# Patent

## Title
Digital transmitter

## Abstract

An equalizer provided in a digital transmitter compensates for attenuation in a signal channel to a digital receiver. The equalizer generates signal levels as a logical function of bit history to emphasize transition signal levels relative to repeated signal levels. The preferred equalizer includes an FIR transition filter using a look-up table. Parallel circuits including FIR filters and digital-to-analog converters provide a high speed equalizer with lower speed circuitry. The equalizer is particularly suited to in-cabinet and local area network transmissions where feedback circuitry facilitates adaptive training of the equalizer.

## Background
RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/631,560 filed Feb. 25, 2015, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,419,824 on Aug. 16, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/170,324, filed Jan. 31, 2014 which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/914,350, filed Jun. 10, 2013 which is a continuation of Ser. No. 12/942,607, filed Nov. 9, 2010, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/571,582, filed Oct. 1, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,243,847, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 11/514,735, filed Aug. 31, 2006, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,254,491, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 11/483,971, filed Jul. 10, 2006, now abandoned, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/372,630, filed on Feb. 24, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,099,404, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/852,481, filed on May 10, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,542,555, which is a continuation of Ser. No. 08/882,252, filed on Jun. 25, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,266,379, which is a continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 08/880,980, filed on Jun. 23, 1997, now abandoned, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/050,098, filed on Jun. 20, 1997. The entire teachings of the above applications are incorporated herein by reference.


GOVERNMENT SUPPORT
This invention was made with government support, under Contract No. F19628-92-C-0045 awarded by the U.S. Air Force Systems. The Government has certain rights in the invention.


BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
The performance of many digital systems is limited by the interconnection bandwidth between chips, boards, and cabinets. As VLSI technology continues to scale, system bandwidth will become an even more significant bottleneck as the number of I/Os scales more slowly than the bandwidth demands of on-chip logic. Also, off-chip signaling rates have historically scaled more slowly than on-chip clock rates. Most digital systems today use full-swing unterminated signaling methods that are unsuited for data rates over 100 MHz on one meter wires. Even good current-mode signaling methods with matched terminations and carefully controlled line and connector impedance are limited to about 1 GHz by the frequency-dependent attenuation of copper lines. Without new approaches to high-speed signaling, bandwidth will stop scaling with technology when we reach these limits.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
Conventional approaches to dealing with frequency dependent attenuation on transmission lines have been based on equalization, either in the transmitter or the receiver. For example, Tomlinson precoding is used in modems, and digital equalization in binary communication channels has been suggested in U.S. Pat. No. 4,374,426 to Burlage et al. However, such systems cannot scale to very high data rate binary or multilevel systems having bandwidths extending from near DC to greater than 100 MHz. Above 100 MHz, there is substantial attenuation due to skin effect resistance on conventional transmission lines.
The present invention enables equalizers which can be implemented as digital filters operating at acceptable clock speeds. For example, a three gigabit per second (Gbps) system can be implemented using 400 Mbps circuitry. The invention has particular application to nonmodulated, high data rate, binary or multilevel systems as found locally within a data processor cabinet or on a local area network.
In accordance with the present invention, a digital transmitter comprises an equalizer which emphasizes transition signal levels relative to repeated signal levels. In particular, a novel equalizer generates signal levels as a logical function of bit history to emphasize transition signal levels. Preferred implementations define the logical function of bit history in a look up table.
In preferred embodiments, the equalizer converts an input signal, having discrete signal levels at an input data rate, to an output signal having a greater number of discrete signal levels at the input data rate. In particular, the equalizer generates transmitted signal levels based on time since last signal transition. A particularly simple implementation is based on whether a current bit is equal to an immediately previous bit.
The clock rates of circuitry can be reduced by multiplexing outputs of parallel logic circuits operating on different multiple bit inputs to generate the signal levels. In an adaptive system, the level of equalization in the transmitter can be modified as a function of signals detected at the receiver.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following more particular description of preferred embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention.
FIG. 1 illustrates a digital communication system embodying in the present invention.
FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate a sample binary pulse train and the resultant frequency dependent attenuation caused by a transmission line.
FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate the resistance and attenuation curves for one meter of 30 AWG, 100 ohm twisted pair transmission line, and FIGS. 3C and 3D illustrate the resistance and attenuation curves for one meter of 5 mil 0.5 oz 50 ohm strip guide.
FIG. 4A illustrates respective plus and minus signals in a differential system and the reduced data eye due to attenuation; FIG. 4B illustrates trailing edge jitter; and FIG. 4C illustrates the data eye with equalization.
FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate impulse response and frequency response of an equalizing filter embodying the invention, and FIGS. 5C and 5D illustrate an example input sequence and output sequence from the equalizer.
FIG. 6A illustrates the frequency response of an equalization filter embodying the invention; FIG. 6B illustrates transmission line attenuation; and FIG. 6C illustrates the combination of equalization and line attenuation.
FIG. 7A illustrates an equalized transmitter signal based on the input signal of FIG. 2A, and FIG. 7B illustrates the signal at the receiver resulting from the signal of FIG. 7A to be compared to FIG. 2B without equalization.
FIG. 8 illustrates one embodiment of an equalizer of the present invention including an FIR filter and digital-to-analog converter.
FIG. 9 illustrates a transition filter for use in a preferred embodiment of the invention.
FIG. 10 illustrates a two tap transition filter embodying the invention.
FIGS. 11A and 11B illustrate a digital to analog converter for use in the present invention.
FIG. 12 illustrates a preferred multiplexed embodiment of the invention.
FIG. 13 illustrates a transmitter having an encoder, equalizing filter, and driving DAC.
FIG. 14 illustrates a CPU to cache interface embodying the present invention.
FIG. 15 illustrates an alternative embodiment of the invention.
FIG. 16 is a block diagram of a transmitter for the coding scheme of FIG. 15.
FIG. 17 is one of ten transition coding and current steering networks in the current switching network of FIG. 16.
FIG. 18 is a set of waveforms for transition coding and the current steering network.
FIG. 19 illustrates differential current mode signaling on a differential transmission line.
FIG. 20 is a block diagram of the receiver used in the alternative coding technique.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
A description of preferred embodiments of the invention follows.
The density and speed of modern VLSI technology can be applied to overcome the I/O bottleneck they have created by building sophisticated I/O circuitry that compensates for the characteristics of the physical interconnect and cancels dominant sources of timing and voltage noise. Such optimized I/O circuitry is capable of achieving I/O rates an order of magnitude higher than those commonly used today while operating at lower power levels.
A system embodying the invention can achieve a four Gbps signaling rate using 0.5 μm CMOS circuits by controlling and compensating for characteristics of the transmission medium, by cancelling timing skew, and through careful management of time and voltage noise.
FIG. 1 shows one channel of high-speed signaling system embodying the invention. A transmitter module 22 accepts 8-bit parallel data at 400 MHz. Each byte is coded into 10 bits (FIG. 13) for band-limiting and forward error correction and transmitted up to 3 m across a single differential transmission line. The transmitter pre-emphasizes the signal to compensate for expected line characteristics. The lossy transmission line as well as package and connector parasitics attenuate and distort the received waveform, and it is further corrupted by noise coupled from adjacent lines and the power supply. The receiver 24 accepts this noisy, distorted signal and its own 400 MHz clock. The receiver generates 4 GHz timing signals aligned to the received data, samples the noisy signal, decodes the signal, and produces synchronous 8-bit data out. The transmit and receive modules may be packaged in a standard-cell library so they can be used by average CMOS designers without special skills.
The availability of 4 Gbps electrical signaling will enable the design of low-cost, high-bandwidth digital systems. The wide, slow buses around which many contemporary digital systems are organized can be replaced by point-to-point networks using a single, or at most a few, high-speed serial channels resulting in significant reduction in chip and module pinouts and in power dissipation. A network based on 400 MBytes/s serial channels, for example, has several times the bandwidth of a 133 MBytes/s PCI-bus that requires about 80 lines. Also, depending on its topology, the network permits several simultaneous transfers to take place at full rate. A group of eight parallel channels would provide sufficient data bandwidth (3.2 GBytes/s) for the CPU to memory connection of today's fastest processors. For modest distances (up to 30 m with 18 AWG wire), high-speed electrical signaling is an attractive alternative to optical communication in terms of cost, power, and board area for peripheral connection and building-sized local-area networks.
Frequency-Dependent Attenuation Causes Intersymbol Interference
Skin-effect resistance causes the attenuation of a conventional transmission line to increase with frequency. With a broadband signal, as typically used in digital systems, the superposition of unattenuated low-frequency signal components with attenuated high-frequency signal components causes intersymbol interference that degrades noise margins and reduces the maximum frequency at which the system can operate.
This effect is most pronounced in the case of a single 1 (0) in a field of 0s (1s) as illustrated in FIGS. 2A and B. The figures show a 4 Gb/s signal (FIG. 2A) and the simulated result of passing this signal across 3 m of 24 AWG twisted pair (FIG. 2B). The highest frequency of interest (2 GHz) is attenuated by −7.6 dB (42%). The unattenuated low-frequency component of the signal causes the isolated high-frequency pulse to barely reach the midpoint of the signal swing giving no eye opening in a differential system and very little probability of correct detection.
The problem here is not the magnitude of the attenuation, but rather the interference caused by the frequency-dependent nature of the attenuation. The high-frequency pulse has sufficient amplitude at the receiver for proper detection. It is the offset of the pulse from the receiver threshold by low-frequency interference that causes the problem. Later, we will see how using a transmitter equalizer to preemphasize the high-frequency components of the signal eliminates this problem. However, first we will characterize the nature of this attenuation in more detail.
FIGS. 3A-D show the resistance per meter and the attenuation per meter as a function of frequency for a 30 AWG (d=128 mm) twisted pair with a differential impedance of 100 ohms (FIGS. 3A and 3B) and for a 5 mil (d=125 mm) half-ounce (0.7 mil thick) 50 ohms (FIGS. 3C and 3D) stripguide. For the 30 AWG pair, the skin effect begins increasing resistance at 267 KHz and results in an attenuation to 56% of the original magnitude (−5 dB) per meter of cable at our operating frequency of 2 GHz corresponding to a bit rate of 4 Gb/s. Skin effect does not begin to effect the 5 mil PC trace until 43 MHz because of its thin vertical dimension. The high DC resistance (6.8 ohms/m) of this line gives it a DC attenuation of 88% (−1.2 dB). Above 70 MHz the attenuation rolls off rapidly reaching 40% (−8 dB) at 2 GHz. The important parameter, however, is the difference between the DC and high-frequency attenuation which is 45% (−6.8 dB).
The effect of frequency dependent attenuation is graphically illustrated in the eye-diagrams of FIG. 4A-C. As shown in the waveform in FIG. 4A, without equalization, a high-frequency attenuation factor of A reduces the height of the eye opening to 2A−1 with the eye completely disappearing at A≦0.5. This height is the amount of effective signal swing available to tolerate other noise sources such as receiver offset, receiver sensitivity, crosstalk, reflections of previous bits, and coupled supply noise. Because the waveforms cross the receiver threshold offset from the center of the signal swing, the width of the eye is also reduced. As illustrated in FIG. 4B, the leading edge of the attenuated pulse crosses the threshold at the normal time. The trailing edge, however, is advanced by tj. This data-dependent jitter causes greater sensitivity to skew and jitter in the signal or sampling clock and may introduce noise into the timing loop.
The waveform of FIG. 4C illustrates the situation when we equalize the signal by attenuating the DC and low frequency components so all components are attenuated by a factor of A. Here the height of the eye opening is A, considerably larger than 2A−1, especially for large attenuations. Also, because the waveforms cross at the midpoint of their swing, the width of the eye is a full bit-cell giving better tolerance of timing skew and jitter.
Preemphasizing Signal Transitions Equalizes Line Attenuation
Equalization eliminates the problem of frequency-dependent attenuation by filtering the transmitted or received waveform so the concatenation of the equalizing filter and the transmission line gives a flat frequency response. With equalization, an isolated 1 (0) in a field of 0s (1s) crosses the receiver threshold at the midpoint of its swing, as shown in FIG. 4C, rather than being offset by an unattenuated DC component, as shown in FIG. 4A. Narrow-band voice, video, and data modems have long used equalization to compensate for the linear portion of the line characteristics (Lee, Edward A., and Messerschmitt, David G., Digital Communication, Second Edition, Kluwer, 1994). However, it has not been used to date in broadband signaling with a wide bandwidth (i.e., greater than 100 MHz) over short distances.
We equalize the line using a 4 GHz FIR filter built into the current-mode transmitter. The arrangement is similar to the use of Tomlinson precoding in a narrowband modem (Tomlinson, M., “New Automatic Equalizer Employing Modulo Arithmetic,” Electronic Letters, March 1971). In a high-speed digital system it is much simpler to equalize at the transmitter than at the receiver, as is more commonly done in communication systems. Equalizing at the transmitter allows us to use a simple receiver that just samples a binary value at 4 GHz. Equalizing at the receiver would require an A/D of at least a few bits resolution or a high-speed analog delay line, both difficult circuit design problems. A discrete-time FIR equalizer is preferable to a continuous-time passive or active filter as it is more easily realized in a standard CMOS process.
After much experimentation we have selected a five-tap FIR filter that operates at the bit rate. The weights are trained to match the filter to the frequency response of the line as described below. For a 1 m 30 AWG line, the impulse response is shown in FIG. 5A. Each vertical line delimits a time interval of one bit-cell or 250 ps. The filter has a high-pass response as shown in FIG. 5B.
As shown in FIGS. 6A-C, this filter cancels the low-pass attenuation of the line giving a fairly flat response over the frequency band of interest (the decade from 200 MHz to 2 GHz). We band-limit the transmitted signal via coding (FIG. 13) to eliminate frequencies below 200 MHz. The equalization band is limited by the length of the filter. Adding taps to the filter would widen the band. We have selected five taps as a compromise between bandwidth and cost of equalization.
FIG. 6A shows the frequency response of the filter, FIG. 6B shows the frequency response of the line and FIG. 6C shows the combination (the product) for 1 m of 30 AWG cable. The scale on FIG. 6C is compressed to exaggerate the effect. The filter cancels the response of parasitics as well as the response of the line. The response is flat to within 5% across the band of interest. The filter results in all transitions being full-swing, while attenuating repeated bits. FIG. 5D shows the response of the filter to an example data sequence shown in FIG. 5C (00001000001010111110000). The example shows that each signal transition goes full swing with the current stepped down to an attenuated level for repeated strings of 1s (0s).
FIGS. 7A and B illustrate the application of equalization to the example of FIGS. 2A and 2B. FIG. 7A shows the filtered version of the original signal and FIG. 7B the received waveform. With equalization the isolated pulses and high-frequency segments of the signal are centered on the receiver threshold and have adequate eye openings for detection.
Circuit Implementations
Preferred implementations of the invention include finite input response (FIR) filters, and FIG. 8 illustrates one such implementation. In this case, a 5 tap filter has been selected as a balance between higher fractional bandwidth and circuit complexity. With a greater number of taps, equalization can be obtained at lower frequencies. The present design provides for equalization in a range of 100 MHz to 2 GHz. By reducing to 2 or 3 taps, the lower end of the range may be no less than 500 MHz.
As in a conventional FIR filter, the input Di is delayed in successive delay elements 28. However, rather than weighting the individual delayed signals and summing the weighted signals to obtain the desired output, the delayed signals are applied to a 5-to-32 decoder 32.
One of the 32 output bits from the decoder 32 is high with any input state and that high bit addresses a 4 bit word from the 32×4 random access memory 34. The memory 34 is shown to be random access in order to allow for reprogramming of the equalization using a training process below. However, the system may be a fixed design which can be implemented using a read only memory.
The 4 bit output from RAM 34 defines one of the 15 output levels generated by a digital-to-analog converter 36 and applied to the transmission line 38. Those levels include 0, seven positive levels where Dout− is pulled low, and seven negative levels where Dout+ is pulled low. To simplify the implementation, each FIR filter is approximated by a transition filter implemented with a look-up table as illustrated in FIG. 9. The transition filter compares, in logic elements 40, the current data bit Di to each of the last four bits, and uses a find-first-one unit 42 to determine the number of bits since the last signal transition. The result is used to look up a 3-bit drive strength for the current bit from a 15-bit serially-loaded RAM 44. The drive strength is multiplied by the current bit with two sets of three NAND gates 46, 48 to generate three-bit high and low drive signals for the DAC.
While the transition filter is a non-linear element, it closely approximates the response of an FIR filter for the impulse functions needed to equalize typical transmission lines. Making this approximation greatly reduces the size and delay of the filter as a 96-bit RAM would be required to implement a full 5-tap FIR filter via a lookup table and the gates 46 and 48.
The transition filter can be simplified even further to the simple logic circuit of FIG. 10 which operates as a two tap filter. The input signal Di is delayed in a single delay element 50 to produce the signal Di−1. The two signals are combined in an exclusive-OR gate 52 to determine whether the current bit is equal to the immediately previous bit. If so, the lower magnitude output is generated by the digital-to-analog converter 54. If, on the other hand, there has been a transition since the previous bit, the output is emphasized. Thus, this simple circuit provides four output levels, two positive and two negative.
In yet another two-tap embodiment, with a transition, full current drive is used in opposite directions on both sides of the transition. When the signal value remains unchanged, an attenuated current drive is used.
The circuit design of the DAC used in the FIG. 9 embodiment is shown in FIGS. 11A and B. As shown in FIG. 11A, each DAC module is composed of three progressively sized differential pulse generators 56, 58 and 60. Each generator is enabled to produce a current pulse on Dout+ (Dout_) if the corresponding H (L) line is low. If neither line is low no pulse is produced. Depending on the current bit and the three-bit value read from the RAM 44 in the filter module, 15 different current values are possible (nominally from −8.75 mA to +8.75 mA in 1.25 mA steps). The timing of the pulse is controlled by a pair of clocks. A low-going on-clock φi gates the pulse on its falling edge. The high-true off clock φi+1 gates the pulse off 250 ps later.
Each of the three differential pulse generators is implemented as shown in FIG. 11B. A pre-drive stage 62 inverts the on-clock in inverter 64 and qualifies the off-clock with the enable signals in NOR gates 66 and 68. A low (true) enable signal, which must be stable while the off-clock is low, turns on one of the two output transistors 70, 72, priming the circuit for the arrival of the on-clock. When the on-clock falls, the common tail transistor 74 is turned on, starting the current pulse. When the off-clock rises, the selected output transistor terminates the current pulse. The delay of the qualifying NOR-gate is carefully matched against that of the on-clock inverter to avoid distorting the pulse width.
To enable operation of the equalization circuit at rates in the order of gigahertz while using circuitry operating only in the order of hundreds of megahertz, the preferred embodiment generates the signal levels by multiplexing outputs of parallel logic circuits operating on different multiple bit inputs.
A block diagram of the multiplexed transmitter is shown in FIG. 12. The transmitter accepts 10 bits of data, D0-9, at 400 MHz. A distribution block 76 delivers 5 bits of data to each of 10 FIR filters 78 of filter/DAC transmitters. The ith filter receives bit Di and the four previous bits. For the first four filters this involves delaying bits from the previous clock cycle. The distribution also retimes the filter inputs to the clock domain of the filter. Each filter 78 is a 5-tap transition filter that produces a 4-bit output encoded as 3 bits of positive drive and 3 bits of negative drive. These six bits from the filter directly select which of six pulse generators in the DAC 80 connected to that filter are enabled. The enabled pulse generators are sequenced by the 10-phase clock 82, multiplexing their outputs to Out at 4 Gbps. The ith pulse generator is gated on by φi and gated off by φi+1. To meet the timing requirements of the pulse generator, the ith filter operates off of clock φi+1.
A training sequence may be used to initialize the transmitter pre-emphasis filter at powerup. Training is performed under the control of a supervisory processor controller 26 that interfaces with the transmitter on one end of the line and the receiver on the other end via a low-speed serial scan chain. A preliminary version of a training sequence for one channel is as follows:
1. The frequency response of the line is measured. The transmitter is commanded to turn off precompensation and send an alternating sequence of 1s and 0s, representing a first bit rate (effective frequency of data transition). The receiver measures the level of the received signal by using a feedback transmitter to shift the DC operating point of the sense-amplifiers. The process is repeated at other bit rates (frequencies) to trace out the attenuation curve. For example, bit rates of Rmax, Rmax/2, Rmax/3 . . . may be tested.
2. Based on the attenuation measurements taken in (1), the transmitter equalization is set by programming the FIR filter and/or DAC.
Alternative Transition Coding
An alternative transition coding scheme is illustrated in FIG. 15. The method examines each pair of adjacent bits to select one of four current values (−1m, −a, a, 1) to drive the line during each of the two half-bit periods on the boundary of the bit pair. The left part of the figure shows the four possible values for the bit-pairs on the top row and the corresponding codings on the bottom row. On a transition, full current drive is used, in opposite directions, on both sides of the transition. When the signal value remains unchanged, an attenuated current drive (a) is used. The right side of the figure shows the bit stream 00100111011010 on the top row and the coding of this bit stream on the bottom row. This transition coding method is in effect a 4-tap FIR filter (with weights (a−1)/2 and (a+1)/2 for the outer and inner taps respectively) operating at twice the bit rate.
Transmitter Design
A block diagram of a 4 Gb/s transmitter with transition coding is shown in FIG. 16. Except for the current switching network (described below), the entire transmitter operates at 400 MHz. Byte-wide input data arrives at 400 MS/s and is clocked into a double-edge triggered flip-flop by both edges of a 200 MHz clock, IClk. The data is coded at 86 giving 10-bits of data to be transmitted. The input data is coded to band-limit it to perform forward error correction and detection, and to provide a reverse channel for backward error correction. The most significant bit of this data is delayed by an additional IClk flip-flop 88 for use in transition coding the next byte of input data. The low 5-bits of the data are resampled at 90 by QClk, which is in quadrature to IClk to make them stable in the period about the edge of IClk. The current switching network 92 accepts 11 bits of data (5 directly, 5 in quadrature, and 1 delayed by a cycle) and 20 400 MHz clocks which are separated by 125 ps in phase. As described below, this network transition codes the data and uses the 20 clocks to sequence this data onto the differential output by steering a pair of current sources.
The source half of one bit of the transition coding network is shown in FIG. 17. The circuit steers current between the two sources, x and y at the top, and the differential current-mode, at the bottom. The two current sources are used to give the four current levels required for transition pre-emphasis. Source x has magnitude Io(1+a)/2, while y has magnitude Io(1−a)/2. The attenuation factor, a, is programmed by switching a set of current sources totaling Io between x and y. A mirror-imaged sink network (not shown) steers x and y current sinks to the output lines in a complementary manner.
The circuit consists of three pairs of sections (six total). Each section is a PFET current switch controlled by a three-input dynamic NAND gate. Each pair switches one of the current sources to either the positive or negative output (depending on the state of the data input bi) during the time between the rising edges of an on-clock and an off-clock. For example, the first pair implements the middle two taps of the transition coding FIR filter. For the two clock phases corresponding to bit i, clk2i and clk2i+1, this pair steers source x to the output. When clk2i goes high, one of the two PFET switches in this pair is turned on, steering current to DOut+ if b1=1 or DOut− if b1=0. When clk2i+2 goes high two phases later, the switch is turned off and the portion of the network associated with bi+1 takes over source x. In a similar manner, the second pair steers source y during the clock phase (half-bit period) before bit i, and the third pair switches source y during the phase after bit i. The current waveforms from the bit controlling source x and the bit controlling source y are superimposed on the output to give the final coded waveform.
FIG. 18 shows the waveforms for this circuit. The top five traces show the five clock phases, clk2i-1 to clk2i+3, each separated by 125 ps (a half-bit cell). The next three traces show the gates of the three PFET switches s1, s2, and s3, assuming that bi is 1. The PFET switching signals are shaped to give a 125 ps transition time to smoothly interpolate from one setting to the next. Active process compensation can be used to achieve controlled transition times of these signals. The current on the output due to bit bi is shown in trace nine. This is the impulse response of the filter. Finally, the bottom trace shows the superposition of this current waveform with that of other bits assuming a 0-1 transition.
This transmitter implements bipolar, differential, current-mode signaling on a different transmission line. As shown in FIG. 19, with this approach the transmitted signal current, IT, is injected into a symmetric transmission line. At the receiver this current induces a voltage, VR, across the termination resistor RT. Because the voltage is developed at the receiver, this choice of signaling convention eliminates most noise due to voltage shifts between the transmitter and receiver. Using bipolar signaling eliminates reference errors as zero current is the reference level. Finally, operating current mode over a symmetric line keeps the true and complement signal in phase avoiding polarity inverting delay or phase mismatch that can plague differential voltage mode approaches. For these reasons, this signaling approach has better noise immunity than series-or parallel-terminated voltage-mode signaling, unipolar current-mode signaling, or any single-ended approach.
Receiver Design
A block diagram of the receiver is shown in FIG. 20. In many respects it is a mirror image of the transmitter. A 4 Gb/s differential data signal enters at the left of the figure and 8 b data at 400 MB/s leaves at the right. Except for the amplifiers at the left which sample the line, the entire receiver operates at 400 MHz. The line is connected to 20 gate-isolated clocked sense amplifiers that sample the value on the line at each of the 20 clock phases spaced 125 ps apart every half-bit. The amplifiers 94 gated by odd-numbered clock phases sample the incoming 4 Gb/s bit stream in the center of every cell to recover the data. After synchronization, the 10 bits recovered during one clock cycle are passed to the decoded 96. The decode block also includes a 20 to 10 funnel shifter for framing the recovered byte. The decoded output is stored in a small FIFO 98. The samples from the even numbered clocks are passed to the timing control legs 100 where they are used to adjust the phase of the receive clock as described below.
Active compensation of intersymbol interference may be provided by feeding back a filtered version of the recovered data stream to the input of the receiver. This will be accomplished using a scaled replica of the transmitter to generate a feedback current that will be superimposed onto the input nodes. The feedback transmitter 102 will be fed by the output of an FIR filter operating at the bit rate that attempts to match, and cancel, any echoes appearing on the line due to impedance discontinuities or resonant circuits. The feedback signal may be applied to a separate differential input of the receive amplifiers, not summed directly on the line as shown, to avoid injecting a backward traveling wave into the line. This approach is similar to decision-feedback equalization which is commonly used in communication systems.
A digitally-trimmed on-chip termination resistor 104 is connected across the differential pair to terminate the line. The termination resistor will be built on the receiver chip out of a series of progressively sized complementary pass gates. The pass-gates are switched on and off under closed loop control using a thermometer code to match RT to the line impedance to within 5%. Depending on crosstalk measurements a termination may be added to the transmitter as well to absorb near-end crosstalk.
CONCLUSION
Transmitter equalization extends the data rates and distances over which electronic digital signaling can be reliably used. Preemphasizing the high-frequency components of the signal compensates for the low-pass frequency response of the package and transmission line. This prevents the unattenuated low-frequency components from interfering with high-frequency pulses by causing offsets that prevent detection. With equalization an isolated pulse at the receiver has the same amplitude as a long string of repeated bits. This gives a clean received signal with a good eye opening in both the time and voltage dimensions.
In one embodiment, we implement equalization for a 4 Gbs signaling system by building a 4 GHz, five-tap FIR filter into the transmitter. This filter is simple to implement yet equalizes the frequency response to within 5% across the band of interest. The filter is realized using 0.5 mm CMOS circuitry operating at 400 MHz using a bank of 10 filters and DACs sequenced by a 10-phase 400 MHz clock. Narrow drive periods are realized using series gating to combine two clock phases, an on-phase and off-phase, in each DAC. We have simulated extracted layout of the equalized transmitter driving a load through package parasitics and 1 m of differential strip guide to demonstrate the feasibility of this approach.
The equalizing transmitter described here is one component of a 4 Gbs signaling system we are currently developing for implementation in an 0.5 μm CMOS technology. The system also relies on low-jitter timing circuitry, automatic per-line skew compensation, a narrow-aperture receive amplifier, and careful package design.
The availability of 4 Gbs serial channels in a commodity CMOS technology will enable a range of system opportunities. The ubiquitous system bus can be replaced by a lower-cost yet higher-speed point-to-point network. A single hub chip with 32 serial ports can directly provide the interconnection for most systems and can be assembled into more sophisticated networks for larger systems. A single 4 Gbs serial channel provides adequate data bandwidth for most system components and multiple channels can be ganged in parallel for higher bandwidths.
A 4 Gbs serial channel can also be used as a replacement technology at both the component and system level. At the component level, a single serial channel (two pins) replaces 40 100 MHz pins. A 4 GByte/s CPU to L2 cache interface, for example, (FIG. 14) could be implemented with just eight serial channels. At the system level, high-speed electrical serial channels are a direct replacement for expensive optical interconnect. Using 18 AWG wire, these channels will operate up to lengths of 10 m enabling high-bandwidth, low-cost peripheral connections and local-area networks. Inexpensive electrical repeaters can be used to operate over substantially longer distances.
Even with 4 Gbs channels, system bandwidth remains a major problem for system designers. On-chip logic bandwidth (gates×speed) is increasing at a rate of 90% per year (60% gates and 20% speed). The density and bandwidth of system interconnect is increasing at a much slower rate of about 20% per year as they are limited by mechanical factors that are on a slower growth curve than that of semiconductor lithography. A major challenge for designers is to use scarce system interconnect resources effectively, both through the design of sophisticated signaling systems that use all available wire bandwidth and through system architectures that exploit locality to reduce the demands on this bandwidth.
While this invention has been particularly shown and described with references to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

## Claims

1. A semiconductor device comprising:
a semiconductor chip;
a transmitter on the semiconductor chip, the transmitter to convey a serial, differential signal over a channel to a receiver;
the transmitter further having circuitry to receive a sequence of input bits and to responsively generate the serial, differential signal to have signal levels, at least three signal levels in the serial, differential signal corresponding to each given bit of the input bits in the sequence, each signal level of the at least three signal levels being respectively attenuated in dependence on whether an adjacent bit in the input sequence has a same state as the given bit in the sequence, relative to when the given bit does not have the same state as the adjacent bit; and
circuitry to cause the transmitter to transmit at least one training sequence to the receiver;
wherein said semiconductor device is to receive programming responsive to transmission of the at least one training sequence to the receiver, to establish a degree of respective attenuation of the at least three signal levels.

2. The semiconductor device of claim 1, wherein each of the signal levels and bits of the at least one training sequence are transmitted to the receiver at a data rate of no less than 3.2 gigahertz.

3. The semiconductor device of claim 1, where the semiconductor device comprises circuitry to convert a digital input signal, having discrete signal levels and an associated data bandwidth, to an output signal having a greater number of discrete signal levels at the associated data bandwidth, to generate the sequence of input bits.

4. The semiconductor device of claim 3, wherein:
the digital input signal is a parallel input;
the circuitry to convert is to encode the parallel input to eliminate low frequencies and thereby generate encoded data, a rate of change in the logic states of the encoded data being free to vary over a range of at least Rmax, Rmax/2 and Rmax/3, where Rmax is the maximum rate of signal level transition in the output signal; and
the transmitter is to serially transmit the signal levels responsive to the encoded data to the receiver.

5. The semiconductor device of claim 3, wherein the semiconductor device further comprises circuitry to receive the digital input signal in the form of n parallel bits, and to encode the parallel bits to generate m of the input bits in response to the n parallel bits, where m is greater than n, so as to ensure a minimum transition density in the input bits.

6. The semiconductor device of claim 1, wherein the transmitter includes a current-mode driver that transmits logic levels to the receiver using full current drive responsive to bits in the input sequence not having a common state, and using an attenuated current drive responsive to bits in the input sequence that do have a common state.

7. The semiconductor device of claim 1, embodied in an integrated circuit, wherein the transmitter includes at least three independently-controlled pulse generators that are controlled to collectively produce each of the at least three signal levels.

8. The semiconductor device of claim 7, wherein the at least three independently-controlled pulse generators include pulse generators which respectively correspond to a main tap, a precursor tap and a postcursor tap.

9. The semiconductor device of claim 1, wherein:
the transmitter and the circuitry to receive a sequence of input bits and to responsively generate the serial, differential signal are implemented as a standard cell, and define a single serial port of the semiconductor device; and
the semiconductor device comprises plural ones of the single serial port, each having an instance of the transmitter and the circuitry to receive a sequence of input bits and to responsively generate a serial, differential signal, implemented so as to transmit a sequence of signal levels over a respective differential path.

10. A semiconductor device comprising:
a semiconductor chip;
a transmitter on the semiconductor chip, the transmitter to convey a serial, differential signal over a channel to a receiver;
the transmitter further having circuitry to receive a sequence of input bits and to responsively generate the serial, differential signal to have signal levels, at least three signal levels in the serial, differential signal corresponding to each given bit of the input bits in the sequence, each signal level of the at least three signal levels being respectively attenuated in dependence on whether an adjacent bit in the input sequence has a same state as the given bit in the sequence, relative to when the given bit does not have the same state as the adjacent bit; and
circuitry to cause the transmitter to transmit at least one training sequence to the receiver;
wherein the at least one training sequence comprises first bits, a rate of change of binary state in the first bits representing a first frequency, and second bits, a rate of change of binary state in the second bits representing a second frequency, the first and second bits to be transmitted at a common data rate, and
said semiconductor device is to receive programming responsive to transmission of the at least one training sequence to the receiver, to establish a degree of respective attenuation of the at least three signal levels, and said programming is further responsive to measurements taken at the receiver dependent on attenuation of the serial, differential signal at each of the first frequency and the second frequency.

11. The semiconductor device of claim 10, wherein each of the signal levels and bits of the at least one training sequence are transmitted to the receiver at a data rate of no less than 3.2 gigahertz.

12. The semiconductor device of claim 10, where the semiconductor device comprises circuitry to convert a digital input signal, having discrete signal levels and an associated data bandwidth, to an output signal having a greater number of discrete signal levels at the associated data bandwidth, to generate the sequence of input bits.

13. The semiconductor device of claim 12, wherein:
the digital input signal is a parallel input;
the circuitry to convert is to encode the parallel input to eliminate low frequencies and thereby generate encoded data, a rate of change in the logic states of the encoded data being free to vary over a range of at least Rmax, Rmax/2 and Rmax/3, where Rmax is the maximum rate of signal level transition in the output signal; and
the transmitter is to serially transmit the signal levels responsive to the encoded data to the receiver.

14. The semiconductor device of claim 12, wherein the semiconductor device further comprises circuitry to receive the digital input signal in the form of n parallel bits, and to encode the parallel bits to generate m of the input bits in response to the n parallel bits, where m is greater than n, so as to ensure a minimum transition density in the input bits.

15. The semiconductor device of claim 10, wherein the transmitter includes a current-mode driver that transmits logic levels to the receiver using full current drive responsive to bits in the input sequence not having a common state, and using an attenuated current drive responsive to bits in the input sequence that do have a common state.

16. The semiconductor device of claim 10, embodied in an integrated circuit, wherein the transmitter includes at least three independently-controlled pulse generators that are controlled to collectively produce each of the at least three signal levels.

17. The semiconductor device of claim 16, wherein the at least three independently-controlled pulse generators include pulse generators which respectively correspond to a main tap, a precursor tap and a postcursor tap.

18. The semiconductor device of claim 10, wherein:
the transmitter and the circuitry to receive a sequence of input bits and to responsively generate the serial, differential signal are implemented as a standard cell, and define a single serial port of the semiconductor device; and
the semiconductor device comprises plural ones of the single serial port, each having an instance of the transmitter and the circuitry to receive a sequence of input bits and to responsively generate a serial, differential signal, implemented so as to transmit a sequence of signal levels over a respective differential path.

19. A semiconductor device comprising:
a semiconductor chip;
a standard cell reproduced for each one of respective, external differential paths, to provide for each one of the respective, external differential paths, on the semiconductor chip, a transmitter, the transmitter to convey a serial, differential signal over the respective, external differential path to the receiver, the transmitter further having circuitry to receive a sequence of input bits for transmission over the respective, external differential path, the transmitter to responsively generate the serial, differential signal to have signal levels, at least three signal levels in the serial, differential signal corresponding to each given bit of the input bits in the sequence, each signal level of the at least three signal levels being respectively attenuated in dependence on whether an adjacent bit in the input sequence has a same state as the given bit in the sequence, relative to when the given bit does not have the same state as the adjacent bit; and
circuitry to cause the transmitter for at least one of the respective, external differential paths to transmit at least one training sequence to a receiver;
wherein the at least one training sequence comprises first bits, a rate of change of binary state in the first bits representing a first frequency, and second bits, a rate of change of binary state in the second bits representing a second frequency, the first and second bits to be transmitted at a common data rate, and said semiconductor device is to receive programming responsive to the transmission of the at least one training sequence to a receiver, to establish a degree of respective attenuation of the at least three signal levels, and said programming is further responsive to measurements dependent on attenuation of the at least one training sequence over the at least one of the respective, external differential paths at each of the first frequency and the second frequency.

20. The semiconductor device of claim 19, wherein each of the signal levels and bits of the at least one training sequence are transmitted to the receiver at a data rate of no less than 3.2 gigahertz.

21. The semiconductor device of claim 19, wherein the standard cell further provides circuitry to convert a digital input signal, having discrete signal levels and an associated data bandwidth, to an output signal having a greater number of discrete signal levels at the associated data bandwidth, to generate the corresponding sequence of input bits.

22. The semiconductor device of claim 21, wherein for each reproduction of the standard cell:
the digital input signal is a parallel input;
the circuitry to convert is to encode the corresponding parallel input to eliminate low frequencies and thereby generate encoded data, a rate of change in the logic states of the encoded data being free to vary over a range of at least Rmax, Rmax/2 and Rmax/3, where Rmax is the maximum rate of signal level transition in the output signal; and
the transmitter is to serially transmit the signal levels responsive to the encoded data to the receiver.

23. The semiconductor device of claim 21, wherein the standard cell further provides circuitry to receive the digital input signal in the form of n parallel bits, and to encode the parallel bits to generate m of the input bits in response to the n parallel bits, where m is greater than n, so as to ensure a minimum transition density in the input bits.

24. The semiconductor device of claim 19, wherein each transmitter includes a current-mode driver that transmits logic levels to the receiver using full current drive responsive to bits in the corresponding input sequence not having a common state, and using an attenuated current drive responsive to bits in the corresponding input sequence that do have a common state.

25. The semiconductor device of claim 19, embodied in an integrated circuit, wherein each transmitter includes at least three independently-controlled pulse generators that are controlled to collectively produce each of the at least three signal levels for the respective, external differential path.