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Tec haicol Paper 284 [AD

FACTORS IN DESIGN OF HARDCOPY

TOPOGRAPHI C MAPS

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>~ Lawrence M. Potash and Thomas E. Jeffrey

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BATTLEFIEL D INFOR MATI ON SYSTEMS TECHNICAL AR EA

____ DDC Em

U. S. Army A

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

January 1978

Approv.d for pu blic rst us; distribution unlimit.d.

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Best 

Available 

Copy 
U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

A Field Operating Agency under the Jurisdiction of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

W. C. MAUS

J. E. UHLANER COL , CS

Technical Director Commander

NOTICES

DISTRIBUTION: Primary distribution of thu report has been made by ARI. Please address correspondence

concerning distribution of reports to: U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, ATTN: PERt-P . 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria , Virginia 22333.

FINAL DISPOSITION: This report may be destroyed when it is no longer needed. Please do not return it to

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The findings in this report are not to be construed as an official Department of the Army position,

unless so designated by other authorized documents.

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FACTORS IN DESIGN OF HARDCOPY TOPOG RA~~ IC_~~~PS~~~ C PERFORMING ORG REPORT NUMSER

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Lawrence M/Potash J~~ Thomas E./Jeffrey’~

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IC. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

IC. KEY W OR DS (CcntIn... on r.v.,s. .Id. It n.ce..~~

y wd Id.ntlty by block ntm,b.r)

Map design Relief portrayal Visual display research

Topographic mapping Iconic symbols Map assessment techniques

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. Map scale Color coding Hardcopy maps

\Map symbols Shape coding Clutter

A~ronautical chart Size coding Cartography Contour lines

20. ~~ 6rRACr (Coni~~~ ia’.r.. Pt .isc... y d Id.ntify by block ni ,b.e)

A literature survey on factors in map des ign, inc luding visual coding

techniques and assessment techniques , is summarized in this report , as the

first step in improving legibility and usefulness of hardcopy printed)

topographic maps.

Map design determinants are scale , interrelatedness of symbols, and a bod y

of standardized symbols and modes of coding. Map scale influences fidelity , ...

~~ >

F ORM DO ~~~~~ ~

473 £DITION OF I NOV$S IS OSSOLETE Unclassified

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF ThIS PAGE (StMn 0.1a Eni.,.d)

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20. (continued ’

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~~ ~as small scale requ ires selec tion , simp lification , and magnifica tion of

features. Clutter can be reduced by coding to differentiate information :

color coding aids in identification and reduces location time ; iconic and

alphanumeric shape coding can be learned easily and are flexible ; size

coding requires considerable space and increases location time .

Among map assessment techniques , opinion sampling is relatively inexpensive

but does not measure actual performance , and theore tical analysis is a limi ted

first step only. Empirical analysis measures performance with the map

product, either by assessing performance directly or be measuring the mapreading skills which underlie performance .

In comparisons of different types of ha~ opy topographic maps , the best

photo-based maps produce performance comparable to that with conventional

line maps . Some Army users preferred to augment contour lines on conventional

maps with layer tints for interpreting topographic relief. Future airborne

map disp lays should consider the information requirements of pilots , effects • of veh icle movemen t, and map legibility in poor light.

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Tech ui cal Pap er 284

FACTORS IN DESIGN OF HARDCOPY

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

Lawrence M. Potash and Thomas E. Jeffrey

BATTLEFIELD INFORMATION SYSTEMS TECHNICAL AREA

Robert S. Andrews, Chief

Submitted By:

Joseph Zeidner. Director Approved By: ORGANIZATIONS AND SYSTEMS J. E. Uhlaner

RESEARCH LABORATORY TECHNICAL DIRECTOR

U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333

Office , Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

Department of the Army

January 1978

Army Project Number Surveillance Systems 201621 06A732 SS.74 TB O~

ApprORd for public rilease; distribution unlimited.

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• ~~~~~ _,

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ARI Research Reports and Technical Papers are intended for sponsors of

R&D tasks and other research and military agencies. Any findings ready for

implementation at the time of publication are presented in the latter part of

the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recommendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriate military

agencies by briefing or Disposition Form.

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ARI TP 28Li

FOREWORD

The Battlefield Information Systems Technical Area of the U. S. Army Research Institute for

the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI) does research on tactical information systems and

displays used to present tactical information to military personnel. Maps provide information on locations and terrain, either as displays, for instance on a screen, or as hardcopy printed on paper. The present Technical Paper summarizes the preliminary research for a project to improve legibility of hardcopy topographic maps.

Work was done under Army Project 2QI62106A732, in coordination with the Army Engineering and Topographic Laboratory .

~~~JI~~~~~~~~~~~~ANER

Technical Director

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ARI TP 2~~i

FACTORS IN DESIGN OF HARDCOPY TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

BRIEF

Requirement:

To summarize , from existing research literature , the principles of map design and visual

perception relating to improving readability of hardcopy topographic maps.

Procedure:

Findings from pertinent literature were critically analyzed and integrated to provide a coherent

summary of visual coding techniques, assessment techniques, and principles of design germane to

hardcopy topographic maps.

Findings:

Three important determinants of the design of topographic maps are scale , interrelatedness of

symbols, and a body of standardized symbols and modes of coding. Map scale is an important

determinant of fidelity. If the same rules are used to represent features on maps of different scale, then the larger scale map will have greater fidelity because small scale necessitates selection, simplification, and magnification of features. Enlarging or reducing a map photographically will

not alter fidelity of a map.

The problems of clutter and overlapping symbols occur when too much information is crowded

onto a map. Clutter can be reduced by presenting information on separate, subsidiary maps, or by

use of coding to differentiate information.

Visual coding techniques applicable to maps are color coding, shape coding, and size coding. Coding categories may be based also on number of visual codes used and the way in which they are

combined. Color coding aids in identification and search, and decreases location time.

Redundant coding using both shape and color decreases location time over use of shape coding alone. Iconic shape coding can be learned easil y, however , alphanumeric symbols can be designed

for easy learning and are more flexible. Size coding requires considerable space and increases

location time.

Three assessment techniques used to eval uate maps are opinion sampling, theoretical analysis, and empirical analysis. Opinion sampling is relatively inexpensive and easily carried out but does

not measure actual performance.

Theoretical analysis provides a necessary first step but is limited in that it is rarely possible to

specify all factors that might influence performance. Empirical analysis measures actual

performance with the map product, either by assessing direct or simulated performance with the

map or by measuring map-reading skills which underlie performance.

The best photo-based maps produce performance comparable to that of conventional line maps

now in use. However, importance of differences in what orthophoto maps and line maps portray

does not seem to have been investigated.

Some Army users have reported difficulty interpreting topographic relief from contour lines. In

one survey, a majority of Army users stated that the most effective manner of relief portrayal

is contour lines augmented with layer tinting. 
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ARI TP 281k

Studies on airborne map displays produced a body of suggestions for design of future airborne

maps, on the information requirements of pilots, effects of movement, and map legibility.

Utilization of Findings:

Principles and data from the literature survey summarized in the present report were used to

design a technique for assessing relief maps, part of an ongoing project. The assessment technique

will be used in turn to determine the best way to portray terrain relief on hardcopy maps.

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ARI TP ~~~

FACTORS IN DES IGN OF HARDCOPY TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

TPkBLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 1

CHARACTERISTICS OF HARDCOPY TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS 1

Map Scale 1

Interrelatedness of Symbols

Standardized Symbols and Modes of Coding 5

The Problems of Clutter and Alteration in

Physical Appearance of Symbols 6

IMPLICATIONS OF VISUAL DISPLA~

Y RESEARCH FOR MAP DESIGN 7

Color Coding 8

Shape Coding 11

Area Size Coding 

TECHNIQUES USED IN MAP ASSESSMENT 14

Opinion Samp ling 14

Theoretical Analysis 15

Emp irical Analysis i6

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH COMPARING DIFFERENT KINDS OF MAPS 18

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REFERENCES 25

DISTRIBUTION LIST A-i 

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ARI TP 2 )

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FACTORS IN DESIGN OF HARDCOPY TOPOGRAP HIC MAPS

INTRODUCTION

A topographic map is defined as a mathematically determined presentation of a portion of the earth ’s terrain and landforms , systematically

depicted to scale upon a plane surface . Manmade and natural features

are show-n using symbols , lines , colors , and shapes. Relief is normally

represented by contour lines .

In the present report , discussion specifically refers to topographic

maps , although many of the principles apply to maps in general . Portions

of this paper have been published as: Potash , L. M . Design of Maps and

Map—Related Research . Human Fact:ors, 1977, 19(2), 139-150.

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-1ardcopy topographic maps are typically multipurpose displays that

have to meet the needs of a variety of users . They must portray a large

quantity of spacially overlapping geographic information , which can

result in clutter and interference among symbols if the map is not well—

designed. This paper will summarize and organize literature related to

the design of hardcopy maps and map research .

The first portion of the paper defines and discusses characteristics

of hardcopy maps which , if ignored , can lead to faulty problem definition and to research having little applicability to hardcopy maps .

The second section reviews literature on cartography, visual displays ,

coding , and visual perception . The last section discusses different

techniques used in map research and summarizes research on extant maps .

CHARACTERISTICS OF HARDCOPY TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

Three characteristics of hardcopy topographic maps that tend to

distinguish them from other kinds of displays are : (1) map scale,

(2) interrelatedness of symbols , and (3) a body of standardized syTrbols

and modes of coding . Clutter, though not an inherent feature of hardcopy topographic maps , is a common proolem .

Map Scale

Map scale is an important determinant of accuracy and completoness

of geographic information . Scale refers to the ratio of cartographic

dimensions to those in the actual terrain (i.e., a centimeter on a

1:50 ,000 scale map represents 50,000 cm in the “real world).”

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• ARI TP 284

Fidelity of a map depends on both the scale at which the map is

• constructed and the smallest area on the map in which the feature can be

adequately defined and described . (Grabeau and Addor , 1964).

If drafting or production of a map is in accord with its scale , then

fidelity will decrease with decreasing map scale because use of a smaller

scale necess ita tes grea ter selec tio n , magnification , and simplification.

Selection refers to the fact that features too small to be drawn to

scale will either be deleted or magnified depending on their importance

to the overall purpose of the r~ap. When selection is necessary, consis-~ tency of treatment is often mandatory. Thinning out detail in a complex

por tion of a map, coup led with retention of comparable detail in a less

complex portion , can mislead the map reader. (Montagano , 1962).

Magnification refers to the exaggeration of some features in order

to display them at a given map scale. On a 1:250,000 scale map the

prescr ibed symbol for a road is equivalen t to a road approx ima tely 158 m

wide on the ground .

Simplification is a type of selection and refers to deletion of

details or “smoothing out ” of a feature. As scale decreases , lines used

for outlining objects represent increasingly greater widths. Details ,

such as curves in the road , must be omitted because showing them results

in too great a magnification and displacement. At progressively smaller

scale , magnification of certain features becomes impractical ; use of

group symbols or outlines becomes necessary. (Floyd , 1962).

Map symbols ind ica ting posi tion have been classified as po in t , line

and area symbols. (Adams and Dip, 1967). A point symbol is a mark

standing for a fea ture wh ich is g iven location as a point. The feature ’s

horizontal and vertical dimensions are not indicated by the symbol.

A line symbol is a mark or series of marks standing for a fea ture

which is given location as a line . Only the linear extent of the feature

is represented by the line symbol.

An area symbol is a mark or series of marks standing for a fea ture

which has given location as an area. The extent of the feature in the

horizon tal plane is represented by the area symbol.

A four th category of positional symbol to add to the foregoing is

three—dimensional symbols , i.e., those symbols representing the position

of a feature in three dimensions .

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ARI TP 284

The degree of indeterminacy of the exact position of a feature

represented by a point symbol — assuming constant size of the symbol — is

proportional to map scale. Minimal separation between features necessary

for their individua l dep ic tion on the map Increases as map scale gets

smaller.

Features represented by line and area symbols require increasing

simp lif ica tion , dele tion , or magnifica tion with decreasing map scale.

In choosing scale for a given map , one has to consider the degree of

simplification that is permissible for coding the different features on

the map .

If relatively small sinuosities in a road are important landmarks~ for a certain task , then a large scale must be used . If appropriate ,

labelling such as “straight ” or “zig—zag ” may be used to compensate for

the loss of detail caused by simplification.

Identifying characteristics of features change with scale. At small

scale a long po in t of land might be the predominant characteristic of a

coastline, while at large scale the drainage and inlets migh t provide the

princi pal iden tif ying characteristics.

By far the most ubiquitous three—dimensional symbol used on maps is

the contour line . Strictly speaking , each individual contour line is a

line symbol portraying points of equal elevation in the terrain. It is

the pattern of contour lines that portrays the three—dimensional landscape . The pattern of contour lines is very much affected by map scale.

Contour lines 0.63 cm apart on a 1:25,000 scale map will be only .15 cm

apart on a 1:100 ,000 scale map . Consequently, the 6 m interval used on

the 1:25,000 scale map must be changed to 18 or 24 m for the 1: 100,000

scale map. This means that a prominent 34 m hill that is coded with five

contour lines on a 1:25,000 scale map will be coded wi th only one con tour

line in the 1:100 ,000 scale map . The five contour lines portraying the

hill on the 1:25,000 scale map can code steepness of slope and pattern of

slope change . One contour line on the 1:100 ,000 scale map tells us

nothing about the slopes to be found on the different sides of the hill .

Of course , the size of the landform is also decreased in the small

scale map. Since four contour lines are omitted , the hill may occupy a

considerably smaller area than 1:16 of the area portrayed on the 1:25,000

scale map .

To test the effects of scale on a given type of line map , one has to

be sure that the maps are produced in accord with normal procedures for

maps of the given scale. If the contour interval is 18 m on the 1:50,000

scale version , than it could be 9 m on the 1:25,000 scale version .

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AR ITP 284

Pho tograph ically enlarging a line map canno t change the map ’s

fidelity. The enlargement can change only the percep tual accessibility

of the information in that the visual display racing the viewer is

changed . For instance lines are thicker , and the size of the fea tures

are changed so that small features may become more apparent. Also , larger

features may become so enlarged as to make visual integration more

difficult.

Al phanume r ic symbols , an impor tan t ca tegory of nonposi tional symbol ,

are affected by scale when the size of the object that they des igna te is

scale—dependen t.

A small fea ture may requ ire rela tively small print to assure that

the label is associated with it. If small—scale maps tend to contain a

greater number of significant features per unit area than comparable

large—scale maps , they may require more selection in terms of what

features are labelled .

Arbitrary—sized symbols cannot be used for assessing different types

of cod ing for maps . In map displays , symbol size is often severely

constrained due to scale and the existence of adjacent symbols.

Interrelatedness of Symbols

The second important characteristic of hardcopy maps is the inter—

relatedness of symbols. When density of one symbol is reduced , interdepende nce among symbols may en tail reducing density of related symbols.

Symbols compe te for saliency, and a high density of symbols may

interfere with the ease of extracting information from a map . This

Interference as measured by increased time or decreased accuracy for

extraction of a given kind of information from the map is said to

indicate clutter.

A limit to the dens ity of fea tures is par tly de termined by the

graph ic form of those fea ture s, and the most appropriate graphic form

is in par t de termined by density of features . (Adams and Dip, 1967).

Whe r e there is ph ys ical overlap or jux tapos ition of symbols , extraction of information may also be hindered due to alteration in the

appearance of one or both symbols.

Simultaneous contrast results in changes in appearance of symbols.

Comp lementary or near complementary colors when in juxtaposition enhance

the Intensity of one another. (Robinson , 1952).

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ARI TP 284

Combining colors alters the hue of original colors . For example ,

adding layer tints to shaded relief changes original colors in that tints are darker than if shown on a white background . If a key is made up on

the basis of tints as they would appear if printed on a white background ,

then no colors shown on the key will appear on the map.

Interrelatedness of map symbols means that research related to map

displays cannot rely on “simplified” map stimuli or displays presenting

limited portions of information normally found on maps . New methods of

coding must be embedded in realistic map displays If their effectiveness

is to be assessed. Interrelatedness of map symbols also means that map

research must frequently entail simultaneous variation of more than one

factor at a time . For example , if one wants to test the effect of using

layer tints for elevation as contrasted with contours by themselves , then

• one automatically excludes use of layer tints for vegetation . If ability

to extract information about vegetation from the map is also of interest ,

it is legitimate to contrast a m ap with contour lines plus layer tints

for vegetation with a map using contour lines and layer tints for

elevation plus iconic figure coding for vegetation .

Standardized Symbols and Modes of Coding

A third characteristic of hardcopy topographic maps is that of

standardized symbols and modes of coding. With regard to military

topographic maps , some of the standardized colors listed In Army Field

Manual 21—31 are :

(1) black for the majority of cultural or manmade features ;

(2) blue for hydrographic features such as lakes, rivers , and

swamps ;

(3) green for vegetation such as woods, orchards , and vineyards;

(4) brown for all relief features such as contours; and

(5) red for main roads, built up areas, and special features.

As for shape coding a number of topographic symbols have been

standardized .

Contour lines represent a relatively standardized mode of relief

portrayal .

St mdardized conventions already existing must be taken into account

in map—related research and design. The techniques and means for making

the standard symbols are already present.

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ARI TP 284

Cost effectiveness of altering these symbols must be considered in

addition to the increase in intelligibility resulting from their employment .

If the conventions currently In use are altered , then there is the

possibility of a decrement in performance due to interference from • previous learning . This should be considered when choosing subjects for

• map—related research and may warrant sampling the appropriate user groups .

The Problems of Clutter and Alteration in Physical Appearance of Symbols

As indicated earlier, clutter refers to the fact that the speed and

accuracy of symbol location in complex displays is affected by the

number and nature of irrelevant symbols (for the problem at hand) in the

display . As the number of irrelevant symbols increases, there is an

increase in required search time and accuracy may decrease.

Clutter may hinder integration of Information contained in the map.

Where there is physical overlap or close juxtaposition of sym~ibols ,

extraction of information may be hindered due to alteration in the actual

appearance of one or both symbols (see “Interrelatedness of Symbols”).

Two ways of combatting clutter and alteration in appearance of

symbols applicable to hardcopy maps are:

1. Use of more than one physical display for presenting information.

2. Use of coding to differentiate information .

The first solution would mean construction of a number of special

purpose maps containing the information necessary , for only the

particular function for which the map is to be used. This solution has

several disadvantages in that it would :

1. Increase time and expense for map construction .

2. It would add to the logistic problem in that a number of versions

of the map might have to be supplied .

3. It causes difficulties if the information on two different maps

must be correlated .

4. The user who has maps related only to a given function may be at

a disadantage if the function changes quickly and he doesn ’t have the

appropriate map available.

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ARI TP 284

One modification which helps to alleviate some of these difficulties

is to include a number of specialized relatively small scale maps of the

same area in the margin or on the reverse side of the primary map.

These supplementary maps may contain information such as elevation guides

and fligh t obstacles , soils, trafficability, etc.

Regardless of cartographic technique used , there is a limit to the

amount and type of feature that can be simultaneously represented on a

map sheet. The only feasible solution in some instances is to use

spatially separate maps of the same area, each portraying different

features as well as features in common , to allow correlation betwean the

maps.

The second solution, to differentiate information via coding , should

be used always regardless of whether some of the information is also

displayed on special purpose maps. In any map one wants to use efficient

rather than inefficient or confusing coding techniques .

The importance of using the most efficient coding techniques increases

as the number and type of features to be portrayed in a given map

increases .

IMPLICATIONS OF VISUAL DISPLAY RESEARCH FOR MAP DESIGN

This section of the paper is devoted to different types of coding

used in visual displays and an evaluation of the applicability of these

coding techniques for use in hardcopy maps .

Some visual coding techniques that should be applicable to maps are

color coding (hue, brightness , saturation), shape coding (iconic coding,

arbitrary representation), and area size coding.

Coding categories may also be based on the number of visual codes

that are combined in the coding process and the way in which they are

combined.

Examples of these types of coding categories are given below (Meister

and Sullivan, 1969):

(1) Single Coding

Example : 4 = 400 km/h

(2) Redundant Coding

Example: [

~

]= 400 km/h (Both numeral and

square indicating 400 km/h)

(3) Compound Coding

Example: ~~~ 400 km/h (numeral means 400

km/h , triangle means jet—powered aircraft)

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• ARI TP 284

Most of the research reviewed in this section has utilized relatively

small , discrete geometric symbols , rather than extended irregular

• symbols such as roads , contou r lines, layer tints, and shading.

Color Coding

The term color coding is used in this review to indicate coding that

utilizes different hues with a high saturation though it is understood

that diff erences in bri ght ness and possibly saturation also may contribute

to the disc riminability of the colors used in coding.

An extensive review and analysis of color coding research for visual

displays produced the following conclusions (Christ 1975):

If the color of a target is unique for that target and is known in

advance , color aids both identification and searching. With both

multidimensional and unidimensional displays, color can be identified

more accura tely than size , brightness, geometric and nonalphanumeric

shape codes.

Alphanumeric shape codes tend to be identified more accurately than

color codes. When colors are added to an achromatic display, accuracy

in identifying achromatic target features decreases relative to a

monocromatic or achromatic display.

The few studies available concerning use of color as a redundant

variable in identification tasks show a positive effect on accuracy.

Subjects require less time to locate or count colors in a display

than when other types of coding such as size, brightness , or shape

(Including alphanumeric symbols) are used . Redundant colors can

decrease search time in symbolic displays if the subject knows the color

of ta rgets.

Using colo r in a pictorial display to provide a “natural” representation of the real world can decrease search time . In partially redundant

color—coded disp lays , gain in search performance decreases as the

p roportion of nontargets with the same color as the target increases.

When partially redundant color is added to a search display and the

subject does not know the color of the target , search performance is

generally degraded .

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ARI TP 284

A related finding is that memory of target color deteriorates less

than does memory of target size ; orientation , or shape . When subjects

must identify and remember several independent features of a briefly

exposed target , the accuracy of delayed reports of colors is only

slightly reduced over immediate reports. By comparison , accuracy of

shape and size reports is more affected if the report is delayed.

Comments found in the literature on other advantages of color coding

are the following : McCormick , 1970; Meister and Sullivan , 1969; VanCott

and Kinkade , 1972:

(1) When brightness contrast is low, color contrast can improve

visual acuity appreciably, but acuity is increased much more

by increasing brightness contrast.

(2) Colors are orientation—free in terms of coding.

(3) Color can be superimposed on shape without distorting it.

(4) Some colors are more resistant to human performance decrements

than others ; red is preferable for distance viewing , and

yellow—greens are best for tasks demanding high acuity.

Literature reviews indicate that eight or nine maximally saturated

colors are the maximum number that should be used for color coding .

(McCormick, 1970; Meister and Sullivan , 1969; VanCott and Kinkade , 1972).

This restriction is, at least in part , a result of the limitations of

long—term memory under the absolute discrimination conditions that

usually have been employed in color—coding studies.

The existence of a key that eliminates the long—term memory requirements may increase the number of colors that can be used successfully.

(Shontz, Trumm , and Williams, 1968). Use of a key plus use of numbers,

patterns (shape coding), and hues to form compound symbols allowed

production of a map showing 116 different types of “potential natural

vegetation” areas in the United States.

The numbers were used to differentiate the natural vegetation areas

further and to assure quick access to the appropriate symbol in the key.

(Kuehier , 1964). Use of patterns allowed assignment of several meanings

to the same color , one meaning being associated with each pattern.

Limitations of color coding are :

(1) Color perception is very much affected by lighting conditions.

Very low levels of illumination negate use of hues in coding

and red light used at night can filter out colors or make them

appear as grays . (Yanosky , 1967).

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(2) About 6% of healthy males have reduced sensistivity to color ,

and .003% of males are completely color blind . (See VanCott

and Kinkade , 1972 for a list of nine colors that can be

recognized by both color—sighted and color—blind people).

(3) Combination of colors alters the original hue (see section , “Interrelatedness of Symbols”).

In terms of background effects on legibility of printed matter , white

on black , black on white , black on yellow , and black on green are good -

color combinations , whereas red on black and black on red are bad

combinations. (MacNeil , 1965).

The following rules are listed for making targets more visible

against their background . (Meister and Sullivan , 1969; VanCott and

Kinkade , 1972).

(1) Choose a color that contrasts with colors in the background .

(2) Choose a brightness that differs as much as possible from

the background .

(3) Use as large an area of solid color as possible.

(4) Divide targets that will be seen against different backgrounds

into two contrasting colors , so that one of the two colors

will contrast with most backgrounds. Good color pairs are

white and red , bright yellow and black , bright yellow and blue ,

and bright green and red .

The research on color coding has primarily been based on results

in which relatively small , discrete , geometric forms have been used .

Use of color coding for large irregular areas, such as is found with

layer tints needs to be empirically investigated (see Lyons,

1914 for a review of some of the many ways in which color coding has

been used for layer tints).

Regarding nonredundant use of brightness coding , when viewing

conditions are good it is recommended that no more than four brightness

steps be used for coding ; (Honigfeld , 1964; VanCott and Kinkade , 1972);

under other viewing conditions it is suggested that two brightness steps

be used . (Honigfeld , 1964; Meister and Sullivan , 1969, VanCott and

Kinkade , 1972).

Brightness coding of small discrete symbols scattered over a map

may be more difficult to discriminate than would brightness coding of

• large adjacent areas indicating elevation. One problem with brightness

coding is that it is affected by the level of ambient illumination.

(Meister and Sullivan , 1969; VanCott and Klnkade , 1972.

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Simultaneous contrast may cause the edge of a light area that is

adjacent to a darker area to appear lighter than It otherwise would .

The effects of simultaneous contrast are largely eliminated if

contrasting areas are outlined in black . (Robinson , 1952).

Shape Coding

Shape coding can be subdivided into iconic representation and • arbitrary representation . In iconic representation the symbol “looks

like” the feature it represents — it may simply be a pictorial representation of the “real thing.” (Ruggins and Entwisle, 1974). An example

of iconic representation is shaded relief which is a two—dimensional

pictorial portrayal of three—dimensional terrain . An example of an

iconic discrete symbol is use of the black square with a cross on top

to represent a church . A good example of arbitrary representation is

the alphanumeric symbol .

Many symbols have both arbitrary and iconic characteristics . A

circle representing a city may be arbitrary in that the geometric form

bears no physical or logical relationship to the outline of the city .

However, it is iconic also if the size of the circle is correlated with

the physical or population size of the city .

Sinuosities in the line symbol for a road represent curves and

bends , but coding for the type of road is arbitrary . The degree of

Iconicity can be dependent on the particular population that is utilizing

the symbol. Inexperienced map users may see contour lines as a jumble

of lines , whereas some experienced map readers report that they can see

the contours “stand out” from the map to give a three—dimensional

portrayal of the landforms that they represent .

Iconicity in visual symbols is not restricted to shape. Color

coding is sometimes iconic (i.e., green for vegetation and blue for

water). A number of literature reviews suggest that shape coding should

be iconic. (Barmack and Sinaiko , 1966 , 1-loriigfeld, 1964: Meister and

Sullivan , 1969; VanCott and Kinkarle, 1972). The underlying rationale

is that such shape—object representations can be easily learned,

remembered , and used (because the association Is already there).

Although the underlying rationale seems as though it should be valid

(and certainly must be In some cases), the importance of iconic representations for a particular application remains to he empirically

determined .

An iconic symbol in a given map display is not necessarily the shape

most easily discriminated from the background or the shape most quickly

located .

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A number of studies have been undertaken to investigate inconicity

in map symbols. In a study investigating degree of inconicity of map

symbols already in use , each subject was told to draw his own symbol for

30 map features. (Berry, 1961). Less than 50% of the respondents

created symbols similar to standard key symbols for 20 of the 30

features. In 11 cases of the 20, the test group drew the topographic

features as three—dimensional objects viewed from ground level , which is

in contrast to the conventional cartographic representation presenting

nearly all features as if viewed from above.

Another study on iconicity was undertaken to investigate size

judgments for different types of symbols (William, R. L., Statistical

symbols for maps : Their Design and Relative Values. (AD 101698). Map

Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven , CO, March 1956), Some of the

findings were :

(1) There is no appreciable difference in size judgments between

solid and outline symbols.

(2) There is no appreciable difference in size judgments between

solid and patterned symbols.

(3) Symbols drawn to appear to have a third dimension were judged

the same as if they were plane symbols.

(4) Addition of color affects judgment of visual equivalence

between spot symbols only slightly.

(5) The results indicated that the relationship between perceived

size and actual size is nonlinear.

In a related study, the authors also found that the relationship

between perceived size and actual size is nonlinear for circles and

wedges but that bars should be graduated on a linear basis. (Flannery ,

1971).

The vertical exaggeration necessary for a three—dimensional representation of a contoured map to look “realistic ” for experienced map

readers is described by the equation :

Vertical Exaggeration = 6.87—2.82 log contour interval (feet). (Jenks

and Caspall , 1967).

Although iconic symbols utilize a preestablished association between

the symbol and its referent , judicious use of alphanumeric symbols can

sometimes duplicate this advantage .

For example, consider the use of the letter “F” to represent forest

and “G” to represent grassland . Alphanumerics have the advantage of

being able to communicate precise values and , unlike size coding , which

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is often iconic , are unaffected by map scale providing that the map

scale allows use of a size of alphanumerics that can be read easily.

For some uses , redundant coding of features using color coding plus

iconic shape coding might prove very effective .

Iconic shape coding may decrease the time required for an individual

to learn the association between the shape and what it represents ,

whereas redundant use of color may decrease the effect of orientation

upon symbol recognizability.

The fact that addition of color coding to shape coding significantly

speeds location time also suggests that redundant use of color and

iconic shape coding might prove very effective .

Redundant use of color coding should be avoided when small symbol

size precludes quick and accurate recognition of the color , when

legibility of the symbol is seriously affected , or when typical

conditions of illumination are inadequate for color vision.

The most important category of arbitrary shape symbol is the alphanumeric symbol. Permutations and combinations of alphanumeric symbols,

including words and names , may be used to code an unlimited number of

items.

In choosing between alternative fonts of alphanumeric symbols , the

primary consideration is legibility. Legibility tests are made by

deteriorating the viewing conditions until errors occur and then noting

the number of errors and their distribut ion among symbols. (Showman,

1966).

Conditions can be deteriorated by reducing brightness of both symbol

and background , by blurring the symbols, by reducing exposure time , by

reducing size , etc. Fonts which yield high legibility can be specified .

(Carel, Hershberger , Herman , and McGrath , 1974a; Honigfeld , 1964;

McCormick , 1970; Shurtleff , 1966, VanCott and Kinkade , 1972).

Another type of shape coding that is frequently arbitrary is pattern

coding . Compound color and pattern coding has been used effectively

(see earlier discussion in section on color coding (Kuehler , 1964)) and

allows assignment of several meanings to the same color .

Although not much map—related research was done on pattern coding , one

notes that patterns made up of widely spaced discrete symbols , as used

for symbolizing deciduous woods on military maps, are not suitable for

indicating relatively small stands of trees or precise localization of

the boundaries of the forest. If precise localization is desired ,

discrete symbols must be supplemented with boundary lines , or a more

closely spaced , continuous pattern achieved .

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ARI TP 284

Area Size Coding

In making up a size code , the designer should pick the upper and lower

limits of the scale and then decide how many steps there are to be . The

suggested maximum number of steps for use in size coding is five (Barmack

and Sinaiko , 1966): VanCott and Kinkade, 1972); and a safe upper limit on

the number of steps for use in size coding is three (Barmack and Sinaiko,

1966: Meister and Sullivan , 1969).

To insure good discriminability , values should he spaced equally on

a logarithmic rather than a linear scale because they are less likely

to be confused. (Meister and Sullivan , 1969; VanCott and Kinkade , 1972).

For information on iconic size coding see the previous discussion on

iconic shape coding .

Size coding has disadvantages as compared with other codes in that

considerable space is required and location time is longer than for

colors and shapes . (Barmack and Sinaiko , 1966). The range of sizes on

a given map is related to scale in that a given symbol covers progressively more terrain as map scale decreases .

TECHNIQUES USED IN MAP ASSESSMENT

An important aspect of map design — easily overlooked — as assessment or evaluation of map products . An appreciation of the limitations

of the different techniques for assessing map products is necessary for

evaluating studies comparing the efficacy of different types of maps .

Assessment is closely related to map design as it forces one to

think of the map function or purpose , also a primary consideration in

map design . Three basic techniques for evaluation of maps are opinion

sampling , theoretical analysis, and empirical testing .

Opinion Sampling

In opinion sampling a map product or series of map products is given

to users or “experts”, who are asked for opinion on how well the map

satisfies , or will satify , extant or future needs .

Typical opinion sampling is generally thought of as limited to the

use of questionnaires . However, this technique is far more flexible .

For example , in one study pilots rated the usefulness for navigation of

terrain features shown both in a film during simulated flight and

on aeronautical charts covering the same areas as the simulated flight.

The authors carried out a number of analyses including an analysis

of selection rates for inclusion of terrain features in aeronautical

charts as contrasted with the rated visual utility of these terrain

features .

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Even when opinion is sampled with a questionnaire , this type of

assessment is not as simple as it might seem and a questionnaire , if

used , must be designed carefully to avoid misleading or loaded questions .

Th3 biggest difficulty with opinion sampling as a means of assessing

map products is that this technique measures user or expert opinion on

how well the map works , which features should be port rayed , how they

should be represented , etc., rather than actual performance with map

products.

There are a number of reasons why favorable general opinion of a

map product is not always positively correlated with favorable numerical

measurement of performance . Opinion sampling may be misleading because :

a. Members of a sample may influence one another’s opinion

(especially true for group leaders).

b. Familiar procedures and familiar equipment are often favored

simply because they are familiar . -

c. Users may be reluctant to express extreme opinions or may be

trying to “please.”

d. Users may not be able to assess how well the map product is

working or may not have sufficient experience with the map product to

give a valid opinion .

Although opinion sampling has serious limitations as a means for

assessing the worth of map products , opinion sampling well—conducted is

a valuable supp lement to other means of assessment because:

a. It may indicate degree of user acceptance of the product .

b . It may reveal deficiencies and the cause of deficiencies in the

map product that may not be apparent from other means of assessment .

c. It is relatively inexpensive and may be carried out rather

quickly.

When monetary or time factors rule out empirical evaluation , a well—

desigtked survey may be the only practical means for assessment .

Theoretical Analysis

Theoretical assessment of a map product is an attempt to predict how

well it will function in a given situation by analysis of how the map

would be used , the physical characteristics of the map , previous performance with similar maps , etc.

15

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The major difficulty with this kind of assessment is that in practice

it is rarely possible to specify the factors and how they might interact

to yield a given level of performance.

Although theoretical analysis alone is probably not sufficient for

assessment , it may indicate some deficiencies in a given type of map

product , and is a necessary first step for designing an empirical

evaluation of map products.

Empirical Analysis

Empirical analysis is testing of the map product based on measures

of actual performance with the map product . Where prediction or assessment of performance is critical , there is no substitute for empirical

analysis of the map product .

There is a great variety in tasks in which maps are utilized , in the

military personnel engaged in such tasks , and in the methods by which

the tasks are performed. Ideally , prior to selection of test items ,

information must be gathered which :

• Identifies personnel using maps .

• Specifies the task being performed.

• Determines how they are performed. (Wheaton , Zavala, & VanCott ,

1967).

Given this analysis , two basic app roach es can be unde rtaken to

empirical assessment of maps . The first approach is to select a subset

of tasks representative of what users do with maps “in the field .”

Subjects are required to perform the tasks as they are actually performed

in an operational setting. Performance is evaluated in terms of degree

of successful completion of the operational task . One difficulty with

this approach is that for some kinds of maps , measures of performance in

the actual situation may be impractical . This is often the case for

aeronautical charts. Performance with the map product may have to be

measured using a simulation of the typ ical situation in which the map

is employed. There is always the danger that some key element is missing

from the simulation and that the results are misleading.

Another drawback of this approach is that many of these tasks are

complex and require a number of skills in addition to those involved in

interpretation of map products. The performance on a given task may be

more influenced by these non—mapreading skills than by difference in

ability to utilize different map products and the effects of the map

variable may be masked.

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ARI TP 284

The advantage of this approach is that it measures the performance

of the man—map system in an approximation to the “real life” situation.

If the app roximation to the “real life” situation is good then one gets

a prediction as to how the man—map system will function in the actual

situation in which the map will be employed i.e., predictive validity .

In the second approach , the tasks are devised so as to measure the

• map reading skills underlying operational use of map products . The

• tasks employed may not be closely related to what the user does in the

field. Performance is measured in terms of how accurately and quickly

information is extracted from a given map product . The disadvantage of

this approach is that the results may have little predictive validity

for how the man—map system will function in the actual situation in which

the map is to be used . The advantage of this approach is that it

provides the most direct evaluation of map products by obtaining measures

of how well alternative map products provide information .

For example, two contour maps of an area can be compared in terms

of the speed and accuracy with which people can identify landforms .

There may be no other criterion for saying that both maps contain usable

portrayals of features for a given user population .

Regardless of the approach taken, when two topographic representations

are compared and one is found to be superior using a particular assessment procedure, there are a number of generalization problems . (See Adams ,

1966). The results might have been different if:

• Different representative maps had been used.

• Different areas had been portrayed on the map product .

• Different assessment tasks or items had been chosen.

• Different test populations in terms of training and underlying

skills had been used.

The fourth variable, training and underlying skills, is easily overlooked when the focus is on the topographic map . The information transmission characteristics for the map product are not fixed characteristics

of the particular map product . They are also dependent on subject

variables. A highly motivated subject may be able to extract a great

deal of information from a given map , whereas a poorly motivated subject

may not be willing to expend the necessary effort . A highly trained

subject with high ability in pattern analysis might be able to extract

a great deal of information concerning relief from the pattern of

contour lines portraying terrain features , whereas for a moderately

trained subject with low ability in pattern analysis, the contour lines

might represent only clutter.

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ARI TP 2

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OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH COMPARING DIFFERENT KINDS OF MAPS

Several studies have been carried out to compare photo—b ased map

products with conventional line maps . (Berry, 1960; Hill , 1974; MAPRO ,

1973; Wheaton , Zavala and VanCott , 1967). Different tasks were used in

these studies including object location , object identification , terrain

visualization , height estimation , intervisibility estimation , direction

orientation , self—location , field—to—map location , map—to—field object

identification , route following , and route planning tasks.

The best photo—based maps produce performance comparable to that with

standard—line maps now in use . Whether this is the case because the

different types of maps transmit information equally well or because

variables not related to maps are the more critical factor is not clear.

Enhancements of roads , railways , and hydrography on orthophoto-maps

improves performance on a number of tasks where this information is

relevant. (Hill, 1974; Wheaton, et al., 1967).

Photo—based maps have an advantage over line maps in ease of updating and rapidity of production . (Hayes, 1966). Presumably this

advantage would be lessened by the time taken for enhancement of map

featurc~ .

The importance of differences in what orthophoto—maps and line maps

portray does not seem to have been investigated . For example, in

cultivated areas the photo—based maps routinely show different patterns

of fields giving a kind of mosaic , whereas this type of information

could only be portrayed on standard—line maps with a great deal of

difficulty and effort.

How valuable is this type of information for different map functions ?

How much seasonal variation does it show, and how is this related to

ease of updating and rapidity of production? At what scales do different

types of information show up best?

An analysis of what photo—based maps portray as contrasted with

standard—line maps does not seem to be in the map literature.

A survey undertaken to specify user requirements pertinent to relief

portrayal indicated that 24.7% of Army users reported having diff i—

culty interpreting relief from contours , and 50.2% of map users resorted

to hand application of layer tints — 16. 7% to alleviate their difficulty

in interpreting relief from contours and 30.3% to accentuate the

military characteristics of the terrain (Skop, 1958). In a further

evaluation , users were provided with prototype maps consisting of

contours augmented with shaded relief , contours augmented with layer

tints , and contours alone. The prototype maps covered areas familiar to

the users. The majority of users, 63.5%, stated that the most effective

manner of relief portrayal on large—scale maps was contours augmented

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with layer tints. A similar preference , 57.7%, was exp r essed fo r laye r

tinting with a 1:250,000 scale n~ip.

The results from a stud y referred to earlier suggest use of an

exaggeration ratio:

Vertical Exaggeration = 6.87—2. 28 log contour interval (feet)

for “realistic ” three—dimensional representation of large—scale

• contoured maps (1:24,000 and 1:31 ,680). The authors recommend that for

small scales , the contour interval be divided by the ratio between the

31, 680 scale and the smaller scale , but the re is no emp irical justification for these procedures. (Jenks and Caspall , 1967).

Another study was undertaken to investigate whether the use of the

shaded—relief technique for terrain representation results in an

increase in the time necessary to extrac t required elements of nonterrain

information from the map. (DeLucia , 1972). When the relief formats of

contour line and contour line p lus shaded relief were compared , the

addition of shaded relief to contour lines was found to increase the

time necessary for extracting nonrelief—related information from the

map , although the effect was small. Accuracy was unaffected .

One study, using the survey technique compared the Military Topographic Standard Map and the experimental Air Movement Data Map , both at

1:50 ,000 scale. (Huiza r , 1972). The users who evaluated the maps made

a numbe r of suggestions for both types of map . So~

ne of their comments

that might war rant further consideration are listed below :

( 1) 1:50 ,000 map scale is desired by ground and aviation personnel.

(2) Map format should allow rapid updating .

(3) Presentation of vegetation by percentage of canopy cover is

desirable.

(4) Contour lines and some other symbols are difficult to view

under artificial red lighting because of the colors used .

(5) Marginal information explaining interpretation of contours ,

i.e., depression , cuts , and fills , would be helpful .

(6) Highlighting cultural items utilizing pictorial symbols is a

desirable innovation.

(7) The presentation of improved and unimproved roads by addition

of color to indicate type of surface and width is desirable.

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In a study to define the accuracy expected in position location tasks

with maps of diffe ren t scales , subjects were transported in a jeep to

various pre—selected positions. Each subject plotted the locations of

the terrain positions on the two map scales, 1:25,000 and 1:250,000.

Significant differences in error of location were found for the two map

scales. Average ground errors obtained with the two map scales, 143 and

1411 m respectively, were almost directly proportional to the ratio

between the map scales i.e., a factor of 10. In terms of distance on the

map from the indicated terrain position , the mean error for the two maps

was approximately .56 cm. (Edmonds and Wright , 1965).

A study was undertaken to compare chip (slide) mode of displaying

maps vs. hard copy map displays (map chips are photo transparencies

mounted as slides, usually 7 by 10 cm).

In this study, image interpreters had to match imagery to a reference

map and locate map coordinates of a point marked on the imagery. Display

of the reference map on a screen instead of by hardcopy increased time

taken by image interpreters to match imagery to the appropriate area

and to determine map coordinates of a point on the imagery .

The longer time required for map chips was attributable to the need

to study displays of two chips when the image area lay on the boundary

of one or both chips. (Laymon , 1966).

Freedom to orient an image relative to a map display did not affect

the time taken to match the imagery to the map or to locate the map

coordinates of a point on the imagery.

Another study tested the general principle that cartographic information , having no visual correlate in the real world , would be of no

value for pilot orientation. (McGrath , Osterhoff , and Borden , 1964).

Proper names of towns, rivers , and bodies of water have no visual

correlate that can be seen from the air and consequently would not be

expected to aid geographic orientation.

The authors found no significant difference between orientation

performance on simulated flights using a standard Sectional Aeronautical

Chart and on simulated flights using a Sectional Aeronautical Chart

from which all place names had been removed .

The authors also found that changing scale via photographic enlarge—

ments had no effect on geographic orientation , presumably because photo—

graphic enlargement did not change information content of the aeronau—

tical chart.

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ARI TP 284

In another study , geographic orientation in aircraft pilots using

standard color—coded charts and achromatic versions of these charts was

compared. (Osterhoff , Earl, and McGrath , 1966). Geographic orientation

performance of four groups of pilots was measured under conditions of

simulated flight.

The first group used a full color standard sectional chart ; the

second group , a graytone version ; the third group , a black and white

line version; and the fourth group , a blank version. The blank chart

was a graytone chart in which the inscribed corridor was completely

devoid of topographic information so that navigation could be based

only on dead reckoning .

Pilots who used the achromatic graytone and color charts performed

significantly poorer than pilots using color charts , but better than

pilots using blank charts. Pilot continents upon and ratings of the

different charts indicated that the primary reasons for the inferiority

of achromatic charts were :

(1) Categories of topographic information were difficult to

differentiate .

(2) Reliance on natural landmarks had to be abandoned in favor of

reliance on cultural landmarks .

(3) Pilots had to spend too much time studying the charts during

flight.

(4) The vertical development of the terrain was poorly portrayed.

The authors concluded that navigation display systems that lack

color capability cannot effectively employ existing color—coded aeronautical charts. Specifically designed achromatic graphics will be required

for such systems.

The next study was designed to analyze information requirements of

pilots and information content of aeronautical charts. (McGrath and

Borden , 1969). Since the authors make a number of suggestions for desic’n

of aeronautical charts, the study is summarized in detail.

In this study , pilots were required to rate the usefulness of the

terrain features shown in the film during simulated low altitude flight.

The f ilm showed a continuous scene of the forward visual f ield as seen

from the cockpit of an aircraft flying with an average ground speed of

556 kn/h and an average terrain clearance altitude of 61 in.

Each pilot made judgments of the utility of the fea ture as a visual

cue for orientation and navigation . The visual utility of a feature was

measured by the percentage of pilots who indicated it would be generally

useful or very useful.

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A quantitative index of the rated usefulness of each feature

portrayed on the Sectional Aeronautical Chart , the USAF Pilotage Chart ,

and the ITSAF Operational Navigation Chart was also obtained. These are

small scale charts (1:500,000—1:1,000,000) in which the third dimension

is portrayed using contour lines , spot elevations , gradient tints , and

for two of the maps , shaded relief.

The cartographic utility of a feature was measured by the percentage

of pilots who indicated it would be useful after viewing it on a map .

The authors also measured the selection rate, i.e., the percentage of

the available features in a given category that were portrayed on the

charts.

Some significant results of the study were as follows:

(1) The pilots rated waterhodies , watercourses , and paved roads as

useful features for orientation .

(2) Linear size of the feature had a strong effect on visual

utility, cartographic utility , and selection rate. These

measures all increased as linear size increased . Area size

had a strong effect on the visual utility and selection rate

for bodies of water.

(3) The greater the number of buildings in a community , the

greater the visual utility and the higher the selection rate.

(4) Irregularly shaped features generally had higher selection

rates and higher visual utility than features with geometric

shapes, but this difference was partly attributable to

difference. in area size. Visual utility of railroads and

watercourses increased as sinuosity of the features increased .

(5) Contrast had a strong effect on the visual utility of features,

and the effect was consistent across all categories . The

higher the contrast between the feature and its background,

the more useful it was judged as a visual cue to orientation .

Contrast had no systematic effect on cartographic utility or

selection rate.

Another experiment was undertaken to investigate the effects of

resolution, display luminance , ambient illumination , vibra tion , and

cartograph ic characteristics such as clutter and size displayed

symbols upon symbol legibility for airborne map displays . (Carel,

Hershberger , Herman, and McGrath , 1974a).

22

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The tasks used in the experiment were simple recognition tasks

consisting of identification of symbols including alphanumeric symbols , counting tasks , etc. Threshold legibility for alphanumeric symbols

refers to the visual angle subtended by the symbol when it was read or

spelled with no subsequent error .

In this study , visual angle requirements for threshold legibility

increased by about 100% with the more extreme conditions of resolution

and total display luminance. Within the ranges used in this experiment, luminance had a larger effect on legibility than did contrast.

Visual angle requirements for threshold legibility size increased

from 9.73 to 12.33 arc minutes as clutter changed from low to high .

Visual angle requirements were lowest for lowercase words , highest for

numerals, with uppercase words being intermediate . Vibration increased

the visual angle required for threshold legibility .

Those contrast luminance conditions which provided the poorest

static legibility were most affected by vibration. These results are

used to give detailed quantitative descriptions of design criteria for

airborne map displays . (Carel, Hershberger, Herman , and McGrath , l974b).

SUMMARY

Three important determinants of the design of topographic maps are

scale , interrelatedness of symbols , and a body of standardized symbols

and modes of coding . Map scale is an important determinant of fidelity .

If the same rules are used to represent features on maps of different

scale, then the larger scale map will have greater fidelity because

small scale necessitates selection, simplification , and magnification

of features . Enlarging or reducing a map photographically will not alter

the fidelity of a map.

The problems of clutter and overlapping symbols occur when too much

information is crowded onto a map . Clutter can be reduced by presenting

information on separate , subsidiary maps , or by the use of coding to

differentiate information .

Visual coding techniques applicable to maps are color coding , shape

coding, and area—size coding . Coding categories may also be based on

the number of visual codes used and the way in which they are combined .

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ARI TP 284

Color coding aids in identification and search , and decreases

location time . Redundant coding using both shape and color decreases

location time over use of shape coding alone . Some authorities suggest

that shape coding should be iconic since iconic shapes can be easily

learned , remembered , and used . However, alphanumeric symbols also can be

designed for easy learning and have the advantage of great flexibility .

Area—size coding requires considerable space , and location time is

larger than with shape or color coding .

• Three assessment techniques can be used to evaluate maps: opinion

sampling, theoretical analysis , and empirical analysis. Opinion sampling

is relatively inexpensive and easily carried out , but does not measure

actual performance . Theoretical analysis provides a necessary first

step but is limited in that it is rarely possible to specify all factors

• that might influence performance. Empirical analysis measures actual

performance with the map product , either in assessing direct or simulated performance with the maps, or by measuring the map—reading skills

which underlie actual performance .

The best photo—based maps produce performance comparable to that with

conventional line maps now in use. However, the importance of differences

in what orthophoto maps and line maps portray does not seem to have been

assessed.

Some Army users have reported difficulty interpreting topographic

relief from contour lines. In one survey , a majority of Army users

stated that the most effective m anner of relief portrayal augmented

contour lines with layer tinting.

Studies on airborne map displays produced a body of suggestions for

• design of future airborne maps on information requirements of pilots ,

effects of movement , and map legibility .

24

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25

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ARI TP 284

Floyd , A. M. Generalization Problems in Derived Mapp ing . Canadian

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•
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McCormick , E. J. Human Factors Engineering. (3rd ed.) New York:

McGraw—Hill , 1970.

McGrath , J. J. and Borden , G. J. Geographic Orientation in Aircraft

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Wheaton , C. R., Zavala , A., and VanCott , H. P. Enhanced Photomap

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A JANAIR Symnosium. Goleta: Human Factors Research , Inc., 1967.

(AD 661 490)

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