Coastal Change from Hurricane Sandy and the 2012–13 

Winter Storm Season: Fire Island, New York

By Cheryl J. Hapke, Owen Brenner, Rachel Hehre, and B.J. Reynolds 

Open-File Report 2013–1231 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 
ii

U.S. Department of the Interior 

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director 

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013 

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Suggested citation: 

Hapke, C.J., Brenner, Owen, Hehre, Rachel, and Reynolds, B.J., 2013, Coastal change from Hurricane 

Sandy and the 2012–13 winter storm season—Fire Island, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2013-1231, 37 p.

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual 

copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report. 
iii

Contents

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 2

Methods ......................................................................................................................................................... 4

2.1. Cross-Shore Profiles ........................................................................................................................... 4

2.2 Shoreline Change ................................................................................................................................ 5

2.3. Lidar Data ........................................................................................................................................... 5

2.4. Upper Beach Change ......................................................................................................................... 7

2.5. Overwash Volumes ............................................................................................................................. 7

Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 8

3.1. Profile Volume and Elevation .............................................................................................................. 8

3.1.1 Effects of Hurricane Sandy ............................................................................................................ 8

3.1.2 Post-Sandy Response and Recovery .......................................................................................... 11

3.2 Shoreline Change .............................................................................................................................. 14

3.2.1 Hurricane Sandy Movement ........................................................................................................ 14

3.2.2 Winter Storm Season Response and Recovery .......................................................................... 15

3.3 Upper Beach Change (Ub) ................................................................................................................. 17

3.4 Overwash .......................................................................................................................................... 20

3.5 Summary of Overwash and Upper Beach Changes .......................................................................... 24

Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 25

References .................................................................................................................................................. 26

Appendix 1 ................................................................................................................................................... 28
iv

Figures

1. Location map of Fire Island, New York.. .............................................................................................. 3

2. Photos of Fire Island 2 to 4 days after Sandy made landfall ................................................................ 4

3. Comparisons of pre-Sandy beach profiles from lidar data (May 5, 2012) and field survey 

(Oct. 28, 2013) at three survey profile locations in western and central Fire Island. ............................ 6

4. Examples of pre- and post-storm field profiles from three locations on Fire Island following Hurricane 

Sandy (Oct. 28–Nov. 2, 2012). Plots in lower panel show evolution of profile volume (in cubic meters 

per meter [m3/m]) throughout survey period......................................................................................... 8

5. Alongshore profile volume loss values (%) derived from pre- and post-Sandy GPS (Oct. 28–Nov. 4, 

2012) and lidar (May 7–Nov. 5, 2012) datasets ................................................................................ 10

6. Deep water wave heights (Hs) during hurricane Sandy (October 28–29, 2012) and seven post-Sandy 

winter storms (wave heights > 4 m) as recorded at wave buoy positioned approximately 30NM south 

of Islip, NY. ........................................................................................................................................ 12

7. Examples of field profiles from three locations showing morphologic change from Hurricane Sandy 

and the winter of 2012–13 (Oct. 28, 2012–April 9, 2013)................................................................... 12

8. Examples of progressive changes in beach morphology from October 28, 2012, to April 9, 2013, with 

associated profile volumes (in cubic meters per meter [m3/m]) shown in lower panel........................ 13

9. Observed trends in volume change (percentage of initial pre-storm volume) at GPS profile locations: 

Sandy loss (Oct. 28 to Nov. 2, 2012), winter low (Nov. 2 to lowest recorded volume), total loss (Oct. 

28 to lowest volume), spring recovery (lowest volume to April 9, 2013), and net volume change 

(Oct. 28 to Apr. 9) .............................................................................................................................. 14

10. Net shoreline movement from Oct 28–Nov. 2 (blue line), Nov. 2–Mar. 13 (red line), and over the 

duration of the field surveys (Oct. 28–Apr. 9; green line) for (A) western Fire Island and (B) central 

Fire Island. ......................................................................................................................................... 17

11. Post-storm aerial images showing alongshore patterns in storm overwash and upper beach (Ub) 

migration of Fire Island, New York, from May 7, 2012, (purple line) to November 5, 2012 

(orange line). ...................................................................................................................................... 18

12. Variations in total shoreline (SL) and upper beach (Ub) migration (in meters) caused by Hurricane 

Sandy calculated from pre-storm (May 7, 2012) and post-storm (November 5, 2012) lidar data. ...... 20

13. Examples of overwash styles at Fire Island, New York: (A) sheet wash in front of Fire Island 

Lighthouse, (B) surge channels through dunes and overwash fan along central-eastern Fire Island, 

and (C) tongues of overwash in eastern Fire Island. .......................................................................... 22

14. Isopach maps of overwash deposits resulting from Hurricane Sandy showing alongshore variation in 

size, density, and thickness. (A) Western and (C) eastern Fire Island, New York, have more laterally 

extensive overwash than the (B) central portion of the island. ........................................................... 23

15. Net elevation change (in meters) associated (a) with narrow surge channels along central Fire Island, 

New York, and (b) across a wide overwash field in the eastern subregion. ....................................... 24
v 

Tables

1. Dates, types of surveys, and metrics collected or extracted for Hurricane Sandy and winter storm 

season change measurements, May 2012–April 2013. ......................................................................... 5

2. Average profile-based percentage of volume change for three subregions and all-island as derived 

from GPS and lidar data. ....................................................................................................................... 9

3. Average initial volume and percent volume change for profiles within 2009 nourishment project area. . 10

4. Differences in beach profile volume (percent change) between consecutive beach GPS profile 

surveys for western, central, and all locations, October 2012–April 2013. Positive values indicate 

profile volume gain, and negative values indicate volume loss. ............................................................ 11

5. Average and maximum values of shoreline change associated with Hurricane Sandy, the winter 

storm period, and total duration of the survey along 35 kilometers of Fire Island from Fire Island 

Lighthouse to storm-induced inlet breach site in Old Inlet vicinity. ........................................................ 15

6. Average alongshore Ub,shoreline and percent profile volume change among profiles within three 

geologic regions and all of Fire Island, New York. .................................................................................19

7. Total overwash area, volume, and average depth within three subregions and all of 

Fire Island, New York. ............................................................................................................................23
vi

Conversion Factors

SI to Inch/Pound 

Multiply By To obtain

Length

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

kilometer (km) 0.5400 mile, nautical (nmi) 

meter (m) 1.094 yard (yd) 

Volume

cubic meter (m3) 35.31 cubic foot (ft3)

cubic meter (m3) 1.308 cubic yard (yd3) 

cubic meter (m3) 0.0008107 acre-foot (acre-ft) 

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88). 

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). 

Elevation, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum. 

Acknowledgments: We are truly indebted to the efforts and assistance from our National Park 

Service partners, especially Jordan Raphael, Patti Rafferty, Michael Bilecki, and Chris Soller. 

We thank Barry Irwin and Phil Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) for providing 

valuable field assistance. Amy Farris (USGS) contributed to this effort by creating code and 

deriving the mean high water shorelines from field data. Betsy Boynton (USGS) provided 

considerable assistance with layout and formatting of the report. We also thank Erika Lentz 

(USGS) for many detailed and thoughtful comments and suggestions. 
1 

Coastal Change from Hurricane Sandy and the 2012–

13 Winter Storm Season: Fire Island, New York

By Cheryl J. Hapke, Owen Brenner, Rachel Hehre, and B.J. Reynolds 

Abstract

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) mounted a substantial effort in response to 

Hurricane Sandy including an assessment of the morphological impacts to the beach and dune 

system at Fire Island, New York. Field surveys of the beach and dunes collected just prior to and 

after landfall were used to quantify change in several focus areas. In order to quantify 

morphologic change along the length of the island, pre-storm (May 2012) and post-storm 

(November 2012) lidar and aerial photography were used to assess changes to the shoreline and 

beach, and to measure volumetric changes. The extent and thicknesses of overwash deposits 

were mapped in the field, and measurements were used to determine volume, distribution, and 

characteristics of the deposits. 

The beaches and dunes on Fire Island were severely eroded during Hurricane Sandy, and 

the island breached in three locations on the eastern segment of the island. Landward shift of the 

upper portion of the beach averaged 19.7 meters (m) but varied substantially along the coast. 

Shoreline change was also highly variable, but the shoreline prograded during the storm by an 

average of 11.4 m, due to the deposition of material eroded from the upper beach and dunes onto 

the lower portion of the beach. The beaches and dunes lost 54.4 percent of their pre-storm 

volume, and the dunes experienced overwash along 46.6 percent of the island. The inland 

overwash deposits account for 14 percent of the volume lost from the beaches and dunes, 

indicating that the majority of material was moved offshore. 

In the winter months following Hurricane Sandy, seven storm events with significant 

wave heights greater than 4 m were recorded at a wave buoy 30 nautical miles (NM) south of 

Fire Island. Monthly shoreline and profile surveys indicate that the beach continued to erode 

dramatically. The shoreline, which exhibited a progradational trend immediately after Sandy, 

eroded an average of 21.4 m between November 2012 and mid-March 2013, with a maximum 

landward shift of nearly 60 m. By March 2013 the elevation of the beach in the majority of the 

surveyed profiles was lowered below the mean high water level (0.46 m), and the beach lost an 

additional 18.9 percent of its remaining volume. In the final time period of the field surveys 

(March to April 2013), the beach began to show signs of rapid recovery, and in 90 percent of the 
2 

profiles, the volume of the beach in April 2013 was similar to the volume measured immediately 

after Hurricane Sandy. 

Overall, Hurricane Sandy profoundly impacted the morphology of Fire Island and 

resulted in an extremely low elevation, low relief configuration that has left the barrier island 

vulnerable to future storms. The coastal system subsequently began to show signs of recovery, 

and although the beach is likely to experience continued recovery in the form of volume gains, 

the dunes will take years to rebuild. Events such as Sandy result in a coastal environment that is 

more vulnerable to future storm impacts, but they are an important natural process of barrier 

islands that allow these systems to evolve in response to sea-level rise. 

Introduction

According to the National Hurricane Center, Hurricane Sandy, at nearly 2,000 kilometers 

(km) in diameter, is the largest storm on historical record in the Atlantic basin. The storm, which 

made landfall coincident with astronomical high tides, affected an extensive area of the east 

coast of the United States. The highest waves and storm surge were focused along the heavily 

populated New York and New Jersey coasts. The storm made landfall near Atlantic City, New 

Jersey, the evening of October 29, 2012. At the height of the storm, a record significant wave 

height of 9.6 m (m) was recorded at the wave buoy offshore of Fire Island, New York (fig. 1, 

inset). During the storm, beaches were severely eroded and dunes extensively overwashed. Fire 

Island was breached in three locations, and the coastal infrastructure, including many private 

residences, was heavily damaged (fig. 2). 

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has an ongoing coastal morphologic change and 

processes project at Fire Island, New York. One of the objectives of the project is to understand 

the morphologic evolution of the barrier system on a variety of time scales (storms-decadescentury). Many studies that support these project objectives have been completed (Hapke and 

others, 2010; Lentz and Hapke, 2011; Kratzmann and Hapke, 2012; Lentz and others, 2013; 

Schwab and others, 2013); however, little information is available about storm-driven change in 

this region. The USGS, as part of the National Assessment of Coastal Change Hazards project, 

also conducts regional data collection and impact analyses in response to extreme storm events 

such as Sandy (http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/hurricanes/). As part of this effort, post-Sandy light 

detection and ranging (lidar) data and a series of along-coast oblique aerial photos were collected 

for Fire Island (Stockdon and others, 2013). In addition, a USGS field team conducted 

differential global positioning system (DGPS) surveys at Fire Island to quantify the morphologic 

state of the beach and dunes immediately prior to the storm. The area was re-surveyed 

immediately post-storm, as soon as access to the island was possible, as well as a number of 

times throughout the winter of 2012–13. The field surveys document the response of the system 

from Sandy’s effects and the cumulative changes that resulted from a series of strong extratropical (nor’easter) storms. 
3 

The post-Sandy lidar data were used in conjunction with lidar data from May 2012 and 

DGPS surveys to conduct assessments of shoreline and upper beach change, examine 

morphologic change on profiles along the length of the island, and map overwash deposits. Preand post-Sandy lidar data were used to characterize changes to island morphology by extracting 

an upper beach contour parameter (Ub) to analyze the persistence and migration of higher 

elevations during the storm, and to extract pre- and post-storm profiles along the length of the 

island. DGPS surveys were used to measure the alongshore position and elevation of the beach in 

order to derive a mean high water (MHW) shoreline, and a temporally dense set of cross-shore 

profiles were collected to measure changes to the shape and volume of the beach and dunes in 

focus areas through the winter and spring. Additional field teams mapped the location and 

thickness of overwash deposits along the length of the island shortly after Hurricane Sandy. 

Combined with remote sensing data from pre-storm (May 2012) and post-storm (November 

2012) lidar data and aerial photography, an overwash dataset was compiled to assess the role of 

overwash in the response of the island. 

Figure 1. Location map of Fire Island, New York. The locations of the cross-shore DGPS profiles are 

marked by the dots, and alongshore DGPS surveys extend from Fire Island Lighthouse in the west to 

the breach at Old Inlet (star). Three subareas (western, central, and eastern) that correspond to 

subdivisions defined in previous studies (Lentz and others, 2013; Schwab and others, 2013) are also 

shown. 
4 

Methods

2.1. Cross-Shore Profiles 

As part of the assessment of beach and dune morphologic change associated with 

Hurricane Sandy and the series of winter storms that followed, DGPS elevation data were 

collected along 10 shore-perpendicular profiles extending from just inland of the crest of the 

dune to the low-tide swash zone. Profile elevations were surveyed 1 day prior to landfall, over a 

period of 3 days immediately after the storm, and at monthly intervals for 5 months (table 1) to 

capture both the initial impact of the event and the ongoing recovery of the beach system. The 

spatial distribution and number of field-surveyed profiles are limited due to restrictions on access 

to the island immediately before and after Hurricane Sandy made landfall. Profile elevation data 

were collected at 0.5-second intervals using an Ashtech Z-Xtreme GPS surveying instrument and 

post-processed using positional data from a base receiver to achieve sub-decimeter accuracies. 

The profiles are located in two regions of Fire Island (western and central) to capture the storm 

response in areas that vary morphologically and geologically (Leatherman and Allen, 1985; 

Lentz and others, 2013; Schwab and others, 2013). These profiles were used to assess relative 

changes to dune, beach, and swash zone morphology and to calculate beach volume and volume 

change. Beach volumes were calculated by integrating the area below each profile using the 

lowest elevation value common to all surveys at each profile. 

Figure 2. Photos of Fire Island 2 to 4 days after Sandy made landfall: a) leveled beaches and scarped 

dunes in central Fire Island; b) houses undermined and destroyed at Davis Park; c) leveled dunes and 

large overwash sheets near Fire Island lighthouse; and d) the island breach at Old Inlet. 
5 

Table 1. Dates, types of surveys, and metrics collected or extracted for Hurricane Sandy and winter storm 

season change measurements, May 2012–April 2013. 

Date Survey type Metric 

May 7, 2012 topographic lidar Shoreline, upper beach

Oct. 28, 2012 field survey Profiles, shoreline

Nov. 2, 2012 field survey Profiles, shoreline

Nov. 4, 2012 field survey Profiles

Nov. 5, 2012 topographic lidar Shoreline, upper beach

Dec. 1, 2012 field survey Profiles, shoreline

Dec. 12, 2012 field survey Profiles, shoreline

Jan. 10, 2013 field survey Profiles, shoreline

Feb. 12, 2013 field survey Profiles, shoreline

Mar. 13, 2013 field survey Profiles, shoreline

Apr. 9, 2013 field survey Profiles, shoreline

2.2 Shoreline Change 

In conjunction with the recurrent cross-shore profile surveys, continuous alongshore 

DGPS data were collected to assess the positional changes of the MHW shoreline and the upper 

portion of the beach. Data were collected along shore-parallel tracks to capture the base of the 

dune, the mid-beach, and the upper and lower foreshore. The alongshore tracks extend from just 

west of Fire Island Lighthouse (fig. 1) to the western flank of the storm-induced inlet breach at

Old Inlet. 

The MHW shoreline (0.46 m North American Vertical Datum of 1988 [NAVD 88]; 

Weber and others, 2005) is derived from the field data by using an interpolation method that 

creates a series of equally-spaced cross-shore profiles between the two survey lines that flank the 

MHW contour. The foreshore slope is assumed to be uniform on each profile. Using this slope 

and the two surveyed positions on each cross-shore profile, a simple geometric calculation is 

done to find where each profile line intersects the MHW contour.

The migration of the shoreline through time is assessed by quantifying the net shoreline 

movement (NSM) over different time periods by using the interpolated shorelines and 50 mspaced transects in the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS; Thieler and others, 2009).

2.3. Lidar Data 

To characterize morphologic change over a larger spatial extent than the field profiles 

allow, additional profile elevations were extracted from May 7, 2012, and post-storm 
6 

(November 5, 2012) lidar datasets (Stockdon and others, 2013) at 42 cross-shore locations 

covering the length of Fire Island. The locations of these profiles correspond to those from an 

ongoing study prior to Hurricane Sandy (see fig. 5 for profile locations). Volumes for each 

profile were calculated by using area integration methods described in section 2.1, and net 

volume change was assessed for each profile. 

Qualitative assessments were conducted to verify that the May 2012 lidar data adequately 

represent a “pre-storm” beach. There were relatively minor variations in profile morphology and 

elevation between the May 2012 and the October 28, 2012, field surveys, and the differences 

were primarily concentrated on the lower portion of the beach (below 2.5 m). The pre-storm 

(October 28) field profile tends to have a slightly higher upper beach surface and more 

developed berm with a steeper beachface than in May 2012, which likely developed over the 5+ 

summer months between surveys (fig. 3). Although the May 2012 lidar survey does not 

represent an immediate pre-storm dataset, differences between the field and the lidar surveys are 

minimal, and the assessment is included due to the value gained by the extended spatial coverage 

provided by the lidar dataset. 

Figure 3. Comparisons of pre-Sandy beach profiles from lidar data (May 5, 2012) and field survey 

(Oct. 28, 2013) at three survey profile locations in western and central Fire Island. 
7 

2.4. Upper Beach Change 

The widespread occurrence of overwash on Fire Island resulted in the leveling or removal 

of the dune in many places (fig. 2). Quantifying the storm impact to the upper beach and dunes 

becomes problematic where the dune no longer exists as part of the post-storm system. 

 In order to evaluate changes to the dune zone, even in areas where this morphologic 

feature has been removed, a spatially persistent upper beach elevation contour (Ub; 2.9 m) was 

identified. This parameter provides a way to quantify the magnitude of the impact to the dune 

zone. The horizontal migration of Ub between May 2012 and November 2012 was calculated 

using the DSAS, and amounts of Ub change were compared to the MHW shoreline migration 

values (Stockdon and others, 2013). For the whole-island assessments, the Ub and the MHW 

shoreline were derived from May 2012 and post-storm lidar data. 

2.5. Overwash Volumes 

Overwash during storms typically carries substantial volumes of sand to the interior and 

back-bay areas of barrier islands. In developed and populated areas, the sand deposited along 

houses, yards, sidewalks, and roads is often bulldozed to clear access shortly after a storm. In 

some cases this sand is relocated to the approximate location of the pre-storm dune. The 

bulldozing activity disturbs or removes the natural deposit, erasing the record of volume and 

distribution. To estimate the immediate post-storm overwash volumes from Hurricane Sandy for 

all of Fire Island, a combination of field, remote sensing, and GIS analytical techniques was 

used. A group of ground-based National Park Service (NPS) volunteers surveyed 50 overwash 

fans following a protocol developed by the USGS field team to create an unusually large and 

detailed dataset of storm overwash deposit thicknesses.

The thickness of each deposit was measured along a transect near the center of the 

deposit and around the perimeter by digging down until a vegetation horizon (assumed to be the 

pre-storm surface) was encountered and measuring the thickness from the vegetation horizon to 

the surface of the deposit. The boundaries of each fan and the locations of the thickness 

measurements were mapped using a handheld GPS. The fans were mapped within a week 

following Sandy with a focus on the developed areas first to obtain measurements prior to the 

bulldozing of the washover deposits to clear roads and provide access. Post-storm aerial imagery 

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2013), taken 6 days after the storm 

(November 4, 2012) was used to visually verify the areal extent of the fans and to delineate any 

unmapped fans. Seventy-three percent of the washover deposits (by area) were mapped in the 

field, and the remainder—generally small, isolated deposits—were mapped using remote sensing 

techniques. The thicknesses of the unsampled fans were estimated based on nearby fan thickness 

measurements and relative elevations. A total of 797 thickness measurements were obtained and 

subsequently used to create isopach surfaces using interpolation techniques. Volumes for each 

deposit were calculated from the isopach surfaces. 
8 

Results and Discussion

3.1. Profile Volume and Elevation 

3.1.1 Effects of Hurricane Sandy 

The nine DGPS profile surveys collected immediately prior to (October 28) and 

following (November 2 and 4) Hurricane Sandy demonstrate the substantial effects of the storm 

(figs. 4, 5; appendix 1). All profiles show a major decline in elevation and volume. Waves and 

storm surge carried large quantities of sand offshore and inland by way of overwash. The 

resulting post-storm profiles show wide, nearly flat beaches with little or no dunes remaining. 

The upper portion of the beach lost 1–3 m in elevation as the profile moved from a reflective 

morphology with a well-defined berm crest and steeply sloped beach face to a more dissipative 

or nearly flat beach surface (fig. 4). The primary dunes experienced considerable erosion and 

were removed entirely in 4 of the 10 surveyed profiles. All of the profiles that showed complete 

dune loss are within the developed communities (appendix 1, profiles 8–11, 24). During the 6

days surrounding the storm, volume decline for all profiles ranged from 22 to 53 percent with an 

average loss of 35.4 percent (table 2). Volume loss did not differ significantly between the 

western (7–11) and central profiles (22–26). 

Figure 4. Examples of pre- and post-storm field profiles from three locations on Fire Island following 

Hurricane Sandy (Oct. 28–Nov. 2, 2012). Plots in lower panel show evolution of profile volume (in cubic 

meters per meter [m3/m]) throughout survey period. All profiles for all dates are provided in 

appendix 1. 
9 

The field surveys are limited in their spatial coverage, but they provide an important prestorm baseline of the system just before landfall. Island-wide comparisons of the May and 

November (2012) profile elevations from the lidar surveys demonstrate extensive losses along 

the length of the island. The percentage of volume change calculated from the lidar profiles 

indicates an average loss of 54.4 percent, whereas the volume change calculated from the field 

surveys indicates an average volume loss of 35.4 percent (table 2). The higher percentage of loss 

measured with the lidar data as compared to field profiles reflects the inclusion of the highly 

impacted eastern end of the island in the lidar change calulations. 

Table 2. Average profile-based percentage of volume change for three subregions and all-island as 

derived from GPS and lidar data. 

[m, meter; m3/m, cubic meters per meter] 

Average Percent Profile Volume Change (m3/m)

Survey type West Central East All-island

Lidar (42) –58.5 (12) –47.8 (12) –58.5 (10) –54.4

Field (9) –35.7(4) –35.2 (5) –35.4

 () denotes the number of profiles used to make the measurement 

 In addition to the island-wide assessment, volume change variations were examined in 

three subregions (table 2) that correspond to variations in the underlying geology (Schwab and 

others, 2013). The volume loss in the west and east subregions was slightly (10 percent) greater 

than the volume loss in the central subregion, and the east subregion shows the greatest 

variability (fig. 5). Profiles in the east and west lost the greatest percentage of volume related to 

total or near-total removal of the dune and extensive overwash (for example, see appendix 1, 

profiles 9–11, 38, 40). Beaches in the central subregion tended to consistently show only 

moderate (1–3 m) dune and beach erosion and significantly less dune overwash. 

Profiles located within the boundaries of a 2009 beach nourishment project (profiles 8–

11, 18, 19, 23, and 24) indicate that areas in communities that were nourished experienced 

greater volume loss than profiles in non-nourished areas of the island (volume losses of 

72.0 percent and 54.6 percent, respectively; table 3). Lower initial volumes in the nourished 

areas may be a function of lower dune volumes associated with development in the communities.
10

Table 3. Average initial volume and percent volume change for profiles within 2009 nourishment 

project area. 

 [m, meter; m3/m, cubic meters per meter] 

Average Profile Volume Change

Survey type Initial volume 

(m3/m)

Percent

change

Nourished (8) 94.3 –72.0

Non-Nourished (34) 160.7 –54.6

 () denotes the number of profiles used to make the measurement 

Figure 5. Alongshore profile volume loss values (%) derived from pre- and post-Sandy GPS (Oct. 28–

Nov. 4, 2012) and lidar (May 7–Nov. 5, 2012) datasets. The lidar profile locations are shown on the 

map and correspond to a series of 45 along-coast profiles that were identified in a pre-Sandy study. 

Slightly lower volume change values in the GPS survey are due to losses that occurred between May 

2012 and the October 28, 2012, field survey. 
11

3.1.2 Post-Sandy Response and Recovery 

 In the winter months following Hurricane Sandy, a series of strong nor’easter storms 

(particularly those with ≥ 4 m deep-water wave height; fig. 6) caused additional beach and dune 

loss on Fire Island. The changes during the 2012–13 winter season that were documented during 

eight post-Sandy surveys include significant and continual fluctuations in beach morphology 

from November to April (fig. 7; appendix 1). Predominant morphologic change patterns were 

examined for the 10 field survey profiles (table 4). 

Table 4. Differences in beach profile volume (percent change) between consecutive beach GPS profile 

surveys for western, central, and all locations, October 2012–April 2013. Positive values indicate 

profile volume gain, and negative values indicate volume loss. 

Incremental Average Volume Change (%)

28-Oct 2-Nov 4-Nov 1-Dec 12-Dec 10-Jan 12-Feb 13-Mar 9-Apr

West – –35.0 1.1 –9.6 –0.2 –22.3 2.5 –5.2 32.3

Central – –35.2 –0.4 –0.2 1.7 –13.7 4.9 0.4 5.6

ALL – –35.1 0.1 –4.4 0.7 –18.0 3.7 –2.4 18.9

Following the initial post-Sandy assessment (November 2–4), calmer deep-water wave 

conditions (except for one stronger storm event on November 8) allowed for reformation of the 

lower portion of the beach, as indicated by the December 12th survey (fig. 7) which shows 

building of the berm and steepening of the beach face. These changes are characteristic of poststorm recovery. However, the average profile volume still decreased by 4.4 percent across all 

surveyed locations during the month following Hurricane Sandy. Volumetric losses appear to be 

related to the seaward transfer of sand from the beach and dune to the lower beachface and surf 

zone (fig. 7). 

From December 12 to January 10, profiles at all 10 survey locations (appendix 1) show 

substantial erosional behavior as beach recovery from the prior month is reversed. The largest 

post-Sandy nor’easter occurred during this time period (December 26–27), with significant wave 

heights reaching over 7 m (fig. 6). Beach elevations were lowered by as much as 1.5 m. By 

January 10, the beaches had lost an average of 18 percent of their remaining volume, and 4 of the 

10 profile locations exhibited a volumetric minimum. Average beach elevation slightly 

increased in the February 12 surveys, primarily along the lower beachface. 
12

Figure 6. Deep water wave heights (Hs) during hurricane Sandy (October 28–29, 2012) and seven postSandy winter storms (wave heights > 4 m) as recorded at wave buoy positioned approximately 30NM 

south of Islip, NY (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration: National Data Buoy 

Center, Station #44025). 

Figure 7. Examples of field profiles from three locations showing morphologic change from Hurricane 

Sandy and the winter of 2012–13 (Oct. 28, 2012–April 9, 2013). Artificial reconstruction of the dune is 

evident as early as the January 10, 2012 survey. All DGPS profiles for all dates are provided in 

appendix 1. 
13

The subaerial portion of the beach underwent substantial change between March and 

April 2013 (fig. 7; table 4; appendix 1). Prolonged periods of high winter wave conditions in late 

February and early March led to decreases in lower beach elevation of up to 1.5 m in the 

March 13 survey. Beach response varied substantially with some areas (profiles 7, 11, 25, and 

26) increasing in volume by as much as 26 percent and other areas (profiles 8, 9, and 24) 

reaching the lowest elevations and volumes of the study (figs. 7, 8; appendix 1). The beach and 

dunes showed measureable recovery by April 9 with beach width and elevation increasing 

substantially. Average volume increase of 18.9 percent occurred as the berm reformed and dune 

ramps began to rebuild along the upper beach. The widespread beach recovery coincides with a 

period of calmer wave conditions. Despite the end-of-winter recovery, however, the overall 

beach volume was 7 percent less than the post-Sandy measurement (November 2) and nearly 

41 percent less than the pre-Sandy condition 23 weeks earlier (table 4; figs. 7, 8, 9).

Figure 8. Examples of progressive changes in beach morphology from October 28, 2012, to April 9, 2013, 

with associated profile volumes (in cubic meters per meter [m3

/m]) shown in lower panel. Following 

major Sandy loss, profiles continued to lose elevation and volume through March before experiencing 

slight gains in late March and early April. 
14

Figure 9. Observed trends in volume change (percentage of initial pre-storm volume) at GPS profile 

locations: Sandy loss (Oct. 28 to Nov. 2, 2012), winter low (Nov. 2 to lowest recorded volume), total 

loss (Oct. 28 to lowest volume), spring recovery (lowest volume to April 9, 2013), and net volume 

change (Oct. 28 to Apr. 9). Despite slight increase in volume and elevation at eight of nine profiles 

during March and April 2013, net volume change averages –40% from large storm losses and nearly 

continuous decline until the March 2013 survey. 

3.2 Shoreline Change 

3.2.1 Hurricane Sandy Movement 

Net shoreline movement derived from the alongshore GPS surveys collected in the 

western and central subregions of Fire Island (fig. 1) indicates that between October 28 and 

November 2, the shoreline prograded (table 5; fig. 10). The gain of material in the foreshore 

(along the MHW contour) is attributable to material eroded from the beach and dunes during the 

storm and deposited on the lower portion of the beach or just offshore where it rapidly welded to 

the lower beach in the days after the storm (fig. 4). The net shoreline movement following Sandy 

was progradational and averaged 4.3 m, but movement was highly variable along the beach, with 

values ranging from +30.9 m to –25.9 m (table 5). 
15

Table 5. Average and maximum values of shoreline change associated with Hurricane Sandy, the winter 

storm period, and total duration of the survey along 35 kilometers of Fire Island from Fire Island 

Lighthouse to the storm-induced inlet breach site in Old Inlet vicinity. 

Time period Accretion Erosion

Avg (m) Max (m) Avg (m) Max (m) Avg (m)

Hurricane Sandy

(October 28, 2012–November 1 and 2, 2012)

4.3 30.9 10.7 –25.9 –10.6

Winter 

(November 1 and 2, 2012–March 2013)

–21.4 41.0 12.6 –57.5 –24.1

Total change

(October 28, 2012–April 2013)

–8.0 24.1 7.9 –63.6 –14.9

The patterns of shoreline change that resulted from Hurricane Sandy display a nearly 

sinusoidal pattern of alternating erosion and progradation cells in the western subregion 

(fig. 10A), with a length-scaling of approximately 1 km. In the central subregion, the shoreline 

response to Sandy was also largely progradational and variable along the coast, although with a 

less distinct sinusoidal pattern than that mapped along western Fire Island (fig. 10B). 

3.2.2 Winter Storm Season Response and Recovery 

In the months following Hurricane Sandy, continued widespread and substantial erosion 

of the highly deflated and low-relief post-Sandy beach made the shoreline more vulnerable to the 

ensuing coastal storms. During the course of the winter months (November 4–March 13), the 

average change in the net movement of the shoreline was –21.4 m (table 5), with a maximum 

landward shift of nearly 60 m. Although some recovery of the shoreline was observed during the 

final survey period (April 7), many areas continued erode. During the 5 months of shoreline 

surveys (October 28–March 13) net shoreline movement averaged –8 m, with a maximum 

shoreline erosion value of 63.6 m (table 5). Similar to the pre- and post-Sandy surveys, net 

shoreline movement was variable, but with no distinct patterns of change (fig. 10). 
16

Figure 10. Net shoreline movement from Oct 28–Nov. 2 (blue line), Nov. 2–Mar. 13 (red line), and over the 

duration of the field surveys (Oct. 28–Apr. 9; green line) for (A) western Fire Island and (B) central Fire 

Island. See Figure 1 for survey coverage extents. 
17

Figure 10—Continued. Net shoreline movement from Oct 28–Nov. 2 (blue line), Nov. 2–Mar. 13 (red 

line), and over the duration of the field surveys (Oct. 28–Apr. 9; green line) for (A) western Fire Island 

and (B) central Fire Island. See Figure 1 for survey coverage extents. 

3.3 Upper Beach Change (Ub) 

For this analysis, the upper beach (Ub) contour of 2.9 m consistently captures changes to 

the upper portion of the beach and dune system, including areas that experienced low to 

moderate overwash and areas where the dune was eroded and scarped but not overwashed (fig. 

11). In several locations along the eastern end of Fire Island, severe overwash or breaching 

reduced the maximum elevation to below 2.9 m, resulting in data gaps where Ub does not exist 

(figs. 11A and 11C). Similar to the other methods used to characterize storm impacts, the Ub

parameter is influenced by development, particularly where structures conceal the contour 

location. Additionally, Ub is obstructed in areas where infrastructure is found seaward of the prestorm dune line (such as Davis Park). 
18

Based on the landward movement of Ub from May 2012 to post-storm (Nov 5, 2012) 

lidar data, the western subregion of Fire Island had the greatest erosion of the upper portion of 

the beach where large areas of overwash account for as much as 100 m of landward movement, 

with an average of –25.1 m (table 6). Erosion of Ub was substantially less along both central and 

eastern Fire Island. Along the central portion of the island, storm impacts were comparatively 

lower than to the east and west. In eastern Fire Island, the lower net retreat of Ub is likely a 

function of the narrower initial island width and lower elevation that allowed for multiple 

occurrences of overwash extending across the island to the bay. A more complete Ub migration 

assessment on Fire Island was hindered by the breach and alongshore variety in overwash 

scenarios which made the selection of a constant island-wide Ub elevation difficult. 

Figure 11. Post-storm aerial images showing alongshore patterns in storm overwash and upper beach (Ub) 

migration of Fire Island, New York, from May 7, 2012, (purple line) to November 5, 2012 (orange line). 

Wide, continuous overwash along the western portion of the island (A) accounts for greater Ub

migration values, while infrequent, narrow overwash deposits in the central region (B) result in less Ub

migration on average. Extensive overwash along western and eastern Fire Island (A and C) reduces 

maximum cross-shore elevations below the Ub elevation, resulting in data gaps. 
19

Table 6. Average alongshore Ub,shoreline and percent profile volume change among profiles within three 

geologic regions and all of Fire Island, New York. 

[Ub, upper beach contour parameter; m, meter; m3/m, cubic meters per meter; %, percent; Δ, change] 

Ub (m) Shoreline (m) % Vol. Δ (m3/m)

West –25.1 9.3 –58.5

Central –20.6 13.2 –49.6

East –14.0 11.0 –58.5

All island –19.7 11.4 –54.5

To assess the storm impacts on the upper and lower beach systems, we examined the net 

change associated with the shoreline and Ub along the length of the island from May to 

November 2012 (fig. 12). Similar to the shoreline response from the field surveys, the all-island 

shoreline change is predominantly progradational. Based on field observations and quantification 

of overwash volumes, substantial amounts of material from the beaches and dunes were carried 

offshore during the storm. In the days immediately following the storm, substantial amounts of 

material were deposited along the lower portion of the beach. Although the beach was 

significantly reduced in elevation (fig. 4; appendix 1), the deposition of material along the lower 

beach produced an overall accretional “storm” trend of the shoreline. 

Areas that experienced higher amounts of landward migration of Ub (e.g. western Fire 

Island) appear to correspond to areas where shoreline progradation is lower. Conversely, areas 

where Ub experienced lesser amounts of landward migration (such as central Fire Island) have 

higher magnitudes of shoreline progradation. This relationship appears to be a function of the 

dune size—in areas with lower dunes and more prone to overwash, there was more landward 

transport of material, resulting in lower values for shoreline progradation. In areas with larger 

dunes and less prone to overwash, material eroded from the dune was deposited lower on the 

beach, resulting in progradation. 
20

Figure 12. Variations in total shoreline (SL) and upper beach (Ub) migration (in meters) caused by 

Hurricane Sandy calculated from pre-storm (May 7, 2012) and post-storm (November 5, 2012) lidar 

data. Widespread overwash and erosion reduce island topography such that shoreline position tends to 

move seaward while Ub migrates landward in all three subregions of Fire Island, New York. Gaps in Ub

data result from erosion elimination of the Ub contour elevations along the cross-shore profile during 

Hurricane Sandy. 

3.4 Overwash 

Overwash of the dunes from Hurricane Sandy, mapped by using data from field surveys 

and aerial imagery, occurred along 41 percent of the length of Fire Island (fig. 13). Field 

measurements of deposit thickness were used to estimate the volume of each continuous deposit, 

with an estimated 509,354 cubic meters (m3) of material transported inland of the primary dune 

(table 7). The total volume lost from the beaches and dunes, estimated from island-wide profile 

volume decreases, was 3,500,000 m3, indicating that overwash accounts for approximately 

14 percent of the total volume lost from the subaerial system, with the remainder likely 

transported offshore. 

In addition to the above totals, table 7 provides the total area and volume of overwash 

and average deposit thickness for the western, central, and eastern subregions. Comparisons of 

the area, volume, and characteristics of overwash deposits demonstrate a varied response in the 

three subregions (figs. 14, 15). In the western portion of the island, overwash produced 

washover sheets rather than fans and surge channels, resulting in laterally continuous deposits 

(0.5–1 km alongshore) and associated continuous leveling of the dunes (figs. 13A and 14A). The 

incursion distance of the overwash sheets along western Fire Island was limited in many 

locations by private homes and other community infrastructure in the developed stretches of 

coast. 
21

In the central subregion of Fire Island, the occurrence of overwash is relatively low and is

confined to narrow (<100 m) channels that coincide with existing cuts (vehicle access points or 

other lows) in the otherwise continuous dunes (figs. 13B, 14B, 15B). Volumes of overwash are 

also significantly lower in the central subregion (Table 7), suggesting higher overall dune and 

island elevations and (or) lower waves and storm surge along this segment of the island 

compared to adjacent areas. 

Eastern Fire Island experienced the greatest amount of overwash and inundation based on 

areal extent and volume of overwash deposits. In areas with high pre-Sandy dunes, surge 

channels cut through the dunes and carried large volumes of material to the island interior, 

deposited as overwash fans. In lower-lying portions of this subregion, continuous overwash fans 

and fields of overlapping overwash tongues extend across the width of the barrier island in many 

locations (figs. 13C, 14C, 15C). The eastern portion of the island was breached in three locations 

during Hurricane Sandy. 
22

Figure 13. Examples of overwash styles at Fire Island, New York: (a) sheet wash in front of Fire Island 

Lighthouse, (b) surge channels through dunes and overwash fan along central-eastern Fire Island, and 

(c) tongues of overwash in eastern Fire Island. 
23

Table 7. Total overwash area, volume, and average depth within three subregions and all of Fire Island, 

New York. 

[m, meter; m2, square meters; m3/m, cubic meters per meter] 

Area (m2) Volume (m3) Mean thickness (m)

West 598,083 189,812 0.32

Central 129,233 33,494 0.26

East 893,672 286,048 0.32

Total 1,620,988 509,354 0.30

Figure 14. Isopach maps of overwash deposits resulting from Hurricane Sandy showing alongshore 

variation in size, density, and thickness. (A) Western and (C) eastern Fire Island, New York, have 

more laterally extensive overwash than the (B) central portion of the island. 
24

Figure 15. Net elevation change (in meters) associated (a) with narrow surge channels along central Fire 

Island, New York and (b) across a wide overwash field in the eastern subregion. Spatial elevation 

change data are derived from pre- and post-Sandy lidar surveys; point markers show distribution of 

field survey sample locations. 

3.5 Summary of Overwash and Upper Beach Changes 

There is a demonstrable along-coast variation in the morphologic response to Hurricane 

Sandy along Fire Island. The landward displacement of the Ub parameter and the volumes of 

overwash have a similar pattern of variation (figs. 11 and 14) that corresponds to documented 

variations in pre-storm elevation and along-island morphologic subsections. Areas with lower 

dune elevation and beach slope (western and eastern Fire Island) were severely overwashed and 

had greater overwash volumes (≥ 12 cubic meters per kilometer [m3/km]) and higher Ub

migration values than areas with higher dune elevation and beach slope. In areas of the island 

with higher pre-Sandy elevation and steeper beach slope (central Fire Island), overwash was 

confined to existing low elevations in the dune. In areas that did overwash, comparable amounts 

of volume loss occurred on the beaches and dunes; however, the Ub had lower amounts of inland 

migration, and overwash volumes were typically less than 5–6 m3

/km. 

Despite coverage gaps for the Ub parameter and overwash field observations, both 

techniques provide realistic alongshore quantification of storm impact magnitude and the nature 

of morphologic change. Post-Sandy overwash data offer a means for comparing estimates of 

total island volume loss from profile data (~3,500,000 m3

) with total landward overwash 

deposition (~500,000 m3). While data gaps tend to overlap with many of the most heavily 
25

affected portions of Fire Island (such as breach zones) and limit accurate comparisons of regional 

Ub migration values, Ub migration measurements capture drastic beachface erosion and landward 

repositioning of the island during Hurricane Sandy. 

Summary

Hurricane Sandy fundamentally changed the morphologic configuration of Fire Island, 

New York. Massive amounts of sand were carried to the interior of the island, into Great South 

Bay, or were moved offshore, and the island was breached in three locations. Post-Sandy 

measurements of volume loss of the beach and dunes indicated that on average the system lost 

54.4 percent of its pre-storm volume. Nearly half (46.6%) of Fire Island was overwashed. In 

locations where the dunes were not fully breached, they eroded landward by as much as 36 m 

(22 m on average). The elevation of the beach was lowered by as much as 3 m. A parameter 

representing the typically more stable upper beach elevation (Ub) migrated 19.7 m landward on 

average and as much as 100 m in areas of severe cross-island overwash. The total estimated 

volume of overwash deposits represents 14 percent of the total volume lost from the subaerial 

beach and dune system. 

Overall, the subregional variation in response, both from Sandy and from the series of 

nor’easter storms that occurred during the winter of 2012–13, suggests the island may be 

influenced by the regional geology and morphologic character of the inner continental shelf as 

described in recent literature (Hapke and others, 2010; Lentz and Hapke, 2011; Schwab and 

others, 2013). Eastern Fire Island had higher amounts of dune overwash, more landward 

displacement of the beach and Ub, and greater elevation loss of the beach and dune than central 

and western Fire Island. The morphologic effect on western Fire Island was also significant, with 

average profile volume loss and overwash volumes that were nearly the same as those for eastern 

Fire Island. In addition, distinct differences in the characteristics of the overwash deposits on 

eastern Fire Island, as opposed to western Fire Island, appear related to pre-existing differences 

in island width and elevation. To the west, the deposits were more sheet-like and did not 

penetrate as far inland as the overwash fans and surge channels to the east. Central Fire Island 

had relatively little overwash, which was primarily focused in areas with pre-existing cuts or 

lows in the dunes. Beaches and dunes in the central region were heavily eroded and narrowed, 

but infrequent overwash and relatively little Ub migration result in the lowest average profile 

volume loss (11 percent less than for eastern and western Fire Island). 

Field data collection of cross-shore profiles and along-shore metrics (shoreline, upper 

beach) continued monthly through April 2013. Following Sandy, frequent winter storms led to 

ongoing erosion and volume loss from November 2012 to March 2013. Based on field profiles, 

western Fire Island had higher overall rates of erosion and greater post-winter recovery (for 

example, more active profile) than central Fire Island. Beach widening and profile elevation 

gains observed during the last survey (April 9, 2013) indicate that sand is being returned to the 

beach from offshore. Profile volume increased on average by 18.9 percent; however, recent 
26

recovery has restored only a fraction of the original (pre-Sandy) volumes to the beaches at Fire 

Island. At the end of the 6-month post-Sandy survey period, the volume of the beach remains 

40 percent less than the pre-Sandy condition. 

References

Hapke, C.J., Lentz, E.E., Gayes, P.T., McCoy, C.A., Hehre, R.E., Schwab, W.C., and Williams, 

S.J., 2010, A review of sediment budget imbalances along Fire Island, New York—Can 

nearshore geologic framework and patterns of shoreline change explain the deficit?: Journal of 

Coastal Research, v. 26, p. 510–522.

Kratzmann, M.G., and Hapke, C., 2012, Quantifying anthropogenically driven morphologic 

changes on a barrier island—Fire Island National Seashore, New York: Journal of Coastal 

Research, v. 28, p. 76–88. 

Leatherman, S.P., and Allen, J.R., 1985, Geomorphic Analysis, Fire Island Inlet to Montauk 

Point, Long Island, New York, Reformulation Study. National Park Service for the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers. 

Lentz, E.E., and Hapke, C., 2011, Geologic framework influences on the geomorphology of an 

anthropogenically modified barrier island—Assessment of dune/beach changes at Fire Island, 

New York: Geomorphology, v. 126, p. 82–96. 

Lentz, E.E., Hapke, C.J., Stockdon, H.F., and Hehre, R.E., 2013, Improving understanding of 

near-term barrier island evolution through multi-decadal assessment of morphologic change:

Marine Geology, v. 337, p. 125–139.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Ocean Service, National Geodetic Survey, 

2013, Hurricane SANDY: Rapid Response Imagery Viewer, accessed August 7, 2013, at 

http://ngs.woc.noaa.gov/storms/sandy/. 

Schwab, W.C., Baldwin, W.E., Hapke, C.J., Lentz, E.E., Gayes, P.T., Denny, J.F., List, J.H., and 

Warner, J.C., 2013, Geologic evidence for onshore sediment transport from the Inner 

Continental Shelf—Fire Island, New York: Journal of Coastal Research, v. 29, no. 3, p. 526–

544. 

Stockdon, H.F., Doran, K.J., Sopkin, K.L., Smith, K.E.L., and Fredericks, Xan, 2013, Coastal 

topography–Northeast Atlantic coast, post-Hurricane Sandy, 2012: U.S. Geological Survey 

Data Series 765. 

Thieler, E.R., Himmelstoss, E.A., Zichichi, J.L., and Ergul, A., 2009, Digital Shoreline Analysis 

System (DSAS) version 4.0 — An ArcGIS extension for calculating shoreline change: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008-1278. 
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Weber, K.M., List, J.H., and Morgan, K.M., 2005, An operational mean high water datum for 

determination of shoreline position from topographic lidar data: U.S. Geological Survey OpenFile Report 2005-1027, available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1027/index.html.
28

Appendix 1

Cross-shore elevation profiles (upper panel) and associated profile volume in m3/m 

(lower panel) collected during nine field surveys (October 28, 2012 to April 9, 2013) at nine 

DGPS profile locations along Fire Island, New York, are contained in Appendix 1. 
29
30
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37