State

Climate Change in Alaska’s 

National Park Areas

of 

Change

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Alaska Region
2

Noatak

Kobuk 

Valley

Bering 

Land Bridge

Aniakchak

Bristol 

Bay

Norton Sound

Chukchi Sea

Cape 

Krusenstern

Aleutian World War II

King Salmon

Kivalina

Bering Sea

Kuskokwim 

Bay

2

Stories of Change from 

Alaska’s National Parks

An Inuit proverb tells us, “We borrow the earth from our children.” 

That’s a challenging legacy for a state in the midst of change.

From the breached banks of Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve to 

retreating rivers of ice in Kenai Fjords National Park, significant signs of 

change can be found across Alaska’s national parks. 

Change isn’t new. These parks have been in constant change for thousands 

of years. But in the past 150 years, the speed of change has accelerated. Will 

our parks be able to keep up with rapid environmental changes?

To take care of these places, we turn to scientists to understand what is 

happening and to look for solutions. Their conclusion: the driving force 

behind the changes we’re seeing is carbon emissions from human activities. 

Hope for the future lies in learning to adapt to these changes, even as we 

work together to reduce the underlying cause.

It’s time for a crucial conversation.

This guide is a conversation with people who visit and work around our 

national parks. It will help illustrate what we’re doing about the changing 

climate. You will find facts about the science, visible evidence you can see, 

examples of how parks are making a difference, and things you can do to 

make a difference too. We hope you‘ll join this dialogue and help us better 

understand and take action to preserve these parks that we’ve borrowed 

from our children. 

Science Notes: How Do We Know That What 

We’re Seeing Is Climate Change?

First, what’s the difference between weather and climate? Alaska 

author Charles Wohlforth says that, “Choosing shorts or long 

underwear on a particular day is about weather, the ratio of shorts to 

long underwear in the drawer is about climate.”

Scientists agree that climate is changing on a global scale. They know 

this from thousands of scientific studies done around the world, some 

right here in our parks. “Greenhouse gases,” including carbon dioxide, 

act like a blanket in the atmosphere, holding in the warmth of the sun 

and keeping the land and air around us from cooling off. 

There is now more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere than there has 

been for 3 million years—and that level continues to rise rapidly. 

When we study park resources, we can’t point to any single event and 

say it’s caused by changing climate. Long-term trends tell the story.
3

YukonCharley 

Rivers

Tok 

APLIC

Glacier 

Bay

Sitka

Klondike 

Gold Rush

Ketchikan 

APLIC

APLIC = Alaska Public 

Lands Information Centers

Gates 

of the 

Arctic

Denali

WrangellSaint Elias

Kenai 

Fjords

Lake 

Clark

Katmai

Gulf of Alaska

Cook 

Inlet

Iñupiat 

Heritage 

Center

Fairbanks 

APLIC

Anchorage 

APLIC

3

Explore personal stories of change in Alaska’s parks:

Impressions to 

Last a Lifetime

Going, Going... Thawing 

Permafrost

Sparked by 

Lightning

Disappearing 

History

Finding the 

Wildlife

Loading the 

Dice

Losing 

Ground

The Acid Test The Future is 

Now

4 6 8 10

12 14 16

18 20 22

Get Involved!

Throughout this book, we suggest 

meaningful ways that you can take 

action on climate change. The first step is 

educating yourself. To learn more about 

global climate change, scan the 

QR code or use the link below 

to visit the NASA climate change 

website: http://climate.nasa.gov 
4

Background: Taking It All In

Visitors take a boat tour to the 

Holgate Glacier in Kenai Fjords 

National Park.

Impressions to Last a Lifetime

What do visitors think about climate change in 

Alaska’s parks?

Alaska’s parks are famous for capturing the hearts and minds of people around 

the world. They’re home to some of America’s greatest natural wonders and 

shared heritage, but these treasured places could be very different in the 

future. Park visitors have an important role in managing these places and 

taking action during a time of change.

Natural Reflections

Alaska’s national parks have 

the power to inspire and 

transform. Parks teach us 

about our connections to 

the world around us and the 

changes occurring around 

the state. In the future, how 

will the effects of climate 

change shape this learning 

experience? Which stories 

will best engage, inspire and 

challenge park visitors?

Reaching Out

The National Park Service 

(NPS) wants to raise awareness 

about climate change impacts 

occurring in parks and enlist 

visitors in addressing them. 

Educational products such 

as exhibits, brochures, and 

interpretive programs help 

explain what we understand 

about climate change in the 

parks. Rangers and tour guides 

stay up-to-date on climate 

research, so they can help keep 

visitors and residents informed 

and engaged in planning for a 

changing future.

Mixed Emotions

Sometimes visitors feel mixed 

emotions or conflict about 

the changes they see in parks. 

On the adjoining page, three 

travelers share how Alaska’s 

beauty and the people they 

met during their visits gave 

them a new awareness to take 

home and remember long 

after their trip.

Get Involved!

What impressions have you 

gained from your visit? 

Including climate change as 

part of the story you bring 

home with you can help 

empower others to take action. 

NPS / Jim Pfeiffenberger
Blair, from California

We can see some of 

the impacts of climate 

change in California, but it was 

really evident throughout our 

trip to Alaska. It’s just obvious 

that it’s happening. Every time 

we went to a glacier, there 

were pictures and signs of 

what the glacier used to look 

like and what it looks like now. 

It really brought it home. We 

need to know what individuals 

can do about this problem.”

Timothy, from Arkansas

It was an “oh my 

goodness” moment for 

me. Climate change is such an 

abstraction; it’s hard for people 

to grasp what it means. You 

can’t see carbon, but when you 

see how much a glacier... has 

receded, it’s really crystallized 

for me the effects of climate 

change. I used to go to the 

grocery store and get a plastic 

bag every time. I stopped doing 

that after my Alaska trip. I 

used to think, what difference 

does one person make? I felt 

a personal responsibility to do 

things differently after my trip 

to Alaska.”

Christine, from Oregon

I grew up in Alaska and 

try to get back every few 

years. Each trip reveals how 

much the land...is changing. 

We landed in Anchorage on 

what seemed like an unusually 

warm evening. I casually 

asked the taxi driver about the 

weather and was surprised 

to hear him tick off all the 

ways that climate change was 

impacting Alaska. Everyone 

else I asked over the next week 

responded exactly the same 

way! With so many residents 

and visitors recognizing what’s 

happening, it’s time for less talk 

and more action.”

What to Look For: Exit Glacier Makes an Exit

Exit Glacier, in Kenai Fjords National Park, has receded two miles over the past 200 years. Like other 

low elevation glaciers, warming temperatures have caused it to steadily lose more ice than it gains 

each year. The glacier has also thinned a lot in the past century. Exit Glacier is visited by hundreds of 

thousands of people each year, and access to the shrinking glacier will become more challenging as it 

continues to recede. Park rangers have had to move signs and paths to accommodate visitors.

5

1992 2010

(Left) NPS / James Schwabel, (Right) NPS / Stan McKnight
6

Going, Going...

Why are Alaska’s glaciers disappearing so fast?

What was on the top of your list of things to see and do during your visit 

to Alaska? If you are like many other visitors to the state, you wanted to 

see a glacier. Seeing a glacier in a photo or a movie clip is not the same as 

experiencing one first hand. Few people will ever forget their first time visiting 

a glacier in one of Alaska’s national parks. 

Growing or Shrinking?

Whether glaciers grow or 

melt depends on several 

factors, including temperature 

and precipitation. Snow 

accumulates high in the 

mountains each winter. After 

many seasons of regular 

snowfall and cool summers, 

the snow that doesn’t melt 

compacts and becomes 

glacier ice. When warmer 

temperatures or less snowfall 

occur, glaciers may become 

thinner or recede. The timing 

and volume of water flowing 

from the glacier may change 

dramatically as well.

What’s Downstream? 

Changes in glacier runoff can 

affect streams and impact plant 

and animal communities. In 

coastal areas like Glacier Bay 

National Park, water from 

glaciers contributes to a healthy 

ocean habitat for fish, seabirds, 

seals, whales, and other 

animals. This cold, fresh water 

contains important nutrients 

and sediments. Melting glacier 

ice, however, also contributes 

to the rising global sea level, 

spreading its impacts to coastal 

areas far and wide.

20 Years Tracking Ice

Scientist Anthony Arendt 

uses satellites to study longterm changes in hundreds 

of glaciers around Alaska. 

Anthony is helping the 

National Park Service monitor 

and understand changes to 

glaciers in Alaska’s national 

parks. This enables the NPS 

and private operators to 

better plan for and adapt to 

rapid changes as they occur, 

especially for sites with a lot of 

visitor use. 

Background: Working on Ice

A scientist walks the edge of Exit Glacier 

with a GPS to map its perimeter. The 

mapped outlines are compared with 

1950s-1970s USGS maps to see how park 

glaciers have changed.

NPS / Deborah Kurtz
Glaciers in Alaska probably won’t disappear 

in the next 100 years, but they are likely to 

change a lot and make large contributions to 

rising sea levels.~

Anthony Arendt, Scientist, University of Alaska Fairbanks

“I have been studying glaciers for over 20 years now, and I find it 

fascinating because it brings together so many elements of science. 

In one project, we are trying to create an inventory of all the 

glaciers and ice fields in Alaska’s national parks. We have also set up 

temperature and precipitation sensors so that we can explore the 

ways that glaciers may respond to climate change in the future.”

Science Notes: 

Air in the Ice

While glaciers form, tiny 

bubbles of air are trapped 

in the ice, preserving small 

samples of air from the time 

period when the ice was 

formed. 

Scientists are able to analyze 

air samples from very deep 

ice cores in Antarctica and 

Greenland dating back as 

far as 800,000 years. They 

can also identify how much 

carbon in the bubble came 

from burning fossil fuels, 

because it has an isotopic 

signature that is different 

from other atmospheric 

carbon. 

By studying ice, scientists 

have confirmed that humans 

are adding unusually large 

amounts of carbon dioxide to 

the atmosphere and that the 

source of this extra carbon is 

from burning of fossil fuels.

Parks Take Action: Mapping the Ice

Glaciers cover about 5% of the state of Alaska and are in nine 

of Alaska’s fifteen national parks. The NPS recently undertook 

a study to understand how glaciers are changing. Researchers 

mapped the edge of several glaciers and compared them 

to United States Geological Survey (USGS) maps from the 

1950s-1970s. The results showed that glacier loss and thinning 

is occurring in most parks. For example, ice cover in areas 

surrounding Klondike decreased 18% between 1948 and 2011, 

and all but two Denali glaciers lost mass.

7

Denali

WrangellSaint Elias

Kenai 

Fjords

Lake 

Clark

Katmai

Glacier 

Bay

GULF OF ALASKA

Klondike 

Gold Rush

ALASKA

CANADA

British Antarctic Survey

Data provided by the Univ. of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) Geophysical Institute. 
Thawing Permafrost

Are we losing stability? 

Many of Alaska’s parks have a hidden underground world of ice and frozen 

ground. The depth and extent of this “permafrost” varies by park, depending 

on average air temperature, soil type, and topography, and on the types of 

trees and plants that grow on the surface. Can you find signs of permafrost 

where you are?

Uncertain Footing 

Frozen ground is stable, 

providing a solid foundation 

for roads and buildings. As 

temperatures rise, however, 

permafrost can thaw and sink 

under the weight of these 

structures. Permafrost can also 

act like a shell, trapping water 

in lakes and wetlands. When 

soils thaw, surface water can 

seep deeper, draining wetlands 

or creating holes and slumps. 

Lakes have drained in parks 

and preserves across Alaska, 

including Kobuk Valley, Bering 

Land Bridge, Noatak, YukonCharley Rivers, and Denali.

Going with the Flow

Thawing permafrost leads 

to drier landscapes, more 

frequent wildfires, and 

increased maintenance 

costs. Major investments in 

infrastructure can be lost 

when soils become unstable. 

Maintenance of roads, 

bridges, trails, and buildings 

becomes more difficult and 

expensive, within and outside 

of parklands. Denali National 

Park has one of the most 

extensive road systems of any 

park in Alaska and faces many 

of these challenges. 

Down the Road

Tim Taylor has been working 

on the road crew in Denali 

for 31 years. He has seen 

a range of climate change 

impacts, including landform 

slips, slumping ground, and 

more rapid vegetation growth 

along roadsides. Permafrost 

thaw is at the core of many 

of the engineering challenges 

faced by Tim and his partners 

with the Department of 

Transportation.

What to Look For: 

Thawing Ground 

What signs of permafrost thaw 

can you observe during your visit? 

Ask tour operators, bus drivers, 

and park rangers to point out the 

places where the ground is sinking 

and slumping as underground ice 

thaws. Can you find cracks in the 

road or building foundations? 

Have you seen a drained lake (left) 

or a drunken forest (right)?

NPS / Tim Taylor

8

(Left) NPS / Amy Larsen, (Right) Tingjun Zhang
Future (2090) 

Permafrost

Unfrozen 

Ground

Frozen 

Ground

Frozen 

Ground

Unfrozen 

Ground

Present 

Permafrost

It seems like thawing in Denali has become 

more exaggerated because of climate change. 

In some areas the road continually moves as it 

thaws.~

Tim Taylor, Road Maintenance Foreman

Denali National Park 

9

“Our long-term road maintenance employees 

have witnessed a lot of changes...They have seen 

increases in ground movement, especially under the 

park road and buildings. The tundra is now sliding 

down the hill toward the road, filling our ditch lines 

and plugging our culverts. This wasn’t a problem 

for us back in the 70s and 80s, and it seems that in 

the last 15 years thawing has increased. Now every 

time we rebuild a section of the park road we have 

to account for thawing by including insulation or 

other components into the design to keep the road 

structurally sound for the future.”

Science Notes: 

The Future of Permafrost

Permafrost currently exists across most of Alaska, 

but the amount can vary greatly. In the Arctic, 

permafrost can be hundreds to over a thousand 

feet thick. Permafrost in central Alaska is much 

thinner and more scattered. Computer models 

make estimates about where permafrost will 

occur in the future.

Parks Take Action

Permafrost thaw could damage some roads in 

parks where the average annual temperature is 

just a few degrees above freezing. Small changes 

in temperature in parks like Denali and WrangellSt. Elias could thaw permafrost and impact 

structures. Research, monitoring, and mindful 

design is needed to respond to these changes. 

Background: Where the Rubber Meets the Road

In August 2005, traffic was impeded when mud 

and vegetation slumped across the Denali Park 

Road at mile 20.5 due to thawing permafrost. 

Data provided by the UAF Permafrost Laboratory.
Sparked by Lightning

Are natural fire cycles changing?

Many visitors to Alaska are surprised to learn that wildfire is an important 

natural component of boreal forest and tundra ecosystems. Sparked by 

lightning during summer storms, fires burn older vegetation, which is soon 

replaced by new growth. Changing climate has resulted in larger fires and 

longer fire seasons in Alaska over the past decade.

Part of the Ecosystem 

Most fires in the state occur in 

the spruce-dominated forests 

of Interior Alaska. Parks in 

this region include Denali, 

Gates of the Arctic, WrangellSt. Elias, and Yukon-Charley 

Rivers. Arctic parks such as 

Noatak and Bering Land 

Bridge experience occasional 

large—and frequent small—

tundra fires. Managing fires 

is a balance of protecting 

human lives and resources 

while maintaining the natural 

process of fire.

Change Happens

Change is a natural part of the 

ecosystem, but change that is 

too rapid can have profound 

effects on plants, animals, and 

people. Some plant and animal 

species may have a harder time 

returning after more frequent, 

hotter, and longer fires. Grasses 

and shrubs benefit from ashes 

rich in minerals, so they show 

up more quickly once the fire 

is out. Lichens and mosses, 

on the other hand, are slow to 

return after a fire.

Millions of Acres

The area burned in Alaska 

each year varies widely, 

ranging from a few hundred 

thousand to several million 

acres. In the past decade 

(2000-2009), the area burned 

in Alaska was twice as large as 

in any decade in the previous 

40 years. Jennifer Barnes has 

worked as a fire ecologist 

for nearly 15 years, and she 

anticipates that with higher 

average air temperatures, 

Alaska can probably expect 

more frequent and larger fires. 

What to Look For

Spruce bark beetle activity expanded 

after several years of warmer weather, 

killing thousands of acres of trees and 

creating maintenance challenges for 

Katmai National Park and Preserve, 

Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, 

and Kenai Fjords National Park. 

Tree foliage in damaged evergreen 

forests typically turns red before 

dropping off, even during the growing 

season. When seen close-up, beetle 

damage underneath peeling tree bark 

looks like a winding maze of carvings. 

Have you seen many dead, downed, or 

burned trees along the trails and roads 

that you are traveling? Is there smoke 

in the air?

NPS / Yasunori Matsui

10
Fire will always be a natural force of 

change on the landscape, [and] climate ... has a 

huge impact on fires. I think there are changes 

going on and there are more to come. We will 

continue to learn about the changes, and how 

to manage and prepare for them.~

Jennifer Barnes, Fire Ecologist, National Park Service

Science Notes: The Circle of Life

Fire is critical for renewing the boreal forest. Spruce trees are adapted to infrequent fires that replace 

them completely. Cottongrass or fireweed may be the first plants to come up after a fire. Fires that are 

more severe or too frequent may threaten this time-tested cycle by killing young trees, creating better 

conditions for invasive species, or affecting plants’ ability to colonize the burned soil. 

11

Background: Where There’s Fire, There’s Smoke

A smoke column rises from the 2012 Marie 

Creek Fire, which was started by lightning in 

Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve.

(Left) Scott Rupp, (Middle) NPS / Jennifer Barnes, (Right) NPS / Teri Wild
Disappearing History

Can climate change lead to cultural loss in our parks?

Cultural traditions run deep in Alaska. For over ten thousand years, humans 

have lived on this land—including lands that are now our national parks—

hunting, fishing, and gathering wood, berries, bark, and other resources. As 

climate alters Alaska’s plants and animals, and even the land itself, how can we 

protect cultural resources and history? 

Emerging from the Ice

Animal remains...baskets...

clothing...and a birch weapon 

estimated to be 650 years old. 

These and other treasures 

are emerging as our changing 

climate melts small patches of 

ice that have preserved them 

for centuries. These ice patches 

have attracted animals and 

the people who hunt them for 

thousands of years. WrangellSt. Elias National Park is rich in 

ice patches, and archaeologists 

are in a race against time to 

find, document, and preserve 

archaeological resources 

before they are lost forever. 

Pieces of History

Finds of prehistoric hunting 

weapons, like these arrow points, 

provide insights into changing 

environmental conditions and 

subsistence practices.

Parks Take Action: 

Uncovering the Past

Typically, archaeologists must 

interpret the past using clues from 

non-perishable remains such as 

stone and ceramics. Researchers 

in Lake Clark and Wrangell-St.

Elias National Parks, however, are 

working with local residents and 

school children to study ancient 

objects found in ice patches. The 

knowledge possessed by Alaska 

Native people is helping to build a 

better understanding of the objects 

and tools that were once essential 

for survival in the cold north. 

Lauren Oakes

12

(Left) UNM / James Dixon, (Right) NPS / Jeff Rasic

NPS / Jeanne Schaaf
Here in Glacier Bay National Park, the 

yellow-cedars along the coast... show relatively 

few signs of stress... Not much farther south, 

I have already seen thousands of trees dying 

or dead.~

Lauren Oakes, PhD Candidate, Stanford University

Value Beyond Measure

In Southeast Alaska, yellowcedar trees are an integral 

part of the landscape and the 

culture. Remarkable for its 

strong, decay-resistant wood, 

the tree is used for building 

homes, boats, and totem poles. 

Alaska Native people also 

use it to make baskets, mats, 

masks, and paddles. For many 

people, the yellow-cedars hold 

value not only for direct uses 

like building or carving, but 

they also offer an intangible 

relationship to nature that 

contains a sense of history or 

a feeling of walking with one’s 

ancestors.

Trees in Trouble

Lauren Oakes came to Alaska 

to study the yellow-cedar. The 

trees are dying when their 

shallow roots freeze during 

late winter or early springtime 

cold snaps. As less snow falls 

on low elevation slopes, the 

trees no longer have enough 

snow to insulate and protect 

their roots. She wanted to 

know how these dying forests 

change over time and how the 

loss of this tree is affecting the 

local people who depend on 

them. Climate change, notes 

Ms. Oakes, does not respect 

the boundaries that we once 

thought were protected from 

human harm.

13

Background: Forests of Gray

Yellow-cedar forests are declining in Southeast Alaska, 

including this forest in the West Chichagof-Yakobi Wilderness 

just south of Glacier Bay National Park. 

Background: Emerging Culture

In this carving, Haida artist Jim 

Skannes (Sk’eineh) visualizes 20thcentury political, cultural, and social 

change in Alaska in yellow cedar. 

Sitka National Historic Park & SAICC
14

Finding the Wildlife

Will there be food on the table or not? 

In Alaska, national parks have unique relationships with local communities. 

Subsistence activities, including hunting, fishing, and gathering traditional 

foods, are essential to Native culture. For many rural families, these practices 

are also a financial necessity, as groceries brought by boat or plane can be very 

expensive. Higher temperatures and shifting patterns of fire, rain, snow, and ice 

affect where animals are found. 

Food from the Land

Almost 300 small communities 

in Alaska cannot be reached 

by road. Many of them are 

within or adjacent to national 

parks. These communities are 

largely inhabited by Alaska 

Native people who have 

centuries-long traditions of 

relying on the land for food. 

How much food? About 7,000 

moose and 22,000 caribou are 

harvested for subsistence and 

non-subsistence purposes in 

Alaska each year, amounting to 

6 million pounds of meat.

Protecting Traditions 

Residents of many of Alaska’s 

parks depend on moose, 

caribou, salmon, birds, marine 

mammals, and other animals 

for food. This traditional way 

of life is protected by federal 

law. But changes in snow 

cover, sea ice, or the timing 

of river freeze-up affect the 

ability of people to reach the 

animals they harvest. Changes 

in wildfire or extreme weather 

events may also influence 

hunting success and animal 

health. Does climate trump 

law?

Seasons out of Sync

John Chase grew up hunting 

and fishing near Bethel. John 

has observed some changes 

in the seasons that disrupt the 

food chain. He describes how: 

“It will rain or snow when it’s 

not supposed to. When you 

get rain on a winter day it’s 

never good, because ice will 

cover the plants that caribou 

forage on...I’ve even heard 

of ice trapping ptarmigan 

underneath...if the caribou 

aren’t able to forage and feed 

because of that layer of ice, 

there are going to be hungry 

and unhealthy caribou.”

Science Notes: Subsistence 

Foods in Alaska

The average citizen in the arctic coastal 

community of Kivalina consumes nearly 

600 pounds of wild foods in a year. 

These foods come from a wide variety 

of animals and plants, including bearded 

seals, beluga whales, caribou, and 

blueberries. Subsistence foods are culturally 

and economically important in Alaska. 

Subsistence foods are shared among 

communities and families, and they provide 

many important health benefits to the 

people who eat them. (Figure: 2007 data 

from Alaska Department of Fish & Game)

Birds & Eggs

Berries & Greens

Land Mammals

Fish & Shellsh

Marine Mammals

49%

31%

15%

3%

2%

Marine 

Mammals

Fish & 

Shellfish

Land

Mammals

Berries &

Greens

Birds/

Eggs Birds & Eggs

Berries & Greens

Land Mammals

Fish & Shellsh

Marine Mammals
I’d like to let folks know that we have a 

spiritual connection to the land, and that we 

depend on a healthy environment for survival.~

John Chase, Community Planner, Northwest Arctic Borough

“If there are changes to the environment, we are going to adapt to 

those changes. One thing that will not change is our dependence on 

animals for food...food security is priority number one. For us, the 

important questions are about food security. Will there be food on 

the table?”

What to Look For: Food from Land and Sea

Depending on where you are in Alaska, different wild foods make 

up different portions of people’s diets. Many foods are dried, such 

as salmon, or frozen, so they can be eaten all year long. What 

kinds of foods have you seen or tasted during your visit?

15

Parks Take Action

In collaboration with many 

partners, NPS is monitoring 

the Western Arctic Caribou 

Herd. The goal is to better 

understand the behavior, 

breeding patterns, and 

seasonal movements of 

this extremely important 

subsistence species, which 

is found throughout the 

northwest arctic parks and 

surrounding lands. Climate 

change could have profound 

effects on the timing 

or routes of the herd’s 

migrations. 

Background: Animals on the Move

The habitat of the Western Arctic Caribou 

Herd covers all of northwestern Alaska, 

where many residents identify themselves 

as “caribou people.” Caribou use different 

park units at different times of the year, 

and their migration patterns are altered by 

changes to the climate and the landscape. 

Here caribou graze the late summer 

grasses and lichen in Bering Land Bridge 

National Preserve.

USFWS
Loading the Dice

Is climate change taking our weather to extremes?

Unusual weather events such as winter rains and ice storms are affecting parks 

in Alaska like Bering Land Bridge, Gates of the Arctic, and Yukon-Charley Rivers 

National Preserve. Although it is not possible to link any specific flood, storm, 

or heat wave to climate change, increasing temperatures may be “loading the 

dice” in favor of extreme storms, floods, and fires.

Hazard Zones

Understanding what extreme 

events will be like in the future 

can be challenging, because 

there is so much uncertainty 

about how climate change 

will impact the frequency, 

intensity, and even the types 

of weather events. In Alaska, 

extreme weather events 

frequently threaten people, 

wildlife, or infrastructure. 

Weather forecasts are 

especially important for 

people traveling on remote 

highways, in small planes, or 

on boats.

Rehearsing the Future

Warm air holds more moisture 

than cold air. Warmer water 

in the air, in lakes and streams, 

and in the ocean stores more 

energy, which can fuel weather 

events or increase a storm’s 

intensity. Understanding 

weather influences like this 

allows us to plan in the face 

of uncertainty. By examining 

a range of possible scenarios, 

and potential “tipping points,” 

we can look for solutions 

that make sense regardless of 

which situation arises, and plan 

accordingly.

The Price Tag

Many of the social and 

economic costs associated 

with climate change will come 

from shifts in the severity and 

frequency of extreme weather 

events. In general, climate 

change happens gradually 

and is described in terms of 

averages. Extreme events, 

however, can be sudden, 

hard to predict, and serious. 

Preparation for unusual floods, 

droughts, heat waves, or storms 

can help protect lives, preserve 

critical resources, and save 

money over the long-term.

Parks Take Action

When two towns near YukonCharley Rivers National 

Preserve were hit hard by 

flooding from the ice-jammed 

Yukon River in the spring of 

2009, park rangers had an 

Incident Command team on 

site. Their proactive approach 

helped local residents. They 

rescued two people and a 

24-dog mushing team from 

a home threatened by the 

flood. Although a great deal 

of property was damaged 

or destroyed, the rangers’ 

actions helped prevent 

further losses.

NPS / Chris Allen

16
Extreme events are, and always have been, 

a part of our weather and climate. However, 

climate change involves an observable shift in 

the severity and frequency of extreme events.~

Rick Thoman, Weather Forecaster

National Weather Service Alaska

“In the 25 years I have worked as a meteorologist in Alaska, I have 

seen background conditions that are much different than when I 

was a young man. If our experience no longer serves us, then we 

have less information to help people and communities prepare for 

and cope with weather events.”

17

Background: An Uncommon Flood

Ice jams can be extremely destructive and can 

easily demolish structures. When the Yukon 

River flooded the community of Eagle in the 

spring of 2009, ice and water swept away 

homes and destroyed historic buildings. The US 

Customs house, where Jack London and Wyatt 

Earp once signed the US Customs book (below), 

had stood unharmed on the banks of the Yukon 

River for over 100 years. 

Get Involved! 

Many people confuse weather 

(short-term events) with climate 

(long-term patterns). To learn 

more about the difference 

between weather and climate, 

scan the QR code or use the 

link below to 

watch National 

Geographic’s useful 

video on 

the subject: 

http://video.nationalgeographic.

com/ video/climate-weather-sci
18

Losing Ground

Are coastal communities and cultures at risk?

As permafrost disappears and sea ice forms later in the year, coastal 

communities become more susceptible to storms. Unprotected by sea ice, 

shorelines are hammered by waves and winds from autumn storms, resulting 

in unprecedented rates of coastal erosion that could sweep away dozens of 

buildings and homes within the next few years. Some communities are trying to 

relocate to more inland locations. 

Soft Soil, Hard Choices

Shishmaref is home to 

about 600 people. The small 

community is located on a 

barrier island off the coast 

of Alaska near Bering Land 

Bridge National Preserve. 

The seas that surround the 

island no longer freeze before 

Communities at Risk

In 2004, Shishmaref resident 

Luci Eningowuk testified 

before the U.S. Senate. “To 

date, we have lost numerous 

storage buildings and boats, 

an ATV, two snowmachines, 

meat-drying racks, and buried 

food. Tragically, we have lost 

one home; so far we have been 

able to move 18 threatened 

homes. However, those of 

us living here know that it is 

merely a matter of time before 

we experience greater losses. 

We are quickly running out of 

space on our ever-shrinking 

island.”

the arrival of powerful fall 

and winter storms. Storm 

waves batter the vulnerable 

coastline, causing hundreds 

of feet of erosion. The erosion 

damages buildings and 

washes away property. Coastal 

erosion also threatens our 

ability to preserve the ancient 

archeological evidence of 

America’s first inhabitants in 

Cape Krusenstern National 

Monument and other parks.

Background: Living on the Edge

Many rural communities are located 

along the coast of Alaska. Thawing 

permafrost and shrinking sea ice make 

homes and communities vulnerable as 

coastlines erode, and some villages that 

have been inhabited for hundreds of 

years now face evacuation.
The ice conditions are so unstable that 

people don’t venture out more than three or 

four miles from the mainland nowadays.~

Fred Tocktoo, Bering Land Bridge National Preserve

Born in Shishmaref, Fred Tocktoo now lives in Nome, 

where he has worked at the Bering Land Bridge National 

Preserve since 1992. In his lifetime, he has seen major 

changes in weather patterns, particularly in their 

unpredictability. 

“Everything changes in a minute...When we were 

growing up, we had sort of a weather pattern that was 

stable, but now you can’t trust it. Fifty or sixty years ago, 

it was stable [enough] that you were almost guaranteed 

that if you were going to go from Shishmaref to Wales, 

you get there in 3 days by dog team. Now, with faster 

snowmachines, you get there in 3 hours, but within those 

3 hours the weather can change two or three times.”

19

Science Notes: 

Sea Ice on the Decline

Satellite images and climate models 

show continued retreat and thinning 

of arctic sea ice. By 2030, late summers 

could be nearly ice-free in the Arctic. 

This dramatic decline is in part a result 

of longer warm seasons. The sea ice 

extent in September 2012 was 1.3 million 

square miles less than the historical 

average. In addition to affecting the 

national parks, loss of sea ice raises 

many new issues in the Arctic. Increasing 

ship traffic, tourism, and development 

make environmental safety and security 

important issues for the United States 

and other arctic nations.

Get Involved! 

Are there local, regional, or national 

venues where your voice can be heard? 

Writing letters to lawmakers or to your 

local paper can be a meaningful way to 

take action.

19 Data provided by the National Snow and Ice Data Center.
20

The Acid Test

Are marine species in trouble? 

Climate change is making the world’s oceans more acidic. Changes in ocean 

chemistry could affect marine food webs and the people who rely on them. With 

five times more coastline than any other state, Alaskans are particularly dependent 

on the ocean. Twelve of Alaska’s national parks are on or near the coast, and the 

NPS is monitoring these waters to help protect ocean resources and livelihoods.

Ocean Acidification

Carbon moves around our 

planet naturally, cycling 

through the atmosphere, 

land, and oceans. In the 

past century, largely due 

to the burning of fossil 

fuels, carbon dioxide has 

increased dramatically in the 

atmosphere. The oceans 

absorb some of the excess 

carbon dioxide. The 

elevated levels of carbon 

dioxide in the oceans 

reduce the pH of the 

water—an effect 

known as ocean 

acidification. 

Species at Risk

Ocean acidification makes 

it harder for many marine 

organisms, such as corals, 

zooplankton, and shellfish 

to form their skeletons or 

protective shells. This has 

negative effects on other 

species in the food web that 

rely on them. Pteropods, 

free-swimming marine snails 

and slugs, can make up more 

than half the diet of young 

salmon, and are particularly 

sensitive. Species differ in their 

sensitivity to pH, so there is a 

lot to learn about how this will 

affect marine resources. 

Sampling the Depths

Claudine Hauri is a researcher 

at the University of Alaska. 

She has been studying ocean 

acidification using data 

collected at sea from many 

different depths and locations. 

Despite the extent of her 

work, she urges that far more 

research is needed to better 

understand ocean acidification 

and the species at risk. She 

explains that the future is 

uncertain because “organisms 

react differently...and in 

Alaska, not many organisms 

have been studied.” 

Background: Test the Waters

Oceanographers lower instruments (left) to 

collect water samples from various locations 

and depths at sea. The samples are analyzed 

to determine the water’s pH, temperature, 

salinity, and other characteristics.

Monica Blount
The global ocean surface pH used to be 8.2 

and now it has dropped by 0.1 [about a 30% 

increase in acidity]. This is a big deal for some 

organisms because some are very sensitive to 

small changes in their chemical environment. 

The biggest challenge we face is multiple 

stressors...it’s all interconnected.~

Claudine Hauri, Scientist, University of Alaska Fairbanks

Science Notes: Acidification in the North

Although changes in ocean pH are occurring worldwide, 

the effects are more pronounced in Alaska for a couple of 

reasons. First, colder water absorbs more carbon dioxide. 

Second, the waters that circulate toward Alaska on 

prevailing ocean currents are already high in natural carbon 

dioxide because living things have released the gas all along 

the water’s long journey.

Below the Surface 

Sea butterflies, a type of pteropod, 

have winglike lobes for swimming. 

They are sensitive to decreasing ocean 

pH because acid causes their shells to 

dissolve. These tiny, delicate creatures 

are the base of the marine food web. 

Whatever affects them affects all of the 

animals that rely on them for food—

including salmon.

Parks Take Action: Acidification Research

In Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, researchers from 

the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) have been studying 

ocean acidification. Glaciers have been melting here over 

the last 250 years, and the amount of freshwater entering 

Glacier Bay is increasing. By measuring seawater chemistry 

at sites with varying levels of glacier melt water, researchers 

hope to better understand the relationship between 

glacier runoff and ocean acidification. In the photo, UAF 

graduate student Stacy Reisdorph lowers a water sampling 

instrument into the icy waters of Glacier Bay. 

21

Get Involved

If you have questions about the 

world around you, the NPS can 

help you find answers. They fund 

internships, fellowships, and citizen 

science programs to 

look at the effects of 

climate change. Scan 

the QR code or use 

the link to find more 

information: www.

nps.gov/subjects/climatechange/

internshipsandresearch.htm

USGS

NPS / Fay Schaller
The Future is Now

Alaska’s National Parks lead by example

The NPS is working to minimize its carbon footprint. Because carbon dioxide 

remains in the atmosphere for several decades, temperatures will continue to rise 

until we dramatically reduce carbon emissions. With impacts already being felt in 

parks and nearby communities, park managers and local residents must continue 

to find ways to respond, adapt, and lead efforts to slow climate change.

Rethinking Actions

National parks provide a 

means to think about what is 

possible in our communities 

and in our everyday lives. 

Parks have traditionally 

been managed to preserve 

unique habitats, important 

systems, or remnants of our 

past. As the climate changes, 

preserving specific habitats, 

cultural features, or species 

may become impossible. In 

what ways must we change? 

Learning to do things 

differently may not be easy. 

Alaska’s park managers are 

using climate change scenario 

planning as one tool for 

exploring different ways the 

future may unfold.

Leading by Example

Recent innovations in Alaska’s 

parks include new energy 

systems, electric and hybrid 

vehicle fleets, and higher 

standards for recycling waste. 

At Kenai Fjords, electricity 

for the Nature Center is 

generated by a hydrogen fuel 

cell; at Klondike Gold Rush 

in Skagway, a fleet of electric 

maintenance vehicles are 

powered by hydroelectric 

power generated from the 

runoff of melting glaciers; and 

at Glacier Bay, recycling now 

accounts for almost 60% of the 

total waste stream for the park. 

With these efforts, the parks are 

making a difference and saving 

money at the same time.

Building Knowledge

As the evidence and 

understanding of the effects of 

climate change have become 

better known, so have the 

approaches for discussing 

them with our audiences. 

Surveys of visitors and local 

business operators about 

their perceptions of climate 

change have helped improve 

the messages and their 

delivery. Throughout the state, 

interpreters and scientists 

are working together to raise 

awareness about this issue, 

provide the best available 

scientific explanations of 

its impacts, and cultivate a 

hopeful response that moves 

us collectively into the future.

What to Look For

Look critically at your 

trip, your home, and the 

services you use. Where 

are the recycling bins? 

Can you see alternate 

fuels being used? Do you 

see hybrids and electric 

vehicles in use? Do you see 

inefficiencies at the parks 

you visited? Challenge the 

NPS to improve ongoing 

efforts in energy reduction, 

NPS / Dan Irelan

2222
The past will not be our guide to a future 

with climate change.~

Jeff Mow, Park Superintendent

23

Building a Better Future: Denali Takes Action

Denali National Park and Preserve is a National Park System Center for Environmental Innovation. The 

park showcases new technologies, motivates and educates the public and park service employees about 

environmentally friendly practices, and works to cut energy use and reduce environmental impacts. 

This integrated approach to address climate change is just one example of the NPS Green Parks Plan, an 

integrated approach to address climate change through sustainable practices.

Background: Power from the Sun

Solar panels at the Eielson Visitor 

Center in Denali National Park helped 

the building achieve platinum level 

certification from the Leadership in 

Energy and Environmental Design 

(LEED) program—the highest 

standard for energy efficiency.
A Shared Journey

What will the parks be like for our grandchildren?

We are in the early steps of a long journey, 

learning to adapt to Earth’s changing climate 

even as we work together to slow that change. 

This journey will unfold over decades and will 

likely result in a significantly different way of 

life for most of us, regardless of where we live. 

Alaska’s National Parks are living laboratories 

and communities for understanding, 

appreciating, and protecting a continually 

changing environment and our natural heritage. 

Join the conversation, and make a difference.

Throughout this visitor guide, we have 

suggested ways you can learn more, identify 

change, get involved, and take action. Some of 

the most crucial include:

Join the Conversation! 

Sharing the impacts of climate change that 

you have seen first-hand in Alaska can help 

galvanize action by others, regardless of where 

they live.

Ask Tough Questions

Business owners, elected officials, and other 

organizations make choices that affect us all. 

Your voice is important and needed.

Cultivate Hope 

Together, we can succeed. This guide is a 

starting place. A digital version of this book is 

also available, and you can read the reports and 

papers that we have referenced.

Learn more: 

Download the expanded digital “State of 

Change” iBook and browse references:

www.nps.gov/akso/nature/climate/

state-of-change.cfm

For more about the National Park Service, 

climate change, and actions you can take: 

www.nps.gov/climatechange

Back: NPS / Charlotte Bodak Front upper: NPS / Yasunori MatsuiFront lower: NPS / Jim Pfeiffenberger

This publication represents a joint effort of the National Park 

Service (NPS) Alaska Region and the Scenarios Network for 

Alaska and Arctic Planning (SNAP), part of the International 

Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. 

UAF is an AA/EO employer and educational institution.