BURKINAFASO

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide

BoboDioulasso

Banfora

Ouahigouya

Kaya

FadaN'gourma Koudougou

Tenkodogo

Ouagadougou

BurkinaFaso
This guide is designed to help prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and successfully achieve 

mission objectives. The fundamental information it contains will 

help you understand the decisive cultural dimension of your 

assigned location and gain necessary skills to achieve mission 

success.

The guide consists of 

two parts: 

Part 1: Introduces 

“Culture General,” the 

foundational knowledge 

you need to operate

effectively in any global

environment. 

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” Burkina Faso, focusing on 

unique cultural features of Burkina Faso’s society and is 

designed to 

complement other predeployment training. It 

applies culture-general 

concepts to help

increase your 

knowledge of your 

assigned deployment

Location.

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture and Language Center (AFCLC)

website at https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or contact 

AFCLC’s Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

ECFG Burkina Faso
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story –

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture.

Social Behaviors Across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, 

all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian 

societies generally produce

their own food for limited 

consumption using very 

basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized 

nations have more 

sophisticated market economies, producing foodstuffs for 

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universal consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and 

tradition, although they represent these concepts through a 

variety of unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world 

religions share the belief in one God, their worship practices 

vary with their traditional historical development. Similarly, in 

many kin-based cultures where familial bonds are foundational 

to social identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles (Photo: Kutubiyya Mosque courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest, 2013).

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing most 

of what was traditional 

and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form of 

bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed for 

several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia).

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

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death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults or 

peers.

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life.

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual.

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection and 

widespread poverty caused 

by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions.

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as 

civil war, disease, 

poverty, and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Burkina Faso’s society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

History Overview

Before the arrival of French colonists in the late 19th century, 

kingdoms allied to the Mossi ethnic group ruled most of Burkina 

Faso. The early-mid 20th-century colonial period was marked 

by French control, forced labor, and a destabilized economy. 

Following independence in 1960, the country has experienced 

long periods of autocratic rule punctuated by coups d’état.

Note: Although Burkina Faso did not assume its present name 

until 1984, the authors use the term “Burkina Faso” throughout 

this guide to refer to the country’s present-day territory.

Early Burkina Faso

Due to a dearth of archaeological artifacts and written records, 

little is known about the country’s early history. Some scholars

believe that the area’s first inhabitants were hunter-gatherers 

who arrived in the northwestern part of the country no later 

than 7,000 years ago. Farming settlements probably arose 

between 3600 and 2600 BC, while iron tools and ceramic 

artifacts likely appeared between 1500 and 1000 BC.

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

The Loropéni Ruins

Located about 200 mi southwest of Ouagadougou (the 

capital of Burkina Faso), the Loropéni Ruins constitute 

the remains of an 11th-century stone fortress. Some 

historians speculate that the Kulango or Lohron 

peoples (which today live in Côte d’Ivoire) built the 

fortress to house workers and protect gold stocks, 

which at the time were traded on lucrative desert trade 

routes. In 2009 the United Nations declared Loropéni a 

UNESCO World Heritage site, thereby asserting that 

the ruins are “of outstanding value to humanity.”
HISTORY &

MYTH

Early Political Structures

In 1100 AD a variety of political structures began to emerge in 

Burkina Faso, the earliest of which developed in the West and 

South. In those areas, members of such ethnic groups as the 

Bobo, Gurunsi, and Lobi merged into decentralized farming 

communities. In the North, nomadic pastoralists (cattle herders) 

of the Peulh and Tuareg ethnic groups traversed Burkina Faso 

for centuries before eventually forming small Islamic states in 

the 19th century. In the East and Center, the Mossi and Gurma 

ethnicities founded several kingdoms, some of which rose to 

prominence in the 15th century AD (see p9-10 of Political and 

Social Relations for details on 

Burkina Faso’s ethnic groups).

The Mossi Kingdoms

The most influential of these early 

polities were the Mossi kingdoms, 

which were founded after warriors 

from Ghana invaded Burkina Faso in 

the 1400s (Image: Mossi cavalry as 

depicted in an account from the 19th 

century). Of the many Mossi kingdoms that eventually 

emerged, the largest and most powerful were Ouagadougou, 

Tenkodogo, and Yatenga. The Mossi kingdoms were highly 

organized and hierarchical. Consequently, they were able to 

remain unified and powerful for around 500 years, despite 

assimilating people from many different ethnic groups and 

fighting wars against powerful neighboring empires.

Most inhabitants of the Mossi kingdoms cultivated staple crops, 

such as millet and sorghum. Since the kingdoms sat on trade 

routes linking the Gulf of Guinea and the Sahara Desert, many 

people were also traders. In exchange for such goods as salt 

and weapons, Mossi traders exported grains, donkeys, bronze, 

copper, and gold. While some Mossi owned and traded slaves, 

others—mainly in the Southwest—were enslaved themselves.

Despite centuries of internal stability and external security, the 

Mossi kingdoms began to buckle under pressure from outside 

forces during the 19th century. At the same time, Mossi politics 

descended into rivalry and civil war. These dual forces left the 

Mossi vulnerable as the first Europeans arrived in West Africa.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Arrival of Europeans

The first European to arrive in Burkina Faso was Gottlob Adolf 

Krause, a German explorer who reached Ouagadougou in 

1886. Krause was followed 2 years later by Louis Gustave 

Binger, a French explorer and military officer who remained in 

Ouagadougou for several weeks. During his visit, Binger met 

with the Moro Naba (King of Ouagadougou) and invited him to 

accept French protection. The Moro Naba declined Binger’s 

invitation and warned the French not to intervene in the region.

This warning did not dissuade the 

French from attempting to extend 

their influence into Burkina Faso. 

They wanted to control the region 

because it was located directly in 

the middle of what would become 

French West Africa and therefore 

had substantial geostrategic value 

(Image: West Africa’s present-day 

political boundaries, with Burkina 

Faso in red, other former French 

colonies in blue, and former British colonies in green). Binger 

also observed that Burkina Faso would make a good source of 

labor for other French colonies in West Africa.

Colonization

In February 1895, the French Minister of Colonies ordered that 

protectorates—a type of colonial political structure—be created 

throughout much of Burkina Faso. Although Yatenga, a major 

Mossi kingdom, peacefully agreed to become a protectorate in 

May of that year, the French found it harder to convince other 

polities in Burkina Faso. Consequently, in May 1896 the French 

sent a 500-man force under the command of Lieutenant Paul 

Voulet to take Burkina Faso by force.

A key motive for the timing of Voulet’s expedition was to block 

British attempts to expand northward from Ghana (then called 

the Gold Coast Colony). Using such brutal tactics as destroying 

farms and villages, Voulet’s force defeated the Bobo, Gurma, 

Lobi, and Mossi by the end of 1897. In the following year, the 

French and British formally settled their claims in the region, 

marking the unofficial start of the colonial era in Burkina Faso.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Colonial Era

Although the French nominally 

controlled all of Burkina Faso by 

the end of the 19th century, they 

spent several more years 

quelling pockets of resistance. 

By 1904 the colonial power felt 

secure enough in its control to 

incorporate the territory into Upper Senegal and Niger, a shortlived colony that also included parts of Mali. Just 15 years later, 

the French converted Burkina Faso into a separate colony 

known as Upper Volta.

In establishing Upper Volta’s administrative system, the French 

left traditional Mossi political structures in place. However, they 

replaced many Mossi leaders with more pliable members of the 

same ethnic group and ultimately placed most power in the 

hands of French officials. The main duties of local authorities 

were to collect taxes and recruit labor. Some Mossi leaders 

became infamous for corruption and power abuse.

Forced Labor: For all but the last few years of the colonial era, 

the French forced Voltaics (residents of Upper Volta) to work in 

a variety of roles. Some Voltaics worked on cotton plantations 

in Upper Volta, while others worked on cocoa, coffee, or sugar 

plantations in Côte d’Ivoire or on infrastructure projects in other 

parts of French West Africa. The French also conscripted many 

Voltaics to fight on their behalf in both World Wars.

These policies caused many Voltaics to flee to the Gold Coast 

Colony, a neighboring British territory to the south that became 

Ghana in 1957. For those who stayed, the policies had a range 

of negative effects. For example, France’s conscription policies 

led to a revolt in the Northwest in 1915. Meanwhile, France’s 

large-scale agricultural schemes disrupted Voltaics’ traditional 

subsistence patterns and left the colony vulnerable to famines, 

which occurred in 1926 and 1930.

By 1932 Upper Volta was drought-stricken, impoverished, and 

nearing collapse. Consequently, the French divided the colony 

between neighboring French possessions. This change deeply 

upset the Mossi rulers, who had submitted reluctantly to French 

rule mostly to preserve the territorial integrity of their lands.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Nationalism and Independence

Motivated by international trends toward self-determination and 

decolonization, France gave its colonies representation in the 

French Parliament in 1946. Côte d'Ivoire, which had absorbed 

most of the former Upper Volta colony, sent 3 representatives:

2 Voltaics and Felix Houphouet-Boigny, a charismatic and 

popular Ivoirian. All 3 men belonged to the African Democratic 

Rally (RDA), a group that sought to end French rule.

In an effort to limit the subversive appeal of Houphouet-Boigny 

and his RDA party, the French reconstituted Upper Volta as an 

Overseas Territory in 1947. This status afforded Upper Volta 

new forms of political autonomy, such as a territorial assembly. 

Still, the RDA remained popular in the Southwest. At the same 

time, a conservative, Mossi-affiliated party known as the Voltaic 

Union (UV) gained support in the North.

Upper Volta received greater autonomy 

in 1958, when the colony’s inhabitants 

approved a referendum to become an 

autonomous republic within the French 

Community, an association of republics 

that succeeded the French Empire. In 

the same year, a Mossi named Maurice 

Yameogo (pictured) became President 

of Upper Volta’s Council of Ministers. He 

opposed immediate independence on 

the grounds that Upper Volta could not

sustain itself economically. By 1960, 

however, France had decided to end its 

presence in West Africa. Consequently, the Republic of Upper 

Volta attained independence from France on August 5, 1960, 

and Yameogo became the country’s first President.

The Republic of Upper Volta

Yameogo quickly assumed nearly dictatorial control over Upper 

Volta, banning all political parties but his own. Meanwhile, his 

prediction about the young country’s economic instability

proved accurate, although Yameogo’s adopting austere

measures to repair the economy led to civil unrest. On January 

3, 1966, Yameogo resigned in the face of military pressure and 

was replaced by Colonel Sangoule Lamizana.
HISTORY &

MYTH

After disbanding the National Assembly and suspending the 

constitution, Lamizana formed a temporary ruling council. By 

the end of 1970, the council had secured the adoption of a new 

constitution and overseen West Africa’s first multiparty 

elections, nominally returning the country to civilian rule. 

Nevertheless, Upper Volta’s continuing economic problems led 

Lamizana to reassert military rule in 1974 and, after the 

adoption of yet another new constitution in 1977, to run for 

President in 1978. Although he was elected, Lamizana soon 

faced widespread strikes by civil servants, teachers, and 

laborers. This unrest prompted Colonel Saye Zerbo to oust 

Lamizana on November 25, 1980.

Zerbo’s rule was short-lived. His authoritarian policies, such as 

outlawing strikes and forcing bars to close during the workday, 

inspired anger among Upper Volta’s population. Consequently, 

few were surprised when Jean-Baptiste 

Ouédraogo, a medical doctor and military 

officer, overthrew Zerbo in yet another 

coup d’état on November 7, 1982.

After taking power, Ouédraogo pledged a 

swift return to civilian rule and appointed

Thomas Sankara (pictured), a popular 

military officer, to serve as Prime Minister. 

The new government soon split into two 

factions, with Ouédraogo and Sankara on 

opposite sides. After Ouédraogo had Sankara arrested on 

contrived charges, Sankara’s backers—who notably included 

Blaise Compaoré, an Army officer who would succeed Sankara 

as President—moved on the capital and ousted Ouédraogo on 

August 4, 1983. Sankara was named the new President.

The Sankara Era

Viewing himself as a revolutionary, Sankara set out to remake 

Upper Volta by reforming social policy, promoting self-reliance, 

and eliminating government waste and corruption. He began by 

changing the country’s name to “Burkina Faso” by mixing

words from two indigenous languages (see p3 of Language 

and Communication) and means “the land of the honorable 

[ones].” Sankara also gave the country a new flag, motto, and 

anthem—the last of which the President himself composed.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Sankara promoted reforms on many issues. On the economy, 

he created job training centers for the homeless and distributed 

more resources to rural areas. On foreign policy, he shunned 

the West and urged African leaders to renounce their debts to 

rich countries. He tackled government corruption and waste by 

introducing rules enforcing civil servants to live more modestly. 

Sankara also banned prostitution and female genital mutilation 

(see p3 of Sex and Gender) and made vaccines available to 

millions of children (see p3-4 of Sustenance and Health).

In contrast to the progressive nature of his reforms, Sankara’s 

tactics were often authoritarian. For example, he shut down a 

popular newspaper and jailed or executed a number of political 

opponents. In addition, he continued to defend the Committees 

for the Defense of the Revolution (CDRs)—organizations that 

implemented reforms at the local level—even after many CDRs 

had abused their power. As his decisions became increasingly 

arbitrary, Sankara lost the support of his advisors. On October 

15, 1987, Sankara died in a gun battle with soldiers who many 

suspect were working for Sankara’s old ally Blaise Compaoré.

The Compaoré Era

Following Sankara’s death, Compaoré 

(pictured) denied responsibility but still 

succeeded his late friend. After 4 years 

of military rule, Burkina Faso adopted a 

new constitution and held elections in 

1991. Compaoré won unopposed due 

to a boycott. He was reelected in 1998, 

2005, and 2010, but not without further 

boycotts and political tricks that helped 

him circumvent term limits.

In the 1990s, Compaoré repealed many of Sankara’s reforms. 

For example, he introduced free market reforms and welcomed 

Western aid. Compaoré also pursued better ties with France 

and other African countries. However, he endured criticism for 

his ties with Charles Taylor, a war criminal and former Liberian 

President. In addition, Compaoré came under fire for Burkina 

Faso’s role in transporting conflict diamonds from Sierra Leone.

Also known as “blood diamonds,” conflict diamonds are mined 

in war zones and sold to help finance combat operations.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Compaoré also has faced criticism and protests over domestic 

issues. In 1998, for example, protests broke out across Burkina 

Faso after Norbert Zongo, a popular reporter, was found dead. 

His death was suspicious because he had been investigating a 

murder case in which Compaoré’s bodyguards were suspects. 

Compaoré again faced unrest in 2011, when student protests 

over police brutality coincided with an Army mutiny over unpaid 

housing allowances. Nevertheless, Compaoré regained control 

after both episodes, and his position for now seems secure.

The Mythical Origins of the Mossi

The story of how the Mossi kingdoms were founded 

involves a blend of history, which is considered a 

record of verifiable facts, and myth, which may not 

be verifiable but still reflects cultural values and selfperceptions. Consequently, although the verifiable 

history of the Mossi kingdoms does not exceed 600 

or so years, Mossi oral tradition can illuminate what 

may have occurred even earlier.

According to that oral tradition, the Mossi people are 

descended from Nédéga, a King who ruled lands in 

northern Ghana around the 1200s AD. Nédéga had 

8 sons and one daughter, Yennega, who fought and 

rode horses better than all her brothers. Nédéga 

was very fond of Yennega and refused to allow her 

to marry. Consequently, Yennega fled to the forest, 

where she married an elephant hunter named Rialle 

and had a son named Ouédraogo.

When he came of age, Ouédraogo set off to conquer 

his own empire in Burkina Faso with the help of his 

grandfather’s cavalry. He then had 3 sons, one of 

which is supposed to have given birth to Oubri, the 

founder of Ouagadougou and first Moro Naba (King 

of Ouagadougou). Since most historians agree that 

Oubri existed, he represents the point at which the 

story of the Mossi transitions from myth to history.
Official Name

Burkina Faso

Political Borders

Mali: 621 mi

Niger: 390 mi

Benin: 190 mi

Togo: 78 mi

Ghana: 341 mi

Côte d'Ivoire: 363 mi

Capital

Ouagadougou

Demographics

Burkina Faso is one of the world’s fastest growing countries, 

with a population of 17.8 million increasing at a rate of 3.1% 

per year—the 7th highest rate in the world. Burkina Faso is 

also among the world’s youngest countries, with almost 2/3 of 

its population under age 25. These trends are driven in part by 

the country’s high fertility rate, which at 6 children per woman is 

the 5th highest in the world.

Burkina Faso has a population density of 168 people per sq mi, 

which is roughly comparable to Mexico and the US state of 

Georgia. Burkina Faso’s population is unevenly distributed, 

with the largest concentration in the center of the country.

Flag

Burkina Faso’s flag consists of 2

horizontal stripes of equal size 

and proportion with a star in the 

middle. The red stripe on the 

upper half of the flag stands for 

Burkina Faso’s struggle for 

independence (see p4-5 of

History and Myth), while the green stripe on the lower half 

symbolizes hope and abundance. The yellow star signifies the 

country’s mineral wealth (see p3 of Economics and 

Resources).

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography and Climate

Burkina Faso is located in 

central West Africa and has 

a total area of 105,869 sq 

mi, or about the same size 

as Colorado. It borders Mali 

to the west and north, Niger 

to the east, Benin and Togo 

to the southeast, Ghana to 

the south, and Côte d'Ivoire

to the southwest.

Burkina Faso divides into 3 climatic and geographic zones. The 

northern 1/4 of the country’s territory constitutes the Sahelian 

zone, which consists of desert and semi-desert and receives as 

few as 6 inches of annual rainfall. The middle 1/2 of the country 

makes up the Sudano-Sahelian zone, which is dominated by a 

large central plateau that rises 650-1,000 feet above sea level. 

This zone consists of savanna and shrubs and receives about 

25-40 inches of rain per year. The southwestern corner of the 

country constitutes the Sudano-Guinean zone, which receives 

as many as 51 inches of annual rainfall and consists of forests.

There are 3 distinct seasons in Burkina Faso. The mild season 

lasts from October through February and is characterized by 

relatively cool temperatures, not exceeding 95°F and dropping

as low as 40°F at night in the desert. By January the mild 

season also brings dry, dusty Harmattan trade winds. The hot 

season lasts from March through May and is known for its high 

temperatures, which often top 100°F and can exceed 115°F in 

the North. The rainy season starts in May and lasts through 

September. Some regions receive more rain than others in the 

rainy season, although no region experiences constant rain. 

Rainy season humidity is high, ranging from 70-95%.

Burkina Faso is mostly dry and landlocked, having 8 lakes and 

3 river basins—Komoé, Niger, and Volta. With an area of 

45,000 sq mi, the Volta Basin is by far the largest and source 

for the country’s original name, Upper Volta. It includes 3 main 

rivers—the Mouhoun (Black Volta), Nakambe (White Volta), 

and Nazinon (Red Volta)—which converge in Ghana to form 

the Volta River and eventually man-made Lake Volta. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Environmental Issues and Natural Hazards

Burkina Faso has a number of environmental issues, the most 

serious of which are drought, deforestation, and soil depletion. 

These issues are interconnected and stem from overgrazing, 

overpopulation relative to water supplies, overuse of wood fuel 

(see p2 of Technology and Material), and climate change. Due 

to its environmental issues, Burkina Faso also faces related 

hazards, including famines and flash floods.

Government

Burkina Faso is a republic that gained its independence from 

France in 1960. After undergoing a series of coups d’état in its 

first 3 decades of independence (see p5-7 of History and 

Myth), the country adopted its current constitution in 1991. 

Burkina Faso is divided administratively into 13 régions, which 

divide further into 300 départements and 7,285 villages.

Executive Branch

Burkina Faso’s President—currently 

Blaise Compaoré (pictured)—serves 

as Chief of State and Commander-inChief of the military. A constitutional 

amendment adopted in 2000 reduced 

the President’s term from 7 years to 5 

and introduced a 2-term limit. With the 

consent of the National Assembly (see 

below), the President appoints a 

Prime Minister, who serves as Head of 

Government. With the advice of the 

Prime Minister, the President selects a Council of Ministers.

Legislative Branch

Burkina Faso’s legislature consists of a National Assembly and 

a House of Representatives. Legislative power is vested in the 

National Assembly, which has 127 members called “Deputies.” 

Like the President, Deputies are elected to serve 5-year terms.

They represent either the entire country (16 seats) or one of 45 

constituencies (2-9 seats each). The House of Representatives 

is an entirely advisory body of 120 members. In May 2013, the 

National Assembly approved the formation of a Senate, the 

members of which will be chosen by communal councils, 

interest groups, and the President.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Judicial Branch

Burkina Faso’s legal system is based on French civil law and 

the customary laws of local communities. The country’s highest 

courts are the Supreme Court of Appeals, which deals with civil 

and criminal cases; the Council of State, which handles issues 

of administration; and the Court of Accounts, which oversees 

public finances. There are various lower courts located around 

the country. Burkina Faso also has a 9-member Constitutional 

Council that determines the constitutionality of laws. Since the 

President appoints judges to the upper levels of the judiciary, it 

is not entirely separate from the Executive Branch. Traditional 

courts operate at the village level and usually handle issues of 

family law, such as divorce and 

inheritance.

Political Climate

Despite its early history of military 

takeovers, Burkina Faso has been 

one of the most stable countries in 

West Africa since the accession of 

President Compaoré (see p7-8 of

History and Myth). Under his 

stewardship, the country’s 

economy has grown relatively rapidly (see p4 of Economics 

and Resources). Since the end of the 1990s, however, the 

President increasingly has faced demonstrations from various 

Burkinabè (this term is both an adjective for things pertaining to 

Burkina Faso and the singular and plural noun for residents of

Burkina Faso) groups, including students, soldiers, and 

laborers (see p8 of History and Myth) (Photo: The 

Ouagadougou head office of CNTB, a Burkinabè labor union).

This civil unrest has been driven in part by the seemingly openended and unaccountable tenure of President Compaoré and 

his political party, the Congress for Democracy and Progress 

(CDP). The CDP has a large majority in the National Assembly, 

holding 70 of 127 (55%) seats. Moreover, most local leaders, 

including traditional chiefs, belong to the CDP. Plans for the 

creation of a Senate have reinforced concerns about CDP 

dominance. Many Burkinabè think the President plans to use 

the new body to skirt term limits and remain in power. Protests 

against the new Senate broke out in the capital in mid-2013.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Defense

The Burkina Faso Armed Forces consist of 

an Army, Air Force, and Gendarmerie with a 

collective strength of 11,200 personnel. 

Burkina Faso’s security forces also include 

the Security Company, a paramilitary force of 

250, and the People’s Militia, a reserve force 

of 45,000. Having neither a coastline nor 

navigable inland waterways, Burkina Faso 

does not have a Navy.

In 2011 Burkina Faso spent approximately 

$112 million—or 1.3% of gross domestic product (GDP)—on 

defense, a level slightly lower than the sub-Saharan African 

average that year of 1.5% of GDP. Due to its strong ties with 

the French military, the Burkinabè military sometimes receives 

surplus supplies of basic equipment. The French military also 

helps the Burkinabè military maintain its equipment, while the 

US military provides training to Burkinabè military personnel.

Army: Consisting of 6,400 personnel, the Burkina Faso Land 

Army (L’Armée de Terre or LAT) is responsible for defending 

Burkina Faso, assisting civilian security forces, participating in 

peacekeeping missions, and aiding the country’s social and 

economic development. Although LAT historically has been a 

well-motivated and disciplined force by West African standards, 

the 2011 mutiny (see p8 of History and Myth) brought that 

reputation into question. With just a single armored battalion 

and no main battle tanks, LAT is poorly equipped. The force 

relies mostly on light armored vehicles of French and US origin.

Air Force: Consisting of only 600 personnel, the Burkina Faso 

Air Force (Force Aérienne de Burkina Faso or FABF) generally 

lacks meaningful combat capabilities. Focusing mainly on 

border security, the FABF operates a small fleet mostly 

composed of Soviet/Russian-made helicopters and US-made 

transport craft. It also reportedly acquired 3 light attack craft 

from Embraer, a Brazilian firm, in 2011.

Gendarmerie: Sometimes labeled a paramilitary force, Burkina 

Faso’s 4,200-strong Gendarmerie is a military-style police force 

that falls under the Ministry of Defense. It operates primarily in 

rural areas, especially near Burkina Faso’s external borders.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security Issues

Civil Unrest: Burkina Faso is stable by West African standards 

and only rarely experiences civil unrest. Nevertheless, some 

protests in Ouagadougou have turned violent and led to looting 

or property destruction in recent years. The most notable such 

incident occurred in 2011, when rampaging soldiers prompted 

President Compaoré to flee the capital temporarily. Elements 

loyal to the President subsequently suppressed a mutiny in 

Bobo-Dioulasso, where an estimated 50 mutineers were killed 

and several hundred more were arrested. Many soldiers were 

purged from lower ranks.

Crime: Acts of petty theft, including wallet-picking and pursesnatching, are the most commonly reported crimes. In addition, 

there have been incidents of robbery, sexual assault, and other 

crimes against foreign nationals. Busy parts of Ouagadougou—

such as Avenue Kwame Nkrumah, the Central Market, and UN 

Circle—typically have the highest crime rates.

Nevertheless, rural areas present risks of their own, especially 

in sparsely populated areas near Burkina Faso’s northern and 

eastern frontiers. In those areas, armed bandits commonly stop 

vehicles and rob passengers, especially at night. Some bandits 

use land mines to disable vehicles.

Terrorism: Although Burkina Faso 

has yet to be targeted in a terrorist 

attack, the risk is serious due to the 

country’s West African location and 

the porous nature of its borders. A 

number of terrorist groups, such as 

Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb 

(AQIM) and the Movement for Unity 

and Jihad in West Africa (MUJWA), operate in neighboring 

Niger and Mali. Both groups have committed kidnappings 

throughout the region in order to extract ransoms and other 

concessions from local governments. In many cases, 

kidnappers target Westerners—including tourists, diplomats, 

and employees of non-governmental organizations (NGOs)—

because they typically provide better leverage for negotiations 

(Photo: A Burkinabè soldier participating in urban combat 

training as part of Exercise Western Accord in 2012).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP): The 

Trans-Sahara region historically has served as a haven for illicit 

trade and more recently has become a theater of operations for 

AQIM and other extremist groups. Consequently, the US State 

Department inaugurated the TSCTP with Operation Flintlock in 

2006. Operation Flintlock is now an annual exercise in which 

US and other Western special operations forces train African 

counterparts on security and stability practices. Burkina Faso 

joined the TSCTP in late 2008. 

Foreign Relations

Until the past few years, Burkina 

Faso occupied a complex place 

in international relations: while 

Western governments praised 

the country for its stability and 

sound economic management, 

they simultaneously reproached

President Compaoré for his ties to Libya and various groups 

under sanction. In recent years, Burkina Faso has distanced 

itself from problematic allies and played an active role in 

mediating conflicts elsewhere in Africa, including in neighboring 

Togo in 2006. Consequently, relations with France—Burkina 

Faso’s primary trading partner and closest Western ally—and 

the US have improved considerably (Photo: The US Embassy 

in Ouagadougou).

Burkina Faso’s foremost regional relationship is with Côte 

d’Ivoire, a neighboring country with which Burkina Faso shares

economic and cultural ties. Relations were tense for many 

years due partly to Côte d’Ivoire’s alleged mistreatment of 

migrant Burkinabè laborers. Ties have strengthened since 

Alassane Ouattara prevailed over Laurent Gbagbo in the crisis 

that followed Côte d’Ivoire’s presidential election of 2010.

Burkina Faso’s relations with neighboring Mali and Benin have 

suffered similar tensions due to border disputes. While Burkina 

Faso is now on more cordial terms with Benin, ties with Mali 

are in flux due to its recent political instability. As with the West, 

Burkina Faso’s ties with Nigeria and Ghana were hindered by 

Compaoré’s problematic alliances (see p7-8 of History and 

Myth) but have warmed with both in recent years.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Burkina Faso is home to more than 60 ethnic groups, many of 

which are closely related and therefore classified in terms of 10

larger groups. The Mossi are the largest ethnic group by far, 

accounting for about half the population. Another 9 groups 

each constitute between 2-10% of the population, although 

estimates of their precise sizes vary considerably.

Although each ethnic group has a 

traditional homeland, migration is

common enough that members of 

most ethnic groups can be found 

throughout most of Burkina Faso. 

Since Burkinabè of different ethnic 

groups usually get along well, 

ethnic dispersion does not cause 

many problems. Ethnic conflict is 

rare and interethnic marriages 

common [Photo: Statuettes carved 

by members of the Senufo (right), 

Kulango (center), and Mossi (left) 

ethnic groups].

This spirit of ethnic cohesion is perhaps best embodied by 

plaisanterie, or interethnic teasing (see p4 of Language and 

Communication). When Burkinabè of different ethnic groups

meet—whether they are friends or strangers—they sometimes 

exchange negative or rude remarks about each other’s ethnic 

affiliations. These gestures usually are extended and received 

in good humor with no offense.

Mossi: The Mossi live predominantly on the central plateau, 

which is also known as the Mossi Plateau. While many Mossi 

are Muslims, few are especially devout. Moreover, many Mossi 

Muslims also follow indigenous religious practices (see p7-8 of 

Religion and Spirituality). Historically an agricultural people, the 

Mossi are known for having a conservative, hierarchical social 

structure. The Moro Naba (highest Mossi king—see p3 of

History and Myth) plays an important informal role in Burkina 

Faso’s political scene, and many Burkinabè believe that the 

President confers with him regularly. There also are several 

lesser nabas who oversee regions or functional portfolios.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Peulh: The Peulh probably constitute Burkina Faso’s second 

largest ethnic group. They live predominantly in the North and 

historically have subsisted as nomadic pastoralists (animal 

herders). Although they remain pastoral today, they now live a 

more sedentary lifestyle. The Peulh converted to Islam earlier 

than other Burkinabè ethnic groups,

and today most Peulh still are 

Muslims (see p6-7 of Religion and 

Spirituality).

Other African Groups: Apart from 

the Mossi and Peulh, several other 

Burkinabè ethnic groups constitute 

a sizeable share of Burkina Faso’s 

population. Many of those ethnic 

groups—including the Bobo, Lobi, 

and Senufo—inhabit the West and 

Southwest (Photo: A group of Bobo 

men). Other ethnic groups like the Gurma, or Gourmantché,

live in the East, while the nomadic, pastoral Tuareg live 

alongside the Peulh in the North. With the exception of the 

Tuareg and Peulh, most Burkinabè are agriculturalists.

Non-African Groups: Burkina Faso is home to approximately 

1,500 people of Lebanese and Syrian descent who are 

predominantly Burkinabè entrepreneurs. Burkina Faso also is 

home to a small community of French-speaking Europeans.

Social Relations

Social relations in Burkina Faso are shaped both by personal 

qualities and several different hierarchies, both of which play a 

role in determining the level of respect among Burkinabè. 

Hierarchies often govern other aspects of social relations, such 

as the propriety of matrimonial arrangements or the distribution 

of local political power.

Personal Qualities

Like members of most societies, Burkinabè value such 

personal qualities as honesty, loyalty, discretion, and humility. 

They also value communalism and have little tolerance for 

individualist attitudes. Burkinabè consider group consensus 

important and sometimes passively resist people who try to 

impose their will on a group without seeking other opinions.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
The most admired personal qualities by far are age, wisdom, 

and experience. Burkinabè even have a proverb (based on a 

Malian author’s aphorism) that likens an elder dying to a library 

burning to the ground. Burkinabè revere elders for the wisdom 

they have developed through their many experiences, treating 

even people just a few years older with great respect. Young 

people typically are expected to comply with elders’ requests.

Traditional Hierarchy

Many of Burkina Faso’s ethnic groups traditionally had systems 

that divided society into various classes and castes. The Mossi, 

for example, recognized a distinction between nakomse, the 

ruling class; talse, the commoners; yemse, the slaves; and 

such trade-based castes as blacksmiths and griots (minstrels). 

Worldly wealth mattered little in this system, as even nakomse

of modest means had substantial political power. Some castes 

were subject to restrictions. For example, neither blacksmiths 

nor griots were allowed to 

intermarry with other castes.

Modern Hierarchy

Status in modern Burkina 

Faso is determined more by 

wealth than by traditional 

hierarchies. Urban areas

generally are wealthier than 

rural, and urban dwellers 

typically are both healthier 

(see p3 of Sustenance and 

Health) and better educated 

(see p2 of Learning and Knowledge) than residents of rural 

areas. Consequently, it is no surprise that Burkina Faso is 

urbanizing—as fast as 10% per year by one estimate (Photo: 

Ouagadougou’s UN Circle).

Even in cities, however, wealth disparities have grown rapidly 

in Burkina Faso since the mid-1990s. While a small number at

the very top of society have grown wealthy, standards of living 

for many Burkinabè have fallen. Despite this widening gap, 

wealth disparities tend to be less visible in Burkina Faso than in 

many other African countries because Burkinabè typically shun 

extravagant displays of wealth.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

Although exact statistics are unavailable, 

it is estimated that about 61% of 

Burkinabè are Muslim and about 23% 

Christian. Approximately 15% of 

Burkinabè identify as neither Muslim nor 

Christian but instead practice traditional 

religions exclusively. Although many 

communities long resisted Islamization 

and later Christianization, the country has 

had no major religious conflicts. Burkina 

Faso’s constitution and other laws protect 

religious freedom, and as a secular 

institution, the Burkinabè government actively supports 

religious tolerance.

Muslim Faith

Origins of Islam

Islam dates to the 6th century AD, when Muhammad, whom 

Muslims consider God’s final Prophet, was born in Mecca in 

what is today Saudi Arabia. Muslims believe that while 

Muhammad was meditating in the desert, the Archangel 

Gabriel visited him over a 23-year period, revealing the Qur’an, 

or “Holy Book,” to guide their everyday lives and shape their 

lifelong values.

Meaning of Islam

Islam is a way of life to its adherents. The term Islam literally 

means submission to the will of God, and a Muslim is “a person 

who submits to God.”

Muslim Sects

Islam divided very early in its history into two sects based on 

different understandings of who should lead the Muslim 

community (Ummah). While the Sunni believed that the leader

(Caliph) of the Muslim community should be elected, Shi’a 

Muslims believed the religious leader should be a direct 

descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. Burkinabè Muslims are 

predominantly Sunni.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY
Five Pillars of Islam

There are five basic principles of the Islamic faith.

• Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God

and Muhammad is His Messenger.”

• Prayer (Salat): Pray five times a day while facing the Ka’aba 

in Mecca. The Ka’aba is considered the center of the Muslim 

world and a unifying focal point for Islamic worship (Photo:

US Marine at the Ka’aba in 

2012).

• Charity (Zakat): Donate 

alms, a percentage of one’s 

income, to the poor or needy.

• Fasting (Sawm): Abstain

from food, drink, and sexual 

relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of 

Ramadan.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Perform the pilgrimage to 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia, at least once.

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel those of two other major religions, 

namely Judaism and Christianity. In fact, Muslims consider 

Christians and Jews “people of the Book,” referring to biblical 

scriptures, because they also share their monotheistic belief in 

one God.

Abraham: All three faiths trace their lineage to Abraham, 

known as Ibrahim to Muslims. While Christians and Jews trace 

their descent to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac, 

Muslims trace theirs to Abraham, his Egyptian concubine, 

Hagar, and their son Ishmael.

Scriptures: Much of the content of the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the Christian Bible’s Old and 

New Testaments. Although Muslims view Islam as a 

completion of previous revelations to Jewish and Christian 

prophets, they also believe Jews and Christians altered God’s 

word and that Muhammad received the true revelation of God.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Jesus: The three religions differ significantly in their 

understanding of the role of Jesus. While Christians consider 

him the divine Messiah who fulfills the Jewish Scriptures, Jews 

are still waiting for the Messiah to come. Muslims recognize 

Jesus as a prophet, but do not acknowledge the Christian view 

of his divinity. Nor do they believe in the Christian Trinity.

View of Death: Muslims believe that the time of death, like 

birth, is determined by Allah. While people grieve the loss of 

family members or friends, they do not view death itself as a 

negative event, as Muslims believe that a person who lived a 

good life goes on to live in Heaven.

Concept of Jihad

The concept of jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and moral 

pursuit of God’s command to lead a virtuous life. It should not 

be confused with the publicized violence often associated with

jihad. Most Muslims are strongly opposed to terrorism, 

considering it contrary to 

Islamic beliefs (Photo: Qur’an 

page from 8th century North 

Africa).

Ramadan

Ramadan is a month-long 

time for inner reflection, selfcontrol, and focus on God. 

During this time, Muslims who 

are physically able are 

required to fast from dawn to 

sunset. Many Muslims believe that denying their hunger helps

them to learn self-control, appreciate the difficulties of the poor, 

and gain spiritual renewal—by fasting, one learns to appreciate 

the good in life. It is common for Muslims to break their fast at 

sunset with a light meal followed by prayer and then dinner.

Ramadan is observed during the 9th month of the Islamic 

calendar (see p3 of Time and Space) and includes three holy 

days.

• Lailat al-Qadr: Known as “The Night of Power,” this day

marks Muhammad’s receipt of the first verses of the Qur’an.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
• Eid al-Adha or Tabaski: This day is the “Festival of 

Sacrifice” and commemorates Abraham’s willingness to 

sacrifice his son, Ishmael (or Isaac, according to the 

Christian faith), as proof of his loyalty to God. It is celebrated 

the same day the Hajj ends.

• Eid al-Fitr: It is a 3-day “Festival of Fast-Breaking” 

celebrated at Ramadan’s end.

Sufi Tradition: Characterized by mysticism and ritualistic 

prayer, many who follow the Sufi tradition belong to religious 

brotherhoods whose members follow the teachings of their 

spiritual leaders. Adhering to Sunni 

tradition, Sufis are not fundamentalists.

Traditional Beliefs

Prior to the introduction of Christianity 

and Islam to Burkina Faso, an 

indigenous belief system characterized 

traditional society. A common 

indigenous practice was animism, a

belief that spiritual forces inhabit 

natural objects such as trees and rivers 

and influence human existence. 

Animists believe these natural objects are sacred and must be 

respected – a conviction that closely connects them to the 

natural environment. For example, some ethnic groups 

conducted rituals honoring supernatural powers thought to 

control soil fertility and rainfall. Many Burkinabè also believed 

that their ancestors’ spirits participated in daily life by guiding or 

obstructing their activities. Finally, most groups recognized the 

existence of a supreme being or creator god who was good, 

merciful, unknowable, and removed from daily life (Photo: 

Early-1900s Buffalo mask).

Religious beliefs and practices also played an important role in 

the Mossi kingdoms’ political structures (see p9 of Political and 

Social Relations). For example, in order to rule legitimately, all 

kings and district chiefs had to have naam, a supernatural 

power conferred upon them when entering office. In addition, a 

ritual specialist known as a tengsoba, or “earth-owner,” 

balanced the king’s authority by retaining control over soil 

fertility, rain, and harvest rituals that benefitted the collective.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Members of family lineages (see p1 of Family and Kinship) also 

performed rituals, sometimes directed at the spirits of their 

ancestors, in order to ensure good harvests and personal 

wellbeing. Many Burkinabè groups made elaborate wooden 

masks—some up to 7 feet high—worn during these rituals and 

other ceremonies (see p5 of Aesthetics and Recreation).

The Introduction of Islam

The linking of religious and political authority gave the Mossi 

kingdoms a strong foundation from which to resist invasions by

neighboring Muslim empires, which began in the 14th century. 

Even when an individual Mossi leader converted to Islam—as, 

for example, the Moro Naba (King of Ouagadougou) did in the 

16th century—mass conversions did not follow nor did the link 

between traditional religion and Mossi politics weaken.

Due to Burkina Faso’s position between empires and along key 

trade routes, some Burkinabè became traders and eventually 

converted to Islam (see p2 of History and Myth and p9 of 

Political and Social Relations). With their valuable literacy 

skills, other Muslims obtained positions of authority in some 

Mossi kingdoms. Nevertheless, 

despite the formation of several 

Muslim communities in the 

region, most Mossi resisted 

Islamization through the 19th 

century.

The religious landscape began 

to shift in the late 18th century, 

when the 24th Moro Naba built a mosque and installed an 

imam (Islamic teacher and prayer leader). In the North, Peulh 

and Tuareg communities increasingly fell under the influence of 

Islamic warriors from a Nigerian-based empire and converted 

to Islam (see p9-10 of Political and Social Relations) (Pictured: 

A late-19th-century illustration of an ancient mosque in 

neighboring Côte d’Ivoire).

As French forces overran Burkina Faso in the late 1800s, more 

Mossi converted to Islam. Some scholars speculate that Mossi 

lost faith in traditional beliefs and political structures in the face 

of overwhelming foreign might. While there were only about 

30,000 Burkinabè Muslims at the end of the 19th century, there 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
were 80,000 or about 20% of the population by 1959. By the 

1980s, around 40% of Burkinabè were Muslim.

The Introduction of Christianity

The first Christian missionaries, the French Catholic White 

Fathers, opened a mission near Ouagadougou in 1901. In 

1922, the French White Sisters founded an indigenous 

religious order known as the Black Sisters of the Immaculate 

Conception. The terms “White” and “Black” refer to the ritual 

colors of the robes these missionaries wore. In the 1930s, the 

White Fathers opened a mission in Bobo-Dioulasso focused on

youth and vocally opposed the colonial authorities’ forced labor 

policies (see p4 of History and Myth). The first Mossi priests 

were ordained in 1942, and in 1956 a Mossi became West 

Africa’s first indigenous Catholic bishop.

In 1921 representatives of the American Assemblies of God 

became Burkina Faso’s first Protestant missionaries, and in 

1933 they established a Bible school that educated Christian 

lay workers. Temple Apostolic Church, the first indigenous 

church, opened a few years later, 

and in 1961 a Protestant 

cooperative, the Federation of 

Evangelical Churches and 

Missions, opened (Photo: Temple 

Emmanuel in Ouagadougou).

Religion Today

Regardless of their affiliation, 

most Burkinabè consider religion an important part of life. In 

addition, they tend to tolerate people of other faiths, a stance 

that stems both from the government’s secularism and from the 

fact that most Burkinabè have family members of other faiths.

Still, while Muslims form a majority, Christians dominate the 

elite. While this arrangement has not led to social tension, the

Burkinabè government is careful to be inclusive by consulting 

Muslim religious and social leaders.

Islam

While most Burkinabè Muslims live in the northern, eastern, 

and western border regions, many also live in cities. While 

Muslims are members of all ethnic groups, they form a majority 

among the Peulh and Tuareg. Most of Burkina Faso’s Muslims 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
adhere to the Maliki school of Sunni Islam, a generally tolerant 

school of thought that emphasizes 

community consensus and the 

primacy of the Qur’an over later 

Islamic teachings.

Some Burkinabè Sunnis align with 

Sufi brotherhoods, such as the 

Quadiriyya and Tijaniyya. These 

less orthodox forms of Islam stress 

simplicity in rituals, mysticism, and 

the formation of a personal connection with God. Observant 

Muslims typically do not eat pork or drink alcohol (Photo: 

Burkinabè Muslims).

Christianity

Although towns in all parts of Burkina Faso have both Roman 

Catholic and Protestant churches, most Christians live in urban 

areas, and the vast majority identify themselves as Roman 

Catholics. Many Christian churches hold services in local 

languages (see p1-2 of Language and Communication).

Traditional Beliefs

For many Burkinabè today, a traditional religious worldview 

infuses daily life. While beliefs and practices vary significantly, 

one commonality is the belief that spirits and spiritual forces 

intervene in people’s daily lives, granting health and fortune or 

imposing sickness and hardship. Consequently, some 

Burkinabè consult a féticheur or diviner to obtain a gris-gris, 

an amulet or charm, to protect them from harm. Burkinabè may 

also perform dances meant to 

influence spirits (Photo: Burkinabè 

perform a dance for a member of 

the Joint Special Operations Tasks 

Force – Trans-Sahara).

Some Burkinabè also perform 

rituals meant to appease the 

spirits and bring fertility. Usually 

performed at so-called earth or 

ancestor shrines built near natural features such as hills, rocks, 

caves, trees, rivers, ponds, or termite hills, some of these 

rituals involve the sacrifice of animals such as chickens or 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
goats. Other types of animal sacrifice are performed after a 

crime has been committed to identify the offender and to call 

on the spirits to punish him.

Burkinabè who consider themselves Muslim and Christian also 

often perform such rituals. Some Muslims may refrain from 

certain ritualistic aspects that conflict with their Islamic beliefs, 

such as offering sorghum beer to the spirits. Others tend to

embrace the rituals, even attributing the discovery of sacred 

sites to Muslim saints or scholars.

Witchcraft Accusations

Burkinabè women who are elderly, widowed, 

disabled, poor, or lack the support of male relatives 

occasionally are accused of witchcraft. Men are the 

predominant accusers, although women within 

polygynous marriages sometimes indict each other 

(see p1 of Family and Kinship). A suspicious death 

sometimes compels men to identify the witch 

responsible by conducting a siongo (the bearing of 

the body”) ritual which involves carrying the body 

through the village. In a trance-like state, the men 

receive guidance from the deceased’s spirit, who 

leads them to the accused.

Witchcraft accusations usually result in mistreatment 

and sometimes violence against the accused, who

frequently are banished from their villages. The

government has prioritized the protection of accused 

witches since the 1990s. It recently implemented an 

action plan that provides legal, psycho-social, and 

physical and financial support to accused witches. 

Concerned that this plan is not sufficient, the Ministry 

of Social Action in 2013 developed a new strategy 

that calls for legislation to punish accusers and antiwitchcraft education for the general public.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Family and kinship are an important part of Burkinabè identity 

and social structure, as most Burkinabè identify first with their 

family and secondarily with their ethnic group. Since much of 

Burkina Faso’s population lives in rural areas, traditional family 

structures still have strong influence in the lives of Burkinabè.

Family Structure

The extended family—which includes grandparents, cousins, 

uncles, and aunts—is an important part of Burkina Faso’s daily 

life. Members of a single extended family tend to live in close 

proximity and help each other with financial matters and childrearing. Most of Burkina Faso’s ethnic groups (see p9-10 of

Political and Social Relations) are patriarchal and patrilineal, 

whereby men hold most decisionmaking authority and family

heritage is traced through the father’s lineage. The eldest male 

typically serves as head of household.

Polygyny: Both legal and common in Burkina Faso, polygyny

refers to the practice of a man having more than one wife at a 

time. About 1/3 of Burkinabè unions are polygynous, 

representing one of the highest rates in Africa. According to 

sharia (Islamic law), a man may have as many as 4 wives at a 

time as long as he supports them equally.

Children: Children, especially boys, 

are a major source of happiness for a 

family. Since Burkinabè women 

typically bear as many children as 

possible, a couple may have as 

many as 6-10 children altogether. 

Mothers or female relatives often tie 

or carry young infants on their backs

while they perform daily tasks. From 

a young age, children are expected 

to help with such chores as cleaning, caring for siblings, and 

collecting water or firewood. The oldest child, in particular, has 

significant responsibilities in the family. Young adults typically 

live with their parents until marriage.

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Residence

Burkinabè residences vary widely by region, ethnicity, level of 

urbanization, and socioeconomic 

class.

Rural: Around 75% of Burkinabè

inhabit yiris (compounds) located in 

villages. Most extended families

have their own yiri, which consists 

of several huts surrounded by an 

adobe (a blend of clay and straw) 

wall. This arrangement creates an 

inner courtyard for socializing. In most cases, men do not live 

in the same huts as women and children. Villages typically 

have neither electricity nor plumbing and instead get their water 

from wells (pictured). Whenever villagers build a yiri or plant a 

new field, the founder of the village—called the chef de terre, 

or “earth-priest”—typically performs rites in order to appease

ancestral spirits (see p4-5 & 7-8 of Religion and Spirituality).

The style of rural dwellings varies by ethnic group. The Mossi, 

for example, build round homes from adobe, while the Peulh

build hemispherical huts from straw. By contrast, the Gurunsi, 

Bobo, and Lobi build large homes with wood and mud walls 

and sometimes aluminum or zinc roofing. Such homes typically 

have elaborate exterior décor and may have several secondary 

structures that serve as kitchens, animal pens, or storage.

Urban: In order to reduce housing expenses, urban Burkinabè

often share their dwellings with a large number of housemates 

or family members. While the rich tend to live in French-style 

homes with electricity and running water, the poor typically live 

in semi-permanent structures made of corrugated iron, plaster, 

and mud. Somewhat more affluent Burkinabè may also live in 

large cinderblock apartment buildings.

Rites of Passage

Burkinabè across the different ethnic groups perform rites-ofpassage ceremonies to mark life’s transitions. 

Naming Convention: The Mossi in particular name children in 

a formal ceremony held 3-4 days after birth, usually choosing 

names representing the day the child were born. For example, 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
the name Hado suggests that the child was born on a Sunday. 

Islamic names can be similarly suggestive. The name Lokre, 

for example, probably means that the person was born at the 

end of Ramadan (see p3-4 of Religion and Spirituality).

Initiations: Christians baptize their children about a week after 

birth, while Muslims circumcise their boys after a similar 

interval. In traditional society, boys were circumcised between 

ages 7-13. Boys usually endured the procedure at a secluded 

initiation camp, where they received several months of 

preparation for adulthood. Today, these camps remain only in 

the most isolated of areas. Many Burkinabè girls traditionally 

received similar lessons on marriage and motherhood. Female 

circumcision, also known as female genital mutilation (FGM), is 

still common in Burkina Faso (see p3 of Sex and Gender).

Courtship and Marriage

Marriages traditionally functioned as an alliance between 

families. Consequently, parents or elders in the families of the 

prospective couple traditionally arranged most marriages. In 

modern Burkinabè society, the popularity of arranged marriage 

has declined, especially in urban 

areas. Many Burkinabè now date and 

choose spouses on their own, 

although often with the blessing of 

family members.

While the legal marriage age is 20 for 

boys and 17 for girls, child marriage is 

common. Moreover, girls as young as 

15 are legally allowed to marry in 

unspecified “special circumstances.” Weddings (pictured) often 

are elaborate affairs involving a mixture of traditional, Islamic, 

and Christian customs.

Bridewealth: This term refers to a payment the groom’s family 

offers the bride’s as a compensation for the loss of the bride’s 

labor and presence. Bridewealth usually consists of cattle or 

money and must be transferred before the marriage is 

finalized. Although the groom’s uncle is supposed to negotiate 

bridewealth in the Islamic tradition, it is common in many ethnic 

groups—even those with Muslim members—for the parents of 

the bride and groom to negotiate directly.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Traditional Funerals

Burkinabè believe that funeral rites must be performed 

so as not to offend the deceased or cause misfortune 

to befall the deceased’s family. In traditional funerals, 

the deceased is represented by a board or blanket. An 

animal is slaughtered and presented to the “deceased” 

along with money or offerings. The “deceased” is then 

asked how he died, and his answers are derived from 

the swaying of the board or blanket. The “deceased” is 

then buried alongside various offerings. Thereafter, 

men wearing traditional masks (see Aesthetics and 

Recreation) are known to dance long into the night.

Levirate Marriage: According to customary levirate marriage, 

widows are obligated to marry one of their husband’s brothers 

if their first husband dies. Although obligatory levirate marriage 

is illegal in Burkina Faso, the practice is common. If a widow 

declines a levirate marriage, her family may have to return

bridewealth received as part of the original marriage. In some 

cases, a widow’s in-laws also may deny access to any children 

or property from the marriage (see p1-2 of Sex and Gender).

Death

Since Burkina Faso has a hot climate and few refrigerated 

morgues, deceased Burkinabè are usually buried within 24-48 

hours, although the interval can vary. Muslims are bound by 

their religion to bury their dead as soon as possible. Some 

Burkinabè believe that a body must be “interrogated” before 

burial in order to learn whether witchcraft or other foul play led 

to the death (see p8 of Religion and Spirituality).

Unlike burials, funerals may not occur until months after death. 

This arrangement gives out-of-town friends time to travel and 

allows the deceased’s family to save money for funeral costs, 

which sometimes force families into debt. In rural areas, the 

deceased usually are buried near family compounds. A married 

woman may be buried near the compound of her birth family 

rather than that of her husband’s family. Most Burkinabè

funerals blend traditional, Islamic, and Christian rites.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Even though Burkina Faso has some of the region’s strongest 

legal protections, women still experience gender discrimination.

Primary reasons for gender bias are the influence of traditional 

attitudes and inconsistent enforcement of anti-discrimination 

laws. Burkinabè women also often bear heavy familial burdens.

Gender Roles and Work

In rural areas, men and women have differing responsibilities, 

although there are some shared tasks now that gender roles 

are not as fixed as they were in the past. Women traditionally 

have been responsible for planting, tending, and harvesting 

crops, while men clear and plow land and hunt and 

butcheranimals. In addition to their farming duties, women 

perform domestic tasks, including cooking, cleaning, caring for 

children, and collecting water and firewood. Many women also 

tend their own small plots of 

farmland or sell goods from stalls 

(pictured) to earn additional 

income.

In cities men are expected be the

breadwinners and bring home the 

naã songo—the “money for the 

sauce.” Many women also make 

contributions to family income—

sometimes even larger than those 

of their husbands—while still playing the role of homemaker.

Women comprise 45% of Burkina Faso’s labor force and 

perform many of the same jobs as men, although women rarely 

are given managerial or decisionmaking authority.

Gender and the Law

While Burkina Faso’s constitution and several of its statutes 

prohibit gender-based discrimination, many women—especially 

in rural areas—are unaware of their rights or unable to assert 

them. Consequently, issues of family law—such as divorce and 

inheritance—often are decided under customary law (see p4 of

Political and Social Relations), which favors men.

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
According to statutory law, for 

example, a woman is legally 

entitled to assume custody of 

all children and marital assets 

if her husband dies. Under

customary law, however, the 

late husband’s family has the 

power to decide whether the 

widow gets child custody and 

may even force her to consent to a levirate marriage (see p4 of

Family and Kinship). In addition, customary law stipulates that 

a woman’s property becomes her husband’s property upon 

marriage. Due to these customs, many Burkinabè women can 

neither keep possession of their own land nor inherit any new 

properties. Consequently, women find it difficult to secure bank 

loans, remaining dependent upon husbands and their families.

Gender and Politics

Female political participation has increased markedly since the 

1980s, when President Sankara (see p6-7 of History and Myth) 

promoted expanded women’s rights. Between 1995 and 2006,

the number of women in local and national government rose 

from 8.9% to 35.8%. In 2009 the National Assembly approved 

a law requiring each political party to allocate at least 30% of its 

municipal and legislative nominations to women. Yet, the law is 

written vaguely and does not specify consequences for noncompliance. Following the most recent elections in 2012, 

women held 20 of 127 (16%) seats in the National Assembly, a 

rate comparable to that in the US House of Representatives 

(18%). Women also held 12 of 88 (14%) Cabinet posts.

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Rape is a criminal offense punishable by 5-10 years in prison. 

Although many cases are investigated, few Burkinabè women 

report rape due to shame and fear. Village leaders typically 

settle GBV disputes since Burkina Faso’s laws address neither 

spousal abuse nor domestic violence. Those leaders 

commonly advise women to reconcile with their husbands on 

the grounds that abuse is preferable to divorce and seclusion. 

Although Burkina Faso does not have shelters for abused 

women, the government operates 13 Maisons de la Femmes

(Women’s Houses) that provide counseling.

SEX &

GENDER
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

A common practice among Burkinabè, FGM involves modifying 

the female sex organ in order to limit sexual pleasure and 

promote virginity. Even though Burkina Faso’s government 

became one of the first in Africa to ban FGM and create a 

committee to contest its practice, those measures have yielded

few positive results: a 2005 United Nations Children’s Fund 

(UNICEF) study found that 77% of Burkinabè women age 15-

49 have undergone FGM. This lack of results is due partly to 

the reluctance of judges to impose fines and prison sentences 

on impoverished families. In addition, some Burkinabè have the 

procedure performed in Mali, where FGM is legal.

Sex and Procreation

Burkinabè sexual attitudes are 

relaxed as compared to traditional 

Islamic beliefs. In a 2004 survey, 

about 1/4 of men and 1/2 of women 

age 15-19 reported having had sex. 

Only 37% of men and 16% of women 

reported using contraceptives, with

the statistic even lower among 

married women. A 2004 National 

Family Planning policy gives all 

Burkinabè the right to use 

contraceptives, although many 

doctors will not prescribe them to a 

woman without her husband’s 

consent. Moreover, as with other aspects of the law, many 

women are not aware of their right to use contraception. While 

abortion is illegal in most circumstances, the procedure is 

permitted when pregnancy results from rape or incest or 

threatens a woman’s health.

Homosexuality

Burkinabè typically hold conservative attitudes about 

homosexuality and do not discuss it openly. While 

homosexuality is not a criminal offense in Burkina Faso, some

homosexuals face discrimination nonetheless. For example, 

members of some communities pressure homosexual couples 

to relocate because they feel that homosexual couples set a 

bad example for children.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Over 60 languages and dialects are spoken in Burkina Faso. 

French is the official language, spoken primarily in urban areas.

Most Burkinabè speak one of their country’s many indigenous 

languages (see below). Many Burkinabè are multilingual, 

particularly in urban areas where they speak a regional lingua 

franca or two along with their mother tongue.

French

French colonizers introduced their 

language to Burkina Faso in 1890, 

where it became the official 

language following independence. 

Today, French is the main language 

used in government, education, and 

media. While most urban Burkinabè

speak French, only 15-20% of the 

total population speaks it with any 

fluency. French-speaking ability is 

often seen as a status symbol.

Indigenous Languages

The Burkinabè government classifies 3 indigenous tongues as 

national languages: Mòoré, Peulh, and Dyula. Like most of the 

country’s indigenous languages, Mòoré belongs to the Gur 

branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Dyula and 11 other 

indigenous languages belong to the Mande branch of the same 

family, while Peulh belongs to the Atlantic branch.

Mòoré

Mòoré (pronounced more-ray) is a more common indigenous 

language, spoken by more than half the population. Although 

Mòoré is associated with the Mossi ethnic group and their 

homeland in central Burkina Faso, many Burkinabè speak 

Mòoré as a second language. There also are communities of 

Mòoré-speakers in Mali, Togo, and other nearby countries. A 

French missionary working in Burkina Faso compiled the first 

dictionary and grammar book for Mòoré in 1933 (see p1 of

Learning and Knowledge).

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Peulh

In 1999 about 750,000 Burkinabè

spoke Peulh, the language of the 

Peulh ethnic group (Photo: Peulh

women). Spoken primarily in the 

North and East, Peulh is a popular

lingua franca across West Africa. 

Moreover, there are communities of 

native Peulh-speakers in most 

West African countries.

Dyula

Dyula is spoken in western Burkina Faso and the neighboring 

countries of Côte d’Ivoire and Mali. Initially associated only with 

a small ethnic group of the same name, Dyula has spread

widely among Muslim traders in West Africa. Today, members 

of many West African ethnic groups speak Dyula in addition to 

their mother tongues. In Burkina Faso, for example, some 

members of the Bobo, Bwaba, and Senufo ethnic groups speak 

Dyula. Due to the language’s role in commerce, “Dyula” is 

sometimes used as a generic term for a Muslim trader.

Other Indigenous Languages

Gourmanchéma: As of 1999 an estimated 600,000 Burkinabè

spoke Gourmanchéma, which is associated primarily with the 

Gurma ethnic group that inhabits eastern Burkina Faso, Benin, 

Niger, and Togo. Since many Gurma live in difficult-to-access

villages with few or no schools, literacy among Gourmanchéma 

speakers is only 25-50% as high as the already low rate of 

22% for the country as a whole (see p2 of Learning and 

Knowledge). Like Mòoré, Gourmanchéma is a Gur language.

Tamasheq: As of 2000, an estimated 31,200 Burkinabè spoke 

Tamasheq, which is associated with the Tuareg ethnic group of 

Algeria, Libya, Mali, Niger, and northern Burkina Faso. Unlike 

Burkina Faso’s other indigenous languages, Tamasheq is part 

of the Afro-Asiatic language family (includes Arabic) rather than 

the Niger-Congo language family (which includes many subSaharan African languages, such as Swahili). The number of 

Tamasheq speakers living in Burkina Faso probably has 

increased since 2012, when at least 8,000 Tuareg fled conflict 

in neighboring Mali (see p8 of Political and Social Relations).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Origins of “Burkina Faso”

In 1984 President Sankara changed Upper Volta’s 

name to Burkina Faso, a name that combines 

elements of 3 indigenous languages (see p6 of

History and Myth). Burkina means “honorable” in 

Mòoré; Faso means “native land” or “father village” in 

Dyula. Burkinabè—both a noun for inhabitants of 

Burkina Faso and an adjective for things that relate to 

the country—combines Burkina with the Peulh suffix -

bé, which means “people of” or “children of.” Hence, 

Burkina Faso means “land of the honorable [ones],” 

while Burkinabè means “honorable people.” In many 

cases, Burkinabè refer to their country as “Burkina.”

Communication Overview

Communicating effectively with Burkinabè requires not just the 

ability to speak French, Mòoré, or another local language, but 

also the ability to interact effectively with those languages. This 

notion of communication competence includes paralanguage 

(speech, volume, rate, intonation), nonverbal cues (personal 

space, touch, gestures), and interaction management 

(conversation initiation, turn-taking, and termination). When 

used properly, these forms of communication help to ensure 

that statements are interpreted as the speaker intends.

Communication Style

Burkinabè tend to be friendly and polite. They usually interact 

in a formal, regimented manner with superiors, elders, and new 

acquaintances and informal among family and friends. They 

typically communicate indirectly in order to avoid embarrassing 

or appearing to criticize anyone publicly. For example, when 

Burkinabè are asked inappropriate questions, they tend to 

answer vaguely or remain silent. Since Burkinabè value 

patience and modesty, they frown on displays of aggression, 

annoyance, or boastfulness. French-speaking Burkinabè tend 

to dispel anger by saying “doucement” (“gently”), indicating 

that they expect an indirect follow-up question that will allow 

them to share the problem.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Taboo Conversational Topics: Burkinabè regard topics like 

politics, religion, sex, and ethnicity as sensitive. Consequently, 

foreign nationals should avoid discussing these topics unless a 

Burkinabè initiates the discussion. In all cases, foreign 

nationals should never debate or argue about a topic.

Plaisanterie: Burkinabè typically practice the social custom of

plaisanterie (“joking”), whereby individuals playfully yet 

inoffensively mock one another (see p9 of Political and Social 

Relations). Often revolving around sensitive subjects like ethnic 

identity, plaisanterie usually involves exchanges between 

certain pairs of Burkinabè ethnic groups such as the Gurunsi 

and Bissa or the Mossi and Samo. Burkinabè consider

plaisanterie as a benign way of coping with inequalities

resulting from ethnic tensions. Some ethnic groups in Ghana 

and Mali share a custom similar to plaisanterie.

Greetings

As in much of Africa, greetings are an 

important part of social relations in 

Burkina Faso (see p10-11 of Political 

and Social Relations). The most 

common greeting is the handshake. 

While Burkinabè typically shake 

hands with every person in a room if 

possible, Muslims of different genders 

rarely shake hands with one another 

and instead nod in greeting (see p2 of 

Time and Space). Other physical greetings include touching 

temples, exchanging cheek kisses, clicking middle fingers 

during a handshake, or holding the other person’s forearm with 

the left hand while shaking with the right hand (pictured).

After handshakes or some other physical greeting, Burkinabè

typically exchange inquiries about health, family, work, and a 

number of other topics. Regardless of the actual state of their 

affairs, Burkinabè answer these questions on a positive note.

Visits: When arriving at a home, visitors often announce their 

presence by clapping and saying “Ko ko ko.” Muslims instead 

may use the Arabic greeting “As-salamu ‘alaikum” (“Peace be 

upon you”), to which the host typically replies “Wa ‘aleykum 

assalaam” (“And upon you be peace”).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Forms of Address

In most cases, Burkinabè address superiors, elders, and new 

acquaintances with the titles Monsieur (Mr.) or Madame (Mrs.) 

and the person’s last name. In informal settings such as in a 

village, Burkinabè may also address even unrelated elders as 

tonton (uncle) or tonti (auntie). In some cases, Burkinabè use 

titles instead of last names. A teacher named Jean Ouédraogo, 

for example, might be called “Monsieur L’Instructor” instead of 

“Monsieur Ouédraogo.” Burkinabè also may use the title maître 

(master) for lawyers or other 

professionals. Burkinabè who are well 

acquainted typically use first names.

Sounds and Gestures

Like most people around the world, 

Burkinabè use sounds or gestures to 

emphasize or substitute for the 

spoken word. For example, Burkinabè

may signal disagreement by using the

tongue to make a clicking noise in the 

back of the mouth. Similarly, they 

sometimes express displeasure by rounding the lips and 

inhaling through the teeth. Burkinabè consider it rude to beckon 

someone by shouting out the person’s name or pointing with 

the index finger. Instead, they may whistle, hiss, or cup a hand 

with their palm facing the floor and then move their fingers in a 

sweeping motion toward themselves.

Displays of Respect: Burkinabè sometimes show respect for 

others by performing any of a range of physical movements. 

For example, two Burkinabè conversing may display respect by 

slowly lowering their bodies at the knees. Since each person 

attempts to stand lower than the other, both people eventually 

end up crouching. Similarly, a Mossi greeting a chief in a 

traditional, rural context may lie on the ground and throw dirt on 

his head, showing deference by burying himself symbolically. 

Women often kneel in order to show respect.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English French Mòoré

Do you speak 

English?

Parlez-vous 

anglais?

Maam ka gomda 

___ [soma] ye

Hello Bonjour Puusgo

How are you? Comment allezvous? Y ganse?

I am fine, thanks, 

how about you?

Bien, merci, et 

vous? Laafi bala, la foo?

Yes Oui Nye

No Non Ayo

Okay Bien Yel ka ye/Yaa sõma

Good morning Bonjour Ne y yibeogo

Good 

afternoon/evening Bonsoir Ne y zaabre

Goodbye Au revoir Wend na taase

Please S’il vous plaît Maan-y sugri

Thank you Merci Y barka

You’re welcome De rien Yel ka ye

Excuse me/I’m sorry Excusez-moi/Je 

suis désolé Ysurgi/Ykabre

Today Aujourd’hui Rũnda

Tomorrow Demain Beoogo

Yesterday Hier Zaame

What is your name? Comment vous 

appelez vous? Fo yuur la a boe͂?

My name is ___ Je m’appelle ___ Mam yuur la a ___

What is the price? Quel est le prix? Yaa wãn la?

How is your family? Comment ça-va 

votre famille? La y zak rãmba?

My family is well Ma famille est bien Ub keimame/Ub 

yaa laafi

1, 2, 3 un, deux, trois

A yembra (ye), A 

yiibu (yi), A baabo 

(ta)

4, 5, 6 quatre, cinq, six A naase, A nu, A 

yoobe

7, 8, 9, 10 sept, huit, neuf, dix A yopoe, A nii, A 

wε, Piiga

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 29%

• Male: 37%

• Female: 22% (2007 estimate)

Traditional Education

While Burkina Faso’s traditional 

educational methods varied

across ethnic groups, they shared 

some commonalities. For 

example, many Burkinabè children 

learned by watching their parents 

and other community members 

perform such tasks as herding, harvesting, and household 

chores. Initiation camps also provided education (see p3 of 

Family and Kinship).

Burkinabè traditionally transmitted knowledge and information 

orally, as none of Burkina Faso’s indigenous languages (see

p1 of Language and Communication) had a writing system until 

the colonial era. Instead, griots (minstrels) sang stories about 

the history of their peoples. In addition, adults conveyed 

morals, values, and customs through proverbs and folktales. 

Since formal schools have yet to reach all Burkinabè, 

traditional education continues to play a role in Burkina Faso.

History of Formal Education

The French White Fathers, a Catholic missionary group, 

opened Burkina Faso’s first formal school in 1901 (see p6 of

Religion and Spirituality). Other Catholic and Protestant 

missionary groups soon followed with schools that taught 

Christianity, French, and some domestic skills for women.

The French colonial government created the first public schools 

in 1920 in hopes of assimilating the indigenous population to 

French culture. However, many indigenous people distrusted 

the French public schools. Some Peulh nobles sent slaves to 

the schools in place of their own children. Muslims founded 

Burkina Faso’s first Qur’anic schools in 1950.

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education after Independence

In 1958 then-autonomous Upper Volta (former name of Burkina

Faso—see p4 of History and Myth) began to reform its 

education system. This new education system emphasized 

African culture while also providing some degree of 

employment training. Yet, at independence in 1960, only 6% of 

primary-school-age children and 0.5% of secondary-school-age 

children were enrolled in school. Since the country had no 

universities at the time, secondary school graduates traveled to 

Senegal or France to pursue higher education.

On the advice of foreign donors, Burkina Faso’s government 

made further educational reforms, resulting in a dual education 

system: while Rural Education Centers (CERs) focused mostly 

on agricultural training, primary schools in cities offered a more 

academics-focused curriculum.

Implementing the new education system proved difficult, costly, 

and ultimately unsuccessful, as few rural Burkinabè enrolled 

their children in CERs. Some families distrusted formal 

schools, while others thought the CERs were inferior and 

waited for primary schools to be built in their region. Even in 

cities, academic achievement improved only marginally. In 

1980, for example, Burkina Faso’s 

literacy rate was just 8%.

Modern Education System

In 2007 the Burkinabè government 

passed the Education Act, which 

made primary school both free and 

compulsory. This law led to a rapid 

growth in public school enrollment

but so far has done little to improve low rates of school 

completion. In addition, since the hiring of new teachers and 

building of new schools has failed to keep pace with the influx 

of new students, many Burkinabè schools are even more 

overcrowded than they were before the Education Act: by 2011 

the student-teacher ratio in primary schools had risen to 53:1—

15% higher than it was in 2006 and 24% higher than the 2011 

average for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole (Photo: A school in 

the northeastern town of Pissila that was built with foreign aid 

from the US—see p4 of Economics and Resources).

KNOWLED

LEARNING &

GE
Although the Education Act made 

primary school compulsory, that 

provision is not enforced. Indeed, 

about half the country’s students 

drop out of primary school before 

finishing their studies. In 2010 the 

United Nations (UN) reported that 

only 61% of primary-school-age 

children were enrolled, with much 

higher rates in urban areas than 

in rural areas. Similarly, the UN reported in 2012 that 

secondary school enrollment among children of the appropriate 

age was just 27% for girls and 35% for boys.

Structure of Education System

The education system is patterned after the French model, with

French the primary language of instruction at all levels.

Indigenous languages sometimes are used in primary schools

(see p1 of Language and Communication). Classes generally

extend Monday-Saturday, breaking on Thursday. Formal preprimary education is rare, although community-based 

preschools (bisongos) serve ages 3-5 in some urban areas.

Primary: Primary school starts at age 6 and includes 3 cycles 

of 2 years each: le cour préparatoire (preparatory), le cour 

élémentaire (elementary), and le cour moyen (middle). After 

6 years students take an exam to determine their eligibility for a 

primary school completion certificate.

Secondary: Secondary school includes 2 cycles. The lower 

cycle is compulsory and includes 4 years of general study 

followed by a national exam. The upper cycle is voluntary and

consists of 2 tracks: 3 years of general study, which ends in a 

baccalauréat exam and potentially university study; or 2-3 

years of training for fields like law enforcement and nursing.

Tertiary: Established in 1974, the Université de Ouagadougou 

is Burkina Faso’s largest institution of higher learning. It offers 

degrees in humanities, arts, and social and natural sciences. 

Since the 1990s several additional universities have opened, 

including the Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso and the 

Université Ouaga II. Religious and secular private universities 

also exist in Burkina Faso.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Community Support for Education

Burkinabè have established several grassroots organizations in 

order to support schools and increase community involvement 

in the country’s education system.

Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs): Operating at the local 

level, PTAs support education system by providing food and 

classroom materials, helping 

teachers find lodging, and 

repairing desks. PTAs are 

funded by student fees, which 

range from CFA 1,000-2,000 

(US$ 2-4) per year. With the 

passage of the Education Act, 

the Burkinabè government 

agreed to finance one year of 

PTA fees for girls whose 

families cannot afford them.

Mothers of Students Associations (AMEs): AMEs enable 

women to have a role in influencing a traditionally maledominated culture (see p1-2 of Sex and Gender). AMEs clean 

classrooms, help prepare meals for students, and check in with 

the family when a child misses school.

School Management Committees (SMCs): Supported by the 

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), SMCs give parents, 

teachers, and community leaders a forum through which to

collaborate in supporting and maintaining schools. After SMC 

members are elected, they receive a week of training in school 

maintenance and administration.

Informal Education

Informal education is available in some parts of Burkina Faso 

through Non-Formal Basic Education Centers (CEBNFs), the 

successor to the country’s former CERs. Designed to serve 

drop-outs or people who never attended school, CEBNFs offer 

basic education and skills training in sewing, mechanics, 

masonry, and other fields. CEBNFs also teach practical skills 

related to health, gardening, animal husbandry, and HIV 

prevention. Many CEBNFs rely on non-governmental 

organizations for funding.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Concept of Time

Life moves at a more relaxed pace in Burkina Faso as 

compared to Western society. Burkinabè typically concern 

themselves more with events and seasons than with 

schedules. Due to the growth of business and urban areas, this 

concept of time shows signs of shifting.

Time and Work

Most businesses, banks, and 

government offices are open 

7:30am-12:30pm and 3:00pm6:00pm, Monday through Friday. In 

most establishments, there is a long 

break during the hottest parts of the 

day. Bars and restaurants often stay 

open until late in the evening, while

some stores open from 9:00am until 

12:00pm on Saturdays. Burkina Faso adheres to Greenwich 

Mean Time (5 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time) and

does not observe daylight savings time.

Punctuality

Burkinabè typically accept a variety of reasons for tardiness 

and therefore do not emphasize punctuality. Even in contexts 

that involve advanced appointments, meetings often start as 

many as 2 hours late. There exists a prevailing attitude that 

tasks not done today can be completed tomorrow. 

Consequently, employees are not expected to work late, and 

deadlines are flexible. In urban areas, however, punctuality has 

grown more important in recent years. Moreover, Burkinabè

typically expect foreign nationals to be punctual.

Negotiations

Building relationships is fundamental to conducting business 

transactions and typically becomes an extended process. In 

many cases, decisions are not final until they are approved by 

an elder. Foreign nationals are advised to be patient during 

negotiations, as Burkinabè tend to view impatience negatively 

(see p3 of Language and Communication).

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Personal Space

For most Burkinabè, the distance between people interacting is 

related to the degree of familiarity between those people. For 

example, new acquaintances and members of opposite sexes 

typically stand at a distance of about an arm’s length when 

conversing. Young people stand at a similar distance when 

having a conversation with elders or superiors. By contrast, 

relatives and same-sex friends stand much closer, usually 

within an arm’s length. In public situations, such as riding the 

bus or standing in line, Burkinabè

are accustomed to standing only 1

or 2 inches apart due to space 

constraints.

Touch

Burkinabè of the same sex often 

make casual physical contact while 

conversing. This tendency is 

especially common for men, who 

often hold hands, walk arm-in-arm, 

or rest their hands on each other’s legs. Burkinabè of different 

genders—especially Muslims—often refrain from making 

contact in public in order to maintain propriety. In the more 

Westernized cities, members of opposite sexes commonly hold 

hands in public.

Eye Contact

Excessive eye contact can be regarded as rude or challenging. 

Although Burkinabè of equal social status usually make direct 

eye contact at the beginning of a conversation, they generally 

divert their gaze for the remainder of the interaction. Children 

usually avoid eye contact with elders as a sign of respect. 

Similarly, women avoid eye contact with men, while people of 

lower status avoid eye contact with those of higher status.

Left Hand Taboo

Like people from many cultures in Africa, Asia, and the Middle

East, Burkinabè reserve the left hand for personal hygiene and 

consider it unclean. Consequently, they consider it offensive to 

use the left hand for handshakes, gestures, or passing objects. 

If a handshake is expected and a Burkinabè’s right hand is 

unclean or occupied, he usually offers the right wrist instead.

SPACE

TIME &
Photographs

Burkinabè—especially children—enjoy being photographed. As 

a courtesy, foreign visitors should ask permission before taking 

pictures of locals. Some Burkinabè may expect money in 

exchange for having their picture taken. It is illegal in Burkina 

Faso to take pictures of government personnel, communication 

posts, military bases, and the Presidential Palace. Violations of 

such laws can lead to fines and confiscation of equipment.

Lunar Islamic Calendar

Muslims use the Islamic calendar to calculate when to 

celebrate religious holidays. Since the Islamic calendar is 

based on lunar phases, specific dates fall 11 days earlier each 

year from the perspective of the Western calendar. There are 

12 months in the Islamic calendar, all of which have 30 days or 

fewer. Days begin at sunset on what Westerners would 

consider the previous day.

Public Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• January 3: Fête du 3 Janvier (commemorates

the 1966 uprising, see p5 of History and Myth)

• March 8: International Women’s Day

• May 1: Labor Day

• August 4: Revolution Day

• August 5: Independence Day

• August 15: Assumption Day

• December 11: Proclamation of the Republic

• December 25: Christmas Day

Religious Holidays

• March – April: Easter Sunday (Christian)

• May – June: Ascension Day (Christian)

• Variable: Eid al-Fitr (Islamic)

• Variable: Eid al-Adha/Tabaski (Islamic)

• Variable: Mawlid (Islamic)

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Burkina Faso’s clothing, music, arts, and crafts represent a rich 

blend of indigenous cultures and foreign influences. Moreover,

since independence the Burkinabè government has gained a 

strong reputation for promoting the arts.

Dress and Appearance

While styles vary among ethnic 

groups, most Burkinabè prefer 

loose, colorful clothing. They

generally take pride in 

projecting a neat and clean

appearance.

Traditional: Among the Mossi 

ethnic group (see p9 of

Political and Social Relations), 

clothing was made traditionally 

from long, narrow strips of 

cloth, which were white- or indigo-colored, sewn together and 

tailored into garments. For men, those garments traditionally 

included long robes and loose flowing shirts worn over baggy, 

mid-calf-length pants secured by a belt. Mossi men traditionally 

wore hats made either of cloth (a style known as pugulumaka) 

or woven twine (sapon zug peogo). Mossi women historically

wore—and today still wear—ankle-length, wraparound skirts 

called pagnes.

Modern: Today most Burkinabè wear a mix of traditional dress 

and secondhand clothing imported from the US and Europe. In 

cities, men typically wear trousers and a shirt in casual settings

and add a jacket and tie for the office and other formal settings. 

Urban women usually wear a blouse over a pagne or pants. 

Many young people in urban areas prefer a t-shirt and jeans.

In rural areas, men usually wear a woven shirt over long shorts 

or cut-off jeans while working in the fields. Some Muslim men 

wear a long, loose robe called a boubou. Rural women usually 

wear a blouse or t-shirt over a pagne.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION
Peulh Adornments: Burkinabè women of the Peulh ethnic

group (see p10 of Political and Social Relations) have a 

reputation for beauty and elaborate personal adornment. Many 

Peulh women tattoo designs on their face, lips, or chin, while 

others use intricate braids to embed silver coins or other pieces 

of jewelry into their hair. Some Peulh women also wear bright 

scarves and blouses with puffy sleeves.

Recreation

In their spare time, Burkinabè enjoy telling stories, visiting 

family and friends, dancing, and playing or listening to music. 

Among Burkinabè women, gathering together and styling each 

other’s hair is a favorite pastime, especially since many women 

like to change their hairstyles frequently. Men tend to socialize 

at beer stands known as dolo cabarets. On weekends, some 

Burkinabè also socialize and dance at bars and nightclubs.

Sports and Games

Games: Burkinabè typically prefer simple games that can be 

played in many different settings. One of the most popular such 

games is mancala, (also called awale) in which 2 players try to 

capture each other’s game pieces—usually pebbles or seeds—

by moving them across a board with 

small slots, following certain rules. 

Some Burkinabè also play Ige, 

resembling jacks. Today, many 

Burkinabè men play checkers or 

cards, while urban children often play 

le babyfoot (foosball).

Football: Like almost all Africans, 

Burkinabè love soccer, or football as 

it is called throughout the continent. 

The national team—nicknamed Les Étalons or The Stallions—

plays at Le Stade de 4 Août (4th of August Stadium), which 

seats about 40,000 and is located in Ouagadougou. While Les 

Étalons have had only limited international success, they 

managed a surprise second-place finish in the 2013 African 

Cup of Nations. In addition, they are one of Africa’s highestranked teams in FIFA’s World Rankings. Apart from the 

national team, several clubs belonging to small associations 

play at venues around the country.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Cycling: Due partly to Burkina Faso’s mostly flat terrain (see

p2 of Political and Social Relations), many Burkinabè enjoy 

cycling and participate in weekend races. Burkina Faso is also 

home to the Tour du Faso, a 10-day race patterned after the 

Tour de France. Held annually in late October, the Tour du 

Faso covers a different route of 800-900mi each year. Cyclists 

from across Africa and Europe participate in the event.

Other Sports: Burkinabè enjoy several other sports, including 

basketball, boxing, golf, handball, rugby, tennis, and volleyball. 

Wrestling also has a long tradition in Burkina Faso and remains 

popular today. Like neighboring Nigeriens, Burkinabè wrestlers 

continue to excel in African wrestling competitions.

Music

Traditional: Music is and always has been an important part of 

daily life and special events. Traditionally, the Mossi have used 

such instruments as the djembe (an hourglass-shaped drum) 

and the bendre (a drum made from goatskin and dried gourds) 

to call men to battle or to accompany tales sung by minstrels 

known as griots (see p1 of Learning and Knowledge). 

Shepherds and nomads—especially the Peulh—traditionally 

have played wooden flutes and still are known for their 

handclapping and singing techniques. Many Burkinabè ethnic 

groups traditionally used various types of wooden xylophones, 

such as the balafon and gyil. Some 

Burkinabè musicians and musical 

groups, such as Gabin Dabiré and 

Les Frères Coulibaly, still use them 

today.

Modern: Today Burkinabè enjoy a 

variety of musical styles, from Afro 

Pop and soukous (African rumba) 

to American hip-hop and reggae

(Photo: Burkinabè reggae musician Jah Verity). Music from 

Côte d’Ivoire, Cuba, and Mali is especially popular. A few 

musical groups from Burkina Faso have gained international 

recognition, the most notable of which is likely the traditional 

music group Farafina. Since the 1980s, Farafina has toured the 

US and Europe, partnering with a variety of musical groups 

such as the Rolling Stones.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dance

Dance historically has been an important aspect of Burkinabè

rituals and ceremonies. For example, Burkinabè traditionally 

have performed the mandiani dance to celebrate weddings, 

good harvests, and rites-of-passage ceremonies (see p3 of

Family and Kinship). Especially among Muslims, men and 

women usually have their own separate dances.

In some dances, performers wear masks to honor the dead, 

guard against evil spirits, and enable communication with 

ancestral spirits (see p 4 & 7-8 of Religion and Spirituality). 

When they wear masks shaped like animals, some performers 

accompany their costume with appropriate motions. Most 

Burkinabè maintain a deep respect 

for the power of masks, believing

that masked dancers temporarily 

become whatever they are imitating.

Theater

Several Burkinabè theatrical troupes 

perform a range of unpublished 

indigenous plays (few are printed) in 

addition to original productions. One 

of the most popular types of theater among Burkinabè is “forum 

theater,” which provides an opportunity for the cast and 

audience to discuss a play’s issues after each performance. 

Many Burkinabè performances address social issues, such as 

voting laws and HIV prevention. The oldest forum-style theater 

group in Burkina Faso is the Atelier Theater Burkinabè troupe 

of Ouagadougou, which still tours the country and performs in 

towns and villages.

Cinema

Sometimes called the “Hollywood of Africa,” Burkina Faso has 

a long cinematic tradition, having produced a large number of 

talented actors, directors, and producers. One of the country’s 

best known cinematic figures is Idrissa Ouédraogo, a director 

who has received multiple awards at the prestigious Cannes 

Film Festival for such works as Yaaba (“Grandmother,” 1989). 

Similarly, Burkinabè director Gaston Kaboré has received 

multiple international awards for such films as Wend Kuuni

(“God’s Gift,” 1983) and Zan Boko (1988).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Burkinabè cinema thrives because the government has 

invested heavily in the film industry since independence. In 

addition, Burkina Faso hosts the Pan-African Cinema Festival 

(FESPACO), which began in 1969 and held for 10 days every 2 

years in Ouagadougou. More than 100 films were screened at

FESPACO 2013, for which the theme was “African Cinema and 

Public Policy in Africa.” 

Literature

Before written literature came to Burkina Faso, minstrels 

(griots) transmitted history orally through poems, stories, and 

songs (see p1 of Learning and Knowledge). In modern Burkina 

Faso, several Burkinabè authors write both fiction and nonfiction French-language works. The first Burkinabè author to 

publish a novel was Nazi Boni, whose Crepuscle de temps 

anciens (The Twilight of Bygone Days) was published in 1962. 

Other famous Burkinabè novelists include Monique Ilboudu and 

Augustin-Sonde Coulibaly and one of the most prominent nonfiction writers, Joseph Ki-Zerbo, a historian.

Arts and Crafts

Burkinabè are renowned for the diversity and 

quality of their handicrafts, which historically 

have filled both spiritual and practical needs. 

Traditionally, Burkinabè used wood to make 

stools, utensils, instruments, and other 

practical goods. From copper they designed 

rings, bracelets, and anklets intended to 

dispel misfortune, disease, and evil spirits. 

Many Burkinabè still wear such jewelry. In 

addition to their tradition of working with 

wood and metal, Burkinabè are known for 

making high-quality leather goods, including 

boxes, water jugs, satchels, and purses.

Masks: Many Burkinabè ethnic groups traditionally have used

intricately carved masks in various rituals and ceremonies (see

p5 of Religion and Spirituality). Materials and designs vary. 

Many masks are made from wood, while others are made from 

metal, cloth, or dried gourds. In addition, animal designs are 

common. For example, the Mossi make wooden antelope 

masks that can be as tall as 7 feet.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Burkina Faso’s cuisine varies by region, season, religion, and 

economic status. While some French culinary influence lingers 

from the colonial period, the everyday diet of most Burkinabè

consists of simple, traditional foods. Like many countries in its 

region, Burkina Faso faces serious food shortages.

Dining Customs

Home cooking is an important part 

of the lifestyle of rural Burkinabè, 

who typically dine while sitting on 

the floor using their right hands to 

take food from communal bowls. By 

contrast, wealthier Burkinabè and 

those who live in urban areas 

typically prefer to dine at a table using utensils and individual 

plates. Both urban and rural Burkinabè tend to dine in silence. 

Women and children traditionally eat only after the men have 

had their fill. Consequently, females in poorer families often 

receive less food and consume fewer calories and nutrients 

than their male relatives (Photo: Restaurant in Ouagadougou).

Although Burkinabè tend to eat 3 daily meals, poor families 

may omit breakfast. Breakfast typically is served around 

7:00am, consisting of coffee or tea with bread. It may also 

include tô, a porridge made from ground millet (see below), or 

leftovers from the previous day. Most schools and businesses 

close for 2-3 hours in the middle of the day in order to leave 

sufficient time for lunch, which is the largest meal (see p1 of 

Time and Space). Eaten around 8:00pm or even later, dinner 

tends to be a smaller meal, consisting mostly of lunch leftovers.

Diet

Most main meals include millet or another staple (see below) 

served with a sauce consisting primarily of vegetables and 

sometimes includes bits of meat (see below). Since the South 

is wetter and better suited to crop cultivation than the North 

(see p2 of Political and Social Relations), food diversity tends 

to be much larger in the South.

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Staples: While tô, also known as sagabo, is the most common

starch, Burkinabè who live in the South also eat sweet potatoes 

and yams. Known in the region for their fondness for beans, 

Burkinabè also eat cakes made from boiled and mashed blackeyed peas. Other staples include baguettes, couscous, French 

fries, spaghetti, and rice. Since the latter is costly, poor 

Burkinabe are more likely to eat tô instead.

Meat: Also expensive, meat is added to most dishes in small 

portions. Poultry, beef, and dried fish are most popular, 

although members of some ethnic groups eat pintade (guinea 

fowl), agouti (cane rat), or caterpillar. Burkinabè who cannot 

afford meat often use cubes of meat stock to add flavor to their 

dishes. Most observant Muslims do not eat pork.

Fruits and Vegetables: Mangoes, bananas, baobab and shea 

fruit (from indigenous African trees), and other tropical fruits are 

popular snacks or are made into beverages. Burkinabè also 

consume vegetables like beets, green beans, okra, onions, 

peppers, pumpkin, tomatoes, zucchini, and vegetable leaves.

Street Food: Although Burkinabè rarely eat out, urban 

dwellers, day laborers, and travelers purchase food from street 

stalls on a regular basis. For 

breakfast, stalls sell tea or coffee, 

bread, fried eggs, and Frenchstyle tartines (open-faced 

sandwiches). In afternoons they 

offer snacks, including yam 

chips, gallettes (donuts made 

from corn, millet, or wheat flour), 

or brochettes (skewered chunks 

of beef, pork, or mutton) with a 

spicy chili sauce (Photo: A 

Burkinabè woman at a street-side food stall).

Beverages

Burkinabè consume a variety of alcoholic drinks, including palm 

wine and dolo or chaplao, a beer made from sorghum in the 

Southwest and millet in other regions. In addition, local beers 

such as Brakina and SOB.B.BRA are popular. The most 

common non-alcoholic beverages are tea, juice, and soda. 

Most observant Muslims do not consume alcohol.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

Burkina Faso faces major health challenges. While the infant 

mortality rate has declined since 1990 from 121 deaths per 

1,000 live births to 78, this rate still far exceeds the regional 

average of 56 and remains among Africa’s highest. The 

country’s life expectancy of 56 years matches the regional 

average but remains far short of the global average of 70 

years. Access to healthcare has improved in recent years, yet 

rural areas face a serious shortage of medical personnel and 

resources. Burkina Faso’s most serious health threats include 

malnutrition and infectious disease 

(Photo: Children at a health 

screening).

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine in a given 

region consists of knowledge, 

skills, and practices derived from 

the beliefs, experiences, and 

theories of the indigenous population and used to protect and 

restore health. Traditional healers use plants, herbs, and 

animal products to formulate treatments for a wide variety of 

conditions, even HIV/AIDS.

Since traditional medicine tends to be cheaper, more available, 

and more familiar to Burkinabè than Western-style medicine, 

about 80% of the population depends primarily upon traditional 

medicine for healthcare needs. For some ailments, Burkinabè

may use a blend of traditional and Western-style medicine.

Historically, Burkina Faso’s government has supported the use 

of traditional medicine. For example, the country’s public health 

code recognizes traditional healthcare practitioners. In addition, 

the government-run Institute for Health Sciences Research has 

a research facility that tests the efficacy of herbal medicines.

Modern Healthcare System

Even though the government subsidizes healthcare costs, 

much of Burkina Faso’s population cannot afford medical 

services. The government currently is working to resolve this 

problem by installing a universal healthcare system, which is 

projected to be in place by 2015 and funded by both the 

government and private stakeholders.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Burkina Faso’s current healthcare system includes a number of

public and private hospitals, nearly all of which are located in 

urban areas. Consequently, much of the largely rural 

population lacks easy access to healthcare. Furthermore, even 

urban hospitals tend to be understaffed and poorly equipped. In 

2010 Burkina Faso had only 5 doctors per 100,000 people—

about 1/3 the average for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole.

Health Challenges

Malnutrition: Burkina Faso and other parts of West Africa 

suffer from food insecurity due both to environmental factors

(drought and desertification, see p3 of Political and Social 

Relations) and social factors (poverty, corruption, and political 

instability). The UN estimates that 430,000 children in Burkina 

Faso alone suffered from acute malnutrition in 2013. Food aid 

(see p4 of Economics and Resources) alleviates Burkina 

Faso’s food shortages somewhat.

Malaria: Malaria is endemic to Burkina Faso and spreads most 

rapidly in the rainy season (see p2 of Political and Social 

Relations). According to the World Health Organization, more 

than 4 million Burkinabè contracted malaria in 2012 and 

resulted in about 7,000 deaths

(Photo: A village elder receives 

medicine from a health care 

worker).

HIV/AIDS: Although Burkina 

Faso’s HIV infection rate of 1.1% 

is higher than the global average 

of 0.8%, it is far lower than the 

sub-Saharan African average of 4.9%. The government strives

to maintain this low rate by providing free anti-retroviral 

medication to HIV-positive Burkinabè and conducting HIV/AIDS 

awareness campaigns. Still, HIV-positive Burkinabè often face

isolation from their communities. Consequently, some parents 

refuse to get tested for the disease and thereby fail to avoid 

preventable mother-to-child transmissions of HIV.

Other Diseases: In addition to malaria and HIV, Burkina Faso 

struggles with tuberculosis, yellow fever, meningitis, hepatitis 

A, and typhoid fever.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

With around 45% of its population 

living on less than $1.25-per-day,

Burkina Faso is one of the world’s 

poorest countries. It had lower 

GDP-per-person in 2012 than all 

but 20 or so countries worldwide. 

Most Burkinabè have no access to 

social welfare benefits like 

pensions or insurance. Those who 

do have access to benefits are 

employed mainly by the civil service, large private firms, or 

state-owned enterprises. These workers also tend to earn 

above-average salaries, contributing to the country’s unequal 

wealth distribution: while the wealthiest 10% receive about 32% 

of Burkina Faso’s household income, the poorest 10% receive 

less than 3%.

Burkina Faso’s poverty is the complex result of several factors. 

From an environmental perspective, the country has cyclical 

droughts, poor soil, comparatively few natural resources, and 

no direct access to the sea. These issues have some impact 

on mining and agricultural productivity. From an institutional 

perspective, the Burkinabè education system has failed to raise 

significantly the skill level of Burkinabè workers (see p2-3 of

Learning and Knowledge). In addition, corruption remains a 

problem, although not to the same degree as in some parts of 

Africa. Finally, Burkina Faso lacks a physical infrastructure that 

can support rapid economic growth (see p1 of Technology and 

Material).

Given these limitations, about 80-90% of Burkinabè rely on 

subsistence agriculture for their livelihood. Several million of 

them also spend part of each year working in Côte d’Ivoire or 

Ghana on cocoa or coffee plantations. The proceeds these 

workers send home constitute a large portion Burkina Faso’s 

GDP. Much of the remainder of the country’s GDP comes from 

foreign aid, customs duties (taxes on imports), and earnings 

derived from gold and cotton exports.

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Agriculture

A majority of Burkinabè work in the agricultural sector even 

though agricultural activities—crop cultivation, livestock 

husbandry, forestry, and fishing—account for just 1/3 of GDP. 

Moreover, since Burkinabè farmers do not produce enough 

food to feed the entire country, food must be imported.

Crop Cultivation: About 21% of Burkina Faso’s territory is 

suitable for cultivation, about half of which requires irrigation. 

Consequently, most farming occurs in Burkina Faso’s relatively 

well-watered Southwest. The main subsistence crops are 

millet, sorghum, corn, and rice, while the most popular cash 

crop is cotton. Some Burkinabè also grow sweet potatoes, 

yams, and fonio (a wild grass grown for its seeds) for their own 

consumption and green beans, 

karite (indigenous shea nuts), 

mangoes, peanuts, and sesame 

seeds for export or sale at markets.

Cotton: Introduced by the French 

in the early 1900s, cotton is by far 

Burkina Faso’s most commercially 

important crop. Although gold now 

generates greater export earnings 

than cotton, Burkina Faso remains 

Africa’s largest producer of cotton. Most Burkinabè farmers sell 

their cotton to one of 3 companies: the Burkinabè Society of 

Fiber Textiles (SOFITEX), the Cotton Society of Gourma 

(SOCOMA), and Faso Cotton. Those companies then gin the 

cotton (separate its fibers from its seeds) and export the 

resulting “cotton lint.” Burkina Faso is one of 3 African countries 

in which some cotton is grown from genetically modified (GM) 

seeds. Although GM cotton is more pest-resistant, its seeds 

are controversial because their long-term effects are unknown.

Livestock, Forestry, and Fishing: Burkina Faso’s livestock 

industry flourishes in the North, where farmers raise cattle, 

sheep, goats, horses, pigs, donkeys, chickens, and guinea 

fowl. The country’s timber and fishing industries are much 

smaller due to the relative lack of waterways and forests. The 

timber industry has been constrained further by large-scale 

deforestation.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Industry

Industrial activities constituted 22% of Burkina Faso’s GDP in 

2012, employing less than 10% of the labor force. The most 

important industrial subsector is mining, which has expanded 

since the 2003 Mining Act liberalized mining laws.

Gold: In 2009 gold surpassed cotton as the country’s main 

source of foreign exchange earnings and the industrial sector’s 

key component. As of 2012 Burkina Faso had 7 “industrial” 

(large-scale, foreign-owned) and 800 “artisanal” (small-scale, 

domestically-owned) gold mines. In recent years, there have 

been tensions between artisanal miners and semi-industrial 

permit holders. While gold is found in all parts of Burkina Faso, 

the most productive mines are run by Etruscan Resources (in 

the Southeast), Semafo Inc. (West), and Iamgold Corporation 

(North). Burkina Faso’s large mines are mostly foreign-owned,

although the government holds a 

10% stake in them (Photo: Workers 

at a Burkinabè gold mine).

Other Minerals: In addition to gold, 

Burkina Faso has deposits of 

manganese, limestone, copper, iron, 

bauxite (aluminum ore), silver, zinc, 

among others. The poor condition of 

Burkina Faso’s infrastructure (see p1 

of Technology and Material) so far 

has hindered commercial exploitation of these minerals.

Manufacturing: Burkinabè manufacturing is limited due to high 

input costs, the small domestic market, and import competition. 

Production is limited to cotton lint, processed food and 

beverages, textiles, bricks, shoes, leather, and bicycles.

Services

The services sector constitutes 45% of Burkina Faso’s GDP

and employs less than 10% of the population. Most services

sector employees work for the civil service, which offers regular 

pay and job security. Many people who perform services make 

their living in the vast informal economy, which is not reflected 

fully in official statistics. These informal workers either perform 

services such as bicycle repair, tailoring, or blacksmithing or 

sell items, such as snacks and phone cards.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Tourism: According to official numbers, more than 200,000 

foreign nationals visited Burkina Faso for business or pleasure 

in 2011. Unofficial reports suggest that only about 10% of those 

visitors were tourists. Although Burkina Faso has a number of 

tourist attractions—including several national parks and events 

like FESPACO (see p5 of Aesthetics and Recreation)—it lacks 

the infrastructure to accommodate large numbers of tourists.

Currency

Burkina Faso’s currency is the West African CFA franc, which 

circulates in 5 banknote and 9 coin denominations that range in 

value from CFA 1-10,000. The West African CFA franc’s value 

is pegged to that of the Euro at a rate of €1=CFA 656, meaning 

that $1 is worth about CFA 500. Pronounced “seffa,” the West 

African CFA franc is used by 8 West African countries. In 

addition, 6 Central African countries use the Central African 

CFA franc, a distinct but effectively 

equivalent currency.

Foreign Trade

In 2012 Burkina Faso’s exports 

totaled $2.2 billion and consisted 

primarily of gold, cotton, livestock, 

and other agricultural goods such

as karite (shea nuts—pictured). 

The main purchasers of Burkina 

Faso’s exports were China (26%), Turkey (25%), and Belgium 

(5%). Burkinabè imports in 2012 totaled $2.7 billion and 

consisted mostly of food, fuel, machinery, and other capital 

goods. Burkina Faso’s largest suppliers were Côte d’Ivoire

(18%), France (15%), Ghana (5%), and Togo (5%).

Foreign Aid

Despit President Thomas Sankara alienating many Western 

donors during the 1980s, Burkina Faso has become a favored 

aid recipient since Blaise Compaoré took power in 1987 (see 

p4 of History and Myth). In 2011 Burkina Faso received slightly 

more than $1 billion in official development assistance (ODA). 

The largest single-country contributors were France (9% of all

ODA) and the US (6%), while the largest organizational donors 

were the World Bank (21%), the European Union (15%), and 

the African Development Fund (8%).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Burkina Faso’s physical infrastructure is largely inadequate. 

The country has limited public transit, few paved roadways, a

single rail line, and a small, unreliable electrical grid. Burkina 

Faso’s communications networks are fairly reliable.

Transportation

Most Burkinabè walk when 

traveling short distances. Some 

also ride mobylettes (mopeds), 

motos (low-power motorcycles), 

or bicycles. A few Burkinabè still 

ride horses (a traditional symbol of 

social status, see p11 of Political 

and Social Relations), although not 

an ordinary practice today. 

Privately owned taxis, share taxis, and taxi-motos (autorickshaws) are available in Ouagadougou for trips around town.

For longer trips, most Burkinabè travel in buses or minibuses. 

Although buses are nicer and more reliable, they are available 

only between larger cities and towns. Most buses operate on a 

fixed schedule and offer reserved seating. Minibuses, also 

known as “bush taxis”, cover routes to and from less prominent 

destinations. Minibuses do not operate on fixed schedules and 

instead depart only when full.

Roadways: In 2010 Burkina Faso had some 10,000 mi of 

roadways, mostly unpaved apart from those linking major 

cities. Although unpaved roadways are adequate for much of 

the year, they often become impassable during the rainy 

season (see p2 of Political and Social Relations). Moreover, 

even paved roadways often have potholes or other hazards.

Apart from maintenance issues, Burkinabè roadways can also 

be dangerous due to lax safety standards. Many vehicles are 

poorly maintained, carry far too many passengers, and lack 

essential equipment such as headlights. Authorities rarely 

enforce traffic laws, and both pedestrians and animals may 

enter roadways without warning.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: In 2008 Burkina Faso had 386 mi of railways, which 

all were part of a 783-mi line between Kaya in central Burkina 

Faso and the Port of Abidjan in southern Côte d’Ivoire. Other 

important cities on this line include Ouagadougou, Koudougou,

Bobo-Dioulasso, and Banfora. The line carries both freight and 

passenger traffic. As of 2012, plans were in progress to extend 

the line from Kaya to the extreme northeastern city of Tambao, 

where large deposits of manganese are located.

Waterways and Ports: Since Burkina Faso is landlocked and 

has few inland waterways, the country has no ports. Abidjan in 

Côte d’Ivoire is the closest major port to Burkina Faso (over 

500 air miles from Ouagadougou).

Airways: Burkina Faso has 24 

airports and airstrips, of which only 

the country’s international 

airports—Ouagadougou Airport 

and Bobo-Dioulasso Airport—have 

paved runways (Photo: A 

combined US-Burkinabè security 

patrol at Ouagadougou Airport). In 

August 2013, Burkina Faso’s 

government secured a loan for a third airport, which will be 

named Donsin International Airport and located approximately 

25 mi from Ouagadougou. Burkina Faso’s national airline, Air 

Burkina, offers domestic flights between Bobo-Dioulasso and 

Ouagadougou and international flights to various West African 

cities, including Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire; Lomé, Togo; Cotonou, 

Benin; and Bamako, Mali. Other African airlines, such as ASKY 

(Togo) and Kenya Airways—offer similar routes. Global carriers 

like Air France and Turkish Airlines offer service to Europe.

Energy

Less than 1/5 of Burkinabè have access to electricity, and 

those who do live in cities. Consequently, most rural Burkinabè

rely upon wood fuel or charcoal for their energy needs. Some 

rural dwellers also use solar panels or pay small fees to charge 

electronics in shops. For Burkinabè connected to the electrical 

grid, 87% of their energy comes from fossil fuels, while much of 

the remainder comes from hydropower. Since 2011 Burkina 

Faso has imported some electricity from Côte d’Ivoire’s grid.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

Burkina Faso’s constitution and laws provide for free press and 

speech, which the government mostly respects. However, 

there is a debate between journalists who believe that libel 

(written slander) should not be a criminal offense and the 

government, which often punishes libel with 1-2-year prison 

terms. Due to the potential for such penalties, self-censorship 

is common. In addition, low pay motivates some journalists to 

accept gombo (bribes) in exchange for positive coverage.

Print Media: The official, government-run daily newspaper is 

called Sidwaya (“Truth”). Popular private newspapers include 

Le Pays, L’Observateur Paalga, and L’Indépendant, the last 

of which offers a notably critical perspective on politics. There 

is also a popular satirical paper called Journal du Jeudi (“JJ”).

Radio and TV: Radio is Burkina Faso’s most popular medium 

for news and entertainment. The government owns and runs 

Radio Burkina, which broadcasts in French and 13 indigenous 

languages (see p1 of Language and Communication) from

Bobo-Dioulasso and Ouagadougou. In addition, a range of lowpower FM stations broadcast from large towns. Most rural 

Burkinabè trust these local stations more than other sources of 

news. TV is popular but rare outside urban areas. While the 

government runs a channel known as Television Nationale de 

Burkina, private firms run other channels, such as Canal 3.

Telecommunications

Burkina Faso’s telecommunications 

networks are expensive but reliable 

by African standards. The popularity 

of mobile phones has grown quickly

in recent years: although there were 

just 9 mobile subscriptions per 

1,000 Burkinabè in 2002, by 2012 

the rate had increased to 3 

subscriptions for every 5 Burkinabè. 

Burkina Faso’s 3 carriers (Airtel, Telecel, Telmob) sell prepaid 

wireless service through a network of stalls and shops in all 

parts of the country. The Internet’s popularity has also grown 

rapidly. Even in rural areas, Burkinabè access the Internet 

through smartphones or laptops with mobile broadband cards.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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