Use of Seismic Intensity Data 

to Predict the Effects of 

Earthquakes and Underground 

Nuclear Explosions in Various 

Geologic Settings 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1279 

Prepared on behalf of the 

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 

Use of Seismic Intensity Data 

to Predict the Effects of 

Earthquakes and Underground 

Nuclear Explosions in Various 

Geologic Settings 

By PATRICK J. BAROSH 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1279 

Prepared on behalf of the 

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 

A summary of the various factors 

that determine the effects of a 

seismic disturbance at a particular 

location and their utilization 

in predicting these effects 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1969 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

WALTER J. HICKEL, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

William T. Pecora, Director 

LiJbrary of Congress catalog-card No. 77-601453 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 45 cents (paper cover) 
CONTENTS 

Page 

Abstract__________________________________________________________ 1 

Introduction and definitions_________________________________________ 1 

11agnitude________________________________________________________ 4 

IntensitY--------------------------------------------------------- 6 

Intensity as a function of ground motion_________________________ 9 

Intensity variation as a function of epicentral distance for different 

magnitudes __________________________________________ -·-_ .16 

Epicentral intensity (!0)____________________________________ 17 

Average-intensity curves___________________________________ 18 

Minimum-intensity curves__________________________________ 21 

Maximum-intensity curves__________________________________ 22 

Predominant maximum-intensity curves______________________ 22 

Radius of perceptibility (r) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 23 

Intensity variation as a function of focal depth____________________ 24 

Intensity variation as a function of geologic conditions_____________ 29 

Geologic structure_________________________________________ 29 

Ground types_____________________________________________ 31 

Seismic microregionalization maps_________________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 42 

Relation between earthquake magnitude and nuclear explosion energy 

release_________________________________________________________ 46 

Prediction of seismic intensity for nuclear explosion____________________ 49 

Summary and conclusions__________________________________________ 52 

References cited__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 53 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

FIGURE 1. Diagram showing relationship between the Richter 

(local) magnitude M and the unified magnitude m _ _ _ _ _ _ 6 

2. Ch~rt showing correlation of intensity scales________________ 8 

3. Isoseismal map of the Arvin-Tehachapi earthquake area ____ _ 

1952_________________________________________________ 10 

4-27. Graphs or diagrams showing: 

4. Suggested relationships between ground acceleration 

and intensity _________________________________ - 12 

5. Correlation of acceleration and period of ground 

motion for earthquake intensities 5-8 _________ --- 13 

6. Correlation of amplitude of displacement for 

ground motion and period during earthquakes 

of intensities 6-9------------------------------- 15 

ni 
IV CONTENTS 

.Page 

FIGs. 4-27. Graphs or diagrams showing-Continued 

7. Epicentral intensity as a function of magnitude for 

southern Californian and Russian earthquakes_____ 17 

8. Intensity-epicentral-distance curves for Arvin-Tehachapi earthquake____________________________ 18 

9. A verage-intensity-epicentral-distance curves of some 

major earthquakes in Japan since 1923___________ 19 

10. A verage-intensity-epicentral-distance curves of selected Japanese earthquakes_____________________ 20 

11. Average-intensity-epicentral-distance curves for earthquakes of different magnitudes in southern 

California_____________________________________ 21 

12. Predominant maximum intensity as a function 

of magnitude and epicentral distance for seven 

earthquakes in western Nevada and adjacent 

California_____________________________________ 23 

13. Nomogram for determination of one of the values 

epicentral intensity, magnitude, or focal depth 

if the other two are known______________________ 25 

14. Graphic presentation of the function of intensity 

attenuation ________________________________ --_ 27 

15. Universal chart for determining focal depth according 

to macroseismic data _________________________ -- 28 

16. Average-intensity-epicentral-distance curves for earthquakes of magnitude 6 at focal depths of 10 

and 20 km_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 29 

17. Isoseismal data from the Tesikaga earthquakes of 

January 1959--------------------------------- 30 

18. Contrast of damage to houses underlain by diluvium 

and underlain by clayey materiaL_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 32 

19. Damage to houses in Fukuroi, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan___________________________________ 33 

20. Relation between thickness of alluvium and damage 

from the 1923 Kwanto earthquake in Yokohama__ 33 

21. Relation between the thickness of clayey overburden and the damage percentage of houses in 

hamlets in the Kikugawa basin__________________ 34 

22. Variation of earthquake damage with geologic 

conditions_____________________________________ 35 

23. Increase of intensity of different types of ground 

over that of granite as a function of seismicwave velocity__________________________________ 36 

24. Ground-motion variation over different ground types 

at Koti, Japan________________________________ 38 

25. Relative deformation in different types of ground_____ 39 

26. Relation of the mean period and largest amplitude 

of microtremors to geologic formations in the 

Misaki area, Tokyo ____________________ -------- 40 

27. Relation between earthquake damage to Japanesestyle wooden houses and type of ground as classified 

by microtremor measurements___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 41 

28. Seismic regionalization map of the U.S.S.R---------------- 43 
FIGURES 

TABLE 

CONTENTS 

29. Seismic microregionalization map of Petropavlovsk, 

Kamchatka, and vicinity ______________________ _ 

30. Microregionalization map of Los Angeles basin and 

vicinity, southern California ___________________ _ 

31. Graph showing relationship between yield and magnitude for three underground nuclear explosions ___ _ 

TABLES 

1. Modified Mercalli intensity scale of 1931_ _____________ _ 

2. Modified Mercalli scale (New Zealand version, 1965) ____ _ 

3. Japanese seismic intensity scale ______________________ _ 

4. GEOFIAN scale; seismic scale of the Earth Physics 

Institute of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, and 

description of aftereffects of earthquakes ____________ _ 

5. MSK 1964 intensity scale ___________________________ _ 

6. Maximum acceleration and velocity values of different 

intensities _______________________________________ _ 

7. Correspondence between mag11itude, epicentral intensity 

(GEOFIAN), and focal depth ______________________ _ 

8. Focal depth determination of Tesikaga earthquake.s based on intensity data ________________________ ---~ _____ _ 

9. Increase in seismic intensity from the ground __________ _ 

10. Typical engineering-geologic conditions that determine the 

size of the correction to seismic intensity ___________ _ 

11. Intensity increase from ground conditions of the 

Apsheronsk Peninsula _____________________________ _ 

12. Engineering-geologic divisions of the Petropavlovsk area, Kamchatka ______________________________________ _ 

v 

Pace 

45 

46 

48 

Page 

65 

69 

72 

73 

77 

81 

82 

82 

82 

84 

92 

93 

USE OF SEISMIC INTENSITY DATA TO PREDICT THE 

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES AND UNDERGROUND 

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS IN VARIOUS 

GEOLOGIC SETTINGS 

By PATRICK J. BAROSH 

ABSTRACT 

A survey of the literature reveals the feasibility of using seismic intensity 

data to construct useful intensity-epicentral-distance curves for earthquakes 

of different magnitude.s. To do thJls, variables other than epicentral intensity 

must be considered. The variab!e principally responsible for the range of 

intensities at ,any given epicentral distance is the geologic environment, and 

considerable work has been done, mainly by Russian and Japanese scientists, 

in evaluating relative intensity differences of different types of ground. 

Microregionalization maps, which show relative intensities for different geologic settings, could be used with intensity-epicentral-distance curves for a particular geologic setting to predict the intensity, at a given point of known ground 

type, from an earthquake of given magnitude, epicentral distance, and focal 

depth. These maps and curves can also be usro to eSitimate potential seismic 

effects on manmade struetures from underground nuclear explosions. To make 

these estimates, the relationship between nuclear-explosion energy and earthquake magnitude and between intensity and focal depth must be suffi.ciellltly 

weU known to permit extrapolation of earthquake data to the shallow depths and 

energy releases of nuclear explosions. Preliminary equBJtions, showing these 

relations, exist. 

INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS 

This report summarizes earthquake data that may be useful in 

predicting potential damage from earthquakes and from underground 

nuclear explosions. The problem of predicting damage from earthquakes has been studied for many years, but the subject is so complex that empirical data and judgment are still the principal bases 

for prediction. The ground motion produced by nuclear explosions 

is so similar to that produced by earthquakes that it is difficult or 

impossible to differentiate between the two. Possible damage due 

to ground motion caused by nuclear explosions should reasonably be 

of the same kind as that caused by ea,rthquakes. The method of 

1 
2 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

predicting potential damage is 'a problem common to both sources of 

motion. 

The data and suggestions contained herein are not meant to be a 

substitute for measured or predicted ground motion parameters, but 

they do provide a basis for estimating intensity 'as a function of 

magnitude. and epicentral distance. Intensity is a rather subjective 

measure of shaking, based upon real effects of shaking of things. 

Intensity scales, because they 1

are based on real effects rather than on 

a predicted structural response to ground motion, may be temporarily 

of more practioal use than ground motion measurements. If and 

when realistic structural responses in terms of ground motion are 

esta;blished for various types of ground 1and construction, intensity 

scales may decline in importance. However, ·as stated by Wood and 

Neumann (1931, p. 277), "we are not yet in position to correlate destructive effects with instrumental data so as to establish an adequate 

measure of intensity. Though the importance of the factor of acceleration is recognized, we have as yet no satisfactory definition of intensity, no formula expressing earthquake violence in terms of ground 

movement." Eiby ( 1965) pointed out that this still holds true. Furthermore, no significant progress in predicting potential damage from 

ground motion caused by earthquakes and nuclear explosions is likely 

until damage criteria are established; this will require rigorous scientific study by the combined community of seismologists, geologists, 

and structural engineers. 

Two examples are cited to show what effects, in terms of perceptibility and potential damage, could have been predicted on the basis of 

a variety of compilations of observed earthquake, ground motion, 

and intensity data. 

The great bulk of earthqua.kes occur around the P.acific basin and in 

the Mediterranean-Himalayan belt; and the pertinent literature on 

earthquake intensity comes from those countries in this seismically 

active area which have competent seismologists ·and adequate earthquake records, for example the United States, Japan, Russia., and 

New Zealand. The literature from many countries, such 1

as those in 

Central and South America and India, in this seismically active area 

deals mainly with the descriptive aspects of earthquake damage and 

commonly does not deal with quantitative aspects of intensity. For the 

purposes of this report the United States literature published before 1968 was moderately well searched, and the Russian, Japanese, 

and New Zealand literature was scanned. Emphasis is on the 

foreign work, however, because it is poorly known and not readily 

availruble in the United States. 

In the United States the groundwork for quantitative intensity 
INTRODUCTION AN"D DEFINITIONS 3 

studies was laid in the early 1930's by the systematic collection of data 

on earthquake intensity (by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey), by 

the formulation o:f the Modified M·ercalli intensity scale (Wood and 

Neumann, 1931), and by the definition and introduction of an instrumental earthquake magnitude scale (Richter, 1935). A large amount of 

qualitative information on intensity had previously been a~quired by 

the classic studies of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Much information on inhmsities for southern California was presented by 

Gutenberg and Richter (1942, 1956). Intensity variations with epicentral distance for two different geologic conditions in western Washington and California were analyzed by Neumann ( 1954, 1959). The 

variation in ground motion due to different geologic conditions in 

southern California was demonstrated by Gutenberg (1956b, c, 1957), 

and the probable intensity variation due to geologic conditions for the 

Los Angeles basin and, in less deta:[l, for all of California was shown 

by Richter (1959). The relation of intensity to ground motion has been 

considered by Benioff ( 1934), Neumann ( 1954, 1959), and many later 

authors. 

In Japan, intensity studies were begun at about the same time they 

\vere begun in the United States. The relation of acceleration to the 

,Japanese intensity scale was studied by Ishimoto ( 1932). Intensityepicentral-distance curves for a great many earthquakes were drawn by 

Hirosi Kawasumi and others about 1939 and by Hirono (1948) and 

Sa to ( 1948). An equation for a me:1n curve relating these parameters 

was formulated by Ka wasumi ( 1951). The relation between intensity, 

epicentral distance, and acceleration was investigated by Hirono 

( 1958) and Hirono and Hisamoto ( 1963). The relations between variations in damage and geologic conditions was studied by Kanai (1947, 

1949, 1951), Kanai and Tanaka (1950), Kanai and Yoshizawa (1951), 

Omote (1946, 1949), Omote and Miyamura (1951), Takahasi (1950), 

and many others. Ground-motion vacriations due to geologic conditions, 

particularly ,the effect of the surfaoe layer, were studied by Minakami 

( 1944), Minakami and Utibori ( 1946), Minakami and Sakuma ( 1948), 

Sakuma (1948),Hayashi (1950),Kanai (1952),Kanaiand Yoshizawa 

(1956), Kanai, Tanaka, and Yoshizawa (1959), Kanai, Tanaka, 

Yoshizawa., Morishita, Osada, and Suzuki (1966), Omote, l(omaki, 

and Kobayashi ( 1956), and many others. 

In Russia, intensity studies were begun in the late 1940's and have 

progressed rapidly. A new intensity scale was adopted in 1953 (Medvedev, 1953) ; and since then much 1,vork has been done on the relationship of intensity to geologic conditions (Gorshkov and others, 1947, 

1949; Guhin, 1954, 1955, 1960; Belousov, 1954; Nazarov, 1954; Petrushevsky, 1955; Safaryan, 1954, 1957; Popov, 1959; l(ats, 1960; Medve335-877~----2 
4 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

dev, 1952a, b, 1958, 1961; Medvedev and others, 1961, 1962; Kuliev, 

1962; Fedotov, 1961; and Goryachev and others, 1963). Studies have 

also been made relating intensity to magnitude (Shebalin, 1955, 1957a, 

b, c, 1959b), to focal depth (Medvedev, 1959; Shebalin, 1955, 1959a, 

1960, 1961), and to ground motion (Medvedev, 1961, 1963a, b). 

In New Zealand there has been more emphasis on aspects of seismology other than quantitative intensity relations, but the relation between magnitude, epicentral intensity, focal depth, and mean radius 

of felt area has been studied (Hayes, 1953, p. 634-635). 

Information available in the literature is presented in many different ways and recompilation and correlation of most of the data are 

required to put it in a form that allows it to be readily compared. 

No attempt has been made to include earthquake-engineering aspects 

of construction that are important in determining the response of 

stuctures to ground motion. 

Most of the terms used in the seismic literature that are pertinent 

to this report are well enough known that an extensive glossary is not 

needed here. Two very important concepts, magnitude and intensity, 

have been defined in various ways, however, and some discussion of 

them is necessary to avoid confusion in later parts of this report. 

The following symbols for terms used in formulas are introduced 

where the terms are first discussed and are not generally defined after 

each fonnula: 

Ll=epicentral distance (in kilometers) 

h=focal depth (in kilometers) 

I =intensity 

lo=epicentral intensity 

M=Riehter, or loeal·magnitude 

Mk=Kawasumi magnitude 

m=unified magnitude 

r=radius of pereeptibility (in kilometers) 

MAGNITUDE 

Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the size of an earthquake and· 

is related to the energy released in the form of seismie waves. The 

concept was d-eveloped initially by Richter ( 1935) for use with normaldepth local earthquakes in southern California. By definition, an earthquake's magnitude (1l/) is equal to the eommon logarithm of the 

maximum trace amplitude (expressed in microns) written by a standard torsion seismometer (free period 0.8 sec, damping ratio about 

50: 1, and sta.tie magnification of 2,800) at an epicentral distance (A) 

of 100 km (kilometers). Tabl-es for adjusting amplitudes of earth-
MAGNI'rUDE 5 

quakes recorded at other distances to those expected at 100 km were 

developed empirically. 

On the basis of simple auxilia,ry definitions and some theoretical 

considerations, the concept of magnitude was extended to cover large 

shallow earthquakes reeorded at great distances (from amplitudes of 

surface waves with periods near 20 sec) and earthquakes with arbitrary 

foeal depth (from amplitude: period ratios of P, S, and PP body 

waves) (Gutenberg and Richter, 1986, 1942, 1956; Gutenberg 1956a). 

Calculation of 1nagnitudes according to the extended definition was 

implmnented by additional tables and eharts, also determined empirically, that were eonstructed so that magnitudes of a given earthquake 

computed from different types of observations (maximum recorded 

amplitudes at small distances, surfaee waves with periods near 20 sec, 

and various types of body waves) were the same numerieally. 

l\1agnitudes of large shallow earthquakes computed frmn surfacewave amplitudes have sinee been found to differ systematically, as a 

funetion of magnitude, from those eomputed from body-wave amplitude: period ratios. Gutenberg (1956a) regarded the body-wave magnitudes as the most reliable and elevated them to the status of "unified 

magnitude" ( 1n). 

The unified magnitude is found from 

m= log(A/T) + B + 0, 

where A is the maximum ground amplitude, in microns, of body waves 

(the vertieal components, Z, as well as the horizontal, H, of P and 

PP, but only the horizontal component, 8H, for S waves), and T, the 

eorresponding period, in seconds. 0 is an empirically determined station constant which rarely exceeds 0.2. B, the value of which is given 

in tables and graphs, depends mainly on the phase and component, the 

epicentral distance, and, to a lesser degree, the foeal depth. B depends 

on the loeal structure up to an epicentral distanee of about 20° (Gutenberg, 1956a,p.5). 

The two magnitude seales, one (frf) based on maximum trace 

amplitudes of local ea.rthquakes or on 20-second-period surface waves 

of distant earthquakes, and the other ( 1n) based on amplitude: period 

ratios of body \vaves of distant earthquakes, are related by 

m=2.5+0.6:3A/, or Af=l.591n-3.97 

(Riehter 1958, p. 348). The scales match at a magnitude of approximately 6.75. Above this, the Richter scale gives a higher magnitude; 

below it, a lower magnitude (fig. 1). An earlier correlation by Gutenberg ( 1956a, p. 5) showed closer agreement between the two scales. 
6 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

From the definition of magnitude, an increase of one unit in magnitude corresponds to a tenfold increase in amplitude (or amplitude: 

period), focal depth and epicentral distance remaining unchanged, of 

the ground motion produced at a given location. The largest recorded 

earthquakes had magnitudes 11/ of 8.9 (or m of 8.0), and earthquakes 

with magnitudes less than zero are recorded at smal,l epicentral distances'by very sensitive seismographs. 

The Gutenberg-Richter magnitude is used in its original or slightly 

modified form by seismologists throughout the world. In some places 

(for example, in Russia), the empirical interpretive material needed 

for computing magnitudes has been recompiled from domestic stations. 

In Japan, the magnitude used previous to the adoption of the 

Richter scale, the Kawasumi scale (Mk), is based on the average intensity on the Japanese intensity scale, at an epicentral distance of 100 km 

(Kawasumi, 1943). The relation of the Kawasumi scale (1951, p. 472) 

to the Richter scale is 

M=4.85+0.5Mk,orMk=2M-9.70. 

INTENSITY 

Intensity is the effect of an earthquake at a particular place. The 

effects generally considered in determining earthquake intensity are 

those on man, on construction, and on the earth's surface, but certain 

instrumentally measured parameters of ground motion have at times 

been included. A great numbe.r of intensity scales have been devised 

and revised to describe the varying degrees of sensation and damage 

caused by earthquakes. Forty-four of these sc:llles were correlated hy 

Gorshkov and Shenkarev ( 1958) and discussed briefly 'by them and by 

Medvedev ( 1961). 

In the United States the Modified Mercalli scale (M.M. or M.M. 

1931) of 12 units is in general use (Wood and Neumann, 1931; table 1 

of present report). Richter ( 1958, p. 136-139) suggested some slight 

changes for clarification of this scale. In New Zealand the Modified 

Mercalli scale is also used, but before 1943 the Rossi-Forel sc:llle was 

used there (Eiby, 1966, p. 123). Recently the definitions of the Modified Mercalli scale units were revised slightly to better fit the construeUnified magnitude m 

3 4 5 6 6.75 7 8 9 

I, I I I I I I I I I, I I I I I I I I I, I I I I I I I I I, I I I I I 'I' I I, I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I 

I I I I I I 1 I I 

1 2 3 4 5 6 6.75 7 8 9 

Richter (local) magnitude M 

FIGURE 1.-Relationship between the Richter (local) magnitude M and the unified 

magnitude m, according to Richter's formula m=2.5+0.63M (1958, p. 348). 
INTENSITY 7 

tion characteristics of New Zealand ( Eiby, 1966 ; table 2 of present 

report). In Japan, the 8-unit Japanese Seismic Intensity Scale, a modification of an earlier scale (Omori, 1920), is in use (Kawasumi, 191

51, 

p. 481; table 3 of present report). In Russia the GEOFIAN scale 

( a;bbreviation of Geophysics Institute of the Academy of Sciences) 

of 12 units was used until recently (Medvedev, 1953; table 4 of present 

report). 

The G EOFIAN scale is very similar to the Modified Mercalli scale, 

both having been developed from the same earlier scales. The 

GEOFIAN scale, however, incorporates some quantitative evaluation 

of ground motion in addition to sensation and structural response. 

The MSI{ 1964 scale, which is very similar to the GEOFIAN scale, 

was proposed by Medvedev, Sponheuer, and Karnik (1963, 1964; in 

Sponheuer, 1965) as an international intensity scale (table 5). It is 

now being tried experimentally in Japan (T. Hirono, oral commun., 

1967) and apparently in use in Russia. 

The relation of t1he M.M. 1931, GEOFIAN, and Japanese scales is 

shown in figure 2. The correlation is based on comparison and evaluation of the data shown in tables 1, 3, and 4 and on some slig;ht additional information (Richter, 1958, p. 138-139; Collins and Foster, 

1949, p. 25; and Stechschulte, 1932, p. 87). This correlation is different 

from that of Gorshkov and Shenka.rev ( 1958, table 4) in that the 

Modified Mercalli and GEOFIAN scales are shown to be less equivalent at the low end of the scale and much more equivalent in the area 

of intensities VIII, IX, and X. 

It is doubtful that more than 12 intensity units can be adequately 

defined, and when employing these scales whole units are used (Eiby, 

1966, p. 128). When uncertainties exist as to which of two intensity 

units to assign, the higher unit is used. The intensity is customarily 

written in Roman numerals, which helps prevent it from becoming 

confused with magnitude. 

The value of the intensity concept ·and the general problems encountered in assigning intensity ratings were discussed by Eiby ( 1965) . 

He (1965, p. III-66 to III-67) pointed out that a single international 

intensity scale is undesirable because the intensity criteria, to be most 

applicable, should be in terms that fit loeal eonstruction characteristics, 

and these vary greatly throughout the world. 

The intensity of an earthquake at any specific. point depends on a 

great many variables, including e.arthquake magnitude; epicentral 

distance; acceleration, period, duration, and amplitude of seismic 

waves; type of ground; geologic structure; slope of ground; ground 

water; type of construction; quality of workmanship; and the natural 

period of buildings and sites. Fortunately, some of the variables are 
8 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

UNITED STATES 

Modified 

Mercalli 

(Wood and 

Neumann, 1931) 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

v 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

4II 

RUSSIA 

GEOFIAN 

(Medvedev, 

1953) 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

v 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

JAPAN 

Japanese 

(Kawasumi, 

1951) 

0 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

v 

VI 

VII 

FIGURE 2.-Correlation of intensity scales. 
INTENSITY 9 

not independent and some others can be evaluated separately. Intensity 

scales recognize the different types of eonstruetion, and usually the 

effects of poor workmanship are taken into consideration when assigning intensity ratings. Intensity scales are most successfully used where 

there is a general uniformity in type and quality of construction as in 

central Asia and Japan. 

In the United States, infonnation on intensities is gathered by the 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, which, after an earthquake, obtains 

reports of damage and other effects from the disturbed region (Scott, 

1965). From this information, intensities are assigned to the reporting 

localities and are plotted on a map. Bebveen areas of predominantly 

one intensity rating, boundaries are drawn to form an isoseismalmap 

(fig. 3). The smooth symmetrical appearance of many isoseismalmaps 

may be a reflection of the lack of data rather than uniformity of intensity variation with epieentral distance. This information on intensities, along with the loeation of the epicenter, time of oecurrenee, 

the extent of the area over which the earthquake was felt, and generally the magnitude, is published in an annual bulletin, "U.S. Earthquakes~' by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 

In Japan, weather stations routinely report intensities and, for 

large earthquakes, the Earthquake Researeh Institute of the Univer~ 

sity of Tokyo gathers supplemental information. In New Zealand, 

permanent reporters send in intensity information; and for earthquakes of speeial interest or of Richter magnitude greater than 6, 

special questionnaires are also issued (Eiby, 1965, p. III-68). In Russia, strong earthquakes are described in the annual publication "Proceedings of Earth Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences"; 

it contains information on intensities (GEOFIAN). 

A factor that affects the assignment of intensity in seismically active 

regions is accumulated damage-damage which either had not been 

previously noticed or had been inadequately repaired after a previous 

shoek. 

When intensity values are employed in equations, the simplifying 

assumption is made that the intensity degrees represent equal steps 

in a scale. It is doubtful that the intensity degrees of a seale represent 

equal steps, but hmv much the scales differ from this approxi1nation 

is not known. 

INTENSITY AS A FUNCTION OF GROUND MOTION 

Intensity is the effects of ground motion on lnunanB, on construction, 

and on the earth's surface. The exact relations between instrumentally 

reeorded components of ground motion and intensity are diffieult to 

obtain due to the complex motion of the ground during an earthquake. 
10 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

The relative importance of different components of ground motion may 

also vary with epicentral distance and cause a variation in the type 

of structural damage. 

A number of attempts have been made to correlate intensity with 

acceleration alone. Several of the earlier seismic scales listed acceleration values, and Ishimoto ( 1932) presented acceleration values for the 

r--.1.22:._ 12o· 11s· 116· 114• _ 

r -r--,---r---,-.,.--1--r-1--r 

I I 

112° 

I I 

I I 

I I 

I I 

mits of area within which I 

earthquake was felt 

100 MILES 

FIGURE 3.-Isoseismal map of the Arvin-Tehachapi earthquake area, 1952, in 

Modified Mercalli scale. Magnitude: 7. 7. Maximum intensity: XI ( Bealville). 

Total area within which earthquake was felt: 160,000 sq mi ( 414,000 sq km). 

Modified from Murphy and Cloud (1954, p. 16). July 21, 1952, 04 : 05 : 31 

P.s.t. (main shock). Epicenter: lat 35.0° N., long 119.0° W., near Wheeler 

Ridge, Calif. 
INTENSITY 11 

Japanese scale. Kawasumi (1951, p. 472) considered the relation between intensity I (Japanese) and the maximum acceleration a to be 

closely approximated by 

a=0.45X10°· 51, 

where ii, in gals, is the geometrical mean value of a as observed at 

Hongo, Tokyo, by means of the Ishimoto acceleration seismograph. 

Gutenberg and Richter ( 1942, p. 171; 1956, p. 131) reported acceleration values for the Modified Mercalli scale and found the relation to 

be approximately 

loga=//3-0.5 

except for high intensities. Hershberger (1956), however, considered 

that, with abundant data, the overlap is .too great to permit working 

out a significant relation, and Housner (1965, p. III-105) stated that 

the Modified Mercalli intensity should not be used to estimate maximum ground acceleration. The scatter between several suggested relationships between acceleration and intensity is shown by Eiby (1965, 

fig. 1) (fig. 4). Neumann (1954, p. 6) believed, however, that the accelerations now being registered on strong-motion seismographs for 

the various grades of the M.M. intensity scale showed a remarkable 

consistency. 

There is a strong suggestion that when acceleration is much higher 

than the observed intensity would indicate, the duration of shaking 

was relatively brief (Ikegami and Kishinouye, 1950, p. 126) and "the 

more violent shaking may have subsided before there was time to produce generally the effects usually characteristic of the force experienced 

(~Gutenberg a.nd others, 1932, p. 143) ." According to Ikegami and 

Kishinouye (1950, p. 127), "To estimate the intensity of an earthquake, the amplitude (or the period) of the ground niotion and the 

duration of the acceleration as well as the value of the acceleration 

must be taken into account at any place." 

A relation of intensity to both acceleration and period was shown 

by Neumann (1959, figs. 5 and 7), Medvedev (1960a; 1961, p. 123; 

1963a, p. 15, 25; 1963b), and Shaginyan (1963; fig. 5 of present report). The ·overlap of acceleration values is reduced by consideration 

of the period, but the accelerations recorded for a particular intensity 

still overlap the restricted ranges given for the intensities above and 

below (fig. 5). Both Neumann and }fedvedev showed an increase in 

intensity with increasing acceleration a.nd, to a much lesser extent, with 

increasing period. Earlier, however, the value of acceleration at the 

limit of perception (boundary between I and II GEOFIAN or 0 and I 

Japanese scale) was found to increase with increasing period (Suye335-877 0--69-3 
12 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

hiro, 1929, p. 411 ; Ishimoto, 1932, p. 621), which means a slight decrease in intensity, at these low levels, with increasing period. 

Neumann (1954, p. 64; 1959, p. 219) and Medvedev (1963a, table 1; 

1963b, table 5) both found that in the central areas of strong earthN 100 <~O.lg) 

I 

c 

z 

0 

(.) 

LIJ 

CJ) 

Q: 

LIJ 

a. 

CJ) 

Q: 

LIJ 

1-

LIJ 

~ 10 <~O.Olg) 

z 

LIJ 

(.) 

~ 

z 

0 

~ Q: 

LIJ 

-' LIJ 

(.) 

(.) 

c( 

EQUIVALENT MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY 

FIGURE 4.-Suggested relationships between ground acceleration and intensity 

(Eiby, 1965, fig. 1). Reproduced by permission of the New Zealand National 

Committee on Earthquake Engineering. A, Cancani (1904); B, Ishimoto 

(1932); 0, Gutenberg and Richter (1942); D, Kawasumi (1951); E, Peterschmitt (1952); F, Savarensky and Kirnos (1955); G, Hershberger (1956); 

H, Medvedev, Sponheuer, and Karnik (1963); J, New Zealand draft by-law 

D-7547. 
T 

0'1 

+ CXl 

z~ <( ' - ,..... 

1-

~+ 1.0 

~+ LO 

_l 

0.40 - -- - - -1 ~-- I I I .=_r=_.J_ ] I INTENSITY 

0.30 • --- ~ 0.25 • 07 

0.20 

~ 

> <( 

gj 0.10 

LL. 

0 

en 

1-

z 0.05 ::J 

z 0.04 

z 0.03 

0 

• ---a 

0 

eo 

• • • oo dte a -_ o • o\\•ooo • 

• • 0 0 • 0 • ~ .,ad!,. 0 0 0 • 

• • 0~ ~0 ~ 0 0 0 

• .Po • - •• • o •.o .a • rP • .•:o<1: ~· wCI' • o o o o : • W<:J' • • I • .......___a • o 

• ow w•o • • • I • • 0 ~ • o 0 -...._ 

o~ •. o qf; eo • • • 0 0 

~ LLI 

...J 

LLI 

u 

u 

<( 

~..:...L:-~ o • o o o <c ·-s....,....... • •• 0 • : • • • • ~ a a •o •oo•o o • • • ~ o • 0 ;-' 

0 ·~ t ~· 0~ 0 0 '; - ...........__ • 

0-"14 I - o o o o • o'B • • o o • • . : o • • 

0.0125 r- 0 0 ~~ 0 llil 0 

0.012 f= o -2 o-o g, 0 o 

0 

6'o 

0 

o 

° • 

• 

~ • 

0.010 ~ 0 0 °

0 0 g-oo-;; 8 • 

0.025 

0.020 

0.005 

0.004 0 --

- 0 0 

0.1 0 . 2 0.3 0.4 0 5 . 0.6 0 . 7 0.8 0.9 

PERIOD, IN SECONDS 

1.0 

•6 

05 

1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5 

FIGuRE 5.-correlation of acceler-ation, ao, and period of ground motion, T, for ea'rthquake intensities 5-8 (Medvedev, 1963a, 

fig. 1). 

1-( 

~ t<J 

z 

rJ). 

1-( 

~ 

....... 

~ 
14 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

quakes a one-grade increase in intensity corresponded to a doubling of 

the acceleration (table 6) . 

Specific earthquakes produce a peak acceleration at a period of 

about one-third second, with lower accelerations for lesser and greater 

periods, at short epicentral distances (Neumann, 1954, p. 22), although, as a generalization, changes of period in the range 0.1-0.5 

second has negligible effect on acceleration (Medvedev, 1963a, p. 16). 

Acceleration, however, is dependent on period for the range 0.5-1.5 

seconds (Medvedev, 1963a, p.16). 

Neumann (1954) further clarified intensity-acceler~tion relationships by consideration of the effoots of epicentr:al distance and 'v·ariations due to geologic environments. He ( 1954, figs. 6, 8, table 3) 

developed pr~visional acceleration-period graphs, for two types of 

basement rock, that relate maximum acceleration at various periods to 

specific intensity values, for epicentral distances less than 25 miles 

( 40 km). ·The geologic environments considered were those interpreted to be for graniltic rock .and highly compacted sedimentary rock. 

Beyond this epicentral distance the maximum acceleration for a given 

intensity (M.M.) decreases with increasing epicentral distance, whereas both the period of the maximum acceleration wave and the duration 

of the record increase (Neumann, 1954, p. 1, 21, 26, 27, 72). Neumann 

( 1954, p. 27) reached the provisional conclusion that for each 100-mile 

( 160.9 km) increase of epicentral distance the acceleration, for the same 

intensity, drops the eq~ivalent of four-thirds of an intensity grade in 

the epicentral area. Because the lower acceleration values for specific 

intensities outside the epicentral area are not included in the graphs, 

Neumann's values for specific intensities are higher than the mean given 

for acceleration at all epicentral distances and lie at the upper end 

of the range of acceleration values for various intensities given by the 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and above the restricted range of 

values presented by Medvedev (table 6 of present report). 

The average maximum acceleration associated wi•th a given M.M. 

intensity, I, at short epicentral distances was expressed by Neumann 

(1954, p. 69) as: 

log a1=log 1.85+ (I-1) log 2.031, or 

log a.1= 0.308 I-0.041. 

These equations are provisionally valid for an average epicentral 

distance of 15 !miles and require modifications beyond 25 miles. 

The aceeleration values given by Gutenberg and Richter (1956, table 

16) fall within or very close to the restrieted ranges of those given by 

Medvedev' (1963h, table 5; see also table 6 of present report) for the 

periods 0.1-0.5 second for the same intensities on the Modified Merealli 
INTENSITY 15 

and GEOFIAN scales. The values derived from Kawasumi's formula 

(table 6, No. 4) correspond very well to those of the other two scales 

as correla;ted in figure 2. 

Intensity varies with displacement amplitude, or, in other words, 

with the Richter tnagnitude, M. As shown in ,figure 6, with an increase 

of intensity of one unit ( GEOFIAN) the probable amplitude increases twice (according to Medvedev, 1963a, p. 18 and fig. 3). For any 

specific in~tensity the amplitude is greater the longer the period (fig. 6). 

Also the predominant period rises with an increase of intensity 

(Medvedev, 1963a, p. 18). 

The particle velocity (~table 6, No. 7), which is derived from .acceleration or displacement, is also considered to increase two times for 

an increase of one illltensity uni~t (Medvedev, 1963b, table 5). 

Combined theoretical and empirical studies of the effects of earthquakes on structures have led Russian workers to introduce a function 

which they call the "spe.ctrum of the effect of seismic oscilla~ions on 

50.0 

....... 5.0 

~ 

fz 

UJ 

:!: 

UJ 

(.) 

c( 

a: 1.0 !L---,.?--_.L--~-~L--+-------+-------l (/) 

0 

0.5 

0.25 0.5 1.0 

PERIOD (T), IN SECONDS 

FIGURE 6.-Correlation of amplitude of displacement for 

ground motion, .A, and period, T, during earthquakes of 

intensities 6-9 (Medvedev, 1963a, fig. 3). 
16 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

struotures," or the seismic effect spectrum. By means of this function 

they seek to describe the effects of irregular eavthquake-induced 

ground motion, corresponding to various GEOFIAN intensity levels, 

on simplified mathematical modes of buildings. The seismic effect 

spectrum itself represents the maximum amplitude of displacement 

X ( T ,A) induced in a simple pendulum of free period T and logarithmic decrement (damping) ,.\ by the ground motion produced by an 

earthquake. For convenience, this function is represented by the productofthree factors [X (T ,A) =X0 • ot/r(T) ·E(A.)] whereX0 refers to the 

seismic effect at standard period To and damping ..\0 , and 1/J • ( T) and 

E(A.) indica:te the dependence of X on period and damping, 

respectively. 

The seismoscope adopted for general use in the U.S.S.R. was designed to have a response similar to that of dwellings and public buildings . of only a few stories' height that are of most widespread 

occurrence in the country. It has .a free period T0 of 0.25 second and 

a logarithmic decrement ..\0 of 0.50; and its maximum displacement 

Xo during an earthquake is one of 'the principal criteria used in assigning GEOFIAN intensities as well as the reference amplitude level of 

the seismic effect spectrum (Medvedev, 1953; table 4 of present re-· 

port). The displacement is mainly a function of m.aximum acceleration, although other factors, such as period of predominant stro-ng 

ground motion and duration, must contribute also ( Steinbrugge, 1960, 

p.150) 0 

Medvedev ( 1961, p. 125; 1963a, p. 21-26; 1963b) presented 

graphs showing X as a function of T, for ..\ = 0.5, for earthquakes of 

intensity 6-9 on the GEOFIAN scale. He also presented graphs of 

maximum velocity and aceeleration eorresponding to X (maximum displacement) for the same value of A. and for the same intensity range. 

The .ground motion data used in the derivations of the seismic effects 

spectra were obtained from strong motion seismograms and accelerograms of strong earthquakes as well as from large industrial 

explosions. 

INTENSITY VARIATION AS A FUNCTION OF EPICENTRAL 

DISTANCE FOR DIFFERENT MAGNITUDES 

The decrease in intensity with increasing epieentral distance for an 

earthquake of a given magnitude does not produce -a simple curve, 

owing to the number of other variables that affect intensity. At a 

given epicentral distance, it is common to find ,a range of four or five 

intensities, and intensities at sensitive spots 100 'miles from the epicenter may equal the intensity at the epicenter without any error in 

intensity rating (Neumann and Cloud, 1955, p. 207). 
INTENSITY 17 

Partly owing to this wide range of intensities, information pertaining to intensity variation with epicentral distance is presented in a 

variety of ways. Curves are drawn for average intensities, minimum 

intensities, maximum intensities, and predominant maximum intensities. Also information is presented for epicentral intensities (where 

the epicentral distance equals zero), and radius of perceptibility, 

which is the maximum epicentral distance that an earthquake is felt, 

for different magnitudes. In addition, variations exist within the above 

types of curves. 

EPICENTRAL INTENSITY (Io) 

Epicentral intensity is the intensity reported in the epicentral area. 

Plots showing the variation of the epicentral intensity with differing 

magnitudes are useful in evaluating the probable maximum damage. 

An epicentral-intensity curve for southern California, for a general 

focal depth of about 16 km, is shown in figure 7. 

The curve indicates, for ex·ample, that to produce damage (/':::::::,..5 

M.M.) a magnitude-4 earthquake must be directly under the area and 

structure. The epicentral intensity in southern California varies with 

magnitude such that, as a generalization (Gutenberg and Richter, 1956, 

p. 131): 

2 

jJ/=1 +2/3/0 (/ is in M.M.). 

0 

Gutenberg and Richter (1956, table 20 

USSR 

+ 

Shebalin (1961, fig. 5.1) 

GEOFIAN correlated to Modified Mercalli 

3 4 5 8 9 

MAGNITUDE (M) 

FIGURE 7.-Epicentr.al intensity as a func.tion ·of magnitude for southern Californian and Russian earthquakes. EX>ca:l depths approximately 16 km (those 

for southern CaLifornia f.rom Gutenberg 1and Richter, 1956, p. 106-107). 
18 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

A curve, based on only seven earthquakes, appears to indicate 

slightly lower epicentral intensities for magnitudes below 6 for western Nevada than for southern California. This may be due to a greater 

average focal depth for ea:rthquakes in the western Nevada region. 

AVERAGE-INTENSITY CURVES 

Average-intensity curves are constructed by plotting the average 

intensities for epicentral distance intervals and drawing a smoothed 

curve through the resulting scatter of points (fig. 8). Average intensity decreases fairly regularly with increasing epicentral distance 

beyond an epicentral distance of 20-100 km ; at lesser distances the 

intensity increases greatly with decreasing epicentral distance. In 

some earthquakes the decrease of intensity with epicentral distance 

beyond 100 km is approximately linear, whereas in others the amount 

0 

~ 

u:: 

iS 

0 

9 

~ 5 

~ 4 

(i) 

z 

~ 3 z 

2 

Predominant maximum intensity 

Average intensity (smoothed to a straight line) 

<1=7.4-0.0079 km-1~) 

Extension of maximum intensity 

·--.( for northwest quadrant -............... ................. 

........ , 

., ., 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

o~----~~----~-------3~o-o------~------~------6~oo------~7oo 

EPICENTRAL DISTANCE (~).IN KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 8.-Intensity-epicentral-distance curves for Arvin-Tehachapi earthquake, 

July 21, 1952; northwest quadrant from epicenter. Area : California. Magnitude: 7.6-7.7. Focal depth: 16 km. Epicentral intensity: XI. Total area felt: 

160,000 sq mi (414,000 sq km) (derived from data in Neumann and Cloud, 

1955, p. 208). 
INTENSITY 19 

of decrease per unit distance diminishes slightly with increasing epicentral distance (fig. 9). 

Average-intensity curves have been used to assign magnitude and 

to characterize earthquakes in Japan (fig. 9). The Kawasumi magnitude equates magnitude and average intensity (Japanese) at an 

epicentral distance of 100 km (Kawasumi, 1951, p. 472; 1952). The 

average-intensity-epicentral-distance relationships for many earthquakes have been studied by l{awasumi (1951) and Sato (1948). 

LLI 

(/) 

LLI 

z 

<( 

a. 

<( 

.., 

2 

v 

t III (/) 

z 

LLI 

1-

z 

LLI 

0 II <( 

0::: 

LLI 

> 

<( 

EPICENTRAL DISTANCE (A), IN KILOMETERS 

Earthquake Date M Earthquake 

1. Sa.nriku__________________________ 1933 8.3 7. Tottori __________ ---------------

2. Nankaido________________________ 1946 8.1 

3. Kwanto_________________________ 1923 7.9 8. Mikawa _________________________ 

4. TonankaL___ ____ ______ _________ 1944 8.0 9. FukuL_ ------------------------

10. TottorL ___________ ------------- 5. Hyuganada______________________ 1941 7.4 

6. Tango___________________________ 1927 7.5 11. Nagano __ -----------------------

All focal depths :90 km 

Date M 

1943 7.4 

(Sept.) 

1945 7.1 

1948 7.3 

1943 6.1 

(Mar.) 

1941 6.2 

FIGURE 9.-Average-intensity-epicentral-distance curves of some major earthquakes in Japan since 1923 (Collins and Foster, 1949, p. 24; and Kawasumi, 

1950a, p. 9, after Hirono, 1948; M and focal-depth data from Japan Meteorological Agency, 1958). 

335-877 0-69---4 
20 PREDICTING EFFECTS ·OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

These authors present::the intensity in terms of a modification of the 

12-unit Mercalli-Sieberg scale, which is the forerunner of, and similar 

to, the Modified Mercalli scale. The intensity-epicentral-distance plots 

are averaged to a straight line, beyond an epicentral distance of about 

?O km, which is described simply by l=a- b6. ( Sato, 1948, p. 91; fig. 

x.----------.----------~----------,----------,,----------. 

Cl 

IJJ 

ii: 

IX 

o VII 

0 

:::?! 

C!l 

0:: 

IJJ 

IIl 

IJJ 

C? 

~ ...J 

<( 

u 

0:: 

IJJ 

:::?! 

~J l=a-b,d 

100 200 300 400 

EPICENTRAL DISTANCE (6.), IN KILOMETERS 

Earthquake Date a M Earthquake Date a 

A Mino-Owari _________ 1891 8.4 0.0094 ---- F FukuL _____________ 1948 7.5 

B TonankaL _________ 1944 8.3 .0104 8.0 G Mikawa ____________ - 1945 5. 7 

c Nankaido ___________ 1946 8.0 .0071 8.1 H ImaichL ___________ 1949 6.4 

D Hatinohe-OkL .. ____ 1945 6.6 .0075 7.3 J Noziriko _______ ----- 1943 3. 5 

E TottorL ____________ 1943 6.3 .0094 7.4 

(Sept.) 

c 

500 

M 

.0135 7.3 

.0076 7.1 

.0178 6. 7 

.0095 6.1 

FIGURE 10.-Average-intensity-epicentral-distance curves of selected Japanese 

earthquakes (compiled from Kawasumi, 1950a, b, 1951; and Sato, 1948; M data 

from Japan Meteorological Agency, 1958). · 
INTENSITY 21 

10 of present report). An equation describing the average-intensityepicentral-distance curves for the Japanese scale was also developed 

(Kawasumi, 1952; 1953, p. 639). Data presented by Gutenberg and 

Richter ( 1942, table 10; 1956, table 20) on epicentral distance versus 

average intensity for earthquakes of different magnitudes in southern 

California are shown in figure 11. 

MINIMUM-INTENSITY CURVES 

Smooth curves drawn through the plots of minimum intensities 

recorded at any epicentral distance (fig. 8) have been referred to as 

basement-rock attenuation curves and infer that the intensities are 

at a minimum on a granitic basement rock or, where granite is absent, 

on highly compacted sedimentary rock (Neumann, 1954, p. 5, 16). According to Neumann and Cloud ( 1955, p. 207), "localities which are 

resting for all practical purposes on outcrops of basement rock, the 

intensities are minimum * * * and that at such localities the deerease 

in intensity with increase of epicentral distance is surprisingly uniform and generally the same for all shocks." The minimum intensity 

XI 

::::i 

....1 X 

C3 ' 0:: 

~ IX 

8vm 

~ 

0 VII 0 

~ 

j:: 

Ui 

z 

I.J.J 

1-

z 

100 

AVERAGE INTENSITIES 

. Gutenberg and Richter (1942, table 10) 

Benioff and Gut en berg (1955, table 1) 

0 

Gutenberg and Richter (1956, table 20), 

200 

measured in metropolitan areas (that 

is, over alluvium) 

300 

4 Magnitude 

400 

EPICENTRAL DISTANCE (A), IN KILOMETERS 

800 

FIGURE 11.-Average-intensity-epicentral-distanoo curves for earthquakes of 

different magnitudes in southern California. Focal depth=16 km. Richter 

(1958, p. 140) considered 1=11J~ as the limit of perceptibility. 
22 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

decreases approximately exponentially with increasing epicentral distance (Neumann, 1954; 1959, p. 214). 

Neumann (1954, p. 12) believed that sn1oothed basement-rock-epicentral-distance curves can give the basement-rock intensity at a specific 

epicentral distance more accurately than intensity assignments based 

on observed effects on a specific basement-rock outcrop at that distance. 

He (1954, p. 43) found good agree,ment between minimum intensity, 

obtained from minimum-intensity curves for a site at a short epicentral distance, and acceleration-period charts. 

For western Washington, Neumann (1954, p. 12; 1959, p. 214) generalized that the attenua;tion of intensity with epicentral distance is 

of such form that each time the epicentral distance is doubled the 

minimum intensity (M.M.) drops one unit. For the Puget Sound 

earthquake of 1949 he found the minimum-intensity curve to be approximated by: , 

log ~ ( mi) =log 0.68 + ( 9. 7-/) log 2.193 (Neumann, 1959, fig. 1), or 

log~ (km) =log0.68+ (9.7-/) log2.193+log1.609. 

Difficulties in undertaking minimum-intensity studies may be encountered in other regions owing to different types of basement rock, 

complex tectonic features, and limited intensity d·ata (Neumann, 

1959, p. 217, 218). 

KAXIKUK-INTENSITY CURVES 

Maximum intensity as used here refers to the maximum intensity at 

a particular epicentral distance as distinguished from the maximum 

intensity of an earthquake, which is usually the epicentra.J intensity. 

Smoothed curves drawn through points plotted for maximum intensity at various epicentral distances represent the intensity produced over the more unstable ground. These curves (fig. 8) show the 

maximum intensity to be expected at a given epicentral distance or 

the maximum epicentral distance to which a specific intensity extends. 

PREDOMINANT KAXIKUK-INTENSITY CURVES 

Isoseismal lines separate bands of predominantly one intensity rating (fig. 3). A point on an isoseismal line, therefore, represents the 

maximum epicentral distance in that particular direction for which 

a particular intensity rating is the predominant one. The average epicentral distance to a particular isoseisrnal line represents the average 

of the maximum epicentral distances, in all directions from the epicenter, for which the particular intensity rating is the predominant 

one. 

Predominant maximum-intensity curves are constructed from the 

plots of average epicentral distances, obtained from isoseismal maps, 

for the various isoseismallines of an earthquake (fig. 3). These curves 

generally lie between the average and 1naximum intensity curves and 
INTENSITY 23 

show the average extent of predominant intensity bands of an earthquake (fig. 8). 

Data from predominant maximum-intensity curves for seven earthquakes in western Nevada and adjacent California illustrate the variation of predominant maximum intensity with magnitude (fig. 12). 

The v·ariation, particularly of the lower intensities, appears to be fairly 

regular, and it probably indicates that predominant maximum-intensity curves are a valid way to compare earthquakes and that the foca.l 

depth of these earthquakes is similar. The higher intensities are more 

scattered, which is probably mainly due to poor control for these intensities in areas of sparse population. The lower intensities are felt 

over a much greater area and are consequently better controlled. Figure 12 shows that in western Nevada an earthquake of magnitude 6 

would be expected to have a band of intensity 5 that would extend 

about 118 km, or 73 miles, from the epicenter. 

RADIUS OF PERCEPTIBILITY (r) 

The radius of perceptibility is the average radius, from the epicenter, of the total area over which an earthquake is felt. It has importance as an additional control point for intensity curves and has been 

described as a function of both magnitude an~ epicentral intensity. 

Richter ( 1958, p. 140) considered the lower limit of perceptibility 

LLJ 

0 

:::::> 

!:: 

z 

c:l 

<( 

8~--------~--------~----------~---------~---------, 

1=7 ~ 0 £:,/£:, 0 

/ /=6 

~ 6 

INTENSITY (I) £:, 7 

0 6 

• 5 

• 1-4 

50~--------~--------~I _______ ___L ________ ~------ 200 300 400 500 

EPICENTRAL DISTANCE (.l). IN KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 12.-Predominant maximum intensity ( M.M.) as a function of magni· 

tude and epicentral distance for seven earthquakes in western Nevada and 

adjacent California. Derived from data in "U.S. Earthquakes 1954, 1959, and 

1962" (U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey), Murphy and Cloud (1956), Eppley 

and Cloud ( 1961), and Lander and Cloud ( 1964). 
24 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

equivalent to a Modified Mercalli intensity of llj2 in accordance with 

the definition of the scale. Shebalin ( 1959a, p. 103) considered this 

unrealistic to use in dealing with isoseismal maps as information on 

intensities less than 3 is, for practical purposes, generally not a vailable, which is in agreement with Neumann (1954, p. 10 and 11; 1959, 

p. 214) , as intensi,ty 3 is sometimes reported as not felt. (See table 1.) 

Gutenberg and Richter (1956, p. 131-133) gave the radius of perceptibility, in kilometers, in southern California as equal to: 

r=0.5I0

3 -1.7 (IisinM.M.),and 

r= 1.4(M -0.614) 3 fora curve, or 

M = -3.0 + 3.8log r for a linear approximation. 

INTENSITY VARIATION AS A FUNCTION OF FOCAL DEPTH 

Focal depth is a major variable affecting intensity distribution, but 

unfortunately accurate information on focal depths is not available 

for most earthquakes within the earth's crust, and studies relating focal 

depth to intensity have been adequately documented only for quakes 

beneath the crust. However, in some local areas most of the earthquakes are considered to originate at about the same level; for example, 

16 km in southern California (Gutenberg and Richter, 1956, p. 106, 

107), and the variation of intensity caused by different focal depths 

In such an area may be small. Information on the variation caused 

by different focal depths is important in attempting to compare the 

distribution of effects of earthquakes of different focal depths and 

to extrapolate earthquake effects to the shallow depths in which nuclear 

testing is conducted. 

The epicentral intensity increases with decreasing focal depth. The 

relationship was shown by Shebalin (1957b; 1959a, p. 101; 1959b; 

1961, p. 127) as 

I o = l.5M-3.5 log h + 3.0 (normal earthquakes) 

if O<h<Ha and 

Io=l.51Jf -3.4 log h,+5.4 (deep earthquakes) 

if Ha<h<640 km, where HaR=:;80 km, the upper boundary of the lowvelocity layer, and I is in the GEOFIAN scale (fig. 13). For example, 

an earthquake of magnitude 5 at 10-km :focal depth would produce an 

cpicentral intensity of 7, whereas the intensity would be 10% if the 

focal depth were 1 km. This relationship :for normal earthquakes 

served as the basis for a generalized table which sho\YS epicentral intensities for earthquakes of different magnitudes at three :focal depths 

(table 7). 

Epicentral intensities d~rived from Shebalin's (1961) nomogram 

(fig. 13) :for a focal depth of 16 km agree very closely with the epicen-
INTENSITY 

FOCAL DEPTHS, 

IN KILOMETERS 

5 40 

(/) 

LI.J 

::.:: 

<( 60 ::::> 

0 

I 80 f0::: 

<( 

LI.J 100 

0.. 

LI.J 

LI.J 

0 

200 

300 

400 

600 

800 

2 

3 

4 

5 (/) 

6 ~ <( 

::::> 

8 ~ f--

0::: 

10 <( .._.._w_ 

...J --- <( - ........ :2: ........ _ 

0::: --.............. 

GEOFIAN 

INTENSITY 

Uo> 

0 ---- z ---

25 

MAGNITUDE 

(M) 

8 

7 

6 

5 

FIGURE 13.-Nomogram for determination of one of the values epicentral intensity 

(I o) , magnitude ( 1lf), or f·ocal depth (h) if the other two are known. From 

Shebalin ( 1961, fig. 5.1). 
26 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

tral intensities of Gutenberg and Richter (1942, 1956) for southern 

California, except for the very low intensities, where the control is 

poor (fig. 7). Shebalin's nomogram has been used in New Zealand 

to help determine focal depths where the instrumentally determined 

focal depths were apparently erroneous (Eiby, 1964}. 

The character of intensity attenuation with increasing epicentral 

distance also varies with focal depth. A discussion and graphic comparison of different formulas proposed by various workers (Blake, 

1941; Gassmann, 1925 ;. Gutenberg and Riohter, 1942; Inglada, 1924; 

Kovesligethy, 1907; and MedYedev, 1959) to express this relationship 

was presented by Shebalin ( 1959a ; fig. 14 of present report). Shebalin 

considered the chief difficulty with the.se formulas to be the lack of 

discrimination between normal and deep earthquakes, which apparently differ in the character of their intensi·ty attenuation. With due 

consideration for this difference, Shebalin ( 1959a, p. 109-110) found 

that the relationship of intensity attenuation with epicentral distance 

to focal depth obtained from earthquake data approximates a curve 

of the form 

where / 0 - Ii is the intensity difference between the epicentral intensity 

and the intensity, Ii, at some epicentrnl distance, ~i· The coefficient of 

intensity attenuation,. k, was found to range from 2.8 to 4.5 and to 

average 3.6 for normal earthquakes. The value k ranges from 4.5 to 7.5 

and averages 6.0 for deep earthquakes. 

The accuracy of determining focal depths depends basically on 

how precisely the epicentral intensity, / 0 , is determined. The value 

of the difference between the epicentral intensity and the first isoseismal probably averages about one-half an intensity unit, but it is likely 

to be higher for shallow earthquakes because the epicentral intensity 

occurs over a comparatively small area and may be missed ( Shebalin, 

1959a,p.102,103,112}. 

The above relationship was used by Shebalin (1959a, fig. 4; 1961, 

fig. 5.3) as the basis for construction of a graph (fig. 15) depicting 

the changing character of intensity attenuation with epicentral 

distance occasioned by varying focal depth. The graph indicates that 

the higher epicentral intensity occasioned by a shallow focal depth 

is somewhat compensated for by the higher rate at which intensities 

decrease with epicentral distance. For example, the intensity drops 

1 unit from the epicentral intensity within 3 km for a focal depth of 

2 km, whereas this does not occur until 17-30 km for a focal depth 

of 20 km (fig. 15). The difference in intensity attenuation for an earth-
INTENSITY 

RATIO OF EPICENTRAL DISTANCE TO FOCAL DEPTH (ill h) 

0.2 0.4 0.6 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 

lo-l;=t( ~) according to different formula. 

A, Inglada (1924), estimated; 

B, Gutenberg and Richter (1942); 

C, Kovesligethy (1907) and Gassmann (1925), without consideration of absorption 

(p=O.OO); 

D, Same as C but with consideration of absorption (p=0.06); 

E, Blake (1941) for k=3; 

F, Same as E for k=6; 

G, Medvedev (1959). 

FIGURE 14.-Graphic presentation of the function of intensity 

attenuation (Shebalin, 1959a, fig. 1). 

27 

quake of magnitude 6 at focal depths of 10 and 20 km is shown in 

figure 16. 

In using the graph (fig. 15), individual points at which intensities 

were observed are plotted and the focal depth curve that fits best is 

used. Thus, essentially average intensities are used, but it also may 

be possible to use the average isoseismal radii (predominant maximum 

intensities) (Shehalin, 1959a, p. 111). Apparently ~Shebalin believed 

that the accuracy of the chart is such that the difference between average intensity radii and isoseismal radii is not eritical. The relative error 

of the derived focal depth does not exceed a factor of about 1.5 or 2 

( Shehalin, 1959a, p. 112; 1961, p. 134). Instrumentally determined 

depths for earthquakes at a depth of 16 km may well be in error of 

±6 km in favorable circumstances, and at a depth of 50 km the error 

may be as high as ±20 km (Benioff and Gutenberg, 1955, p. 134). 

The graph (fig. 15) has been used to help determine focal depths 

335-877 Q---00--5 
28 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

X 

Example 

EPICENTRAL DISTANCE (.~),IN KILOMETERS 

0 0 

0 

C\1 g g 8 .... ..,. 10 

........ 

' '\. 

\ 

\ 

\ 

FOCAL DEPTH (h), IN KILOMETERS 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

0 0 0 0 

~ g 

\ 

\ 

\ 

640 

FIGURE 15.-Universal chart for determining focal depth according to macroseismic data and an example of such a determination ( Gudamakarsk earthquake, Aug. 15, 1947); focus of normal and deep earthquakes and exa:m,ple. 

( ShebaUn, 1959a, fig. 4.) 

in Russia ( Guhin, 1960, p. 277). The data in figure 12 for western 

Nevada indicate a general focal depth of 20-40 km, when plotted in 

figure 1'5, for that region. Starting with a known focal depth one 

can use the graph to help determine intensity distribution. 

Gutenberg and Richter (1942, p. 174, 175) had previously proposed 

a formula relating epicentral intensity, focal depth, and radius of 

perceptibility : 

=1.5+3log(~+l )· 

Shebalin ( 1959a, p. 103, 104) considered this formula to be useful provided there is a significant epicentral intensity, a sufficiently populated area, and a utilization of the more practical perceptibility 

boundary of intensity 3, rather than 11h. 

Data on the Tesikaga earthquakes in eastern Hokkaido are given 

(fig. 17) to illustrate the relationship of intensity with focal depth 

and magnitude and the use of Shebalin's nomogram and chart. The 

difference between the extent of intensity distribution from the 5. 7-

magnitude earthquake, A, and the two 6.2-magnitude earthquakes, 

B ·and O, is clearly shown (fig. 17). Also, of the two 6.2-magnitude 

earthquakes, earthquake B shows a greater intensity decrease with 

epicentral distance (fig. 17 D). Focal depths, derived from Shebalin's 

chart, indicate that earthquake B may have been shallower (table 8). 
z 

<( 

Li: 

0 

LlJ 

(!) 

>- 1-

Cii 

z 

LlJ 

1-

z 

LlJ 

(!) 

<( 

a:: 

LlJ 

> <( 

INTENSITY 29 

EPICENTRAL DISTANCE, IN KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 16.-Average-intensity-epicentral-d.istance curves for earthquakes of magnitude 6 at focal depths of 10 and 20 km (derived from Shebalin, 1959a, p. 109). 

A comparison of the focal depths derived from Shebalin's nomogram 

and chart with those given for the earthquakes (Matumoto, 1959) 

shows fair agreement for earthquakes A and B and a difference of 

about 15 km for 0 ( truble 8). 

INTENSITY VARIATION AS A FUNCTION OF GEOLOGIC CONDITIONS 

The principal geologic elements that affect intensity are structure, 

the physical properties of the underlying material, ground water, 

slope, thickness of material, and, perhaps, type of material at the 

focus. 

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE 

Geologic structure at and near the surface oauses variations in 

intensity. This is easily seen on isoseismal maps of most California 

earthquakes (fig. 3). The major structures in Californi'a trend northwest, and the isoseismal maps reflect this trend. It is necessary 

to divide the disturbed -area of many California earthquakes into 

northwest-southeast and northeast-southwest segments (fig. 8) in 
30 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

Jan.22, 1959 

16 hours, 33 minutes 

N 

I 

0 100 KILOMETERS 

A. ISOSEISMAL MAP 

Magnitude (M}, 5.7; focal 

depth, 0-10 kilometers 

100 KILOMETERS 

C. ISOSEISMAL MAP 

Magnitude (M}, 6.2; focal 

depth, 0 kilometers 

0 100 KILOMETERS 

B. ISOSEISMAL MAP 

Magnitude (M}, 6.2; focal 

depth, 20 kilometers 

0 100 200 

AVERAGE ISOSEISMAL RADII (.d), 

IN KILOMETERS 

D. AVERAGE ISOSEISMAL RADII 

Derived from A, 8, and C. 

Magnitude (M} shown 

FIGURE 17.-lsoseismal data from the Tesikaga earthquakes of January 

1959. Intensities shown in Japanese scale. (A, B, and a from Matumoto, 

1959.) 

studying the intensities, as the relation of intensity with epicentral 

distance vtaries considerably between these segments. Part of this 

variation in intensity could possibly be due to trend of a linear 

source, which most likely parallels regional structure. However, for 

the Arvin-Tehachapi earthquake of 1952 the presumable linear source, 

the White Wolf fault, trends northeastward perpendicular to the 

regional structure, whereas the isoseismals are elongated in a northwesterly direction (fig. 3). Also, Neumann (1954, p. 13) found, from 

his minimum intensity studies, indications of radial distribution of 
INTENSITY 31 

intensity from a point source rather than from a long stretch of a fault. 

Thus, i·t appears that the regional structure and not a linear source 

is responsible for elongated isoseismals. 

Possibly the structures themselves, such as faults and folds, are 

not as important in ·affecting intensities as the resultant distribution of 

rock types caused by the structures. Where structure causes changes 

in ·a rock by crushing or shearing, it also affects the intensity over 

the rock (Popov, 1959). However, some vari•ation in seismic wave 

characteristics along different paths results directly from structure 

(Hankins, 1964, p. 197). In central Asia, Vvedenskaya (1961) found 

that the distribution of isoseismals is partly dependent on the regional 

structure. 

In New Zealand the regional trends of geologic structure is ·a major 

factor causing asymmetry in isoseismals, as is shown by isoseismal 

maps for major historic earthquakes (Ciark and others, 1965, p. 120). 

The northeast axes of the isoseismals, paralleling the regional structural trends, are greater than the northwest axes. This is also true for 

some earthquakes in Japan. 

Ikegami (1948, p. 88) believed that either the influence of the goologic structures along the travel path of the earthquake waves or the 

differences in the mechanism of earthquake origin are responsible for 

anomalous maximun1 amplitudes recorded at some stations in central 

Honshu. The anomaly at. 'a specific statio:r'J. is positive for seismic 

waves arriving from one direction and negative for those arriving 

from another direction. 

GROUND TYPES 

It has long been recognized that similar structures in proximity and 

built on different types of ground may suffer vastly different effects 

from an earthquake (Duke, 1958) (figs. 18, 19). This variation, due 

to different responses of the underlying material, is generally the 

principal factor causing the range of intensities at any given epicentral 

distance. The minimum and maximum intensity curves of Neumann 

( 1954, 1959) for the Puget Sound earthquake of 1949 were ascribed 

to differences in type of ground; the minimum to "granitic rock equivalent" material and the maximum to the more unstable "light 

formation." 

Many studies have shown a correlation of damage to alluvium thickness (figs. 20, 21). However, smne studies show that for certain types of 

more rigid buildings the damage is greater on firmer ground and the 

damage decreases with increasing alluvium thickness (Kanai, 1949; 

Kanai and Tanaka, 1950; Kanai and Yoshizawa, 1951). Kanai (1949) 

attributed the greater overall damage to all types of buildings on soft 
32 PREDICTING EFFECTS, OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

ground possibly to a secondary process such as unequal settling of the 

ground. 

The type of damage sustained differs with ground type. In severe 

earthquakes in Japan, wooden buildings are more likely to be partially 

destroyed if on alluvium and totally destroyed if on other geologic 

formations (Kanai, 1951). This suggests that buildings on firm or rigid 

lwatahara 

Plateau 

Ootagawa 

Basin 

NUMBER OF HOUSES 

FIGURE 18.---.con:trast of damage from the Ttinankai earthquake 

of December 7, 1944, M: 8.0, to houses on the Iwatahara 

Plateau, underlain by diluvium, and in the Ootagawa Basin, 

underlain by clayey material, within the same haJmlets ; 

Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. Totally collapsed houses, black; 

half-collapsed houses, hatched ; undamaged houses, white 

( Ooba, 1957, figs. 6 and 2). Each horizontal bar represents a 

different hamlet. 
INTENSITY 33 

ground are mainly subjected to pure vibrational forces which cause 

either little or no damage or total destruction, whereas buildings on 

soft ground are, as mentioned before, affected mainly by secondary 

factors, especially unequal settling of the ground, which result in 

partial destruction (Kanai, 1947, 1951). In Japan, ferroconcrete, brick, 

and other types of relatively rigid buildings on firm ground are most 

severely damaged on first floors, whereas those on soft ground are most 

severely damaged on the higher floors or upper parts (Kanai, 1949; 

Kanai and Yoshizawa, 1951; Kanai and Tanaka, 1950). 

FIGURE 19.- Damage from the Tonankai earthquake of December 7, 1944, 

M : 8.0, to houses in Fukuroi, Shizuoka Prefedure, Japan. Black, 

hatched, and white areas of a circle represent the nwnbers of collapsed, 

half-eollapsed, and undamaged houses of a single hamlet. Hamlets no~th 

of river were on a clayey foundation; those to south, on rock foundadation ( Ooba, 1957, figs. 7 and 2). 

!z 100 ..... 100 z 1.1.1 1.1.1 C,.) 

~ 

C,.) 

/ 0::: 0::: 1.1.1 1.1.1 

a.. a.. 

~ ~ 

c::i c::i 1.1.1 1.1.1 

>- >- 50 0 0 0::: 0::: ..... ..... en en 1.1.1 1.1.1 

0 0 

en en 1.1.1 1.1.1 

en en :::::1 o' :::::1 

0 0 0 :I: 0 :I: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 

THICKNESS OF ALLUVIUM, IN METERS THICKNESS OF ALLUVIUM, IN METERS 

FIGURE 20.-Relation between thickness of alluvium and damage from the 19!23 

Kwanto earthquake for two parts of Yokohama (Omote, 1949, figs. 4 and 5). 
34 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

z~ 01.1.1 i=I-

<CLL.I 

i::j:::!E 

....lz 

1.1.1-

30 

SEA LEV~e f X----------X 

20 ---*-)(-... _______ ···-)(·*---------.-------,-)(- .X2<. 

40 

~cean 

0 2 3 4 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 21.-Relation between the thickness of clayey overburden and the damage 

percentage of houses in hamlets in the Kikugawa basin. Damage from the 

Tonankai earthquake of December 7, 1944, M: 8.0. Solid line and dotted line, 

respectively, denote the surface profile and the lower boundary of the clayey 

overburden. Black, hatched, and white areas represent, respectively, the percentage of collapsed, partially collapsed, and undamaged houses of hamlets 

(Ooba, 1957, fig. 10). 

Two distinct types of damage involved here are ( 1) damage resulting primarily from seismic vibration and (2) damage resulting primarily from foundation failures. Under category 1 the most critical 

aspect depends upon the coincidence of the fundamental period of the 

structure with that of the ground motion; for example, low rigid shortperiod structures are more heavily damaged on firm ground, and tall 

flexible long-period structures are more heavily damaged on soft 

ground (and at greater epicentral distances where the predominant 

period is longer). Under category 2 any structure, regardless of its 

inherent characteristics, is subject to damage if the materials supporting the foundation undergo appreciable deformation. 

Miyamura (1953, p. 654) and Ooba (1957) studied the effects of some 

earthquakes on the southeast side of central Honshu and found that 

whereas damage was limited to flat alluvial plains the distribution of 

damage on the plains was not uniform. All severely damaged localities 

were confined to mud plains, such as deltas, drowned valleys, reclaimed 

lagoons, and other lowlands of muddy alluvium and artificially made 

land. Gravel plains, on the contrary, received only slight damage or 

none (fig. 22). On coastal beaches the villages and towns were partly 

damaged. At these localities the damaged parts were on recently deposited loose-packed sand and, at places, had mud layers beneath. The 

nondamaged parts were on older close-packed sand with, at many 

places, stone or gravel layers underneath (Miyamura, 1953, p. 657). 

Intensities over highly compacted sedimentary rock outcrops were 

consistently about 1 intensity (M.M.) grade higher than those over 

granitic outcrops at all epicentral distances (Neumann, 1954, p. 72}. 
INTENSITY 

0 1000 2000 METERS 

EXPLANATION 

Tertiary bedrock 

River 

~ 

~ 

fan gravels 

Sand dunes 

Muddy alluvium 

Relics of 

-

lagoons 

Damage 

Locality Village subdivision percentage 

L ____________ Noga ___ ------------------------------------------------- _______ 2. 7 

2 _____________ AraL _ --------------------- ____________ ------------------------ _ 5. 3 3 _____________ Naka AraL _____________ _____________ __ ______________ ____ _______ 15.5 

4 _____________ Okahara_ __________________ ______ __ __ ______ __________ ___________ 1. 2 

5 _____________ Higasi Oya_ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ ___ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ .0 

6 _____________ Nonaka_ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ ____ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ ____ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ ___ . 0 

7 _____________ Huzizuka_ __ _ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ ___ _ _ __ __________ __ __ ____ __ _ . 8 

8 _____________ Hama___ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ ____ __ __ __ __ _ _ ______ __ __ __ _ ___ ____ __ __ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ . 7 

9 _____________ U darL _ __ _ _ __ _ ___ __ __ ___ ___ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ ____ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ ___ . 0 

Total for village___________________________________________ 10.8 

FIGURE 22.-Variation of earthquake damage with geologic conditions 

in Obuti Village, Sizuoka Prefecture, from the Tokaido (Tonankai) 

earthquake of December 7, 1944 (Miyamura, 1953, fig. 5). Damage 

percentage equals percentage of destroyed houses plus one-half the 

percentage of partially destroyed houses. 

35 

Medvedev (1952 a, b, 1961), Popov (1959), and others have listed 

quantitative intensity differences for various ground types. Medvedev 

chqse granite as a standard and listed intensity differences to be added 

for other materials, whereas Popov listed the intensity differences 

both as variations from the standard granite and as variations to be 

added to or subtracted from the average intensity. Intensities for 

granite could be correlated with minimum intensity curves. In general, 

at a given epicentral distance, the relative range in intensity given 

by these and other workers is 4 units from granite outcrops to thick 

water-saturated alluvium. 

335-877 0-00--6 
36 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

Puckhov ( 1965) devised a theoretical method for estimating the 

n1aximum particle velocity on bedrock during violent earthquakes. 

His ( 1965, p. III -248) results, correlated to intensity, indicated that 

for destructive earthquakes the maximum intensity would be about 

7 on bedrock, whereas it may be 9 or 10 on loose sandy argillaceous 

ground. 

Medvedev (1961, p. 115-116) used the product of the velocity of the 

longitudinal wave ( v) and the density (p) of the material, the impedance, as a basis for estimating the relative differences in intensity, although he realized that a considerable influence on intensity is also 

rendered by the water content of the ground. He determined that 

n=l.67 [log (vsps)-log (vnpn)]+e- 0·

04h\ 

where n is the increase in intensity on the G EOFIAN scale, for ground 

with characteristic Vn and pn, with respect to standard ground, with 

characteristic v s and ps, and h equals depth of ground-water level, in 

kilometers. The increase, n, is given to 0.1 intensity unit to differentiate 

the various types of ground in seismic response, as the intensity change 

in general is not particularly great. In practice, the increase is rounded 

off to whole intensity units (table 9). 

A plot (fig. 23) of the data presented by Medvedev ( 1961) shows 

that the average intensity increase, n, over granite of different types 

LLI 

!::: 

z 

< 0:: 

" 0:: 

~ 2 

0 

LLI 

en 

~ 0:: 

(.) 

z 

~ (ij 

z 

LLI 

1-

z 

EXPLANATION 

0 

Average velocity of longitudinal waves for 

average intensity increase for a particular type of ground 

VELOCITY LONGITUDINAL WAVE (V}, IN KILOMETERS PER SECOND 

FIGURE 23.-Increa,se of intensity of different types of ground over that of 

granite as a function of seismic-wave velocity. Data from Medvedev (1961. 

tahle 4.2). 
INTENSITY 37 

of ground has a smooth inverse relationship with the average velocity 

of the longitudinal wave through the materials. 

Popov ( 1959) , in addition, took into account geologic factors such 

as slope, thickness of layers, structure, and degree of weathering in 

assigning relative intensity differences for general examples (table 

10). Tables 11 and 12 show the results of determining seismic-intensity 

differences for various ground conditions at specific areas. 

The effect of ground type on intensity appears to lessen with decreasing epicentral distance near the epicenter, and in the imn1ediate epicentral area the intensity apparently remains practically the same 

regardless of the geologic character of the overburden (Neumann, 

1954, p. 39, 59). 

Intensity, of course, is directly dependent on ground motion, and 

ground motion studies are useful in evaluating intensity differences 

over different ground types even though a practical description of 

intensity in terms of ground-motion components has yet to be made. 

Differences in ground 1notion over various types of materials were 

instrumentally measured in southern California by Gutenberg (1957); 

in Japan hy Minakami (1944, 1950), Minakami and Sakuma (1948), 

Sakuma (1948), Omote, l{omaki, and Kobayashi (1956), and others; 

and in Russia by Lyamzina (1960, 1962), PuCJhkov (1959, 1962), 

Shteinberg ( 1964), Skorik ( 1964), and others. 

Ground motion varies greatly over different ground types. A basement-rock outcrop and an adjoining area of unconsolidated soil may 

have as much as a 15-fold difference in acceleration (N~umann and 

Cloud, 1955, p. 205), and, with certain assun1ptions, possibly as much 

as a 22-fold difference (Neumann, 19'54, p. 58). The amplitudes recorded over water-saturated soft ground may be 10 times those over 

bedrock (Minakami and Sakuma, 1948, p. 64; Gutenberg, 1957, p. 221). 

Different ground types were considered by Neumann ( 1954, 1959) to 

be responsible for irregularities in acceleration-period curves of earthquakes. Also, Neumann (1954, p. 21, 61) considered the slope of 

acceleration-period curves for the longer periods of earthquakes to be 

a function of the 'particular type of basement rock in which the earthquake originated. 

The studies have shown greater amplitude, duration, and mean 

period over alluvium than over harder rock (fig. 24). 

Medvedev (1963a, p. 18, 19) used ground-motion data to calculate 

the stress and relative deformation resulting from the ground motion 

of various ground types for different intensities. He concluded that 

for the same intensity, deformation in firm ground is approximately 

15 times less than in unconsolidated material (fig. 25). 
38 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

A. Stations 

C. Ratio of amplitude for 

remote earthquakes 

E. Ratio of total duration 

G. Damage percentage 

B. Depth of a layer of 

fine sand, in meters 

D. Ratio of amplitude for 

near earthquakes 

F. Mean period, in seconds 

EXPLANATION 

D 

Alluvium 

Mesozoic rocks 

0 2 KILOMETERS 

I I 

FIGURE 24.-Ground-motion varil8.tion over different ground types at Koti, 

Japan (Minakami and Sakuma, 1948, figs. 1-7). Ground motions, 0-F, 

recorded from aftershocks of Nankai earthquake, 1946. B represents 

approximately the cha·racter of the alluvium thickness variiRtion. G 

from Nankai earthquake, 1946. 
9 

z 

~ 8 0 

LLI 

0 

>- IU5 

z 

~ 7 z 

6 

lQ-5 

INTENSITY 39 

lQ-4 IQ-3 

RELATIVE DEFORMATION (s} 

FIGURE 25.-Relative deformation (s) in different types of ground for earthquake intensities (I) from 6 >t:O 9. s=V0/0; ro is the ·particle velocity, and 0 

is the velocity of seismic-wave propagation (Medvedev, 1963a, fig. 4). 

The ratio of the maximum particle velocity expected at one site 

compared with that at another was found by Wiggins (1964, p. 311) 

to be very nearly equal to the inverse of the square root of the impedance ratios if all other factors are equal or scaled. 

Microtremors, which are small ground motions caused chiefly by 

artificial disturbances such as traffic and industrial machines, vary 

with ground type and may be useful in ground classification (fig. 26). 

The results of microtremor studies in several Japanese towns were 

summarized by Kanai, Kawasumi, Tanaka, and Osada (1957), Kanai 

and Tanaka ( 1961), and Kanai, Tanaka, Osada., Suzuki, Morishita, 

and Y oshiza wa ( 1966). It was found that the distrilbution of periods 

of microtremors, which have a close relation to the dominant period 

of earthquake motion, shows a different form for different kinds of 

subsoil. The characteristic forms are determined not only by the thickness of the alluvium, but also by the impedance ratio of neighboring 

layers and the thickness of each layer. All the layers between the surface and the bedrock appear to play a part in determining the largest 

period. The distribution curves are flat on bedrock, and the amplitudes 
40 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

(f) 

0 

z 

0 

(.) 

~ 

(f) 

!: 

0.8 

0.6 

8 

(f) 

z 

0 

6 5 

0 0.4 

~ 

!: 

4 LLi 

0 

::::> 

1-

0 

0:: 

LLJ 

a.. 0.2 z 

L5 

:E 

0 

Loam Clay Sand 

200 400 METERS 

EXPLANATION 

Gravel 

A 

Alluvium 

D 

Diluvium 

2-~ :E 

C( 

T 

Tertiary 

rocks 

FIGURE 26.-Relation of the mean period and largest amplitude of microtremors 

to geologic formations in the Misaki area, Tokyo (Kanai, Tanaka, and Osada, 

1957' fig. 67) . 

at the surface become relatively large at such periods as are synchronous with the natural period of the subsoil due to a selective resonance 

effect. 

As the predominant, mean, and largest pPriods of microtremors 

vary greatly as a function of the vibrational characteristics of the subsoil, it is thought that the largest and mean periods can be used in a 

practical classification of the ground even though their physical meaning is not yet clear (Kanai and Tanaka, 1961, p. 101, 110). The ground 

classification consists of four divisions corresponding to those used 

in the building code of Japan (Kanai and Tanaka, 1961, p. 112-113) 

(fig. 27): 

Type I: Ground consisting of rock, hard sandy gravel, and the 

like, classified as Tertiary or older strata over a considerable area around the structure. 

Type II: Ground consisting of sandy gravel, sandy hard clay, 

loam, and the like, classified as diluvial, or gravelly 

alluvium, about 5 meters or more in thickpess~ over a 

considerable area around the structure. 

Type III: Ground consisting of alluvium 5 meters or more in thickness, which can be distinguished from type II by bluff 

formation. 
INTENSITY 41 

Type IV: Alluvium consisting of soft delta deposits, topsoil, mud, 

or the like, which is about 30 meters or more in thickness. Land obtained by the reclamation of a marsh, 

muddy sea bottom, and the like; the depth of the reclaimed ground is about 3 meters or more and 30 years 

have not yet elapsed since the time of reclamation. 

100 

fz 

lJJ 80 0 

u 

0::: 

lJJ 

a_ 60 0 

~ co 

u.i 40 0 

CD 0 <( 61 ~ 20 0 0 

<( 0 0 

0 ~ I I-II II II-III 

TYPE OF GROUND 

0 

~ 

co 

OJ) 

0 

0 

0 

ct 

III 

0 

0 

00 

oJ 

0 

III-IV 

FIGURE 27.-Relation between earthquake damage to Japanese-style wooden 

houses h1 the K,ikugawa di,stJriet from the 1944 Tonankai ea,rthquake and type 

of ground as classified by microtremor mresurements. The four types of ground 

correspond to those designated in the "Building Code of Japan" (Kanai and 

Tanaka, 1961, fig. 23). 

Very thick soft ground, bedrock, and sand were not classified well, 

and an auxiliary classification using the relationship of the largest 

amplitude and predominant period was also adopted (Kanai and 

Tanaka, 1961, p. 110-111). Ground types, as classified by microtremors, 

show a relationship to earthquake damage (fig. 27). 

The amplitudes of earthquake motions on the surface are larger 

than those underground, according to studies made by Kanai and 

Tanaka ( 1951), Kanai, Tanaka, and Y oshiza wa ( 1959), Shima ( 1962), 

and Kanai, Tanaka, Yoshizawa, Morishita, Osada, and Suzuki (1966). 

The results of these and the 1nierotremor studies showed that the 

surface layers greatly modified the seismic waves passing up through 

them and that, as earlier stated by Takahasi and Hirano ( 1941), the 

seismic waves at depth in bedrock could be thought of as having a 

constant form which is modified during passage through the surface 

layers. This is virtually the same conclusion reached by Neumann 

( 1954, 1959). Thus, the ground motion at the surface can be described 

as the motion at depth in bedrock plus the modifications due to the 

vibrational characteristics of the particular surface layers. A set of 

empirical formulas was devised to deseribe the displacement amplitude, velocity, and acceleration at depth for an epicentral distance, 

a, in kilometers, and a magnitude, M (Kanai, 1958, 1961; Kanai and 
42 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

Yoshizawa, 1958; Kanai, Tanaka, Yoshizawa, and others, 1966). A 

semiempirical formula describing modification of the seismic waves 

in the surface layer of the ground was also devised (Kanai and others, 

1956; Kanai, 1957, 1961; Kanai, Tanaka, Yoshizawa, and others, 

1966): 

1 

G(T)=I+~G+:r-aJ} J+ {J:GcDr· 

in which T and T a represent, respectively, in seconds, the period of 

seismic waves and the predominant period of the ground, and a represents the impedance ratio of the ground to the bedrock (p1 Ti'"1/P2 V2) 

(Kanai, Tanaka, Y oshizawa, and others, 1966, p. 624). This formula 

when combined with the empirical formulas gives the ground motion 

at the surface (Kanai, 1961, p. 88; Kanai, Tanaka, Y oshizawa, and 

others, 1966, p. 624). 

Ratios of the calculated acceleration values on bedrock and observed 

values on the surface were found by Kanai, Yoshizawa, and Suzuki 

( 1963, p. 262) to he constant for different earthquakes and thus correspond to magnification constants. The ratios are normally 2 to 5 

and rarely are more than 10. They (1963, p. 264) concluded that the 

destructiveness of earthquake n1otions depends mostly on the seismic 

characteristics of the prism of deposits overlying bedrock. 

SEISMIC MICROREGIONALIZATION MAPS 

The quantitative evaluation of intensity differences of ground types 

allows maps to be made which show the geology in terms of potential 

relative intensities. Data from such maps combined with data on the 

seismicity of a region are used to construct seismic microregionalization maps, which show earthquake risk in terms of the maximum intensity expected. The data on the seismicity of a region are usually taken 

from seismic regionalization maps, which are small-scale maps presenting the data as the maximum intensities to be expected on average 

ground for large regions (Medvedev, 1965, p. III-178) (fig. 28). 

Richter ( 1959) presented a general discussion of hoth regionalization and microregionalization maps. The problems of seismic regionalization were discussed by Medvedev (J960b, 1965) and Bune (1965), 

and instructions for the construction of seismic regionalization maps 

were promulgated by Medvedev and others ( 1961). 

Microregionalization maps have been made for many parts of 

Russia (Puchkov, 1959; Kats, 1960; Kuliev, 1962; ·Goryachev and 

others, 1963), and instructions on the construction of these maps have 
g; 

I 

--. 

--. 

f 

i 

--. 

0 1000 2000 KILOMETERS 

FIGURE 28.-SeiSIInic regionalization map of the U.S.S.R. The figures show intensity according to the 

GEOFIAN seismic scale (Medvedev, 1965, fig. 1). Reproduced by permission of the New Zealand 

National Committee on Earthquake Engineering. 

1-4 

~ t<J 

z 

\12 

~ 

~ 

C/.:1 
44 PREDICTING EFFECTS , OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

been presented (Kats, 1961; Medvedev and others, 196·2). Problems 

and methods involved have been discussed by Medvedev (1952a), 

Safaryan (19·54, 1957), Kats (1958, 1959), Lyamzina (1962), Yershov, 

Lyamzina, and Shteinberg (1965), and others. In Japan, maps have 

been made showing the ground classification based on microtremor 

data (N asu, 1965, p. I-152 to I-153). 

A microregionalization map of Petropavlovsk in eastern Kamchatka 

was constructed by Goryachev and others (1963) following the instructions of Medvedev and others (1962) (fig. 29). According toYershov, Lyamzina, and Shteinberg (1965, p. III-227), "The scheme of the 

seismic microzoning of Petropavlovsk was compiled on the basis of 

engineering and geological data, analyses of seismic oscillations 

brought about by sufficiently strong earthquakes and the data from the 

measurements of the microtremors and the data from the measurements 

of the velocities of propagation of waves." The average intensity differences due to ground conditions in this area are shown in table 11. 

These differences were added or subtracted from the general intensity 

8 (GEOFIAN) givenfortheregion. 

Richter (1959, fig. 2) constructed a generalized microregionalization map of the Los Angeles area (fig. 30) as an illustration of the 

procedure. 

Seismic microregionalization rna ps show the expected variations of 

intensity within an area, and the vulnerability of any particular spot 

to damage in relative terms, or in absolute terms if an absolute value 

is assumed to apply to a particular area of the map. 

Such maps, based on ground types, coupled with intensityepicentral-dista.nce curves could serve as the basis for predicting intensities at specific locations for an earthquake of a given magnitude, 

epicentral distance, and focal depth. 

EXPLAN.AlTION ITO FIGURE 29 

Zone of intensity 7.-on the gentle mountain slopes with outcrops of rocky ground 

or with thin layers of unconsolidated ,ground (provided that the authorized .building 

foundation extend.s to bedrock). 

Zone of intensity 8.-within the limits of non-water-saturated stony-sandy loam and 

loam on the gentle mountain slopes; placed here also are the thick waterless sandy 

gravelly ground of the high terrace, the pyroclastic ground of the north region, and the 

narrow ridge of Nikolsk Mountain. 

Zone of intensity 9.-pebbly sandy loam and loam that is water-saturated at shallow 

depth; sandy gravelly ground of stream and river bottoms, marshy I terrace of the 

Kirplch River ; filled and alluvial ground. 

Area recommended for ea:clusion from building.-marshy river bottoms, ftood plains 

of the Kirpich River, beaches, and parts of rocky scarps and steep mountain slopes; 

building in these areas requires land reclamation measures and complex engineering 

experience in these conditions in regions of abnormal seismic activity. 
EXPLANATION 

Zone of intensity 7 

Zone of intensity 8 

Zone of intensity 9 

Area recommended for 

exclusion from building 

INTENSITY 45 

0 

FIGURE 29.-Seismic microregionaliza~tion map of Petropavlovsk, K~amchatka, 

and vicinity ( Goryachev and others, 1963, fig. 21 and p. 50). 
46 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

0 10 20 MILES 

0 10 20 KILOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

D 

IX Quaternary alluvium, dune 

sand, and landslide areas 

VIII Quaternary 

-

consolidated 

deposits 

VII Tertiary ~ sedimentary 

rocks and volcanics 

VI Granitic rocks 

-

and Mesozoic 

sedimentary and metamorphic 

rocks 

FIGURE 30.-l\ficroregionalioo.tion map of Los Angeles basin and vicinity, 

southern California, showing probable maximum intensity (Modified Mercalli) 

and prevailing geological character (from Richter, 1959, p. 129). 

RELATION BETWEEN EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE AND 

NUCLEAR EXPLOSION ENERGY RELEASE 

Underground nuclear explosions produce seismic effects similar to 

those of earthquakes (Evison, 1963, p. 887; Bath, 1962), so much so 

that great effort has been expended in trying to find a means of distinguishing the two. Intensity data from earthquakes are thus applicable to underground nuclear explosions; but to use these data for prediction purposes, the yield of a nuclear explosion must be adequately 

equated to earthquake magnitude. This problem has been studied. 
EARTHQUAKE VERSUS NUCLEAR EXPLOSION 47 

Shallow earthquakes, except those related to volcanism, are considered to be related to fault movement and, therefore, to originate 

along a line and not at a point. The computed epicenters represent the 

location of the first recorded movements and probably present too limited a representation of the energy source area. Chemical and nuclear 

explosions are different from most earthquakes in that they are point 

sources of energy. The explosions may, however, be similar in source 

configuration to some very shallow earthquakes related to volcanism. 

The differences in source configuration betwoon explosions and most 

earthquakes might be expected to produce differences in recorded 

magnitudes a.nd intensity in the epicentral area, but as the epicentral 

distance increases, the difference may become insignificant. As implied 

previously, a linear source may not be an important factor in affecting 

intensity distribution. 

A large number of chemical explosions have resulted in ground 

amplitudes that varied as the lh-1 power of the explosives charge 

(Carder and Cloud, 1959, p. 14 7 4). As the magnitude of an earthquake 

is proportional to the logarithm of the a1nplitude, a general relationship of magnitude to yield, Y, for che1nical and nuclear explosions 

may be expressed by 

M=O+nlogY 

(Romney, 1959a, b, p. 1498; Riznichenko, 1960, p. 75), where n= 

0.5-1.0 and 0 is a constant. 

Romney (1959b, p. 1498), using data available from underground 

nuclear explosions in tuff, considered n= 1 and determined that 

M=3.65+log Y, 

where Y is the explosive yield expressed in kilotons of TNT equivalent. This relationship may not apply for explosions in other localities, 

or in other media (Romney, 1959a). In formulating this expression 

Romney averaged together magnitudes on the Richter scale and those 

of the unified magnitude scale. HowPver, these magnitude scales 

should not have matched in the ma.gnitude range of the explosions 

used, but should have disagreed by nearly one magnitude unit (Romney, 1959b, p. 1497; Riznichenko, 1960. p. 60). 

Riznichenko ( 1960, p. 76) considered that in different ranges of yield 

the value of n may change. A theoretical consideration lead him to con~ 

elude that when Y is small n should be near 1, but when Y is large n 

should approach a value of two-thirds and even as little as one-half. 

Riznichenko (1960, p. 76) kept the two magnitude scales separate and 

arrived at the following equations, using more complete data than 
48 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

Romney ( 1959a, b) used for the Rainier, Logan, and Blanca nuclear 

explosions: 

m=4.6±0.1 + (0.50+0.06) logY 

for the unified magni,tude scale or 

M=3.9+0.7log Y 

on the Richter scale at lesser distances (fig. 31) for the approximate 

range from 1 to 25 kt (kilotons). Thus a detonation of 5-kt yield 

would approximately equal an earthquake of magnitude 4.4 on the 

Richter scale according to the equations of both Romney and Riznichenko. At higher yields, Romney's equation gives progressively 

higher magnitudes than Riznichenko's. Since the promulgation of these 

equations, considerably more data concerning magnitudes of nuclear 

explosions have accumulated, allowing the equations to be improved. 

The recent 80-kt Longshot nuclear explosion under Amchitka Island 

in the Aleutian Islands (DeNoyer and Frosch, 1966) produced a magnitude m=6.1 and a surface-wave magnitude of at least 11h-2less (Liebermann and others, 1966). Riznichenko's equations give for an 80-kt 

explosion, a maximum m about 0.5 lower and a "J/ about 0.5-1.0 higher 

than the magnitudes recorded. 

Surface waves from explosions generally have shorter periods than 

those from earthquakes (Pasechnik and others, 1960, p. 50; Keilis-

~ 

w 5 

0 

:::J 

!:: 

z 

C!:l 

c( 

~ 

1.7 2 

YIELD (Y);IN KILOTONS 

5 10 

4.5~----~~-----+~----~--------~--------~~-

0 0.5 

LOG YIELD 

FIGURE 31.-Relationship between yield (Y, in kilotons) and magnitude (m) 

from three underground nuclear explosions (from Riznichenko, 1960, fig. 6). 
PREDICTION, SEISMIC INTENSITY, NUCLEAR EXPLOSION 49 

Borok, 1960, p. 98; Willis, 1963, p. 967). This is thought to be principally due to the smaller size of the source area in explosions ( KeilisBorok, 1960, p. 98). The effects of this difference are not properly 

taken into account when computing magnitude by ordinary methods, 

nor are the different da1nping characteristics of seismic waves with 

epicentral distance ( Riznichenko, 1960, p. 55) . Also, earthquakes in 

general generate larger shear-surface waves than the underground explosions (Willis and others, 1963, p. 979) . Of the earthquakes studied 

by Willis, DeNoyer, and Wilson (1963, p. 986), 78 percent had ,amplitude ratios of shear surface to compressional waves larger than those 

of nuclear explosions, except the Gnome explosion, which generated 

large-amplitude short-period waves larger than those generated by the 

earthquakes they studied. 

Some of the slight variance in ground motion may be due to other 

variables, such as very shallow focal depth and the travel path, rather 

than to any intrinsic difference in underground nuclear explosions. 

For example, the test media will influence the magnitude of the seismic 

signals (Hankins, 1964). "Evidence has been obtained which shows 

that firing underground nuclear shots in various media such as granite, 

tuff, salt, and alluvium affect the amplitude and frequency content of 

the seismic waves" (Willis, 1963, p. 975). A further complication is 

that of a possible seismic-energy contribution from tectonio strain release triggered by an underground nuclear explosion. 

PREDICTION OF SEISMIC INTENSITY FOR 

NUCLEAR EXPLOSION 

The following two examples serve merely to illustrate how the aforementioned data might be applied to predict intensities at various distances from underground nuclear explosions and do not utilize all 

the available information. No discussion of accuracy is attempted. 

An underground nuclear explosion of 1,000-kt yield would approximately equal an earthquake of magnitude, M, 6 following Riznichenko's equation and 6.65 following Romney's. 

An earthquake of magnitude 6 in southern California, focal depth 

approximately 16 km, would have the following average epicentral 

distances for a/oe1'age l~nten.'3ities (fig. 11) : 

I (M.M.) 

A (km) 

3 

120 

5 

60 

6 

30 

7 

15 

with an epicent~ral intensity, / 0 , of 7-8, ,averaging 7.8, and an average 

epicentral acceleration a,0 of 130 cmjsec2 (Gutenberg and Richter, 

1942, 1956, p. 141; Benioff and Gutenberg, 1955, table 1; Richter, 1958, 

p. 353). 

Predominant ~mwm intensity radii ( isoseismals) for western N e-
50 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

vada and adjacent California for an earthquake of magnitude 6 are 

(fig.l2) : 

I (M.M.) 

a (km) 

1-4 (generally 4) 

190 

3 

118 

6 

40 

The epicentral intensity would be approximately 7.1, and the total area 

over which the shock is felt would equal about 32,000 square miles 

( 83,000 sq km) . 

An earthquake of magniture 6.1 in western Nevada, June 23, 1959 

(Eppley and Cloud, 1961, p. 51), had the following ma..'YJ'irrvum intensity 

radii: 

I (M.M.) 

a (km) 

4 

265 

5 

201 

6 

82 

The shallow focal depth of nuclear detonations would cause both 

greater epicentral intensities and a ~greater attenuation ra,te of intensity with ·epicentral distance than earthqua.lms of equivalent magnitude at gre3!ter focal depth. The variation of the epicentral intensity 

with focal depth is given as 

h (km) 5 

10 (GEOFIAN) 9-10 

15 45 

7-8 5-7 

for an earthquake with a magnitude of 5 1/4<-Llf <6 1/2, and as 

h ( km) 1 2 5 10 16 20 30 45 

Io (GEOFIAN) 12 11 9. 6 8. 5 7. 8 7. 5 6. 8 6. 2 

for an earthquake with a magnitude of 6 by Shebalin (1961, table 5.1 

and fig. 5.1) (fig. 13). 

By combining the above epicentral intensity values of Sheba.lin 

with his intensity-attenuation-epicentral-distance relationships 

( 1959a, p. 109, fig. 15), the following intensity radii were calculated, 

rounding off to two places, for an earthquake of magnitude 6 : 

h (km) Radii of I (GEOFIAN) (km) 

I 12 11 I 10 I 9 8 I 7 6 I 5 4 3 

1 Uo=12) _________ 1 0.1 ~~-~-1-3-~~--;-~~--;;~ 

2 (lo=11) _________ ,=~Q.l-3.26.9~26[4993 180 330 

10 (1,~8.5)--------~----- ------1::---- ----- 9. 4 123148 193 180 340 

20 (1,~7.5) ________ ----- ------1----- -----1------1 19 48197 190 360 

-----~-----

121 11 110 91 8 7 6 1 5 41312 

Approximately equivalent I (M.M.) 
PREDICTION, SEISMIC INTENSITY, NUCLEAR EXPLOSION 51 

For any site the intensity at a given epicentral distance, for an 

earthquake of a particular magnitude, is highly dependent on the 

geologic environment, as pointed out by Popov (1959) and summarized 

in table 10. As an example of how the intensity might vary, dependent 

on the geologic environment of a site, an earthquake of magnitude, 

M, 6 in southern California can he expected to produce at an epicentral distance of 60 km an average intensity of 5 (fig. 11). Thus, where 

the average intensity is assumed to occur over "thick layers of dry 

argillaceous rocks, gently dipping or folded" (type geologic section 3, 

tahle 10), the anticipated average intensity can be corrected for the 

particular geologic environment; decreased by one to two scale units 

for massive compact rocks such as granite, or increased by one to two 

scale units for unstable, wet, or unconsolidated materials. 

Thus, for an underground blast of ma,gnitude 6 at 1 km depth in 

northen1 Yucca Flat, Nevada Test Site, an epicentral intensity of 

12 (M.M.) might be expected. At the Control Point, about 26 km 

south, the average intensity would be about 6. At Mercury, 56 km 

south, it would be approximately 5. The predominant maximum intensity 5 radii would perhaps be 70-90 km, extending to the vicinity 

of Indian Springs, and with unfavorable ground conditions the maximum intensity 5 might extend to 120-140 km, about the edge of Las 

Vegas. 

An underground explosion of 5-kt yield would have a magnitude, 

M, of ahout 4.4 according to the equations of Romney (1959b) and 

Riznichenko ( 1960) . 

Variation of the epicentral intensity with focal depth is given as 

h (km) 

lo (GEOFIAN) 

5 

7-8 

15 

5-7 

45 

4-5 

for an earthquake with a magnitude 4 :lft <Jf <5% by Shebalin (1961, 

table 5.1), and as 

h (km) 

Io (GEOFIAN) 

0.82 

10 (est.) 

1 2 5 10 

9.6 8.6 7.2 6.0 

for an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.4 by Shehalin (1961) (fig. 

13). 

Intensity-epicentral-distance values, for epicentral intensities of 9.6 

and 8.6 at focal depths of 1 and 2 km, respectively, were calculated 

from the intensity-attenuation-epicentral-distance equation of Shebalin (1959a, p.109). They are: 
52 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

Radii of I (GEOFIAN) (km) h (km) 

9 8 I 7 6 5 4 

1 (lo=9.6) ----------- 1. 1 2. 6 5. 2 10 18 36 

2 Uo=8.6)_ ---------- -------- 2. 1 5. 2 10 20 39 

The increase in intensity attenuation with epicentral distance for 

decreasing focal depth is such that for an earthquake at 0.82-km focal 

depth, the epicentral distance radii for intensity 4 would probably be 

similar to or slightly smaller than that for a focal depth of 1 km, 

although the shallower earthquake would have a higher epicentral 

intensity. 

Thus, if an underground nuclear device at 5-kt yield was detonated 

at a depth of 0.82 km, the average intensity at a distance of 32 km 

(the distance from Hattiesburg, Miss., to the Salmon explosion 

locality) would be on the low side of 4, or 3-4 (GEOFIAN or M.M.). 

If the location at that distance is underlain by thick water-saturated 

unconsolidated clays and sands the intensity could be increased to 

5 or 6 (Popov, 1959; Medvedev, 1961, p.115; table 10 of present report), 

which was the approximate intensity level at Hattiesburg from the 

Salmon explosion. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

Much is known about the various parameters affecting intensity, 

and several preliminary relationships have been worked out. It seems 

that ·a comhin31tion of these relationships would enable .the prediction 

of intensity at a particular spot for an earthquake of a given magnitude, epicenter, and focal depth. An adequate equation of magnitude 

to yield would allow intensity predictions to be made for underground 

nuclear explosions also. 

It appears that some type of reasonable intensity-epicentral-distance 

curves for different magnitudes and focal depths could be drawn after 

due consideration of the other variables affecting intensity. Also, by. 

application of some of the work on relative intensities of ground 

types, useful microregionalization maps could be constructed for areas, 

southern Nevada for example. If the intensity-epicentral-distance 

curves were drawn for a particular type of ground on the microregionalization map, then a basis would be established for predicting 

the intensity at a given spot caused by a given earthquake or explosion. For example, minimum-intensity-epicentral-distance curves 

might be chosen and considered to represent the intensity on granite. 

Then, if the microregionalization were done in terms of relative inten-
REFERENCES CITED 53 

sity differences from granite, the relative intensity difference from 

granite of a particular spot would be added to that derived from the 

iutensity-epicentral-distance curve, for the proper epicentral distance, 

to arrive at the predicted intensity for that spot for an earthquake of 

a given magnitude and location. For both the intensity-epicenrtraldistance curves and microregionalization map, the probable limits of 

accuracy would have to be carefully considered. 

N emnann ( 1954, 1959) presents convincing evidence that useful 

minimum-intensity-epicentral-distance curves can be constructed. 

Comparison of reeords of nearby seismic recording stations on different ground types within the area of the microregionalization rna p 

would be useful in understanding the different responses of the 

materials and in assigning relative intensity differences. Also, thorough 

analyses of well-doeumented earthquakes, ineluding a survey of the 

ground types of the localities reporting intensities, would be a good 

check on the curves and values chosen for use and would contribute 

additional information. 

W ell-eonstructed microregionalization rna ps could also be utilized in 

evaluating reactor and other types of sites in active seismic regions. 

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TABLES l-12 

TABLES 1-12 65 

TABLE 1.-Modified Meraalli intensity soale of 1931 

[Adapted from Sieberg's (1923) Mercalli-Cancani scale, modified and condensed. Quoted 

from Wood and Neumann (1931)] 

I. Not felt-or, except rarely under especially favorable circumstances. Under 

certain conditions, at and outside the boundary of the area in which 

a great shock is felt: 

sometimes birds, animals, reported uneasy or disturbed; 

sometimes dizziness or nausea experienced; 

sometimes trees, structures, liquids, bodies of water, may sway-doors 

may swing, very slowly. 

II. Felt indoors by few, especially on upper floors, or by sensitive or nervous 

persons. 

Also, as in grade I, but often more noticeably: 

sometimes hanging objects may swing, especially when delicately 

suspended; 

sometimes trees, structures, liquids, bodies of water, may sway, doors 

may swing, very slowly; 

sometimes birds, animals, reported uneasy or disturbed; 

sometimes dizziness or nausea experienced. 

III. Felt indoors by several, motion usually rapid vibration. 

Sometimes not recognized to be an earthquake at first. 

Duration estimated in some cases. 

Vibration like that due to passing of light, or lightly loaded trucks, or 

heavy trucks some distance away. 

Hanging objects may swing slightly. 

Movements may be appreciable on upper levels of tall structures. 

Rocked standing motor cars slightly. 

IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by f~w. 

Awakened few, expecially light sleepers. 

Frightened no one, unless apprehensive from previous experience. 

Vibration like that due to passing of heavy, or heavily loaded trucks. 

Sensation like heavy body striking building, or falling of heavy objects 

inside. 

Rattling of dishes, windows, doors; glassware and crockery clink and 

clash. 

Creaking of walls, frame, especially in the upper range of this grade. 

Hanging objects swung, in numerous instances. 

Disturbed liquids in open vessels slightly. 

Rocked standing motor cars noticeably. 

V. Felt indoors by practically all, outdoors by many or most: outdoors 

direction estimated. 

Awakened many, or most. 

Frightened few-slight excitement, a few ran outdoors. 

Buildings trembled throughout. 

Broke dishes, glassware, to some extent. 

Cracked windows-in some cases, but not generally. 
66 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 1.-Modified Mercalli intensity scale of 1931-Continued 

Overturned vases, small or unstable objects, in many instances, with 

occasional fall. 

Hanging objects, doors, swing generally or considerably. 

Knocked pictures against walls, or swung them out of place. 

Opened, or closed, doors, shutters, abruptly. 

Pendulum clocks stopped, started, or ran fast, or slow. 

Moved small objects, furnishings, the latter to slight extent. 

Spilled liquids in small amounts from well-filled open containers. 

Trees, bushes, shaken slightly. 

VI. Felt by all, indoors and outdoors. 

Frightened many, excitement general, some alarm, many ran outdoors. 

Awakened all. 

Persons made to move unsteadily. 

Trees, bushes, shaken slightly to moderately. 

Liquid set in strong motion. 

Small bells rang-church, chapel, school, etc. 

Damage slight in poorly built buildings. 

Fall of plaster in small amount. 

Cracked plaster somewhat, especially fine cracks chimneys in some 

instances. 

Broke dishes, glassware, in considerable quantity, also some windows. 

Fall of knick-knacks, books, pictures. 

Overturned furniture in many instances. 

Moved furnishings of moderately heavy kind. 

VII. Frightened all-general alarm, all ran outdoors. 

Some, or many, found it difficult to stand. 

Noticed by persons driving motor cars. 

Trees and bushes shaken moderately to strongly. 

Waves on ponds, lakes, and running water. 

Water tt:.rbid from mud stirred up. 

Incaving to some extent of sand or gravel stream banks. 

Rang large church bells, etc. 

Suspended objects made to quiver. 

Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction, slight 

to moderate in well-built ordinary buildings, considerable in poorly 

built or badly designed buildings, adobe houses, old walls (especially 

where laid up without mortar), spires, etc. 

Cracked chimneys to considerable extent, walls to some extent. 

Fall of plaster in considerable to large amount, also some stucco. 

Broke numerous windows, furniture to some extent. 

Shook down loosened brickwork and tiles. 

Broke weak chimneys at the roofline (sometimes damaging roofs). 

Fall of cornices from towers and high buildings. 

Dislodged bricks and stones. 

Overturned heavy furniture, with damage from breaking. 

Damage considerable to concrete irrigation ditches. 
TABLES 1-12 67 

TABLE 1.-Modified MercalU intensity scale of 1931-0ontinued. 

VIII. Fright general-alarm approaches panic. 

Disturbed persons driving motor cars. 

Trees shaken strongly-branches, trunks, broken off, especially palm 

trees. 

Ejected sand and mud in small amounts. 

Changes: temporary, permanent; in flow of springs and wells; dry wells 

renewed flow; in temperature of spring and well waters. 

Damage slight in structures (brick) built especially to withstand 

earthquakes. 

Considerable in ordinary substantial buildings, partial collapse: racked, 

tumbled down, wooden houses in some cases; threw out panel walls in 

frame structures, broke off decayed piling. 

Fall of walls. 

Cracked, broke, solid stone walls seriously. 

Wet ground to some extent, also ground on steep slopes. 

Twisting, fall, of chimneys, columns, monuments, also factory stacks, 

towers. 

Moved conspicuously, overturned, very heavy furniture. 

IX. Panic general. 

Cracked ground conspicuously. 

Damage considerable in (masonry) structures built especially _to withstand earthquakes: 

threw out of plumb some wood-frame houses built especially to withstand earthquakes; 

great in substantial (masonry) buildings, some collapse in large part; 

or wholly shifted frame buildings off foundations, racked frames; 

serious to reservoirs; underground pipes sometimes broken. 

X. Cracked ground, especially when loose and wet, up to widths of several 

inches; fissures up to a yard in width ran parallel to canal and stream 

banks. 

Landslides considerable from river banks and steep coasts. 

Shifted sand and mud horizontally on beaches and flat land. 

Changed level of water in wells. 

Threw water on banks of canals, lakes, rivers, etc. 

Damage serious to dams, dikes, embankments. 

Damage severe to well-built wooden structures and bridges, some destroyed. 

Developed dangerous crac·ks in excellent brick walls. 

Destroyed most masonry and frame structures, also their foundations. 

Bent railroad rails slightly. 

Tore apart, or crushed endwise, pipe lines buried in earth. 

Open cracks and broad wavy folds in cement pavements and asphalt 

road surfaces. 

XI. Disturbances in ground many and widespread, varying with ground 

material. 

Broad fissures, earth slumps, and land slips in soft, wet ground. 

Ejected water in large amount charged with sand and mud. 

Caused sea-waves (tidal waves) of significant magnitude. 

Damage severe to wood-frame structures, especially near shock centers. 
68 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 1.-Modified Me1·calli intensity scale of 1931-0ontinued 

Great to dams, dikes, embankments, often for long distances. 

Few, if any (masonry), structures remained standing. 

Destroyed large well-built bridges by the wrecking of supporting piers, 

or pillars. 

Affected yielding wooden bridges less. 

Bent railroad rails greatly, and thrust them endwise. 

Put pipe lines buried in earth completely out of service. 

XII. Damage total-practically all works of construction damaged greatly or 

destroyed. 

Disturbances in ground great and varied, numerous shearing cracks. 

Landslides, falls of rock of significant character, slumping of river banks, 

etc., numerous and extensive. 

Wrenched loose, tore off, large rock masses. 

Fault slips in firm rock, with notable horizontal and vertical offset 

displacements. 

Water channels, surface and underground, disturbed and modified 

greatly. 

Dammed lakes, produced waterfalls, deflected rivers, etc. 

Waves seen on ground surfaces (actually seen, probably, in some cases). 

Distorted lines of sight and level. 

Threw objects upward into the air. 

MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE OF 1931 

(Abridged) 

I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable circumstances. 

II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. 

Delicately suspended objects may swing. 

III. Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings, but 

many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars 

may rock slightly. Vibration like passing of truck. Duration estimated. 

IV. During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by few. At night some 

awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls made cracking 

sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor 

cars rocked noticeably. 

V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows, etc., 

broken; a few instances of cracked plaster; unstable objects overturned. 

Disturbance of trees, poles and other tall objects sometimes noticed. 

Pendulum clocks may stop. 

VI. Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture 

moved; a few instances of fallen plaster or damaged chimneys. Damage 

slight. 

VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design 

and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; 

considerable in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chirimeys 

broken. Noticed by persons driving motor cars. 

VIII. Damage slight in speLially designed structures; considerable in ordinary 

substantial buildings with partial collapse; great in poorly built strue_ 
TABLES 1-12 69 

TABLE !.-Modified Mercallt' intensity scale of 1931-Continued 

tures. Panel walls thrown out of frame structures. Fall of chimneys, 

factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned. 

Sand and mud ejected in small amounts. Changes in well water. Disturbed persons driving motor cars. 

IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well designed frame 

structures thrown out of plumb; great in substantial buildings, with 

partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked 

conspicuously. Underground pipes broken. 

X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame 

structures destroyed with foundations; ground badly cracked. Rails bent. 

Landslides considerable from river banks and steep slopes. Shifted sand 

and mud. Water splashed (slopped) over banks. 

XI. Few, if any (masonry), structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. 

Broad fissures in ground. Underground pipe lines completely out of 

service. Earth slumps and land slips in soft ground. Rails bent greatly. 

XII. Damage total. Waves seen on ground surfaces. Lines of sight and level 

distorted. Objects thrown upward into the air. 

TABLE 2.-Modified Mercalli scale (New Zealand version, 1965) 

[Quoted from Eiby (1966, p. 124-128). Reproduced by permission of th\l New Zealand Journal of Geology 

and Geophysics] 

M.M. 1. Not felt by humans, except in especially favourable circumstances, but 

birds and animals may be disturbed. 

Reported mainly from the upper floors of buildings more than 10 

storeys high. 

Dizziness or nausea may be experienced. 

Branches of trees, chandeliers, doors, and other suspended systems of 

long natural period may be seen to move slowly. Water in ponds, 

lakes, reservoirs, etc., may be set into seiche oscillation. 

M. M. 2. Felt by a few persons at rest indoors, especially by those on upper 

floors or otherwise favourably placed. 

The long-period effects listed under M.M. 1 may be more noticeable. 

M.M. 3. Felt indoors, but not identified as an earthquake by everyone. Vibration may be likened to the passing of light traffic. 

It may be possible to estimate the duration, but not the direction. 

Hanging objects may swing slightly. 

Standing motorcars may rock slightly. 

M.M. 4. Generally noticed indoors, but not outside. 

Very light sleepers may be wakened. 

Vibration may be likened to the passing of heavy traffic, or to the jolt 

of a heavy object falling or striking the building. 

Walls and frame of buildings ~re heard to creak. 

Doors and windows rattle. 

Glassware and crockery rattles. 

Liquids in open vessels may be slightly disturbed. 

Standing motorcars may rock, and the shock can be felt by their 

occupants. 
70 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 2.-Modified MerCf4lli scale (New Zealand version, 1965)-Continued 

M.M. 5. Generally felt outside and by almost everyone indoors. 

Most sleepers awakened. 

A few people frightened. 

Direction of motion can be estimated. 

Small unstable objects are displaced or upset. 

Some glassware and crockery may be broken. 

Some windows cracked. 

A few earthenware toilet fixtures cracked. 

Hanging pictures move. 

Doors and shutters may swing. 

Pendulum clocks stop, start, or change rate. 

M.M. 6. Felt by all. 

People and animals alarmed. 

Many run outside. 

Difficulty experienced in walking steadily. 

Slight damage to Masonry D. 

Some plaster cracks or falls. 

Isolated cases of chimney damage. 

Windows, glassware, and crockery b,roken. 

Objects fall from shelves, and pictures from walls. 

Heavy furniture moved. Un .. table furniture overturned. 

Small church and school bells ring. 

Trees and bushes shake, or are heard to rustle. 

Loose material may be dislodged from existing slips, talus slopes, or 

shingle slides. 

M. M. 7. General alarm. 

Difficulty experienced in standing. 

Noticed by drivers of motorcars. 

Trees and bushes strongly shaken. 

Large bells ring. 

Masonry D cracked and damaged. 

A few instances of damage to Masonry C. 

Loose brickwork and tiles dislodged. 

Unbraced parapets and architectural ornaments may fall. 

Stone walls cracked. 

Weak chimneys broken, usually at the roof-line. 

Domestic water tanks burst. 

Concrete irrigation ditches damaged. 

Waves seen on ponds and lakes. 

Water made turbid by stirred-up mud. 

Small slips, and caving-in of sand and gravel banks. 

M.M. 8. Alarm may approach panic. 

Steering of motorcars affected. 

Masonry C damaged, with partial collapse. 

Masonry B damaged in some cases. 

Masonry A undamaged. 

Chimneys, factory stacks, monuments, towers, and elevated tanks 

twisted or brought down. 
TABLES 1-12 71 

TABLE 2.-Modified Mercalli scale (New Zealand version, 1965)-Continued 

Panel walls thrown out of frame structures. 

Some brick veneers damaged. 

Decayed wooden piles broken. 

Frame houses not secured to the foundation may move. 

Cracks appear on steep slopes and in wet ground. 

LandAlips in roadside cuttings and unsupported excavations. 

Some tree branches may be broken off. 

Changes in the flow or temperature of springs and wells may occur. 

Small earthquake fountains. 

M.M. 9. General panic. 

Masonry D destroyed. 

Masonry C heavily damaged, sometimes collapsing completely. 

Masonry B seriously damaged. 

Frame structures racked and distorted. 

Damage to foundations general. 

Frame houses not secured to the foundations shifted off. 

Brick veneers fall and expose frames. 

Cracking of the ground conspicuous. 

Minor damage to paths and roadways. 

Sand and mud ejected in alluviated areas, with the formation of 

earthquake fountains and sand craters. 

Underground pipes broken. 

Serious damage to reservoirs. 

M.M. 10. Most masonry structures destroyed, together with their foundations. 

Some well built wooden buildings and bridges seriously damaged. 

Dams, dykes, and embankments seriously damaged. 

Railway lines slightly bent. 

Cement and asphalt roads and pavements badly cracked or thrown 

into waves. 

Large landslides on river banks and steep coasts. 

Sand and mud on beaches and flat land moved horizontally. 

Large and spectacular sand and mud fountains. 

Water from rivers, lakes, and canals thrown up on the banks. 

M.M. 11. Wooden frame structures destroyed. 

Great damage to railway lines. 

Great damage to underground pipes. 

M. M. 12. Damage virtually total. Practically all works of construction destroyed 

or greatly damaged. 

Large rock masses displaced. 

Lines of sight and level distorted. 

Visible wave-motion of the ground surface reported. 

Objects thrown upwards into the air. 

Categories of nonwooden construction: 

Masonry A. Structures designed to resist lateral forces of about 9.1 [percent] g, 

such as those satisfying the New Zealand Model Building Bylaw, 

1955. Typical buildings of this kind are well reinforced by means 

of steel or ferro-concrete bands, or are wholly of ferro-concrete 
72 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 2.-Modijied Mercalli scale (New Zealand version, 1965)-Continued 

construction. All mortar is of good quality and the design and 

workmanship is good. Few buildings erected prior to 1935 can 

be regarded as in category A. 

Masonry B. Reinforced buildings of good workmanship and with sound mortar, 

but not designed in detail to resist lateral forces. 

Masonry C. Buildings of ordinary workmanship, with mortar of average quality. 

No extreme weakness, such as inadequate bonding of the corners, 

but neither designed nor reinforced to resist lateral forces. 

Masonry D. Buildings with low standards of workmanship, poor mortar, or 

constructed of weak materials like mud brick and rammed earth. 

Weak horizontally. 

Windows: 

Window breakage depends greatly upon the nature of the frame and its orientation "'ith respect to th~ earthquake source. Windows cracked at M.M. 5 are 

usually either large display windows, or windows tightly fittP.d to metal frames. 

Chimneys: 

The "weak chimneys" listed under M.M. 7 are unreinforced domestic chimneys 

of brick, concrete block, or poured concrete. 

Water tanks: 

The "domestic water tanks" listed under M.M. 7 are of the cylindrical corrugated-iron type common in New Zealand rural areas. If these are only partly 

full, movement of_ the water may burst soldered and riveted seams. 

Hot-water cylinders constrained only by supply and delivery pipes may move 

sufficiently to break the pipes at about the same intensity. 

TABLE 3.-J apanese seisrnic intensity soole 

[Adapted from Kawasumi (1951, p. 481) with minor additions from the unpublished 

version used by the Central Meteorological Observatory] 

0. Not felt: too weak to be felt by humans; registered only by seismographs. 

I. Slight: felt only feebly by persons at rest or by those who are especially 

observant of earthquakes. 

II. Weak: felt by most persons; slight shaking of windows and Japanese 

latticed sliding doors (Shoji). 

III. Moderately strong: shaking of houses and buildings, heavy rattling of windows and Japanese latticed sliding doors, swinging of hanging objects, 

stopping of some pendulum clocks, and moving of liquids in vessels; some 

people are so frightened that they run out of doors. 

IV. Strong: strong shaking of houses and buildings, overturning of unstable 

objects, and spilling of liquids out of vessels. 

V. Very strong: cracking brick and plaster walls, overturning stone lanterns 

and gravestones, and similar objects, damaging chimneys and mud-andplaster warehouses, and causing landslides in steep mountains. 

VI. Disastrous : causing destruction of 1-30 percent of Japanese wooden houses; 

causing large landslides ; fissures in fiat ground and some in low fields, 

accompanied by mud and waterspouts. 

VII. Ruinous: causing destruction of more than 30 percent of the houses; 

causing large landslides, fissures and faults. 
TABLES 1-12 73 

TABLE 4.-GEOFIAN scale; seismic scale of the Earth Physics Institute of the. 

U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, and description of aftereffects of earthquakes 

(Slightly modified quotation from translation by Akademii Nauk SSSR (1961, p. 129-134) of Medvedev 

(1961). The intensity representing the earthquake force is determined by the quantity Xo, which 

represents the largest displacement of the spherical pendulum of a seismometer with a natural period of 

0.25 sec, a logarithmic damping decrement of 0.50, and a static magnification of 1] 

Intensity 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Xo 

(mm) 

------------

------------

------------ <o. 5 

0. 5-l. 0 

1. 1-2. 0 

2. 1-4. 0 

4. 1-8. 0 

8. 1-16. 0 

16. 1-32. 0 

>32. 0 

------------

Brief description of earthquake 

Oscillations of the ground are detected with instruments. 

In individual cases felt by very sensitive persons at rest. 

Oscillations felt by few persons. 

Noted by many persons. Windows or doors may rattle. 

Objects swing, floors squeak, glasses jar, outer plaster 

crumbles. 

Light damage to buildings: thin cracks in plaster, cracks 

in tile furnaces, etc. 

Considerable damage to buildings: thin cracks in plaster 

and stripping of individual pieces, thin cracks in walls. 

Destruction in buildings: large cracks in walls, falling of 

cornices or chimneys. 

Collapse in some buildings; destruction of walls, roofs, 

floors. 

Collapse of many buildings; fissures in ground about 1 

meter wide. 

Numerous fissures on the surface of the earth, large landslides in mountains. 

Large scale change in the relief. 

DESCRIPTION OF AFTEREFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES 

The force of the earthquake at points where there are no seismometers i-s 

determined from the aftereffects of the earthquake, as described below for: 

1. Buildings and structures. 

2. Residual phenomena in ground and change in the state of the ground and 

surface water. 

3. Other symptoms. 

The degree of damage and destruction resulting from an earthquake in buildings constructed without the necessary earthquake countermeasures is established in accordance with the following subdivisions: 

I. By groups of buildings. 

Group A-Single story buildings with walls of unfinished stone, raw 

brick, adobe, etc. 

Group B-Brick and stone houses. 

Grottp 0-Frame houses. 

II. By degree of damage. 

Light damage-Thin cracks in plaster and in tile furnaces, crumbling 

of outer plaster, etc. 

Con8iderable damage-Cracks in plaster, falling of pieces of plaster, 

thin cracks in the walls, cracks in partitions, damage to chimneys, 

furnaces, etc. 

DestrucUor~.r-Large cracks in walls, splitting of masonry, destruction 

of individual parts of walls, falling of cornices and parapets, collapse 

of plaster, falling of chimneys, furnaces, etc. 

OoZlap8es-Destruction of walls, roofs, and floors of the entire building 

or of considerable parts of the building and large deformation of 

the walls. 
7 4 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 4.-GEOFIA.N scale; seismic scale of the Earth Physics Institute of the 

U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, and description of aftereffects of earthquakesContinued 

DESCRIPTION OF AFTEREFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES-Continued 

III. By the number of buildings. 

Intensity: 

Majority. 

Many. 

Individual. 

Buildings and structaree 

I. No damage. 

II. No damage. 

III. No damage. 

IV. No damage. 

V. Light squeaking of floors and partitions. Jarring of glasses. Crumbling 

of outer plaster. Movement of unclosed doors and windows. Slight 

damage in individual buildings. 

VI. Light damage in many buildings. In individual buildings of Groups A 

and B-considerable damage. In rare cases, in the case of wet 

ground-thin cracks on the roads. 

VII. In most buildings of Group A considerable damage and in individual 

cases destruction. In most buildings of Group B-light damage, and 

in many, considerable damage. In many buildings of Group C light 

damage, with considerable damage in individual buildings. 

In some cases, landslides on steep slopes of road embankments, cracks 

in roads, and dislocations in joints of pipelines. Stone walls damaged. 

VIII. In many buildings of Group A there is destruction and individual 

buildings collapse. In most buildings of Group B there is considerable damage, and destruction in individual ones. In most buildings 

of Group C light damage and in many of them considerable damage. 

Small slides on steep banks of cuts or embankments of roads. In 

individual ca·ses piping joints break. Statues and tombstones shift. 

Stone walls are destroyed. 

IX. In many buildings of Group A-collapse. In many buildings of 

Group B-destruction and individual ones collapse. Many buildings 

of Group C are considerably damaged and some are destroyed. 

In individual cases, railroad tracks are twi·sted and embankments 

damaged. Many cracks in roads. Breaking and damaging of pipelines. Monuments and statues overturned. Most stacks and towers 

destroyed. 

X. In many buildings of Group B-collapse. In many buildings of 

Group C-destruction and in some ca·ses collapse. 

Considerable damage to embankments and dams. Local bending of 

rails. Breaks in pipelines. Road·s crack in many places and are 

deformed ; smokestacks, towers, and monuments, stone walls collapse. 

XI. Total destruction of buildings. 

Destruction of embankments over great lengths. Pipelines become 

completely useless. Railroad tracks bent over great lengths. 

XII. Total destruction of buildings and structures. · 
TABLES 1-12 75 

TABLE 4.-GEOFIAN scale; seismic scale of the Earth Physics Institute of the 

U.S.S.R Academy of Sciences, and description ·of aftereffects of earthquakesContinued 

DESCRIPTION OF .AFTEREFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES-Continued 

Reaidaal phenomena in ground with change in statu of ground and surface waters 

Intensity: 

I. No damage. 

II. No damage. 

III. No damage. 

IV. No damage. 

V. Small waves in unstable water reservoirs. In some cases the spring 

flow is changed. 

VI. Cracks in wet ground with widths up to 1 em. In mountainous regions 

there are sporadic cases of slides and crumbling of ground. Small 

changes in the spring flow and the water level in wells. 

VII. Thin cracks in dry ground. Large numbers of cracks in wet ground. 

Individual cases of slides on river banks. Small slides in mountainous 

regions and crumbling of ground. Possible landslides in the 

mountains. 

In individual cases the water becomes muddy in reservoirs and in 

rivers. The spring flow and the water level are changed. In some 

cases new springs appear or existing ones are lost. 

VIII. Cracks in ground reach several centimeters. Many cracks on slopes of 

mountains and in wet ground. Extensive crumbling of ground, 

slides, and m.ountain land·slides. Water in the reservoirs becomes 

turbid. New water reservoirs are produced. New springs of water 

appear and existing ones are lost. In many cases the spring :dow 

and the water level in wells change. 

IX. Fissures in ground reach widths of 10 em, and more than 10 em on 

slopes and river banks. Large number of thin fissures in ground. 

Mountain landslides. Many slides and crumbling of ground. Small 

mud eruptions. Pronounced waves on water reservoirs. New water 

springs frequently arise or old ones disappear. 

X. Fissures in ground with widths of several decimeters and in individual 

cases reaching 1 m. Rock slides in mountainous regions and at the 

seashore. Large mudflows of sand and clay. Surf and splashing of 

water in reservoirs and rivers. New lakes are produced. 

XI. Numerous fissures are produced on the surface of the earth. Vertical 

displacement of strata. Large landslides and earth slips. Watersaturated friable sediments come out of the fissures. The conditions 

in the springs and water reservoirs change strongly, as well as the 

ground-water level. 

XII. Large ·scale change in the relief. Tremendous landslides and earthslides. Considerable vertical and horizontal faulting and displacement. Large changes in the state of the ground and surface waters. 

WaterfaUs are produced. Lakes are produced. River beds change. 
76 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 4.-GEOFIA.N scale; seismic scale of the Earth Physics Institute of the 

U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, and description of aftereffects of earthquakesContinued 

DESCRIPTION OF AFTEREFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES-Continued 

Other symptoms 

Intensity: 

I. Earthquakes not felt by persons. The oscillations of the earth are 

registered with instruments. 

II. Noticed by individual persons who are very sensitive and who are 

perfectly at rest. 

III. Oscillations noted by a few persons who are at rest inside buildings. 

Careful observers note only a slight swinging of hanging objects. 

IV. Light swaying of hanging objects and of standing automobiles. Slight 

vibration of liquids in vessels. Slight ringing of densely stacked 

unstable dishes. 

Earthquake perceived by most people located indoors. In rare cases 

sleepers are awakened. Felt by individual people outdoors. 

V. Hanging objects swing noticeably. In rare cases pendulums of wall 

clocks stop. Water splashes sometimes from filled vessels. Unstable 

dishes and ornaments on shelves sometimes topple over. 

Felt by all persons inside buildings and by majority of persons in the 

outdoors; all wake up. Animals are restless. 

VI. Hanging objects swing. Sometimes books fall off shelves and pictures 

shift. Many pendulums of wall clocks stop. Light furniture shifts. 

Dishes fall. 

Many persons run out of the houses. Movement of persons unstable. Animals run out of shelter. 

VII. Chandeliers swing strongly. Light furniture shifts. Books, vessel~, 

and vases fall down. 

All persons run out of the buildings and in individual cases jump out 

of windows. It is difficult to move without support. 

VIII. Some hanging lamps are damaged. Furniture shifts and frequently 

tilts over. Light objects jump and tilt· over. Persons can stand on 

their feet with difficulty. All run out of buildings. 

IX. Furniture topples over and breaks. Animals very panicky. 

X. Numerous damages to household goods. Animals cry and howl. 

XI. Loss of life, animals, and property under fragments from buildings. 

XII. Great catastrophe. A considerable part of the population is killed by 

collapse of the buildings. Vegetation and animals destroyed by 

avalanches and landslides in mountainous regions. 
TABLES 1-12 

TABLE 5.-MSK 1964 intensity scale 

[Quoted from Sponheuer (1965). Reproduced by permission of Wilhelm Sponheuer, Institut fiir 

Geodynamik:, Jena] 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCALE 

1. Types of structures (buildings not antiseismic): 

77 

Structure A: Buildings in field-stone, rural structures, adobe houses, clay 

houses. 

B: Ordinary brick buildings, buildings of the large block and 

prefabricated type, half timbered structures, buildings in 

natural hewn stone. 

C: Reinforced buildings, well-built wooden structures. 

2. Definition of quantity: 

Single, few: about 5 percent 

Many: about 50 percent 

Most: about 75 percent 

3. Classification of damage to buildings: 

Grade 1-Slight damage: Fine cracks in plaster; fall of small pieces of 

plaster. 

Grade 2-Moderate damage: Small cracks in walls; fall of fairly larger 

pieces of plaster; pantiles slip off; cracks 

Grade 3-Heavy damage: 

Grade 4-Destruction: 

Grade 5-Total damage: 

4. Arrangement of the Scale: 

in chimneys; parts of chimneys fall down. 

Large and deep cracks in walls; fall of 

chimneys. 

Gaps in walls; parts of buildings may collapse; separate parts of the building lose 

their cohesion; inner walls and filled-in 

walls of the frame collapse. 

Total collapse of buildings. 

a. Persons and surroundings. 

b. Structures of all kinds. c. Nature. · 

INTENSITY SCALE 

I. Not noticeable: 

a. The intensity of the vibration is below the limit of sensibility; 

the tremor is detected and recorded by seismographs only. 

II. Scarcely noticeable (very slight): 

a. Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest in houses, especially on upper floors of buildings. 

III. Weak, partially observed only: 

a. The earthquake is felt indoors by a few people, outdoors only in 

favourable circum,,tances. The vibration is like that due to the 

passing of a light truck. Attentive observers notice a slight 

swinging of hanging objects, somewhat more heavily on upper 

floors. 

IV. Largely observed: 

a. The earthquake is felt indoors by many people, outdoors by few. 

Here and there people awaken, but no one is frightened. The 

vibration is like that due to the passing of a heavily loaded truck. 

Windows, doors and dishes rattle. Floors and walls creak. Furniture begins to shake. Hanging objects swing slightly. Liquids in 

open vessels are slightly disturbed. In standing motor cars the 

shock is noticeable. 
78 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 5.-MSK 1961,. intensity scale-Continued 

V. Awakening: 

a. The earthquake is felt indoors by all, outdoors by many. Many 

sleeping people awake. A few run outdoors. Animals become 

uneasy. Buildings tremble throughout. Hanging objects swing 

considerably. Pictures knock against walls or swing out of place. 

Occasionally pendulum clocks stop. Few unstable objects may 

be overturned or shifted. Open doors and windows are thrust open 

and slam back again. Liquids spill in small amounts from wellfilled open containers. The sensation of vibration is like that. due 

to a heavy object falling inside the building. 

b. Slight damages of grade 1 in buildings of type A are possible. 

c. Sometimes change in flow of springs. 

VI. Frightening: 

a. Felt by most indoors and outdoors. Many people in buildings are 

frightened and run outdoors. A few persons lose their balance. 

Domestic animals run out of their stalls. In few instances dishes 

and glassware may break, books fall down. Heavy furniture 

may possibly move and small steeple bells may ring. 

b. Damage of grade 1 is sustained in single buildings of type B and 

in many of type A. Damage in few buildings of type A is of 

grade 2. 

c. In few cases cracks up to widths of 1 em possible in wet ground; 

in mountains occasionallandslips; changes in flow of springs and 

in level of well water are observed. 

VII. Damage to buildings: 

a. Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Many find it difficult 

to stand. The vibration is noticed by persons driving motor cars. 

Large bells ring. 

b. In many buildings of type C damage of grade 1 is caused; in many 

buildings of type B damage is of grade 2. Many buildings of 

type A suffer damage of grade 3, few of grade 4. In single instances 

landslips of roadway on steep slopes; cracks in roads; seams of 

pipelines damaged; cracks in stone walls. 

c. Waves are formed on water, and water is made turbid by mud 

stirred up. Water levels in wells change, and the flow of springs 

changes. In few cases dry springs have their flow restored and 

existing springs stop flowing. In isolated instances parts of 

sandy or gravelly banks slip off. 

VIII. Destruction of buildings: 

a. Fright and panic; also persons driving motor cars are disturbed. 

Here and there branches of trees break off. Even heavy furniture 

moves and partly overturns. Hanging lamps are in part damaged. 

b. Many buildings of type C suffer damage of grade 2, few of grade 3. 

Many buildings of type B suffer damage of grade 3, and many 

buildings of type A suffer dainage of grade 4. Occasional breakage 

of pipe seams. Memorials and monuments move and twist. 

Tombstones overturn. Stone walls collapse. 

c. Small landslips in hollows and on banked roads on steep slopes; 

cracks in ground up to widths of several centimeters. Water in 
TABLES 1-12 79 

TABLE 5.-MSK 1964 intensity scale-Continued 

in lakes becomes turbid. New reservoirs come into existence. 

Dry wells refill and existing wells become dry. In many cases 

change in flow and level of water. 

IX. General damage to buildings: 

a. General panic; considerable damage to furniture. Animals run to 

and fro in co:pfusion and cry. 

b. Many buildings of type C suffer damage of grade 3, a few of grade 4. 

Many buildings of type B show damage of grade 4;; a few of grade 

5. Many buildings of type A suffer damage of grade 5. Monuments 

and columns fall. Considerable damage to reservoirs; underground pipes partly broken. In individual cases railway lines 

are bent and roadways damaged. 

c. On flat land overflow of water, sand and mud is often observed. 

Ground cracks to widths of up to 10 em, on slopes and river 

banks more than 10 em. furthermore a large number of slight 

cracks in ground; falls of rock, many landslides and earthflows; 

large waves on water. Dry wells renew their flow and existing 

wells dry up. 

X. General destruction of buildings: 

b. Many buildings of type C suffer damage of grade 4, a few of grade 5. 

Many buildings of type B show damage of grade 5; most of type 

A have destruction category 5; critical damage to dams and dykes 

and severe damage to bridges. Railway lines are bent slightly·. 

Underground pipes are broken or bent. Road paving and asphalt 

show waves. 

c. In ground, cracks up to widths of several decimeters, sometimes up 

to 1 meter. Parallel to water courses occur broad fissures. Loose 

ground slides from steep slopes. From river banks and steep coasts 

considerable landslides are possible. In coastal areas displacement 

of sand and mud; change of water level in wells; water from canals, 

lakes, rivers, etc., thrown on land. New lakes occur. 

XI. Catastrophe: 

b. Severe damage even to well-built buildings, bridges, water dams, 

and railway lines; highways become useless; underground pipes 

destroyed. 

c. Ground considerably distorted by broad cracks and fissures, as 

well as by movement in horizontal and vertical directions; 

numerous landslips and falls of rock. 

The intensity of the earthquake requires to be investigated 

specially. 

XII. Landscape changes: 

b. Practically all structures above and below ground are greatly 

damaged or destroyed. 

c. The surface of the ground is radically changed. Considerable 

ground cracks with extensive vertical and horizontal movements 

are observed. Falls of rock and slumping of river banks over 

wide areas; lakes are dammed; waterfalls appear, and rivers 

are deflected. 

The intensity of the earthquake requires to be investigated 

specially. 
80 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 5.-MSK 1961,. intensity scale-Continued 

Table 1: Magnitudes of the oscillations of earthquakes of different intensities 

I 

(grade) a (cmsec-2) v (cmsec-1) Xo (mm) 

5____________________________ 12-25 1. o- 2. 0 

2.1-4.0 

4.1- 8.0 

8.1-16.0 

0. 5- 1. 0 

6____________________________ 25-50 1. 1- 2. 0 7 ____________________________ 5Q-100 2. 1- 4. 0 

4.1-8.0 

8. 1-16. 0 

8 ____________________________ 10Q-200 

9 ____________________________ 20Q-400 16. 1-32. 0 

32. 1-64. 0 10 ___________________________ 40Q-800 16. 1-32. 0 

I =Intensity of earthquakes a =Ground acceleration in em sec-2 for periods between 0.1 sec and 

0.5 sec. v =Velocity of ground oscillation in em sec- 1 for periods between 0.5 sec and 2.0 sec. x~= Amplitude of movement of centre of gravity of the pendulum masR 

in mm. The natural period of the pendulum is 0.25 sec, the 

logarithmic decrement is 0 . .5. 

Table 2: Types of structures, number and classification of damage to buildings 

Types of structures Intensity grade 

A B c 

5 ________________ Single-1 _____________________________________ _ 

6 ________________ Single-2 __________ Single-L __________________ _ Many-1 _____________________________________ _ 7 ________________ Single-4 _____________________________________ _ 

Many-3 __________ Many-2 __________ Many-1 

8---------------------------------------------------- Single-3 Many-4 __________ Many-3 __________ Many-2 

9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Single-5_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Single-4 

Many-5 __________ Many-4 __________ Many-3 

10 ___________________________________________________ Single-5 

Intenaitu 

(grade) 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

------------------ Many-5 __________ Many-4 Most-5 _____________________________________ _ 

1, 2, 3, 4, 5= Classification of damage. 

Table 3: Short characterization of the earthquakes 

Effects 

Only recorded by seismographs. 

Only felt by individual people at rest. 

Only felt by a few people. 

Felt by many people. Dishes and doors rattle. 

Hanging objects swing, many sleeping people awaken. 

Slight damage in buildings and sm~ll cracks in plaster. 

Cracks in plaster, gaps in walls and chimneys. 

Wide gaps in masonry, parts of gables and cornices fall down. 

In some buildings walls and roofs collapse, landslips. 

Collapse of many buildings, cracks in ground up to widths of 1 m. 11 Many cracks in ground, landslips and falls of rocks. 

12 Strong changes in the surface of the ground. 
TABLES 1-12 

TABLE 5.-MSK 1964 intensity scale-Continued 

Table 4: Converting table for seismic scales 

Scale of the 

Inst. of American 

Physics of modified Japanese Rossi-Forel 

Seismic Scale MSK 1964 the Earth, Mer calli Scale Scale 

Sov. Acad. Scale (M.M.) 1950 1873 

of Sciences 1931 

1952 

1 ____________________ 1 1 0 1 2 ____________________ 2 2 1 2 3 ____________________ 3 3 2 3 

4------------------~- 4 4 2,3 4 5 ____________________ 5 5 3 5,6 6 ____________________ 6 6 4 7 7 ____________________ 7 7 4,5 8 8 ____________________ 8 8 5 9 9 ____________________ 9 9 5,6 10 10 ___________________ 10 10 6 10 11 ___________________ 11 11 7 10 12 ___________________ 12 12 7 10 

81 

European 

MercalliCancaniSieberg 

Scale 

1917 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

TABLE 6.-Maximum acceleration and velocity values of different intensities 

Acceleration 

Velocity 

Range value range 

Average (in gals) (em per sec) 

units of gals Intensity 10-a g, = gals 

Scale used 1 

2 3 4 5 6 7 

(M.M.) (M.M.) (M.M.) (Japanese) (GEOFIAN) (M.M.) (GEOFIAN) 

! _________________________________________ _ 2 1.4 ------------------------------------------ II ____________________ 1.0 2.3 4 4. 5 ---------------- 1-5 ---------------- IIL __________________ 1.6 3.1 8 14 ---------------- 1-8 ---------------- IV ___ ----------------- 3. 2 9. 3 16 45 ---------------- 2-46 ---------------- v --------------------- 10 13.3 31 140 12-25 2-75 1. o- 2. 0 VL___________________ 32 40 64 450 25-50 5-175 2. 1- 4. 0 

VII___________________ 79 67 

VIII__________________ 200 172 

130 1, 400 5D-100 18-140 4. 1- 8. 0 

264 ------------ 10Q-200 51-350 8.1-16.0 

IX___________________ 316 (250) x____________________ 398 537 ------------ 20Q-400 ---------- 16. 1-32. 0 

1,090 ------------ 40D-800 ---------- 32.1-M. 0 

t Refer to fig. 2 to correlate columns. 

1. California data derived from Gutenberg and Richter (1956, table 16). 

2. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (1948) strong motion stations. Parentheses indicate estimated acceleration. 

3. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey strong motion stations for period of 0.33 sec and epicentral distances 

less than 25 miles (Neumann, 1954, table 3). 

4. Japan data (derived from Kawasumi, 1951, p. 476). 

5. Restricted range for periods of 0.1 to 0.5 sec (Medvedev, 1963b, table 5). 

6. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (1948) strong motion stations. 

7. For periods of 0.5 to 2.0 sec (Medvedev, 1963b, table 5). 
82 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 7.-Correspondence between magnitude, epicentral intensity (GEOFIAN), 

and focal depth 

[From Shebalin (1961, table 5.1)) 

Magnitude (M) Intensity at epjcenter 

A=5km 

6}f-n~- ~7~------------------------------- _ _ _ _ _ ____ ___ _ _ _ _ __ 10 

5~-6~------------------- 9-10 4H-5~- __ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ 7-8 

< 4~----- ---------------- <7 

A=15km 

10 

9-10 

7-8 

5-7 <5 

A=45km 

9-10 

7-8 

5-7 

4-5 <3 

TABLE 8.-Focal depth determination of Tesikaga earthquakes based on intensity 

data 

Earthquakes 

(fig. 17) 

From Matumoto (1959) From Shebalin (1961) and fig. 2 

M l Io (Japanese) h l 

A ___________ 5. 7 v __________ G-10 

B ____________ 6. 2 v ---------- 20 c ____________ 6. 2 v __________ 0 

' Shown in fig. 13; based on Matumoto's M and h. a Shown in fig. 13; based on Matumoto's M and 10• 

Io (Japanese) l 

VI-VII 

(h=G-5) 6-20 7-10 6-10 

v (h=6-10) ___ v ____________ 9-30 1G-15 1G-20 

VIL ___ ---- __ 9-30 14-16 12-22 

a Shown in fig. 15; based on Matumoto's intensity data (fig. 14). Range denotes spread of plotted points, not accuracy. 

' h estimate Qased on foregoing data. 

Stable rock: 

TABLE 9.-Increase in seismic intensity from the ground 

[Translated by P. J. Barosh from Medvedev (1961, table 4.2)] 

Ground v (km per sec) n (intensity 

increase) 

Granites ___________________________________ _ 5.6 ------------ 3. 5-4.5 0. 2-0.4 

2.2-3.0 . 5-0.8 

Dense limestones, schists, gneisses ____________ _ Dense sandstones ___________________________ _ 

Disturbed limestones, shales, sandstones _______ _ 1. 5-2. 3 . 7-1. 1 

Semistal;>le rock: 

2.4-3.0 0. 6-0. 8 

2. o-2.6 . 7-1. 0 Cemented 

~~~~~~~================================== sands ____________________________ _ 1. 4-1. 9 1. o-1. 2 

Coarse debris: 

1. 3-2. 1 0. 9-1. 3 

1. 2-1. 9 1. o-1. 4 

1. 1-1. 7 1. 1-1. 5 

Rubbfe and pebbles _________________________ _ 

Gravels (from crystalline rock) _______________ _ Gravels (from sedimentary rock) _____________ _ 

Sandy: Grit and coarse sands _______________________ _ 1. 1-1. 6 1. 2-1. 4 

1. o-1. 4 1. 3-1.6 . 7-1. 2 1. 4-1. 8 

Sands of average coarseness __________________ _ Fine and silty sands ________________________ _ 
TABLES 1-12 83 

TABLE 9.-lncrease in seismic intensity from the ground-Continued 

Ground 

claycr~YS-------------------------------------- Loarns ____________________________________ _ 

Sandy loarns _______________________________ _ 

Loarns (E=l.O) and sandy loarns (E=0.7) _____ _ Fill and soils: Filled ground ______________________________ _ Soils ______________________________________ _ 

Water saturated: · 

v (km per sec) 

0. 9-1. 5 

.8-1.4 

. 7-1. 2 . 5-0.8 

0.3-0. 5 . 2-0.3 

Gravel (pebbly)----------------------------------------- SandY-------------------------------------------------- Clayey (sandy loarns, loarns) _____________________________ _ Fill and soils __________________________________ --_-------

n (intensity 

increase) 

1. 2-1. 6 

1. 3-1. 7 

1. 4-1. 8 

1. 7-2. 1 

2. 3-2. 6 

2.6-3.0 

1.6-2.0 

2. o-2.4 

2.4-2.9 

3.3-3.9 
TABLE 10.-Typical engineering-geologic conditions that determine the size of the correction to seismic intensity 

[From data of investigations of the consequences of earthquakes in Gori in 1920 and 1940, the Crimea in 1927, Ashkhabad in 1948, and others. Quoted from Popov (1959) as trans- lated by G. P. Eaton (unpub., 1965). In the column "Increase in th11 seismic intensity," granite was taken as the standard rock (0), and the amount of increase was obtained 

by Popov or by him from Medvedev (1952a, b)] 

"i-

-f. 

Type geologic section 

"i- "i- ~ 

"i- y.. 

"i-

"i-

"i- '1-

"i-

"i-

"i-

"i-

"iy.. 

"i- ii- iEngineering-geologic condition 

Massively crystalline and the most compact schistose and layered, hard and semihard 

rocks of great thickness, unweathered and 

unfractured, magmatic crystalline and 

compact structures-for example, granite and basalt; sedimentary rocks, thickly layered-for example, conglomerate, sandstone, and limestone; metamorphic rocks-for example, gneiss and quartzite. 

Less compact layered and schistose and also 

porous hard and semihard rocks of great thickness, gently lying or contorted by shallow folds, without signs of fault dislocations, unweathered and unfractured: 

volcanic tuffs and tuffaceous sandstones; 

micaceous and argillaceous schists; thinbedded sandstones; marls; porous rockstluch as calcareous tufa, chalk, tripolite; 'oft rocks such as gypsum. 

Degree of seismic hazard 

General appraisal 

The safest in seismic behavior; not subjected to permanent deformation (except for 

earthquakes above intensity 1Q-11). 

Also safe in seismic behavior, but less so than case 1; these rocks, now subject to perma- nent deformation, can develop fissures. 

Increase 

in the Deviation from the 

seismic average intensity intensity 

0 Decreased by 1-2 units. 

0. 2--o. 8 

0. 7-1. 1 Decreased by 1 unit. 

00 

~ 

'"d 

~ 

t"'.. 

t:l 

1-4 

0 

~ "-l 

l"j 

~ 

~ 0 

~ 

00 

0 

~ 

r:Jl 

t"'.. 

1-4 

0 

~ 

t:l 

1-4 

00 

1-3 

q 

~ 

t:l:l 

~ n 

t"'.. 

00 
45°~ 1-2m~ 

Thick (not less than 10 m) layers of dry Safe under dry conditions; but when wet 1. 2-1.6 Unchanged. 

argillaceous rocks, gently dipping or the rocks become dangerous and are subfolded. ject tJ permanent dislocation in propor- tion to the degree of wetness. 

Thick (not less than 1Q--15 m) layers of com- Can be seismically hazardous because of low 

pactly deposited granular rocks: sandstone, seismic stability; subject to compaction 

gritstone, and boulder gravel. and unequal settling; sudden sags on saturated, weakly compacted sands are possible. 

Interbedded layers (1-2m thick) of uncon- solidated (argillaceous or sandy) and hard or semihard rocks-alternating bands of 

clay or sand with sandstone, limestone, or other sedimentary rock; total thickness of 

the series is large. 

Seismic hazard not great; behavior is worse on steep slopes (steeper than 45°), where 

local reflected waves can arise; respond more strongly to shaking than layered, 

massive, homogeneous rocks. 

1. 2-1.8 Unchanged or increased by 1 unit on layered strata. 

1. o--2. 0 Unchanged or increased by 1 unit on layered strata. 

~ tl:1 

t-t 

trJ 

lTl 

....... 

I 

....... 

~ 

00-

01 
TABLE 10.-Typica.l engineering-geologic conditiom that determine the size of the co"ection to seismic intemity-Continued 

Degree of seismic hazard 

Type geologic section Engineering-geologic condition 

General appraisal 

--------------------------- Layers 5-10 m thick of dry homogeneous Not strongly hazardous seismically; the 

greater the difference in physical proper- ties of contiguous laYllrs, the greater the 

hazard. 

n~y~ ~~~~ 

5-lOm~ 

~ + + 

argillaceous or sandy gravelly formations 

of various origins (marine, lacustrine, glacial, alluvial, proluvial, deluvial), with or without thin (less than 1m) bandS 

of hard or semihard rock (sandstones, limestones); also similar rocks with sharp facies variations. 

Rather thick unconsolidated formations Not strongly hazardous seismically, since 

(clay, sand, gravel) saturated at depths saturation at depths greater than 5,m does 

greater than 5 m. not strengthen seismic effects. 

Increase 

in the 

seismic 

intensity 

l.o-2.0 

Deviation from the 

average intensity 

Unchanged or increased by 1 unit 

when the rocks are saturated at a depth not greater than 

5m. 

2. o-2. 5 Unchanged or increased by 1 unit 

when the rocks are saturated at a depthof5m. 

~ 

"'d 

~ 

t.li:J 

t:1 

(j 

~ t.li:J 

l'1j 

~ c 

..., 

U2 

0 

l'1j 

U2 

t.li:J 

...... 

c 

~ 

t:1 

...... 

U2 

~ 

c 

~ t.li:J 

r:IJ 
~1-5m ·~·:\·::·:· 5-1\)j 

Rather thick unconsolidated formations Argillaceous types and peat bogs are sets- 1. 6-2. 4 Increased by 1 unit. 

(clay, sand, gravel), but saturated at mically more hazardous than sands, 

depths shallower than 5 m (tn some places grits, and bouldery gravels; seismic sta- saturated to depths of only 1-3m). bility of rewetted argillaceous rock types (including loess) is greatly reduced. 

Less thick unconsolidated formations (5- More hazardous seismically than section 8_ _ _ 1. 6-2. 8 Increased by 1-2 units. 

10 m) (clay, sand, gravel) saturated 

almost to the surface of the earth (1-3m). 

u-----------------------------------·-·----------- Layers (less than 5 m thick) of unconsoli- Just as hazardous seismically as section 10, 

particularly on steep slopes; the seismic 

611ect becomes stronger the larger the 

difference in physical properties of the 

overlying formations and the underlying rocks that are in contact. 

2. 3-3. o Increased by 1-2 units. 

dated formations (diluvial and alluvial 

argillaceous loams, sandy loams sands, 

gravels) lying on compact rock (II, b, c). Also contacts of diluvi&l, alluvial (d, e) and 

other types of Quaternary formations. 

'(Jl 

~ 

i 

.... 

~ 

00 

'I 
TABLE 10.-Typical engineering-geologic conditions that determine the size of the correction to seismic intensity-Continued 

Type geologic section 

12-------------------------------------------------

... 

,?:::c,,:::::Nfi~~j~~ <3-SWII 

Engineering-geologic condition 

Continually wet or swampy argillaceous formations; such as muddy, sandy, or coarsely broken accumulations on sea- shores, lake and river banks, river courses, low islands, and turfs that are saturated to the surface of the earth. 

Layers of filled mineral ground and various 

manmade materials, such as structural 

debris, that are either 

(a) thicker than 5-10 m; (b) thinner than 3-5 m; or (c) saturated. 

Degree of seismic hazard 

General appraisal 

Very hazardous seismically, not only on slopes but also on level parts of the region; dilute argillaceous rocks and swamp rocks 

have a very low seismic stability and may fiatten. 

Increase 

in the Deviation from the 

seismic average intensity intensity 

2. 3-3. 9 Increased by 1-2 units 

(on saturated 

peat soils). 

Very hazardous seismically, especially on 2. 3-3. 9 

slopes and in fills that are loosely bedded 

Increased by 1-2 units. 

and may undergo strong, unequal settling (sections b and c are always hazardous). 

00 

00 

"'d 

~ 

l:tj 

t::l 

1-1 

a 

G) 

~ 

t;lj 

1-.:j 

~ a 

~ 

[/). 

0 

1-.:j 

~ 1-1 

(") 

~ 

t::l 

1-1 

r:Jl 

~ t%1 

~ a 

l:tj 

r:Jl 
Unstably bedded gravitating formations; Very hazardous seismically, especially on hillside waste (talus) of finely broken rna- steep slopes and also in regions undergoing terial and large angular fragments of solufiuction. 

different thicknesses. 

Karst carbonate, hard and semihard rocks, Very hazardous seismically on active karst 

strongly deformed but with the phe- because of unequal settling; on old karst nomena of settling and caving-in not yet seismic "islands" can occur. completed; here also can be classified rocks 

that have been disrupted by mining. 

Contacts of intrusive and extrm;ive rocks 

with metamorphic or sedimentary rocks; 

for example, contacts of basaltic lava flows 

with clays (a) and other rocks, and con- tacts of intrusive rocks with their en- closing rocks (b). 

Sometimes very hazardous seismically, es- pecially at contacts between rocks with 

sharply different physical properties. 

2.o-a. 9 Increased by 1-2 units. 

2. o-4. 0 Intensity unchanged or increased by 1-2 

units. 

1. o-4. 0 Intensity unchanged or increased by 1 unit. 

1-3 

> tl:l 

~ r:tl 

.... 

I 

..... 

1)01 

00 

~ 
TABLE 10.-Typical engineering-geologic conditions that determine the size of the correction to seismic intensity-Continued 

Type geologic section 

Most 

Less dangerous 

dangerous ..-A-... 

,--A--.... 

Degree of seismic hazard 

Increase 

Engineering-geologic condition General appraisal in the Deviation from the 

seismic average intensity intensity 

0 ld, dry, arrested landslides and earthflows Old, dry, large earthO.ows are relatively safe; 

of diverse rocks (a); active earthflows of but active, wet earthO.ows are very haz· 

various types, with different thicknesses · ardous, for earthquakes can cause them to of the sliding material, and saturated (b). move; the breakaway line and sectors located on it are the most hazardous. 

1. H. 0 Intensity unchanged (on old earthftows) or increased by 1-2 

units (on active 

earthflows). 

~ 

"'d 

txl 

l:I!J 

t:1 

; 

l:I!J 

~ C':l 

...:) 

r:JJ 

0 

l'!lj 

~ ~ 

~ ~ 

C':l 

t:1 

~ 

~ 

~ l:I!J 

C1l 
1~------------------------------------------------- Hard (stony), semihard, or soft (nonstony) Extremely hazardous seismically, but deep 3.H.O Increased by 2units. 

rocks broken by fissures due to faults and zones of fractures and faults, can decrease 

offsets, or a whole zone of fractures, crop- the seismic effect on the other side of these 

ping out at the earth's surface (11) or disturbances in relation to the direction of 

covered by unconsolidated formations (b, arrival of the seismic shock (c). Thick, un- saturated; c, dry). compacted mantling formations are capable of mitigating the seismic effect on faults; 

but thin, especially saturated, mantling formations increase the seismic effect, be- ing badly cracked, and having settled. 

Less 

Most dan~s 

dangerous,- ' 8 

Dangerous~ ~ ~ --··· ~ 

rJl 

.... 

I 

.... 

~ 

(0 

~ 
92 PREDICTING EFFECTS OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES 

TABLE 11.-lntensity increase from ground conditions of the Apsheronsk Peninsula 

[Quoted from Kuliev, 1962, p. 78] 

Depth of ground-water level, in meters ____________ _ 

Limestone (Tertiary and Quaternary) _____________ _ Sandsto11e (Tertiary and Quaternary) _____________ _ Clay (Tertiary) ________________________________ _ 

Sandy-argillaceous ground (Tertiary) ______________ _ Clay (Quaternary) ______________________________ _ Sand (Tertiary) ________________________________ _ 

Sandy-argillaceous ground (Quaternary, second category) ____________________________________ _ 

L~ams (Tertiary and Quaternary) ________________ _ Filled ground (Recent) __________________________ _ Eolian-diluvial ground (Recent) __________________ _ 

~10 

-1.2 

-. 8 

-.6 

-.2 

-.2 

-.1 

.0 

+.2 

+.3 

+.4 

4 

-0.7 

-.3 

-.1 

+.3 

+.3 

+.4 

+.5 

+. 7 

+. 8 +.9 

1 

-0.4 

+.0 

+.2 

+.6 

+.6 +.7 

+. 8 

+LO 

+1.1 

+1.2 
c:: 

in 

;Q 

~ :z 

3: 

~ .... 

;g 

z 

::! 

:z 

Ci'l 

~ Q 

j 

i 

TABLE 12.-Engineering-geologic divisions of the Petropavlovsk area, Kamchatka 

[From Goryachev and others (1963, table 3)] 

Engineering- geologic 

region Geomorphic conditions 

Summits and steep mountain slopes (steeper than 20-30 percent); separate outcrops of 

rocky ground in lower parts of slopes. 2 Lower parts of mountain slopes (gentler than 20-30 percent). 

3 Weakly broken up hilly plain proluvial train 

(inclination <10 percent). 4 Eroded high deltaic-marine terrace (inclination <5--10 percent). Gentle slopes ( <5 percent) in foothills and 

plains between them. 

6 Level stream and river bottoms with fall from 10-15 to <5 percent in estuaries; marine 

beaches. 

7 Level flood plain surfaces and I terrace in 

river valleys. 

8 Level stream bottoms (flood plain inclination <5--10 percent). Filled territory (inclination <3 percent) _____ _ 

Ground thickness layer H, m Depth ground water level 

Rocky ground; phyllitic schists, sandstones, Water in fractures, variable depth ____ _ siliceous schists, gabbro-diabase, andesite; 

weathered in upper parts; H> 100. Eluvial-diluvial stoney-pebbly ground; In middle parts of slopes ground water sandy loams, loams, angular pebbles; less, in lower parts of slopes depth H=1-3 (in middle parts of slopes) up to variable. 5--10 (in lower parts of slopes). Pyroclastic ground; ash, sand with coarse Great_ _______________________________ _ 

lava, tuff; H>50-100. Sand, gravels, pebbles; H>50-80 ___________ _ 

Eluvial-diluvial angular-pebbly loam; H= Small ________________________________ _ 

3-5. Sands with gravel, pebbles; silty sands in SmalL _______________________________ _ 

estuary parts; H> 10. 

Marshy peaty sandy-argillaceous ground, Small ________________________________ _ 

lower gritty-angular-pebbly sands; H> 10-15. Argillaceous gritty sands with parts peaty SmalL _______________________________ _ 

sandy-loam; H> 10. Filled ground-stoney sands with gravel and SmalL _______________________________ _ 

pebbles; alluvium-argillaceous and silty sands; H=3-4 (up to 5). 

Seismic 

intensity increase ±An, 

intensity 

units 

-1 

0 

0 

0 

+1 

+1-+2 

+1-+2 

+1 

+1-+2 

10 Parts of abrupt scarps with height from 10 up to 20-30 m; possible talus and landslides. Rocky ground-siliceous schist; weathered Drained-------------------------~----­

from the surface; H> 100. +1 

Seismic 

intensity (GEOFIAN) 

8 

8 

8 

9 

9-10 

9-10 

9 

9 

9 

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