. 

--Fluorspar deposits· of southern Illinois: B'ul1. 255, pp·. :E-75, 1905. 

DARTON, N.H., and BURcHARD, E. F., Fluorspar near D'eming, N.Mex.:. Bull'. 470, 

pp. 533-545, 191}. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY~ ·. · : . 2.47-

IRVING, J. D., Economic resources of northern Black Hills [S. Dak.]: Prof. Paper 26, 

pp. 139,158-159, 1904. 

P.ARKER, E. W., Fluorspar·: Twenty-first Ann. Rept.,, pt. 6 (continued), pp. 559-560;. 

1901. 

SMITH,. G. 0., Our· mineraL reserves:. Bull. 599, p. 42, 1914. 

ULRICH, E. 0., and SMITH, W. S. T., Lead, zinc, and fluorspar deposits· of westem. 

Kentucky: Bull. 213, pp. 205-213, 1903. 

--Lead, zinc·, and. fluorspar deposits of western Kentucky:· Prof. Paper 36, pp·. 

124-206, 1905. 

Anonymous, fluorspar [in metallurgy]: Mineral resources for 1889· and 1890, pp .. 468-· 

472, 1892. . 

GRAPHITE. 

AsHLEY, G. H., Rhode Island· coal:. Bull. 615, pp. 18-20, 33, 57, 1915. 

(: BALL, S. H., Graphite in the Haystack. Hills, Laramie County, Wyo.: Bull. 315, pp. 

426~28, 1907. 

BASTIN, E'. S'., Graphite: Mineral resources for 1908, pt. 2,, pp. 71T-738, 1909. 

--Graphite: Mineral resources for 1909, pt. Z, pp. 809-840, 1911. 

--Graphite: Mineral resources for·1911,. pt. 2, pp. 1079-1112, 1912'. 

--'rhe production of graphite in 1913: Mineral resources for 1913, pt. 2, pp. 190-

251, 1914. 

BAYLEY, W. S., KUJ~;IMEL, II. ·B., ancl SALISBURY, R. D., Geol. Atlas,, Raritan [N.J.] 

folio (No. 191), p. 30,.'1914. 

BREWER, W. M., Occurrences of graphite in the South: Seventeenth Ann. Rept., 

pt. 3 (continued), pp. 1008-1010,.18.96·. 

EMERSON, B. K., Geology of Massachusetts and Rhode Island: Bull. 597, p. 71, 1917. 

FERGUSON, H. G., Graphite: Mineral resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 43~4, 49-59, 1917. 

--Graphite: Mineral resources for 1917, pt. 2, pp. 97-98, 109-117, 1918. 

GALE, H. S'., S'upposed deposits of graphite near Brigham, Utah: Bull. 430, pp. 

639-640, 1910. 

HAYES, C. W., and PHALEN, W. C., Graphit_e deposits near Cartersville, Ga.: Bull. 

340, pp. 463-465, 1908. 

KEITH,. ARTHUR, Geol. Atlas, Mount Mitchell [N.C.-Tenn.] folio (No. 124), p. 8, 1905. 

- GeoL Atlas, Pisgah [N.C.-S.C.] folio (No. 147), pp. 7-8, 1907. 

KEMP, G. F., Graphite in the eastern Adirondacks [N. Y.]: Bull. 225, pp. 512-514, 

1904. .. 

LEE, W. T .. , Graphite near Raton, N.Mex.: BuU. 530, pp:. 371-374, 1913. 

MoF:J<'IT, F. H., The Nome region [Alaska]: Bull. 314,. pp. 139-140, 1907. 

--Geology of the Nome and Grand Central quadrangles, Alaska: Bull. i\33,. pp. 

135-136, 1913. 

PAIGE, SIDNEY, Graphite in the Llano-Burnet region, Tex.: Bull. 450, pp. 77-82, 1911. 

--GeoL Atlas, Llano-Burnet [Tex.] folio (No. 183), pp. 13-14, 1912. 

PRATT, J. H., Graphite: Mineral resources for 1904, pp. 115T-1162, 1905. 

SMITH, G. 0., Graphite in Maine: Bull. 285, pp. 480-483, 1906. 

--Graphite: Mineral Resources for 1905, pp. 1265-1267, 1906. 

--Graphite: Mineral Resources for 1906, pp. 1139-1141, 1907. 

--Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 37-38, 1914. 

SMITH, P. S., Minel'al deposits of Seward Peninsula. [Alaska]: Bull. 345, p. 250; 1908. 

--Recent developments in so-uthern Seward Peninsula [Alaska]: Bull. 379, PP'· 

300-301, 1909.. . 

WINCHELL, A. N ., G1iaphite near Dillon,, Mont.: Bull. 470, pp. 528-532, 1911 . 

......--Mining districts o·f the Dillon quadrangle, Mont., and. adjacent areas: Bull. 

574, pp. 105-110, 1914. 
24S OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

GRINDING AND POLISHING :MATERIALS. 

ARNOLD, RALPH, and ANDERSo·N-, RoBERT, Diatomaceous deposits of northern Santa· 

Barbara County, Calif.: Bull. 315, pp. 438-147, 1907. 

BASTIN, E. S., Feldspar and quart~ deposits of Maine: Bull·. 315; pp. 383-393, 1907. 

-. -- Feldf?par and quartz deposits of southeaster.n New York: Bull. 315, pp. 394-599, 

1907. 

CHAPIN, THEODORE, Mining developments in southeastern Alaska:: Bull. 642, p. 104, 

1916. ' 

CnATARD, T. ~.:L, Coru!~duJ?l and emery: Mineral Resources for 1883-84, pp. 714-718, 

1885. 

DARTON, N. H., Geol. Atlas, Oelrichs [S. Dak.-Nebr.] folio (No. 85), p. 6, 1902. 

--Geol. Atlas, Camp Clarke [Nebr~] folio (No .. 87), p. 4, 1903. 

--Geol. Atlas, Scotts Bluff [Nebr.] folio (No. 88), p. 5, 1903. 

---Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of 

the one hundred and, third me:t;idian: Prof. Paper 17, PP·. 35, 42-43, 1903. 

HoLUES, J. A., Corundrim deposits of the southern Appalachian regio.n: Seventeenth 

·Aim. Rept., 'pt. 3 (contin.ued), pp .. 935.,.943, 18!36. 

JENKS, C. N., The m'anufacture and use of corundum: Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3 

(continued), pp. 943-flqO, 18fl6. 

KATZ, F. J., Mineral Resources for 1914, pt. 2, pp. 564-568, 1915. 

--.- M~nc,ral Resources for 1D16, pt. 2, pp. 205-206, 209-212, 1fll7. 

----Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 2, pp. 224, 227-231, 1918. 

KEITH, ARTHUR, Geol. Atlas, Pisgah [N. 0.-S. C.], folio (No·. 147), p. 17,1907. 

PAR.~E.J,~, E .. W., Abrasive ~aterial~: Seventeentll Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 927-935,18.96. 

--· 'Abrasive materials: 'rw.enty-first Ann. RepL pt. G (continued), pp; 463-479, 

19oi. ' 

PEALE, A. C., Geol. Atlas, Three. ForksJi\Iont.] folio (No . . 24), p. 5, 1896. 

PRA'r;r, J. H., Corlindum and its occurrence and distribution in the United States: 

Bu.ll. 269,. pp. 9-169, 1905. 

RABORG, W. A., Abrasive materials: 1\fineral Resources for 1886, pp. 581-588, 1887. 

READ, 1\L 0., Berea grit: Mineral R~sources for.l88~, pp. 478-481, 1883. 

SIEBENTHArJ, 0. E., a:nd MESTJER, h." D., Tripoli deposits near Seneca, l\Io.: J3ull. 340, 

pp. 42~-437' 1908. . ' 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 38-'10, 1914. ' 

STEHRETT, D. B., Precious stqnes: Mineral Resources for 19Q8, pp. 8~3-828, 1909. 

TURNER, G. l\I., Novaculite: l\Jineral Res~urces for 1885, pp. 433-436,1886. 

---Novaculites and other whetstones: Mineral Resources for 1886, pp. 589-592, 

1887. 

WooLSEY, L. H., Yolcanic ash near Durango, Colo.: Bull. 285, pp. 476-479, 1906. 

Anonymous, Summary of abrasive p1aterials: Mineral Resources for 1899, p. 11, 1899. 

--Abrasive materia~s:.'Nineteenth Ann .. Rept., pt. 6, pp .. 7-22, 1897. · 

GYPSUM. 

ADA:\fS, G. I., and others, Gypsum deposits in the United States: Bull. 223, 129 pp.; 

21 pls., 1904. 

DLAFE, W. P., Gypsum deposits in Arizona: Bull. 223, pp. 100,..101, 1904. 

BouTWEH, J. l\L, Rock gypsum at Nephi, Utah: Bull. 225, pp. 483-487, 1904. 

--Gypsum deposits in Utah: Bull. 223, pp. 102-110, pl. 19 A, 1904. 

BrwoKs, A. H., The mining industry in 190Z [Alaska]: Bull. 345, pp. 30-31, 52, 1908. 

BuRCHARD, E. F., Gypsum and gypsum products: Mineral Resources for 1906, pp. 

1069-1078, Hl07. 

---Gypsum and gypsum products: l\lineral Resources for 1fl08, pt. 2, pp. 622-623, 

1fl09. 

() 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 249· 

BuRCHARD, E. F., Structural materials available in the vicinity of MinneapolisMinn.; Bull. 430, p. 291, HHO. 

---Gypsum deposits in Eagle County, Colo.: Bull. 470, pp. 354-366, 191.1. 

-"--Gypsum: :Mineral Hesources for 1910, pt. 2, pp. 720-731, 1911. 

DAu.·roN, N. H., Geol. Atlas, Oelrichs [S. Dak.-N~br.] folio (No. 86), p. G, 1902. 

--- Gypsl}m deposits in South Dakota: Bull. 223, pp. 76-78, pl. 16 B, 1904. 

--Geol. Atlas, Newcastle [Wyo.-S. Dak.] folio (No. 107), p. 9, 1!)04. 

DARTON, N. 11., BLACKWELDER, E., and SmnENTHAr,; ·C. E., Geol. Atbs, Laramie, 

Sherman [\Vyo.] folio (No. 173), p. 14, 1910. 

DARTON, N.H., and SmnENTIIAL, C. E., Geology and mineral resources of the Lar::tmie · 

Basin; Wyo.: Bull. 364, pp. 56-58, 1909. 

DAY, D. T., Gypsum deposits in Florida: Bull. 223, p. 48, 1904:. 

EcKEr,, E. C., Salt and gypsum deposits of southwestern Virginia: Bull. 213, pp. 

406-416, 1903. 

--Gypsum deposits in New York: Bull. 223, pp. 33-35, pl. 7, 1904. 

-.--Gypsum deposits in Virginia: Bull. 223, pp. 36-37, pl. 8, 1904. 

-·--Gypsum and gypsum products: Mineral Resources for 1905, pp. 1105-1110, 1906. 

FAIRBANKS, H. W., Gypsum deposits in California: )3ull. 223, pp. 119-123, pls. 19 B, 

21, 1904. . . 

FISHER, C. A., Geology and water resources of the Big Horn Basin, Wyo.: Prof. 

Paper 53, pp. 25, 58, 1906. 

GALE, H. S., Salines in the Owens, Searles, and Panamint basins, southeastern California: Bull. 580, pp. 301-302, 1915. 

Gu,BERT, G. K., Geol. Atlas, Pueblo [Colo.] folio (No. 36), p. 6, 1897. 

GouLD, C. N ., Gypsum deposits in Oklahoma: Bull. 223, pp. 60-67, I)ls. 14-15, 1904. 

---Geology and water resources of Oklahoma: \Vater-Supply Paper 148, pp. 17-

98 passim, 1905. 

--- Geology and water resources of the eastern portion of the Panhandle of Texas: 

Water-Supply Paper 154, ·pp. 20, 31-32, 1906. 

--- Geology and water resources of the western portion of the Panhandle of Texas: 

\Vater-Supply Paper 191, pp. 14-16, 1907. ., 

GrnMSLEY, G. P., Gypsum deposits in Michigan: Bull. 223, pp. 45-47, 1904. 

--Gypsum deposits in Kansas: Bull. 223, pp. 53-59, pl. 13, 1904. 

ilAHDEH, E. C., The gypsum deposits of the Palen }.:fountains, Riverside County, 

· .Calif.: Bull. 430, pp. 407-416, 1910. , 

HER lUCK, H. N ., Gypsum deposits inN ew Mexico: Bull..223, pp. 89-99, pl. 18, 1904. 

HEss, F. IJ., A reconnaissance of the gypsum deposits of California: Bull. 413, pp; 

5-36, 1910. 

--Gypsum deposits near Cane Springs, Kern County, Calif.: Bull. 430, pp. 417-

418, 1910. . . 

HILL, B. F., Gypsum deposits in Texas: Bull. 223, pp. 68-73, 19M. 

KAY, G. F., A new gypsum deposit in Iowa: Bull. 580, pp. 59-64, i914. 

KNIGHT, W. C., Gypsum deposits in Wyoming: Bull. 223, pp. 79-85, pls.16A, 17,1904. 

LAKES, ARTHUR, Gypsum deposits in Colorado: Bull. 223, pp. SG-88, 1904. 

LINDGREN, 'VALDEMAR, Gypsum deposits in Oregon: Bull. 223, p. 111, 1904. 

LouDERBACK, G. D., Gypsum deposits in Nevada: Bull. 223, pp. 112-118, pl. 20,1904. 

LUI>ToN, C. T., Gypsum along the west flank of the San Rafael Swell, Utah: Bull. 

530, pp. 221-231, pl. 5, 1913. 

LuP'rON, C. T., and CoNDIT, D. D., Gypsum in the southern pa.rt of the Big Horn 

Mountains, Wyo.: Bull. 640, pp. 139-157, pls. 3-5, 1917. 

ORTON, EDWARD, Gypsum or land plaster in Ohio: 1\.Jineral Resomces for 1887, pp. 

596-602, 1888. 

PARKER, E. W., Gypsum: Seventeenth Ann: Rept., pt. 3, pp. 978-983, 1896. 

--Gypsum: 'l'wenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. G, pp. 523-530, 1901. 
2.50 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

f 

PEPPEL, S. V., Gypsmll deposits. in Ohio:. Bull. 223, PP'~ 38-44~ p1s. 9-11,. 1904. 

RICHARDSON, G. B., Salt, gypsum, and petroleum in 1:mns-Pecos, Texas: BulL 260, 

pp. 576-577., 584-585t pl. 4, Hl05·. 

SHAI,ER, M. K., Gypsum in northwestern N.ew Mexico: Bull. 315,. pp. 26Q-2.65, 1907. 

SmBENTHAL, C. E., G-y:psum of the Uncompahgre region,. Colo.: Bull. 285,,. pp. 401-

403, 1906. 

--Gypsum deposits. of the Laramie district, "ryo.: BulL 285,. pp .. 404-405., 1906. 

STONE,. R. W., Gypsum industry in.l912: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2, pp. 637-

641, 1913. 

--- The gypsum industry in i913: Mineral Resources for 1913, pt. 2, pp. 363, 372.,. 

1914. 

-·--Gypsum: ~iineral Resources· for 1915, pt. 2, pp. 156-159, 1916. 

---· G.yp:'3illll [l\{ap. sh0wing location of mills using. domestic gypsum]: Mineral Re,. 

sources for 1916, pt. 2, p. 260, 1917. 

--Gypsum: Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 2, pp. 88-95, 1918. 

WEED, W. H., Gypsllm. deposits in l\fontana: Bull .. 223, pp .. 74-75, 1904. 

--- E.conomic value of hot springs· and hot spring deposits: Bull. 260, pp. 

601-604, 1905. 

WILDER, F. A., Gypsum deposits in Iowa: Bull. 223, pp. 49-52, pl. 12, 1904. 

WRIGHT, C. "'~N.,. Nonmetalliferous mineral resources of southeastern Alaska: Bull. 314, 

pp. 79-80, 1907. 

--Building stones all(l materials of southeastern Alaska: Bull. 345, pp·. 116, 124-

12G, 1908. 

IRON. 

BALL, S. H., The RartviHe· iron-ore range, Wyo.:· Bull. 315, pp. 19Q-205, 1907. 

---Titaniferous iron ores of Irem Mountain, Wyo.: Bull. 315, pp. 206-212~ 190i. 

BAYLEY, W. S., The Menominee iron-bearing district of Michigan: Mon. 46, 513 

pp.,.l904. 

BAYLEY, W. S., SALISBURY, R. D., and KuMMEL, H. B., Geol. Atlas, Raritan [N. J.] 

folio (No .. 191),. pp. 23'--29', 1914. 

BAYLEY, W. S., and others: Geol. Atlas,. Passaic [K. J.-N. Y.] folio (No. 157), p. 6, 

1908. 

---Iron ores: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 61 pp. 43-6.3·, 1901. 

BouTWEL:L, J. M., Iron ores in the Uinta, Mountains:, 1Jtah: Bull. 225,. pp. 22.1-228,. 

1904. 

BROOKS, A. H .. , Geologic features of Alaskan metalliferous lodes: BulL 480, pp. 90-91, 

. 1911. 

BuncHARD, E. F., The iron ores of the Brookwood district, A!a.: 15ull .. 2.60·, pp·. 3:?1-

32.4, 1905. 

--- The Clinton or red ores of the Birmingham district, Ah.: Bull. 315, pp. 130-

151, 1907". 

--'fhe brown ores of the Russe11:ville district, Ala.:. Bull. 315, pp. 152-160·, 1907. 

--·An estimate of the tonnage of ava:i:l:U~ble Clinton. iron ore in the Birmingham 

district,. Ala.:. BuU. 340·,. pp. 308-317, 1908'. 

---Tonnage estimates of Clinton il'on ore in the Chattanooga region of Tennessee,. 

Georgia-, and Alabama: BulL 380,. pp. 169~187., 1909. 

---Iron. ore, pig iron, and steel iE. 1912.: MineFal Resources for 1912, pt. 1, pp. 

176-190, 1913. 

--- Preliminary ·report on the red. iron ores of east Tennessee, northeast Alabama, 

and northwest Georgia: B'uH. 54..(!)·, pp. 279~328, pls. 5-6., 1014. 

---Iron ozte in Cass, Marion,. 1\forris, and Cherokee counties, Tex .. : Bull. 620, 

pp. 69-109, 1916. 

---Iron-bearing: deposits in Bossier, Caddo,. and Webster parishes, La.: Bu.ll. 

620, pp. 129-150:,, 1916 .. 
B:EBLIOGRAPHY..' . 251 

Ru·RCKARD, E.. F;, Iron or.e, pig, iron, and steel in.·191:4: ·Min€ral·Resources for 1914~· 

pt. 1, pp. 51~523, 1916. 

--Iron ore, pig ircm,. and steel j,n 1916: Mineral Resources for 1916;. pp. 53~541;: 

1918. 

BuRCHARD;, E. F.,. BuTTs, CHARLEs, and EcKEL, E· .. C., Iron ores, fuels, and fluxes, of. 1 

the Birmingham district, Am .. : Bull 400,. 204 pp .. ,. 1910: .. 

Burrrs, CI:rkRLES, Economic geology of the Kittanning and Rural Valley quad.rang~ea~ 

Pa.: Bull. 279, pp. 171-174, 1906 . 

. --GeoL Atlas: Birmingham [Ala.] folio (No. 175)-, pp. 2(}-21,.1910. 

--Iron.' OJ/es in the Monte:vall~€Jolumbiana region, Ala.: Bull. 470; pp .. 215-230, 

1911. 

C:tEMENTS, J. M.,. The Vermi1ion iron-bearing district of Minnesota: Mon. 45, 463 pp.; 

1903. 

' CLEMENTS, J. M., and. others, The. Crystal Falls iron-bearing district of :Michigan: 

Nineteenth Ann. Rept.,, p.t. 3, pp. 1-15, 1898. 

--The Crystai Fh.Ilsiron-hearing district oflt'Iichigan: Mon. 36, 512.pp., 1899. 

CRoss, WHITMAN, HowE, E'RNEST, and RANSOME, F. L., Geol. Atlas, Silverton [Cofo.J 

folio. (No. 120), pp. 28-34,,1905. 

Cnoss, WHITMAN, SPENCER, A. C., and RANSOME, F. L., GeoL Atlas, Rico [Colo .. ~: 

folio (No. 130), pp. 14-'20, 1905. 

DARTON, N.H., Geol. Atlas, Franklin [Va.-W.Va.] folio (No. 32), p. 5,.1896. 

DILLER, J. S., Iron ores ofthe Redding quadrangle, Calif.: Bull. 213, pp. 219-220', 1903. 

--Mining and mineral resources in the Redding quadrangle, Calif., in.l903: Bull. 

225, p. 178, 1904. 

--So-called iron ore near Portland, Oreg.: Bull. 260,. pp. 343-347, 1905. 

EAKIN, H. M., Iron-ore deposits near Nome [Alaska]: BulL 622', pp. 361-365, 1915. 

EcKEL, E. C., Limonite deposits of eastern New York and: western New England: Bu11. 

260, pp. 335-342', 1905. . 

---Iron and manganese ores of the United States: Bull. 260, pp. 317-320~ 1905. 

--Iron ores of northeastern Texas: Bull. 260, pp. 348-354, 1905. 

--The Clinton or red ores of northern Alabama: Bull. 285, pp. 172-179, 1906. 

--The Oriskany and Clinton ores of Virginia: Bull. 285, pp. 183-189, 1906. 

EMMoNs, W. H., The enrichment of sulphide ores: Bun. 529; pp. 69, 143:....150; 1913 . 

.::::. ---The enrichment of ore d'eposits: BulL 625, pp. 443-459, 1917. 

GRANT, U.S., and RIGGINS,!}. F., Preliminary report on the· mineral resources· of the 

southern part of Kenai Peninsula [Alaska]: Bull. 442, pp. 168:....169', 1900. 

HARDER, E. C.,. The Taylor Peak and V\'hitepine iron-ore deposits, Colo.: Bull. 380; 

pp. 188-198, 1909. 

--Iron ores, pig iron, and steel: Mineral Resources for 1908, pp. 81-118, 1909. 

---The iron ores of the Appalachian region in Virginia: Bull. 380, pp. 215-254; 

1909. 

--Some iron ores of western. and centra:l California: Bull. 430, pp. 219-227, 1910~ 

--Iron ores near Dayton, Nev.: ]hill. 430•, pp·. 240-246, 1910. 

--·Deposits· of brown iron ore near Dillsburg·, York County, Pa.: Bull. 430; pp. 

250-255, 1910. 

--Iron-ore deposits of the Eagle Mountains, Calif.: Bull. 503, pp. 1-69, 1912. 

HARDER, E. C., and JoHNSTON, A. W., Notesonthegeol'ogyandironoresoftl\eCu:yuna 

district, Minn.: BulL 660,. pp. l-26, pl. 1, 1918. 

HARDER, K C., arid Rr(]JH', J. L ... ,. The lron Age iron-ore: deposit near Dale, San Ber• 

nardino Cou:nty,.Calif.:· Bull. 430, pp. 228-239, pl. 2,.1910. 

HAYES, C. W., Geol. Atias;. Ringgold [Ga.-Tenn.]. folio (No .. 2), pp.. 3-4,. 1894. 

--- Geol. Atlas, Stevenson [Ga.-Ala.-Tenn.Jfolio (No. 19},. p. 3, 1895. 

--Geol. Atlas, Gadsden (Ala.] folio. (No ... 35),. p .. 3, 1896. 

--Geol. Atlas:, Rome· [Ga.-Ala.]. folio (No. 78}, pp .. 5-6,. 1902. 

--Iron ores of the United States: Bull. 394, pp. 70-113, 1909. 
252- ODR MINERAL ·suPPLIES. 

HAYES, C. \V., and EcKEL, E. C.; Iron ores of the Cartersville district, Ga.: Bull. 213, · 

pp; 233-242, 1903. 

HoLDEN, ·R. J.; The brown ores of the New River-Cripple Creek district, Va.: Bull. · 

285; pp. 190-193,1906. 

lRVJNG, R. D., and VAN HrsE, C. R., The Penokee iron-bearing series of Michigan and· 

\Visconsin: Tenth Ann. Rept., -pt. 1, pp.-341-507, 1890. 

-·--The Penokee iron-bearing series ofMichigan and Wisconsin: :Mon. 19, 534 pp., · 

1892. 

KEITH, ARTHUR, Ge;:_,l. Atlas~ Chattanooga [Tenn.] folio (No. 6), pp. 3-4, 1894. 

--Geol. Atlas, Harpers Ferry [Va.-W. Va.-Md.] folio (No. 10), p. 4, 1894. · 

--GeoL Atlas, Briceville [Tenn.] folio (No. 33), p. 4, 1896. 

--Iron-ore deposits of the Cranberry district, N. 0.-Tenn.: Bull. 213, pp. 243-246, 

1903. 

--· -- Geol. Atlas, Cranberry [N.C.-Tenn.] folio (No .. 90), p. 8, 1903. 

--Geol. Atlas, Roan Mountain [Tenn.] folio (No. 151), p. 10, 1907. 

KEMP, J. F., The titaniferous iron ores of the Adirondacks: Nineteenth Ann. Rept., 

pt. 3, pp. 377-422, 1899. 

KINDLE, E. M., The iron ores of Bath County, Ky.: Bull. 285, pp. 180-182, 1906. 

KNoPP, ADOLPH, The occurrence of iron ore near Haines [Alaska]: Bull. 442, pp. 

144--146, 1910. 

LErTH, C. K., 'l'he Mesabi iron-bearing district of Minnesota.: Mon. 43, 316 pp., 33 pls.; 

1903. 

-:---Geologic work in the Lake Superior iron district during 1902: Bull. 213, pp. 

247-250, 1903. . 

-,--The Lake Superior mining region during 1903: Bull. 225, pp. 215-220: 1904. 

--'-Iron ores in soi.tthern Utah: Buli. 225, pp. 229-237, 1904. · 

--Iron ores of the western United States and British Columbia: Bull. 285, pp. 

194--2.00, 1906. . 

-_.-.-Iron-ore resen~es of Michigan: 1\Jineral Resources for 1911, pt. 1, pp. 175-190, 

1912. . 

L:t-:ITn, C. K., and HARDER, .E. C., The iron ores of the Iron Spdngs district, southern 

. Utah: Bull. 338, 102 pp., 1908. 

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR, and LOUGHLIN, G. F., Geology and ore deposits of the Tintic < 

mining district, Utah: Prof. Paper 107, pp. 140, 14i-148, 258-265, 1919. · 

PAIGE, SIDNEY, The Hanover iron-ore deposits, New Mexico: Bull. 380, pp. 199-214, 

1909: .. 

-._--Preliminary report on pre-Cambrian geology and iron ores of Llano County, 

Tex.: Bull. 430, pp. 256-268, 1910 . 

. --Mineral reso_mces o~_ th~ Llano-Bmnet region, Tex., with an account of the 

pre-Cambrian geology: Bull. 450, pp. 26-70, 1911. 

-•. -. -. 1 q~?.L Atlas, Sily~r .City [N.Mex.) folio (No. 199), pp. 14-16, 1916 . 

. gnA'!fEN, W. 0.,-Iro.n ores near Ellijay, Ga.: Bul~. 340, pp. 330-334, 1908. 

-·-Economic geology of the Kenova quadrangle, Ky., Ohio, and W. Va.: Bull. 

349, pp. 122-130, 1908. 

SMITH, E. A., Iron ores of Alabama in their. geological relations: Mineral Resources 

for 1882, pp. 149-161, 1883. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 14--15, 1914. 

SMITH, P. S., The gray iron ores of Talladega County, Ala.: Bull. 315; pp. 161-184, 1907. 

SMITH, W. S. T., Geol. Atlas, Hartville [\<Vyo.] folio (No. 91), p. 5, 1903. 

SPENCER, A. C., Magnetite deposits of the Cornwall type in Berks and Lebanon coun-

_ties, Pa.: BulL 315, pp. 185-189, 1907. 

---Three deposits of iron ore in Cuba: Bull. 340, pp. 318-329, 1908. 

---Magnetite deposits of the Cornwall type in Pennsylvania: Bull. 359, 102 pp., 

1908. 
· · . .:. ·BIBLIOGRAPH~Y. · · 253 

SPENCER, A, C., The Jauss iron mine, Dillsburg, Pa.: Bull. 430, pp. 247-249, 1910. · 

SPENCEn., A. C., and others, Geol. Atlas, Franklin Furnace [N. ·J.] folio (No. 161), pp. 

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STEBINGER, EuGE.:-l'E, Titaniierous magnetite beds on the Blackfeet Indian ReserVation, Mont.: Bull. 540, ·pp. 329-337, pl. 7, 1914. 

STOSE, G. W., Geol. Atlas, Mercersburg-Chambersburg [Pa.] folio (No. 170), p. 17, 1909. 

THWAITES, li'. T., Recent·discoveries of "Clinton" ore in eastern \Visconsin: Bull. 540, 

pp. 338-342, 1914. 

VAN 1IISE, C. R., The iron-ore deposits of the Lake Superior region: Twenty-first Ann. 

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VAN IIIsE, C. R., and BAYLEY, W. S., Geol. Atlas, Menominee special [:Mich.] folio 

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VANHisE, C. R., BAYLEY, W. S., and SMYTH, H. L., Preliminary report on the Marquette iron-bearing·district of 1\Jichigan: Fifteenth Ann. Rept., pp. 477-650, 1894. 

--·-The :Marquette iron-bearing district of Michigan: :Mon. 28, 28+608 pp., 35 pis. 

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VAN HrsE, C. R., and LEaTH, C. K., The geology of the Lake Superior region: ~Ion. 52, 

pp. 460-572, 1911. 

WE1m, W. H., Geol. Atlas, Little Belt JV[ountains [Mont.] folio (No. 56), pp. 7-9, 1899. 

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LEAD. 

ADAMS, G. I., Zinc and lead deposits of northern Arkansas: Bull. ~13, pp. ~.87-196, 

1903 .. 

ADAMs, G. I., and others, Zinc and lead deposits of northern Arkansas: Prof. Paper 24, 

pp. 13-14, 39, 1904. . 

BAIN, H. F., Lead and zinc deposits of Illinois: Bull. 225, pp. 202-207, 1904. 

-. -- Zinc and lead deposits of northwestern Illinois: Bull. 246, 56 pp., 1905. 

--.Lead and zinc resources of the United States: Bull. 260, pp. 251-261, 1905. 

-. -- Zinc and lead deposits of the upper Mississippi Valley: Bull. 294, pp. 71-148 

passim, 1906. . 

BAIN, H. F., VAN HisE, C. R., and ADAMS, G. I., Preliminary report on the lead 

and zinc deposits of the Ozark region [Mo.]: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 2, 

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BANCROFT, HoWLAND, Reconnaissance of the ore deposits in northern Yuma County, 

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--Lead and zinc deposits in the Metaline mining district, northeastern Wash-

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·--Ore deposits of northeastern Washington: Bull:550, pp. 26-27, 44-51, 115-116, 

~1~ . 

BAS'l'IN, E. S., and Hn,L, J. M., Economic geology of Gilpin Cotmty and adjace.nt 

parts of Clear Creek and Boulder counties, Colo.: Prof. Paper 94, pp. 138, 151-

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BROOKS, A. H., Geologic features (A Alaskan metalliferous lodes: Bull. 480, pp. 

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BUTLER, B. S., Geology and ore deposits of the San Francisco and adjacent districts, 

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254 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

BuTLER, B. S., and HEIKEs, V. C., Notes on the· Promontory district, Utah: Bull. 

640, pp. 8-9, 1917. 

CALKINS, F. C., and JoNEs, E. L., jr., Economic geology of the region around Mullan; 

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EMMONS, W. H., Some ore deposits in Maine and the Milan mine, N.H.: BulL 482,. 

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EjymoNs, W. H., and LARSEN, E. S., A preliminary report on the geology and ore 

deposits of Creede, Colo.: Bull. 530, pp. 42-65, 1913. 

GRANT, U. S., Zinc and lead deposits of southwestern Wisconsin: Bull. 260, pp. 

304-310, 1905. 

HAGUE, ARNOLD, Geology of the Eureka district, Nev.: Mon. 20, pp. 310-312, 1892. 

HILL, J. M., The Yellow Pine mining district, Clark County, Nev.: Bull. 540, pp. 

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IRVING, J.D., and BANCROFT, HowLAND, Geology and ore deposits in the vicinity of 

Lake City, Colo.: Bull. 478, pp. 56-57, 1911. 

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JoNEs, E. L., jr., Reconnaissance of the Conconully and Ruby mining districts, 

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KIRCHOFF, CHARLES, Lead: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 6, pp. 225-247, 1901. 

KNOPF, ADOLPH, Minera.I resources of the Inyo and vVhite Mountains, Calif.: Bull 

540, pp. 81-120, 1914. 

--The Darwin silver-lead mining district, Calif.: Bull. 580, pp. 1-18, 1914. 

--The antimonial silver-lead veins of the Arabia district, Nev.: Bull. 660, pp. · 

249-255, 1918. . 

--A geologic reconnaissance of the In yo Range and the eastern slope of· the 

Sierra Nevada, Calif.: Prof. Paper 110, pp. 106-118, 1918. 

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR, The gold and silver veins of Silver City, De Lamar, and 

other mining districts in Idaho: Twentieth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 211, 405-406, 

1900. ~: 

--The Tres Hermanas mining district, N.Mex.: Bull. 380, pp. 123-128, 1909. 

-- Resources of the United States in gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc: Bull. 

394, pp. 144-150, pl. 10, 1009. 

--The mining districts of the western United States: Bull. 507, pp. 5-43 passim, 

1912. 

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR, GRATON, L. C., and GoRDON, C. H., The ore deposits of New 

Mexico: Prof. Paper 68, pp. 18-24, 51-74, 1910. 

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR, and LouGHLIN, G. F., Geology and ore deposits of the Tintic 

mining district, Utah: Prof. Paper 107, pp. 139, 143-144, 161-163, 1919. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY.· 255 

LouGHLIN, G. F.,. A reconnaissance in the: Canyon Range, west-central Utah: Prof. 

Paper 90, pp. 59-60, 1915. 

MAcDoNALD, D. F., Economic features of northern Idaho and northwestern Montana: 

Bull. 285, pp. 45-50, 1906. 

PARDEE, J. T., The D'lmkleberg m:ining district, Granite County, Mont.: Bull. 660,. 

pp. 241-247, 1918. 

-- Geology and. m:ineral deposits of the Colville Indian Reservation, Wash.:. Bull.. 

677, pp. 56-1'78, 1918. 

PEPPE.RBERG, L. J., Notes on the m:ineral deposits of the Bearpaw Motmtai.ns, Mont.: 

Bull. 430, pp. 137-143, 1910. 

RANSOME, F. L., Report on the economic geology of the Silverton quadrangle, Colo.: 

Bull. 182, pp. 80-81, 100, 1901. 

-- Geology and ore deposits of the Breckemidge district, Colo.: Prof. Paper 75, 

pp. 21, 168-169, 1911. 

-- Geology and ore deposits of the Coeur d'Alene district, Idaho: Prof. Paper 62, 

pp. 82-1.92, 1908. 

RICHARDS, R. W., Notes on lead and copper deposits in the Bear River Range, Idaho 

and Utah: Bull. 470, pp. 181.-187, 1911. 

SHRADER, F. C., The mineral deposits of the Cerbat Range, Black Mountains, and 

. Grand Wash Cliffs, Mohave County, Ariz.: Bull. 397, pp. 43-219 passim, 1909. 

SHAW, E. W., and TROWBHIDGE, A. C., Geol. Atlas, Galena-Elizabeth [Ill.-Iowa] 

folio (No. 200), pp. 10-12, 1916. 

SIEBENTHAL, C. E., Mineral resources of northeastem Oklahoma: Bull. 340, pp. 187-

228, pl. 2, 1908. . 

-- Lead in 1913: Mineral Resources for 1913, pt. 1, pp. 723-725, 729-738, 1914. 

-- Origin of the zinc and lead deposits of the Joplin region, Missouri, Kansas, and 

Oklahoma: Bull. 606, pp. 1-274, 1915. 

SMITH, G. 0., Note on a mineral prospect.in Maine: Bull. 315, pp. 118-119, 1907. 

-- Our mineral resources: Bull. 599, pp. 22-24, 1914. 

SMITH, W. S. T., Lead and zinc deposits of the Joplin district, Mo.-Kans.: Bull. 213, 

pp. 197-204, 1903. 

SMITH, W. S. T., and SIEBENTHAL, C. E., Geol. Atlas, Joplin district [Mo.-Kans.] 

folio (No. 148), 1907. 

SPENCER, A. C.,. SALISBURY, R. D., and KUMMEL, H. B., Geol. Atlas, Franklin Furnace folio (No. 161), pp. T-8, 1908. 

SPURR, J. E., Geology of the Aspen mining district, Colo., with atlas: Mon. 31, pp. 231-

242, 1898. 

-- The ore deposits of Monte Cristo, Wash.: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 2, 

pp. 777-866, 1901. 

-- Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel and adjacent portions of California: Bull. 208, 18-211 passim, 1903. 

SPUI~R, J. E., and GARUEY, G. H., Preliminary report on the ore deposits of the 

Georgetown m:ining district,. Colo.: Bull. 260, pp. 99-120, 1905. 

-- Economic geology of the Georgetown quadrangle (together with the Empire 

district), Colo., with general geology by S. H. Ball: Prof. Paper 63, pp. 136-166, 

1908. 

TOWER, G. w.,. and SMITH, G. o.,.Geology and mining industry of the Tintic district; 

Utah: Nineteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 601-767, 1899. 

TowER, G. W., SMITH, G. 0., and EMMONs, S. F., Geql. Atlas, Tintic special [Utah] 

folio (No. 65), p. 6, 1900. 

ULRICH, E. 0., and SMITH, W. S. T., Lead, zinc, and fluorspar deposits of western 

Kentucky: Bull. 213,. pp. 205-213, 1903. 

-- Lead, zinc, and fluorspar deposits of western Kentucky: Prof. Paper 36, pp. 

121-207' 1905. 
25(3 OUR l\:UNERAL- SUP.PLIES. 

UMPLEBY, J .. B.; A prelimin:u-y"accomit of the ore deposits ofthe Loon Creek district,. 

Idaho: BulL 530, pp. 66-H, 1913. . 

--- Some ore deposits in northwestern Custer County, Idaho: Bull. 539, 104 pp., 

1913. . 

--- The lead-silver deposits of the-Dome district, Idaho: Bull. 540, pp. 212-222,-

1914. 

-.---.-- Geology and ore deposits of the Mackay. region, Idaho: Prof. Paper 97, pp. 10-

14, 69-86, 1917. 

'VEED, W. H., Geology of the Little Belt :Mountains, Mont., with notes on the mineraldeposits of the Neihart, Barker, Yogo, and other districts: 'rwentieth Ann. Rept., 

pt. 3, pp. 271-461, 1900. . 

WEED, W. H., and BAHREr.r,, JosEPH, Geology and ore deposits of the -Elkhorn 

mining district, Jefferson County, Mont.: Twen:ty-seconcl A.nn. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 

399-549, 1901. 

WEED, W. H., and PmssoN, L. V., Geology of the Castle :Mountain mining district, 

Mont.: Bull. 139, pp. 1;)1-162, 1896. 

'Vmsr.ow, ARTHUR, 'l'he disseminat.ed·le::.td ores of southeastern Missouri: Bull. 132, 

31 pp., 1896. 

WoLFF, J. E., Zinc and manganese deposits of Franklin Furnace, N.J.: Bull. 213, pp. 

214-217, 1903. . 

LIMESTONE AND LilVIE . 

.. (D.~Ms, G. I., HAWORTH, ERASMus, and CRANE, W. R., Economic geology of the 

lola quadrangle, Kans.: Bull. 238, pp. 15-20; 66-68, 1904. 

BALL, S. H., Portland cement materials in eastern Wyoming: Bull. 315, pp. 234-236, 

1907. 

BAscoM, FLORENCE, and ot~ers, Geol. Atlas, Philadelphia (Pa.-N. J.-Del.] folio (No. 

162), pp. 19-20, 1909. 

BASSLER, R. s.;· Cemen_t materials of the valley of Virginia: Bull. 260, pp. 531-544, 

1905. 

BASTIN, E. S., The lirrieiudustry of Knox County, Maine: Bull. 285, pp. 393-400,1906. 

-- Geol. Atlas, H.ocklaud [Maine] folio (No. 158), pp. 10-13; 1908. 

B.~tYLEY, W. S., KU:c\DIEL, II. B., and SALISBURY, R. D., Geol. Atlas, Raritan [N.J.] 

·folio (No. 191), p. 30, 1914 .. 

BuRCHARD, E. F., Lime: Mineral resources for 1911, pt. 2, pp. 708-716, 1912. 

-- Lime: Mineral Resources for 1910, pt. 2, pp. 617-620, 1911. 

--Concrete materials produced in the Chicago district: Bull. 340, pp. 386-397, 

1908. 

-- Structmal materials available in the vicinity of Minneapolis, Min'!l.: Bull. 

430, pp. 281, 283, 287-288,.1910. 

--- Structural materials available in the vicinity of Austin, Tex.: Bull. 430, PP• 

293-299, 1910. 

-·-- Source of lime: Mineral Resources for 1913, pt. 2, pp. 1511-1555, 1914. 

BuTTs, CHARLEs, Limestone and dolomite in the Birmingham district, Ala.: Bull. 315, 

pp. 247-255, 1907. 

--- Dolomite for flux: in the vicinity of Montevallo, Shelby County, Ala.: Bull. 470, 

pp. 525-527, 1911. 

-· --Geol. Atlas, Birmingham [Ala.] folio (No. 175), pp. 21-22, 1910. 

Cr.APP, F. Q., Limestones of southwestern Pennsylvania: Bull. 249, 52 pp., 7 pls.,· 

1905. 

CRIDER, A. F., Cement resources of· northeast :Mississippi: Bull. 260, pp. 510-521, 

1905. 

--Geology and mineral resources of Mississippi: Bull. 283, pp. 75-84, 1906. 

DALE, T. N., The calcite marble and dolo.inite of eastern Vermont: Bull. 589, 67 pp., 

1915. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 257 

DARTON, N. H., Structural materials in parts of Oregon and Washington: Bull. 387, 

pp. 28-33, 1909. 

--Cement materials in Republican Valley, Nebr.: Bull. 430,. pp. 383-385, 1910 .. 

DARTON, N. H., and SxEBENTHAL, C. E., ·Geology and mineral resources of Laramie 

Basin, Wyo.: Bull. 364, pp. 14-21, 66, 1909. 

DILLER, J. S. 1 Limestone of the Redding-district, Calif.: Bull. 213, p. 365, 1902. 

EcKEL, E. C., mid others, Portland cement materials and industry in the United 

States: Bull. 522, 3.75 pp., 1913. 

FENNEMAN, N. M., Geology and mineral resources of the St. Louis quadrangle, 

Mo.-Ill.: Bull. 438, pp. 54-55, 1911. 

GARDNER, J. H., Oolitic limestone at Bowli:qg Green and other places in Kentucky 

Bull. 430, pp. 373-378, 1910. "' 

HuBBARD, G. D., and others, Geol. Atlas, Col~bus [Ohio] folio (No. 197), p. 13, 1915. 

KINDLE, E. M;, and TAYLOR, F. B., Geol. Atlas, Niagara [N .. Y.] folio (No. 190), p. 24, 

1913. 

LANDES, HENRY, Cement resources of Washington: Bull. 285, pp. 377-383, 1906. 

MARTIN, G. C., The Niobrara limestone of northern Colorado as a possible source of 

Portland cement material: Bull. 380, pp. 314-326, 1909. 

PAWE, SIDNEY, Marble prospects in the Ohirica.hua Mountains, Ariz.: Bull. 380, pp.· 

299-304, 1909. . 

PEPPERilERG, L. J., Cement material near Havre,•'Mont.: Bull. 380, pp. 328-333, 1909. 

RicHARDSON, G. B., Portland cement materials near El Paso, Tex.: Bull. 340, pp. 

413-414, 1908. 

RIES, HEINRICH, The limestone quarries of eastern New York, western Vermont, 

Massachusetts, and C<?nnecticut: Seventeenth_ Ann. Rept., pt. 3 (continued), 

pp. 795-811, 1896. 

SPENCER, A. C., and others, Geol. Atlas, Franklin Furnace [N.J.] folio (No·. 161), pp. 

9, 26, 1908. . 

STOSE, G. W., Barite in southern Pennsylvania, and pure limestone in Berkeley 

County, W.Va.: Bull. 225, pp. 515-517, 1903. 

--Geol. Atlas, Mercersburg-Chambersburg [Pa.] folio (No. 170), pp. 11-13, 18, 

1909. 

UDDEN, J. A.,-The oolitic limestone industry at Bedford and Bloomington, Ind.: 

Bull. 430, pp. 335-345, 1910. 

WoM'F, J. E., and BRooKs, A. H., The age of the Franklin white limestone of Sussex 

County, N.J.: Eighteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 425-458,1897. 

MAGNESITE. 

DARTON, N.H., Structural materials in parts of Oregon and Washington: Bull. 387, 

pp. 23-28, 1909. . 

--Magnesite: Mineral Resources for 1911, pt. 2, pp. 1115-1127, 1912 . 

. GALE, H. S., Late developments of magnesite deposits in California and Nevada: 

Bull. 540, pp. 483-520, pl. 10, 1914. 

HEss, F. L., Some magn·esite deposits of Californl.a: Bull. 285, pp. 385-392, 1906. 

--The magn~site deposits of California: Bull. 355, 67 pp., 1908 .. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 41-42, 1914. 

YALE, C. G., and GALE, H. S., Magnesite: Mineral Resources for '1912, pt. 2, pp. 

1073-1076, 1913. 

--Magnesite: Mineral Resources for 1914, pt. 2, pp. 578-581, 1915. 

--Magnesite: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 391-400, 1918. 

YALE, C. G., and STONE, R. W., Magnesite: Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 2, pp. 

65-79, 1918. 

127972°--19----17 
258 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

MANGANESE AND MANGANIFEROUS IRON ORES. 

BrnKINBINE, JoHN, Manganese ores: Twe~ty-fust Ann. Rept., pt. 6, pp. 129-158, 1901. 

ECKEL, E. c., Iron and manganese ores of the United States: Bull. 260, pp. 317-320, 

1905. 

EMMONS, W. H., Theenrichmentoforedeposits: Bull. 625, pp. 308-310,437-443,1917. 

EMMONS, W. H., and CALKINS, F. C., Geology and ore deposits of the Philipsburg 

quadrangle, Mont.: Prof. Paper 78, pp. 209-212, 1913. 

HARDER, E. C., Manganese deposits ofthe United States: Bull: 380, pp. 255-277, 1909. 

--Manganese deposits of the United States: Bull. 427, pp. 13-283, 19l0. 

HAYES, C. W., Manganese ores of the Cartersville district, Ga.: Bull. 213, p. 232, 1903. 

HEWETT, D. F.: Manganese and manganiferous ores in 1912: Mineral Resources for 

1912,cpt. 1, pp. 203-205, 219-220, 1913. 

--The production of manganese and manganiferous ores in 1913: Mineral 

Resources for 1913, pt. 1, pp. 57-59, 64-72·, 1914. 

-. --Some manganese Inines in Virginia and Maryland: Bull. 640, pp. 37-71, 1917. 

--Manganese and manganiferous ores: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 1, pp. 

732-734, 741-752, 1918. 

HEWETT, D. F., and others, Possibilities for manganese ores in certain undeveloped 

tracts in Shenandoah Valley, Va.: Bull. 660, pp. 271-296, 1918. 

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR, and LouGHLIN, G. F., Geology and ore deposits of the Tintic 

Inining district, Utah: Prof. Paper 107, pp. 140, 148, 1919. 

MISER, H. D., 'Manganese deposits of the Caddo Gap and De Queen quadrangles, 

Ark.: Bull. 660: pp. 59-122, pl. 3,1918. 

PARDEE, J. T., Manganese at Butte, Mont.: Bull. 690, pp. 111-130, 1918. 

--Some manganese .deposits in Madison County, Mont.: Bull. 690~ pp. 131-143, 

1918. . . . SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 15-17, 1914. 

SPENCER, A. C., Manganese deposits of Santiago, Cuba: BulL 213, pp. 251-255, 1903. 

VAN RISE, C. R., and LEITH, C. K., The geology of the Lake Superior region: Mon .. 

,52, pp. 211-216, 488, 1911. 

WEED, w.·H.,·Geology and ore deposits ofthe Butte district, Mont.: Prof. Paper 74, 

pp. 69, 79,;1912. . 

WEEKS, J. D., Manganese: Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 185-186, 1896. 

WoLFF,-J. E., Zinc and manganese dep.osits of Franklin Furnace, N. J.: Bull. 213, 

pp. 214-217, 1903. 

MICA, MONAZITE, AND LITHIUM MINERALS. 

BALL, s.· H., Mica in the Hartville uplift, Wyo.: Bull. 315, pp. 423-425, 1907. 

BASTIN, E. S., Geology of the pegmatites and associated rocks of Maine, including 

feldspar, qua.rtz, mica, and gem deposits: Bull. 445, pp. 51-119, 138-142 passim, 

1911. 

HEss, F. L., Lithium: Mineral Resources for i909, pt. 2, pp. 649-653, 1911. 

HoLMEs, J. A., Mica deposits in the United States: Twentieth Ann. Rept., pt. 6 

(continued), pp. 691-707, 1899. 

KEITH, ARTHUR, Geol. Atlas, Pisgah [N.C.-S.C.] folio (No. 147), p. 7, 1907. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Roan Mountain [Tenn.-N.C.] folio (No. 151), p. 10, 1907. 

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR, The mining districts of ·the Idaho Basin and the 'Boise 

Ridge; idaho: Eighteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 677-679, 1898. 

NITzE, H. R. C., Monazite: Sixteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 4, pp. 667-693, 1895. 

PRATT, J. H., Mica: Mineral Resources for 1901, pp. 873-875, 1902. 

--Monazite: Mineral Resources for 1901, pp. 949-953, 1902. 

-- Lithium: Mineral Resources for 1902, pp. 259....,260, 1904. 

-- Mona~ite: Mineral Resources for 1903, pp. 1163-1169, 1904 .. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

PRATT, J. H. Mica: Mineral Resources for 1904, pp. 1175-1181~ 1905: 

--Monazite: Mineral Resources for 1904, pp. 1209-1212, 1905. 

259 

ScHALLER, W. T., Lithium minerals: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 1, pp. 7-17, 1917. 

--Thorium minerals: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 223-224, 227-236, 

1917. 

--Mica: Mineral Resources for 1916; pt. 2, pp. 304-308, 1917. 

--Mica: Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 2, pp.l90-195, 1918. 

ScHRADER, F. C., An occurrence of monazite in northern Idaho: Bull. 430, pp .. 

184-190, 1910. . . 

STERRETT, D. B., Mica deposits of western North Carolina: Bull. 3l5, pp. 400-422, 

1907. 

--Monazite and zircon: Mineral Resources for 1906, pp. 1196-1205, 1907. 

-- Monazite deposits of the Carolinas: Bull. 340, pp. 272-285, 1908. 

--Monazite and zircon: Mineral Resources for 1908, pt. 2, pp. 791-792, 1909. 

--- Mica: Mineral Resources for 1908, pt. 2, pp. 743-752, 1909. 

--Mica deposits of South Dakota: Bull. 380, pp. 382-397, 1909. 

--·- Mica deposits of North Carolina: Bull. 430, pp. 593-638, pl.14, 1910. 

--Mica: Mineral Resources for 1909, pt. 2, pp. 845-:853, 1911. 

-- Monazite and zircon: :Mineral Resources for 1909, pt. 2, pp. 897-903, 1911. 

--·- Mica in 1912: Mineral Resources for 1912, ·pt. 2, pp. 1079-1086, 1913. 

--Mica in Idaho, New Mexico, and Colorado: Bull. 530, pp. 3?5-300, 1913. 

-- Some deposits of mica in the United States: Bull. 580, pp. 65-125, 1914. 

--Mica: Mineral Resources for 1914, pt. 2, pp. 67-74, 1916. 

Anonymous, Lithium: Mineral Resources for 1900, pp. 239-243, 1901. 

NITRATES. 

GALE, H. S., Nitrate deposits: Bull. 523, pp. 5-36, 1912. 

-- Other investigations of saline deposits: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2, pp. 

893-895, 1913. 

MANSFIELD, G. R., Nitrate deposits in southern Idaho and eastern Oregon: Bull. 

620, pp. 19-44, pls. 2-3, 1916. -

RICHARDS, R. W., Niter near Melrose, Mont.: Bull. 540, pp. 470-473, 1914. 

SMrrH, G. o.,_Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, p. 36, 1914. 

. PETROLEUM. 

· ADAMS, G. I., Oil and gas fields of the '~estern interior and northern Texas coal 

measures and of the upper Cretaceous and Tertiary of the western Gulf coast: 

Bull. 184, 64 pp., 1901. 

. ANDERSON, RoBERT, Geology and oil prospects of the Reno region, Nev.: Bull. 381, 

pp. 475-489, 1910. 

--'-Two areas of oil prospecting in Lyon County, western Nevada: Bull. 381, 

pp. 490-493, 1910. 

-- Preliminary report on the geology ~md the oil"prospects of the Cantua-Panoche 

region, Calif.: Bull. 431, pp. 58--87,1911. 

-- Preliminary report on the geology and possible oil resources of the s0uth end 

of the San Joaquin Valley, Calif.: Bull. 471, p:fY.l06-136, pl.lO, 1912. 

ANDERSON, RoBERT, and PAcK, R. W., Geology and oil resources,of the west border 

of the San Joaquin Valley nprth of Coalinga, Calif.: Bull. 603, 220 pp., 1915. 

ARNOLD, RALPH, The Salt Lake oil field near Los Angeles, Calif.: Bull. 285, pp. 

357-361, 1906. . 

--The Miner ranch oil :field, Contra Costa County, Calif.: Bull. 340, pp. 339-342, 

1908. 

--- Geology and oil resources of the Summerland district, Santa Barbara County, 

Calif.: Bull. 321, 93 pp., 17 pis., 1907. 
260 OUR M:INERAL SUPPLIES·. 

ARNOLD, RALPH, and ANDERSON, RoBERT, Preliminary report .on the Santa Maria 

oil district, Santa Barbara County, Calif.: Bull. 317, 69 pp., 1907. 

·--Geology and oil resources of the Santa Maria oil district, Santa Barbara 

County, Calif.: Bull. 322, 161 pp., 26 pis., 1907. 

-- Preliminary report on the Coalinga oil district, Fresno and Kings counties, 

Calif.: Bull. 357, 142 pp., 1908. 

-- Geology and oil resources of the Coalinga district, Calif.: Bull. 398, 354 pp., 

52 pls., 1910. 

ARNOLD, RALPH, and JoHNSON, H. R., Preliminary report on the McKittrick-Sunset 

oil region, .Kern and San Luis Obispo counties, Calif.: Bull. 406, 225 pp.,,5 pls., 

1910. . 

AsHLEY, G. H., Oil resources of black.shales of the eastern United States: Bull. 641, 

pp. 311-324, 1917. ' 

AsHLEY, G. H., and CAMPBELL, M. R., Geologic structure of the Punxsutawney, 

Curwensville, Houtzdale, Barnesboro, and Patton quadrangles, central Pennsylvania: Bull. ·531, pp. 69-89, pis, 7-8, 1913. 

ATWOOD, W. W., ·Geology and nll.neral rBsources o'f parts of the Alaska Peninsula: 

Bull. 467, pp. 12~124, 1911. . 

BALL, M. W., Petroleum withdrawals and restorations affecting the public domain: 

Bull. 623, 427 pp., 1916. 

BARNETT, V: H., The Douglas oil and gas field, Converse County, Wyo.: Bull. 541, 

pp. 49-88, pl. 4, 1914. 

--The Moorcroft oil field, Crook County,Wyo.: Bull. 581, pp. 83-104, pl. 3,1915. 

--.Possibilities of oil in the Big Muddy dome, Converse and Natrona counties, 

Wyo.: Bull. 581, pp. 105-117, pl.4, i915. . 

BEAL, C. H:, Geologic structure in the Cushing oil and gas field, Okla., and its relation 

to the oil, gas, and water: Bull. 658, 64 pp., 1917. 

BECKER, G. F., Relations between local magnetic disturbances ·and the genesis of 

petroleum: Bull. 401, 24 pp., 1909. 

BoNINE, C. A., Anticlines in the Clinton sand near Wooster, Wayne County, Ohio: 

Bull. 621, pp. 87-98, pl. 13, 1916. 

BouTWELL, J. M., Oil and asphalt prospects. in Salt Lake basin, Utah: Bull. 260, 

pp. 468-479, 1905. 

BowEN, C. F., Possibilities of oil in the Porcupine dome, Rosebud County, Mont.: 

Bull. 621, pp. 61-70, pl. 10, 1916. , 

-- Phosphatic oil shales near Dill and Dillon, Beaverhead County, Mont.: Bull. 

661, pp. 315--:328, 1918. 

-- Structure and oil and gas resources of the Osage Reservation, Okla.:. Bull. 

686, pp. 17-26, 43-58, 137-148, 1918. 

--Anticlines in a part of the Musselshell Valley, Mont.: Bull. 691, pp. 208-209, 

1918. 

BowMAN, I., Well-drilling methods: Water-Supply Paper 257, pp. 10~117, 191J. 

BRANNER, J. C., NEwsoM, J. F . .~ and ARNOLD, RALPH, Geol. Atlas, Santa Cruz {Calif.] 

folio (No. 163), p. 11, 1909. 

BuTTs·, CHARLES, Economic geology of the Kittanning and Rural Valley quadrangles·, 

Pa.: Bull. 27"9, pp. 102-161, 1906. 

--Geol. Atlas, Warren [Pa.'-N. Y.] folio (No. 172), pp. 10-11, 1910. 

BuTTs, CHARLES, and LEVERETT, FRANK, Geol. Atlas, Kittanning [Pa.]folio (No. 115), 

pp. 13--,14, 1904. 

CALVERT, W. R., Geology of the Upper StillwJ.ter Basin, Stillwater and Carbon 

counties, Mo.nt., with special reference to coal and oil: Bull. 641, pp. 199-214, 

pls. 20-21, 1917. · 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

CAMPBELL, M. R., Geol. Atl:.s., Standingstone [Tenn.] folio (No. 53), p. 4, 1899. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Charleston [W.Va.] folio (No. 72), p. 6, 1901. 

261 

-- Geol. Atlas, M3,flontown-Uniontown [Pa.] follo (No. 82), pp. 19-20, 1902. 

CLAPP, F. G., The Nineveh and Gordon oil sands in western Greene County, Pa.: 

Bull. 285, pp. 362-366, 1906. . 

-- Economic geology of the Amity quadrangle, eastern Washington County, Pa.: 

Bull. 300, pp. 42-87, 1907. 

-- Geol. Atlas, Amity [Pa.] folio (No. 144), pp. 13-14, 1907. 

·-·- Geol. Atlas, Rogersville (Pa.] folio (No. 146), pp. 10-12, 1907. · 

CLARK, F. R., Structure and oil and gas reso~rces of the Osage Reservation, Okla.: 

Bull. 686, pp. 91-118, 1018. 

CoLLIER, A. J., The Bowdoin dome, Mont., a possible reservoir of oil and gd.S: Bull. 

661, pp. 133-209, pl. 16, 1918. 

-- TheNesspnan;tjcline, WllliamsCounty, N.Dak.: Bull. 691, pp. 216-217,1918. 

CoNDIT, D. D., Oil and gas in the northern part of the Cadiz quadrangle, Ohio: Bull. 

541, pp. 9-17, pl. 1, 1914. 

-- Structure of the Ber~a oil sand in the Summerfield quadrangle, Guernsey, 

Noble, and Monroe counties, Ohio: Bull. 621, pp. 2i7-231, pls. 22-23, 1916. 

--- Structure of the Berea oil sand in the Woodsfield quadrangle, Belmont, Monroe, 

Noble, and Guernsey counties, Ohio: Bull. 621, pp. 233-249, pls. 24-25, 1916. 

DARTON, N.H., and SIEBENTHAL, C. E., Geology and mineral resources of the Laramie 

· Basin, Wyo.: Bull. 364, pp. 73-74, 1909. 

DAY, D. T., Analyses of crtide petroleum from .Oklahoma and Kansas: Bull. 381, 

pp. 494-503,.1910. 

-- The petroleum resources of the United States·: Bull. 394, pp. 30-50, pls. 2-5, 

1909. 

ELDRIDGE, G. H., The petroleum fields of California: Bull. 213, pp. 306-321, 1902. 

·ELDRIDGE, G. H., and ARNOLD, RALPH, The Santa Chra Valley, Puente Hills, and 

Los Angeles oil districts, southern California: Bull. 3Q9, 266 pp., 1907. 

- EMERY, W. B., Structure and oil and gas resources of the Osage Reservation, 0 kla.: 

Bull. 686, pp. 1-9, 1918. 

ENGLISH, W. A., Geology and oil prospects of Cuyama Valley, Calif.: Bull. 621, pp. 

191-215, pls. 19-21, 1916. 

--Geology and oil prospects of the Salinas Valley-Parkfield area, Calif.: Bull. 

691, pp. 235-250, 1918. 

FATH, A. E., An anticlinal fold near Billings, Noble County, Okla.: Bull. 641, pp. 

121-138, pl. 9,, 1917. . 

-- Structure of the northern part of the Bristow quadrangle, Creek County, 

Okla., with reference to petroleum and natural gas: Bull. 661, pp. 69-99, pis. 3-6, 

1918. 

FENNEMAN, N. M., The Boulder, Colo., oil field: Bull. 213, pp. 322-332, 1902. 

-- Structure of the Boulder oilfield, Colo.: Bull. 225, pp. 383-391, 1903. 

--The Florence, Colo., oil field: Bull. 260, pp. 436-440, 1905. 

--Oil fields of the Texas-Louisiana Gulf coast: Bull. 260, pp. 459-467, 1905. 

--·Geology of the Boulder district, Colo.: Bull. 265, pp. 76~98, 1905. 

-- Oil fields of the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coastal Plain: Bull. 282, 146 pp., 1906. 

FISHER, C. A., Geol. Atlas, Nepesta [Colo.] folio (No. 135), p. 5, 1906. 

FuLLER, M. L., The Gaines oil field of northern Pennsylvania: Twenty-second Ann. 

Rept., pt. 3, pp. 573-627, 1901. 

--Asphalt, oil, and gas in southwestern Indiana: Bull. 213, pp. 333-334, 1902. 

FuLLER, M .. L., and ALDEN, W. C., Geol. Atlas, (}aines [Pa.-N. Y.] folio (No. 92), 

pp. 7-8, 1903. 

FuLLER, M. L., LINES, E. F., and VEATCH, A. C., Record of deep-well drilling for 

1904: Bu~l. 264, 106 pp., 1905. 
.2:6.2 OUR MiNERAL SUPPLIES. 

FuLLER, M. L., and SANFORD, SAMUEL, Record. of de~p~well·drilling for 1905: BulL298, 299 pp;, 1906. 

GALE, H. S., .Geology of the Rangely oil district, Rio Blanco County, Colo.: Bull. 

350, 61·pp .. , ,4 ·pls., 1908. 

GILPIN, J. E., and BRANSKY, 0. E., The diffusion of·crudepetroleum,through fuller's 

earth, with no.tes on its geologic significance: Bull. 475, 50~·pp., 1911. 

GILPIN, J. E., and CRAM, M. P., The fractionation of crude _petroleum by capillary 

· diffusion: Bull. 365,.33 pp., 1908. 

GoRDON, C. H., Geology and underground waters of northeastern Texas: WaterSupply .J>aper:27B., pp"57-59, 1.911. 

-- Geology and underground waters of the Wichita region, .north-central T-exas: 

Water-Sup,ply Paper 317, P.P· 2~, ·4.7-50, .1913. 

GREGORY, H. E., The San Juan oil field, San Juan County, Utah: Bull. 431, pp. 

11-25, pl. 2_, 1911. 

GRISWOLD, W. T., The Berea grit oilsand in the Cadiz 'quadrangle, Ohio: Bull. 198,, 

43 pp., 1902. 

--Structural work during 1961 and 1902 in the eastern Ohio:oil-fields: Bull. 213, 

pp. 336-344, 1902. 

--Hyner gas pool, Clinton Cotmty, Pa.: Bull. 225, pp. 392-395, 1903. 

--Structure of the Berea oil sand in .the Flushing quadrangle, .Harrison, Belmont, 

and Guernsey ·.counties, ·Ohio: Ifull. ;i346, 30 pp., 1908. 

GRISWOLD, W. T., and MuNN, M. J., Geology of the oil and gasfields.in'Steubenville, 

Burgettstown, and Claysville quadrangles, ·Ohio, W. Va., and Pa.: Bull. .31&, 

196 pp., 13 pis., 1907. · 

.HANCOCK, E. T., Geology and oil and ,gas pro~ects of the Lake Basin field, Mont .. : 

Bull. 691, pp. 141-147, pis. 16-23, 1918. 

HARRIS, G. JJ., Oil and. gas in Louisiana: Bull. ·429_, 192 pp., 22 _pis .. , 1910. 

:.HAwoRTH, .lE .. , amd :A.!D:A:Ms, G. I., .Economic geolqgy of the lola .quadrangle, Kans.: 

Bull. ~38, pp. i30-41:0., .61, 1904.'' 

HAYES, ·c. W .. , <.@il :frelds•of the Te::x:as-•Louisiana Gulf Coastal.Plain: Bull. 213, pp. 

345-352, 1902. 

HAYES, C. W.; ~ari:a IKENN:EDY, W IIJLD\.M, tOil·fields of the Texas-Louisiana Gulf ;Coastal 

Plain: Bull. 212, 174 pp., 1903. 

HEALD~ K. D .. /ffihe.o'i:l:and gas:geo1ogw .BiJilie Fotaker quadrangle, 0sage•County,:Okla.: 

Bull. 641, pp. 17-47, pls. 2-3, 1917. ---Structure 'and oil and -gas ·l'esources .of the ·osage'Reservati:on, :Okla.: .Bull. :686, 

pp. 27-41, 129-135, 1918. . 

--- Geologic ·Btructur.e of -the northwestern part of the Pawhuska rquadrangle, 

·Okla.: Bull. 691, ·PP· -87-100, .plB. 13-15, 1918. 

HEWETT, D. F., The Shoshone River section, Wyo.: Bull. 541, pp. 89-113, pl. 5, 1914. 

HEWETT, D. F., ·and LuPTON, .c. "T., knticlines'in the southern ~part.of .the Big Horn 

Basin, Wyo.: Brill. 656; 192-pp., 32 pls., 1917. 

HoPKINS, 0. B., Str.ucture of the Vicksburg-_Jackson area, Miss., with specia.l reference ·~O oil and gas: Bull. ·641, :pp. 93-120, pl. 8, 1917. 

-- Oil and ·gas possibilities of :tbe Hatchetigbee anticline, AJa.: Bull. f661, pp. 

281--313, pls. 26...:29, 1918. 

--The Palestine salt dome, Anderson ·County, Tex.: J3ull. ·66\l, 1j).p .. 253-270, pls. 

2~23, 1918. 

--The Brenham salt dome, Washington and :Austin counties, 'trex.: ·Bull. 661, 

pp. -~71~280, ·.pls. ~24-25, 1918. . . 

·-- Structure and roil and gas resources :0f the ,Qsage Reser.vn:tion.,_ Okla.: ·Bull. 

686, pp. 75-90, 1918. 

·K~, ARTHUR, Geol. Atlas, Wartburg![':Denn.] folio (No. 40), p;p. 3-4, 1896. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 263 

LLoYD, E. R., and MATHER, K. F., Structure and oil and gas resourct:ls of the Osage 

Reservation, Okla.: Bull. 686, pp. 119-127, 1918. · 

LuPToN, C. T., Oil and gas near Green River, Grand County, Utah: Bull. 541; pp. 

115-133, pl. 6, 1914. • -

--Oil and gas in the western part of the Olympic Peninsula, Wash.: Bull. 581, 

pp. 23-81, pl. 2, 1915. . 

--Oil and gas near Basin, Big Horn County, Wyo.: Bull. 621, pp. 157-190, pis. 

17..:.18, 1916. 

MARTIN, G. c., Petroleum fields of Alaska and the Bering River coal fields: Bull. 

225, pp .. 365-382, 1903. 

-.--The petroleum fields of the Pacific coast of Alaska: Bull. 250, 64 pp., 1905. 

--Notes on the petroleum fields of Alaska: Bull. 259, pp. 128-139, 1905. 

--Petroleum at Contrpller Bay [Alaska]: Bull. 314, pp. '89-103, 1.907. 

-- Geology and Inineral resources of the Controller Bay region, Alaska: Bull. 

335, pp. 112-130, 1908. 

MATSON, G. C., The Caddo oil and gas field, La. and Tex.': Bull. 619, 62 pp., 1916. 

MATSON, G. C., and HoPKINS, 0, B., The DeSoto-Red River oil and gas field, La.: 

Bull. 661, pp. 101-140, pls. 7-10, 1918. . 

--- The Corsicana oil and gas field, Tex.: Bull. 661, pp. 211-252, pls. 17-21, 1918. 

MISER, H. D., and PuRDUE, A. H., Asphalt deposits and oil conditions ·in southwestern Arkansas: Bull. 691, pp. 280-292, 1918. 

MuNN, M. J,., Oil and gas fields of the Carnegie quadrangle, Pa.: Bull. 456, 99 pp., 1911. 

--Geol. Atlas, Sewickley'[Pa.] folio (No. 176), pp. 10-14, 1911. 

-. - Geol. Atlas, Claysville [Pa.] folio (No. 180), pp. 10-12, 1912. 

--The Campton oil pool, Ky.: Bull. 471, pp. 9-17, pis. l-2, 1912. 

--Oil and gas development in Knox County, Ky.: Bull. 471, pp. 18-29, pls. 3-4, 

1912. 

--The·Fayette gas field, Ala.: Bull. 471, pp. 30-55, 1912. 

--The Menifee gas field and the Ragland oil field, Ky.: Bull. 531, pp. 9-26, 

pis. 1-4, 1913. · 

--Reconnaissance of the Grandfield district, Okla.: Bull. 547, pp. 74-83, 1914. 

-. --· Reconnaissance of oil and gas fields in Wayne and McCreary ·counties, Ky.: 

Bull. 579, 105 pp., 6 pis., 1914. 

OLIPHANT, F. H., Petroleum [Texas]: Nineteenth Ann. Rept., pp. 102-104, 1898. 

--Petroleum: Mineral Resources for 1900, pp. 571-584, 1901. 

ORTON, EDWARD, The Trenton limestone as a source of petroleum and inflammable 

gas in Ohio and Indiana: Eighth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 475-662, 1889. 

PACK, R. W., Reconi1aissance of the Barstow-Kramer region, Calif.: Bull. 541, pp. 

141-154, pl. 7, 1914. 

• PAcK, R. W., and ENGLISH, W. A., Geology and oil prospects of Waltham, Priest, 

Bitterwater, and Peaci1tree valleys, Calif.: Bull. 581, pp.·l19-160, pl. 5, 1915. 

PAIGE, SIDNEY, Mineral resources of the Llano-Burnet region, Tex., with an account 

of the pre-Cambrian geology: Bull. 450, pp. 93-94, 1911. 

PHALEN, W. C., Geol. Atlas, Kenova [Ky.-Ohio-W. Va.] folio (No. 184), p. 16, 1912. 

PHINNEY, A. J., The natural gas field of Indiana: Eleventh Ann. Rept. pt. 1, pp. 

579-742, 1891. 

RICHARDSON, G. B., Salt, gypsum, and pet.J;oleum in trans-Pecos Texas: Bull. 260, 

pp. 573-578, 580-584, pl. 4, 1905. . 

-- Pe~roleum in southern Utah: Bull. 340, pp. 343-347, 1908. 

--. Petroleum near Dayton, N.Mex.: Bull. 541, pp. 135-140, 1914. 

RoGERS, G. S., Cheinical relations of the oil-field waters in San Joaquin Valley, 

Calif.: Bull. 653, 119 pp., 1917. 

SCHRADER, F. c.; Geol. Atlas, Indep~ndence [Kans.] folio (N,o. 159), pp. 5-6, 1908. 
264 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

ScHRADER, F. C., and HAWORTH, ERASMUS, Oil and gas of the Ind'ependence quadrangle, Kans.: Bull. 260, pp·. 446-458, 1905. 

~ --. Economic geology of the Independence quadrangle, Kans.: Bull. 296, pp. 

20-39, 95-123, 1906. • 

ScHULTZ, A. R., The La.barge oil field, central Uinta County, Wyo.: Bull. 340, pp. 

364-373, pl. 4, 1908. . '1 

---Geology and geography of a .portion of Lincoln County, Wyo.: Bull. 543, pp. 

11~121, 1914. 

SHAW, E. W., The Irvine oil field, Estill County, Ky.: Bull. 661, pp. 141-192, pls. 

11-15, 1918. 

SHAW, E. W., and MuNN, M. J., Coal, oil, and gas· of the Foxburg quadrangle, Pa.: 

Bull. 454, 85 pp., 10 pls., 1911. 

--GeoL Atlas, Burgettstown-Carnegie [Pa.] folio (No .. 177), pp. 11-14, 1911. 

SHAW, E. W., LINES, E. F., and MuNN, M. J., Geol. Atlas, Foxburg-Clarion [Pa.] 

folio (No. 178), pp. 14-16, 1911. 

SMITH, C. D., The Glenn oil and gas pool and vicinity, Okla.: Bull. 541, pp. 34-38·, 

pl. 3,1914. 

--Structure of the Fort Smith-Poteau gas field, Ark.-Okla.: Bull. 541, pp. 29~33, 

pl. 2, 1914. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 12-13, 47, 1914. 

SMITH, G. 0., and others, The classification of the public lands: Bull. 537, pp. 111-123, 

1913. . 

STEBINGER, EuGENE, Possibilities of oii and gas in north-central Montana: Bull. 641, 

. pp. 49-91, pls. 4-7, 1917. 

--Oil ~nd gas geology of the Birch Creek-Sun River area, northwestern M'ontana: 

EulL691, PP~ 167-184, 1918. 

STEPHENSON, L. W., A contribution to the geology of northeastern Texas and southern 

Oklahoma: Prof. Paper 120, pp. 161-163, 1918.: · 

SToNE, R. W., Oil and gas_ of eastern Greene·County, Pa.: Bull. 225, pp. 396-412, 1903. 

--Mineral resources of the Elders Ridge quadrangle, Pa.: Bull. 256; 86 pp., 1:905. 

--Geol. Atlas, Waynesburg [Pa.] folio (No. 121), p. 12, 1905. 

SToNE, R. W., and CLAPP, F. G., Oil and gas· fields of Greene· County·, Pa. : Bull. 304, 

110 pp., 1907. 

TAFF, J. A., Geol. Atlas, Muscogee [Okla.] folio (No. 132), p. 6, 1906. 

TAF~', J. A., and REED, W. J., The Madill oil pool, Okla.: Bull. 381, pp. 504-513·, pl., 23, 

1910. 

TAFF, J. A., and SHALER, M. K., Notes on the geology of the Muscogee·uil field, Ind. T. 

[Okla.]: Bull. 260, pp. 441-445, 1905. 

VEATCH, A. C., Geography and geology of a portion of southwestern Wyoming, with 

special referenc~ to coal and oil: Prof. Paper 56, 178 pp., 1907. 

WASIIDURNE, C. W., Development in the Boulder oil fieM, Colo.: Bull. 381, pp. 

514-516, 1910. . 

---The Florence oil field, Colo.: Bull. 331, pp. 517-544, pl. 24, 1910. 

--Gas and oil prospects near Vale, Oreg., a.nd Payette, Irlaho: BulL 431, pp. 

26-55, pl. 3, 1911. 

---ReconnaiS!:Iance of the geology and oil prospects of northwestern Oregon: 'Bull. 

590, 111 pp., 1914. 

WEGEMANN, C. H., The Powder River oil field, Wyo.: Bull. 471, pp. 56-75, pl. 7,1912. 

--· - Anticlinalstrucfure in parts of Cotton and Jefferson counties,·Okla.: Bull. 602, 

pp. 9-100, 1915. 

-"--A reconnaissance for oil near Quanah, Hardeman County, Tex.: Bull. 621, pp. 

109-·115, pl. 14, 1916. . 

--A reconnaissance. in Palo Pinto County, Tex., with special reference to oil and 

gas: Bull. 621, pp. 51-59, 1~16. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 26·5 

WEGEMANN, C. H., The Salt Creek oil field, Wyo.: Bull. 670, 52·pp., 7 pis., 1917. 

WEGEMANN, C. H., and HEALD, K. C., The Healdton oil field, Carter County, Okla.: 

Bull. 621, pp. 13-30, pls. ~5, 1916. 

WEGEMANN·, C. H., and HowELL, R. W., The I,awton oil and gas field, Okla.: Bull. 

621, pp. 71-85,. pls. 11-12, 1916. 

WINCHESTER, D. E., Oil shale in northwestern Colorado and adjacent areas: Bull. 641, 

pp. 139-198, pls. 10-19, 1917. 

--Structure and oil and gas resources o:f H1e Osage Reservation, Okla.: Bull. 686, 

pp. 11-15, 1918. . ' 

--·-Oil shale of the Uinta Basin, northeastern Utah, and Results of dry distillation 

of miscellaneous shale samples: Bull. 691, pp. 27-55, pls. 5-12, HH8'. 

WINCHESTER, D. E., HEALD, K. C., and others, Structure and oil and gas resources 

of the Osage Reservation, Okla.: BuJl. 686, pp. 5~-73, 1918. 

WooD, R. H., Oil and gas development in north-central Oklahoma: Bull. 531, pp. 

27-53, pl. 5, 1913 .. 

WouDRUI<'F, E. G., Geology of the SanJuan oil field, Utah: Bull. 471, pp. 76-~1.04, pis. 

8-9, 1912. 

--Geology and petroleum resources of the De Beque oil fi~ld, Colo.: Bull. 531, 

pp. 54--68, pl. 6, 1913. 

WooDRUFF, E. G., and DAY, D. T., Oil shale of northwestern Colorado and northeastern 

Utah: Bull. 581, pp. 1-21, pl. 1, 1915. 

WooDRUFF, E. G., and WEGEMANN, C. H., The Lander and Salt Creek oil fields, 

Wyo.: Bull. 452, 87 pp., 12 pls., 1911. 

WooLSEY,· L. ·H., Economic geology of the Beaver quadrangle, Pa.: Bun. 286, pp. 

76-83, 1906. 

--Geol. Atlas, Beaver [Pa.] folio (No. 134), pp. 1~14, 1906. 

PHOSPHATE ROCK. 

BLACKWELDER, ELIO'r, Phosphate deposits east of Ogden, Utah: Bull. 430, pp. 536-

551, 1910. 

---- A reconnaissance of the phosphate deposits in western Wyoming: Bull. 470 

. pp. 452'-481, pl. 17, 1911. 

BowEN, C. F., Phosphatic oil shales near Dell and Dillon, Beaverhead County, Mont.: 

Bull. 661, pp. 317-319, 1918; 

CAr.KrNs, F. C., and EMMONS, W. ·H., Geol. Atlas, Philipsburg [Mont.] folio (No. 196), 

p. 25, 1915. 

EcKEL, E. C., Recently discovered extension of Tennessee white-phosphate field: 

Mineral Resources for 1900, pp. 812-813, 1901. 

--The white phosphate of Decatur County, Tenn.: Bull. 213, pp. 424-425, 1903, 

EMMONS, W. H., The enrifhme~t of ore deposits: Bull. 625, pp. 499-501, 1917. 

GALE, H. S., Rock phosphate near Melrose, Mont.: Bull. 470, pp. 440-451, 1911. 

GALE, H. S., and RICHARDS, R. W., Preliminary report on the phosphate deposits in 

southeastern Idaho and adjacent parts of Wyoming and Utah: Bull. 430, pp. 

457-535, pls. 4-13, 1910. · · 

HAYES, C. W., Tbe Tennessee phosphates: Sixteenth Ann. ·Rept., pt. 4, pp.' 610-630, 

1895. . ' 

---The Tennessee phosphates: Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 519-550, 189o. 

---A brief reconnaissance of the Tennessee phosphate field: Twentieth Ann. 

Rept., pt. 6, pp. 633-638, 1899. · 

--Tennessee white phosphate: Twenty-first AnD.. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 473-485, 1901. 

·--Origin and extent of the Tennessee white phosphates: Bull. 213, pp. ,!18-423, 

1903. 

HICKB, W. B., Simple tests for phosphates: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 

242-243, 1917. . 
266 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

IHI.SENG, M. C., A phosphate prospect in Pennsyfvania: Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt. 

3, pp. 955-957, 1806. 

MANSFIELD, G. R., A reconnaissance for phosphate in the Salt River Range, Wyo.: 

Bull. 620, pp. 331-349, pl. 12, 1916. 

MA·rsoN, G. C., The phosphate deposits of Florida: Bull. 605, 101 pp., 1915. 

MEMMINGER, C. G., Commercial development of the Tennessee phosphates: Sixteenth 

Ann. Rept., pt. 4, pp. 631-635, 1895. 

Mof:!ES, 0. A., The phosphate deposits of South Carolina: Mineral Resources for 1882, 

pp. 504-517, 1383. 

PARDEE, J. '1\, Some further discoveries of rock phosphate in Montana: Bull. 530, 

pp. 285-391, 1913. 

---The Garri':!on and Philipsburg phosphate fields, Mont.: Bull. 640, pp. 195-228, 

pls. 8-9, 1917. 

PENROSE, R. A. F., Nature and origin of deposits of phosphate of lime: Bull. 46, 143 

pp., 1888. . -

PHALEN, W. C., Phosphate rock in 1912: Mineral Resources for i912, pt. 2, pp. 861-875, 

1913. ' 

--Phosphate rock: :Mineral resources for 1915, pt. 2, pp. 234-239, 242, 1916. 

PuRDUE, A. H., Developed phosphate deposits of northern Arkansas: Bull. 315, pp. 

463-473, 1907. 

RICHARDS, R. W., and MANSFIELD, G. R., Preliminary report on a portion of the Idaho 

phosphate reserve: Bn11. 470, pp. 371-439, pls. 9-16, 1911. 

--Geology of the phosphate deposits nottheast of Georgetown, Idaho: Bull. 577. 

76 pp., 1914 ... 

RooERS, G. S., Phosphate deposits of South Carolina: Bull. 580, pp.183-220, pl. 2,1915. 

ScHULTZ, A. R., Geology and geography of a portion of Lincoln County, Wyo.:. Bull, 

543, pp. 131-134, 1914. 

--A geologic reconnaissance for phosphate and coal in southeastern Idaho and 

western Wyoming: Bull. 680, pp. 37-64, 1918. 

--A geologic reconnaissance of th~ Uinta Mountains, northern Utah: Bull. 690, 

pp. 31-94, pis. 4-5, 1918. 

ScHULTZ, A. R., and RICHARDS, R. W., A geologic reconnaissance in southeastern 

Idaho: Bull. 530, pp. 267-284, 1913. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: BulL 599, pp. 33-35, 1914. 

SMITH, G. 0., and others, The classification of the public lands: Bull. 537, pp. 123-134, 

1913. 

STONE, R. W., Phosphate rock: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 33-38, 41, 1917. 

--. -Phosphate rock: Mineral resources for 1917, pt. 2, pp. 12-13, 1918. 

STONE, R. W., and Bol\"'NE, C. A., The Elliston phosphate field, Mont.: Bull. 580, pp. 

373-383, pl. 9, 1915. 

SToSE, G. W., Phosphorus ore at Mount Holly Springs, Pa.: Bull. 315, pp. 474-483, 

1907. 

--Phosphorus: Mineral resources for 1906, pp. 1084-1090, 1907. 

--Phosphate deposits in southwestern Virginia: Bull. 540, pp. 383-396, 1914. 

STUBBS, .w. C., Phosphates of Alabama: Mineral resources for 1883-84, pp. 794-803, 

1885. 

VAN HoRN, F. B., The phosphate deposits. of the United States: Bull. 394, pp. 157-

171, 1909. 

--Phosphate rock: Mineral Resources for 1910, pt. 2, pp. 735--738, 1911. 

--Phosphate rock: Mineral Resources for 1911, pt. 2, pp. 877-881, 1912. 

WEEKS, F. B., Phosphate deposits in the western United States: Bull. 340, pp. 441-447, 

1908. - . 

WEEKS, F. B., and FERRIER, W. F., Phosphate deposits in western United States: 

Bull. 315, pp. 449-462, pl. 4, 1907. I 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 26~ 

WILBER, F. A., Greensand marls in the United. States: Mineral 'Resources for 1882, 

pp. 522-526, 1883. 

Anonymous, Fertilizers: Phosphate rock, Florida: Mineral Resources for 1'889 and 1890, 

pp. 451-454, 1892. 

PLATINUM. 

BANCROFT, HowLAND, Platinum in southeastern Nevada: Bull. 430_, pp. 192-199, 

1910. 

EMMONS, S. F., Platinum in copper ores in Wyoming: Bull. 213, pp. 9~9.7, 1903. 

HILL, J. M., Platinum and allied metals: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 1, pp. 6-29, 

1917. 

--Platinum and allied metals: Mineral Resources for 1917, ,pt. 11 pp. ll-13, 17-21, 

1917. 

HoRTON, F. W., Platinum and allied metals: Mineral Resources for 1905, pp. 423-432, 

1906. 

KEMP, J. F., The geological relations and ·distribution of platinum and associated 

met~ls: Bull. 193, 95 pp., 1902. 

--Platinum in the Rambler mine, Wyo.: Mineral Resources for 1902, pp. 244.-

250, 1904. 

KNOPF, ADOLPH, A gold-platinum-palladium lode in southern Nev:ada: Bull. 620, ·PP· 

1-18, 1916. 

LINDGREN, ·WALDEMAR, Platinum and allied metals: Mineral Resources for 191!', pt. 1, 

pp.-991-1001, 1912. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 29-30, 1914. 

PORTLAND CEMENT. 

ADAMS, G. I., HAWORTH, ERASMUS, and CRANE, W. R., Economic geology of the lola 

·quadrangle, Kans.: Bull. 238, pp. 63-69, 1904. 

BAI.L,. s. H.' Portland cement materials in eastern Wyoming: BuJl. 315, pp. 232-244, 

1907. 

BASSLER, R. S., Cement materials of the Valley of Virginia: Bull. 260, pp. 531-544, 

1905. . 

BAsTIN, E. S., Clays of the .Penobscot Bay region, Maine: Bull. 285, pp. 428-429, 1906. 

BuRCHARD, E. F., Portland cement materials near Dubuque~ Io~a: Bull. 315, pp. 

225-231, 1907. 

--Concrete materials produced in the Chicago district [Ill.-Wis.]: Bull. 340, pp. 

383-410, 1908. . 

-'-.Structural materials available in the vicinity of Minneapolis, Minn.: Bull. 430, 

pp. 280-291, 1910. 

--Structural materials available in the vicinity of Austin, ·Tex.: Bull. 430, pp. 

292-316, 1910. 

--Cement: Mineral Resources for 1910, pt. 2, pp. 485-532~ 1911. 

Bu'l'Ts, CHARLES, Ganister in Blair County, Pa.: Bull. ·380, pp. 337-342, 1909. 

CATLETT, CHARLEs, Cement resources of the Valley of Virginia: Bull. 225, pp. 4'57-

461, 1904. 

CLAPP, F. G., Limestones of southwestern Pennsylvania: Bull. 249, 'pp. 27-29, 41-43, 

1905. 

CRIDER, A. F., Cement resources of northeast Mississippi: Bull. 260, pp. 510-521, 

1905. 

-- Geology and mineral resources of Mississippi:'Bull. 283, pp. 71-84, 1906. 

CuMMINGs, URIAH, American rock cement: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 6 (continued), pp. 410--411, 1901. · 
268 OUR MINERAL SU:£PLIES. 

DARTON, N. H., Geology and water resources of the northerp. portion of the Black 

Hills and adjoining regions in South Dakota and Wyoming: Prof. Paper 65, 96 

pp., 1909. 

--Structural materials in parts of Oregon and Washington: BulL 387, pp. 20-

28, 1909. 

--Cement materials in Republican Valley, Nebr.: Bull. 430, pp. 381-387, 1910. '· 

DAR'rON, N.H., and SIEBENTHAL, C. E., Geology and mineral resources of the Laramie \ 

Basin, Wyo.: Bull. 364, p. 65, 1909. 

DURYEE, EDWARD, Cement investigations in Arizona: Bull. 213, pp. 372~380, 1903. 

EcKEL, E. C., Cement-rock deposits of the Lel!igh district [Pa.-N. J.]: Bull. 225, pp. 

448-450, 1904. 

--Cement materials and industry of the United S~ates: Bull. 243, 395 pp., 15 

pls., 1905. 

--The American cement industry: Bull. ·260, pp. 496-505, 1905. 

--Portland•cement resources of New York: Bull. 260, pp. 522-530, 1905. 

--Cement resources of the Cumberland Gap district, Tenn.-Va.: Bull. 285, pp. 

374-376, 1906. . 

-- Portland cement materials of the United States, with contributions by E. F. 

Btirchard and others: Bull. 522, 401 pp., 19 pls., 1913. 

FENNEMAN, N. M., Geology and mineral resources of the St. Louis quadrangle, 

Mo.-Ill.: Bull. 438, pp. 55-56, 1911. · 

HAwoRTH, ERASMUS, and ScHRADER, F. C., Portland cement resources of the Independence quadrangle, Kans.: Bull. 260, pp. 506-509, 1905. 

HUMPHREY, R. L., and JoRDAN, WILLIAM, Jr., Portland cement mortars and their 

constituent materials, results of tests made at the structural-materials testing , \ 

laboratories, Forest Park, St. Louis, Mo.: Bull. 331, 130 pp.; 1908. 

LANDES, HENRY, Cement resources of Washington: Bull. 285, pp. 377-383, 1906. 

LIPPINCOTT, J. B., Manufacture of Portland cement in southern California: WaterSupply Paper 60, .pp. 135-137, 1902. 

MARTIN, G. C., The Niobrara limestone of northern Colorado as a possible source of 

Portland cement material: Bull. 380, pp. 314-326, 1909. 

NEWBERRY, S. B., Portland cement: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 6 (continued), 

pp. ~00-406, 1901. 

PEPPERBERG, L. J., Cement material near Havre, Mont.: Bull. 380, pp. 327-336, 1909. 

RICHARDSON, G. B., 'Portland cement materials near El Paso, Tex.: Bull. 340, pp. 

411-414, 1908. 

RussELL, 1: C., The Portland cement industry in Michigan: Twenty-second Ann. 

Rept., pt. 3, pp. 629-685, 1902. 

ScliRADER, F. C., and HAWORTH, ERAsMus, Economic geology of the Independence 

quadrangle, Kans.: Bull. 296, pp. 55-57,-1906. 

SrEBENTHAL, C. E., Mineral resources of northeastern Oklahoma: Bull. 340, pp. 217-

·222, 1908. 

SMITH, E. A., Cement resources of Alabama: Bull. 225, pp. 424-447, 1904. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 3D-31, 1914. 

TAFF, J. A., Chalk of southwestern Arkansas, with notes on its adaptability to the 

manufacture of hydraulic cements: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 687-

742, 1902. 

UDDEN, J. A., Oolitic limestone industry at Bedford and Bloomington, Ind.: Bull. 

430, pp. 335-345, 1910. 

POTASH. 

AsHLEY, G. H., Notes on the gr~ensand deposits of the eastern United Sta~es: Bull. 

660, pp. 27-49, pl. 2, 1918. . 

BURCHARD, E. F., Recovery of potash from Portland Cement materials: Mineral 

Resop.rces for 1915; pt. 2, pp. 206-208, 1916. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 269 

BuTLER, B. S., Potash in certain copper and gold ores: Bull. 620, pp. 227-236, 1916. 

BuTLER, B. S., and GALE, H. S., Alunite, a newly-discovered deposit near Marysvale, Utah: Bull. 511, pp. 1-64, 1\H2. 

DAY, W. C., Potassium salts: Mineral Resources for 1887, pp.. 628--649, 1888. 

DoLE, R. B.: Exploration of salines in Silve1· Peak Marsh, N.ev.: Bull. 530, pp. 341-

345, 1913. 

GALE, H. S., The search for potash salts in the desert basin region [Nevada]: Bull. 

530, pp. 295-312,, 1913. 

-- Other investigations of saline deposits: Jvl"ineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2, pp. 

884-904, 1913. 

-- Notes on the Quaternary lakes of the Great Basin, with speCial reference to 

the deposition of potash and other salines: Bull. 540, pp. 399-406, 1914. 

--Prospecting for potash in Death.Valley, Calif.: Bull. 540, pp. 407-415,1914. 

--Salt, borax,·aud'potash in Saline Valley, Inyo County, Calif.: Bull. 540, pp. 

416-421, 1914. 

--Potash tests at Columbus Marsh, Nev.: Bull. 540, pp. 422-427,1914. 

-- Salines in the Owens, Searles, and Panamint basins, southeastern California: 

Bull. 580, pp. 309, 312, 1915. 

-- Potash: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 77-108, 1917. · 

HANcE,· J. H., 'Potash in western saline deposits.: Bull. 540, pp.. 457-469, 1914. 

HicKs, W. B., Evaporation of potash brines: Prof. Paper 95, pp. 65-72, 1916. 

--The composition .of muds from Columbus Marsh, Ne,v.: Pr.of. Paper 95, pp. 

1-11, 1916. 

--Evaporation of brine from Searles Lake, Calif.: Prof. Paper 98, pp. 1-8, 1917. 

·LARSEN, E. S., Alunite in the San Cristobal quadrangle, Colo.: Bull. 530, pp. 179::-

183, 1913 .. 

LoUGHLIN, G. F., Recent alunite ·developments near Marysv.ale and Beave~, Utah: 

Bull. 620, pp. 237-270, 1916. · 

PARDEE, J. T., Geology and mineral deposits of the Colville Indian Rese1·vation, 

Wash.: Bull. 677, pp. 179-180,1918. 

PHALEN, W. C., Potash salts, their usesl:ltnd occurrence in .the United States: Mineral. 

Resources for 1910, pt. 2, pp. 758-767, 1911. 

--Potash salts, summary for 1911: Mineral Resources for 1911, pp . .889-906, ·1912. 

--Potash salts, summary for 1912: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2, p;p. 877-884, 

~~- - . 

-.--The occurrence of potash salts in the bitterns of the eastern United .States: Bull. 

530, pp. 313-329, 1913. 

--Potash salts, summary for 1913: Mineral Resources for 1913, pt. 2, pp. 85-101, 

1914. 

--Potash salts, summary for 1914: Mineral Resources for 1914, pt. 2, pp. 15-33, 

1915. 

--Potash salts: Mineral Resources for 1915, pt. 2, pp. 98-131, 1916. 

SCHRADER, F. C., Ahmite in granite porphyry near Patagonia, Ariz.: Bull. 540, pp. 

347-350, 1912. ' 

--Alunite at Bovard, Nev.: Bull. 540, pp. 351-356, 1912. 

ScHULTZ, A. R., and CRoss, WHITMAN, Potash-bearing rocks of the Leucite Hills, 

Sweetwater County, Wyo.: Bull. 512,39 pp., 1912. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 35-36, 1914 •. 

:SMITH, G. 0., and others, The .classification of the public lands: J3ull. 537., pp. 134-138, 

1913 . 

. WELLS, R. C., Experiments on the extraction of potash iTom wyomingite: Prof. Paper 

98, pp. 37-:40, 1917. 
270 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

QUICKSILVER. 

BANCROFT, HoWLAND, Notes on the occurrence of cinnabar in central western Arizona: 

Bull. 430, pp. 151-153,1910. 

--Reconnaissance of the ore deposits in northern Yuma County, Ariz.: Bull. 451, 

pp. 44-45, 82-84, 1911. . 

BECKER, G. F., Geology of the quicksilver deposits of the Pacific slope, with atlas: 

Mon.13, 486 pp., 1888. 

--Summary of the geology qf the quicksilver deposits of the Pacific slope: Eighth 

Ann. Rept., pt: 2, pp. 965-967, 974-985, 1889. 

--Quicksilver ore deposits: Mineral Resources ·for 1892, pp. 139-162, 1893. 

BouTWELL, J. M., Quicksilver: Mineral Resources for 1906, pp. 492-495, 1907. 

CHRISTY, S. B., Quicksilver reduction at New Almaden, Calif.: Mineral Resources for 

1883-84, pp. 503-507) 1885. . 

CLARKE, F. W., The data of geochemistry, 3d ed.: Bull. 616, pp. 664-669, 1916. 

EMMONS, W. H., The Neglected mine and near-by properties, ·Durango quadrangle, 

Colo.: Bull. 260, pp. 121-127, 1905. 

--The enrichment of ore deposits: Bull. 625, pp. 392-398, 1917. 

HILLEBRAND, v.,r. F., and SCHALLER, w. T., Mercury minerals from Terlingua, Tex.: 

Bull. 405, pp. 18-172, 1909. 

KNOPF, ADOLPH, Some cinnabar deposits in western Nevada: Bull. 620, pp. 59-68, 

1916. 

LINDGREN, W., The gold quartz veins of Nevada City and Grass Valley districts, Calif.: 

Seventeenth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 119, 1896. 

--The.gold belt of the Blue Mountains of Oregon: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., 

pt. 2, pp. 664, 708, 1901. 

McCAsKEY, H. D., Quicksilver: Mineral resources for 1907, pt. 1, pp. 678-683, 1908. 

--Quicksilver: Mineral Resources for 1908, pt. 1, pp. 685-688, 1909.· 

-. -Quicksilver: Mineral Resources for.1911, pt: 1, pp. 893-916, 1912. 

--Quicksilver: Min .. eral Resources for 1912, pt. 1, pp. 931-933, 939-944, 1913. 

--Quicksilver: Mineral Resources for 1914, pt. 1, pp. 317-318, 32~-322, 1915. 

MELVILLE, W. H., Metacinnabarite from New Almaden, Calif.: Bull. 78, pp. 80-83, 

1891. 

MELVILLE, W. H., and LINDGREN, W., Contributions to the mineralogy of the Pacific 

coast: Bull. 61, pp. 11-30, 1890. 

·PARKER, E. W., QuicksiJver: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 6, pp. 277-280, 1901. 

RANSOME, F. L., Notes on some miuing districts in Humboldt Col}nty, Nev.: Bull. 414, 

pp. 30, 37, 45, 65, 1909. 

--Quicksilver deposits of the Mazatzal Range, Ariz.: Bull, 620, pp. 111-128, 1916. 

SMITH, G. 0., Geol. Atlas, Mount Stuart [Wash.] folio (No. 106), p. 9, 1904. 

SMITH, P. S., and MADDREN, A. G., Quicksilver deposits of the Kuskokwim region: 

Bull. 622, pp. 274-291, 1915. . · 

SPURR, J. E., Economic geology of the Mercur mining district, Utah: Sixteenth 

Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 428-429, 1896. . 

TuRNER, H. W., and RANSOME, F. L., Geol. Atlas, Sonora [Calif.] folio (No. 41), p. 5, 

1897. 

RARER METALS. 

ANTIMONY. 

BASTIN, E. S., Antimony: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 1, pp. 723-724, 727-728, 1918. 

BLAKE, W. P., Antimony: Mineral Resources for 1883-84, pp. 641-649, 1885. 

BRooKs, A. H., Geologic features 9f Alaskan metalliferous lodes: Bull. 480, pp. 91-92, 

1911. 

--Antimony deposits of Alaska: Bull. 649, 67 pp., 1916. 

EMMONS, W. H., Theenrichmentoforedeposits: Bull. 625, pp., 261-263,408-411,1917. 

HEss, F. L., The Arkansas antimony deposits: Bull. 340, pp. 241-256, 1908. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 271 

KNOPF, ADOLPH, The antimonial silver-lead veins of the Arabia district, Nev.: Bull .. 

660, pp. 249-255, 1918. 

OvERBECK, R. M., Lode deposits near the Nenana coal field [Alaska]: Bull. 662, pp. 

357-358, 1917. 

RICHARDSON, G. B., Antimony in southern Utah: Bull. 340, pp. 253-256, 1908. 

SMITH, G. o.; Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 27-29, 1914. 

ARSENIC. 

EMMONS, w. H., The enrichment of ore deposits: Bull. 625, pp. 261-263,402-407, 1917. 

HEss, F. L., The arsenic ·deposits at Brinton, Va.: Bull. 470, pp. 2C5-211, 1911.. 

---Arsenic: Mineral Resources for 1914, pt. 1, pp. 953-960, 1916. 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, p. 29, 1914. 

UMPLEBY, J. B., Arsenic: Mineral Resources fo:r; 1917, pt. 1, pp. 23-24, 27, 1918. 

BISMUTH. 

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR, and LoUO:HLIN, G. F., Geology and ore depo~its of the Tintic 

mining district, Utah: Prof. Paper 107, pp. 140, 149, 176, 1919. 

OvERBECK, R. M., Lode deposits near the Nenana coal field [Alaska]: Bull. 062, p. 

356, 1917. . • 

U:l\t:PLEBY, J. B .. Bismuth: Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 1, pp. 29-31, 1918. 

MOLYBDENUM. 

CAJ,KINS, F. C., Molybdenite near Ramona, San Diego County, Calif.: Bull. 640, pp. 

73-76, 1917. 

EMMONs, W. H., The enricrunent of ore deposits: Bull. 625, pp. 424-427, 1917 .. 

HEss, F. L., Some molybdenum d·eposits of Maine, Utah, and California: Bull. 340, 

pp. 231-240, 1908. 

HILLEBRAND, W. F., Distribution and quantitative occurrence of vanadium and 

molybdenum in rocks of the United States: Bull. 167, ~P· 49-55, 1900. 

MoFFIT, F. H., Th~ upper Chitina Valley, Alaska: Bull. 675, p. 79, 1918. 

PRATT, J. H., Tungsten, molybdenum, uranium, and vanadium: Twenty-first Ann. 

Rept., pt. 6, pp. 305-307, 1901. 

ScHRADER, F: C.,· and fuLL, J. M., Some occurrences of molybdenite in the Santa 

Rita and Patagonia mountains, Ariz.: Bull. 430, pp. 154-163, 1910. 

SMITH, G. 0., A molybdenite deposit in eastern Maine: Bull. 260, pp. 197-199, 1905: 

NICKEL. 

BANCROFT, HowLAND, The ore deposits of northeastern Washington: Bull. 550, p. 30, 

• 1914. 

BLAKE, W. P., Nickel: Mineral Resources for 1882, pp. 399-420, 1883. 

--Nickel: Mineral R~~ources for 1883-84, pp. 538:-543, 1885. 

CALKINS, F. C., An occurrence of nickel ore in San Diego County, Calif.; Bull. 640, 

pp. 77-82, 1917. 

KAY, G. F., Nickel deposits of Nickel Mountain, Oreg.: Bull. 315, pp. 120-127, 1907. 

PACKARD, R. L., Genesis of nickel ores: Mineral Resources for 1893, pp. 170-17-7, 18_94. 

RANSOME, F. L., Notes on some mining districts in Humboldt County, Nev.: Bull. 

· 414, pp. 12-58 passim, 1909. 

SMITH, G. 0., Geol. Atlas, Mount Stuart [Wash.] folio (No. 106), p.i 9, 1904. 

UMPLEBY, J. B., Geology and ore deposits of Lemhi County, Idaho:· Bull. 528, pp. 

13-72, 1913. . . 
272 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

TIN. 

BLAKE, W. P., Tin ores and deposits: Mineral Resources for 1883-84, pp. 592-629, 1885. 

BROOKS, A. H., An occurrence of stream tin in the York ·region, Alaska: Mineral 

Resources for 1900, pp. 267-271, 1901. · 

--Stream tin in Alaska: Bull. 213,· pp. 92-93, 1903. 

--Geologic features of Alaskan metalliferous lodes: Bull. 480, pp. 88-90, 1911. 

CoLLIER,·A .. J., Tin deposits of the York region, Alaska: Bull. 225, pp. 154-167, 1903. 

---The tin deposits of the York region, Alaska: Bull. 229, 61 pp., 1904. 

--Recent development of Alaskan tin deposits: Bull. 259, pp. 120-127, 1905: 

--Tin ore at Spokane, Wash.: Bull. 340, pp. 295-305, 1908. 

DARTON, N.H., Geol. Atlas, Sundance [Wyo.-S.Dak.] folio (No. 127), pp. 11-12, 1905. 

EAKIN·, H. M., The Rampart and Hot Springs regions [Aiaska]: Bull. 520, pp. 285-286, 

1912. 

--Tin mining in Alaska: Bull. 622, pp. 81-94, 1915. 

--Reconnaissance of a part of the Rampart quadrangle, Alaska: Bull. 535, pp. 

28-38 passim, 1913. 

EMMONS, W. H., The enrichment of ore. deposits: Bull. 625, pp. 398-402, 1917. 

GRATON, L. C., The Carolina tin belt: Bull. 260, pp. 188-195, 1905. 

--Reconnaissance of some gold and tin deposits in the southern Appalachians: 

Bull. 293, 134 pp., 1906. 

HEss, F. L., The York tin region [Alaska]: Bull. 284, pp. 145-157, 1906. 

--Tin, tungsten, and tantalum deposits <;>f South Dakota: Bull. 380, pp. 131-149, 

1909. 

--Tin: Mineral Resources for 1911, pt. 1, pp. 963-969, 1912. 

--Tin resources of Alaska: Bull. 520, pp. 89-92, 191.2. 

HEss, F. C., and GRATON, L. C., The occurrence and distribution of tin: Bull. 260, 

pp. 161-187, 1905. 

JoHNSON, B. L., Occurrence of wolframite and cassiterite in the gold placers of Deadwood Creek, Birch Creek district [Alaska]: Bull. 442, pp. 246-250, 1909. 

KEITH,' ARTHUR, and STERRETT, D. B., Tin resources of the Kings Mountain district, 

N.C. and S.C.: Bull. 660, pp. 123-146, pl. 4, 1918. 

KNOPF, ADOLPH, The Seward Peninsula (Alaska] tin deposits: Bull. 345, pp. 251-267, 

1908. 

--Geology of the Seward Peninsula tin deposits, Alaska: Bull. 358, 72 PP.·, 9 pls., 

1908. . 

MERTIE, J. B., and HARRINGTON, G. L., Mineral Resources of the Ruby-Kuskokwim 

region [Alaska]: Bull. 642, pp. 238-263 passim, 1916. 

----Tin: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 1, pp. 618-619, 1918. 

--Tin: Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 1, pp. 63-66, 1918. 

--Tin ore in northerri Lander County, Nev.: Bull. 640, pp. 125-138, 1916. 

PRATT, J. H., Carolina tin belt: -Mineral Resomces for 1903, pp. 337-344, 1904. 

RICHARDSON, G. B., Tin in the Franklin Mountains,, Tex.: Bull. 285, pp. 146-149, 

1906. , • 

--Geol. Atlas, El Paso [Tex.] folio (No. 166), pp. 9-10, 1909. 

ScHALLER, W. T., Cassiterite in San Diego County, Calif.: Bull. 620, pp. 351-354, 1916. 

SMITH, .G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 24-25, 1914. 

ULKE, T., Occurrence of tin ore in North Carolina and Virginia: Mineral Resources 

for 1893, pp. 178-182, 1894. 

UMPLEBY, J; B., Geology and ore deposits of Lemhi County, Idaho: Bull. 528, pp. 

74-76, 1913. 

WEED, W. H., T4e El Paso tin deposits [Texas]: Bull. 178, 15 pp., 1901. 

--Tin deposits at El Paso, Tex.: Bull. 213, pp. 99-102, 1903. 

Anonymous, Tin: Mineral Resources for 1888, pp. 148-156, 1889. 

-~ 

\ 

I 

l 

l 

. I 

\ 

i 
\ 

I 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 273 

TUNGSTEN. 

BANCROFT, H., Notes on tungsten deposits near Deer Park, Wash.: Bull. 430, pp. 

214-216, 1910. 

---The ore deposits of northeastern Washington: Bull. 550, pp. 29-30, 1914. 

BASTIN, E. S., and HILL, J. M., Economic geology of Gilpin County, Colo.: Bull. 620, 

pp. 310-311., 1916. 

--- Economic geology of Gilpin County and adjacent parts of Clear Creek and 

Boulder counties, Colo.: Prof. Paper 94, pp. 126-151 passim, 1917. 

EMMONS, W. H., The enrichment of ore deposits: Bull. 625, pp. 427-432, 1917. 

GARRISON, F. L., Alloys of iron and tungsten: Si~teenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 

615-623, 1895. 

HEss, F. L., Note on a tungsten-bearing vein near Raymond, Calif.: Bull. 340, p. 

271, 1908. 

---Minerals of the rare-earth metals at Baringer Hill, Llano County, Tex.: Bull. 

340, pp. 286-294, 1908. 

---Tin, tungsten, and tantalum deposits of South Dakota: Bull. 380, pp. 149-157; 

1909. . 0 

---- Note on a wolframite deposit in the Whetstone Mountains, Ariz.: Bull. 380, 

pp. 164-165, 1909. 

--Tungsten, nickel, cobalt, etc.: Mineral Resources for 1908,. pt. 1, pp. 721-726, 

728-731, 1909. 

---Tungsten: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 1, pp. 987-994, 1914. 

---·Tungsten minerals and deposits: Bull. 652, 85 pp., 25 pls., 1917. 

HEss, F. L., and ScHALLER, W. T., Colorado ferberite and the wolfraJ?ite series: Bull. 

583, 75 pp., 1914. 

HILL, J. M., Note on the occurrence of tungsten minerals near Calabasas, Ariz.: Bull, 

430, pp. Hi4-166, 1910. . 

HoBBs, W. H., The old tungsten mine at Trumbull, Conn.: Twenty-second Ann. 

Rept., pt. 2, pp. 7-~2, 1901. 

---Tungsten mining at Trumbull, Conn.: Bull. 213, p. 98, 1903. 

JoHNSON, B. L., Occurrence of wolframite and cassiterite in the gold placers of Deadwood Creek, Birch Creek district [Alaska]: Bull. 442, pp. 246-250, 1910. 

KNOPF, ADOLPH, Tungsten deposits of northwestern Inyo County, Calif.: Bull. 640, 

pp. 229-249, 1917. 

--- A geologic reconnaissance of the Inyo Range and the eastern slope of the 

southern Sierra Nevada, Calif.: Prof. Paper 110, p. 124, 1918. 

PRATT, J. H., Tungsten: Mineral Resources for 1900, pp. 257-258, 1901. 

--Tungsten, molybdenum, uranium,· and vanadium: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., 

pt. 6, pp. 299-305, 1901. . 

UMPLEBY, J. B., Geology and ore deposits of Lemhi County, Idaho: Bull. 528, pp. 

14-74, 1913. 

WEEKS, F. B., An occmrence of tungsten ore in eastern Nevada: Twenty-first Ann. 

Rept., pt. 6, pp. 319-320, 1901. 

---Tungsten deposits in the Snake Range, White Pine County, eastern Nevada: 

Bull. 340, pp. 263-270, 1908. 

VANADJUM. 

BASTIN, E. S., Geology of the pitchblende ores of Colorado: Prof. Paper 90, pp. 1-5, 

1914. 

BASTIN, E. S., and HrLL, J. M., Economic geology of Gilpin County and adjacent 

parts of Clear Creek and Boulder counties, Colo.·: Prof. Paper 94, pp. 121-125, 1917. 

BouTWEL~, J. M., Vanadium and uranium in southeastern Utah: Bull. 260, pp. 20o210, 1905. 

EMMONS, W. H., The enrichment of ore deposits: Bull. G25, pp. 411-417, 1917. 

127972°--1~18 
274 OUR MINER.AL SUPPLIES. 

GALE, H. S., Carnotite in Rio Blanco County, Colo.: Bull. 315, pp. 110-117, pl. 3, 1907. 

--Carnotite and associated minerals in western Routt County, Colo.: Bull. 340, 

pp. 257-262, 1908. 

HEss, F. L., Notes on the vanadium deposits near Placerville, Colo.: Bull. 530, pp. 

142-156, 1913. 

--Vanadium in the Sierra de los Caballos, N. Mex.: Bull. 530, pp. 157-160, 1913. 

--Carnotite near Green River, Utah: Bull. 530, pp. 161-164, 1913. 

--Uranium and vanadium:· Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 1, pp. 1003-1035, 1913. 

HILLEBRAND, W. F., Distribution and quantitative occurrence of vanadium and 

molybdenum in rocks of the United States: Bull. 167, pp. 49-55, 1900. 

Hn"LEBRAND, W. F., and RANSOME, F. L., On carnotite an_d associated vanadiferous 

minerals in western Colorado: Bull. 262, pp. 9-31, 1905 .. 

WHERRY, E. T., Carnotite near Mauch Chunk, Pa.: Bull. 580, pp. 147-151, 1914. 

SALT, BROMINE, AND CALCIUM CHLORIDE. 

BREGER, C. L., The salt resources of the Idaho-Wyoming border, with notes on the 

geology• Bull. 430, pp. 555-569, 1910. 

CAMPBELL, M. R., Geol. Atlas, Charleston [W. Va.] folio (No. 72), p. 6, 1901. 

CHATARD, T. M., Salt-making processes in the United States: Seventh Ann. Rept., 

pp. 491-535, 1888. 

DARTON, N. H., Zuni salt deposits, New Mexico: Bull. 260, pp. 565-566, 1905. 

DoLE, R. B., Exploration of salines in Silver Peak Marsh, Nev.: Bull. 530, pp. 330-

341, 1913. 

EcKEL, E. C., $alt and gypsum. deposits of southwestern Virginia: BulL 213, pp. 

406-416, 1903. 

--Salt indu.Stry of Utah and California: Bull. 225, pp. 488-495, 1904. 

GALE, H. S., Other investigations of saline deposits: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2, 

pp. 884-905, 1913. . 

--Notes on the Quaternary lakes of the Great Basin, with special reference to 

the deposition of potash and other salines: Bull. 540, pp. 399-406, 1914. 

--Salt, borax, and potash in Saline Valley, lnyo County, Calif.: BulL 540, pp. 

416-421, 1914. . 

--The origin of colemanite deposits: Prof. Paper 85, pp. 3-9, 1914. 

--Salines in the Owens, Searles, and Panamint basins, southeastern California: 

Bull. 580, pp. 251-323, pls. ·5-7, 1914. 

HANCE, J. H., Potash in western saline deposits: Bull. 540, pp. 457-469, 1914. 

HicKs, W. B., Evaporation of brine from Searles Lake .Calif.: Prof. Paper 98, pp. 1-8, 

1917. 

HILGARD, E. W., The salines of Louisiana: Mineral Resources for 1882, pp. 554-565, 

1883. 

HoPKINs, 0. B., Th.e Palestine salt dome, Anderson County, Tex.: Bull. 661, pp . 

. 25g.,..269, 1918. 

KINDLE, E. M., Salt resources of the Watkins Glen district, N. Y.: Bull. 260, pp. 

567-572, 1905. 

PACKARD, R. L., Natural sodium salts: Mineral Resources for 1893, pp. 728-734, 1894. 

PARKER, E. W., Salt: Eighteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 5,,pp. 1288-1313, 1897. 

-- Salt: Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 6 (continued), pp. 531-554, 1901. 

PHALEN, W. C., Salt and bromine: Mineral Resources for 1909, pt. 2, pp. 664-672, 1g11. 

--Salt and bromine: Mineral resources for 1912, pt. 2, pp. 913-923, 1913: 

--Salt resources of the. United States: Bdl. 669, 284 pp., 17 pis., 1918._ 

RICHARDSON, G. B., Salt, gypsum, and petroleum in trans-Pecos Texas: Bull. 260, 

pp. 578-580, pl. 4, 1905. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 275 

SToNE, R. W., Salt, bromine, and calcium chloride: Mineral Resources for 1916, 

pt. 2, pp. 220-221, 1917. 

--Salt, bromine, and calcium chloride: Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 2, pp. 

177-181, 1918. 

STosE, G. W., Geology of the salt and gypsum deposits of southwestern Virginia: 

Bull. 530, pp. 232-255, 1913. 

SAND AND GRAVEL. 

BuRCHARD, E. F., The requirements of sand ai_ld limestone for glass making: Bull. 

285, pp. 452-458, 1905. 

--Glass sand of the middle Mississippi basin: Bull. 285, pp. 459-472, 1905. 

---Glass-sand industry of Indiana, Kentuc~y, and Ohio: Bull. 315, pp. 361-381., 

1906. 

--Concrete materials produced in the Chicago district: Bull. 340, pp. 398-410, 

1908. 

--Structural materials in vicinity o.f Austin, Tex.: BulL 430, pp. 305-306, 1910. 

--Structural. materials available in the vicinity of Mimieapolis, Minn.: Bull. 

430, pp. 285-287, 1910. 

--Glass sand, other sand, and gravel: Mineral Resources fo1· 191.1, pt. 2, pp. 

5,93-623, 1912. 

CAMPBELL., M. R., Geol. Atlas, Latrobe [Pa.] folio (No. 1.10), p. 15, 1904. 

CooNs, A. T., Glass sand: Mineral Resources for 1902, pp. 1008-1013, 1903. 

HuMPHREY, R. L., and JoRDAN, WILLIAM, jr., Portland cement mortars and their 

constituent materials: Bull. 331, pp. 42-124, 1908. 

MISER, H. D., and PuRDUE, A. H., Gravel deposits of Caddo Gap and De Queen 

quadrangles, Ark.: Bull. 690, pp. 15-30, pis. 1-3, 1918. 

SHAW,]!. W., Gravel and sand in the Pittsburgh district, Pa.: Bull. 430, pp:388-399, 

1910. . 

STONE, R. W., Sand and gravel: Mineral Resources for 1915, pt. 2, pp. 222-225, 1916. 

--Sand and gravel: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt.· 2, pp. 334-339, 1917. 

STosE, G. W., The glass-sand industry in eastern West Virginia: Bull. 285, pp. 473-

475, 1905. 

STOSE, G. W., and Svi'ARTZ, C. K., Geol. Atlas, Pawpaw-Hancock [W. Va.-Md.-Pa.] 

folio (No. 179), pp. 21, 23, 1912. 

WEEKS, J. D., Glass materials: Mineral Resources for 1883-84, pp. 958-977, 1885. 

SULPHUR. 

ADAMS, G. I., The Rabbit Hole sulphur mines, near Humboldt House, Nev.: Bull. 

225, pp. 497-500, 1904. 

DAVIS, H. J., Pyrites: Mineral Resources for 1885, pp. 501-517, 1886. 

EcKEL, E. C., Gold and pyrite deposits of the Dahlonega district, Ga.: Bull. 213, pp. 

57-63, 1903. 

--Pyrite deposits of the eastern Adirondacks, N. Y.: Bull. 260, pp. 587-588, 1905. 

HEss, F. L., A sulphur deposit in the San Rafael Canyon, Utah: Bull. 530, pp. 347-

349, 1913. 

HEWETT, D. F., Sulphur deposits of Sunlight Basin, Wyo.: Bull. 530, pp. 350-362, pl. 7, 

1913. 

--Sulphur deposits in Park County, Wyo.: Bull. 540, pp. 477-480, 1914. 

LARSEN, E. s., and HUNTER, J. F., Two sulphur deposits in Mineral County, Colo.: 

Buli. 530, pp. 363-369, 1913. 

LEE, W. T., The Cove Creek sulphur beds, Utah: Bull. 315, pp. 485-489, 1907. 

PHALEN, W. C., Sulphur and pyrite: Mineral Resources for 1907, pt. 2, pp. 674-676, 

1908. 
276 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

PHALEN, W. C., Sulphur and pyrite: Mineral Resources for 1909, pt. 2, pp. 686-688,1911. 

--Sulphur and pyrite; map showing location of salt, sulphur, and pyrite deposits of the United States: Mineral Resources for 1910, pt. 2 (in pocket), 1911. 

--Sulphur, pyrite, and sulphuric acid: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2, pp. 

934-952, 1913. 

--Sulphur, pyrite, and sulphuric acid: Mineral Resources for 1913,· pt. 2, pp. 

25-44, 1914. 

RANSOME, F. L., 'Geology and ore deposits of Goldfield, Nev.: Prof. Paper 66, pp. 

109-110, 113-114, 1909. . . 

RICHARDs, R. W., and BRIDGES, J. H., Sulphur deposits near Soda Springs, Idaho: 

Bull. 470, pp. 499-504, 1911. 

RICHARDSON, G. B., Native sulphur in El Paso County, Tex.: Bull. 260, pp. 589-592, 

1905. . 

SMITH, G. 0., Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, p. 40, 1914. 

SMITH, P. S., Sulphur, pyrite., and sulphuric acid: Mineral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, 

pp. 405-418, 1918. 

--Sulphur, pyrites, and sulphuric acid: Jvlineml Resources for 1917, pt. 2, pp. 

22-24, 1918 .. 

WooDRUFF, E. G., Sulphur deposits at Cody, Wyo.: Bull. 34p, pp. 451-456, pl. 6, 

1908. . .' 

--Sulphur deposits near Thermopolis, Wyo.: Bull. 380. pp. 373-380, 1909. 

TALC AND .SOAPSTONE. 

DILLER, J. S.; Talc and soapstone: Mineral Resources for 1908, pt. 2, pp. 869-870, 

873-'-877, 1909. 

--Talc and soapstone: Mineral Resources for i909, pt. 2, pp. 919-922, 1911. 

--Talc and soapstone: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 2, pp. 1143-1145,.1913. 

--Talc and soapstone: Mi~eral Resources for 1916, pt. 2, pp. 27-28, 1917. 

--Talc and soapstone: Mineral Resources for 1917, pt. 2, pp. 83-84, 1918. 

KEITH, ARTHUR, Talc deposits of North Carolina: Bull. 213, pp. 433-438, 1903. 

--Geol. Atlas, Asheville [N.C.-Tenn.] folio (No. 116), pp. 8-9, 1904. 

--Geol. Atlas, Mount Mitchell [N.C.-Tenn.] folio (No. 124), p. 7, 1905. 

--Geol. Atlas, Nantahaia [N.C.-Tenn.] folio (No. 143), pp. 8-9, 1906 . 

--. Geol. Atlas, Pisgah [N.C.-S.C.] folio (No. 147), pp. 6-7, 1907. 

PARKER, E. W., Soapstone: Twenty-first Ann. R~pt., l)t. 6, pp. 413-418, 1901. 

ZINC. 

ADAMS, G. I., Zinc and lead deposits of northern Arkansas: Bull. 213, pp. 187-213, 

1903. 

ADAMS, G. I., and others, Zinc· and lead deposits of northern Arkansas: Prof. Paper 24, 

pp. 14-40, 1904. 

BAIN, H. F., Lead and zinc deposits of Illinois: Bull. 225, pp. 202-207, 1904. 

--Lead and zinc resources of the United States: Bull. 260, pp. 262-273, 1905. 

--Zinc and lead in northwestern Illinois: Bull. 246, pp. 1-56 passim,.1905. 

--A Nevada· zinc deposit: Bull. 285, pp. 166-169, 1906. 

--Zinc and lead ores in 1905: Mineral Resources for 1905, pp. 379-388, 1906. 

---Zinc and lead deposits of the upper Mississippi Valley: Bull. 294, pp. 71-148 

passim, 1906. 

BAIN, H. F., VAN RisE, C. R., and ADAMs, G. I., Preliminary report on the lead and 

. zinc deposits of the Ozark region [Mo.]: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 

111-116, 1901. 

BANCROFT, HowLAND, Ore deposits of northeastern Washington: Bull. 550, pp. 26-27, 

44-51, 115-116, 1914. 
_j 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 277 

:BouTWELL, J. M., Ore deposits of Bingham, Utah: Bull. 213, pp. 115, ll8, 1903. 

--Economic geology of the Bingham mining district, Utah: Prof. Paper 38, 

pp. 112-280 passim, 376-377, ~905. 

--Geology and ore deposits of the Park City district, Utah: Prof. Paper 77, pp. 

33-35, 108-109, 1912. 

BuTLER, B. S., Geology and ore deposits of the San Francisco and adjacent districts, 

Utah: Prof. Paper 80, pp. 117-171 passim, 1913. 

BuTLER, B. S., and HEIKES, V. C., Notes on the Promontory district, Utah: Bull. 640, 

pp. 8-9, 1917. 

CLERC, F. L., The mining and metallurgy of lead and zinc in the United States: 

Mineral Resources for 1882, pp. 358-374, 1883. 

ELLIS, E. E., Zinc and lead mines near Dodgeville, Wis.: Bull. 260, pp. 31l-315, 1905. 

EMMONS, W. H., Some ore deposits in Main~ and the Milan mine, N. H.: Bull. 432, 

pp. 20-43, 1910. 

--The enrichnient of sulphide ores: Bull. 529, pp. 141-143, 1913. 

--The enrichment of ore deposits: Bull. 625, pp. 377-390, 1917. 

GRANT, U. S., Zinc and lead deposits of southwestern Wisconsin: Bull. 260, pp. 

. 304-310, 1905. 

HILL, J. M., Mining districts of the western United States: Bull. 507, pp. 1-43, 1912. 

--Zinc-lead ore dressing at Goodsprings, Nev.: Mineral Resources for 1912, pt. 1, 

pp. 787-789, 1913. 

IRVING, J. D., and BANCROJ<~, HowLAND, Geology and ore deposits in the vicinity of 

'Lake City, Colo.: Bull. 478, p. 57, 1911. 

KEITH, ARTHUR, Recent zinc mining in east Tennessee: Bull. 225, pp. 208-213, 1904. 

KNOPF, ADOLPH, Mineral resources of the Inyo and White mountains, Calif.: Bull. 

540, pp. 95-108, 1914. 

--A geologic reconnaissance of the Inyo Range and the eas.tern slope of the 

southern Sierra Nevada, Calif.: Prof. Paper 110, ·pp. 106-118, 191.8. 

LINDGREN, WArJDEMAR, The gold and silver veins of Silver City, De Lamar, and other 

mining districts in Idaho: Twentieth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 211, 405-406, 1900. 

--The Tres Hermanas mining district, N. Mex.: Bull. 380, pp. 124-128, 1909. 

--Resources of the United States in gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc: Bull. 394, 

pp. 114-118, 150-157, pl. ll, 1909. 

LINDO REN, WALDEMAR, and LouGHLIN, G. F., Geology and ore deposits of the Tin tic 

mining district, Utah: Prof. Paper 107, pp. 140, 148-149, 170:-177, 225-226, 1919. 

LINDGREN, WALDEMAR, GRATON, L. C., and GoRDON, C. H., The ore deposits of New 

Mexico: Prof. Paper 68, pp. 20-24, 47, 49, 55, 1910. 

LOUGHLIN, G. F., Zinc carbonate and related copper carbonate ores at Ophir, Utah. 

Bull. 690, pp. 1-14, 1918. 

--The oxidized zinc ores of Leadville, Colo.: Bull. 681, 87 pp., 8 pls., 1918. 

MAcDoNALD, D: F., Economic features of northern Idaho and northwestern Montana: 

Bull. 285, pp. 45-50, 1906. 

PEPPERBERG, L. J., Notes on the mineral deposits of the Bearpaw Mountains, Mont.: 

Bull. 430, pp. 137-143, 1910. 

RANSOME, F. L., Report on the economic geology of the Silverton quadrangle, Colo.: 

Bull. 182, pp. 80-81, 100, 1901. 

--The ore deposits of the Rico }4ountains, Colo.: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., 

pt. 2, pp. 249-250, 1901. 

--Geology and ore deposits of the Coeur d'Alene district, Idaho: Prof. Paper 62, 

pp. 83, 91-92, 140, 1908. . 

--Geology and ore deposits of the Breckenridge district, Colo.: Prof. Pa:per 75, 

pp. 21, 168-169, 1911. 

SoBRADER, F. C., The'mineral deposits of the Cerbat Range, Black Mountains, and 

Grand Wash Cliffs, Mohave County, Ariz.: Bull. 397, pp. 43-219, 1909. 
278 OUR MINERAL SUPPLIES. 

SIEBENTHAL, C. E., Mineral resources of northeastern Oklahoma: Bull. 340, pp. 

187-210, pl. 2, 1908. 

-- Origin of the zinc and lead deposits of the Joplin region, Mo., Kans., and 

Okla.: Bull. 606, 274 pp., 1915. 

--Zinc: :Mineral Resources fo~ 1914, pt. 1, pp. 877-895, 1916. 

--Zinc: Mineral Resources for 1915, pt. 1, pp. 859-949, 1917. 

SMITH, G. 0., Note on a mineral prospect in Maine: Bull. 315, pp. 118-119, 1907. 

--Our mineral reserves: Bull. 599, pp. 17-22, 1914. 

SMITH, W. S. T., Lead and zinc deposits of the Joplin district, Mo.-Kans.: Bull. 213, 

pp. 197-204, 1903. 

--Lead, zinc, and ·fluorspar deposits of western Kentucky: Prof. Paper 36, 

pp. 115-146, 1905. . 

SMITH, w; S. T., and SIEBENTHAJ,, C. E., Geol. Atlas, Joplin district [Mo.-Kans.] 

folio (No. 148), p. 12, 1907. 

SPENCER, A. c., Geology and ore deposits of Ely, Nev.: Prof. Paper 96, pp./71, 100-

104, 1917. 

SPENCER, A. C., SALISBURY, R. D., and KUl\1MEL; H. B., Geol. Atlas, Franklin 

Furnace [N. J.] folio (No. 161), pp. 7-8, 1908. 

SPURR, J. E., Geology of the Aspen mining district, Colo.: Mon. 31, pp. 224-226, 

1898. . 

-- The ore deposits of Monte Cristo, Wash.: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 2, 

pp. 836-864, 1901. 

-- Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel and adjacent 

portions of California: Bull. 208, pp. 54, 97, 213, 1903. 

SPURR, J. E., and GARREY, G. H., Preliminary report on the ore deposits of the Georgetown mining district, Colo.: Bull. 260, pp. 107-120, 1905. 

-- Economic, geology of the Georgetown quadrangle, Colo.: Prof. Paper 63, pp. 

23, 136-147, 244, 1908. 

TowER, G. W., jr., and SMITH, G. 0., Geology and mining industry of the Tintic district, Utah: Nineteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 3, pp. 686-707, 1899. 

ULRICH, E. 0., and SMITH, W. S. T., Lead, zinc, and fluorspar deposits of western 

Kentucky: Bull. 213, pp. 206-213, 1903. 

--- Lead, zinc, and fluorspar deposits of western Kentucky:_ Prof. Paper 36, pp. 

15-21, 115-178, 1905. 

UMPLEBY, J. B., Geology and ore deposits of Lemhi County, Idaho: Bull. 528, p. 111, 

1913. 

-- Geology and ore deposits of the Mackay region, Idaho: Prof. Paper 97, pp. 10, 

86-98, 1917 .. 

WEED, W. H., and BARRELL, JosEPH, Geology and ore deposits of the Elkhorn mining district, Jefferson County, Mont.: Twenty-second Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 

459-464,474-476,1901. ' 

WEED, W. H., and PmssoN, L. V., Geology of the Castle Mountain mining district, 

Mont.: Bull. 139, pp. 151, 158-160, 1896. 

WoLFF, J. E., Zinc and manganese deposits of Franklin Furnace, N. J.: Bull. 213, 

pp. 214-217, 1903. 

0 

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